A distinctive part of a soldier's costume, though it seems to have also been worn by non-military bureaucrats, was a type of round, brimless hat known as the pannonian cap (pileus pannonicus). Armour  In the 3rd century, troops are depicted wearing mail or scale armour. The artistic record shows that most late soldiers wore metal armour, despite Vegetius' statement to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the Notitia show that the army's fabricae (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century. Actual examples of both scale armour and quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier and Weiler-La-Tour respectively, within 4th-century contexts.
Officers generally seem to have worn bronze or iron cuirasses, as in the days of the Principate, together with traditional pteruges. The cataphract and clibanarii cavalry, from limited pictorial evidence and especially from the description of these troops by Ammianus, seem to have worn specialist forms of armour. In particular their limbs were protected by laminated defences, made up of curved and overlapping metal segments: "Laminarum circuli tenues apti corporis flexibus ambiebant per omnia membra diducti" (Thin circles of iron plates, fitted to the curves of their bodies, completely covered their limbs). Helmets  In general, Roman cavalry helmets had enhanced protection, in the form of wider cheek-guards and deeper neck-guards, for the sides and back of the head than infantry helmets.
Infantry were less vulnerable in those parts due to their tighter formation when fighting. During the 3rd century, infantry helmets tended to adopt the more protective features of cavalry helmets of the Principate. Cheek-guards could often be fastened together over the chin to protect the face, and covered the ears save for a slit to permit hearing e.g. the "Auxiliary E" type or its Niederbieber variant. Cavalry helmets became even more enclosed e.g. the "Heddernheim" type, which is close to the medieval great helm, but at the cost much reduced vision and hearing. In contrast, some infantry helmets in the 4th century reverted to the more open features of the main Principate type, the "Imperial Gallic".
The "Intercisa" design left the face unobstructed and had ear-holes in the join between cheek-guards and bowl to allow good hearing. In a radical change from the earlier single-bowl design, the Intercisa bowl was made of two separate pieces joined by a riveted ridge in the middle (hence the term "ridge helmet"). It was simpler and cheaper to manufacture, and therefore probably by far the most common type, but structurally weaker and therefore offered less effective protection. The "Berkasovo" type was a more sturdy and protective ridge helmet. This type of helmet usually has 4 to 6 skull elements (and the characteristic median ridge), a nasal (nose-guard), a deep brow piece riveted inside the skull elements and large cheekpieces.
This was probably the cavalry version, as the cheekpieces lack ear-holes. Unusually the helmet discovered at Burgh Castle, in England, is of the Berkasovo method of construction, but has cheekpieces with earholes. Face-guards of mail or in the form of metal 'anthropomorphic masks,' with eye-holes, were often added to the helmets of the heaviest forms of cavalry, especially cataphracti. Despite the apparent cheapness of manufacture of their basic components, many surviving examples of Late Roman helmets, including the Intercisa type, show evidence of expensive decoration in the form of silver or silver-gilt sheathing. A possible explanation is that most of the surviving exemplars may have belonged to officers and that silver- or gold-plating denoted rank; and, in the case of mounted gemstones, high rank e.g.
the ornate Deurne helmet, believed by some historians to have belonged to a senior officer. Other academics, in contrast, consider that silver-sheathed helmets may have been widely worn by comitatus soldiers, given as a form of pay or reward. Some East Roman soldiers wore mail or scale hoods for head protection; these could be part of mail coats or could be separate coifs. Similar armoured hoods appear in an illustration in the Vergilius Vaticanus. Shields  Shields were both protective equipment for the soldiers and insignia for their units. Both Vegetius, in De re Militari, and Mauricius, in the Strategikon, emphasize that each unit should have distinctive shields.
Lance-armed cavalry carried shields, although bow-armed cavalry generally did not. All troops adopted the auxiliary oval (or sometimes round) shield (clipeus). Shields, from examples found at Dura and Nydam, were of vertical plank construction, the planks glued, and faced inside and out with painted leather. The edges of the shield were bound with stitched rawhide, which shrank as it dried improving structural cohesion. It was also lighter than the edging of copper alloy used in earlier Roman shields. Hand-to-hand weapons  The East Roman heavy infantry relied on the spear in close combat. No late Roman or East Roman spear shafts survive, but I.P.
Stephenson suggests that East Roman spears may have been as long as northern European spears discovered in the bog deposits at Illerup and Nydam, between 2.23 meters and 3.54 meters long. The infantry adopted the spatha, a longer (median length: 760 mm/30 in) sword that during the earlier centuries was used by the cavalry only. In addition, Vegetius mentions the use of a shorter-bladed sword termed a semispatha. At the same time, infantry acquired a heavy thrusting-spear (hasta) which became the main close order combat weapon to replace the gladius, as the spatha was too long to be swung comfortably in tight formation (although it could be used to stab).
These trends imply a greater emphasis on fighting the enemy "at arm's length". Short, single-edged knives were also used, although probably as tools rather than weapons. These appear in 4th-century graves with military belt fittings, and similar tools appear in 4th through 7th-century contexts. Missile weapons  In addition to his thrusting-spear, a late foot soldier might also carry a throwing-spear (verutum) or a spiculum, a kind of heavy, long pilum, similar to an angon. Alternatively, a couple of short javelins (lanceae). Late infantrymen often carried half a dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called plumbatae (from plumbum = "lead"), with an effective range of c. , well beyond that of a javelin.
The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield. The late foot soldier thus had greater missile capability than his Principate predecessor, who was usually limited to just two pila. Late Roman archers continued to use the recurved composite bow as their principal weapon. This was a sophisticated, compact and powerful weapon, suitable for mounted and foot archers alike (the cavalry version being more compact than the infantry's). A small number of archers may have been armed with crossbows (manuballistae). Campaigns  In the 6th century, the emperor Justinian I, who reigned from 527 to 565, sent much of the East Roman army to try to reconquer the former West Roman empire.
In these wars, the East Roman empire reconquered parts of North Africa from the Vandal kingdom and Italy from the Ostrogothic kingdom, as well as parts of southern Spain. In the 7th century, the emperor Heraclius led the east Roman army against the Sassanid empire, temporarily regaining Egypt and Syria, and then against the Rashidun Caliphate. His defeat at the Battle of Yarmuk would lead to the Islamic conquest of Syria and Egypt, and would force the reorganization of the East Roman army, leading to the thematic system of later Byzantine armies. Citations  References  See also  Late Roman army Roman army  Category:Military history of ancient Rome Category:Byzantine army Category:Late Roman military
Here Come the Littles is a 1985 American-Luxemborugish-Canadian-Japanese-French animated fantasy film produced in France by DIC Enterprises, Inc. and distributed by Atlantic Releasing. It was directed by Bernard Deyriès and adapted by Woody Kling from John Peterson's series of books, The Littles, and also based on the ABC television show of the same name. Here Come the Littles follows a boy named Henry Bigg as he meets a family of miniature people that lives in his home. While his uncle Augustus plans to build a shopping center at the site of his home, Henry teams up with the Littles to prevent this scheme.
Here Come the Littles was screened at weekend matinees during its original U.S. release, and made over US$6.5 million. It was not a critical success; reviewers found fault with the story and animation style. The film was released on VHS in late 1985, and on DVD in early 2004. Another Littles film, Liberty and the Littles, premiered on television in late 1986. Plot Henry Bigg learns that his parents have been lost during an archaeological trip to Africa, although the remains of their aircraft have been found. His housekeeper Mrs. Evans says his Uncle Augustus is his next of kin and therefore his legal guardian.
Thus, Henry moves to Augustus' residence, as the uncle neither wants to have a housekeeper nor move to his nephew's house. Meanwhile, Tom and Lucy Little (two of the tiny people inside the walls of Henry's house) snag an apple that Mrs. Evans had left for Henry. They repay the boy by finding his lucky rabbit's foot and sneaking it in his suitcase. They are carried away to Augustus' house, trapped inside the luggage. Another two of the tiny creatures, Grandpa and Dinky, soon find them. There, the Littles soon learn of Augustus' ill-tempered and mean-spirited ways: He treats Henry more like a slave, and is planning on replacing his nephew's house with a shopping mall.
While the creatures try to escape, Henry discovers Grandpa and Dinky, not knowing who—or what—they are. Augustus also sees them, but mistaking them for toys, grabs them from Henry and locks them in the desk drawer in his study. Here, Dinky and Grandpa discover that Augustus forged the documents in order to become Henry's legal guardian, as well as to steal and redevelop the Biggs' property. To rescue those two, Lucy persuades Tom to talk to Henry—a bold move, considering that humans never knew about the creatures until recently. Grandpa and Dinky, whom Henry finds inside the study, both prove the evidence of Augustus' fraud.
Before Augustus locks him inside his room, Henry soon creates a diversion allowing Tom and Lucy to save them. Eventually, Lucy and Tom are hungry, and begin to search for food. Tom gets trapped in a jar of honey, and a change of plans ensues: the Littles must rescue Henry before they can save Tom. At first Grandpa resists, but consents since Henry has already met them. After several attempts to escape, the Littles finally flee away aboard their gas-powered toy aircraft, but cause a garage fire that wakes up Augustus. Henry attempts to go to the police station, but gets lost and is eventually caught by his uncle.
The Littles, however, distract Augustus long enough for Henry to run down there. Meanwhile, Augustus orders the demolition crew by phone to start tearing down the Biggs' place. When the Littles get to Henry's house, they split up; Grandpa looks for Mr. and Mrs. Little while the others try to sabotage the bulldozer. Both plans succeed just in the nick of time. The moment Augustus arrives, policemen arrest him. Henry is reunited with Mrs. Evans, and prepares to meet his rediscovered parents at the airport. He casts a knowing wink at the gate, as the Littles watch on. Voice cast  Release Along with The Smurfs and the Magic Flute and The Secret of the Sword, Here Come the Littles was among the first animated films handled by U.S. distributor Atlantic Releasing.
The film was based on the ABC TV series of the same name, and produced in France by DIC Entertainment in conjunction with ABC. Here Come the Littles was released theatrically in early 1985, and was released on the VHS format in late 1985 by CBS/Fox's Playhouse Video label, under license from ABC Video Enterprises. The VHS was re-released by BMG Video in 1991 under the DIC Toon-Time Video label. It was re-released on VHS and released on DVD by Sterling Entertainment on February 24, 2004. The DVD was re-issued by NCircle Entertainment on August 21, 2007.<ref>"DVD release information for 'Here Come the Littles'."
Allmovie' (Rovi Corporation). Retrieved: June 13, 2019.</ref>  In 1984, Scholastic Books published a 64-page tie-in adaptation of Here Come the Littles  by Lorentz Carlson and John Lawrence Peterson. Reception Box office During its run in the North American market, Here Come the Littles grossed over US$6.5 million through weekend matinee showings. Critical responseHere Come the Littles was not well-received with critics, receiving generally mixed reviews. Candice Russell of the South Florida Sun-Sentinel wrote: "[It] has all the panache of a Saturday morning cartoon and just about as much heart. It's even in the same mode of repetitive crises every third minute."
The Los Angeles Times film reviewer Charles Solomon in assessing Here Come the Littles, said, "[It] boasts an international pedigree more complicated—and interesting—than its storyline." In his Movie Guide, Leonard Maltin gave it 1½ stars out of four and called it a "silly, boring animated effort". Likewise, the Blockbuster Entertainment Guide to Videos and Movies (1999) gave it two stars, and recommended it "for fans of the Littles book series only". Jerry Beck, in his Animated Movie Guide, gave it only one star and commented: "The film raises issues of homelessness, the loss of parents, and the importance of family and friends, in a mild, one-dimensional way."
Along with Russell, he criticized the "bland style" of the animation, which was outsourced in Japan. A review in the San Francisco Chronicle stated that Here Come the Littles "is an OK, though hardly memorable, entertainment for small children. Come to think of it, pity the runts of today who get nothing but mediocre big screen fare—when they get it at all". Sequel A made-for-television follow-up, Liberty and the Littles, aired on the ABC network in 1986 as part of its Weekend Special anthology series. It first aired in three parts of 30 minutes, on October 18, October 25, and November 1.
In the film, the Littles fly to the Statue of Liberty, and come across a group of French relatives who are under a tyrant's control. According to one crew member, Liberty was planned for a theatrical release, but ended up on television because of a change in management during production. References Notes  Citations  Bibliography   Beck, Jerry. The Animated Movie Guide. Chicago: Chicago Reader Press, 2005. . Blockbuster Entertainment Guide to Videos and Movies. New York: Dell Yearling, 1999. . Carlson, Lorentz and John Lawrence Peterson. Here Come the Littles (World of the Littles). New York: Scholastic, 1984. . Maltin, Leonard.
Leonard Maltin's 2007 Movie Guide. New York: Signet Books, 2006. . Woolery, George W. Animated TV Specials: The Complete Directory to the First Twenty-Five Years, 1962-1987''. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 1989. . External links           Category:1985 films Category:American films Category:Canadian films Category:Japanese films Category:English-language films Category:1985 anime films Category:1980s American animated films Category:1980s French animated films Category:1980s fantasy adventure films Category:American aviation films Category:American children's animated adventure films Category:American children's animated fantasy films Category:American fantasy adventure films Category:Animated films about aviation Category:Animated films based on children's books Category:Atlantic Entertainment Group films Category:Canadian animated fantasy films Category:Canadian fantasy adventure films Category:DIC Entertainment films Category:ABC Weekend Special Category:Animated films based on animated series Category:Films based on urban legends Category:Japanese animated fantasy films Category:French films Category:French animated fantasy films Category:Luxembourgian films Category:Luxembourgian animated films Category:Japanese aviation films Category:Japanese fantasy adventure films
Amicable numbers are two different numbers so related that the sum of the proper divisors of each is equal to the other number. (A proper divisor of a number is a positive factor of that number other than the number itself. For example, the proper divisors of 6 are 1, 2, and 3.) A pair of amicable numbers constitutes an aliquot sequence of period 2. It is unknown if there are infinitely many pairs of amicable numbers. A related concept is that of a perfect number, which is a number that equals the sum of its own proper divisors, in other words a number which forms an aliquot sequence of period 1.
Numbers that are members of an aliquot sequence with period greater than 2 are known as sociable numbers. The smallest pair of amicable numbers is (220, 284). They are amicable because the proper divisors of 220 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55 and 110, of which the sum is 284; and the proper divisors of 284 are 1, 2, 4, 71 and 142, of which the sum is 220. The first ten amicable pairs are: (220, 284), (1184, 1210), (2620, 2924), (5020, 5564), (6232, 6368), (10744, 10856), (12285, 14595), (17296, 18416), (63020, 76084), and (66928, 66992).
. (Also see  and )  History  Amicable numbers were known to the Pythagoreans, who credited them with many mystical properties. A general formula by which some of these numbers could be derived was invented circa 850 by the Iraqi mathematician Thābit ibn Qurra (826–901). Other Arab mathematicians who studied amicable numbers are al-Majriti (died 1007), al-Baghdadi (980–1037), and al-Fārisī (1260–1320). The Iranian mathematician Muhammad Baqir Yazdi (16th century) discovered the pair (9363584, 9437056), though this has often been attributed to Descartes. Much of the work of Eastern mathematicians in this area has been forgotten. Thābit ibn Qurra's formula was rediscovered by Fermat (1601–1665) and Descartes (1596–1650), to whom it is sometimes ascribed, and extended by Euler (1707–1783).
It was extended further by Borho in 1972. Fermat and Descartes also rediscovered pairs of amicable numbers known to Arab mathematicians. Euler also discovered dozens of new pairs. The second smallest pair, (1184, 1210), was discovered in 1866 by a then teenage B. Nicolò I. Paganini (not to be confused with the composer and violinist), having been overlooked by earlier mathematicians. By 1946 there were 390 known pairs, but the advent of computers has allowed the discovery of many thousands since then. Exhaustive searches have been carried out to find all pairs less than a given bound, this bound being extended from 108 in 1970, to 1010 in 1986, 1011 in 1993, 1017 in 2015, and to 1018 in 2016.  , there are over 1,225,063,681 known amicable pairs.
Rules for generation  While these rules do generate some pairs of amicable numbers, many other pairs are known, so these rules are by no means comprehensive. In particular, the two rules below produce only even amicable pairs, so they are of no interest for the open problem of finding amicable pairs coprime to 210 = 2·3·5·7, while over 1000 pairs coprime to 30 = 2·3·5 are known [García, Pedersen & te Riele (2003), Sándor & Crstici (2004)]. Thābit ibn Qurra theorem The Thābit ibn Qurra theorem is a method for discovering amicable numbers invented in the ninth century by the Arab mathematician Thābit ibn Qurra.
It states that if , , , where  is an integer and , , and  are prime numbers, then  and  are a pair of amicable numbers. This formula gives the pairs  for ,  for , and  for , but no other such pairs are known. Numbers of the form  are known as Thabit numbers. In order for Ibn Qurra's formula to produce an amicable pair, two consecutive Thabit numbers must be prime; this severely restricts the possible values of . To establish the theorem, Thâbit ibn Qurra proved nine lemmas divided into two groups. The first three lemmas deal with the determination of the aliquot parts of a natural integer.
The second group of lemmas deals more specifically with the formation of perfect, abundant and deficient numbers. Euler's rule Euler's rule is a generalization of the Thâbit ibn Qurra theorem. It states that if , , , where  are integers and , , and  are prime numbers, then  and  are a pair of amicable numbers. Thābit ibn Qurra's theorem corresponds to the case . Euler's rule creates additional amicable pairs for  with no others being known. Euler (1747 & 1750) overall found 58 new pairs to make all the by then existing pairs into 61. Regular pairs  Let (, ) be a pair of amicable numbers with , and write  and  where  is the greatest common divisor of  and .
If  and  are both coprime to  and square free then the pair (, ) is said to be regular , otherwise it is called irregular or exotic. If (, ) is regular and  and  have  and  prime factors respectively, then  is said to be of type . For example, with , the greatest common divisor is  and so  and . Therefore,  is regular of type . Twin amicable pairs  An amicable pair  is twin if there are no integers between  and  belonging to any other amicable pair . Other results  In every known case, the numbers of a pair are either both even or both odd.
It is not known whether an even-odd pair of amicable numbers exists, but if it does, the even number must either be a square number or twice one, and the odd number must be a square number. However, amicable numbers where the two members have different smallest prime factors do exist: there are seven such pairs known. Also, every known pair shares at least one common prime factor. It is not known whether a pair of coprime amicable numbers exists, though if any does, the product of the two must be greater than 1067. Also, a pair of coprime amicable numbers cannot be generated by Thabit's formula (above), nor by any similar formula.
In 1955, Paul Erdős showed that the density of amicable numbers, relative to the positive integers, was 0. According to the sum of amicable pairs conjecture, as the number of the amicable numbers approaches infinity, the percentage of the sums of the amicable pairs divisible by ten approaches 100% . References in popular culture   Amicable numbers are featured in the novel The Housekeeper and the Professor by Yōko Ogawa, and in the Japanese film based on it. Paul Auster's collection of short stories entitled True Tales of American Life contains a story ('Mathematical Aphrodisiac' by Alex Galt) in which amicable numbers play an important role.
Amicable numbers are featured briefly in the novel The Stranger House by Reginald Hill. Amicable numbers are mentioned in the French novel The Parrot's Theorem by Denis Guedj. Amicable numbers are mentioned in the JRPG Persona 4 Golden. Amicable numbers are featured in the visual novel Rewrite. Amicable numbers (220, 284) are referenced in episode 13 of the 2017 Korean drama Andante. Amicable numbers are featured in the Greek movie The Other Me (2016 film). Generalizations  Amicable tuples  Amicable numbers  satisfy  and  which can be written together as . This can be generalized to larger tuples, say , where we require  For example, (1980, 2016, 2556) is an amicable triple , and (3270960, 3361680, 3461040, 3834000) is an amicable quadruple .
Amicable multisets are defined analogously and generalizes this a bit further . Sociable numbers   Sociable numbers are the numbers in cyclic lists of numbers (with a length greater than 2) where each number is the sum of the proper divisors of the preceding number. For example,  are sociable numbers of order 4. Searching for sociable numbers  The aliquot sequence can be represented as a directed graph, , for a given integer , where  denotes the sum of the proper divisors of . Cycles in  represent sociable numbers within the interval . Two special cases are loops that represent perfect numbers and cycles of length two that represent amicable pairs.
See also   Betrothed numbers (quasi-amicable numbers)  Notes  References  External links       Category:Arithmetic dynamics Category:Divisor function Category:Integer sequences
In enzymology, an acylagmatine amidase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction  benzoylagmatine + H2O  benzoate + agmatine  Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are benzoylagmatine and H2O, whereas its two products are benzoate and agmatine. This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, those acting on carbon-nitrogen bonds other than peptide bonds, specifically in linear amides. The systematic name of this enzyme class is benzoylagmatine amidohydrolase. Other names in common use include acylagmatine amidohydrolase, and acylagmatine deacylase. References      Category:EC 3.5.1 Category:Enzymes of unknown structure
ISO 26000 Guidance on social responsibility is launched from ISO, the International Organization for Standardization. Is an International Standard providing guidelines for social responsibility (SR) named ISO 26000 or simply ISO SR. It was released on 1 November 2010. Its goal is to contribute to global sustainable development, by encouraging business and other organizations to practice social responsibility to improve their impacts on their workers, their natural environments and their communities. This standard was developed by ISO/TMBG  Technical Management Board - groups. ISO 26000 was published for the first time in November 2010. Main requirements of the standard  The ISO 26000 adopts the structure in the following breakdown:  1.
Scope  2. Terms and definitions  3. Understanding social responsibility  4. Principles of social responsibility  5. Recognizing social responsibility and engaging stakeholders  6. Guidance on social responsibility core subjects  7. Guidance on integrating social responsibility throughout an organization. Voluntary Guidance Standard for All Organizations ISO 26000 offers guidance on socially responsible behavior and possible actions. There are three ways in which it is different from the more widespread standards designed for companies to use to meet particular requirements for activities such as manufacturing, managing, accounting and reporting:  ISO 26000 is a voluntary guidance standard: it does not contain requirements such as those used when a standard is offered for "certification".
There is a certain learning curve associated with using ISO 26000, because there is no specific external reward - certification - explicitly tied to ISO 26000. ISO recommends that users say, for example, that they have "used ISO 26000 as a guide to integrate social responsibility into our values and practices". ISO 26000 is designed for use by all organizations, not only businesses and corporations. Organizations such as hospitals and schools, charities (not-for-profits), etc. are also included. ISO 26000 makes particular efforts to show that its flexibility means that it can be applied by small businesses and other groups as well  So far, many of the earliest users of ISO 26000 have been multi-national corporations, especially those based in Europe, and East Asia, particularly Japan.
ISO 26000 was developed through a multi-stakeholder process, meeting in eight Working Group Plenary Sessions between 2005 and 2010, with additional committee meetings and consultations on e-mail throughout the five-year process. Approximately five hundred delegates participated in this process, drawn from six stakeholder groups: Industry, Government, NGO (non-governmental organization), Labour, Consumer, and SSRO (Service, Support, Research and Others - primarily academics and consultants). Leadership of various task groups and committees was "twinned" between "developing" and "developed" countries, to ensure viewpoints from different economic and cultural contexts. Since ISO operates on a parliamentary procedure form based on consensus, the final agreed-on standard was the result of deliberation and negotiations; no one group was able to block it, but also no one group was able to achieve its objectives when others strongly disagreed.
The goal was to make ISO 26000 accessible and usable by all organizations, in different countries, precisely because it reflects the goals and concerns of each and all of the stakeholder groups in its final compromise form.
Key Principles and Core Subjects of ISO 26000 The Seven Key Principles, advocated as the roots of socially responsible behavior, are:  Accountability  Transparency  Ethical behavior  Respect for stakeholder interests (stakeholders are individuals or groups who are affected by, or have the ability to impact, the organization's actions)  Respect for the rule of law  Respect for international norms of behavior  Respect for human rights  The Seven Core Subjects, which every user of ISO 26000 should consider, are:   Organizational governance  Human rights  Labor practices  Environment  Fair operating practices  Consumer issues  Community involvement and development  Many of the 84 pages of the standard are devoted to definitions, examples, and suggestions on how to identify and communicate with stakeholders, and how to identify and address specific issues in each Core Subject area.
To Obtain a Copy of ISO 26000 ISO 26000 is available for sale by National Standards Bodies in many countries. Prices are set by the different National Standards Bodies, and vary widely. ISO 26000 is available in many national and international languages, including Arabic, Bulgarian, Czech, Dutch, English, French, German, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Kazakh, Korean, Montenegrin, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, Vietnamese. ISO 26000 is copyrighted by ISO. See the ISO webpage at http://www.iso.org for more information. User Guides to ISO 26000 There is a growing number of user guides, many of which are significantly less expensive than the standard itself.
Quality and applicability of these guides will vary widely. An assessment tool has been worked out e.g. by The Royal Norwegian Society for Development (Norges Vel), supported by the Asociatia Pentru Implementarea Democratiei (AID -Romania). Additional information and critiques  The ISO 26000 Scope states "This International Standard is not a management system standard. It is not intended or appropriate for certification purposes or regulatory or contractual use. Any offer to certify, or claims to be certified, to ISO 26000 would be a misrepresentation of the intent and purpose and a misuse of this International Standard. As this International Standard does not contain requirements, any such certification would not be a demonstration of conformity with this International Standard."
This statement includes that ISO 26000 cannot be used as basis for audits, conformity tests and certificates, or for any other kind of compliance statements. It can however be used as a statement of intention by the CEO and this is seen as its main value. The practical value of ISO 26000 has been debated. It might be limited if it merely provided a common understanding of social responsibility instead of also facilitating management routines and practices leading to social responsibility. Despite the non-certifiability, some scholars see distinct elements of a management system standard also in ISO 26000. Against this background, the potential benefits of the new standard, the managerial relevance, and specific limitations of ISO 26000 are currently being discussed.
Critiques include the lack of any certification, the potential to "decouple" and isolate corporate social responsibility issues in an organization (Schwarz & Tilling 2009), the difficulty for smaller organizations to access the 100-plus-page "textbook" form of the standard, and the fact that the best practices represented by the standard tend to age; to address at least this last concern, interested parties are tracking the need and timing of a possible update. There is also a concern that ISO 26000 is just one among "too many" social impact reporting standards available to corporations. As a guidance document the ISO 26000 is an offer, voluntary in use, and encourages organizations to discuss their social responsibility issues and possible actions with relevant stakeholders.
As service providers, certification bodies do not belong to an organization's stakeholders. ISO 26000 encourages its users to reconsider an organization's social responsibility or "socially responsible behaviour" and to identify/select from its recommendations those where the organization could/should engage in contributions to society. ISO 26000 encourages its users to report to their stakeholders, and get feedback, on actions taken to  improve their social responsibility. It is this identification of "stakeholders" that makes the ISO 26000 an important step forward in solving the dilemma presented by corporations still in pursuit of single bottom line accountability, moving the discussion beyond Triple Bottom Line Accountability.
It is also an important step in the development of business-led social responsibility initiatives which evidence suggests is much more effective than government-regulated social responsibly policies. Project aim There is a range of many different opinions as to the right approach to ethical and socially responsible behavior by businesses, ranging from strict legislation at one end to complete freedom at the other. ISO 26000 is looking for a golden middle way that promotes respect and responsibility based on known reference documents without stifling creativity and development. ISO (established 1947 to promote international trade by developing manufacturing standards) is now composed of 162 members, each of which is a National Standards Board of a particular country.
ISO's expansion into the field of Social Responsibility (Corporate Social Responsibility) was driven by many factors, including a recognition that the pace of global development calls for increasing actions by organizations, including businesses, to reduce their harmful impacts on people and communities, and increase their positive impacts. Development leadership ISO chose Swedish Standards Institute (SIS) and ABNT, Brazilian Association of Technical Standards to provide the joint leadership of the ISO Working Group on Social Responsibility (WG SR). The WG SR was given the task of drafting an International Standard for social responsibility that was published in 2010 as ISO 26000.
Target: wide range The need for organizations in both public and private sectors to behave in a socially responsible way is becoming a generalized requirement of society. It is shared by the stakeholder groups that participated in the WG SR to develop ISO 26000: industry, government, labour, consumers, nongovernmental organizations, and others, in addition to geographical and gender-based balance. A Memorandum of Understanding was developed between the ISO Group and the United Nations Global Compact in order to both develop and promote the ISO 26000 as the go to Standard for CSR. Unfortunately the United Nations Global Compact did not fulfill its commitment under that MOU nor subsequent commitments to bring the ISO 26000 to the other 90 UN agencies.
See also  Corporate social responsibility (CSR)  ISO 14000  References  Further reading  External links   ISO 26000—Guidance on social responsibility  ISO TMBG—Technical Management Board - groups  ASQ What is ISO 26000? NORMAPME ISO 26000 User Guide for European SMEs  ISO 26000 User Guide, IFAN recommended  ISO 26000 User Guide, in various languages ISO 26000 Working documents website Presentation of the ISO26000 project, by SIS Winter/Spring 2006 ISO 26000 Community on LinkedIn The ISO Working Group on Social Responsibility: developing the future ISO SR 26000 Standard, briefing paper written by Bart Slob and Gerard Oonk ISO 26000 de Responsabilidad Social Empresarial (español) Portal de Responsabilidad Social Empresarial de Chile(español) Blog de la ISO 26000 (español) Social Responsibility ISO26000 & SA8000  #26000 Category:Corporate social responsibility
Launch Complex 1  may refer to:   Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 1, an active R-7 (Soyuz) launch pad at the Baikonur Cosmorome  Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 1, a deactivated US Air Force launch site  Kourou ELA-1, a former Ariane launch complex now used by Vega rockets  Point Arguello Launch Complex 1, now part of Vandenberg AFB Space Launch Complex 3  Satish Dhawan Space Centre First Launch Pad  Taiyuan Launch Complex 1, a Long March launch complex at the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre  Vandenberg AFB Space Launch Complex 1, a former Thor launch complex at Vandenberg
The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin is a series of novels written by David Nobbs. He also adapted them for a British sitcom starring Leonard Rossiter in the title role. It was produced from 1976 to 1979. He adapted the screenplay for the first series from the novel. Some of its subplots were considered too dark or risqué for television and were toned down or omitted. The story concerns a middle-aged middle manager, Reginald "Reggie" Perrin, who reveals himself in the first series to be aged 46, who is driven to bizarre behaviour by the pointlessness of his job at Sunshine Desserts.
The sitcom proved to be a subversion of others of the era, which were often based on bland middle-class suburban family life. The first novel in the series, The Death of Reginald Perrin, was published in 1975. Later editions were retitled to match the title of the television series. Subsequent novels (The Return of Reginald Perrin [1977] and The Better World of Reginald Perrin [1978]) were written by Nobbs with the express goal of being adapted into the second and third television series, respectively; Rossiter did not want to take the series forward unless it continued to be grounded in novels.
The original three television series, all of the same name, were broadcast between 1976 and 1979; a fourth, The Legacy of Reginald Perrin, also written by Nobbs, followed in 1996. Series summaries  Series One (8 September – 20 October 1976) The first series was based on Nobbs's novel The Death of Reginald Perrin, retitled The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin to tie in with the television series. It still retains the replacement title. Reginald Iolanthe Perrin is suffering a mid-life crisis, and tries to escape his dreary life. He lives at 12 Coleridge Close, part of the "Poets Estate" in a south London suburb called Climthorpe, a development different from those around it only by having the streets named after famous poets.
He commutes to Sunshine Desserts, where he works as a sales executive. Each morning he is 11 minutes late (this increased to 17 then 22 minutes with subsequent series), yet each morning he gives a different excuse. These become increasingly bizarre ("defective junction box, New Malden" being one of the more plausible ones), reflecting the decline of both British Rail and his own mental health. He enters the office building under the "Sunshine Desserts" sign which, as the series progresses, loses more and more letters. "Reggie", as he is known, daydreams in Walter Mitty style. Part of the narrative demonstrates what voices in his head are saying.
Although he appears to love his wife, he fantasises about his secretary, Joan Greengross. As his behaviour becomes more erratic, Reggie is unable to dictate letters without uttering words like "breast". Far from being offended, Joan welcomes the attention, adjusting her posture to show off her figure. The endless marketing campaigns for bizarre products, satirised in reports from the product research department, combine with Reggie's relations with his oppressive boss "CJ" and his yes-man subordinates to drive him over the edge. Ceasing to care about the consequences, he dictates offensive and condescending replies to customers. At home things are no better.
Despite his warm relationship with his wife Elizabeth, he suffers from impotence. As pressures at work build, relations with his dysfunctional relatives deteriorate. His brother-in-law Jimmy and son-in-law Tom are both presented as incompetent. Further, Tom's "political correctness" emphasises his pomposity. After Reggie commits a few reckless acts, including getting out of his car in the lion enclosure at a safari park, he fakes his suicide by leaving clothes and personal effects on a beach. Before this he sends CJ an anonymous threat containing the words "blood will flow", dumping loganberry essence into a stream while CJ is angling. CJ collapses and the company doctor, Doc Morrisey, pronounces him dead.
CJ opens one eye and says, "You're fired!" Assuming disguises, Reggie encounters more of the banal and pompous side of life. Only as a buck-toothed farm labourer does he find fulfilment working in a sewage park and looking after pigs. Missing his wife, he assumes the identity of Martin Wellbourne, returned from South America, and visits her. He realises he loves her still. Elizabeth, seeing through his disguise, is happy to have him back. Series Two (21 September – 2 November 1977) In the second series (novelised as The Return of Reginald Perrin), Reggie is tired of being Martin Wellbourne and wants to be Reggie again.
He reveals his true identity to his family (though his wife and daughter already know). When CJ learns from Doc Morrisey that he is Reggie, he sacks them both. Elizabeth goes out to work at Sunshine Desserts and Reggie returns to the pig farm; but they are both sacked after Reggie's employer learns of his faked suicide and Elizabeth sends a rude letter telling the truth about Sunshine's products. Reggie then opens a shop called Grot, where he sells useless products like square hoops, round dice and Tom's wine (made from sprouts, nettles and the like), confident that it will be a great success.
It is, and the products are snapped up as novelties, and Grot becomes a huge success. Reggie relapses into alienation and tries to destroy Grot from within by hiring incompetents, but this backfires as they all display unsuspected talents. Reggie finally resolves to disappear again, this time accompanied by Elizabeth. Series Three (29 November 1978 – 24 January 1979) In the third series (novelised as The Better World of Reginald Perrin), after seeing two men arguing pointlessly in a queue at the bank, Reggie and his wife open a community called Perrins for the middle-aged middle class, designed to help them become "better, happier people".
The project is a success until a group of people who have fallen afoul of the "Perrins Peace Keeping Force" trash the place. Reggie is then hired by CJ's brother FJ at Amalgamated Aerosols, working directly under CJ. Reggie instantly returns to his eccentric ways, however, and the final scene shows him contemplating another trip to the Dorset coast. In the third series, the role of Reggie's son-in-law Tom is played by Leslie Schofield, replacing Tim Preece who had played the role in the first two series. Preece returned to the role for The Legacy of Reginald Perrin (see below).
Theresa Watson also became a regular cast member, playing David Harris-Jones's (Bruce Bould) wife Prue, who was only mentioned in previous series. Christmas sketch (26 December 1982) In 1982, as part of a BBC1 Christmas special called The Funny Side of Christmas, a short sketch featured the regular cast visiting Reggie's house on Christmas Day. Despite being annoyed at the continual interruption of his colleagues' arrival, he dispenses presents from beneath his own Christmas tree. In a final scene, we see that Reggie's living room is empty, even of furniture. The sketch is unrelated to the regular series, which had finished three years earlier in 1979.
The Legacy of Reginald Perrin (22 September – 31 October 1996)  This follow-up series, made more than a decade after Leonard Rossiter's death, shows Reggie's legacy: a fortune left to friends and family but with strange conditions. It failed with most viewers, as the loss of Leonard Rossiter removed some affection for the series. Despite a leading man in Geoffrey Palmer, there was no central character. Both book and series were titled The Legacy of Reginald Perrin. In the series, Reggie's circle of family and friends are told by lawyer Geraldine Hackstraw that each will inherit one million pounds, on the one condition that they do something totally absurd.
The nature of their absurd task is left to the individuals, but it is to be judged by Ms Hackstraw. Most of them have fallen on hard times, having in the main been forced to retire or been made redundant due to their age. After several pathetic solo attempts at being absurd (including both C.J. and Doc asking out Geraldine), the potential legatees decide to pool forces and, with Jimmy as leader, decide to mount a bloodless coup. They intend to reverse age roles, with such policies as pensions for the young. The policies are a success – but with the unexpected outcome of their losing the money in the bequest.
As Geraldine points out, the idea has turned out not to be absurd after all. The series' characters and actors comprised all of the central characters of the earlier series except Reginald Perrin and Tony Webster (Trevor Adams). It also included Patricia Hodge as Geraldine Hackstraw and Michael Fenton Stevens as Hank. Other versions A short-lived U.S. version was produced and broadcast on ABC in 1983 as Reggie, with Richard Mulligan in the title role. Martin Clunes starred in a BBC revival of the series, titled simply Reggie Perrin. The supporting cast were Fay Ripley, Wendy Craig, Geoffrey Whitehead, Neil Stuke and Lucy Liemann.
The series was written by Simon Nye and original series creator David Nobbs. It ran for two series from April 2009 to November 2010. Background and influence  At the end of the first series Reggie fakes suicide by leaving his clothes on a beach in Dorset and running into the sea. Coincidentally, John Stonehouse MP faked his own death in this manner shortly before the book was published, although neither was inspired by the other: the novel was written before Stonehouse's faked suicide in November 1974 but not published until 1975. The phrase "do a Reggie Perrin" did enter the vernacular, however, assisted by the Stonehouse affair.
The series introduced catchphrases that entered popular culture in the UK, including Perrin's reflexive apology for a late arrival at the office, his boss C.J. 's "I didn't get where I am today ..."; the fawning junior executives Tony Webster and David Harris-Jones with their alternating "great/super"; and Perrin's brother-in-law Major Jimmy Anderson, an army officer with no grasp of organisation or leadership, coming to eat because of a "bit of a cock-up on the catering front" (caused in the original novel by his wife's alcoholism). The first series included the character of Mark Perrin, Reggie's son, played by David Warwick.
However, David Nobbs felt he diverted the comedy from Reggie, so he was written out by going on tour with a theatre group in Africa. Although mainly produced on video and shot on studio sets, the series also incorporated innovative surreal escapism through film inserts, notably during scenes in which, whenever his mother-in-law is mentioned, Reggie visualises a hippopotamus trotting along. Writer David Nobbs went on to create the Channel 4 comedy series Fairly Secret Army, whose lead character, Harry, was inspired by, if not directly related to, the Perrin character of Jimmy, and also played by Geoffrey Palmer. Cast Reginald Iolanthe Perrin: Leonard Rossiter Elizabeth Perrin, his wife: Pauline Yates Mark Perrin, their son: David Warwick (Series One only) Linda Patterson, their daughter: Sally-Jane Spencer Tom Patterson, her husband: Tim Preece (first two series and Legacy) and Leslie Schofield (third series) (Catchphrase: "I'm not a —— person.")
Joan Greengross, his secretary: Sue Nicholls CJ (Charles Jefferson), his boss: John Barron (who also played CJ's brother FJ). CJ is much given to Dundrearyisms and pompous statements beginning "I didn't get where I am today by ..." – except when Reggie becomes his boss, whereupon he says "I didn't get where you are today by ..."; also "Neither Mrs CJ nor I have ever..." and "We're not one of those dreadful firms that..." Tony Webster, "Great! ": Trevor Adams David Harris-Jones, "Super! ": Bruce Bould Jimmy Anderson, Elizabeth's brother: Geoffrey Palmer (Catchphrase: "Bit of a cock up on the —— front.")
Doc (Gerald) Morrissey, company doctor at Sunshine Desserts: John Horsley Seamus Finnegan, "a poor tongue-tied labourer from the land of the bogs and the little people" with an unrecognised genius for management: Derry Power (Series Two and Three only) Kenny McBlane, Scottish Chef at Perrin's: Joseph Brady (Series Three only) Prue Harris-Jones, wife of David Harris-Jones: Theresa Watson (Series Three and Legacy only)  DVD releases  Locations Exterior views of the Perrin residence – 12 Coleridge Close, in the fictional suburb Climthorpe – were shot at 6 Beaufort Close, Ealing, W5. Reggie's walk to work was shot on the corner of Audley Road and The Ridings and on the corner of Ashbourne Close.
All three roads are within about 100 yards of one another. Many exterior scenes were filmed at sites in Cheltenham including Eldorado Road and the Beehive public house. The Sunshine Desserts office building is at 32–36 Telford Way, Acton. (now demolished)  Reggie's faked suicide, which formed part of the title sequence, occurred at West Bay, Dorset, with the East Cliff visible in the very opening shot. The first episode begins with commuters making their way to Norbiton railway station in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames. The morning train's constant lateness in the earlier series is usually blamed on incidents at actual stations along the railway from Norbiton and Kingston to Waterloo.
References  External links  Official Reggie Perrin web site Second Sight Films (released the DVDs)  Category:BBC television sitcoms Category:1976 British television series debuts Category:1970s British comedy television series Category:Television series by Entertainment One Category:English-language television programs Category:1979 British television series endings Category:1990s British comedy television series Category:1996 British television series debuts Category:1996 British television series endings
Divine intervention is a purported miracle caused by a deity's active involvement in the human world. Divine Intervention may also refer to:  Music Divine Intervention (album), a 1994 album by Slayer Divine Intervention Tour, 2015 tour by recording artist Bette Midler "Divine Intervention Part 3", a song by Australian musician Suffa "Divine Intervention", a song on Matthew Sweet's 1991 album Girlfriend "Divine Intervention", a 2001 song on Pennywise's album Land of the Free? (Pennywise album) "Divine Intervention", a song recorded by Backstreet Boys for their 2005 album Never Gone but it didn't make the cut "Divine Intervention", a 2006 song on Taking Back Sunday's album Louder Now "Divine Intervention", a song on Autopilot Off's album Make a Sound  Other uses Divine Intervention (film), a 2002 film by Elia Suleiman Divine/Intervention, a 2015 play about performer Divine  See also Divine providence Divine retribution Miracle
The Sunethra Bandaranaike House or Horagolla Stables is the country house of Sunethra Bandaranaike, renovated in the 1980s by the renowned architect Geoffrey Bawa. The house was the original walauwa of Horagolla, the home of Sunethra Bandaranaike's great-grandfather Gate Mudaliyar Don Christoffel Henricus Dias Abeywickrema Jayatilake Seneviratne Bandaranaike. It was converted to a stable by Sir Solomon Dias Bandaranaike, who after his appointment as Maha Mudaliyar (Head Mudaliyar) at the turn of the twentieth century built the Horagolla Walauwa as his stately home in close proximity to the older walauw. A walauwa is the traditional name for a headman's house.
In the 1980s the deteriorated stable building was renovated and redesigned by Geoffrey Bawa into a house for Sunethra Bandaranaike and her then husband Udaya Nanayakara. Construction commenced on 1 April 1983 and was completed 25 November 1987. The building consists of two sections; the original stables and the new wing, with these two sections forming an 'L' shape. The original building had one large arched entrance and enclosures for the six horses. Openings were introduced in the form of doors and windows and an internal mezzanine floor separates this space into a ground floor and upper gallery. The main sitting room is on the ground floor while the upper gallery provides an additional lounge/sitting area.
The name boards of the horses that were kept here have been retained over their former stalls. The stable hands quarters have been converted into three bedrooms, with attached bathrooms and a library. The new wing contains an additional bedroom, with attached bathroom, dining area, pantry and open kitchen. The material used for the construction were recycled material sourced from either the original building or old demolished homes. See also Image Gallery of Sunethra Bandaranaike House by Sebastian Posingis  References  Category:Bandaranaike family Category:Country houses in Sri Lanka Category:Geoffrey Bawa buildings
Marion Eames (born Gwladys Marion Griffith Eames, 5 February 1921 – 3 April 2007) was a Welsh novelist writing mainly in Welsh. She was also a talented musician. Biography Marion was born in Birkenhead, Cheshire, of Welsh parents – William Griffith Eames (1885–1959) and his wife Gwladys Mary (née Jones) (1891–1979) – but she was brought up from the age of four at Dolgellau, Merionethshire (Sir Feirionnydd), where she attended Dr Williams' School. A talented musician, who played the harp and the piano, she graduated from the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London. Marion worked as a librarian in Dolgellau, then at Aberystwyth University, before becoming a radio producer with the BBC in Cardiff from 1955 to 1980.
She also served for a time as a regional organizer for the political party Plaid Cymru. In 1955 she married the Quaker journalist Griffith Williams, with whom she moved to Pimlico, then back to Cardiff. Eames was an early scriptwriter for the long-running Welsh soap Pobol Y Cwm. Her best-known work of fiction is the historical novel Y Stafell Ddirgel (1969), which was translated into English by Margaret Phillips as The Secret Room (1975). This was later adapted as a BBC television drama series, and has been reprinted in both languages. Other works by Eames include I hela cnau (1978, in English: The Golden Road, 1990).
A sequel to Y Stafell Ddirgel was Y Rhandir Mwyn (The Fair Wilderness). Marion Eames was awarded an honorary degree of the University of Wales. Some of her works were for children: Sionyn a Siarli (1978), Huw a'r Adar Aur (1987), and Y Tir Tywyll (1990). Her introduction to Welsh literature for English-speaking readers, A Private Language, appeared in 1997. References  Category:Welsh-language writers Category:Welsh historical novelists Category:People associated with Aberystwyth University Category:Welsh novelists Category:1921 births Category:2007 deaths Category:20th-century Welsh novelists Category:Welsh children's writers
Brachypelma smithi is a species of spider in the family Theraphosidae (tarantulas) native to Mexico. It has been confused with Brachypelma hamorii; both have been called Mexican redknee tarantulas. Mexican redknee tarantulas are a popular choice as pets among tarantula keepers. Many earlier sources referring to B. smithi either relate to B. hamorii or do not distinguish between the two species. B. smithi is a terrestrial tarantula native to Pacific coast of the Mexican state of Guerrero. Description Brachypelma smithi is a large spider. A sample of seven females had a total body length (excluding chelicerae and spinnerets) in the range .
A sample of eight males were slightly smaller, with a total body length in the range . Although males have slightly shorter bodies, they have longer legs. The fourth leg is the longest, measuring  in the type male and  in a female. The legs and palps are bluish black with three distinctly colored rings: dark reddish orange on the part of the patellae closest to the body with light yellowish pink further away, pale yellowish pink on the lower part of the tibiae, and pinkish white at the end of the metatarsi. Adult males have a yellowish brown carapace; the upper surface of the abdomen is black.
Adult females vary more in carapace color and pattern. The carapace may be mainly bluish black with a light brown border, or the dark area may be broken up into a "starburst" pattern or almost reduced to two dark patches in the eye area. Taxonomy The species was first described by Frederick Pickard-Cambridge in 1897 as Eurypelma smithi. It was collected at Dos Arroyos, Guerrero, Mexico, by H. H. Smith. It was transferred to the genus Brachypelma by Reginald Pocock in 1903. Pickard-Cambridge identified the type specimen as a female, but in 1968 it was noticed that it was actually an immature male.
In 1994, A. M. Smith confirmed that the holotype was an immature male, and redescribed the species using two different specimens: an adult male and an adult female. The specimens he used cannot now be found, but his description makes it clear that they actually belonged to a different species, B. hamorii. Even prior to Smith's description, B. hamorii had been misidentified as B. smithi. The two species have very similar colour patterns. When viewed from above, the chelicerae of B. hamorii have two brownish pink bands on a greyish background, not visible on all individuals. B. smithi lacks these bands.
Mature males of the two species can be distinguished by the shape of the palpal bulb. That of B. smithi is straighter with a broad spoon shape when viewed retrolaterally and a wider keel at the apex. In mature females of B. smithi the baseplate of the spermatheca is divided and subtriangular, rather than elliptical as in B. hamorii; also the ventral face of the spermatheca is striated rather than smooth. Brachypelma annitha was described as a separate species in 1997, but is now considered to be conspecific with B. smithi. DNA barcoding DNA barcoding has been applied to some Mexican species of Brachypelma.
In this approach, a portion of about 650 base pairs of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase I (COI) is used, primarily to identify existing species, but also sometimes to support a separation between species. In 2017, Mendoza and Francke showed that although B. smithi and B. hamorii are similar in superficial external appearance, they are clearly distinguished both by some finer aspects of morphology and by their DNA barcodes, although the supposed species B. annitha is nested within B. smithii. Distribution and habitat  Brachypelma smithi and the very similar B. hamorii are found along the Pacific coast of Mexico on opposite sides of the Balsas River basin as it opens onto the Pacific.
B. smithi is found to the south, in the state of Guerrero. The natural habitat of the species is in hilly deciduous tropical forests. It constructs or extends burrows under rocks and tree roots, among dense thickets and deciduous forests. The burrows were described in 1999 by a source which did not distinguish between Brachypelma hamorii and B. smithi. The deep burrows keep them protected from predators, like the white-nosed coati, and enable them to ambush passing prey. The females spend the majority of their lives in their burrows. The burrows are typically located in or not far from vegetation and consist of a single entrance with a tunnel leading to one or two chambers.
The entrance is just slightly larger than the body size of the spider. The tunnel, usually about three times the tarantula's leg span in length, leads to a chamber which is large enough for the spider to safely molt. Further down the burrow, via a shorter tunnel, a larger chamber is located where the spider rests and eats its prey. When the tarantula needs privacy, e.g. when molting or laying eggs, the entrance is sealed with silk, sometimes supplemented with soil and leaves. Conservation In 1985, B. smithi (then not distinguished from B. hamorii) was placed on CITES Appendix II, and in 1994, all remaining Brachypelma species were added.
Large numbers of Mexican redknee tarantulas caught in the wild continue to be smuggled out of Mexico. It is reported that at least 3,000 specimens of Mexican tarantulas were sent to the United States or Europe a few years prior to 2017, most of which were Mexican redknee tarantulas. References  Category:Theraphosidae Category:Spiders of Mexico Category:Spiders described in 1897
Marv Albert (born Marvin Philip Aufrichtig; June 12, 1941) is an American sportscaster. Honored for his work as a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame, he is commonly referred to as "the voice of basketball." From 1967 to 2004, he was also known as "the voice of the New York Knicks." Albert currently works for Turner Sports, serving as lead announcer for NBA games on TNT. In addition to calling both professional and college basketball, he has experience announcing other sports such as American football, ice hockey, horse racing, boxing, and tennis. Albert has called the play-by-play of eight Super Bowls, NBA Finals, and seven Stanley Cup Finals.
He has also called the Wimbledon Tennis Championships for TNT with Jim Courier and Mary Carillo. He also worked as a co-host and reporter for two World Series (1986 and 1988)  Early life Albert was born to a Jewish family in Brooklyn, where he went to Abraham Lincoln High School. While Albert grew up, members of his family owned a grocery store on Brighton Beach Avenue between 3rd and 4th streets known as Aufrichtig's. He then attended Syracuse University's Newhouse School of Public Communications from 1960 through 1963. In 1962, he served as the voice of the AAA Syracuse Chiefs.
He then graduated from New York University in 1965. Broadcasting career  National Basketball Association  New York Knicks (MSG) Marv did his first Knicks game on January 27, 1963 on WCBS Radio, filling in for his mentor, Marty Glickman who was away in Europe. The game was against the Celtics at the Boston Garden. For 37 years beginning in 1967, Albert was the voice of the New York Knicks on radio and television (getting his start by being a ball boy for the Knicks before getting his first break on New York radio by sportscaster Marty Glickman) before being let go by James L. Dolan, the chairman of the MSG Network and Cablevision, after Albert criticized the Knicks' poor play on-air in 2004.
It was said that Marv's high salary was also a factor. His son Kenny Albert has been a part-time play-by-play announcer for the Knicks since 2009, whenever the older Albert's successor Mike Breen (whom he later followed on the NBA on NBC broadcasts and now works on ESPN and ABC aside from his role at MSG) is unavailable. For a brief period before he resumed his normal broadcasting duties following his sexual assault arrest (see below), Albert anchored MSG's former nightly sports news report, MSG SportsDesk. NBC Sports Marv Albert was the lead play-by-play broadcaster for the NBA on NBC for most of its run from 1990 to 2002, calling every NBA Finals during that timeframe except for 1998, 1999, and 2000.
During this time, Bob Costas had taken over the lead job and called the Finals after Marv's arrest for sexual assault had brought him national disgrace. Marv resumed his previous position for the 2000–2001 season and called Game 4 of the 2002 NBA Finals which was the final NBA telecast on NBC. During his time on NBC, Albert continued as lead play-by-play man for the New York Knicks on local MSG Network telecasts and began calling national games for TNT in 1999 as well. When he regained the lead broadcaster position on NBC, he continued to call play-by-play for both networks until the end of NBC's coverage in 2002.
TNT Albert continues to be the lead play-by-play announcer for National Basketball Association games on TNT, a position he assumed in 1999. Indeed, TNT has become his primary commitment ever since his longtime employer NBC lost the NBA broadcasting rights in 2002, and may have played a role in his departure from the Knicks' broadcast booth. The Knicks reportedly wanted Albert to accept a salary commensurate with his reduced Knicks schedule, but also weren't happy about Albert making what Knicks management felt were overly critical comments about their team in spite of their losing record. In basketball, his most famous call is his simple "Yes!"
for a basket, rendered in many variations of volume and length depending on the situation; and a catchphrase he began using in his youth when playing pickup games with friends. On April 17, 2002, shortly after calling a game between the Indiana Pacers and Philadelphia 76ers on TNT, both Albert and color analyst Mike Fratello were injured in a limo accident in Trenton, New Jersey. Albert sustained facial lacerations, a concussion, and a sprained ankle. The 2002 NBA Playoffs were set to begin two days later, with Albert scheduled to call multiple games that week. Bob Costas filled in for those games and Albert returned to call Game 1 of the Western Conference Semifinals between the Dallas Mavericks and Sacramento Kings.
In 2018, Sports Broadcast Journal speculated Albert might be the first network play-by-play broadcaster to continue into his 80s, Will Marv Albert be the first network play-by-play announcer to call games into his 80s  New Jersey Nets (YES) In 2005, Albert officially became the lead play-by-play man for the New Jersey Nets franchise and started calling their games on the YES Network, often teaming with Brooklyn native and NBA veteran, Mark Jackson. With that, the Nets employed all three Albert brothers during the franchise's history; Al started his broadcast career with the Nets during their ABA days, while Steve called Nets games during the late 1970s and 1980s.
Beginning with the 2008–09 season, Albert was also paired with his TNT broadcast colleague Mike Fratello on the YES Network. However, with the Nets' struggles in the 2009–10 season, Nets management relegated Albert to secondary play-by-play, to avoid a similar incident while Albert was with the Knicks. Since then Ian Eagle has taken over the broadcasts. In 2011, Albert left the YES Network to join CBS Sports for NFL and NCAA tournament coverage. Other basketball-related duties Albert hosts a basketball-focused interview show on NBA TV, which also airs later on YES. Since 2003, Albert has also been providing the play-by-play voice on the NBA Live video-game series on EA Sports, a role he fulfilled until NBA Live 10.
From 2011 to 2015, Albert announced NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship tournament games, the result of longtime tournament broadcaster CBS handing off some of its coverage to Turner Sports. In February 2016, Albert and Turner Sports announced that he would no longer call NCAA Tournament basketball games, stating that calling four games in one day during the first round, and a total of six matches in three days during the first two rounds, was too much for his 74-year-old voice to handle. Albert said that he "felt it was the wiser move to go primarily NBA at this stage".
Outside basketball  New York Rangers In addition to the Knicks, Albert had a lengthy tenure (beginning in 1965) calling the games of another Madison Square Garden tenant, the New York Rangers. He handled the radio call of the Rangers' Stanley Cup–clinching victory in 1994. He also famously coined the nickname "Red Light" for radio analyst Sal Messina, a former Rangers goaltender. His signature play-by-play phrase was "kick save and a beauty." Over his years as the Rangers broadcaster, Albert missed a large number of games for other commitments. Many other broadcasters filled in, including several who later served long stints for other NHL teams, including Howie Rose, Mike Emrick and John Kelly, as well as brothers Al and Steve.
It was Albert's absence from Game 7 of the Rangers–Devils Conference Championship game that led to Rose's famed Matteau, Matteau, Matteau call. Albert left the Rangers after the 1994–95 season at the same time Rose took the job as play-by-play announcer of the New York Islanders. Albert's son, Kenny, replaced him, and has been the radio voice of the Rangers ever since. Kenny also calls NHL and Olympic ice hockey for NBC Sports, while also serving as the national radio voice of the Stanley Cup Finals since 2016. New York Giants From 1973 to 1976, Albert called radio broadcasts of New York Giants football games, succeeding Marty Glickman after the latter's defection to the New York Jets.
Monday Night Football Albert was also the lead play-by-play voice of the Westwood One radio network's NFL coverage from 2002 to 2009 seasons, calling Monday Night Football as well as numerous playoff games and every Super Bowl from 2003 to 2010. On June 4, 2010, it was announced that Albert was leaving his NFL on Westwood One duties. He was succeeded on the broadcasts by Kevin Harlan. NFL on CBS On June 6, 2011, it was announced Albert was joining CBS Sports to call play-by-play for The NFL on CBS. Albert was usually teamed with Rich Gannon on broadcasts. On May 29, 2014, Albert stepped down from calling The NFL on CBS to focus more on his basketball duties for TNT and CBS.
Other network duties Other NBC Sports duties that Albert held were play-by-play announcing for the NFL (by 1983, Albert was the #2 play-by-play man behind Dick Enberg, usually alternating the secondary NFL role year to year with Don Criqui), college basketball (teaming with Bucky Waters on Big East/ECAC games), horse racing, boxing (often working with Ferdie Pacheco and subsequently, Sugar Ray Leonard when NBC relaunched boxing under the Premier Boxing Champions umbrella), NHL All-Star Games (Albert called the NHL All-Star Game with John Davidson on NBC from 1990-1994), and Major League Baseball, as well as hosting baseball studio and pre-game shows (including NBC's coverage of the 1986 and 1988 World Series alongside Bob Costas).
He also spent 13 years as the sports director of the network's flagship station, WNBC-TV in New York. Albert also called regular-season and playoff NHL games for the syndicated NHL Network in the 1976–77 season, and from 2000 to 2002 he helped call TNT's coverage of the Wimbledon Championships tennis tournament. Popularity Albert made 53 guest appearances on David Letterman's late night talk shows for NBC and CBS. Each time Albert appeared, he brought with him a group of clips featuring sports bloopers and outstanding plays, which he narrated and dubbed the "Albert Achievement Awards". The music accompanying the bloopers was "12th Street Rag".
Albert was placed as number 14 on David J. Halberstam's list of Top 50 All Time Network Television Sports Announcers on Yahoo! Sports. In 1992, he appeared as himself on Roger Waters' rock album Amused to Death, giving a play-by-play account of the destruction of an oil rig on the song "Perfect Sense, Part II". An "Albert Achievement Awards" video was released in 1993. It featured cameos by Mike Fratello, Ahmad Rashād, Charles Barkley, David Letterman, O.J. Simpson, Bob Costas, and Tom Brokaw. Albert became the first guest commentator in MTV's Celebrity Deathmatch cartoon series. He appeared in the 1998 pilot episode before being replaced with Stacey Cornbred.
Albert was briefly mentioned in the 2006 film Grandma's Boy. Albert's voice is imitated in Futurama, in the Season 3 episode "Time Keeps On Slippin'" in 2001. Albert also appeared as a special guest on The Simpsons, in the Season 20 episode "The Burns and the Bees" in 2008. Albert’s voice is imitated in Pinky and the Brain, in the season 2, episode "Hoop Schemes" in 1997. Albert's voice is imitated in the popular video game NBA Jam. The announcer was modeled on Albert although there is no mention of Albert in the game and was actually voiced by Tim Kitzrow.
Albert did play-by-play commentary in the video games NFL Quarterback Club '98 and NBA Live. In the 1999 episode "Tube Steaks" of the CBS sitcom The King of Queens, Doug and his friends watch a Knicks-game with Albert's voice commentary. He authored (with Rick Reilly) an autobiography, I'd Love to But I Have a Game, in 1993. Albert appeared in a short scene in the 2015 comedy film Trainwreck. Albert did the commentary, along with Mike Fratello and Steve Kerr, on NBA Live video games made by EA Sports from 2003 to 2009. Jesse Eisenberg wrote a comedic piece for The New Yorker titled "Marv Albert is my therapist".
Honors and awards Cable ACE Award – six times. Curt Gowdy Media Award – awarded by the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, 1997. American Sportscasters Association Sportscaster of the Year (Play-by-Play) – 1996. Other honorees included Sportscaster of the Year (Studio Host) Chris Berman, Hall of Fame inductee Jack Whitaker, Sports Legend Joe Frazier and Honorary Sportscaster Dr. Henry Kissinger. Emmy Award – for national sports: five times; for New York: three times. Nassau County Sports Hall of Fame – inducted in 2006. National Jewish Museum Sports Hall of Fame – inducted in 1992. New York State Sportscaster of the Year – twenty times.
Noted in Roger Waters' album, Amused to Death. National Sportscasters and Sportswriters Association Hall of Fame – inducted in 2014. Family  Albert's son, Kenny, is also a sports commentator, who calls baseball and football for Fox, New York Rangers games on the radio, and has been one of NBC's commentators for ice hockey at the Winter Olympics, as well as NBC's NHL coverage. His daughter, Denise, is a reporter for NBA TV. Marv also has two other children; Brian and Jackie Albert. Along with eight grandchildren: Amanda, Sydney, Jonathan, Laya, Logan, Jaylan, and Mia. Marv has two younger brothers who also are announcers.
Steve Albert was the Phoenix Suns play-by-play announcer before his retirement following the 2016-17 season, and has also called play-by-play for several other teams, including the New Orleans Hornets, New Jersey Nets, New York Islanders, New York Mets, and Golden State Warriors. Steve is best known for his work on Showtime Championship Boxing, notably the Holyfield–Tyson bouts. Al Albert was the former play-by-play announcer for the New York Nets (ABA), USA Tuesday Night Fights, the Indiana Pacers and the Denver Nuggets. Al also called national NBA games on the USA Network during its brief tenure in the early 1980s. Sexual assault Albert became embroiled in a sex scandal in 1997.
A 42-year-old woman named Vanessa Perhach accused Albert of throwing her onto a bed, biting her, then forcing her to perform oral sex after a February 12, 1997 argument in his Pentagon City hotel room. DNA testing linked Albert to genetic material taken from the bite marks and from semen in Perhach's underwear. During the trial, testimony was presented from another woman, Patricia Masden, who told the jury Albert had bitten her on two different occasions in 1993 and 1994 in Miami and Dallas hotels, which she viewed as unwanted sexual advances. Masden claimed that in Dallas, Albert called her to his hotel room to help him send a fax, only for her to find him wearing "white panties and garter belt".
Albert maintained that Perhach had requested that he bite her and denied her accusation he had asked her to bring another man into their sexual affair. He described the recorded conversation of hers with the police on the night of the incident as "an Academy Award performance". After tests proved that the bite marks were his, he pleaded guilty to misdemeanor assault and battery charges, while the sodomy charge was dropped. Albert was given a 12-month suspended sentence. Ousted from NBC Consequently, NBC – for which Albert worked for over 20 years – fired him shortly before the 1997–98 NBA season began on The NBA on NBC.
Bob Costas took over for Albert on the basketball side in the 1997–98 season before stepping down after the 2000 NBA Finals for Albert's return. In addition, Tom Hammond spelled his football duties. It is also revealed on a Simpsons DVD commentary that he was to appear in the episode "Bart Star" but, due to the scandal, was replaced by Roy Firestone. Return to NBC NBC brought Albert back less than two years later, and he was the network's main play-by-play man for the 2000–01 and 2001–02 NBA seasons, including the Finals (working with Doug Collins and later Bill Walton and Steve Jones respectively).
NBC lost the rights to the NBA to ABC following the 2001–02 season.
Broadcasting partners John Andariese Butch Beard Bill Chadwick Chip Cipolla Doug Collins Cris Collinsworth John Davidson Boomer Esiason Mike Fratello Walt Frazier Rich Gannon Richie Guerin Matt Guokas Sam Huff Magic Johnson Steve "Snapper" Jones Steve Kerr Dick Lynch Paul Maguire Kevin McHale Sal Messina Reggie Miller Earl Monroe Bill Parcells Cal Ramsey Bob Trumpy Jeff Van Gundy Bill Walton Bucky Waters Chris Webber Sam Wyche  References  External links  Category:1941 births Category:Living people Category:Abraham Lincoln High School (Brooklyn) alumni Category:American horse racing announcers Category:American radio sports announcers Category:American television sports announcers Category:Boxing commentators Category:College basketball announcers in the United States Category:Jewish American sportspeople Category:Jewish American basketball people Category:Major League Baseball broadcasters Category:National Basketball Association broadcasters Category:National Football League announcers Category:National Hockey League broadcasters Category:NBC Sports Category:New Jersey Nets broadcasters Category:New York Giants broadcasters Category:New York Knicks broadcasters Category:New York Rangers broadcasters Category:New York (state) television reporters Category:Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development alumni Category:Olympic Games broadcasters Category:S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications alumni Category:Sportspeople from Brooklyn Category:Television anchors from New York City Category:Tennis commentators
Delta 4 or variant may refer to:   Delta 4 (developer) defunct British software developer  Delta IV (rocket) U.S. spacelaunch spacerocket  Delta-class submarine including the Delta-IV subclass  Delta IV oil field in the Black Sea  See also  Delta (disambiguation)  Four (disambiguation)  IV (disambiguation)  Category:Disambiguation pages
Vascular smooth muscle refers to the particular type of smooth muscle found within, and composing the majority of the wall of blood vessels. Structure Vascular smooth muscle refers to the particular type of smooth muscle found within, and composing the majority of the wall of blood vessels. Nerve supply Vascular smooth muscle is innervated primarily by the sympathetic nervous system through adrenergic receptors (adrenoceptors). The three types of adrenoceptors present are: ,  and . The main endogenous agonist of these cell receptors is norepinephrine (NE). The adrenergic receptors exert opposite physiologic effects in the vascular smooth muscle under activation:        receptors.
Under NE binding  receptors cause vasoconstriction (i.e. contraction of the vascular smooth muscle cells decreasing the diameter of the vessels). receptors are activated in response to shock or low blood pressure as a defensive reaction trying to restore the normal blood pressure. Antagonists of  receptors (doxazosin, prazosin) cause vasodilation (i.e. decrease in vascular smooth muscle tone with increase of vessel diameter and decrease of the blood pressure). (See also receptor antagonist)   receptors. Agonists of  receptors in the vascular smooth muscle lead to vasoconstriction. However, in clinical practice drugs applied intravenously that are agonists of  receptors (clonidine) lead to powerful vasodilation, which causes a decrease in blood pressure by presynaptic activation of  receptors in the sympathetic ganglia.
This presynaptic effect is predominant and completely overrides the vasoconstrictive effect of the  receptors in the vascular smooth muscle. receptors. Agonism of  receptors causes vasodilation and low blood pressure (i.e. the effect is opposite of the one resulting from activation of  and  receptors in the vascular smooth muscle cells). Usage of  receptor agonists as hypotensive agents is less widespread due to adverse effects such as unnecessary bronchodilation in lungs and increase in blood sugar levels. Function Vascular smooth muscle contracts or relaxes to change both the volume of blood vessels and the local blood pressure, a mechanism that is responsible for the redistribution of the blood within the body to areas where it is needed (i.e.
areas with temporarily enhanced oxygen consumption). Thus the main function of vascular smooth muscle tone is to regulate the caliber of the blood vessels in the body. Excessive vasoconstriction leads to high blood pressure, while excessive vasodilation as in shock leads to low blood pressure. Arteries have a great deal more smooth muscle within their walls than veins, thus their greater wall thickness. This is because they have to carry pumped blood away from the heart to all the organs and tissues that need the oxygenated blood. The endothelial lining of each is similar. Excessive proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells contributes to the progression of pathological conditions, such as vascular inflammation, plaque formation, atherosclerosis, restenosis, and pulmonary hypertension.
Recent studies have shown that the majority of cells within atherosclerotic plaque, the predominant cause of heart attack and stroke, are vascular smooth muscle cell derived. See also  Mural cell  References  External links  Image of smooth muscle in the arterial walls  Smooth muscle in stomach wall  Category:Angiology
In combinatorics, an expander graph is a sparse graph that has strong connectivity properties, quantified using vertex, edge or spectral expansion as described below. Expander constructions have spawned research in pure and applied mathematics, with several applications to complexity theory, design of robust computer networks, and the theory of error-correcting codes. Definitions Intuitively, an expander is a finite, undirected multigraph in which every subset of the vertices that  is not "too large" has a "large" boundary. Different formalisations of these notions give rise to different notions of expanders: edge expanders, vertex expanders, and spectral expanders, as defined below. A disconnected graph is not an expander, since the boundary of a connected component is empty.
Every connected graph is an expander; however, different connected graphs have different expansion parameters. The complete graph has the best expansion property, but it has largest possible degree. Informally, a graph is a good expander if it has low degree and high expansion parameters.
Edge expansion The edge expansion (also isoperimetric number or Cheeger constant) h(G) of a graph G on n vertices is defined as   where   In the equation, the minimum is over all nonempty sets S of at most n/2 vertices and ∂S is the edge boundary of S, i.e., the set of edges with exactly one endpoint in S.  Vertex expansion The vertex isoperimetric number  (also vertex expansion or magnification) of a graph G is defined as   where  is the outer boundary of S, i.e., the set of vertices in  with at least one neighbor in S. In a variant of this definition (called unique neighbor expansion)  is replaced by the set of vertices in V with exactly one neighbor in S.  The vertex isoperimetric number  of a graph G is defined as   where  is the inner boundary of S, i.e., the set of vertices in S with at least one neighbor in .
Spectral expansion When G is d-regular, a linear algebraic definition of expansion is possible based on the eigenvalues of the adjacency matrix A = A(G) of G, where  is the number of edges between vertices i and j. Because A is symmetric, the spectral theorem implies that A has n real-valued eigenvalues . It is known that all these eigenvalues are in [−d, d]. Because G is regular, the uniform distribution  with  for all i = 1, ..., n is the stationary distribution of G. That is, we have Au = du, and u is an eigenvector of A with eigenvalue λ1 = d, where d is the degree of the vertices of G. The spectral gap of G is defined to be d − λ2, and it measures the spectral expansion of the graph G.  It is known that λn = −d if and only if G is bipartite.
In many contexts, for example in the expander mixing lemma, a bound on λ2 is not enough, but indeed it is necessary to bound the absolute value of all the eigenvalues away from d:  Since this is the largest eigenvalue corresponding to an eigenvector orthogonal to u, it can be equivalently defined using the Rayleigh quotient:  where    is the 2-norm of the vector . The normalized versions of these definitions are also widely used and more convenient in stating some results. Here one considers the matrix , which is the Markov transition matrix of the graph G. Its eigenvalues are between −1 and 1.
For not necessarily regular graphs, the spectrum of a graph can be defined similarly using the eigenvalues of the Laplacian matrix. For directed graphs, one considers the singular values of the adjacency matrix A, which are equal to the roots of the eigenvalues of the symmetric matrix ATA. Relationships between different expansion properties The expansion parameters defined above are related to each other. In particular, for any d-regular graph G,  Consequently, for constant degree graphs, vertex and edge expansion are qualitatively the same. Cheeger inequalities When G is d-regular, there is a relationship between the isoperimetric constant h(G) and the gap d − λ2 in the spectrum of the adjacency operator of G. By standard spectral graph theory, the trivial eigenvalue of the adjacency operator of a d-regular graph is λ1=d and the first non-trivial eigenvalue is λ2.
If G is connected, then λ2 < d. An inequality due to Dodziuk and independently Alon and Milman states that     This inequality is closely related to the Cheeger bound for Markov chains and can be seen as a discrete version of Cheeger's inequality in Riemannian geometry. Similar connections between vertex isoperimetric numbers and the spectral gap have also been studied:     Asymptotically speaking, the quantities , , and  are all bounded above by the spectral gap . Constructions There are three general strategies for constructing families of expander graphs. The first strategy is algebraic and group-theoretic, the second strategy is analytic and uses additive combinatorics, and the third strategy is combinatorial and uses the zig-zag and related graph products.
Noga Alon showed that certain graphs constructed from finite geometries are the sparsest examples of highly expanding graphs. Margulis–Gabber–Galil Algebraic constructions based on Cayley graphs are known for various variants of expander graphs. The following construction is due to Margulis and has been analysed by Gabber and Galil. For every natural number n, one considers the graph Gn with the vertex set , where : For every vertex , its eight adjacent vertices are  Then the following holds:  Theorem. For all n, the graph Gn has second-largest eigenvalue . Ramanujan graphs  By a theorem of Alon and Boppana, all sufficiently large d-regular graphs satisfy , where  is the second largest eigenvalue in absolute value.
Ramanujan graphs are d-regular graphs for which this bound is tight, satisfying . Hence Ramanujan graphs have an asymptotically smallest possible value of . This makes them excellent spectral expanders. Lubotzky, Phillips, and Sarnak (1988), Margulis (1988), and Morgenstern (1994) show how Ramanujan graphs can be constructed explicitly. By a theorem of Friedman (2003), random d-regular graphs on n vertices are almost Ramanujan, that is, they satisfy  for every  with probability  as n tends to infinity. Applications and useful properties The original motivation for expanders is to build economical robust networks (phone or computer): an expander with bounded valence is precisely an asymptotic robust graph with the number of edges growing linearly with size (number of vertices), for all subsets.
Expander graphs have found extensive applications in computer science, in designing algorithms, error correcting codes, extractors, pseudorandom generators, sorting networks () and robust computer networks. They have also been used in proofs of many important results in computational complexity theory, such as SL = L () and the PCP theorem (). In cryptography, expander graphs are used to construct hash functions. The following are some properties of expander graphs that have proven useful in many areas. Expander mixing lemma  The expander mixing lemma states that, for any two subsets of the vertices S, T ⊆ V, the number of edges between S and T is approximately what you would expect in a random d-regular graph.
The approximation is better the smaller  is. In a random d-regular graph, as well as in an Erdős–Rényi random graph with edge probability d/n, we expect  edges between S and T.  More formally, let E(S, T) denote the number of edges between S and T. If the two sets are not disjoint, edges in their intersection are counted twice, that is,     Then the expander mixing lemma says that the following inequality holds:  Expander walk sampling  The Chernoff bound states that, when sampling many independent samples from a random variables in the range [−1, 1], with high probability the average of our samples is close to the expectation of the random variable.
The expander walk sampling lemma, due to  and , states that this also holds true when sampling from a walk on an expander graph. This is particularly useful in the theory of derandomization, since sampling according to an expander walk uses many fewer random bits than sampling independently. Expander property of the braingraphs Using the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data of the NIH-funded large Human Connectome Project, it was shown by Szalkai et al. that the graph, describing the anatomical brain connections between up to 1015 cerebral areas, is a significantly better expander in women than in men. See also Algebraic connectivity Zig-zag product Superstrong approximation Spectral graph theory  Notes  References  Textbooks and surveys  Research articles        .
. . Recent Applications  External links   Brief introduction in Notices of the American Mathematical Society  Introductory paper by Michael Nielsen  Lecture notes from a course on expanders (by Nati Linial and Avi Wigderson)  Lecture notes from a course on expanders (by Prahladh Harsha) Definition and application of spectral gap  Category:Graph families
A single-crystal, or monocrystalline, solid is a material in which the crystal lattice of the entire sample is continuous and unbroken to the edges of the sample, with no grain boundaries. The absence of the defects associated with grain boundaries can give monocrystals unique properties, particularly mechanical, optical and electrical, which can also be anisotropic, depending on the type of crystallographic structure. These properties, in addition to making them precious in some gems, are industrially used in technological applications, especially in optics and electronics. Because entropic effects favour the presence of some imperfections in the microstructure of solids, such as impurities, inhomogeneous strain and crystallographic defects such as dislocations, perfect single crystals of meaningful size are exceedingly rare in nature, and are also difficult to produce in the laboratory, though they can be made under controlled conditions.
On the other hand, imperfect single crystals can reach enormous sizes in nature: several mineral species such as beryl, gypsum and feldspars are known to have produced crystals several metres across. The opposite of a single crystal is an amorphous structure where the atomic position is limited to short range order only. In between the two extremes exist polycrystalline, which is made up of a number of smaller crystals known as crystallites, and paracrystalline phases. Uses  Semiconductor industry   Single crystal silicon is used in the fabrication of semiconductors. On the quantum scale that microprocessors operate on, the presence of grain boundaries would have a significant impact on the functionality of field effect transistors by altering local electrical properties.
Therefore, microprocessor fabricators have invested heavily in facilities to produce large single crystals of silicon. Optics    Monocrystals of sapphire and other materials are used for lasers and nonlinear optics. Monocrystals of fluorite are sometimes used in the objective lenses of apochromatic refracting telescopes. Materials engineering   Another application of single crystal solids is in materials science in the production of high strength materials with low thermal creep, such as turbine blades. Here, the absence of grain boundaries actually gives a decrease in yield strength, but more importantly decreases the amount of creep which is critical for high temperature, close tolerance part applications.
Electrical conductors  Single crystals provide a means to understand, and perhaps realize, the ultimate performance of metallic conductors. Of all the metallic elements, silver and copper have the best conductivity at room temperature, so set the bar for performance. The size of the market, and vagaries in supply and cost, have provided strong incentives to seek alternatives or find ways to use less of them by improving performance. The conductivity of commercial conductors is often expressed relative to the International Annealed Copper Standard, according to which the purest copper wire available in 1914 measured around 100%. The purest modern copper wire is a better conductor, measuring over 103% on this scale.
The gains are from two sources. First, modern copper is more pure. However, this avenue for improvement seems at an end. Making the copper purer still makes no significant improvement. Second, annealing and other processes have been improved. Annealing reduces the dislocations and other crystal defects which are sources of resistance. But the resulting wires are still polycrystalline. The grain boundaries and remaining crystal defects are responsible for some residual resistance. This can be quantified and better understood by examining single crystals. As anticipated, single-crystal copper did prove to have better conductivity than polycrystalline copper. But there were surprises in store (see table).
The single-crystal copper not only became a better conductor than high purity polycrystalline silver, but with prescribed heat and pressure treatment could surpass even single-crystal silver. And although impurities are usually bad for conductivity, a silver single crystal with a small amount of copper substitutions was a better conductor than them all. As of 2009, no single-crystal copper is manufactured on a large scale industrially, but methods of producing very large individual crystal sizes for copper conductors are exploited for high performance electrical applications. These can be considered meta-single crystals with only a few crystals per metre of length. In research   Single crystals are essential in research especially condensed-matter physics, materials science, surface science etc.
The detailed study of the crystal structure of a material by techniques such as Bragg diffraction and helium atom scattering is much easier with monocrystals. Only in single crystals it is possible to study directional dependence of various properties. Furthermore, techniques such as scanning tunneling microscopy are only possible on surfaces of single crystals. In superconductivity there have been cases of materials where superconductivity is only seen in single crystalline specimen. They may be grown for this purpose, even when the material is otherwise only needed in polycrystalline form. Manufacture   In the case of silicon and metal single crystal fabrication the techniques used involve highly controlled and therefore relatively slow crystallization.
Specific techniques to produce large single crystals (aka boules) include the Czochralski process and the Bridgman technique. Other less exotic methods of crystallization may be used, depending on the physical properties of the substance, including hydrothermal synthesis, sublimation, or simply solvent-based crystallization. A different technology to create single crystalline materials is called epitaxy. As of 2009, this process is used to deposit very thin (micrometre to nanometer scale) layers of the same or different materials on the surface of an existing single crystal. Applications of this technique lie in the areas of semiconductor production, with potential uses in other nanotechnological fields and catalysis.
See also    Engineering aspects of crystallisation  Fractional crystallization  Laser-heated pedestal growth  Micro-pulling-down  Recrystallization  Seed crystal  References  Further reading    "Small Molecule Crystallization" (PDF) at Illinois Institute of Technology website  Category:Crystals
Police (; ; Kashubian/Pomeranian: Pòlice) is a town in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, northwestern Poland. It is the capital of Police County. It is one of the biggest towns of the Szczecin agglomeration. The town is situated on the Oder River and its estuary, south of the Szczecin Lagoon and the Bay of Pomerania. The centre of Police Town is situated about  north of the centre of Szczecin. The name of the town comes from the Slavic pole, which means "field". History  The settlement was first mentioned in 1243. Pomeranian duke Barnim of Pomerania granted Magdeburg law to the town in 1260.
At the end of the 13th century, the town had become a fief of a local dynasty of knights, the Drake family. In 1321, with the death of Otto Drake, the town became a dependency of nearby Stettin (now Szczecin), hindering its growth until the mid-18th century. Nearby Jasienica Abbey, now within the Police city limits, was secularized during the Protestant Reformation, which was adapted in the Duchy of Pomerania in 1534. After its secularization, the abbey became a ducal domain, and was the site of the treaty that for the first time partitioned the duchy into a western and eastern part (Pomerania-Wolgast and Pomerania-Stettin) in 1569.
From the Treaty of Stettin (1630) until the Treaty of Stockholm (1720), Pölitz was part of Swedish Pomerania, and of Prussian Pomerania thereafter. In 1808, Pölitz became independent from Stettin again. In 1815, Pölitz became part of the restructured Province of Pomerania, administered within Landkreis Randow county. In 1939, this county was dissolved and Pölitz was made part of Groß-Stettin. Nazi synthetic fuel factory In 1937, the synthetic fuel plant Hydrierwerke Pölitz AG was founded by IG Farben, Rhenania-Ossag, and Deutsch-Amerikanische Petroleum Gesellschaft which by 1943 was producing 15% of Nazi Germany's synthetic fuels, 577,000 tons. The plant derived its workforce from an adjacent system of camps (Pommernlager, Nordlager, Tobruklager, Wullenwever-Lager, Arbeitserziehungslager Hägerwelle, Dürrfeld Lager) plus a ship moored on the Oder River serving as a camp (Umschulungslager Bremerhaven).
In addition, a subcamp of the Stutthof concentration camp was located in Pölitz. During World War II, the plant made Pölitz a nine-time bombing target of the Allied Oil Campaign from late April 1943 onward, leading to 70% of the town being destroyed. Post–World War II The city with the plant was captured by the Soviet Union’s Red Army during the Battle of Berlin on 26 April 1945. While most of the former German territory east of the Oder-Neisse line became Polish, Pölitz, situated on the western bank of the Oder, remained a Soviet-administered exclave: Marshal Zhukov decreed the establishment of a Soviet county with Pölitz, Ziegenort, Jasenitz, Messenthin and Scholwin.
25,000 German workers had to disassemble the plant before it was sent to the USSR. Gradually, the area without the plant was given to Poland: Mścięcino (formerly Messenthin) on 7 September 1946, and Police (formerly Pölitz) with Jasienica (formerly Jasenitz) on 19 September. On 25 February 1947 the plant also passed to Polish control. Polish settlers, partially expellees from the east of former Poland, arrived in the region to replace the German population that had fled or were forcibly expelled. They were joined by refugees from Greece and Yugoslav Macedonia in 1953. The ruins of the plant still remain standing, though they are not secured and are dangerous to visit.
A large chemical plant (Zakłady Chemiczne "Police") was built in the town in 1969 and has grown since to become one of the largest in Poland. It produces mostly titanium dioxide pigments and nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. Police was in the Szczecin Voivodeship from 1946 to 1998. Since 1999 the town has been part of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship.
Districts  Police Old Town Mścięcino Jasienica New Town (Nowe Miasto: Osiedle Dąbrówka, Osiedle Gryfitów, Osiedle Księcia Bogusława X, Osiedle Anny Jagiellonki)  Notable buildings from the pre-WW2 era: the ruins of Jasienica Abbey, a former Augustinian abbey in Police-Jasienica (14th century) a Gothic Church in Police-Jasienica (14th/18th century) a Gothic Chapel (15th century) in The Chrobry Square in The Old Town a Neo-Gothic Church (19th century) in the Old Town the Police Lapidary in The Staromiejski Park in the Old Town Tenement houses (19th century) Town hall (1906) (not rebuilt after WWII)  The tourist and cultural information office is localised in The Gothic Chapel in Bolesław Chrobry Square in The Old Town of Police  Geography and nature  Police is situated on the Oder River and an estuary of the Oder River - Roztoka Odrzańska, south of the Lagoon of Szczecin and the Bay of Pomerania.
The centre of Police Town is situated about  north of the centre of Szczecin. Police is at located in the Ueckermünder Heide () with the Świdwie Nature Reserve around Lake Świdwie () near Tanowo and Dobra. A kayak route follows the Gunica River from Węgornik through Tanowo, Tatynia and Wieńkowo to Police-Jasienica. At the Szczecin Lagoon (, ) is a small yacht marina on the mouth of the Łarpia River (part of Oder) - 'Olimpia'. The ruins of the synthetic petrol plant (Hydrierwerke Pölitz – Aktiengeselschaft) are now a habitat of bats (Barbastelle, Greater mouse-eared bat, Daubenton's Bat, Natterer's bat, Brown long-eared bat).
Population   1740: 1,000 1850: 2,500 1960:  8,900 1970: 12,800 1975: 17,600 1980: 24,800 1983: 28,581 1990: 34,400 1995: 34,456 2000: 35,000 2004: 41,400 2014: 41,745  Infrastructure  Major roads under state control connect Police to Trzebież and Nowe Warpno, No. 114; to Tanowo, No. 114; and to Szczecin over Przęsocin. Main streets in Police include: ul. Tanowska, ul. Bankowa, ul. Grunwaldzka, ul. Kościuszki, ul. Jasienicka, ul. Dworcowa, ul. Piastów, ul. Wojska Polskiego, ul. Asfaltowa, ul. Cisowa, ul. Piłsudskiego, and ul. Wyszyńskiego. Railway:  Szczecin - Police - Trzebież  Harbours: Port of Police: Sea-Harbour Port of Police: River-Harbour  Airport in Goleniów, a town behind the Oder River (Szczecin-Goleniów "Solidarność" Airport) Public transport: 10 bus lines in a town.
Bus communication between all districts of a town, a few villages near Police (Trzeszczyn, Tanowo, Siedlice, Leśno Górne, Pilchowo, Przęsocin, LS to Trzebież over Dębostrów, Niekłończyca and Uniemyśl) and Szczecin City. Taxicab  Culture and sport    KP Chemik Police - football club  KPS Chemik Police - female volleyball club  Łarpia Sail Festival - shanty music festival - in May, periodic  Augustinian Fair (Polish: Jarmark Augustiański) in Jasienica - at the end of August, periodic  Police Nationwide Quarter-Marathon (Ćwierćmaraton Policki) - in October, periodic  Police Music Days (Polish: Polickie Dni Muzyki "Cecyliada") - in October, periodic  Hospital  A clinic hospital in Police (Siedlecka Street, The New Town, Osiedle Gryfitów) is a part of The Pomeranian Medical University.
Notable residents  Ludwig Hollonius (1570s-1621), pastor and playwright Hans Modrow (born 1928), former premier of East Germany  Major corporations   Zakłady Chemiczne Police SA  Port of Police (The Seaport, The Barge Port, The 'Mijanka' cargo berth)  Industrial Park - Policki Park Przemysłowy (Infrapark Police)  Twinning cities The sister cities of Police are:  Pasewalk, Germany  Novyi Rozdil, Ukraine  Slagelse, Denmark  Towns near Police  Szczecin, Poland  Nowe Warpno, Poland  Goleniów, Poland  Eggesin, Germany  Ueckermünde, Germany  Pasewalk, Germany  See also  Villages in Police County: Przęsocin, Kołbaskowo, Trzebież  Szczecin Lagoon  Wkrzanska Forest  References  Notes  External links   Official town webpage  History of Police  The Factory: Zakłady Chemiczne "Police"  Police Harbour  Police on www.city-map.pl  Jasienica VR360    Category:Cities and towns in West Pomeranian Voivodeship Category:Police County Category:Port cities and towns in Poland
E-mu SP-1200 is a sampler that was released in August 1987 by E-mu Systems. Like the product it was meant to replace, the SP-12, the SP-1200's intended use was as a drum machine and sequencer for dance music producers. However, its use as a phrase sampler produces a "gritty" sound due to the machine's 26.04 kHz sampling rate, its SSM2044 filter chips and its 12-bit sampling resolution. This distinctive sound, often said to capture the "warmth" of vinyl recordings, has sustained demand for the SP-1200 more than thirty years after its discontinuation, despite the introduction of digital audio workstations and samplers/sequencers with far superior technical specifications, such as the Akai MPC.
The SP-1200 is strongly associated with hip hop's golden age. Its ability to construct the bulk of a song within one piece of portable gear, a first for the industry, reduced studio costs and increased creative control for hip-hop artists. In 2007, Ben Detrick explained, "The machine rose to such prominence that its strengths and weaknesses sculpted an entire era of music: the crunchy digitized drums, choppy segmented samples, and murky filtered basslines that characterize the vintage New York sound are all mechanisms of the machine." Features The SP-1200 can store up to 100 patterns, 100 songs, and has a 5,000-note maximum memory for drum sequences.
It also has a mono mix output and eight individual outputs, MIDI in/out/through, SMPTE sync, and a metronome output. There is one button that allows you to select between banks A, B, C, and D, which gives the user easy access to each of the 32 sounds. The front panel contains several LED lights, buttons, and eight volume and pitch faders for each sound in the selected bank. Below each fader is a large button to initialize the sound, or select the sound for editing, and a switch to turn the trigger's velocity sensitivity off or on. The sequencer works in the familiar pattern-style of placing short consecutive sections of samples into a song.
The user can easily add swing quantization and tempo changes. The sequencer can sync the tempo to SMPTE, MIDI, or analogue clock pulses and is also capable of synchronizing the tempo to a tapping finger with the tap-tempo button." Differences from the SP12  Unlike the SP12, the SP-1200 does not contain ROM-based samples; all samples are stored in volatile RAM and loaded from floppy disk. The AD/DA converters remain 12 bit, as 16 bit converters were still expensive and found only on high-end gear, such as the contemporary E-Mu Emulator 3 (EIII), which had a list price of over $15,000 USD.
Maximum sampling time was doubled from the upgraded SP-12 Turbo, to over 10 seconds, but the maximum single sample was 2.5 seconds. The sample rate was reduced slightly also (from 27.5 kHz to 26.04 kHz) to maximize memory usage. The SP-1200 retains all of the I/O capabilities from the SP12, minus the cassette output and floppy disk I/O. Technique The limited sampling time of the SP-1200 was overcome within the late 1980s hip hop production circles by sampling 33⅓ rpm records at 45 rpm, with an additional pitch increase, then replaying the sample from the SP-1200 at a much slower speed (by the use of Multipitch and/or Tune/Decay edit functions).
This expanded the total sampling time while at the same time decreasing the resolution. By the early 1990s, nearly every working hip hop producer had adopted this technique as industry standard until the advent of newer samplers such as Akai's MPC60, which provided higher sampling rates and more sampling time. See also  Amen break Ultimate Breaks and Beats AKAI S950 Music Production Controller  References  Category:Samplers (musical instrument)
An emotional bias is a distortion in cognition and decision making due to emotional factors. For example, a person might be inclined:  to attribute negative judgements to neutral events or objects;   to believe something that has a positive emotional effect, that gives a pleasant feeling, even if there is evidence to the contrary;  to be reluctant to accept hard facts that are unpleasant and give mental suffering. Effect of dispositional emotionality Emotional bias is often the effect of dispositional emotionality that an individual has before the occurrence of events that could cause these emotions. These states were linked to the dysregulation in opioid receptor systems and are commonly known as temperament traits  The examples are dispositional dysphoria, irritability, withdrawal, or dispositional good and relaxed moods.
These dispositions create emotional biases in cognition. Studies of meaning attribution in 24 groups contrasted by various temperament traits showed that people with high neuroticism, high emotionality and weak endurance perceived neutral abstract concepts more negatively than people with low neuroticism and strong endurance. Other effects Effects of emotional biases can be similar to those of a cognitive bias, it can even be considered as a subcategory of such biases. The specificity is that the cause lies in one's desires or fears, which divert the attention of the person, more than in one's reasoning. Neuroscience experiments have shown how emotions and cognition, which are present in different areas of the human brain, interfere with each other in decision making process, resulting often in a primacy of emotions over reasoning  Emotional bias might help explain the tendency towards over-optimism or over-pessimism, even when evidence for a more rational conclusion is available.
Decision making  Emotions have a small to large impact on the decisions we make depending on the type of emotion. Some of the most influential emotions for decision-making are sadness, disgust, and guilt. Anger differs the most from fear and sadness in both judgment and decision-making contexts. Fear is associated with uncertainty, while sadness is associated with a perception that outcomes are due to the situation. Angry decision-makers tend to make choices quickly and are unlikely to analyze their decisions. Stress can play a role in decision-making. Acute stress can alter the response to moral dilemmas. On the other hand, stress does not always alter everyday, moral decision-making.
One study looked at the role emotions play in adolescents' moral decision-making. In a hypothetical, prosocial behavioral context, positively charged self-evaluative emotions most strongly predict moral choice. In anti-social behaviors, negatively charged, critical emotions most strongly predict moral choice. Regret and disappointment are emotions experienced after a decision. In some cases, regret has created a stronger desire to switch choices than disappointment. Emotions affect different types of decisions. Emotions have a strong influence on economic behavior and decision-making. In some behavioral anomalies, certain emotions related to some tasks can have an increased impact. In one experiment, researchers looked at what emotions manifest the disposition effect, where individuals sell winning shares and hold losing ones.
They found that elation for winners and regret for losers are necessary emotions that can cause the effect to occur. In regards to patients making a medical decision, emotions and one's motivational goals, play a part as well. One study looked at the elements of coping behaviors. The first two elements have to do with the need to control the cognitive and emotional elements of the health threat; the second pair of elements relate to the management of cognitive and emotional aspects of the decision itself. Brain damage can cause changes in normal decision-making processes. The amygdala is an area in the brain involved in emotion.
Studies have found that patients with bilateral amygdala damage, which is damage in both hemispheres of the amygdala region in the brain, are deficient in decision-making. When an initial choice is made in decision-making, the result of this choice has an emotional response, which is controlled by the amygdala. See also   Conformity  Emotional reasoning  Emotions in decision making  Wishful thinking  References  Category:Bias Category:Decision-making Category:Emotion
The Nymphenburg Palace Park ranks among the finest and most important examples of garden design in Germany. In combination with the palace buildings, the Grand circle entrance structures and the expansive park landscape form the ensemble of the Nymphenburg Summer Residence of Bavarian dukes and kings, located in the modern Munich Neuhausen-Nymphenburg borough. The site is a Listed Monument, a Protected Landscape and to a great extent a Natura2000 area. The exquisite composition of formal garden elements and English-style country park is considered a masterpiece of garden design and the spacious complex of palace and park has always been a popular attraction for local residents and tourists alike.
To the east the park adjoins the palace buildings and the Grand circle. To the south and west the park is largely enclosed by the original Garden wall and borders the Botanical Garden to the north and beyond Menzinger Straße the park peripherie partly merges with the Kapuzinerhölzl forest. The designs of the original Baroque gardens had largely been modeled on the French gardens at Vaux-le-Vicomte and Versailles. The modern park layout is the result of a fundamental redesign by Friedrich Ludwig Sckell, beginning in 1799. The park area within the Garden wall occupies 180 hectares and the complete complex covers 229 hectares.
Overview  The Park is divided into the vast country and landscape park sector in the west and the formal garden sector adjacent to the palace. The Central canal divides the park into a northern and a southern sector. Water is provided by the Würm river in the west (ca. ) and transferred to the Park via the Pasing-Nymphenburg Canal and discharges via two canals to the east and northeast and via the Hartmannshofer Bach to the north. The western landscape park features the smaller Pagodenburg Lake with the Pagodenburg in the northern part and the larger Badenburg Lake with the Apollo Temple and the Badenburg in the south.
The Grünes Brunnhaus (Green Pump House), in which the water wheel works and pressure pumps for the park fountains are installed, is situated in the village in the southern part of the park. The Amalienburg occupies a parterre in the southeastern area of the park. To the east, the Park ends at the palace building. On the garden side of the palace (west) follows the large Garden parterre, which constitutes the central part of the large rectangle surrounded by canals. The Garden parterre flanks the Central (axis) canal. The Grand circle (Schlossrondell) is situated to the east on the city side of the palace.
History  Earliest designs  The 1662 birth of Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria of the Wittelsbach family was the occasion to consider the construction of a palatial residence and garden for the young mother, Electoress Henriette Adelaide of Savoy, in between the villages of Neuhausen and Obermenzing. The foundation stone was laid for the Schwaigbau zu Nymphenburg in 1664. Contrary to a common misconception, the Italian name Borgo delle Ninfe (castle of the nymph) was only created in the 19th century. The initial building was a Lustschloss (pleasure palace) in the tradition of Italian country villas. The elaborate Baroque palace complex, which would serve as a summer residence and alternative to the seat of government, the Munich Residenz, was only realized a generation later under the adult Maximilian II Emanuel.
The model for the Lustschloss was the Piedmontese hunting lodge at the Palace of Venaria, whose architect Amedeo di Castellamonte supplied the first designs for the Nymphenburg Palace. Agostino Barelli served as the first architect and Markus Schinnagl was employed as master builder. Work began in 1664 with the construction of a cube-shaped palace building and the creation of an Italian-style Garden parterre to the west. The French garden  From 1701 to 1704 Charles Carbonet altered and extended the garden in the style of the French Baroque. Simultaneously the approximately  long Pasing-Nymphenburg canal was constructed and connected to the Würm river.
From 1715 onwards Dominique Girard, who had previously worked in André Le Nôtres Versailles Gardens, realized the spacious arrangements of the park with the support of Joseph Effner, a student of Germain Boffrand. Girard managed to skillfully distribute the water in the formerly dry area. A rectangle of canals was built, that formed an island for the main palace and the Garden parterre. The ca. long Central axis canal sector to the west of the rectangle was added, which ends at the Great Cascade, where it was connected to the Pasing-Nymphenburg canal. In the manner of French models roads were laid out in straight lines and rows of trees and arcades were planted, in order to strictly divide the park.
The complex now consisted of two main areas, the ornamental garden near the palace and the forest in the west. The park castles sit on independent, small parterres. From 1715 on, Maximilian II Emanuel had the forest outside the palace park transformed into a deer hunting range and enlarged to nearly reach Lake Starnberg. On a larger scale, aisles  and roads were created and three hunting lodges erected. The landscape park    Since 1804 Director of the Royal Gardens, Friedrich Ludwig Sckells redesigns initiated fundamental changes towards the current park design. In 1792 he accomplished the masterful and harmonious combination of the French and English garden style as he had previously at Schwetzingen Palace garden in Baden-Württemberg.
However the completion in Nymphenburg took much longer due to the enormous size of the park. From 1799 on, Sckell first designed the secluded Crown Prince's Garden. The work on the spacious landscape park based on the English model began in 1804 with the southern part, which was completed in 1807. The northern part was only completed in 1823. Unlike Lancelot Brown in England, who created extensive landscape parks by destroying the old Baroque gardens, Sckell acted more cautiously. He preserved the parterres on the garden side of the palace as well as the Central axis canal and the Great cascade.
He decided to subdivide the park into two distinct landscape areas of varying size, each with its own character and atmosphere, to which two very differently shaped and designed lakes contributed significantly. Sckell's ploys made Nymphenburg Palace Park a prime example of the synthesis of two fundamentally different garden types. The orderly French Baroque garden, which maintains the idea to enhance nature through the means of art and order flanked by the English landscape park, that highlights the free play of nature. Some areas of the park were first opened to the public in 1792 under Elector Charles Theodore. The park after the fall of the monarchy Originally, the driveways, the Great circle, the palace and the park constituted a unit that once stretched from east to west over a distance of more than  to the west of the city of Munich.
The growth of the city admitted the full development of residential areas and road network into the surrounding areas. The construction of the wide Ludwig Ferdinand Bridge over the Nymphenburg Canal, of houses along the northern and southern entrance to the palace and the railway line in the west, completely embedded the park and the palace into the urban structures and thus became a district of the city. With the monarchy abolished, the park and palace became part of the former Krongut (Crown estate), now administered by the state. After the Weimar Republic, the National Socialists seized the complex. Beginning in the summer of 1936, the Night of the Amazons,  was regularly performed.
After the violent appropriation of the monastery church in the Orangery wing, a hunting museum was opened in this part of the palace in October 1938. The NSDAP local group leadership received an underground bunker and in 1942 established a Forced Labour Camp at the Hirschgarten (Deer Garden), just outside of the park. During the Second World War, the palace and the Amalienburg were camouflaged to protect them from air raids, the large pathways were darkened and sections of the Central canal were covered and the water basins on the city side of the palace leveled. The palace church, the Entrance court, the Badenburg and the Grand Cascade were destroyed or seriously damaged by bombs.
The Pan group of sculptures and a number of trees in the park were also damaged. After the war Allied soldiers blew up an old building south of the Great Cascade that had been used as an armory. The repairs at the palace and the park only proceeded slowly. Although the restoration was carried out according to the historical models, a number of losses could not be restored. The sports ground in the southernmost corner of the park, built before World War II, still represents an ongoing violation of the parks design. During the 1972 Summer Olympics, equestrian events took place in the palace park: the dressage competitions were held on the Garden parterre.
The park's statues were removed, the equestrian arena and grandstands were erected as temporary facilities while adjacent buildings of the palace were used as stables. The park and its elements  The Driveways  The northern and southern driveways run alongside the canal that runs from the city to the palace. They are the only part of a star-shaped avenue system planned by Joseph Effner for an ideal Baroque city (Carlstadt). In addition, it was planned to connect the elector's three summer residences (Nymphenburg, Schleissheim Palace and Dachau Palace) with canals. On the one hand the court society could move from one venue to the next with gondolas, and on the other - this provided a convenient transport route for agricultural products and building materials.
The very long palace driveways along the palace canal served to display absolutist power. The idea was to impress aristocratic guests: A visitor, who was approaching the palace from the east in a horse-drawn carriage, noticed the growing building backdrop. When driving through the Grand circle his vehicle described a semicircle, so that the extra-wide palace front presented all its grandeur. The palace and the Grand circle  The end point of the palace canal leading from the city to the palace is the Ehrenhof. Effner designed its center as a water parterre, with fountain, water cascade and canals branching off on both sides.
These canals break the string of main palace elements and annex buildings and continue under the galleries (built from 1739 to 1747) on the garden side. This further emphasized the connection between the Cour d'honneur, the palace and the gardens in the background, also denoted by large window openings and archways in the main building. The Grand circle on the city side ends at the Cavalier houses, a semicircle of smaller buildings. These ten circular pavilions were planned by Joseph Effner and built after 1728. Since 1761, the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory has been located at the Nördliche Schloßrondell 8, a two-storey  hipped roof building with a semicircular risalit center and structured plaster.
During the baroque period the Orangery was located in the square building at the northernmost corner of the palace. The Carl Friedrich von Siemens Foundation is located at Südschloßrondell 23, a two-storey baroque hipped roof building with structured stucco and a narrow central risalit, erected in 1729 by Effner. In front of the Ehrenhof (Cour d'honneur) is a Lawn parterre, which underlines the design concept of the palace garden. The Garden parterre  The Garden parterre, closely linked to the garden side of the palace, still remains a visible feature of the French garden. In the course of the redesign of the entire palace park by Sckell, it was simplified, but retained its original size: in 1815, the six-part broderie parterre became a four-part lawn with a flower bordure.
The view of the observer standing on the palace stairways is being lead across the parterre with the fountain to the central water axis. Today, the parterre is divided into four fields, of which the eastern ones facing the palace are significantly longer than the western ones. This shortening of perspective creates additional depth of space when seen from the palace staircases. The effect is enhanced by the central fountain. The parterre has a lawn like a parterre à l'angloise (lawn compartments), bordered by a surrounding row of flowers. Spring and summer flower plantings with variations in color are usually applied.
The landscape park  The largest area of the park is occupied by the English-style landscape garden. The northern part is defined by panoramic vistas of the Pagodenburg Lake with the Pagodenburg and the Pagodenburg valley, A meadow valley is running to the north with a brook, that flows into the Kugelweiher pond. The southern part is even more diverse with a panoramic vista of the large Badenburg Lake, It allows visitors views of the water surface at the Apollo temple (built in the form of a monopteros) and the Badenburg, behind which a wide meadow valley, called the Löwental (Lion Valley) leads to the south, as well as to a hamlet, the Amalienburg and the Crown Prince Garden south of the Great Parterre.
Distinct gardens  Crown Prince’s Garden  The rectangular Crown Prince’s Garden (Ludwigsgarten) is located northeast of the Amalienburg. It was the first work of Friedrich Ludwig Sckell in Nymphenburg. He created this moderate garden, which already had some characteristics of the English garden style for the young Ludwig I in 1799. The pavilion, a two-storey wooden structure, was also built for him. Its octagonal main part has two rooms on two floors with the same layout. In the portico, which is popularly called the Witch's house, a staircase leads to the first floor. Its exterior painting is intended to give the impression of an artificial ruin.
The walls inside are decorated with hand-printed wallpaper. A small brook emerges from between stones as if from a natural rock spring. It is fed from the water of the southern canal via a gradient water pipe. The garden is separated from the rest of the Amalienburg garden by a wooden fence. The Crown Prince's Garden was restored in 1982/83. The Decor gardens  There are three decorative gardens north of the Garden parterre. They adjoin the old greenhouses to which they are spatially related. These flower gardens were designed between 1810 and 1820 by Friedrich Ludwig Sckell as formal, regular structures which were supposed to contrast with the landscape park.
North Cabinet Garden  This small garden is directly adjacent to the garden side of the north wing of the main palace. It is also called the Kaisergarten (Imperial Garden) because it is located in the immediate vicinity of Prince-elector Karl Albrecht's apartment rooms, where he resided during his time as Charles VII (Holy Roman Emperor from 1742–45). Its counterpart lies in the South Cabinet Garden. Both are giardini segreti (secret gardens), that provided privacy, retreat and relaxation. The concept has its origins in 15th and 16th century Renaissance northern Italy. One of its elements was a parterre of flowers, an arbor, that lead to a garden pavilion to the north, in front of which is a round, now dryed out water basin, to which leads a staircase.
Two parallel beech hedges lead from north to south, each with five niches adorned with Hermes busts on bases. The busts are made of coarse-grained marble, the bases are made of red marble. They may have been made in the late 17th or early 18th century in Giuseppe Volpini's workshop. The North Cabinet Garden is one of the oldest, still structurally preserved elements of the Nymphenburg park. South Cabinet Garden  The South Cabinet Garden resembled the North Cabinet Garden before it was redesigned by Friedrich Ludwig Sckell. Sckell adorned it particularly rich with precious woody plants. The Small Cascade, that consists of two basins is situated in the south corner.
Its current form probably dates back to a 1764 design by François Cuvilliés and might have been built in 1724 when this section of the garden was created. The upper, smaller pool is adorned by a Nappe d'eau (water blanket). Both pools are made of red marble. An Aedicula was added behind the upper basin - most likely in the early 19th century - that featured a copy of Antonio Canova's Venus Italica in the niche. The Small Cascade is surrounded by four Konrad Eberhard still images. They depict Leda with the swan (1810), Silen (a satyr) with Bacchus as a boy (1812), the sleeping Endymion (1820) and Diana hurrying towards him  (1820).
The sculptures on display are copies, whose originals had been made from Carrara marble. The octagonal bird house, created by François de Cuvilliés in 1757 is placed in the northern part of the garden. The building - a small garden pavilion - is executed in stone and plastered on all sides. A protruding, cage-like grating, made of wrought iron is fixed to the front of the southern window. The building is also a Cuvilliés creation. The vivid paintings are the work of Ambrosius Hörmannstorfer (restored in 1977 by Res Koller). The restoration of the Cascade was completed in July 2008.
Originally controlled by a gradient water pipe from the canal at the Green Pump House, operation was upgraded to a circulation system with a pump and filter. The stones of the former well edgings were reused, new sculptures were cast from the originals images. Lakes and the canal system  The barely perceptible height difference of about  between the northern and southern plots of the park, allowed the creation of three levels by skillful water management. The sloping terrain permitted the cascades and the operation of water wheels for pumping purposes. The water is conveyed from the Würm river near Pasing to the west and transferred into the park area via the Pasing-Nymphenburg Canal.
The canal that branches off into the southern, higher part of the park maintains its original level, while the bulk of the water feeds the Grand Cascade. A bypass canal in the north provides additional water to the pool below the cascade. The cascade and the bypass canal fall to the lower level of the Central canal and the water basin in front of the Garden parterre. The northern bypass was originally connected by a sluice to the canal that comes from the west. The sluice has been replaced by a small weir. Some of the water in the southern canal is used to operate the water wheel pumps for the garden-side fountain, the rest flows through a waterfall (former sluice) to the lower level of the Central canal.
The Central canal is divided into two arms in front of the large parterre, which run under the connecting wings of the palace (therefore called "water passages"), encompass the main palace building and Garden parterre and then lead to the pool in front of the courtyard. The pumping station in the St John’s Pumping Tower of the palace building, which is also driven by water wheels, is fed from the northern arm. The majority of the park's water then falls back to the lower level of the basin of the Grand circle and the palace canal between the palace driveways, which ends in a water basin (Hubertusbrunnen).
However, the water is not drained through the palace canal, but through two inconspicuous canals in the northern quarter of the Grand circle, which are actually the beginning of the Nymphenburg-Biedersteiner Canal. The Lakes The two lakes have a significant impact on the Nymphenburg Park. These artificial waters were created in the course of the redesign by Ludwig von Sckell. There already existed two small ponds during the Baroque period that were related to the Parkschlösschen Badenburg and Pagodenburg. Sckell thus followed an existing idea. The excavation provided the material for the meadow valleys. Badenburg Lake  The larger of the two lakes, the Badenburg Lake is located in the southern part.
It owes its name to the Badenburg at its southern bank. It was created between 1805 and 1807 on an area of 5.7 hectares. An Apollo temple in the form of a monopteros is positioned on a headland in the north. It dominates the northwestern lake and is clearly visible from various places on the shore. There are three small islands in the lake. Pagodenburg Lake  Situated in the northern sector is the smaller lake, the Pagodenburg Lake. It was completed in 1813. The Pagodenburg, which lies on an island formed by a ring-like canal, dominates the design and largely occupies the northern part of the lake and can be reached via two pedestrian bridges.
The area of the lake including an approximately one hectare island stretches over 2.9 hectares. The lake feeds the Hartmannshof Brook, which gently flows north through the rolling hills of the Pagodenburg Valley and flows  further north into the Kugelweiher pond - a creation typical of Sckell. The water inlet of the lake from the Central canal is underground and was originally disguised as a rock grotto. A dam overgrown with thick hedges shields the lake to the south from the higher Central canal. Canals, locks and bridges  The canals of the palace park belong to the Nymphenburg Canal, which widely traverses large swaths of Munich's West.
While the Central canal is reminiscent of French gardens, the entire system is based on Dutch models, in particular on Het Loo Palace. Most canals were navigable by boat until 1846. Remnants of the 18th century locks and sluices are located at the flooding canal behind the Great Cascade and between the Village and Amalienburg in the southern park canal. Once there existed sixteen flap bridges in the park, however the currently existing concrete bridges date from recent times (Nymphenbrücke 1902, Bogenbrücke 1903, Badenburgbrücke 1906, Northern and Southern Schwanenbrücke 1969), they are decorated and have wrought-iron railings. As the bridges cannot be opened, navigation of boats and gondolas is no longer possible.
The Ludwig-Ferdinand-Brücke spans the Central canal in front of the Grand circle since 1892. Eventually it was upgraded for tram use. The Central canal  The central water axis dates back to the original Baroque design of the garden. The Central canal begins at a basin below the Great Cascade, runs  straight to the east and ends in another basin that closes the Garden parterre. Two canals branch off from this water basin and flow around the Garden parterre with the flower gardens and the greenhouses in the north and a strip of the Amalienburg sector of the park in the south and then flow to the east towards the palace.
Both canals pass underneath the wing buildings of the palace. The southern canal  The western part of the southern canal feeds Lake Badenburg. Apart from the small amount of water that drains via the small stream near the Pan sculptures, the canal extension diverts the waters of the lake towards the east. During the Baroque period it served as a small waterway. Gondolas and boats navigated here in the service of members of the court. The small watercraft used a sluice to overcome the difference in height between Lake Badenburg and the central basin on the Garden parterre. Fountains and water works  The ingenious and crafty use of water imparts the Nymphenburg system its charming liveliness.
Water appears in the form of the calm surfaces of the two lakes, flows in canals and streams, falls and rushes in the two cascades and rises in the geysers of the two large fountains. However, the numerous water works of the Baroque period are no longer available. The Great Cascade  All the water that flows through the park must be transferred in from the west via the Pasing-Nymphenburg Canal. A considerable part of the water falls at the Great Cascade from the upper to the lower cascade basin. The cascade forms the end point of the visual axis along the Central canal, although it is hardly recognizable from the palace staircases due to the considerable distance.
Some of the remaining water of the Pasing-Nymphenburg Canal is being channeled into the southern canal before the cascade while maintaining its level, the rest falls into a lateral flooding canal of a former sluice and supports the feeding of the Central canal. The fountains in front of the palace and on the garden side  The fountains are still operated by pumping stations that are driven by water wheels and have been in operation since the beginning of the 19th century. The city-side fountain receives its water from the pressure pumps in the St John’s Pumping Tower (Johannis-Brunnturm) of the palace building, which are driven by three colossal water wheels.
On elector Maximilian I Josephs order in 1802 Joseph Baader redesigned and in 1807 eventually replaced the pump that had been built by Franz Ferdinand Albert Graf von Wahl in 1716. The facility largely retains its original condition. The garden-side fountain had its predecessor in the Flora-fountain, which dominated the Baroque garden parterre. It was built from 1717 to 1722. Its large, octagonal marble basin was adorned with numerous figures made of gold-plated lead by Guillielmus de Grof. In addition to the large statue of Flora, putti and animal figures once existed, some of which were arranged in teasing positions.
The fountain was demolished at the beginning of the 19th century due to the simplification of the Garden parterre by Ludwig von Sckell, its remains have since disappeared. Today's fountain is operated by a pressure line from the Green Pump House in the village. Architecture  The park castles The so-called park castles (Parkschlösschen) are not mere decorative buildings, but pleasure palaces (Lustschlösser) with comfortable rooms, many of whom represent architectural gems. The Pagodenburg is located at the smaller, northern Pagodenburg Lake. The Badenburg is located at the larger, southern Lake Badenburg. The Amalienburg, the largest of the Parkschlösschen, is the center of a rectangular garden section, that borders the Garden parterre to the south.
Badenburg  The Badenburg is located at the southeastern end of the Great Lake. The structure dominates parts of the lake, as it smoothly sits into a visual axis where it can also be seen from the north. The castle was built by Joseph Effner from 1718 to 1722. For centuries it was the first large building in Europe that was used solely for the purpose of enjoying a comfortable bath. As part of the restoration from 1983–84, the wooden shingle roof and the ocher-yellow coloring of the building were restored. Two outdoor staircases, one from the south and one from the north, lead into the building.
The northern one opens the spacious hall to the lake. Further rooms on the ground floor are: the bathroom to the south-west, the bedroom with adjoining writing cabinet and warderobe to the south-east and a central gambling room with access to the hall. The hall features festive decorations by Charles Dubut. The ceiling fresco of Jacopo Amigoni, destroyed in 1944, was replaced in 1984 by a copy of Karl Manninger. Three rooms are decorated with Chinese wallpaper. While two of them show scenes from far-eastern everyday life, the third shows plants, birds and butterflies in pink and green colors. In the large hall there are two fountains with statuettes of Tritons children riding on water-spouting dolphins, the gold-plated, hollow lead castings are works of Guillielmus de Grof (1722).
The bathroom extends over two floors - basement and ground floor. It is almost completely occupied by the swimming pool, which has been called luxurious with a lavish area of  and a depth of . It is covered with Dutch tiles. The gallery, covered with stucco marble, is enclosed by a wrought-iron railing by Antoine Motté. Nymphs and naiads adorn the ceiling of the bathing room. The technical systems required for water heating are located in the basement. The southern staircase is flanked by two lion figures, which were probably erected on the front sides around 1769. They were made by Charles de Groff and consist of Regensburg Green Sandstone.
The stairs link the castle with a wide meadow valley, the Löwental (lions valley). Pagodenburg  The Pagodenburg (pagoda castle) was built as a maison de plaisance under the direction of Joseph Effner from 1716 to 1719, by allegedly using a floor plan of Max Emanuel. In 1767 François Cuvilliés (the Older) undertook a reconstruction in the Rococo style. The term Pagodenburg (pagoda castle) has already been used in contemporary reports and refers to the interior fashion of the Chinoiserie. At that time, the term pagoda meant both, the pagan temples in Asia and the gods depicted in them. The latter can also be found in the wall paintings on the parterre of the Pagodenburg.
The two-storey building is octagonal and has a cross-shaped, north–south-oriented floor plan thanks to four very short wings. The ground floor consists of a single room, the Salettl, all in blue and white. Its walls are largely covered with Delft tiles. The niches and the flanks of the side cabinets, as well as the door to the staircase are covered with murals by Johann Anton Gumpp, that show numerous Asian gods. The ceiling is adorned with paintings of female personifications of four continents. Around 1770 the original furnishing of the Salettl was replaced by Rococo-style furniture, which with its blue and white framing picks up on the colors of the wall design and can still be seen in the Pagodenburg.
This includes a round extendable table with the Wittelsbacher coat of arms on top, two canapes and a chandelier. The upper floor of the Pagodenburg is divided into four sections. While one wing is reserved for the staircase, the other three house the relaxation room, the Chinese salon and the smaller Chinese cabinet. The relaxation room is the only room in the Pagodenburg without any elements of Chinese fashion, but is entirely committed to the style of French Régence. There is a fireplace with a mirror above it, and an alcove with two beds. The walls of the Chinese salon are clad in black lacquered wood paneling, which serves as a frame for Chinese scroll paintings with plant and bird motifs.
There are European lacquer panels in the window and door reveals, which are also painted with floral motifs based on the scroll paintings. Above is a golden figure frieze, which leads the viewer to the ceiling painting which also shows Chinoise motifs in a grotesque style. The Chinese cabinet has the same basic structure as the Chinese salon, but the wall paneling is in red lacquer. The total of 33 scroll paintings that were used for the wall paneling on the upper floor are New Year pictures imported from China, only three of which are European imitations. The two lacquer chests of drawers in the Chinese salon were assembled in France from East Asian lacquer panels.
The fronts and the cover plates show Urushi paintwork with golden and silver scatter patterns and paintings on a black background. Cranes, ducks and swans can be seen on a riverside landscape. In 2003 a comprehensive restoration of the Pagodenburg was completed. A replica of the Pagodenburg is located in Rastatt. Margravine Franziska Sibylla Augusta of Baden was so impressed during a visit to Elector Maximilian II Emanuel that she had the plans sent to Rastatt. The Rastatt Pagodenburg was built there under the direction of court architect Johann Michael Ludwig Rohrer. Amalienburg  The Amalienburg is located in the Amalienburg garden, which adjoins the garden parterre to the south.
It was designed by François Cuvilliés (the Older) and built from 1734 to 1739 as a hunting lodge for pheasant hunting. Although the Rocaille is the leading form in the ornamentation of early Rococo, floral ornament motifs still predominate in the building. In front of the entrance in the west is a curved courtyard. A staircase leads to the outside on the eastern side. Originally there was a garden parterre related to the building, which due to the later redesign of the landscape style is no longer recognizable. The one-story Rococo building was a gift from Elector Karl Albrecht to his wife Amalie.
The stucco work and carvings of the hunting lodge were carried out by Johann Baptist Zimmermann and Joachim Dietrich. The entrance leads to the centrally located, round mirror hall, the mirror walls of which reflect the external nature. In the north are the hunting room and the pheasant room, in the south the rest room and the blue cabinet; the retirade and the dog chamber are accessible from there. The kitchen borders the pheasant room in the north. The blue and white Chinese-style tiles show flowers and birds. A kitchen by François Cuvilliés (the Older) featured a Castrol stove (derived from the French word Casserole - saucepan).
It was the first stove with a closed fire box and a hotplate above (see also Kitchen stove). As the rooms were particularly rarely used in the princely environment, the kitchen and hunting room underwent a final comprehensive renovation only at the 800th anniversary of the city of Munich in 1958. In the middle niche of the eastern facade sits a stucco semi-sculpture by Johann Baptist Zimmermann, which depicts a scene with the hunting goddess Diana. This presentation introduces the image idea for all accessories of the building. The attic carried decorative vases from 1737, also made according to a design by Zimmermann, which disappeared at an unknown time.
They were recreated in 1992 according to a design by Hans Geiger, four adorn the entrance facade since and twelve are placed in the garden side of the Amalienburg. A platform with an artistic lattice, which is placed on the building in the middle of the roof, served as a high stand for the pheasant hunt. The birds were driven to the Amalienburg by the then pheasantry (now the menagerie building). Since the castle could be supplied by the kitchen of the palace, the Amalienburg, unlike the other two park castles, did not require a service building. Decorative buildings  Magdalenenklause  Although it is considered one of the park castles, the Magdalenenklause, which is somewhat hidden in the northern part of the park, differs significantly from the other castles.
It was built by Joseph Effner between 1725 and 1728 and is a hermitage, designed as an artificial ruin. The single-storey building has a rectangular floor plan, the aspect ratio of which corresponds to the golden ratio. The rectangle is expanded to the northwest and southwest by two apses and two small, round extensions are attached to the corners of the building at the front. The entrance facade alludes to Italian ruins, the plastering on the outside reveals seemingly bricked-up window openings, which reinforces the impression of the deteriorated condition. The roof, which was kept flat until 1750, suited this as well.
The building is considered an early representation of Hermitage and Ruin architecture in Germany. The location, separated from the neighboring castle, was to serve the Elector Max Emanuel as a place of contemplation - a memento mori, the completion of which the Elector not lived long enough to see. The building is entered from the east. Following a vestibule, an ante-room and a small cabinet, is a dining room and a prayer room. A contrast to these rooms, which are plainly furnished with simple paneling, exhibits the two-part chapel, the walls of which are grottoed with fantastic stucco work, shells and originally colored pebbles.
The design was executed by Johann Bernhard Joch, the stucco figure of the Penitent Magdalene is the work of Giuseppe Volpini, the ceiling frescoes in the chapel room and in the apse were created by Nikolaus Gottfried Stuber. The grids were crafted by Antoine Motté. Temple of Apollo  The Apollo temple stands on a peninsula on the shore of Lake Badenburg. It is a monopteros with ten Corinthian-style columns made of grayish beige sandstone. The building was erected by Carl Mühlthaler (1862–65) according to a plan by Leo von Klenze. Inside is a marble stele dedicated to king Ludwig I.
The temple is one of the landmarks of the lake's surroundings, invites to rest and allows the visitor a panoramic view over the water surface. Prior to the marble temple, two round wooden structures stood on the headland. The first was built at the 1805 birthday of the elector. As it had become derelict, Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell proposed the construction of a circular stone temple with a cella based on the Vesta temple in Tivoli. After the idea was rejected, a somewhat larger replacement building made of larch wood was built and completed in 1818. The Village  The five buildings of The Village are situated on the north bank of the southern park canal.
The houses, built for court officials near a beaver enclosure that no longer exists today, are still partially inhabited. They embodied the idealized idea of country life in early modern times and the longing for the supposed idyll of the world of farmers and shepherds. Models for the design can be found in the decorative village of the Chantilly park (1774) and in the Hameau de la Reine in the Versailles Palace park (1783). In the second half of the 18th century, the two-story Green Pump House was joined by a few more small single-storey farmhouses. These are the Deer Park Pump House, the Brunnwärterhaus, formerly with a smithy, and the former Biberwärterhaus.
In 1803/04 the pump house, which had previously been accompanied by two wooden water towers, was converted into the Green Pump House. Its pressure pumps since operate via internal water wheels. Water is led into the building via a small branch from the southern canal, which at this point is still at the level of the Würm Canal. As the doors and windows are open during the day, the visitor can observe how the height difference of the site is utilized for energy generation. The machines were designed by Joseph Baader in 1803 and have been supplying the fountain on the Garden parterre ever since.
Functional buildings  The historic greenhouses  The greenhouses of the Nymphenburg Park, not to be confused with those of the nearby botanical garden, are adjacent to the three flower gardens in the north. They are arranged in one line, parallel to the floor plan of the Garden parterre on the inside and the canal rectangle on the outside. The eastern greenhouse was built in 1807 and rebuilt after a fire by Carl Mühlthaler in 1867 as an iron and glass structure. It is since called the Iron House. The rooms under the roof served as living space for the gardeners, who were ordered to maintain constant temperatures around the clock.
Thus under glass cultivation of delicate exotic plants was possible by the enthusiastic botany collector king Maximilian I Joseph. The middle greenhouse is the Geranium House that Sckell had constructed in 1816. The side pavilions built as wing structures were used by Maximilian I Joseph and his family at their visits. To the west is the Palm House that Sckell had built in 1820. Hot water heating was installed in 1830. The Schwanenhals Greenhouse is located to the north, right on the palace wall. It is the oldest structure in the area. Built in 1755, rare fruits, such as pineapples were grown here for the court kitchen.
Menagerie  The site of the former menagerie is located outside the Park wall south of the Amalienburg garden. King Maximilian I Joseph has acquired a large number of exotic animals, including a llama, kangaroos, a monkey and various types of birds. Sculpture program  The image concept of the park, established in the 18th century, embraces Greco-Roman mythology. The sculptures represent deities and characters of both, Greek and Roman pantheons and myth. Their arrangement was changed during the establishment of the English landscape park. Today only twelve statues remain on the Garden parterre and four have been moved to the Grand Cascade.
Generally male and female deities take turns. Most of the statues are made from Laaser and Sterzinger marble, the bases are made of Red Tegernsee marble or tuff. The image concept of the Baroque garden has once been considerably more extensive than today's garden furnishings would suggest. Statues and decorative vases, made of gilded lead and twelve vases, made by Guillielmus de Grof from 1717 to 1722 once dotted the parterre. The paths on the Great Cascade were also decorated with a group of fourteen statues made of lead by Guillielmus de Grof, twelve Cherubs represented the months of the year, two others the continents.
They were repaired in 1753–54 by Charles de Groff, son of Guillielmus Groff, and placed on the Garden parterre. However, none of the lead statues and vases have survived. They were considered unfashionable by the end of the 18th century and removed, when weathered from exposure, cracked, parts broken off, their iron supports rusted away or fallen from their bases. The furnishing with marble statues was an extremely slow process as provisional stucco models lasted for many years. The first designs for the modern marble statues were provided by Franz Ignaz Günther, Johann Baptist Hagenauer and Johann Baptist Straub. Researchers, however, disagree on the exact artist/work attribution.
Statues on the Garden parterre  There are two types of sculptural decoration on the Garden parterre, twelve large statues on plinths and twelve pedestal decorative vases with figural reliefs, all in the form of a series of Cherubs, matching the mythological theme of the statues. While the vases are set up on the narrow sides of the four compartments forming the Garden parterre, the statues are placed on their long sides. Viewed from the palace garden staircase, on the far left are: Mercury, Venus and Bacchus on the far right are: Diana, Apollo and Ceres and facing each other on the central road: Cybele and Saturn, Jupiter and Juno and Proserpina and Pluto.
Sculptor Roman Anton Boos created all decorative vases (1785-1798) and the sculptures of Bacchus (1782), Mercury (1778), Apollo (1785), Venus (1778), Diana (1785) and Ceres (1782). Dominik Auliczek made the statues of Proserpina (1778), Juno (1791–92), Pluto (1778) and Jupiter (1791–92). The statues of Saturn and Kybele were created by Giovanni Marchiori (both delivered from Treviso in 1765, signed on the plinth) and made of Carrara marble. The older sculptures of Cybele and Saturn differ in style from the later designs. The hard facial features of Cybele, whose head adorns a mural crown and the drastic pose of Saturn, about to devour one of his sons, convey destruction and cruelty, which is surprising in the context of a princely pleasure garden.
Statues at the Great Cascade  Between the upper and lower cascade basins are two reclining figures with urns on both sides of the falling water, that symbolize the Isar and Danube rivers, made by Giuseppe Volpini (1715–1717). Eight still images on pedestals are grouped symmetrically around the upper basin. These are: Hercules (1718–1721), Minerva (1722–1723), Flora and Aeolus (both around 1728), also from Giuseppe Volpini, Mars and Pallas (both around 1777) and Amphitrite with a dolphin (1775) from Roman Anton Boos and Neptune made by Guillaume de Grof (around 1737). The river gods have been modeled from those in the Versailles Palace park.
The sculptures of Volpini had originally stood in the garden of Schleissheim Palace. The Pan Group  On the way from the Badenburg to the north stands the sculpture of the resting Pan, playing his flute, accompanied by a billy goat. The seated sculpture was made in 1815 by Peter Simon Lamine, who repeats his own motif from 1774 at the Schwetzingen Palace Park. Executed in Carrara marble, the god stands somewhat remote on an artificial elevation on a base made of Conglomerate. The entire surroundings were originally structured with rocks, that have sunken into the terrain. The Pan Monument, as early historians called the group, features an artificial well.
It is the outflow of the Great Lake, which drains via a small waterfall into the Teufelsbach, that flows in a northeasterly direction. The background of the ancient mythical figure is formed by yew trees, which merge into the remaining vegetation of barberries, forest vines, blackberries and ferns. It is the only garden suite that was realized during von Sckell's time. Pan depictions are among the popular motifs in 19th century garden sculpture art concepts. Statues in the Flower gardens  In front of the Iron House, placed in the middle of a round fountain basin, is the statue of a boy, who is being pulled down by a dolphin.
It was made from sandstone in 1816 by Peter Simon Lamine at the behest of Maximilian I Joseph. The portrayal of the dolphin as a fish-like monster was common then. A similar fountain is placed in front of the Geranium house. It also features the body of a boy riding a dolphin in the middle. The sculpture was made by Johann Nepomuk Haller based on a design by Lamine (1818). A group of four statues on a common base decorates the central flower gardens. It depicts the Judgement of Paris. The statues show Paris with the apple as the subject of the argument, Aphrodite, Hera and Pallas Athena (from left to right), all executed in sandstone by Landolin Ohmacht (1804-1807).
The staging of the landscape  The Road network  An elaborate system of roads and footpaths runs through the park. It allows long walks without having to walk twice. All paths are water-bound and there are no adjacent driveways as in the Englischer Garten. On the large parterre and in the flower gardens, the path network corresponds to the straight lines of the French garden: from the plaza covered with fine gravel in front of the garden-side palace staircase, an extensive connection leads to the garden fountain and on to the westernmost basin of the Central canal, There the visitor moves on to the large east–west axis, with the central building of the palace at the center.
To the north and south there are two parallel paths, both with benches, a row of trees and hedges. Parallel paths then accompany the Central canal to the lower basin of the Great Cascade. Both basins are trapezoidal and rectangularly enclosed by paths. The sector of geometric connections ends there. In the southern garden section of the Amalienburg and the entire landscape park are only paths that in a variety of curves form a greater network with an irregular floor plan. It conveys a feeling of informal movement in a landscape that represents a separate, self-contained cosmos in order to detach the visitor from the everyday world.
A significant proportion of the paths leads through forest, the edge of which is designed in many places in such a way that it does not always reach the path, which was a typical design principle of Friedrich Ludwig Sckell. The route system created by Sckell has hardly been changed to date. It is the key to experiencing the landscape of the Nymphenburg Park. The Garden wall The forested area of the Baroque garden used to be part of an extensive forest that reached into the Starnberg area and of which only remnants are preserved. The Kapuzinerhölzl forest follows to the north.
The Garden wall was erected between 1730 and 1735 to prevent the intrusion of game animals. It almost completely surrounds the entire park except for the Pasing-Nymphenburg Canal, which is separated by a grille, and the east side, which is delimited by the palace building. The wall is roughly plastered and there remains a now non-functional round tower at two of the western corners. On the inside runs a footpath along the wall. This path offers an interesting alternative far from the hustle and bustle of tourism, since this path shows the palace park from its unkept side. The path, that can't be found on official maps has a total length of .
The ha-has  The peculiar term ha-ha, also a-ha, used for a lowered wall or for a ditch that replaces a section of a garden wall relates to the visitor's surprise expression: "a-ha" when they discover the visual trick to expand the garden. The term ha-ha was introduced to gardening in the early 18th century and its construction method was described by Antoine-Joseph Dézallier d’Argenville. Inside the Nymphenburg Park are four ha-has, three large and a smaller one, as three are in the southern part of the park. They extend the visibility through the meadow valleys to the surrounding area. All ha-has were created in the course of the transformation into a landscape park by Sckell.
The southern panorama vista ends in the Pasinger Ha-Ha, that dates from 1807. The Löwental (Lion Valley) leads to the Löwental Ha-Ha and the Wiesental towards Laim and the Laimer Ha-Ha, both date from 1810. The Menzinger Ha-Ha ends the Northern panorama vista in the northern part of the park. Originally, distant vistas were possible up to Blutenburg Castle, to Pipping and the Alps. Today, these visual axes are partially obstructed. The Vistas  A special attraction are the long visual aisles, which can be seen from the garden-side palace stairs and invite to calm views and light experiences, shadows and color nuances depending on the time of day and season.
The west-facing central axis leads the eye along the canal to the distant cascade, over which the sunset can be observed on summer evenings, which Friedrich Ludwig Sckell left when he transformed it into a landscape park. To the right and left of the central axis, two symmetrical visual aisles lead into the park landscape and convey an illusion of infinity. In the opposite direction, both aisles acquire the central part of the palace as their focus. These three lines of sight, already present in the French garden, were integrated into the landscape park by Sckell, yet also extended beyond the park boundaries via the ha-has.
North Vista The North Vista consists of a lawn lane towards the west-north-west with an irregular tree fringe. It begins at the basin of the Central canal west of the Garden parterre. The swath leads the view over almost the entire water surface of the Pagodenburg Lake. A ha-ha extends the view over the park boundary into the adjacent green area. South Vista The South Vista consists of a lawn path towards the west-south-west as it also begins at the basin of the Central canal, but continues to open and leads over the northern tip of the larger Badenburg Lake.
On the west bank of the lake, the visual aisle is led as a narrow lawn band to the park boundary, where it is also extended by a ha-ha. Flora and fauna of the Nymphenburg Palace Park  The original landscape design concept of Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell centered around domestic tree species and the woods of the local oak-hornbeam forest with among oak and hornbeam include ash, sycamore - and Norway maple, winter and summer lindens, as well as occasional pines and spruces. Sckell resorted to selective planting methods of differently sized and mixed species in order to acquire effects e.g.
for varied and realistic forest silhouettes in front of meadows and the waters. To create atmosphere or add nuances to particular places, von Sckell planted large, small, slender or wide, fast- or slow-growing tree and shrub species in groups, rows or clusters. In the northern park sector he planted: linden trees (at the Pagodenburg), that transitioned into a thicket of dense mixed forest to the north. In the southern sector he planted: also linden trees (near the Badenburg), alder trees (on the Badenburg Lake islands), silver poplars and towering Italian poplars (along the north shore of the Badenburg Lake), robinia trees (at the Temple of Apollo).
Rowan berries and dogwood are still occasionally found. Oak trees once stood at the Magdalenenklause and Sckell had the Amalienburg enclaved in a spruce grove, occasional trees of life and Virginian juniper. Forests  The park forests are rich in species that are well blended and amounted, even according to age. The shrub and hedge layer is not very pronounced and largely limited to a few rows alongside some paths and widely scattered individual shrubs. Typical are hazel, hawthorn, dogwood, privet, honeysuckle, snowball and elderberry in lighter locations. The herb layer is well developed. Hedge woundwort, Aposeris, yellow archangel, sanicle, wood avens and false-brome are found in the shade.
In more open areas the wood bluegrass can be found and on the forest fringes grows the rare yellow star-of-Bethlehem. Ivy is widespread. Mistletoe is common on linden trees. Adaptive tree species have formed riparian forest habitats in ravines, depressions, trenches and canals, where in addition to oak and hornbeam, ash and alder do occur. The bird cherry also grows among them. Unlike in most park forests, among a dense undergrowth are moisture-indicating perennials like cabbage thistle and gypsywort. Bonesets and Filipendula grow right by the lake banks. During the 1799 redesign works, Sckell incorporated many of the former Baroque garden's old trees into the landscape park.
The age-old, hollowed-out, but still vital linden tree near the Hartmannshofer Gate (northwest) has survived to this day. Meadows and waters  Apart from the lawns on the Garden parterre, all of the park meadows are unfertilized and mown only once a year. On the long and unsheltered meadows of the vistas thrives the Salvia plant family, the main type of which is the false oat-grass. The meadow sage, the brown knapweed, burclover, oxlip, daisy, eyebright and germander speedwell are among the flowering plants of the park meadows. On small, particularly nutrient-poor areas, that combined cover around one hectare, lime-poor grassland has prevailed.
It consists of erect brome and heath false brome with bulbous buttercup, large-flowered selfheal, clustered bellflower and sunflower as character types. This is also where the keeled garlic grows, a dry grassland plant classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List for both Bavaria and Germany. The park's lakes are emptied once a year, which prevents vegetation from forming in the water, and are almost entirely enclosed by artificial banks. An exception is the Kugelweiher pond, a natural water with natural banks, flanked by a  wide skirt of lesser pond-sedge. There also are found the common skullcap and gypsywort as well as water lilies on the pond surface.
The northern section of the inlet to the pond is lined with sedges and tall bushes. Numerous water birds such as the mute swan, geese and ducks as well as the carp in the lakes benefit from intensive feeding by park visitors. However, the high nutrient input affects the water quality. Ecological value and nature conservation  The Nymphenburg Park with its diverse landscape elements offers, in addition to its cultural inheritance and recreational function, a habitat for many plant and animal species. Seventeen species of mammals and 175 species of birds have been identified. It derives special value from the large size and the original habitat stratification.
The pristine mixed woodlands and the many very old trees are also worth mentioning. Particularly valuable is the coarse woody debris that provides nutrient cycling nesting grounds and microhabitats for invertebrates and deadwood inhabitants. Deer have been living in the park since it was a royal hunting ground. Other mammals include the fox, rabbits and a larger population of the European polecat. Noctule bats and common pipistrelle live in the park, the Daubenton's bat was sporadically detected and the Nathusius's pipistrelle is suspected as a guest. Among the breeding birds, the Eurasian hobby, the Eurasian sparrowhawk, the common kingfisher, the European pied flycatcher and the wood warbler are particularly noteworthy.
The park is an important stop for migratory birds or as winter habitat. The red-crested pochard, for example, (threatened with extinction in Bavaria) appears during the winter. Nearly every year Bohemian waxwings overwinter in the Nymphenburg Park. In unusually hard winters, bird species from northern and north-eastern Europe migrate to southern Bavaria with many thousands of specimens. Nymphenburg Park is traditionally their most important winter quarter. The very rare hermit beetle lives in and on the park trees. Numerous butterfly species can be found on calcareous grasslands, such as meadow brown, silver-washed fritillary, common brimstone, orange tip and purple emperor.
The Kugelweiher pond in the north of the park is home to common toads and frogs, the grass snake and several dragonfly species, including the common winter damselfly. In contrast to its layout, the palace park is now completely surrounded by urban areas. A biological exchange with populations outside, apart from birds, robust insects and some other highly mobile species, is hardly possible. The Nymphenburg Canal to the east and the line of sight to Blutenburg Castle in the west offer only narrow connections that are highly disturbed in their ecological function. The Kapuzinerhölzl forest that adjoins the park to the north is isolated with it.
The Nymphenburg Palace Park is a registered landscape conservation area and was also reported to the European Union as a Fauna-Flora-Habitat area for the European Biotope Network. The City of Munich has yet to implement a proposal for the designation as a nature reserve since 1987. There are several natural monuments in the park: two groups of six and nine old yew trees near the Amalienburg, as well as outstanding individual trees. A solitary beech tree immediately to the south and a gnarled and bizarrely grown linden tree on the lake shore north of Badenburg, also a solitary common beech tree at a junction south of the Amalienburg, a weeping beech tree near the swan bridge and an oak in The Village.
Human intervention such as care of the lawns, artificial plantings and the removal of dead wood in the context of traffic safety obligations are classified under low intensity. Meadow mowing has been rated as positive for biodiversity. Historical classification  Of the garden creations by Dominique Girard and Joseph Effner, only the water parterre to the east and the Northern Cabinet Garden to the northwest of the main palace are preserved in addition to the canal system and the palace buildings. The splendor of the extensive garden furnishings can still be seen in the two paintings by Bernardo Bellotto. The gardens of the Nymphenburg Palace experienced their greatest changes with the creation of the landscape park by Ludwig von Sckell.
It was a redesign and at the same time a further development. The Garden parterre, committed to the French garden style and the water axis have been left, but were simplified. The forest area, originally segmented by hunting aisles, the bosquetted areas and the embedded, independent, formal Garden parterres of the three Parkschlösschen castles were subjected to a uniform overall planning and transformed into a self-contained English-style landscape park in which a considerable proportion was converted into water areas. Historical background The establishment of English gardens by princely houses after the French Revolution and its slipping into a reign of terror has been assessed differently than the creation of park landscapes before 1789 by an aristocratic avant-garde who had invented the new "natural" garden style.
These include Stourhead in England (by Henry Hoare the Younger), Ermenonville in France (by René Louis de Girardin), Wörlitz in Anhalt (by Franz von Anhalt-Dessau), Alameda de Osuna (by Maria Josefa Pimentel) in Spain and Arkadia in Poland (by Helene Radziwiłł). What they have in common is a new understanding of the relationship between man and nature and social reform approaches based on the equality of all people, as Jean-Jacques Rousseau had propagated in his writings. The aristocratic utopians, endowed with considerable financial resources, found imitators and the romantic landscape garden eventually became contemporary fashion. The renovation of the existing gardens consumed immense sums of money, which quite likely matched the costs of the creation of actual Baroque gardens.
The exploitation of the new garden concept for the monarchy At the beginning of the 19th century, the construction of a landscape garden was in no way an expression of a utopia or revolutionary idea. The European monarchies countered the impending loss of power through external modernization. A visible expression of this trend was the adoption of the new, fashionable garden style. The large Englischer Garten on the Isar meadows north of the Residenz was created in Munich. It is a park for the common people and was therefore to be understood as a social signal. However, little changed in the political constitution of the kingdom.
The desire of the monarchy for peace was perhaps nowhere as recognizable as in the harmonious design of the new Nymphenburg landscape. The transformation of the landscape might have succeeded, but society did not. The Nymphenburger Park reveals this in its iconological program: the large number of antique statues of the gods are dedicated to the monarchy and allude to the divine hierarchical order as the basis of all moral values. The furnishings of the parks of Ermenonville, however, were completely different. A copy of the Rousseau island, as built by Franz von Anhalt-Dessau and Helene Radziwiłł, would have been unthinkable for a Bavarian king.
Sckell's landscapes conveyed no political ideas. This was the only way to disconnect from Rousseau's ideas and to link the new garden style to traditional elements, as symbolized by the water axis, the Pagodenburg and the Badenburg. However, this also created the prerequisite for the beauty of the park landscape and its lasting timelessness. Management and maintenance of the park  The Nymphenburger Park is looked after by the Bayerische Verwaltung der staatlichen Schlösser, Gärten und Seen (Bavarian administration of the state palaces, gardens and lakes). The maintenance of the park requires the integration of the preservation of historical garden art monuments, nature protection, recreational use by the visitors and traffic safety obligations.
The yardstick for maintenance is the Garden monument preservation objective, which was developed in 1989/1990. It compares the historical documents with the current state and develops cautious measures to bring the park's appearance closer to its origin. These are implemented in small steps in the medium and long term. From 2006 to 2012 the administration developed together with the Bavarian State Institute for Forests and Forestry a model project "Forest maintenance as garden monument maintenance and biotope maintenance" based on the Nymphenburg Palace Park. Due to the sensitivity of visitors to tree felling, interventions are carried out step by step and with a long planning horizon of around 30 years.
Test were also conducted on how visitors react to information on park maintenance and the justification of interventions. See also  Nymphenburg Palace  Garden design  Landscape architecture  References  Bibliography        Brians Dictionary of Painters and Engravers  External links   Plan of the Park  Park history  Nymphenburg Palace official website  Nymphenburg Palace  360° Panorama Nymphenburg Palace  Review of the palace  Nymphenburg Palace – video  Category:Gardens in Germany Category:English Landscape Garden style Category:Cultural landscapes of Germany Category:Munich Category:Parks and open spaces in Munich Category:Parks in Germany
Beyblade Burst Turbo, known in Japan as Beyblade Burst Super Z (Cho Z) (ベイブレードバースト超ゼツ, Beiburēdo Bāsuto Chōzetsu), stations in Japan on April 2, 2018. Episodes also air every Monday at 5:55pm JST on TV Tokyo. The opening theme is "Chouzetsu Muteki Blader! (Transcendence Invincible Blader!)" by Ryosuke Sasaki while the ending is "BEY-POP" by Shun Kusakawa. For the international version the theme music is "Turbo"; an instrumental version is used for the credits. Episodes  References  Burst Super Z series
A tetrahedral intermediate is a reaction intermediate in which the bond arrangement around an initially double-bonded carbon atom has been transformed from trigonal to tetrahedral. Tetrahedral intermediates result from nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl group. The stability of tetrahedral intermediate depends on the ability of the groups attached to the new tetrahedral carbon atom to leave with the negative charge. Tetrahedral intermediates are very significant in organic syntheses and biological systems as a key intermediate in esterification, transesterification, ester hydrolysis, formation and hydrolysis of amides and peptides, hydride reductions, and other chemical reactions. History  One of the earliest accounts of the tetrahedral intermediate came from Rainer Ludwig Claisen in 1887.
In the reaction of benzyl benzoate with sodium methoxide, and methyl benzoate with sodium benzyloxide, he observed a white precipitate which under acidic conditions yields benzyl benzoate, methyl benzoate, methanol, and benzyl alcohol. He named the likely common intermediate “additionelle Verbindung.”   Victor Grignard assumed the existence of unstable tetrahedral intermediate in 1901, while investigating the reaction of esters with organomagnesium reagents. The first evidence for tetrahedral intermediates in the substitution reactions of carboxylic derivatives was provided by Myron L. Bender in 1951. He labeled carboxylic acid derivatives with oxygen isotope O18 and reacted these derivatives with water to make labeled carboxylic acids.
At the end of the reaction he found that the remaining starting material had a decreased proportion of labeled oxygen, which is consistent with the existence of the tetrahedral intermediate. Reaction mechanism  The nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl group proceeds via Bürgi-Dunitz trajectory. The angle between the line of nucleophilic attack and the C-O bond is greater than 90˚. This due to a better orbital overlap between the HOMO of the nucleophile and the π* LUMO of the C-O double bond. Structure of tetrahedral intermediates  General features Although the tetrahedral intermediates are usually transient intermediates, many compounds of this general structures are known.
The reactions of aldehydes, ketones, and their derivatives frequently have a detectable tetrahedral intermediate, while for the reactions of derivatives of carboxylic acids this is not the case. At the oxidation level of carboxylic acid derivatives, the groups such as OR, OAr, NR2, or Cl are conjugated with the carbonyl group, which means that addition to the carbonyl group is thermodynamically less favored than addition to corresponding aldehyde or ketone.
Stable tetrahedral intermediates of carboxylic acid derivatives do exist and they usually possess at least one of the following four structural features:   polycyclic structures (e.g.tetrodotoxin)   compounds with a strong electron-withdrawing group attached to the acyl carbon (e.g.N,N-dimethyltrifluoroacetamide)  compounds with donor groups that are poorly conjugated with the potential carbonyl group (e.g.cyclol)  compounds with sulfur atoms bonded to the anomeric centre (e.g.S-acylated-1,8-Naphtalenedithiol)  These compounds were used to study the kinetics of tetrahedral intermediate decomposition into its respective carbonyl species, and to measure the IR, UV, and NMR spectra of the tetrahedral adduct. X-Ray Crystal Structure Determination  The first x-ray crystal structures of tetrahedral intermediates were obtained from the porcine trypsin crystallized with soybean trypsin inhibitor in 1974, and the bovine trypsin crystallized with bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor in 1973.
In both cases the tetrahedral intermediate is stabilized in the active sites of enzymes, which have evolved to stabilize the transition state of peptide hydrolysis. Some insight into the structure of tetrahedral intermediate can be obtained from the crystal structure of N-brosylmitomycin A, crystallized in 1967. The tetrahedral carbon C17 forms a 136.54pm bond with O3, which is shorter than C8-O3 bond (142.31pm). In contrast, C17-N2 bond (149.06pm) is longer than N1-C1 bond (148.75pm) and N1-C11 bond (147.85pm) due to donation of O3 lone pair into σ* orbital of C17-N2. This model however is forced into tetracyclic sceleton, and tetrahedral O3 is methylated which makes it a poor model overall.
The more recent x-ray crystal structure of 1-aza-3,5,7-trimethyladamantan-2-one is a good model for cationic tetrahedral intermediate. The C1-N1 bond is rather long [155.2(4)pm], and C1-O1(2) bonds are shortened [138.2(4)pm]. The protonated nitrogen atom N1 is a great amine leaving group. In 2002 David Evans et al. observed a very stable neutral tetrahedral intermediate in the reaction of N-acylpyrroles with organometallic compounds, followed by protonation with ammounium chloride producing a carbinol. The C1-N1 bond [147.84(14) pm] is longer than the usual Csp3-Npyrrole bond which range from 141.2-145.8 pm. In contrast, the C1-O1 bond [141.15(13) pm] is shorter than the average Csp3-OH bond which is about 143.2 pm.
The elongated C1-N1, and shortened C1-O1 bonds are explained with an anomeric effect resulting from the interaction of the oxygen lone pairs with the σ*C-N orbital. Similarly, an interaction of an oxygen lone pair with σ*C-C orbital should be responsible for the lengthened C1-C2 bond [152.75(15) pm] compared to the average Csp2-Csp2 bonds which are 151.3 pm. Also, the C1-C11 bond [152.16(17) pm] is slightly shorter than the average Csp3-Csp3 bond which is around 153.0 pm. Stability of tetrahedral intermediates  Acetals and hemiacetals  Hemiacetals and acetals are essentially tetrahedral intermediates. They form when nucleophiles add to a carbonyl group, but unlike tetrahedral intermediates they can be very stable and used as protective groups in synthetic chemistry.
A very well known reaction occurs when acetaldehyde is dissolved in methanol, producing a hemiacetal. Most hemiacetals are unstable with respect to their parent aldehydes and alcohols. For example, the equilibrium constant for reaction of acetaldehyde with simple alcohols is about 0.5, where the equilibrium constant is defined as K=[hemiacetal]/[aldehyde][alcohol]. Hemiacetals of ketones (sometimes called hemiketals) are even less stable than those of aldehydes. However, cyclic hemiacetals and hemiacetals bearing electron withdrawing groups are stable. Electronwithdrawing groups attached to the carbonyl atom shift the equilibrium constant toward the hemiacetal. They increase the polarization of the carbonyl group, which already has a positively polarized carbonyl carbon, and make it even more prone to attack by a nucleophile.
The chart below shows the extent of hydration of some carbonyl compounds. Hexafluoroacetone is probably the most hydrated carbonyl compound possible. Formaldehyde reacts with water so readily because its substituents are very small- a purely steric effect. Cyclopropanones- three-membered ring ketones- are also hydrated to a significant extent. Since three-membered rings are very strained (bond angles forced to be 60˚), sp3 hybridization is more favorable than sp2 hybridization. For the sp3 hybridized hydrate the bonds have to be distorted by about 49˚, while for the sp2 hybridized ketone the bond angle distortion is about 60˚. So the addition to the carbonyl group allows some of the strain inherent in the small ring to be released, which is why cyclopropanone and cyclobutanone are very reactive electrophiles.
For larger rings, where the bond angles are not as distorted, the stability of the hemiacetals is due to entropy and the proximity of the nucleophile to the carbonyl group. Formation of an acyclic acetal involves a decrease in entropy because two molecules are consumed for every one produced. In contrast, the formation of cyclic hemiacetals involves a single molecule reacting with itself, making the reaction more favorable. Another way to understand the stability of cyclic hemiacetals is to look at the equilibrium constant as the ratio of the forward and backward reaction rate. For a cyclic hemiacetal the reaction is intramolecular so the nucleophile is always held close to the carbonyl group ready to attack, so the forward rate of reaction is much higher than the backward rate.
Many biologically relevant sugars, such as glucose, are cyclic hemiacetals. In the presence of acid, hemiacetals can undergo an elimination reaction, losing the oxygen atom that once belonged to the parent aldehyde’s carbonyl group. These oxonium ions are powerful electrophiles, and react rapidly with a second molecule of alcohol to form new, stable compounds, called acetals. The whole mechanism of acetal formation from hemiacetal is drawn below. Acetals, as already pointed out, are stable tetrahedral intermediates so they can be used as protective groups in organic synthesis. Acetals are stable under basic conditions, so they can be used to protect ketones from a base.
Acetal group is hydrolyzed under acidic conditions. An example with dioxolane protecting group is given below. Weinreb amides Weinreb amides are N-methoxy-N-methylcarboxylic acid amides. Weinreb amides are reacted with organometallic compounds to give, on protonation, ketones (see Weinreb ketone synthesis). It is generally accepted that the high yields of ketones are due to the high stability of the five-membered ring- chelated intermediate. Quantum mechanical calculations have shown that thetrahedral adduct is formed easily and it is fairly stable, in agreement with the experimental results. The very facile reaction of Weinreb amides with organolithium and Grignard reagents results from the chelate stabilization in the tetrahedral adduct and, more importantly, the transition state leading to the adduct.
The tetrahedral adducts are shown below. Applications in biomedicine  Drug design A solvated ligand that binds the protein of interest is likely to exist as an equilibrium mixture of several conformers. Likewise the solvated protein also exists as several conformers in equilibrium. Formation of protein-ligand complex includes displacement of the solvent molecules that occupy the binding site of the ligand, to produce a solvated complex. Because this necessarily means that the interaction is entropically disfavored, highly favorable enthalpic contacts between the protein and the ligand must compensate for the entropic loss. The design of new ligands is usually based on the modification of known ligands for the target proteins.
Proteases are enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis of a peptide bond. These proteins have evolved to recognize and bind the transition state of peptide hydrolysis reaction which is a tetrahedral intermediate. Therefore, the main protease inhibitors are tetrahedral intermediate mimics having an alcohol or a phosphate group. Examples are saquinavir, ritonavir, pepstatin, etc. Enzymatic activity Stabilization of tetrahedral intermediates inside of the enzyme active site has been investigated using tetrahedral intermediate mimics. The specific binding forces involved in stabilizing the transition state have been describe crystallographycally. In the mammalian serine proteases, trypsin and chymotrypsin, two peptide NH groups of the polypeptide backbone form the so-called oxyanion hole by donating hydrogen bonds to the negatively charged oxygen atom of the tetrahedral intermediate.
A simple diagram describing the interaction is shown below. References  Category:Reactive intermediates A C
Stewarts & Lloyds was a steel tube manufacturer with its headquarters in Glasgow at 41 Oswald Street. The company was created in 1903 by the amalgamation of two of the largest iron and steel makers in Britain, A. & J. Stewart & Menzies Ltd, Coatbridge, North Lanarkshire, Scotland and Lloyd & Lloyd Ltd, Birmingham, England. History  Stewart & Menzies Ltd  A. & J. Stewart & Menzies Ltd. was founded as A. & J. Stewart. Andrew Stewart was originally employed as a salesman by Eadies of Dalmarnock, South Lanarkshire, specialists in the manufacture of lap-welded and loose flange tubes. Stewart saw a market for gas pipe but the company would not acknowledge his proposals.
In 1860, Andrew set up business as a maker of butt-welded and lap-welded tubes, establishing a small works at St. Enochs, Glasgow, taking his brother James into partnership in 1862. The company met with rapid success and in 1867 moved to a large site at Coatbridge, North Lanarkshire, where they built the Clyde Tube Works. In 1882 the company was incorporated with limited liability as A. & J. Stewart Ltd. In 1889 Andrew saw his sons set up their own business in Glasgow as tube manufacturers under the name of Stewart Brothers. In a rationalisation of the tube making industry in Scotland, A.
& J. Stewart Ltd merged with Stewart Brothers and the Clydesdale Iron & Steel Company becoming A. & J. Stewart & Clydesdale Ltd. but in 1898, the company took on another new name when it acquired the business of James Menzies & Company becoming A. & J. Stewart & Menzies Ltd. From 1 January 1903 the company merged with English counterparts Lloyd & Lloyd Ltd.  Lloyd & Lloyd Ltd  The history of Lloyd & Lloyd Ltd closely paralleled that of A. & J. Stewart, establishing itself as one of the largest iron and steel tube manufacturers in England. It was founded in 1859 by Samuel Lloyd and his cousin William Rigge Lloyd and their premises were at Nile Street, Birmingham.
Over the next 40 years, they became the premier manufacturer of tubes in England. The Clydeside Tube Co. Ltd., makers of weldless tubes was acquired by Lloyd & Lloyd in 1900 and was also brought into the 1903 merger. Samuel's son Albert William was a director of Lloyd & Lloyd when the merger with Stewarts & Menzies came about in 1903 and then became a director of the newly formed company of Stewarts & Lloyds. From the date of the merger, Samuel Lloyd had nothing to do Stewarts & Lloyds and concentrated on Lloyds Ironstone Company, with his son Samuel Janson Lloyd.
Lloyds Ironstone Company. Iron ore had been mined in the Corby, Northamptonshire area for some time, when Samuel Lloyd came to the village in 1880 and negotiated the purchase of the mineral rights for the Manor of Corby. Extraction commenced in the following year and the ore was then transported by rail to the Albion Works in the West Midlands. Lloyds Ironstone Company, who erected two blast furnaces on the edge of the village in 1910, started iron production but the main problems was the extraction of the ore itself, the physical act of getting the ore from the ground was in need of mechanization and before the end of the 19th century a mechanical digger, with a bucket capable of holding 11 cubic yards arrived in the mines.
To increase production further a steam shovel, after finishing work on the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, was brought to Corby. Its bucket could hold nearly three times the amount of its earlier, smaller brother. In 1918, Samuel Lloyd died and control passed to Samuel Janson Lloyd, who brokered a merger with Alfred Hickman & Sons, of Bilston in 1919 who, in turn, were absorbed into the Stewarts & Lloyds group of companies in 1920, thus bringing the Corby site under Stewarts & Lloyds control. Stewarts & Lloyds  The newly merged company, now named Stewarts & Lloyds Ltd set about to establish its position and extending its interests.
In 1908 the company became colliery owners when they acquired the control of Robert Addie & Sons (Collieries) Ltd., although this interest was sold in 1924. Before the outbreak of the First World War the company bought the British Welding Co of Motherwell, manufacturers of hydraulic welded tubes and established a new works at Tollcross, Glasgow. Following the end of the war the company gained control of the North Lincolnshire Iron Co. Ltd., followed shortly afterwards by Alfred Hickman, steel makers, Bilston and their subsidiaries. Increasing the sphere of the company continued in the latter 1920s, gaining 70% control of  the Victaulic Company Limited in the UK Ltd, producers of “Victaulic” joints and Johnson couplings (which were not produced until the 1930s) for pipelines, the Pothero Steel Tube Co Ltd and then the Birmingham steelworks of John Russell & Company.
Further colliery interests were acquired, when in 1923 the company gained control of Kilnhurst Colliery in the South Yorkshire coalfield, although this was sub-leased to Sheffield steelmakers John Brown & Co. This interest was sold, along with its adjoining brickworks, to the Tinsley Park Colliery Company of Sheffield in 1936. In 1930, Stewarts & Lloyds Ltd entered into an agreement with Tube Investments Ltd, of Abingdon, Oxfordshire, which controlled a large number of tube making firms in the Midlands. Although this was to “facilitate exchange of information and technology” it resulted in S & L gaining a half interest in the Bromford Tube Co of Erdington, Birmingham, acquiring the other half in 1945; and in Howell & Co Ltd, Sheffield, this being given up in 1938.
From the late 1800s, both founding companies had been represented in Australia as distributors of tube. Growing demand in Australia eventually led to the formation of a jointly owned company with Broken Hill Proprietary (BHP) to be known as Buttweld Pty Ltd, and the establishment of Australia's first tubemaking plant at Newcastle in 1935. This company ultimately became Tubemakers of Australia. Corby Steelworks The company decided to move to Corby, Northamptonshire () in November 1932, enabling them to make use of the local iron ore to feed their blast furnaces and Bessemer steel converters. The new construction was carried out to a very tight timetable, from the clearing of the site in 1933 the first of the Corby blast furnaces was lit in May the following year.
This was followed by coke from the new coke ovens the following month and the ore preparation and Sinter Plants in September. No.2 blast furnace was lit in November and the first steel came from the Bessemer converters on 27 December. The last of the originally planned blast furnaces (No.3) was lit in October 1935. Following a rebuild to increase capacity of No.2 furnace Corby works became the third cheapest pig iron producing plant in the world. Looking for greater capacity, in 1936, a fourth blast furnace, a second sinter plant, a new Bessemer plant, and new coking capacity, six new ovens being added to the existing battery and a new battery of 21 ovens were constructed and in operation by the end of 1937.
To add to steel production two electric arc furnaces were built in 1941. The ingots cast from the electric furnace were of a different shape and size to any others and were shipped to Bilston for further processing. By 1953, the company, making use of its original 8 work sites, became the main producer of steel tubes in Scotland producing around 250,000 tons of tubing, the bulk of which were used at the Corby site. Further developments took place after the Second World War, with an open-hearth steel making facility being commissioned in 1949. The Glebe coke ovens were extended to their maximum number of 141 in 1953 and plans for No.
6 coke oven battery were formulated shortly after. These were to be built on old quarry workings to the north of the Open-Hearth building and enough land was levelled to accommodate a complete blast furnace plant as well as for the coke ovens by-products plant and gasholder. No. 6 battery of 51 ovens was commissioned in 1961; however, after the footings were installed for the blast furnace, the rest of the construction was put "temporarily on hold", and work was never continued. In an attempt to make the Bessemer plant more efficient it was trialled with a blast enriched with oxygen, but when a basic oxygen steelmaking test plant was built in 1960, a major change in steel production at the works was signalled.
Trials were conducted using the LD process and in 1965, with a three vessel plant coming on stream the Bessemer plant closed, having produced almost 18 million tons of steel since 1934. Second World War In common with other steel producers, from the outbreak of the Second World War, much of the output went to war-related usage. The best-known contribution of the works was Pipe Line Under The Ocean (PLUTO), a pipeline built, following the D-Day landings to supply fuel for the invading forces. Almost 1,000 miles of steel tubes went into the main HAMEL project. In acknowledgement of the Corby steelwork's contribution to PLUTO, a public house in Corby was named "The Pluto".
The pub has since closed and the site is awaiting development. Another large contribution was the 15,000 miles of tube, used for the construction of beach defences, termed Admiralty scaffolding. These were then covered with barbed wire, and other, more dangerous obstructions, becoming known as "Wallace Swords". A total of over 275,000 miles (about 2.5 million tons) of tube were produced for war-related work during 1939–45. Other works in the S&L group provided steel for shell forgings, finished shells and shot. Nationalisation  The steel industry was nationalised for the second time, and the company became part of the British Steel Corporation.
Due to the high cost and low quality of local iron ore, steel production at Corby was set to close in November 1979. This was delayed until 21 May 1980, due to a national steel strike, when the last coil came off the mill. In nearly 40 years of steel production they had made almost 2.5 million tons. Tubemaking continues to this day, initially based on steel supplied from Teesside, and today Tata Steel Tubes is the largest customer of steel from South Wales. References   Smith, Charles C., (1954). Notes on the History and Development of Stewarts & Lloyds Ltd, Glasgow: Glasgow University.
Category:Ironworks and steelworks in England Category:Ironworks and steelworks in Scotland Category:History of Northamptonshire Category:Companies based in Northamptonshire
Arthur Eric Rowton Gill  (; 22 February 1882 – 17 November 1940) was an English sculptor, typeface designer, and printmaker, who was associated with the Arts and Crafts movement. His religious views and subject matter contrast with his sexual behaviour, including his erotic art, and (as mentioned in his own diaries) his extramarital affairs and sexual abuse of his daughters, sisters, and dog. Gill was named Royal Designer for Industry, the highest British award for designers, by the Royal Society of Arts. He also became a founder-member of the newly established Faculty of Royal Designers for Industry. Early life and studies  Gill was born in 1882 in Hamilton Road, Brighton, the second of the 13 children of (Cicely) Rose King (d. 1929), formerly a professional singer of light opera under the name Rose le Roi, and  Rev.
Arthur Tidman Gill, minister of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion, who had recently left the Congregational church, after doctrinal disagreements. He was the elder brother of graphic artist MacDonald "Max" Gill (1884–1947). In 1897 the family moved to Chichester. Gill studied at Chichester Technical and Art School, and in 1900 moved to London to train as an architect with the practice of W. D. Caröe, specialists in ecclesiastical architecture. Frustrated with his training, he took evening classes in stonemasonry at the Westminster Technical Institute and in calligraphy at the Central School of Arts and Crafts, where Edward Johnston, creator of the London Underground typeface, became a strong influence.
In 1903 he gave up his architectural training to become a calligrapher, letter-cutter and monumental mason. Gill's first apprentice in 1906 was Joseph Cribb (1892 – 1967) a sculptor and letter carver, who came to Ditchling with Gill in 1907. Career  Sculpture Working from Ditchling in Sussex, where he lived with his wife, in 1910 Gill began direct carving of stone figures. These included Madonna and Child (1910), which English painter and art critic Roger Fry described in 1911 as a depiction of "pathetic animalism", and Ecstasy (1911). Such semi-abstract sculptures showed Gill's appreciation of medieval ecclesiastical statuary, Egyptian, Greek and Indian sculpture, as well as the Post-Impressionism of Cézanne, van Gogh and Gauguin.
His first public success was Mother and Child (1912). A self-described "disciple" of the Ceylonese philosopher and art historian Ananda Coomaraswamy, Gill was fascinated during this period by Indian temple sculpture. Along with his friend and collaborator Jacob Epstein, Gill planned the construction in the Sussex countryside of a colossal, hand-carved monument in imitation of the large-scale Jain structures at Gwalior Fort in Madhya Pradesh, to which he had been introduced by William Rothenstein. In 1914, Gill produced sculptures for the stations of the cross in Westminster Cathedral. In the same year, he met the typographer Stanley Morison. After the war, together with Hilary Pepler and Desmond Chute, Gill founded The Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic at Ditchling.
There his pupils included David Jones, who soon began a relationship with Gill's daughter, Petra. Gill designed several war memorials after the First World War, including the Grade II* listed Trumpington War Memorial. Commissioned to produce a war memorial for the University of Leeds, Gill produced a frieze depicting Jesus driving the money-changers from the temple, showing contemporary Leeds merchants as the money-changers. Gill contended that the "money men" were a key cause of the war. This is at the Michael Sadler Building at the University. In 1924, Gill moved to Capel-y-ffin in Powys, Wales, where he established a new workshop, to be followed by Jones and other disciples.
In 1928, he set up a printing press and lettering workshop in Speen, Buckinghamshire. He took on a number of apprentices, including David Kindersley, who in turn became a successful sculptor and engraver, and his nephew, John Skelton, noted as an important letterer and sculptor. Other apprentices included Laurie Cribb, Donald Potter and Walter Ritchie. Others in the household included Gill's two sons-in-law, Petra's husband Denis Tegetmeier and Joanna's husband Rene Hague. In 1928–29, Gill carved three of eight relief sculptures on the theme of winds for Charles Holden's headquarters for the London Electric Railway (now Transport for London) at 55 Broadway, St James's.
He carved a statue of the Virgin and Child for the west door of the chapel at Marlborough College. In 1932, Gill produced a group of sculptures, Prospero and Ariel, and others for the BBC's Broadcasting House in London. In 1934, Gill visited Jerusalem where he worked at the Palestine Archaeological Museum (now the Rockefeller Museum). He carved a stone bas-relief of the meeting of Asia and Africa above the front entrance together with ten stone reliefs illustrating different cultures and a gargoyle fountain in the inner courtyard. He also carved stone signage throughout the museum in English, Hebrew and Arabic.
Gill was commissioned to produce a sequence of seven bas-relief panels for the façade of The People's Palace, now the Great Hall of Queen Mary University of London, which opened in 1936. In 1937, he designed the background of the first George VI definitive stamp series for the post office. In 1938 Gill produced The Creation of Adam, three bas-reliefs in stone for the Palace of Nations, the League of Nations building in Geneva, Switzerland. During this period he was made a Royal Designer for Industry, the highest British award for designers, by the Royal Society of Arts and became a founder-member of the Faculty of Royal Designers for Industry when it was established in 1938.
In April 1937, Gill was elected an Associate member of the Royal Academy. Gill's only complete work of architecture was St Peter the Apostle Roman Catholic Church in Gorleston-on-Sea, built in 1938–39. Midland Hotel, Morecambe  The Art Deco Midland Hotel was built in 1932–33 by the London Midland & Scottish Railway to the design of Oliver Hill and included works by Gill, Marion Dorn and Eric Ravilious. For the project, Gill produced:  two seahorses, modelled as Morecambe shrimps, for the outside entrance  a round plaster relief on the ceiling of the circular staircase inside the hotel  a decorative wall map of the north west of England  a large stone relief of Odysseus being welcomed from the sea by Nausicaa.
Typefaces and inscriptions One of Gill's first independent lettering projects was creating an alphabet for W.H. Smith's sign painters. In 1925, he designed the Perpetua typeface, with the uppercase based upon monumental Roman inscriptions, for Morison, who was working for the Monotype Corporation. An in-situ example of Gill's design and personal cutting in the style of Perpetua can be found in the nave of the church in Poling, West Sussex, on a wall plaque commemorating the life of Sir Harry Johnston. He designed the Gill Sans typeface in 1927–30, based on the sans-serif lettering originally designed for the London Underground.
(Gill had collaborated with Edward Johnston in the early design of the Underground typeface, but dropped out of the project before it was completed.) In the period 1930–31, Gill designed the typeface Joanna which he used to hand-set his book, An Essay on Typography. Eric Gill's types include:  Gill Sans, 1927–30; many variants followed  Perpetua (design started c. 1925, first shown around 1929, commercial release 1932)  Perpetua Greek (1929)  Golden Cockerel Press Type (for the Golden Cockerel Press; 1929) Designed bolder than some of Gill's other typefaces to provide a complement to wood engravings.
Solus (1929)  Joanna (based on work by Granjon; 1930–31, not commercially available until 1958)  Aries (1932)  Floriated Capitals (1932)  Bunyan (1934)  Pilgrim (recut version of Bunyan; 1953)  Jubilee (also known as Cunard; 1934)  These dates are somewhat debatable, since a lengthy period could pass between Gill creating a design and it being finalised by the Monotype drawing office team (who would work out many details such as spacing) and cut into metal. In addition, some designs such as Joanna were released to fine printing use long before they became widely available from Monotype. The family Gill Facia was created by Colin Banks as an emulation of Gill's stone carving designs, with separate styles for smaller and larger text.
One of the most widely used British typefaces, Gill Sans, was used in the classic design system of Penguin Books and by the London and North Eastern Railway and later British Railways, with many additional styles created by Monotype both during and after Gill's lifetime. In the 1990s, the BBC adopted Gill Sans for its wordmark and many of its on-screen television graphics. Arabic Gill was commissioned to develop a typeface with the number of allographs limited to what could be used on Monotype or Linotype machines. The typeface was loosely based on the Arabic Naskh style but was considered unacceptably far from the norms of Arabic script.
It was rejected and never cut into type. Published works  Gill published numerous essays on the relationship between art and religion, and a number of erotic engravings. Some of Gill's published writings include: A Holy Tradition of Working: An Anthology of Writings Clothes: An Essay Upon the Nature and Significance of the Natural and Artificial Integuments Worn by Men and Women An Essay on Typography Christianity and Art, 1927 Art, 1934 Work and Property, 1937 Work and Culture, 1938 Twenty-five nudes, 1938  Autobiography: Quod Ore Sumpsimus Notes on Postage Stamps Christianity and the Machine Age, 1940. Gill also provided woodcuts and illustrations for a range of other books.
Political views As a young man, Gill was a member of the Fabian Society, but later resigned. In the 1930s Gill became a supporter of social credit; later he moved towards a socialist position. In 1934, Gill contributed art to an exhibition mounted by the left-wing Artists' International Association, and defended the exhibition against accusations in The Catholic Herald that its art was "anti-Christian". Gill was adamantly opposed to fascism, and was one of the few Catholics in Britain to openly support the Spanish Republicans. Gill became a pacifist and helped set up the Catholic peace organisation Pax with E. I. Watkin and Donald Attwater.
Later Gill joined the Peace Pledge Union and supported the British branch of the Fellowship of Reconciliation. Personal life In 1904, Gill married Ethel Hester Moore (1878–1961), with whom he had three daughters and an adopted son. In 1907, he moved with his family to "Sopers", a house in the village of Ditchling in Sussex, which would later become the centre of an artists' community inspired by Gill. Much of his work and memorabilia is held and on display at the Ditchling Museum of Art and Craft. In 1913, Gill moved to Hopkin's Crank at Ditchling Common, two miles north of the village.
The Common was an arts and crafts community focused around a chapel, with an emphasis on manual labour in opposition to modern commerce. He became a Roman Catholic in 1913 and worked primarily for Catholic clients. In 1921 he started a Catholic artists community called The Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic and became a lay member of the Dominican Order. His personal diaries reveal that his religious beliefs did not limit his sexual activity, which included several extramarital affairs, incest with his two eldest teenage daughters, incestuous relationships with his sisters, and sexual acts on his dog. This aspect of Gill's life was little known beyond his family and friends until the publication of the 1989 biography by Fiona MacCarthy.
An earlier biography by Robert Speaight, published in 1966, mentioned none of it. Gill's daughter Petra, who was alive at the time of the MacCarthy biography, denied the allegations but described her father as having "endless curiosity about sex" and that "we just took it for granted". Despite the acclaim the book received, and the widespread revulsion towards aspects of Gill's sexual life that followed publication, MacCarthy received some criticism for revealing Gill's incest in his daughter's lifetime. In 1924, Gill moved to the former Llanthony Abbey at Capel-y-ffin in Wales but soon tired of it, coming to feel that it had the wrong atmosphere and was too far from London, where most of his clients were.
In 1928 he moved to Pigotts at Speen near High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire where he lived for the rest of his life. Gill died of lung cancer in Harefield Hospital in Middlesex in 1940. He is buried in Speen churchyard. Gill's papers and library are archived at the William Andrews Clark Memorial Library at UCLA in California, designated by the Gill family as the repository for his manuscripts and correspondence. Some of the books in his collection have been digitised as part of the Internet Archive. Additional archival and book collections related to Gill and his work reside at the University of Waterloo Library and the University of Notre Dame's Hesburgh Library.
Contribution As the revelations about Gill's private life reverberated, there was a reassessment of his personal and artistic achievement. As biographer Fiona MacCarthy sums up:  References  Further reading  External links  Portraits by Eric Gill at the National Portrait Gallery. Eric Gill in the Crafts Study Centre. Eric Gill in the Central Saint Martins Museum and Study Collection.
"Looking for Mr Gill" BBC Storyville Documentary on Eric Gill; filmed and directed by Luke Holland Eric Gill Article on The National Archives website which deals with many of Gill's works London Transport Museum Photographic Archive  "An Essay on Typography" PDF copy of the book by Eric Gill 3D model of Gill's 1910-1 Ecstasy via photogrammetric survey Twenty-five Nudes, Gill, 1938 (collected drawings) The Devil's Devices, Douglas Pepler, 1915 (woodcuts by Gill) Manuscript & Inscription Letters, Edward Johnston, 1909 (plates by Gill) Troilus and Criseyde, Geoffrey Chaucer, translated by George Philip Knapp, 1932 (woodcuts by Gill)    Category:1882 births Category:1940 deaths Category:20th-century British printmakers Category:20th-century British sculptors Category:Academics of the Central School of Art and Design Category:Alumni of the Central School of Art and Design Category:Alumni of the Westminster School of Art Category:Arts and Crafts Movement Category:Associates of the Royal Academy Category:British architectural sculptors Category:British letter cutters Category:British stamp designers Category:Burials in Berkshire Category:Child sexual abuse in England Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism Category:English anti-fascists Category:English graphic designers Category:English illustrators Category:English male sculptors Category:English pacifists Category:English Roman Catholics Category:English sculptors Category:English sex offenders Category:English socialists Category:English typographers Category:English wood engravers Category:Incest Category:Monumental masons Category:People from Brighton Category:People from Ditchling Category:South Downs artists Category:Stone carvers Category:Zoophilia
The PGM-39-class gunboats, designated Patrol Gunboat, Motor by the United States Navy were a class of fifty nine gunboats constructed in various shipyards from 1959–1970. The design was based on the United States Coast Guard  design with a  hull extension. It was specifically designed for the U.S. Military Assistance Program and was used by the navies of The Philippines, Indonesia, South Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, Ethiopia, and Ecuador. The members of this class of gunboats are: PGM-39 to PGM-46 PGM-51 to PGM-83 PGM-91 PGM-102 to PGM-108 PGM-111 to PGM-117 PGM-122 to PGM-124  The first vessel (PGM-39) of the class was used by the Philippine Navy as BRP Agusan (PG 61).
The other Philippine Navy units were PGM-40 as BRP Catanduanes (PG 62), PGM-41 as BRP Romblon (PG 63),  PGM-42 as BRP Palawan (PG 64), and PGM-83 as BRP Basilan (PG 60) ex-RVN Hon Troc (HQ 618). The PGM-39 class has varied weapons mix of 40 mm and 20 mm cannon, 12.7 mm machine guns, and 81mm mortar. Status of remaining ships BRP Palawan (PG 64) and BAP Río Chira (PC 12) are still in operation with the Philippine Coast Guard and Peruvian Coast Guard, respectively. Other PGMs are still in service in various capacities. However, the galvanic reaction between the steel hull and aluminum superstructure of the boats in seawater creates maintenance problems which significantly shorten their careers as military vessels.
Successor The  resulted from modification studies of the PGM-39 class. Sources NAVSOURCE Motor Gunboat (PGM) Index Gunboats (PGM, PG, PFMM, PGG, PCG) Built Since WWII  Category:Gunboats of the United States Navy Category:Ships of the Vietnam People's Navy
Schleichera is a monotypic genus of plants in the soapberry family, Sapindaceae. There is only one species, Schleichera oleosa, a tree that occurs in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Species Schleichera oleosa, kusum tree, Ceylon oak, lac tree, gum lac tree. It is a large deciduous (nearly evergreen) tree with a comparatively short fluted trunk and a shade spreading crown. It is frost and drought hardy and is subject to damage by grazing. It produces root-suckers freely, and it has good cropping power. The wood is very hard and reddish brown. This tree is noted for its growth of new leaves that are bright red.
In India the growth of these bright red leaves happens around March. The leaves are pinnate, with each leaf having 2-4 leaflets. The tree is host to Kusumi Lac (Kerria lacca), a lac insect which is native to India. Its seeds are the source of Kusum oil. Flowers: The flowers are tiny and hardly noticeable, occurring in short dense yellow clusters. Fruit: The fruit is 2.5 to 3 cm long - roughly the size of a small plum - and ovoid, 1-3 celled, and more or less abruptly tapering to a point, dry indehiscent. Seed: The seed is 1.5 cm long, smooth, brown, and enclosed in a succulent aril which has an acidic taste, and contains 25-38% oil and up to 22% protein.
It is irregular or ellipsoidal in shape, slightly compressed, and has a thick brown seed coat on its surface. The moisture in the dried seed should be maintained around 4-6%. Kernel: The kernel is 16-20% of the dried fruit and 60-64% of the seed. It is 51-52% oil. The kernel is susceptible to fungal attack. Habitat This tree grows naturally from the foothills of the Himalayas and the western Deccan to Sri Lanka and China. It was probably introduced to Malaysia and has naturalized in Indonesia. It grows in Bihar, Central and Southern parts of India. The tree occurs sporadically, seldom gregariously in dry, mixed deciduous forests.
It grows in rocky, gravelly, or loamy, slightly acidic soil that is well drained. It is occasionally found in swampy locations, but it usually grows on rather dry soil, at low altitudes, but can be found at 900–1200 meters. The requirement of normal rain fall is 750–2800 mm. and ambient temperature of 35-47.5 °C. Names In Thailand this tree is known as takhro () or as kho (), the latter being a name that it shares with Livistona speciosa, a kind of palm tree. In Sri Lanka this tree is called Kon (Sinhala: කෝන්). The name of the tree in  Indonesia is Kesambi.
The german-dutch botanist Georg Eberhard Rumphius living 45 years in  Ambon called this tree Cussambium. In India it is mostly known as Kusum (कुसुम) and was one of the main trees of undisturbed forests in Madhya Pradesh and the Deccan. Other common names in Indian languages are:  Bengali: Kusum (কুসুম), Jaina (জায়না) Hindi: Kusum (कुसुम) Telugu: Posku, busi, pusku, kosangi. (నొసంగి) Marathi: Kusumb (कुसुम्ब)  Gujarati: Kosumb (કોસુમ્બ) Tamil: Kumbadiri  (கும்படிரி) Malayalam: Cottilai  (കോട്ടിലായി) Kannada: Kusuma, Cakota (ಕುಸುಮ, ಚಕೋತಾ) Chhattisgarhi: Kossum (कुसुम) pronounced (कोसम)  Synonyms  Schleichera trijuga Willd. Pests The tree is a host of the lac bug Kerria lacca, whose female secretes a resin known as shellac to form a tunnel-like tube as it traverses the branches of the tree.
A variety of trees are able to host the insect, but the resin produced on the Schleichera tree is least colored. Leaves, flowers and fruits  See also Kusum oil  References  External links   AgroForestry Tree Database  Schleichera oleosa - The Wood Explorer Database  Category:Monotypic Sapindaceae genera Category:Sapindaceae Category:Trees of the Indian subcontinent Category:Trees of Indo-China
The Siege of Carthage was the main engagement of the Third Punic War between the Punic city of Carthage in Africa and the Roman Republic. It was a siege operation, starting sometime in 149 or 148 BC, and ending in spring 146 BC with the sack and complete destruction of the city of Carthage. Background  After the Second Punic War, Carthage had grown very wealthy because of its trade, and also because it no longer had to maintain a mercenary army, one of the stipulations of the peace signed with the Romans after the last war. Growing Carthaginian anger with the Romans, who refused to lend help when the Numidians began annexing Carthaginian land, led them to declare war.
Hasdrubal the Boetharch was appointed general of the army. Siege  Unfortunately however even before the arrival of the Romans in Carthage Its Libyan allies began to revolt over the unfair treatment and the unfairness of how they had suffered during the previous wars against Rome with many of towns and cities in Libya facing financial ruin from its constant wars with Rome many of the Libyan subjects and soldiers of Carthage now saw a chance for enriching themselves at the expense of their Carthaginian masters and as such duly revolted. After a Roman army under Manius Manilius landed in Africa in 149 BC, Carthage surrendered, handed over its hostages and arms, and arrested Hasdrubal.
The Romans demanded the complete surrender of the city. When asked what they planned on doing to the city, the Roman general told the diplomats that the city would be destroyed and its inhabitants would be relocated 50 miles inland. Surprisingly to the Romans, the city refused to surrender; the faction which advocated surrender was overruled by one vote in favor of defense. The Carthaginians manned the walls and defied the Romans, a situation which lasted two years. During this period, the 500,000 Carthaginians behind the wall transformed the city into a huge arsenal. They produced a daily supply of about 300 swords, 500 spears, 140 shields, and over 1,000 projectiles for catapults.
The Romans elected the young and popular Scipio Aemilianus as consul, after a special law was passed in order to lift the age restriction. Scipio restored discipline, defeated the Carthaginians at Nepheris and besieged the city closely, constructing a mole to block the harbour. In the spring of 146 BC, Scipio and the Roman troops seized the Cothon wall of Carthage. They then battled their way through the double city harbors, which was made possible by the fact that Hasdrubal had assumed that the Roman attack would come from another direction. When day broke, 4,000 fresh Roman troops led by Scipio attacked the Byrsa, the strongest part of the city.
Three streets lined with six story houses led to the Byrsa fortress and the Carthaginians and Romans fought each other from the rooftops of the buildings as well as in the streets. The Romans used captured buildings to capture other buildings. Scipio ordered the houses to be burned while their defenders were still inside. Scipio then captured the Byrsa and immediately set fire to the buildings, which caused even more destruction and deaths. The fighting continued for six more days and nights, until the Carthaginians surrendered. An estimated 50,000 surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery and the city was then levelled.
The land surrounding Carthage was eventually declared ager publicus (public land) and shared between local farmers and Roman and Italian colonists. During the siege, 900 survivors, most of them Roman deserters, had found refuge in the temple of Eshmun, in the citadel of Byrsa, although it was already burning. They tried to negotiate a surrender but Scipio Aemilianus declared that forgiveness was impossible either for Hasdrubal, the general who defended the city or the defectors. Hasdrubal left the Citadel to surrender and pray for mercy (he had tortured Roman prisoners in front of the Roman army). At that moment Hasdrubal's wife allegedly went out with her two children, insulted her husband, sacrificed her sons and jumped with them into a fire that the deserters had started.
The deserters hurled themselves into the flames, upon which Scipio Aemilianus began weeping. He recited a sentence from Homer's Iliad, a prophecy about the destruction of Troy, that could be applied to Carthage. Scipio declared that the fate of Carthage might one day be Rome's. In the words of Polybius:  Historians' views  Since the 19th century, various historians have claimed that the Romans ploughed over the city and sowed salt into the soil after destroying it but this is not supported by ancient sources. Certain scholars, including Professor of History Ben Kiernan, allege that the total destruction of Carthage by the Romans may have been history's first genocide.
Aftermath  The aftermath of the war would lead to Rome becoming one of the greatest expansionist powers in the Mediterranean as it was buoyed by its defeat of Carthage. The viciousness of the sack of Carthage could also be attributed to the actions of Hannibal the Carthaginian General who had defeated the Romans several times during the Second Punic War. Therefore it can be concluded that the sack of Carthage by the Romans was done as an act of revenge. The sudden Roman expansionism would also lead the Romans into a multitude of wars with the other powers in the Mediterranean, in particular the Greek city states and Macedon.
Notes  References  Duncan B. Campbell, "Besieged: siege warfare in the ancient world", Osprey Publishing, 2006, , pages 113–114  Goldworthy, Adrian, The Fall of Carthage (2000) London: Phoenix. Category:149 BC Carthage 149 BC Carthage 149 BC Category:Mass suicides Carthage 149 BC Category:Military history of Tunisia Category:140s BC conflicts Category:Looting  Carthage
In Tibetan Buddhism Beg-tse (Beg tse; Baik-tse) or Jamsaran ( "the Great Coat of Mail", a loanword from Mongolian  "coat of mail") is a dharmapala and the lord of war, in origin a pre-Buddhist war god of the Mongols. Begtse has red skin and orange-red hair, two arms (as opposed to other Mahākālas, who have four or six), three blood-shot eyes and is wielding a sword in his right hand. He also holds a human heart in his right hand. In the stock of his right arm, he holds a bow and arrow and a halberd with bannet. He wears a chainmail shirt, which gave rise to his name, Jamsaran.
He wears a Mongolian helmet with a crown of five skulls and four banners in the back. He is also accompianed by his consort, Rikpay Lhamo, and his main general, Laihansorgodog. They are surrounded by Jamsaran's satellites, the twenty-nine butchers. Jamsaran is represented in Mongolian, and to a lesser extent Tibetan, Cham dance. See also  Epic of King Gesar  Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, called an incarnation of Jamsaran by his followers  References  External links  Himalayan Art Resources. https://web.archive.org/web/20131101134355/http://www.thangka.ru/gallery/ge_jamsaran.html  Category:Dharmapalas Category:War gods
The China Study is a book by T. Colin Campbell and his son, Thomas M. Campbell II. It was first published in the United States in January 2005 and had sold over one million copies as of October 2013, making it one of America's best-selling books about nutrition. The China Study examines the link between the consumption of animal products (including dairy) and chronic illnesses such as coronary heart disease, diabetes, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and bowel cancer. The authors conclude that people who eat a predominantly whole-food, plant-based diet—avoiding animal products as a main source of nutrition, including beef, pork, poultry, fish, eggs, cheese, and milk, and reducing their intake of processed foods and refined carbohydrates—will escape, reduce, or reverse the development of numerous diseases.
They write that "eating foods that contain any cholesterol above 0 mg is unhealthy." The book recommends sunshine exposure or dietary supplements to maintain adequate levels of vitamin D, and supplements of vitamin B12 in case of complete avoidance of animal products. It criticizes low-carb diets, such as the Atkins diet, which include restrictions on the percentage of calories derived from carbohydrates The authors are critical of reductionist approaches to the study of nutrition, whereby certain nutrients are blamed for disease, as opposed to studying patterns of nutrition and the interactions between nutrients. The book is based on the China–Cornell–Oxford Project, a 20-year study—described by The New York Times as "the Grand Prix of epidemiology"—conducted by the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine, Cornell University, and the University of Oxford.
T. Colin Campbell was one of the study's directors. It looked at mortality rates from cancer and other chronic diseases from 1973–75 in 65 counties in China; the data was correlated with 1983–84 dietary surveys and blood work from 100 people in each county. The research was conducted in those counties because they had genetically similar populations that tended, over generations, to live and eat in the same way in the same place. The study concluded that counties with a high consumption of animal-based foods in 1983–84 were more likely to have had higher death rates from "Western" diseases as of 1973–75, while the opposite was true for counties that ate more plant-based foods.
Background to the China–Cornell–Oxford Project  The China–Cornell–Oxford Project—the "China-Oxford-Cornell Study on Dietary, Lifestyle and Disease Mortality Characteristics in 65 Rural Chinese Counties," referred to in the book as "the China Study"—was a comprehensive study of dietary and lifestyle factors associated with disease mortality in China. The study compared the health consequences of diets rich in animal-based foods to diets rich in plant-based foods among people who were genetically similar. The idea for the study began in 1980–81 during discussions between T. Colin Campbell at Cornell and Chen Junshi, Deputy Director of Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene at the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine.
They were later joined by Richard Peto of the University of Oxford—Professor of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology as of 2012—and Li Junyao of the China Cancer Institute. In 1983 two villages were chosen at random in each of 65 rural counties in China, and 50 families were chosen at random in each village. The dietary habits of one adult member of each family were examined—half male, half female—and the results compared to the death rates in those counties from around 48 forms of cancers and other diseases during  Reception Sanjay Gupta, CNN's chief medical correspondent, said in his documentary The Last Heart Attack in 2011 that The China Study had changed the way people all over the world eat.
Former American President Bill Clinton became a supporter when he adopted a plant-based diet after a heart attack. Wilfred Niels Arnold, professor of biochemistry at the University of Kansas Medical Center, reviewed the book in Leonardo in 2005: "[T]he authors anticipate resistant and hostile sources, sail on with escalating enthusiasm, and furnish a working hypothesis that is valuable. In fact, the surprising data are difficult to interpret in any other way." In a written debate with Campbell in 2008, nutritionist Loren Cordain argued that "the fundamental logic underlying Campbell's hypothesis (that low [animal] protein diets improve human health) is untenable and inconsistent with the evolution of our own species."
Campbell argued that "dietdisease associations observed in contemporary times are far more meaningful than what might have occurred during evolutionary times—at least since the last 2.5 million years or so." The book was reviewed by Harriet Hall, a physician and skeptic who writes about alternative medicine, in a blog entry posted on the Science-Based Medicine website in 2009. Hall argued that the book had references which do not support directly the claims made by the authors. She also stated that the book does not explain the exceptions to his data—for example that "stomach cancer rates are higher in China than elsewhere in the world."
However, subsequent studies have shown that helicobacter pylori, a prominent disease in China to be the prominent cause to stomach cancer in most individuals. See also  Stanley Green Adventist Health Studies  Notes  References  Further reading  Nestle, Marion. Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health. University of California Press, 2007. The author curates a personal blog about her book's themes at http://www.foodpolitics.com. Naked Food Magazine, quarterly magazine detailing a plant-based diet, with recipes. Website: NakedFoodMagazine.com  External links       The China Project Data  The China Study References  Category:Books about food and drink Category:Health and wellness books Category:Health in China Category:Plant-based diets Category:Vegetarian-related media Category:Vegetarianism in the United States
A smoothie is a drink made from pureed raw fruit and/or vegetables, typically using a blender. A smoothie often has a liquid base such as water, fruit juice, plant milk, and sometimes dairy products (milk, yogurt, ice-cream or cottage cheese). Smoothies may be made using other ingredients such as crushed ice, sweeteners (e.g. honey, sugar, stevia, or syrup), whey powder, nuts, nut butter, seeds, tea, chocolate, herbal supplements, or nutritional supplements. A smoothie using dairy milk is similar to a milkshake, which typically has no or less fruit and uses ice cream or frozen yogurt. Composition  As products typically using raw fruits or vegetables, smoothies include dietary fiber (e.g.
pulp, skin, and seeds) and so are thicker than fruit juice, often with a consistency similar to a milkshake. Smoothies, particularly "green smoothies" that include vegetables, may be marketed to health-conscious people for being healthier than milkshakes. The healthfulness of a smoothie depends on its ingredients and their proportions. Many smoothies include large or multiple servings of fruits and vegetables, which are recommended in a healthy diet and intended to be a meal replacement. However, fruit juice containing high amounts of sugar can increase caloric intake and promote weight gain. Similarly, ingredients such as protein powders, sweeteners, or ice cream are often used in smoothie recipes, some of which contribute mostly to flavor and further caloric intake.
Green smoothie  A green smoothie typically consists of 40–50% green vegetables (roughly half), usually raw green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, kale, swiss chard, collard greens, celery, parsley, or broccoli, with the remaining ingredients being mostly or entirely fruit. Wheatgrass and spirulina are also used as healthful ingredients. Most green leafy vegetables have a bitter flavor when served raw, but this can be ameliorated by choosing certain less-bitter vegetables (e.g. baby spinach) or combining with certain fruit (e.g. banana softens both the flavor and texture). Some blender manufacturers now specifically target their products towards making green smoothies and provide a booklet of recipes for them.
If the fruit ingredients and the green vegetable ingredients are both juiced ahead of time, the mixed juice doesn't even have to be blended like a smoothie, i.e. a green juice. Around the world Many different smoothies are part of Indian, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern cuisine. Fruit sharbat (a popular West and South Asian drink) sometimes include yogurt and honey, too. In India, the lassi is a smoothie or milkshake comprising crushed ice, yogurt, sometimes sugar, and often mango; in the south, pineapple smoothies made with crushed ice, sugar and no yogurt are more popular. Health food stores on the West Coast of the United States began selling smoothies in the 1930s associated with invention of the electric blender.
The actual term "smoothie" was being used in recipes and trademarks by the mid-1980s. See also   Ayran  Blaster Bates (drink)  Chaas  Doogh  Health shake  Kumis  Lassi  Milkshake  List of beverages  List of dairy products  List of fruit dishes  List of yogurt-based dishes and beverages  References  External links     Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Juice Category:Non-alcoholic mixed drinks
LC10 was the original name given to a series of very small three-cylinder, two-stroke engines built by Suzuki Motor Corporation in the 1960s and 1970s. They were used in a number of kei class automobiles and light trucks. The LC10 and its derivatives did not completely replace the FE and L50 two-cylinders, which continued to be used mainly for light commercials. The LC10 engine was developed together with the Suzuki B100 engine, a   single-cylinder motorcycle engine which shared the same bore and stroke. For longevity and convenience, the LC10 received Suzuki's new "Posi-Force" auto-lubrication system, eliminating the need for pre-mixed fuel.
LC10  The engine was first seen in air-cooled form, equipped with three Mikuni VM carburettors, in the 1967 LC10 Suzuki Fronte 360. Displacement was , from a bore and stroke of . Originally developing , a  SS version soon appeared, with a stunning . For the conventionally laid out Fronte Van, Estate, and Custom a single carburettor version was used. Combined with a lower compression ratio of 6.8:1, this meant a max power of . For 1971, the LC10 engine received Suzuki's new self-lubricating "CCIS" system (Cylinder Crank Injection and Selmix). In 1969, Japanese racing car manufacturer Nialco built a single-seater called the RQ which utilized the triple-carb LC10 engine and competed in the RQ ("Racing Quarterly") Minicar Racing Tournament.
Their best result was a fourth in the 1969 meet at Fuji, with Kikuo Kaira (future co-founder of Tommy Kaira) at the wheel. Applications:  1967.04–1970.11 Suzuki Fronte 360  1970.11–1973.07 Suzuki Fronte LC10 II ("Sting Ray" Fronte)  1969.01–1972.03 Suzuki Fronte Van/Estate/Custom LS10/11,   1970.08–1971 Suzuki Fronte Hi-Custom LS11,  LC10W  In May 1971, as kei cars were becoming more and more sophisticated, a water-cooled version was presented. The air-cooled versions were soon relegated to use only in the cheapest versions, and disappeared entirely after 1973 as emissions standards became more stringent. The watercooled versions also had slightly better weight distribution (38/62 versus 37.5/62.5), due to the radiator being mounted up front.
This, the LC10W, was the only engine ever to be installed in the iconic Suzuki Fronte Coupé, whether in domestic or export market cars. The new 1973-1976 "oval shell" Fronte received the new LC20 chassis code but retained the LC10W engine code. From 1973 the LC10W engines also received Suzuki's SRIS (Suzuki Recycle Injection System), a method for lowering visible exhaust smoke by collecting and burning residual oil/gas lying in the bottom of the crank chambers. This was first seen on the Suzuki GT750, GT550, and GT380 motorcycles. In an effort to reduce CO, HC, and NOx emissions, the EPIC (Exhaust Port Ignition Cleaner) system was also installed.
Applications:  1971.05–1973.07 Suzuki Fronte LC10 W  1971.09–1976 Suzuki Fronte Coupé  1973–1976.05 Suzuki Fronte LC20  LC50 A bored-out version  of the air-cooled LC10, called the LC50 in reference to its near half-litre displacement (actually ) appeared in January 1969. In street applications, this engine was only for export, and was only ever made with air cooling. Like its smaller brethren, the LC50 breathed through triple carburettors. Water-cooled  triples were built for racing purposes, producing  at 9,000 rpm. These took part in the JAF Grand Prix Formula Junior class as well as "MR" (Minicar Racing) meets. Thus equipped, the Can-Am style Fronte RF with Mitsuo Itoh at the helm took the victory at the 1970 "Junior Seven Challenge Cup" race, held at Fuji International Speedway, with an average speed of .
1969.01–1970 Suzuki Fronte 500  1970–1973.07 Suzuki Fronte 500/LC50 ("Sting Ray")  T4A In response to the changed Kei car regulations taking effect on January 1, 1976, Suzuki developed a bored out and cleaner version of the LC10W, featuring Suzuki TC (Twin Catalyst, a double muffler in which uncombusted fuel was burned) emissions equipment. The watercooled  engine's bore was , while retaining the  stroke. Sometime between 1973 and 1976 Suzuki had changed their system of naming engines, so this engine became the T4A. This meant that it was the first ("A") engine with a 0.4-litre displacement. The T4A was fairly short-lived (only used in the Fronte 7-S for a little over two years), and was soon replaced by an unrelated "full size" (550 cc) engine called the T5A/T5B.
The emissions strangled T4A put out  at 4,500 rpm in its final "TC53" form: specific power was 54% of what a 1972 Fronte GT had managed. 1976.05–1977.10 Suzuki Fronte 7-S SS10/SS12  See also List of Suzuki engines  References  LC10 Category:Two-stroke gasoline engines Category:Inline-three engines Category:Gasoline engines by model
The fifteenth season of America's Got Talent, an American talent show competition, will broadcast in the United States beginning on May 26, 2020, on NBC. Following the previous season, Julianne Hough and Gabrielle Union were let go from the program, leading to Heidi Klum returning to her role as judge, alongside Sofía Vergara. This season is most notable for its production being affected by the coronavirus pandemic in 2020, alongside other television programs, which impacted audition sessions that year. Season overview Open auditions were held in late 2019, though production staff faced the task of finding replacement judges before the main audition sessions began.
Following the previous season, Julianne Hough and Gabrielle Union were let go from the series, and the eventual search for their replacements led to the producer announcing on February 27, 2020, that Heidi Klum would be returning to America's Got Talent in her former role, alongside newcomer Sofía Vergara. Production on the season was dramactically impacted with complications as a result of the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic, which was already affecting television and film shoots across the globe; during filming, Klum fell ill, leading to Eric Stonestreet standing in for her during an audition session. As the United States furthered restrictions to combat the spread of the coronavirus, the program initially moved to filming without an audience present at auditions, before ultimately suspending production; auditions were later allowed to continue, but via online applications from those stuck in their homes.
By April 27, production staff decided that the season would be broadcast as planned and premiere on May 26, though with continuing debate on how many episodes would be broadcast with the amount of material that had been already recorded. References  External links  15 Category:Impact of the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic on television Category:Upcoming television seasons
A pseudanthium (Greek for "false flower"), also called a flower head, composite flower, or capitulum, is a special type of inflorescence, in which anything from a small cluster to hundreds or sometimes thousands of flowers are grouped together to form a single flower-like structure. Pseudanthia take various forms. The individual flowers of a pseudanthium commonly are called florets. The real flowers (the florets) are generally small and often greatly reduced, but the pseudanthium itself can sometimes be quite large (as in the heads of some varieties of sunflower). Pseudanthia are characteristic of the daisy and sunflower family (Asteraceae), whose flowers are differentiated into ray flowers and disk flowers, unique to this family.
The disk flowers in the center of the pseudanthium are actinomorphic and the corolla is fused into a tube. Flowers on the periphery are zygomorphic and the corolla has one large lobe (the so-called "petals" of a daisy are individual ray flowers, for example). Either ray or disk flowers may be absent in some plants: Senecio vulgaris lacks ray flowers and Taraxacum officinale lacks disk flowers. The pseudanthium has a whorl of bracts below the flowers, forming an involucre. In all cases, a pseudanthium (inflorescence) is superficially indistinguishable from a flower, but closer inspection of its anatomy will reveal that it is composed of multiple flowers.
Thus, the pseudanthium represents an evolutionary convergence of the inflorescence to a reduced reproductive unit that may function in pollination like a single flower, at least in plants that are animal pollinated. Related terms Head This is an equivalent term for flower head and pseudanthium when used in the botanical sense. Capitulum (plural capitula) Capitulum can be used as an exact synonym for pseudanthium and flower head; however its use is generally but not always restricted to the family Asteraceae. At least one source defines it as a small flower head. In addition to its botanical use as a term meaning flower head it is also used to mean the top of the sphagnum plant.
Calathid (plural calathids or calathidia) This is a very rarely used term. It was defined in the 1966 book, The genera of flowering plants (Angiospermae), as a specific term for a flower head of a plant in the family Asteraceae. However, on-line botanical glossaries do not define it and Google Scholar does not link to any significant usage of the term in a botanical sense. Plant families  Pseudanthia occur in the following plant families: Apiaceae — pseudanthia are called umbels Araceae — pseudanthia are called spadices Asteraceae Campanulaceae Centrolepidaceae Cornaceae Cyperaceae Dipsacaceae Euphorbiaceae — pseudanthia are called cyathia Eriocaulaceae Hamamelidaceae Moraceae Myrtaceae — in Actinodium Poaceae Pontederiaceae — in Hydrothrix Proteaceae Rubiaceae Saururaceae — in Anemopsis  In some families it is not yet clear whether the 'flower' represents a pseudanthium, because the anatomical work has not been done (or is still ambiguous due to considerable evolutionary reduction).
Possible pseudanthia of this type may occur in the following families:  Hydatellaceae Lemnaceae Pandanaceae Triuridaceae Phyllanthaceae  Gallery  References   Category:Plant morphology Category:Flowers
Mumtaz Mahal (Persian: ممتاز محل ; born Arjumand Banu; 27 April 1593 – 17 June 1631) was the Empress consort of the Mughal Empire from 19 January 1628 to 17 June 1631 as the chief consort of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. The Taj Mahal in Agra, often cited as one of the Wonders of the World, was commissioned by her husband to act as her tomb. Mumtaz Mahal was born Arjumand Banu Begum in Agra to a family of Persian nobility. She was the daughter of Abu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan, a wealthy Persian noble who held high office in the Mughal Empire, and the niece of Empress Nur Jahan, the chief wife of Emperor Jahangir and the power behind the emperor.
She was married at the age of 19 on 30 April 1612 to Prince Khurram,  later known by his regnal name Shah Jahan, who conferred upon her the title "Mumtaz Mahal" (Persian: the exalted one of the palace). Although betrothed to Shah Jahan since 1607, she ultimately became his second wife in 1612. Mumtaz and her husband had fourteen children, including Jahanara Begum (Shah Jahan's favourite daughter), and the Crown prince Dara Shikoh, the heir-apparent, anointed by his father, who temporarily succeeded him, until deposed by Mumtaz Mahal's sixth child, Aurangzeb, who ultimately succeeded his father as the sixth Mughal emperor in 1658.
Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631 in Burhanpur, Deccan (present-day Madhya Pradesh), during the birth of her fourteenth child, a daughter named Gauhar Ara Begum. Shah Jahan had the Taj Mahal built as a tomb for her, which is considered to be a monument of undying love. As with other Mughal royal ladies, we have no contemporary likenesses that are accepted as of her, but numerous imagined portraits were created from the 19th century onwards. Family and early life Mumtaz Mahal was born as Arjumand Banu on 27 April 1593 in Agra to Abu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan and his wife Diwanji Begum, the daughter of a Persian noble, Khwaja Ghias-ud-din of Qazvin.
Asaf Khan was a wealthy Persian noble who held high office in the Mughal Empire. His family had come to India impoverished in 1577, when his father Mirza Ghias Beg (popularly known by his title of I'timad-ud-Daulah), was taken into the service of Emperor Akbar in Agra. Asaf Khan was also the older brother of Empress Nur Jahan, making Mumtaz a niece, and later, a step daughter-in-law of Nur Jahan, the chief consort of Emperor Jahangir, Shah Jahan's father. Her older sister, Parwar Khanum, married Sheikh Farid, the son of Nawab Qutubuddin Koka, the governor of Badaun, who was also the emperor Jahangir's foster brother.
Mumtaz also had a brother, Shaista Khan, who served as the governor of Bengal and various other provinces in the empire during Shah Jahan's reign. Mumtaz was remarkable in the field of learning and was a talented and cultured lady. She was well-versed in Arabic and Persian languages and could compose poems in the latter. She was reputed to have a combination of modesty and candor, a woman warmly straightforward yet bemusedly self-possessed. Early in adolescence, she attracted the attention of important nobles of the realm. Jahangir must have heard about her, since he readily consented to Shah Jahan's engagement with her.
Marriage  Mumtaz Mahal was betrothed to Shah Jahan around 30 January 1607, when she was 14 years old at the time and he was 15. They were, however, married five years after the year of their betrothal on 30 April 1612 in Agra. The marriage was a love-match. After their wedding celebrations, Shah Jahan, "finding her in appearance and character elect among all the women of the time", gave her the title "Mumtaz Mahal" Begum ("the Exalted One of the Palace"). During the intervening years between their betrothal and marriage, Shah Jahan had married his first wife, Princess Kandahari Begum in 1609 and in 1617, after marrying Mumtaz, took a third wife, Izz-un-Nissa Begum (titled Akbarabadi Mahal), the daughter of a prominent Mughal courtier.
According to the official court historians, both the marriages were political alliances. By all accounts, Shah Jahan was so taken with Mumtaz that he showed little interest in exercising his polygamous rights with his two other wives, other than dutifully siring a child with each. According to the official court chronicler, Motamid Khan, as recorded in his Iqbal Namah-e-Jahangiri, the relationship with his other wives "had nothing more than the status of marriage. The intimacy, deep affection, attention and favour which Shah Jahan had for Mumtaz exceeded what he felt for his other wives." Likewise, Shah Jahan's historian Inayat Khan commented that 'his whole delight was centered on this illustrious lady [Mumtaz], to such an extent that he did not feel towards the others [i.e.
his other wives] one-thousandth part of the affection that he did for her.' Mumtaz had a loving marriage with Shah Jahan. Even during her lifetime, poets would extol her beauty, grace, and compassion. Despite her frequent pregnancies, Mumtaz travelled with Shah Jahan's entourage throughout his earlier military campaigns and the subsequent rebellion against his father. She was his constant companion and trusted confidant, leading court historians to go to unheard lengths to document the intimate and erotic relationship the couple enjoyed. In their nineteen years of marriage, they had fourteen children together (eight sons and six daughters), seven of whom died at birth or at a very young age.
Mughal empress Upon his accession to the throne in 1628, Shah Jahan designated Mumtaz as his chief empress with the title of 'Malika-i-Jahan' ("Queen of the World") and 'Malika-uz-Zamani' ("Queen of the Age"). Mumtaz's tenure as empress was brief, spanning a period of only three years due to her untimely death, nonetheless, Shah Jahan bestowed her with luxuries that no other empress was given before her. For example, no other empress' residence was as decorated as Khas Mahal (part of Agra Fort), where Mumtaz lived with Shah Jahan. It was decorated with pure gold and precious stones and had rose-water fountains of its own.
Each wife of the Mughal emperor was given a regular monthly allowance for her gastos (housekeeping or travelling expenses); the highest such allowance on record is the one million rupees per year given to Mumtaz Mahal by Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan consulted Mumtaz in both private matters and the affairs of the state, and she served as his close confidant and trusted adviser. At her intercession, he forgave enemies or commuted death sentences. His trust in her was so great that he gave her the highest honour of the land – his imperial seal, the Mehr Uzaz, which validated imperial decrees.
Mumtaz was portrayed as having no aspirations to political power, in contrast to her aunt, Empress Nur Jahan, the chief consort of Emperor Jahangir, who had wielded considerable influence in the previous reign. A great influence on him, often intervening on behalf of the poor and destitute, she also enjoyed watching elephant and combat fights performed for the court. Mumtaz also patronized a number of poets, scholars and other talented persons. A noted Sanskrit poet, Vansidhara Mishra, was the Empress's favourite. On the recommendation of her principal lady-in-waiting, Sati-un-Nissa, Mumtaz Mahal provided pensions and donations to the daughters of poor scholars, theologians, and pious men.
It was quite common for women of noble birth to commission architecture in the Mughal Empire, so Mumtaz devoted some time to a riverside garden in Agra, which is now known as Zahara Bagh. It is the only architectural foundation which can be connected to her patronage. Death and aftermath  Mumtaz Mahal died from postpartum hemorrhage in Burhanpur on 17 June 1631 while giving birth to her fourteenth child, after a prolonged labor of approximately 30 hours. She had been accompanying her husband while he was fighting a campaign in the Deccan Plateau. Her body was temporarily buried at Burhanpur in a walled pleasure garden known as Zainabad originally constructed by Shah Jahan's uncle Daniyal on the bank of the Tapti River.
The contemporary court chroniclers paid an unusual amount of attention to Mumtaz Mahal's death and Shah Jahan's grief at her demise. In the immediate aftermath of his bereavement, the emperor was reportedly inconsolable. Apparently, after her death, he went into secluded mourning for a year. When he appeared again, his hair had turned white, his back was bent, and his face worn. Mumtaz's eldest daughter, Jahanara Begum, gradually brought her father out of grief and took her mother's place at court. Mumtaz Mahal's personal fortune (valued at ten million rupees) was divided by Shah Jahan between Jahanara Begum, who received half and the rest of her surviving children.
Burhanpur was never intended by her husband as his wife's final resting spot. As a result, her body was disinterred in December 1631 and transported in a golden casket escorted by her son Shah Shuja and the deceased empress's head lady-in-waiting back to Agra. There it was interred in a small building on the banks of the Yamuna River. Shah Jahan stayed behind in Burhanpur to conclude the military campaign that had originally brought him to the region. While there, he began planning the design and construction of a suitable mausoleum and funerary garden in Agra for his wife. It was a task that would take 22 years to complete: the Taj Mahal.
Taj Mahal   The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Shah Jahan to be built as a mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal. It is seen as an embodiment of undying love and marital devotion. English poet Sir Edwin Arnold describes it as "Not a piece of architecture, as other buildings are, but the proud passion of an emperor's love wrought in living stones." The beauty of the monument is also taken as a representation of Mumtaz Mahal's beauty and this association leads many to describe the Taj Mahal as feminine. Since Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decorations on graves, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan are placed in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned to the right and towards Mecca.
The Ninety Nine Names of God are found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal in the crypt including, "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious…". There are many theories about the origin of the name of this tomb and one of them suggests that 'Taj' is an abbreviation of the name Mumtaz. European travelers, such as François Bernier, who observed its construction, were among the first to call it the Taj Mahal. Since it is unlikely that they came up with the name, it is suggested that they might have picked it up from the locals of Agra who called the Empress 'Taj Mahal' and thought the tomb was named after her and the name began to be used interchangeably.
However, there is no firm evidence to suggest this. Shah Jahan had not intended to entomb another person in the Taj Mahal; however, Aurangzeb had Shah Jahan buried next to the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal rather than build a separate tomb for his father. This is evident from the asymmetrical placement of Shah Jahan's grave on one side of his wife's grave which is in the centre. In popular culture A crater was named in her honour on asteroid 433 Eros, along with another one after her husband. Literature Arjumand Banu (Mumtaz Mahal) is a principal character in Indu Sundaresan's novel The Feast of Roses (2003) and its sequel, Shadow Princess (2010), begins with her death.
Mumtaz Mahal is a main character in Sonja Chandrachud's novel Trouble at the Taj (2011). She appears in the book as a ghost. In John Shors' novel Beneath a Marble Sky (2013), Mahal's daughter, Princess Jahanara, tells the extraordinary story of how the Taj Mahal came to be, describing her own life as an agent in its creation and as a witness to the fateful events surrounding its completion. Films Actress Enakshi Rama Rau played the role of Mumtaz Mahal in Shiraz (1928). Actress Suraiya played the role of young Mumtaz Mahal in Nanubhai Vakil's film Taj Mahal (1941). Mumtaz Mahal was portrayed by actress Nasreen in Abdul Rashid Kardar's film Shahjehan (1946).
Bina Rai portrayed Mumtaz Mahal in M. Sadiq's film Taj Mahal (1963). Sonya Jehan portrayed Mumtaz Mahal in Akbar Khan's film Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story (2005). Other Mumtaz Mahal was the inspiration behind the popular Guerlain perfume Shalimar (1921). Issue  Ancestry  References  Bibliography  External links   Mumtaz Mahal  Category:1593 births Category:1631 deaths Category:Mughal empresses Category:Deaths in childbirth Category:Indian female royalty Category:Indian Shia Muslims Category:Mughal nobility Category:People from Agra Category:Royal consorts Category:Taj Mahal Category:Women of the Mughal Empire Category:Indian queen consorts Category:16th-century Indian women Category:17th-century Indian women Category:16th-century Iranian people Category:17th-century Iranian people Category:Indian people of Iranian descent
Saprotrophic nutrition  or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi (for example Mucor) and soil bacteria. Saprotrophic microscopic fungi are sometimes called saprobes; saprotrophic plants or bacterial flora are called saprophytes (sapro- + -phyte, "rotten material" + "plant"), though it is now believed that all plants previously thought to be saprotrophic are in fact parasites of microscopic fungi or other plants. The process is most often facilitated through the active transport of such materials through endocytosis within the internal mycelium and its constituent hyphae.
Various word roots relating to decayed matter (detritus, sapro-), eating and nutrition (-vore, -phage), and plants or life forms (-phyte, -obe) produce various terms, such as detritivore, detritophage, saprotroph, saprophyte, saprophage, and saprobe; their meanings overlap, although technical distinctions (based on physiologic mechanisms) narrow the senses. For example, usage distinctions can be made based on macroscopic swallowing of detritus (as an earthworm does) versus microscopic lysis of detritus (as a mushroom does). A facultative saprophyte appears on stressed or dying plants and may combine with the live pathogens.. Process   As matter decomposes within a medium  in which a saprotroph is residing, the saprotroph breaks such matter down into its composites.
Proteins are broken down into their amino acid composites through the breaking of peptide bonds by proteases. Lipids are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol by lipases. Starch is broken down into pieces of simple disaccharides by amylases. These products are re-absorbed into the hypha through the cell wall by endocytosis and passed on throughout the mycelium complex. This facilitates the passage of such materials throughout the organism and allows for growth and, if necessary, repair. Conditions  In order for a saprotrophic organism to facilitate optimal growth and repair, favourable conditions and nutrients must be present. Optimal conditions refers to several conditions which optimise the growth of saprotrophic organisms, such as;   Presence of water: 80–90% of the fungi is composed of water by mass, and requires excess water for absorption due to the evaporation of internally retent water.
Presence of oxygen: Very few saprotrophic organisms can endure anaerobic conditions as evidenced by their growth above media such as water or soil. Neutral-acidic pH: The condition of neutral or mildly acidic conditions under pH 7 are required. Low-medium temperature: The majority of saprotrophic organisms require temperatures between 1 °C and 35 °C, with optimum growth occurring at 25 °C. The majority of nutrients taken in by such organisms must be able to provide carbon, proteins, vitamins and in some cases, ions. Due to the carbon composition of the majority of organisms, dead and organic matter provide rich sources of disaccharides and polysaccharides such as  maltose and starch, and of the monosaccharide glucose.
In terms of nitrogen-rich sources, saprotrophs require combined protein for the creation of proteins, which is facilitated by the absorption of amino acids, and usually taken from rich soil. Although both ions and vitamins are rare, thiamine or ions such as potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium aid the growth of the mycelium. ''' See also    Decomposers  Detritivore  Chemoautotrophic nutrition  Photoautotrophic nutrition  Holozoic nutrition  Parasitic nutrition  Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage  Wood-decay fungus  References  Further reading  Category:Nutrition Category:Mycology Category:Dead wood
This is a list of islands of Sweden. In total there are 221,831 islands in Sweden with an area of at least 25 m², around 1000 of which are inhabited. Rough population statistics are from 2015. Ordered by size  Other well-known islands   Adelsö Björkö (Birka) Frösön Gåsö Gotska Sandön Helgö Holmöarna Koster Islands Lidingö Märket Mjältön Stora Karlsö Ven Visingsö  See also  List of islands of Bothnian Bay List of islands of Stockholm List of lighthouses and lightvessels in Sweden List of islands in the Baltic Sea List of islands  References   * Sweden, List of islands of Islands *
A peach pit is the pit or stone of a peach. Peach pit or peachpit may also refer to: Peach-Pit, a manga artist duo Peach Pit, a Canadian indie pop band Peachpit, a publishing company The Peach Pit, a fictional diner in the Beverly Hills, 90210 franchise  See also The Pit (disambiguation)
Ginger Lynn Allen (born December 14, 1962) is an American pornographic actress and model who was a premier adult-entertainment star of the 1980s. She also had minor roles in various B movies. AVN has ranked her at #7 in a list of the 50 greatest porn stars of all time. After ending her pornography career, she began using her full name, Ginger Lynn Allen, and found work in a variety of B-movies. She had a late-career return to the adult industry and made a brief series of movies. Allen is a member of AVN, NightMoves Adult Entertainment, and XRCO Halls of Fame.
Career During her four-decade career, Allen has done a variety of roles and jobs. These include actress/performer, director, writer, producer, and assistant director. Early life Born and raised in Rockford, Illinois, Ginger Lynn Allen moved to California in 1982 to become her grandfather's caregiver following his heart attack. After he died, she had her "first nice boyfriend" move in with her. Allen, the breadwinner of the two, felt obligated to find a lucrative occupation. When she answered an advertisement from the World Modeling Agency in September 1983, she immediately signed a contract with that agency and did pictorials for Cheri, Club, and Penthouse, which brought her to the attention of the adult entertainment industry.
Adult industry Allen began as a nude model and then began performing in hardcore sex films as Ginger Lynn by December 1983. Her first pornographic movie role was in Surrender in Paradise, in which she starred with Jerry Butler. Allen's "girl next door" good looks led to a quick rise in her popularity and eventually she became one of the most popular female performers in adult-entertainment history. She had her own line of videos through Vivid Entertainment with the director Bruce Seven. Allen received the Best New Starlet award in 1985 and is an inductee to the X-Rated Critics Organization (XRCO) and Adult Video News (AVN) halls of fame.
Allen signed a contract with Vivid Entertainment founder, Steven Hirsch, making her the first 'Vivid Girl' and beating out the then-underaged Traci Lords. She was later called to testify on Lords' behalf against porn producers; she refused, and according to her, was then targeted by the Internal Revenue Service for falsification of a tax return. Mainstream In February 1986, Allen left adult video in order to establish herself in mainstream films by using her full name. She appeared in several non-adult films, television shows and interactive movie segments of the Wing Commander computer games. She started her career in mainstream features with a small part in the western Young Guns II, which co-starred her future boyfriend Charlie Sheen's brother, Emilio Estevez.
Allen was the subject of an episode of the documentary series E! True Hollywood Story in 2002. Allen appeared in another episode about her relationship with actor Charlie Sheen in 2010. In December 2005, she appeared in American Pie: Band Camp (2005) playing the supporting role of Nurse Sanders. In the same year, she portrayed  Fanny in Rob Zombie's thriller film The Devil's Rejects and later starred as Cherry Bomb in Zombie's slasher film 31. Adult return  Allen returned to the adult-entertainment industry in 1999 for three movies: Torn (1999), White Lightning (2000), and New Wave Hookers 6 (2000). In March 2006, she became a host of Playboy Radio's Sirius Satellite Radio show, Night Calls Radio, with former adult-entertainment performer Christy Canyon.
In June 2007, Allen performed for two of Kink.com's hardcore websites, Ultimate Surrender and Sex and Submission. In 2008, Allen appeared in the films Dirty Rotten Mother Fuckers with James Deen (24 years her junior) and Seasoned Players 4 with Tom Byron, then performed in more than a dozen hardcore releases in each of the next two years. Personal life  Allen had a relationship with Charlie Sheen from 1990 to 1992 and accompanied him through drug rehabilitation. Despite the claims that Sheen has been physically violent towards women, Lynn said she never saw the actor become abusive in the slightest.
"Not one time did he raise his voice. No violence," she said. She also had a long-term relationship with Los Angeles radio personality  Ralph Garman. In a 2003 interview, she described herself as the "single mother of a five-year-old son." Allen was diagnosed with cervical cancer in 2000. She underwent a total hysterectomy and some chemotherapy, and is regarded as cancer-free. Legal issues  In 1991, Lynn was charged with willfully submitting a false tax return in regard to the relatively small amount of $2,087.04. She was convicted, served four months and 17 days in federal prison, and spent most of her career earnings on legal fees.
Partial filmography  Adult  Beverly Hills Cox (1986)  Trashy Lady (1985)  Ten Little Maidens (1985) – AVN Awards 1986 Best Couples Sex Scene  Project: Ginger (1985) – AVN Awards 1986 Best Actress – Video  Girls on Fire (1985)  New Wave Hookers (1985)  Electric Blue 28 (1985)  Kinky Business (1984) – AVN Awards 1985 Best Couple in a Sex Scene (with Tom Byron)  Slumber Party (1984) – AVN Awards 1986 Best Couple in a Sex Scene (with Eric Edwards)  The Pink Lagoon (1984)  Surrender in Paradise (1984)  Taboo 4 (1985) the younger generation  Ginger Lynn: The Movie (1988) – AVN Awards 2006 Best Classic Release on DVD  Taken (2001) –  2002 AVN Award for Best Actress  Literature She fictionally appears in Andrés Spinova's novel "Marilyn y un par de Ases".
Awards  See also  Golden Age of Porn  References  External links           Category:1962 births Category:American female adult models Category:American film actresses Category:American pornographic film actresses Category:American people convicted of tax crimes Category:Cervical cancer survivors Category:Living people Category:Actors from Rockford, Illinois Category:Pornographic film actors from Illinois
Pseudo-random number sampling or non-uniform pseudo-random variate generation is the numerical practice of generating pseudo-random numbers that are distributed according to a given probability distribution. Methods of sampling a non-uniform distribution are typically based on the availability of a pseudo-random number generator producing numbers X that are uniformly distributed. Computational algorithms are then used to manipulate a single random variate, X, or often several such variates, into a new random variate Y such that these values have the required distribution. Historically, basic methods of pseudo-random number sampling were developed for Monte-Carlo simulations in the Manhattan project; they were first published by John von Neumann in the early 1950s.
Finite discrete distributions   For a discrete probability distribution with a finite number n of indices at which the probability mass function f takes non-zero values, the basic sampling algorithm is straightforward. The interval [0, 1) is divided in n intervals [0, f(1)), [f(1), f(1) + f(2)), ... The width of interval i equals the probability f(i). One draws a uniformly distributed pseudo-random number X, and searches for the index i of the corresponding interval. The so determined i will have the distribution f(i). Formalizing this idea becomes easier by using the cumulative distribution function  It is convenient to set F(0) = 0.
The n intervals are then simply [F(0), F(1)), [F(1), F(2)), ..., [F(n − 1), F(n)). The main computational task is then to determine i for which F(i − 1) ≤ X < F(i). This can be done by different algorithms:  Linear search, computational time linear in n.  Binary search, computational time goes with log n.  Indexed search, also called the cutpoint method. Alias method, computational time is constant, using some pre-computed tables. There are other methods that cost constant time. Continuous distributions   Generic methods for generating independent samples:  Rejection sampling for arbitrary density functions  Inverse transform sampling for distributions whose  is known  Slice sampling  Ziggurat algorithm, for monotonically  decreasing density functions as well as symmetric unimodal distributions  Convolution random number generator, not a sampling method in itself: it describes the use of arithmetics on top of one or more existing sampling methods to generate more involved distributions.
Generic methods for generating correlated samples (often necessary for unusually-shaped or high-dimensional distributions):  Markov chain Monte Carlo, the general principle  Metropolis–Hastings algorithm  Gibbs sampling  Slice sampling  Reversible-jump Markov chain Monte Carlo, when the number of dimensions is not fixed (e.g. when estimating a mixture model and simultaneously estimating the number of mixture components)  Particle filters, when the observed data is connected in a Markov chain and should be processed sequentially  For generating a normal distribution:  Box–Muller transform  Marsaglia polar method  For generating a Poisson distribution:  See Poisson distribution#Generating Poisson-distributed random variables  Software libraries   GNU Scientific Library has a section entitled "Random Number Distributions" with routines for sampling under more than twenty different distributions.
Footnotes  Literature    Devroye, L. (1986) Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation. New York: Springer  Fishman, G.S. (1996) Monte Carlo. Concepts, Algorithms, and Applications. New York: Springer  Hörmann, W.; J Leydold, G Derflinger (2004,2011) Automatic Nonuniform Random Variate Generation. Berlin: Springer. Knuth, D.E. (1997) The Art of Computer Programming, Vol. 2 Seminumerical Algorithms, Chapter 3.4.1 (3rd edition). Ripley, B.D. (1987) Stochastic Simulation. Wiley. Category:Pseudorandom number generators Category:Non-uniform random numbers
Noël Christopher Browne (20 December 1915 – 21 May 1997) was an Irish politician who served as Minister for Health from 1948 to 1951 and Leader of the National Progressive Democrats from 1958 to 1963. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1948 to 1954, 1957 to 1973 and 1977 to 1982. He was a Senator for the University of Dublin from 1973 to 1977. He holds the distinction of being one of only seven TDs to be appointed to the cabinet on the start of their first term in the Dáil. His controversial Mother and Child Scheme in effect brought down the First Inter-Party Government of Taoiseach John A. Costello in 1951.
Browne was a well-known, but at times highly controversial public representative, and managed to be a TD for five different political parties (two of which he co-founded). These were Clann na Poblachta (resigned), Fianna Fáil (expelled), National Progressive Democrats (co-founder), Labour Party (resigned) and the Socialist Labour Party (co-founder). Early life and career Noël Browne was born in Waterford, but grew up in the Bogside area of Derry. The Browne family also lived in Athlone and Ballinrobe for a period of time. His mother Mary Therese Cooney was born in 1885 in Hollymount, County Mayo; a plaque has been erected there in her memory.
His father worked as an inspector for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and, partly as a result of this work, all of the Browne family became infected with tuberculosis. Both parents died of the disease during the 1920s, and several of Browne's siblings also succumbed. In 1929, he was admitted free of charge to St Anthony's, a preparatory school in Eastbourne, England. He then won a scholarship to Beaumont College, the Jesuit public school near Old Windsor, Berkshire, where he befriended Neville Chance, a wealthy boy from Dublin. Neville's father, the eminent surgeon Arthur Chance (son of surgeon Sir Arthur Chance), subsequently paid Browne's way through medical school at Trinity College, Dublin.
In 1940, while still a student, Browne suffered a serious relapse of tuberculosis. His treatment at a sanatorium in Midhurst, Sussex was paid for by the Chance family. He recovered, passed his medical exams in 1942, and started his career as a medical intern at Dr Steevens' Hospital in Dublin. He subsequently worked in numerous sanatoria throughout Ireland and England, witnessing the ravages of the disease. He soon concluded that politics was the only way in which he could make an attack on the scourge of tuberculosis. Browne joined the new Irish republican party Clann na Poblachta and was elected to Dáil Éireann for the Dublin South-East constituency at the 1948 general election.
To the surprise of many, party leader Seán MacBride chose Browne to be one of the party's two ministers in the new government. Browne became one of the few TDs appointed a Minister on their first day in Dáil Éireann, when he was appointed Minister for Health. Minister for Health A 'White Paper' on proposed healthcare reforms had been prepared by the previous government, and resulted in the 1947 Health Act. In February 1948, Browne became Minister for Health and started the reforms advocated by the Paper and introduced by the Act. The health reforms coincided with the development of a new vaccine and of new drugs (e.g.
BCG and penicillin) that helped to treat a previously untreatable group of medical conditions. Browne introduced mass free screening for tuberculosis sufferers and launched a huge construction program to build new hospitals and sanitoria, financed by the income and accumulated investments from the Health Department-controlled Hospital Sweeps funds. This, along with the introduction of Streptomycin, helped dramatically reduce the incidence of tuberculosis in Ireland. However, during his term as Minister for Health, Browne would come in conflict with the Catholic Church and the medical profession over the Mother and Child Scheme. This plan, also introduced by the 1947 Health Act, provided for free state-funded healthcare for all mothers and children aged under 16, with no means test, a move which was regarded as radical at the time in Ireland, but not in the rest of Europe.
Virtually all doctors in private practice opposed the scheme, because it would undermine the "fee for service" model on which their income depended. The Church hierarchy, which controlled most hospitals, vigorously opposed the expansion of "socialised medicine" in the Irish republic (though they never objected to its provision via the British National Health Service in Northern Ireland). They claimed that the Mother and Child Scheme interfered with parental rights, and feared that the provision of non-religious medical advice to mothers would lead to birth control contrary to Catholic teaching. They greatly disliked Browne, seeing him as a "Trinity Catholic" (one who had defied the Church's ruling that the faithful should not attend Trinity College Dublin, which had been founded by Protestants and for many years did not allow Catholics to study there).
He was the only government Minister to attend the 1949 Church of Ireland funeral of Douglas Hyde, first President of Ireland. Under pressure from the Church, the coalition government backed away from the Mother and Child Scheme and forced Browne's resignation as Minister for Health. He gave his version of events in his resignation speech to the Dáil on 12 April 1951. In particular, he deplored that the government had referred his Scheme to the Church for approval, taking care to describe it to the Church as his plan and not as government policy, giving him no option but to resign as Minister.
The Taoiseach, John A. Costello, immediately retorted that "I have seldom listened to a statement in which there were so many—let me say it as charitably as possible—inaccuracies, misstatements and misrepresentations", and delivered his full reply several hours later. Following his departure from government, Browne embarrassed his opponents by arranging for The Irish Times to publish Costello's and MacBride's correspondence with the Catholic hierarchy, which detailed their capitulation to the bishops. The controversy over the Mother and Child Scheme led to the fall of the coalition government in which Browne had served as a Minister. But Church opposition to socialised medicine continued under the subsequent Fianna Fáil-led government.
The hierarchy would not accept a no-means-test mother-and-infant scheme even when Fianna Fáil reduced the age limit from sixteen years to six weeks, and the government again backed down. Later political career  After his resignation as Minister for Health, Browne left Clann na Poblachta, but was re-elected to the Dáil as an Independent TD from Dublin South-East in the subsequent election. Browne joined Fianna Fáil in 1953, but lost his Dáil seat at the 1954 general election and was later expelled from the party. At the 1957 general election he was re-elected for Dublin South-East as an Independent TD. In 1958, he founded the National Progressive Democrats with Jack McQuillan.
Browne held on to his seat at the 1961 general election, but in 1963, he and McQuillan joined the Labour Party, disbanding the National Progressive Democrats. However, Browne lost his seat at the 1965 general election. He was re-elected as a Labour Party TD at the 1969 general election, again for Dublin South-East. He failed to be nominated by the Labour Party for the 1973 general election, but instead won a seat in Seanad Éireann before being expelled from the Labour Party. He remained in the Seanad until the 1977 general election, when he gained a Dáil seat as an Independent TD once again, at Dublin Artane; he then became involved in the Socialist Labour Party and was briefly its only TD, securing election for Dublin North-Central at the 1981 general election.
Browne retired from politics at the February 1982 general election. Offer of presidential candidacy In 1990, a number of left-wing representatives within the Labour Party, led by Michael D. Higgins, approached Browne and suggested that he should be the party's candidate in the presidential election due later that year. Though in failing health, Browne agreed. However, the offer horrified party leader Dick Spring and his close associates for two reasons. Firstly, the leadership had secretly decided to run Mary Robinson, a barrister and former senator. Secondly, many around Spring were "appalled" at the idea of running Browne, believing he had "little or no respect for the party" and "was likely in any event to self-destruct as a candidate."
When Spring informed Browne by telephone that the party's Administrative Council had chosen Robinson over him, Browne hung up the telephone. Browne spent the remaining seven years of his life constantly criticising Robinson—who had gone on to win the election, thus becoming the seventh President of Ireland, and who was considered highly popular during her term. During the campaign he also indicated support for the rival Fine Gael candidate, Austin Currie. Personality Few figures in 20th-century Ireland were as controversial as Noël Browne. To his supporters he was a dynamic liberal who stood up to conservative and reactionary Catholicism. To his opponents he was an unstable, temperamental and difficult individual who was the author of most of his own misfortune.
Browne further alienated the middle ground in 1986, with the publishing of his autobiography Against the Tide. Historians like Dr. Ruth Barrington, who had written extensively about Irish health policy and had access to the files from the 1940s and 1950s, questioned the book's reliability. Writing a decade later, one of the chief officials of the Labour Party, Fergus Finlay, said Browne had developed into a "bad tempered and curmudgeonly old man". Historian and political scientist Maurice Manning wrote that Browne "had the capacity to inspire fierce loyalty, but many of those who worked with and against him over the years found him difficult, self-centred, unwilling to accept the good faith of his opponents and often profoundly unfair in his intolerance of those who disagreed with him".
However, some of this "difficulty" arose from the fact that Noël Browne was deaf in one ear from an infection. He also suffered numerous attacks of tuberculosis throughout his career, a fact which he kept private. Like most public figures, he rarely showed unpleasant traits to the public. After retiring from politics, Browne moved with his wife Phyllis to Baile na hAbhann, County Galway, where he died on 21 May 1997, aged 81. Legacy In a 2010 RTÉ public poll, he came in the top 10 of Ireland's Greatest. References  Sources  Noël Browne, Against the Tide, Gill & Macmillan, .
Ruth Barrington, Health, Medicine and Politics in Ireland 1900-1970, Institute of Public Administration, 1987, . Fergus Finlay, Snakes and Ladders, New Island Books, 1998, . Gabriel Kelly et al. (eds), Irish Social Policy in Context, UCD Press, 1999, . Maurice Manning, James Dillon: A Biography, Wolfhound Press, 2000, . Lorna Siggins, The Woman Who Took Power in the Park, Mainstream Publishing, 1997, . John Horgan, Noël Browne: Passionate Outsider, Gill & Macmillan, 2000, .
Category:1915 births Category:1997 deaths Category:Labour Party (Ireland) TDs Category:Clann na Poblachta TDs Category:Fianna Fáil TDs Category:National Progressive Democrats TDs Category:Independent TDs Category:Members of the 13th Dáil Category:Members of the 14th Dáil Category:Members of the 16th Dáil Category:Members of the 17th Dáil Category:Members of the 19th Dáil Category:Members of the 13th Seanad Category:Members of the 21st Dáil Category:Members of the 22nd Dáil Category:Ministers for Health (Ireland) Category:Politicians from County Waterford Category:20th-century Irish medical doctors Category:Members of Seanad Éireann for the University of Dublin
A Town Called Panic (French: Panique au village,  "Panic at the village") is an originally French-language Belgian stop-motion sitcom created by Stéphane Aubier and Vincent Patar for La Parti and Pic Pic André. It follows the everyday events of the characters Cowboy, Indian and Horse who live together in a small rural town as they go about their lives. The animation is designed to appear crude, as if done by a child (the characters evoke the look of cheap toy figurines) and the events of the characters' daily lives are extremely surreal and slapstick. The first Panique au village was a 4-minute short film premiered in 1991.
Its concept was developed into a television series, which was first broadcast from 2002 to 2003 and consists of 20 episodes each of roughly 5 minutes long (though some stations have broadcast them in 15- or 30-minute blocks). An English-language dub of the television series episodes was created and sold internationally by Aardman Animations. Since then, a spinoff feature film, again titled A Town Called Panic, was completed in spring 2009 and debuted at the Cannes Film Festival in May of the same year. In 2013, the half-hour Christmas special "The Christmas Log" was made, which received an English dub that aired on CBBC in 2014 under the title "A Christmas Panic".
The English dub for this special used different voice actors than the dub for the original series. In 2016 a new 3-minute short "The Noise of Grey" and later a second-half-hour special "Back to School!" were premiered, and a package film of "The Christmas Log" and "Back to School!" was released to cinemas worldwide under the name A Town Called Panic: Double Fun. A Town Called Panic has been seen worldwide on channels such as ABC Rollercoaster in Australia, Nicktoons Network in the United States, EBS in South Korea, and Teletoon in Canada, and it was available online at Atom Films.
In the UK, A Town Called Panic aired on Nickelodeon. Much of the characters and scenery were later recycled for the Cravendale Milk adverts (2007–2010) using a Pirate, a Cow and a bicyclist as the characters. Characters  This is the list of major characters in the original 20-episode run, with short descriptions. Cowboy (Coboy) Voiced By: Stéphane Aubier (French) / David Holt (English)  Cowboy is a toy figurine of a cowboy in a blue shirt and brown leather trousers, with a hat and, most of the time, a rifle. Cowboy is rather cowardly and not really bright, often getting himself into bad situations through his recklessness and childish behaviour.
He has something of a sibling rivalry with Indian (though they most likely aren't really related), and is intimidated by Horse. Indian (Indien) Voiced By: Bruce Ellison (French) / Alan Marriott (English)  Indian is a toy figurine of a stereotypical Native American tribal chief or elder, in a yellow shirt and brown leather trousers, with an elaborate and large feather headdress. He carries a ceremonial staff. Besides the usual standing position he is often seen in a Native American-style meditative pose. Other times he carries a bow and arrow. Indian is a little more mature than Cowboy, but still pursues foolhardy quests almost as much as his counterpart.
He is also somewhat fearful of Horse. In the Christmas Special's English dub, his name is changed to Chief. Horse (Cheval) Voiced By: Vincent Patar (French) / Alexander Armstrong (English)  Horse is a toy figurine of a brown horse. Although an animal, Horse is easily as intelligent as Cowboy and Indian (put together) and is the leader of the "family" he, Cowboy and Indian are part of. Even though he walks on all fours, he does most of the chores around their house, as both his charges are domestically useless. He maintains a cool head, doesn't engage in the foolish pursuits of Cowboy and Indian and keeps a semblance of normality in the house.
When Cowboy and/or Indian infuriate him, he kicks them (presumably with his hind legs) all over the house and usually into one of the walls, which is sufficient to keep the two in line most of the time. In the film, his birthday is June 21. Steven Voiced By: Benoît Poelvoorde (French) / John Sparkes (English)  A farmer who owns the only other house in the village. Constantly yells, even when not angry, and is very possessive of his tractor. Jeanine Voiced By: Lucy Montgomery (English)  Steven's loving wife. Bernadette  Steven and Jeanine's daughter   Policeman (Gendarme) Voiced By: David Holt (English)  Lives in a guard shack by the side of the road that passes through the village.
Farm animals (Animaux) Various Voices  The animals on Steven's farm. The bear (L'ours) Voiced By: Didier Odieu (French)  This is a figurine of a black bear on its hind legs that chases many of the characters quite frequently, usually after having been disturbed by them from his sleep. It is never made clear if it is the same bear or a different one every time, though they all look the same. Robin Hood Voiced By: David Holt (English)  A hunter obviously parodied from the original Robin Hood stories. He is a peckish and sometimes extremely careless hunter who lives in a caravan in the woods.
He can be recognised by his long blond hair, his green hunting clothes and his posh English accent, he carries an archery kit around with him. Simon  Simon is a citizen with orange hair, a green shirt, blue denim jeans and black boots, he lives alone in a strangely small shed that gets knocked down by Stevens red tractor in the episode "Cowboy goes Hunting". Simon is a fairly friendly man who occasionally appears in episodes, Simon is on neutral terms with Cowboy, Indian and Horse, never causing conflict with them.
Simon is often shown doing odd jobs for Cowboy and Indian including managing the sound effects with Horse and Chicken in the episode "The Play", Simon lights a fire next to the microphone to give the illusion that Cowboy is about to get burnt alive in the play but the fire gets out of control and out of stress Simon faints and everyone has to evacuate the building (Jenanine and Steven's barn), the barn completely burns down. Episodes   Up to 24 November 2011, 20 episodes of "A Town Called Panic" had been made. "Cake" ("Le gâteau") - Horse bakes a delicious cake, so Cowboy and Indian plan a midnight feast which is scuppered by the arrival of an angry bear.
"Cow Hulk" ("Cob'Hulk") - After Cowboy accidentally swallows a little pebble, things go out of hand when he suddenly turns into a caveman, gorilla, and a dinosaur. "The Easy Chair" ("Le Relax") - Cowboy cannot resist messing around with Horse's new lounger, which can change itself into a sun-bed, waffle-maker or Jacuzzi. "Still Life" ("Un séance de pose") - Indian decides to take up painting, but the flower he chooses as his first subject is stolen first by Jeanine, then by Steven, then by the Cow. "Lisa and Jan" ("Lise et Jan") - Two backpackers arrive in town, but Constable's attempts to find them somewhere to pitch their tent leads to a series of disasters.
"Robin" - Robin's appalling archery skills result in Jeanine's kitchen catching fire. But when Bernadette gets the blame, her friends plot revenge. "Fox Hunt" ("La chasse au renard") - Cowboy and Indian are on the trail of the same fox, but when Cowboy incurs the wrath of a ferocious bison, trouble soon escalates. "A Grand Day Out" ("La belle excursion") - Joseph takes Steven and his family on a day trip to see a farm run entirely by animals. But the place is not all that it seems. "Indian Treasure" ("Le trésor d'Indien") - Horse and Indian send Cowboy off on a wild goose chase.
But what lies at the end of their mysterious trail? "The Cycle Race" ("La course cycliste") - Cowboy and Indian are determined to win the Cycling Cup, and they don't care what underhand means they use to achieve this. "Constable's Fantastic Voyage" ("Le voyage de Gendarme") - A mysterious time machine takes Constable back to medieval times. But has the town really changed? "Donkey Gets Kidnapped" ("On a kidnappé Âne") - Cowboy and Indian lure Steven's animals into a glitzy disco, and take Donkey hostage in exchange for Steven's tractor. "The Big Sleep" ("Le grand sommeil") - A series of bizarre accidents sends Cowboy, Indian and Horse to sleep for centuries, and they awake to find a strange new world.
"Cowboy and Indian Go Camping" ("Coboy et Indien au camping") - Cowboy attempts to build a campfire while Indian goes off hunting, a sure-fire recipe for disaster. "The Picnic" ("Déjeuner sur l'herbe") - Horse digs up a bus containing the 1986 Mexican World Cup squad, who challenge our heroes to a bizarre soccer match. "The Card Thieves" ("Les voleurs de cartes") - Steven's pack of cards is stolen, and the trail leads to the duckpond, and eventually to the underwater world of Atlantis. "Cowboy Goes Hunting" ("Coboy chasseur") - Cowboy's attempts to bag a wild boar cause chaos when they end up concussing Steven at the wheel of his tractor.
"Horse's Nephew" ("Laurent le neveu de Cheval") - When Horse's mischievous nephew Lawrence comes to stay, Cowboy and Indian get blamed for a series of naughty pranks. "Jeanine and Steven's Vacation" ("Janine et Steven en vacances") - Steven leaves Cowboy and Indian in charge of the farm, but the animals have plans for a vacation of their own. "The Play" ("La pièce de théâtre") - The townsfolk put on a play in Steven's barn. Simon is charge of the special effects, so does disastrous results. Availability   In the United States and Canada, the original 20 television episodes, the 2014 special "The Christmas Log", the 2016 short "The Noise of Grey" and the 2016 special "Back to School!"
were released together on Blu-ray Disc (no DVD version has been released) under the title A Town Called Panic: The Collection by GKIDS on December 19, 2017. They have also released the series and specials (but not "The Noise of Grey") on video on demand services.
References   Notes  External links    Panique au Village – Official Website   A Town Called Panic – Official Website   La Parti – Production company website  Pic Pic Andre – Production company website  Watch the Entire Episodes of A Town Called Panic Series Online at Atom.com   AWN: Aardman Draws Buyers To A Town Called Panic  A Town Called Panic Movie – Variety Review from Canne May, 2009    Category:2000 Belgian television series debuts Category:2000 Belgian television series endings Category:2000s animated comedy television series Category:2000s animated television series Category:2000s Belgian television series Category:2000s sitcoms Category:Animated sitcoms Category:Belgian animated television series Category:Belgian television sitcoms Category:Stop-motion animated television series Category:Surreal comedy television series Category:Television programs adapted into films Category:Television series by Aardman Animations
Aspidelaps is a genus of venomous elapid snakes endemic to Africa. Species in the genus Aspidelaps are commonly called shield-nosed cobras or coral cobras after their cobra hoods and enlarged rostral (nose) scales. However, the hood is not nearly as well developed in Aspidelaps as it is in Naja. Species  Nota bene: A binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than Aspidelaps. Venom Aspidelaps venom is neurotoxic, and Aspidelaps bites have caused human deaths in a few cases. References  External links  Further reading Boulenger GA (1896). Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History).
Volume III., Containing the Colubridæ (Opisthoglyphae and Proteroglyphæ) ... London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I-XXV. (Genus Aspidelaps, p. 390). Branch, Bill (2004). Field Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa. Third Revised Edition, Second impression. Sanibel Island, Florida: Ralph Curtis Books. 399 pp. (Genus Aspidelaps, p. 103). Fitzinger L (1843). Systema Reptilium, Fasciculus Primus, Amblyglossae. Vienna: Braumüller & Seidel. 106 pp. + indices. (Aspidelaps, new genus, p. 28). (in Latin). Category:Elapidae Category:Snake genera     Category:Taxa named by Leopold Fitzinger
, fanservice, or  is material in a work of fiction or in a fictional series which is intentionally added to please the audience. The term originated in Japanese in the anime and manga fandom, but has been used in other languages and media. It is about "servicing" the fan – giving the fans "exactly what they want." Fan service can also refer (by means of text, symbol, image, sound) to other stories that contain visual elements. When anime and manga are translated into English by U.S. companies, the original work is often edited to remove some of the fan service,  making it more appropriate for U.S. audiences.
Mike Tatsugawa explained this change as a result of a difference between cultural values of Japan and the U.S. In fact, some anime seems to have little more than fan service as their selling point. Some believe that the prevalence of fan service indicates a lack of maturity within the fandom; an editor of Del Rey Manga joked that manga Negima! Magister Negi Magi, which contained fan service, should be rated as "for immature readers 16+" rather than for "mature readers 16+". Intertextual references are intended to be seen and understood by the fans, as a way for the creators of the show to acknowledge and engage the more knowledgeable members of the fan-base.
Intertextual fan service is now being inserted into media aimed at younger children as well; this can be seen in Shrek 2s upside-down kiss scene, which is a reference to an upside-down kiss scene in Spider-Man (2002). History Direct and deliberate audience arousal is nearly as old as fiction itself. Examples which can be found in early works include meta-references, where the work or audience is referenced within the work itself, homage or parody where the work references another work familiar to the audience, asides where a character in a work directly speaks to the audience, cameos where characters or persons familiar to the audience outside the work (such as the author, a celebrity, or a character from another story) make an appearance in the work for the audience's sake, and other examples of breaking the fourth wall to directly engage the audience.
An ancient example can be found in  Aristophanes' comedy The Frogs where two characters speak in the underworld:  These nods to the presence of the audience not only acknowledge the narration, but invite the audience to become a co-creator in the fiction. Unnecessary sexual arousal has also been a common feature of entertainment throughout history, but when it serves to enhance the work itself and when it could be simply be called "fan service" is debatable. Since the 1950s, professional sports, especially American football, have used cheerleaders to entertain the audience. These are typically scantily-clad women who dance and perform for the arousal of the fans.
These, along with mascots, musical performances, and halftime shows, are commonly known as "fan service" in Japanese sports, although the term is less commonly applied to sports in the US. In cinema, external factors of fandom such as societal norms and celebrity status can often affect a work of fiction. The 1952 French film Manina, la fille sans voiles (Manina, The Girl Without Sails) was not imported into the United States until 1958 after the success of the film's star Brigitte Bardot in that country. In the US, the film was renamed "Manina, The Girl In the Bikini" to highlight the appeal of the star and her revealing outfit (then a matter of controversy), despite her not appearing in the first 40 minutes of the 76 minute film.
In the United States, from 1934 to 1954, cinema was limited by the Hays Code in what it deemed appropriate to show audiences. In spite of this, foreign imported films and exploitation films specialized in providing sexual and taboo content which audiences were unable to view on television or in approved films. Keith Russell regards the beginning of modern fan service as taking place in a permissive context, when "kids were just doing kids' stuff", which he believes allowed authors some latitude in regards to their subject matter. Beginning in the 1970s with Cutey Honey, and continuing later with other magical girl shows, fan service in manga became more risqué.
By the 1980s full frontal nudity and shower scenes became standard content for anime and manga fan service. In the West, obscenity laws and rating systems (such as the Comics Code Authority in the United States or the MPAA rating system, which replaced the Hayes Code for film ratings) prevent or limit unnecessary displays of nudity in films and comic books. However, bikini shots and topless scenes were still popular forms of audience arousal. In the 1983 film Return of the Jedi, Carrie Fisher portrayed the character of Princess Leia wearing a metal bikini and chains while enslaved to the gangster Jabba the Hutt.
The motivation for this change in her character (previously portrayed in the series as a strong, empowered leader) to a seemingly vulnerable sex symbol was an attempt to feminize the character and appeal to boys' fantasies. Some critics point out, however, that by portraying Leia as the object of desire to a crude monster, the film is reflecting the crude fantasies of its audience. In 1991, Marvel Comics began publishing a special series catering to fan service, Marvel Swimsuit Specials, which features both male and female characters in swimsuits and skimpy clothing. In the same year, Marvel released a Sensational She-Hulk issue wherein the title character wears a bikini and jumps rope nude (blur lines cover any displays of nudity).
Although the concepts had been used previously, the term itself  most likely originated in the late 80s to describe such scenes in anime and manga. The term is used in the 1991 film Otaku no Video. Later, excessive fan service content came to be considered unnecessary regardless of its justification in relation to the narrative in which it takes place. Hideaki Anno, who had promised Neon Genesis Evangelion would give "every episode... something for the fans to drool over," began removing the fan service imagery in later episodes. Those later episodes that did contain fan service elements juxtaposed them with imagery of the character in some kind of emotional trauma.
Since then, fan service rarely contains full nudity. In modern anime, fan service has often been received with varied reviews. The popularity of Darkstalkers antiheroine Morrigan Aensland, the return of Illidan Stormrage in World of Warcraft: Legion and Jon Snow in the sixth season of Game of Thrones, the adaptation of The Witcher fantasy novels as a web television series with its protagonist Geralt of Rivia being portrayed by Henry Cavill (who is an avid video gamer who played The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, which was also based on The Witcher), and Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker are examples of fan service.
Types  Long shots of robots in mecha shows, sexual elements, violent episode-long fight scenes, and emphasis on shipping can all be considered fan service as they are specifically aimed at pleasing the fans of any given show. Christian McCrea feels that Gainax is particularly good at addressing otaku through fan service by adding many "meta-references" and by showing "violence and hyperphysical activity". Baseball teams provide events which are described in Japan as fan service, such as dance shows, singing the team song, or a performance by the team mascot. The typical, but not only, variety of fan service in anime or manga is racy, sexual, or erotic content, such as nudity and other forms of eye candy (for example, sexy maid costumes).
Fan service is especially common in shonen manga (aimed at boys). In shonen manga, pin-up girl style images are common "in varying states of undress", often using an "accidental exposure" excuse to show a favourite female character, or an upskirt "glimpse of a character's panties". Series aimed at an older audience include more explicit fan service. Jiggling breasts, known as the "Gainax bounce", are an example of fan service, created as a way to make a scene of the Daicon IV opening video a bit more "H". The "bounce" was taken up by other animators, including the creators of the hentai series Cream Lemon.
Shower scenes are very common in movies and in anime of the 1980s and 1990s, while many more recent TV series use trips to onsen (Japanese hot springs) or trips to tropical locales (or in some cases a swimming pool) in order to showcase the characters in bathing suits. Series aimed at males can also include fan service for women, as an attempt to court a wider audience. Keith Russell defines fan service as "the random and gratuitous display of a series of anticipated gestures common in Manga and Anime. These gestures include such things as panty shots, leg spreads and glimpses of breast".
Russell regards fan service as being an aesthetic of the transient "glimpse", which he contrasts with the gaze, as it takes the mind unaware and open to "libidinous possibility" without mediation. He considers the fan service object to be reassuring in its unrealistic nature and to be confirming the "freedom of desire". Shoujo manga, aimed at female readers, also includes fan service, such as showing male characters "half-naked and in enticing poses". Robin Brenner notes that in the US comics culture, fan service aimed at women is rare, and also that in Japan, series can be famous for their fan service content.
Chris Beveridge explains this mindset with Agent Aika: "There's some sort of plot in there, but that's not the reason you're watching it. ... we're watching this for the sheer amount of fanservice." Male homoeroticism, such as accidental kisses, is a common feature of fan service for women, and has been described as "easier to get away with" in terms of censorship than fan service for males. In the Boys Love genre, fan service is "artwork or scenes" in products that "depict canonical characters in a homosocial / homoerotic context". Shoujo manga series may eroticise its female leads as well for crossover appeal, as fan service aimed at a potential male audience.
Brenner notes that fan service can be offputting to teen readers, as in a male reading shoujo manga or a female reading shonen manga, and that in general fan service is more criticised when it features a female character. She cites Tenjo Tenge as an example of a fan service-laden series. See also  Bad girl art Beefcake Cameo appearance Easter egg (media) Ecchi Exploitation film Hentai Good girl art Meta-reference Sexposition Scopophilia Sexualization  References  Further reading  Category:Anime and manga terminology Service
In winemaking, clarification and stabilization are the processes by which insoluble matter suspended in the wine is removed before bottling. This matter may include dead yeast cells (lees), bacteria, tartrates, proteins, pectins, various tannins and other phenolic compounds, as well as pieces of grape skin, pulp, stems and gums. Clarification and stabilization may involve fining, filtration, centrifugation, flotation, refrigeration, pasteurization, and/or barrel maturation and racking. Clarifying wine  In wine tasting, a wine is considered "clear" when there are no visible particles suspended in the liquid and, especially in the case of white wines, when there is some degree of transparency.
A wine with too much suspended matter will appear cloudy and dull, even if its aroma and flavor are unaffected; wines therefore generally undergo some kind of clarification. Before fermentation, pectin-splitting enzymes and, for white wine, fining agents such as bentonite may be added to the must in order to promote the eventual agglomeration and settling of colloids. Pectins are structural molecules in the cell walls of fruits which have the important function of 'gumming' plant cells together. The pectin content of grapes increases steadily throughout ripening, reaching levels of about 1 g/l, although it varies by varietal and pre-fermentation handling processes.
Large pectin molecules can affect the amount of juice yielded at pressing, ease of filtration and clarification, and extraction of tannins. Grapes contain natural pectolytic enzymes responsible for softening the grape berries during ripening, but these are not active under wine-making conditions (due to pH level, SO2, and alcohol.) Therefore, fungal pectolytic enzymes are often added to white must to break up pectins, decrease the viscosity of the juice, and speed up settling. In red musts, this increases color and tannin extraction. After fermentation, the force of gravity may eventually cause the wine to "fall bright" or clarify naturally, as the larger suspended particles gradually settle to the bottom of the storage vessel.
The wine can then be siphoned or "racked" off the compact solids into a new container. But this process may take many months, or even years, as well as several rackings, in order to produce a perfectly clear wine. Producers can accelerate the process by using fining agents, filtration and/or flotation. Fining  In winemaking, fining is the process where a substance (fining agent) is added to the wine to create an adsorbent, enzymatic or ionic bond with the suspended particles, producing larger molecules and larger particles that will precipitate out of the wine more readily and rapidly. Unlike filtration, which can only remove particulates (such as dead yeast cells and grape fragments), fining can remove soluble substances such as polymerized tannins, coloring phenols and proteins; some of these proteins can cause haziness in wines exposed to high temperatures after bottling.
The reduction of tannin can reduce astringency in red wines intended for early drinking. Many substances have historically been used as fining agents, including dried blood powder. Today, there are two general types of fining agents — organic compounds and solid/mineral materials. Organic compounds used as fining agents are generally animal based, a possible cause of concern to vegans. The most common organic compounds used include egg whites, casein derived from milk, gelatin and isinglass obtained from the bladders of fish. Pulverized minerals and solid materials can also be used, with bentonite clay being one of the most common, thanks to its effectiveness in absorbing proteins and some bacteria.
Activated carbon from charcoal is used to remove some phenols that contribute to browning as well as some particles that produce "off-odors" in the wine. In a process known as blue fining, potassium ferrocyanide is sometimes used to remove any copper and iron particles that have entered the wine from bentonite, metal winery and vineyard equipment, or vineyard sprays such as Bordeaux mixture. Because potassium ferrocyanide may form hydrogen cyanide its use is highly regulated and, in many wine producing countries, illegal. Silica and kaolin are also sometimes used. Some countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, have wine labeling laws that require the use of fining agents that may be an allergenic substance to appear on the wine label.
A study conducted by the University of California, Davis Department of Viticulture and Enology, however, found that no detectable amount of inorganic fining agents, and only trace quantities of proteinaceous agents, are left in the wine. There is the risk of valuable aromatic molecules being precipitated out along with the less desirable matter. Some producers of premium wine avoid fining, or delay it in order to leach more flavor and aroma from the phenols before they are removed. Filtration  While fining clarifies wine by binding to suspended particles and precipitating out as larger particles, filtration works by passing the wine through a filter medium that captures particles larger than the medium's holes.
Complete filtration may require a series of filtering through progressively finer filters. Many white wines require the removal of all potentially active yeast and/or lactic acid bacteria if they are to remain reliably stable in bottle, and this is usually now achieved by fine filtration. Most filtration in a winery can be classified as either the coarser depth filtration or the finer surface filtration. In depth filtration, often done after fermentation, the wine is pushed through a thick layer of pads made from cellulose fibers, diatomaceous earth, or perlite. In surface filtration, the wine passes through a thin membrane. Running the wine parallel to the filter surface, known as cross-flow filtration, will minimize the filter clogging.
The finest surface filtration, microfiltration, can sterilize the wine by trapping all yeast and, optionally, bacteria, and so is often done immediately prior to bottling. An absolute rated filter of 0.45 µm is generally considered to result in a microbially stable wine and is accomplished by the use of membrane cartridges, most commonly polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Certain red wines may be filtered to 0.65 µm, to remove yeast, or to 1.0 µm to remove viable brettanomyces only. Flotation The winemaking technique of flotation was adapted from the froth flotation process used in the mining industry for ore refining. In this process, small bubbles of air (or compressed nitrogen) are injected into the bottom of a tank.
As the bubbles rise through the must, grape solids, including phenolic compounds prone to oxidation and browning, will tend to cling to the bubbles, creating a froth that can be removed from the wine. This must be done prior to fermentation, since yeast will inhibit the flocculation involved. Stabilization   As a complex chemical mixture dependent on the activity of microorganisms, wine can be unstable and reactive to changes in its environment. Once bottled, a wine may be exposed to extremes of temperature and humidity, as well as violent movement during transportation and storage. These may cause cloudiness, sedimentation and/or the formation of tartrate crystals; more seriously, they may also cause spoilage or the production of carbonic gas.
Temperature instability Tartaric acid is the most prominent acid in wine with the majority of the concentration present as potassium bitartrate. During fermentation, these tartrates bind with the lees, pulp debris and precipitated tannins and pigments. While there is some variation according to grape variety and climate, usually about half of the deposits are soluble in the wine, but on exposure to low temperature they may crystallize out unpredictably. The crystals, though harmless, may be mistaken for broken glass, or simply reckoned unattractive by consumers. To prevent this the wine may undergo "cold stabilization", in which it is cooled to near its freezing point to provoke crystallization before bottling.
In some white wines there are significant quantities of proteins that, being "heat-unstable", will coagulate if exposed to excessively fluctuating heat; the use of fining agents such as bentonite can prevent the haze this causes. Microbiological instability  A wine that has not been sterilized by filtration might well still contain live yeast cells and bacteria. If both alcoholic and malolactic fermentation have run to completion, and neither excessive oxygen nor Brettanomyces yeast are present, this ought to cause no problems; modern hygiene has largely eliminated spoilage by bacteria such as acetobacter, which turns wine into vinegar. If there is residual sugar, however, it may undergo secondary fermentation, creating dissolved carbon dioxide as a by-product.
When the wine is opened, it will be spritzy or "sparkling". In a wine intended to be still this is regarded as a serious fault; it can even cause the bottle to explode. Similarly, a wine that has not been put through complete malolactic fermentation may undergo it in bottle, reducing its acidity, generating carbon dioxide, and adding a diacetyl butterscotch aroma. Brettanomyces yeasts add 4-ethylphenol, 4-ethylguaiacol and isovaleric acid horse-sweat aromas. These phenomena may be prevented by sterile filtration, by the addition of relatively large quantities of sulfur dioxide and sometimes sorbic acid, by mixing in alcoholic spirit to give a fortified wine of sufficient strength to kill all yeast and bacteria, or by pasteurization.
Pasteurization gives a kosher wine of the type called mevushal, literally "cooked" or "boiled", that can be handled by non-Jews and non-observant Jews without losing its kosher status. Typically, the wine is heated to 185°F (85°C) for a minute, then cooled to 122°F (50°C), at which temperature it remains for up to three days, killing all yeast and bacteria. It may then be allowed to cool, or be bottled "hot" and cooled by water sprays. Since pasteurization affects a wine's flavor and aging potential it is not used for premium wines. A gentler procedure known as flash pasteurization involves heating to 205°F (95°C) for a few seconds, followed by rapid cooling.
Other methods of stabilization Clarification tends to stabilize wine, since it removes some of the same particles that promote instability. The gradual oxidation that occurs during barrel aging also has a naturally stabilizing effect. Premium wine production Some producers prefer not to thoroughly clarify and stabilize their wines, believing that the processes involved may diminish a wine's aroma, flavor, texture, color or aging potential. Wine experts such as Tom Stevenson note that they may improve wine quality when used with moderation and care, or diminish it when used to excess. Winemakers deliberately leave more tartrates and phenolics in wines designed for long aging in bottle so that they are able to develop the aromatic compounds that constitute bouquet.
The consumers of some wines, such as red Bordeaux and Port, may expect to see tartrates and sediment after aging in bottle. References  Category:Winemaking Category:Filtration
Prionus californicus, commonly known as the California root borer, is a species of insect in the longhorn beetle family (Cerambycidae). It is native to the American west where it is often a pest of orchard and vine crops. Distribution The California Root Borer occurs widely in western North America from Alaska to Mexico. It spends most of its life underground feeding on the roots of most deciduous trees and shrubs, as well as some conifers, brambles, and agricultural crops such as hops and grape vines. Description and life cycle  The 2.5 to 5.7 cm  adults, which are reddish-brown with smooth shiny wing-cases, emerge from the soil from June to early August.
The males are smaller than the females and have more strongly serrated antennae. The adults do not feed. . They fly at night, seeking mates. Males appear to be more active, while females produce a pheromone to attract males. The female-produced sex pheromone compound has been identified as an isomer of 3,5-dimethyldodecanoic acid. A synthetic mixture of all four possible isomers of 3,5-dimethyldodecanoic acid is highly attractive to male P. californicus in field trials. The life span of the adult P. californicus is 10 – 20 days. Shortly after mating the female lays single cream to yellow-brown 4.8 mm eggs, of which she can produce up to 200 in her lifetime, 1.25 to 3.8 cm below the soil surface near the roots of suitable hosts.
The larvae, cream to brown in color and strongly segmented, seek out roots shortly after hatching. They furrow and tunnel through the roots as they consume tissue, moving upward and inward and often killing apical regions. Age distribution data suggests that larvae move from smaller to larger diameter roots as they age and grow from 6.5 mm to 7.6 cm, eventually reaching the root crown. Pupation occurs near the soil surface in a cell constructed of soil and root material. The 2.5 to 5 cm cream pupa look like the adults. Economic significance California root borers are considered an orchard pest.
It has become a prominent pest of fruit trees in the Intermountain West region. The tunneling habits of the larvae can cause the death of infested trees. This can be caused directly, through girdling of the root cambium, or indirectly as the weakened host becomes susceptible to disease. This beetle is recognized as being edible to humans in both its larval and adult stages. References  Category:Agricultural pest insects Category:Beetles of North America Category:Insects as food Category:Beetles and humans Category:Prioninae Category:Beetles described in 1845
The Head Injury Criterion (HIC) is a measure of the likelihood of head injury arising from an impact. The HIC can be used to assess safety related to vehicles, personal protective gear, and sport equipment. Normally the variable is derived from the measurements of an accelerometer mounted at the center of mass of a crash test dummy’s head, when the dummy is exposed to crash forces. It is defined as:   where t1 and t2 are the initial and final times (in seconds) chosen to maximize HIC, and acceleration a is measured in gs (standard gravity acceleration). The time duration, t2 – t1, is limited to a maximum value of 36 ms, usually 15 ms.
This means that the HIC includes the effects of head acceleration and the duration of the acceleration. Large accelerations may be tolerated for very short times. At a HIC of 1000, there is an 18% probability of a severe head injury, a 55% probability of a serious injury and a 90% probability of a moderate head injury to the average adult. Automobile safety  HIC is used to determine  the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) star rating for automobile safety and to determine ratings given by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. According to the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, head injury risk is evaluated mainly on the basis of head injury criterion.
A value of 700 is the maximum allowed under the provisions of the U.S. advanced airbag regulation (NHTSA, 2000) and is the maximum score for an "acceptable" IIHS rating for a particular vehicle. A HIC-15 (meaning a measure of impact over 15 milliseconds) of 700 is estimated to represent a 5 percent risk of a severe injury (Mertz et al., 1997). A "severe" injury is one with a score of 4+ on the Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) (Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, 1990). Data for specific vehicles can be found on various automotive review websites. Some sample data is as follows, for comparative purposes:  The 1998 Ford Windstar, marketed as one of the safest minivans of that year, tested out to a HIC=305 score for driver   A small car, a 1998 Dodge Neon, tested at HIC=265.
A common family sedan, a 1998 Toyota Camry, tested at HIC=288. A 2007 Camry at HIC=175. A comprehensive searchable database of vehicles and their HIC scores is available at safercar.gov. Athletics and recreation Sport physiologists and biomechanics experts use the HIC in the research of safety equipment and guidelines for competitive sport and recreation. In one study, concussions were found to occur at HIC=250 in most athletes. Studies have been conducted in skiing and other sports to test adequacy of helmets  See also   Automobile safety  Crash test  Sports injury  Concussion  Sport-related concussion  Concussion grading systems  References  External links Use of Head Injury Criterion in Crash Test Ratings Injury Measurements and Criteria Saving Lives with Impact Protection Product  Category:Automotive safety Category:Neurotrauma Category:Scientific modeling
The family Talpidae includes the moles, shrew moles, desmans, and other intermediate forms of small insectivorous mammals of the order Eulipotyphla. Talpids are all digging animals to various degrees: moles are completely subterranean animals; shrew moles and shrew-like moles somewhat less so; and desmans, while basically aquatic, excavate dry sleeping chambers; whilst the quite unique star-nosed mole is equally adept in the water and underground. Talpids are found across the Northern Hemisphere and southern Asia, Europe, and North America, although none are found in Ireland nor in the Americas south of northern Mexico. The first talpids evolved from shrew-like animals which adapted to digging late in the Eocene in Europe.
The most primitive living talpids are believed to be the shrew-like moles, with other species having adapted further into the subterranean, and, in some cases, aquatic lifestyles. Characteristics Talpids are small, dark-furred animals with cylindrical bodies and hairless, tubular snouts. They range in size from the tiny shrew moles of North America, as small as 10 cm in length and weighing under 12 grams, to the Russian desman, with a body length of 18–22 cm, and a weight of about 550 grams. The fur varies between species, but is always dense and short; desmans have waterproof undercoats and oily guard hairs, while the subterranean moles have short, velvety fur lacking any guard hairs.
The forelimbs of moles are highly adapted for digging, with powerful claws, and the paws turned permanently outwards to aid in shovelling dirt away from the front of the body. By contrast, desmans have webbed paws with a fringe of stiff fur to aid in swimming. Moles generally have short tails, but those of desmans are elongated and flattened. All species have small eyes and poor eyesight, but only a few are truly blind. The external ears are very small or absent. Talpids rely primarily on their sense of touch, having sensory vibrissae on their faces, legs, and tails. Their flexible snouts are particularly sensitive.
Desmans are able to close both their nostrils and ears while diving. Unusually, the penis of talpids points backwards, and they have no scrotum. Females have six or eight teats. Both sexes have claws on all five fingers and on all five toes. The paw has an additional bone called the os falciforme. In burrowing moles, the clavicle and the humeral head are connected. The tibia and the fibula are partially fused in all talpids. The pubis does not connect the two halves of the pelvic girdle. The skull is long, narrow, and rather flattened. Talpids are generally insectivorous. Moles eat earthworms, insect larvae, and occasionally slugs, while desmans eat aquatic invertebrates such as shrimps, insect larvae, and snails.
Talpids have relatively unspecialized teeth, with the dental formula:  Behavior  Desmans and shrew moles are primarily nocturnal, but moles are active day and night, usually travelling above ground only under cover of darkness. Most moles dig permanent burrows, and subsist largely on prey that falls into them. The shrew moles dig burrows to access deep sleeping chambers, but forage for food on the forest floor by night. Desmans dig burrows in riverbanks for shelter and forage in the water of rivers and lakes. The star-nosed mole is able to make a living much as other moles do, but are also very capable aquatic creatures, where they are able to smell underwater by using their unique proboscis to hold out a bubble of air into the water.
Talpids appear to be generally quite antisocial animals, and although at least one species, the star-nosed mole, will share burrows, talpids are known to engage in much territorial behavior, including extraordinarily fast battles. Classification The family is divided into three subfamilies, 17 genera and 51 species.
Family Talpidae Subfamily Uropsilinae - Asian shrew-like moles (Chinese shrew moles)  Genus Uropsilus - five species in China, Butan, and Myanmar Equivalent teeth shrew mole, U. aequodonenia  U. atronates Anderson's shrew mole, U. andersoni Gracile shrew mole, U. gracilis Inquisitive shrew mole, U. investigator  U. nivatus Chinese shrew mole, U. soricipes Subfamily Scalopinae - New World moles  Tribe Condylurini    Genus Condylura - one species Star-nosed mole, C. cristata  Tribe Scalopini - New World moles  Genus Parascalops - one species in northeastern North America Hairy-tailed mole, Parascalops breweri  Genus Scalopus - one species in North America Eastern mole (common mole), S. aquaticus  Genus Scapanulus - one species in China Gansu mole, S. oweni  Genus Scapanus - western North American moles Anthony's Mexican mole, Scapanus anthonyi (Alternately considered a subspecies of S. latimanus) Broad-footed mole, Scapanus latimanus Coast mole, Scapanus orarius Townsend's mole, Scapanus townsendii Subfamily Talpinae - Old World moles, desmans, and shrew moles  Tribe Talpini - Old World moles  Genus Euroscaptor - ten Asian species Greater Chinese mole, E. grandis Kloss's mole, E. klossi Euroscaptor kuznetsovi  Long-nosed mole, E. longirostris Malaysian mole E. malayana  Himalayan mole, E. micrura Japanese mountain mole, E. mizura Euroscaptor orlovi  Small-toothed mole, E. parvidens  Euroscaptor subanura   Genus Mogera - nine species from Japan, Korea, and Eastern China Echigo mole, M. etigo Insular mole, M. insularis Kano mole, M. kanoana Kobe mole, M. kobeae Small Japanese mole, M. imaizumii Large mole, M. robusta Sado mole, M. tokudae Japanese mole, M. wogura Senkaku mole, M. uchidai  Genus Parascaptor - one species in southern Asia White-tailed mole, P. leucura  Genus Scaptochirus - China Short-faced mole, S. moschatus  Genus Talpa - eleven species, Europe and western Asia Altai mole, T. altaica Talpa aquitania Blind mole, T. caeca Caucasian mole, T. caucasica European mole, T. europaea Père David's mole, T. davidiana Levant mole, Talpa levantis Martino's mole, Talpa martinorum Spanish mole, Talpa occidentalis Roman mole, Talpa romana Balkan mole, Talpa stankovici  Tribe Scaptonychini   Genus Scaptonyx - one species in China and Myanmar  Long-tailed mole, S. fusicaudus  Tribe Desmanini - desmans  Genus Desmana  Russian desman, D. moschata  Genus Galemys  Pyrenean desman, G. pyrenaicus  Tribe Urotrichini - Japanese shrew moles  Genus Dymecodon  True's shrew mole, D. pilirostris  Genus Urotrichus  Japanese shrew mole, U. talpoides  Tribe Neurotrichini - New World shrew moles  Genus Neurotrichus - Pacific northwest US, southwest British Columbia  American shrew mole, N. gibbsii  Unrelated mammals built like moles  The following mammals have burrowing habits, and have by virtue of convergent evolution many derived characters in common with true moles from the family Talpidae but are nonetheless unrelated.
Marsupial moles (2 species): Notoryctes typhlops, and N. caurinus. Golden moles (21 species), belonging to the Afrotheria. Relationship with humans All species in the family Talpidae are classed as "prohibited new organisms" under New Zealand's Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, preventing them from being imported into the country. References    Category:Mammal families Category:Extant Eocene first appearances Category:Taxa named by Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim
Heme (American English) or haem (British English) is a coordination complex "consisting of an iron ion coordinated to a porphyrin acting as a tetradentate ligand, and to one or two axial ligands." The definition is loose, and many depictions omit the axial ligands. Many porphyrin-containing metalloproteins have heme as their prosthetic group; these are known as hemoproteins. Hemes are most commonly recognized as components of hemoglobin, the red pigment in blood, but are also found in a number of other biologically important hemoproteins such as myoglobin, cytochromes, catalases, heme peroxidase, and endothelial nitric oxide synthase. The word heme is derived from Greek  haima meaning "blood".
Function  Hemoproteins have diverse biological functions including the transportation of diatomic gases, chemical catalysis, diatomic gas detection, and electron transfer. The heme iron serves as a source or sink of electrons during electron transfer or redox chemistry. In peroxidase reactions, the porphyrin molecule also serves as an electron source. In the transportation or detection of diatomic gases, the gas binds to the heme iron. During the detection of diatomic gases, the binding of the gas ligand to the heme iron induces conformational changes in the surrounding protein. In general, diatomic gases only bind to the reduced heme, as ferrous Fe(II) while most peroxidases cycle between Fe(III) and Fe(IV) and hemeproteins involved in mitochondrial redox, oxidation-reduction, cycle between Fe(II) and Fe(III).
It has been speculated that the original evolutionary function of hemoproteins was electron transfer in primitive sulfur-based photosynthesis pathways in ancestral cyanobacteria-like organisms before the appearance of molecular oxygen. Hemoproteins achieve their remarkable functional diversity by modifying the environment of the heme macrocycle within the protein matrix. For example, the ability of hemoglobin to effectively deliver oxygen to tissues is due to specific amino acid residues located near the heme molecule. Hemoglobin reversibly binds to oxygen in the lungs when the pH is high, and the carbon dioxide concentration is low. When the situation is reversed (low pH and high carbon dioxide concentrations), hemoglobin will release oxygen into the tissues.
This phenomenon, which states that hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity is inversely proportional to both acidity and concentration of carbon dioxide, is known as the Bohr effect. The molecular mechanism behind this effect is the steric organization of the globin chain; a histidine residue, located adjacent to the heme group, becomes positively charged under acidic conditions (which are caused by dissolved CO2 in working muscles, etc. ), releasing oxygen from the heme group. Types  Major hemes There are several biologically important kinds of heme:  The most common type is heme B; other important types include heme A and heme C.  Isolated hemes are commonly designated by capital letters while hemes bound to proteins are designated by lower case letters.
Cytochrome a refers to the heme A in specific combination with membrane protein forming a portion of cytochrome c oxidase. Other hemes The following carbon numbering system of porphyrins is an older numbering used by biochemists and not the 1–24 numbering system recommended by IUPAC which is shown in the table above. Heme l is the derivative of heme B which is covalently attached to the protein of lactoperoxidase, eosinophil peroxidase, and thyroid peroxidase. The addition of peroxide with the glutamyl-375 and aspartyl-225 of lactoperoxidase forms ester bonds between these amino acid residues and the heme 1- and 5-methyl groups, respectively.
Similar ester bonds with these two methyl groups are thought to form in eosinophil and thyroid peroxidases. Heme l is one important characteristic of animal peroxidases; plant peroxidases incorporate heme B. Lactoperoxidase and eosinophil peroxidase are protective enzymes responsible for the destruction of invading bacteria and virus. Thyroid peroxidase is the enzyme catalyzing the biosynthesis of the important thyroid hormones. Because lactoperoxidase destroys invading organisms in the lungs and excrement, it is thought to be an important protective enzyme. Heme m is the derivative of heme B covalently bound at the active site of peroxide. Heme m contains the two ester bonds at the heme 1- and 5-methyls as in heme l found in other mammalian peroxides.
In addition, a unique sulfonamide ion linkage between the sulfur of a methionyl amino-acid residue and the heme 2-vinyl group is formed, giving this enzyme the unique capability of easily oxidizing chloride and bromide ions. Myeloperoxidase is present in mammalian neutrophils and is responsible for the destruction of invading bacteria and viruses. It also synthesizes hypobromite by "mistake" which is a known mutagenic compound. Heme D is another derivative of heme B, but in which the propionic acid side chain at the carbon of position 6, which is also hydroxylated, forms a γ-spirolactone. Ring III is also hydroxylated at position 5, in a conformation trans to the new lactone group.
Heme D is the site for oxygen reduction to water of many types of bacteria at low oxygen tension. Heme S is related to heme B by having a formal group at position 2 in place of the 2-vinyl group. Heme S is found in the hemoglobin of marine worms. The correct structures of heme B and heme S were first elucidated by German chemist Hans Fischer. The names of cytochromes typically (but not always) reflect the kinds of hemes they contain: cytochrome a contains heme A, cytochrome c contains heme C, etc. This convention may have been first introduced with the publication of the structure of heme A.
Use of capital letters to designate the type of heme The practice of designating hemes with upper case letters was formalized in a footnote in a paper by Puustinen and Wikstrom which explains under which conditions a capital letter should be used: "we prefer the use of capital letters to describe the heme structure as isolated. Lowercase letters may then be freely used for cytochromes and enzymes, as well as to describe individual protein-bound heme groups (for example, cytochrome bc, and aa3 complexes, cytochrome b5, heme c1 of the bc1 complex, heme a3 of the aa3 complex, etc)." In other words, the chemical compound would be designated with a capital letter, but specific instances in structures with lowercase.
Thus cytochrome oxidase, which has two A hemes (heme a and heme a3) in its structure, contains two moles of heme A per mole protein. Cytochrome bc1, with hemes bH, bL, and c1, contains heme B and heme C in a 2:1 ratio. The practice seems to have originated in a paper by Caughey and York  in which the product of a new isolation procedure for the heme of cytochrome aa3 was designated heme A to differentiate it from previous preparations: "Our product is not identical in all respects with the heme a obtained in solution by other workers by the reduction of the hemin a as isolated previously (2).
For this reason, we shall designate our product heme A until the apparent differences can be rationalized.". In a later paper, Caughey's group uses capital letters for isolated heme B and C as well as A.  Synthesis  The enzymatic process that produces heme is properly called porphyrin synthesis, as all the intermediates are tetrapyrroles that are chemically classified as porphyrins. The process is highly conserved across biology. In humans, this pathway serves almost exclusively to form heme. In bacteria, it also produces more complex substances such as cofactor F430 and cobalamin (vitamin B12). The pathway is initiated by the synthesis of δ-aminolevulinic acid (dALA or δALA) from the amino acid glycine and succinyl-CoA from the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle).
The rate-limiting enzyme responsible for this reaction, ALA synthase, is negatively regulated by glucose and heme concentration. Mechanism of inhibition of ALAs by heme or hemin is by decreasing stability of mRNA synthesis and by decreasing the intake of mRNA in the mitochondria. This mechanism is of therapeutic importance: infusion of heme arginate or hematin and glucose can abort attacks of acute intermittent porphyria in patients with an inborn error of metabolism of this process, by reducing transcription of ALA synthase. The organs mainly involved in heme synthesis are the liver (in which the rate of synthesis is highly variable, depending on the systemic heme pool) and the bone marrow (in which rate of synthesis of Heme is relatively constant and depends on the production of globin chain), although every cell requires heme to function properly.
However, due to its toxic properties, proteins such as Hemopexin (Hx) are required to help maintain physiological stores of iron in order for them to be used in synthesis. Heme is seen as an intermediate molecule in catabolism of hemoglobin in the process of bilirubin metabolism. Defects in various enzymes in synthesis of heme can lead to group of disorder called porphyrias, these include acute intermittent porphyria, congenital erythropoetic porphyria, porphyria cutanea tarda, hereditary coproporphyria, variegate porphyria, erythropoietic protoporphyria. Synthesis for food  Impossible Foods, producers of plant-based meat substitute, use an accelerated heme synthesis process involving soybean root leghemoglobin and yeast, adding the resulting heme to items such as meatless (vegan) Impossible burger patties.
The DNA for leghemoglobin production was extracted from the soybean root nodules and expressed in yeast cells to overproduce heme for use in the meatless burgers. This process claims to create a meaty flavor in the resulting products. Degradation  Degradation begins inside macrophages of the spleen, which remove old and damaged (senescent) erythrocytes from the circulation. In the first step, heme is converted to biliverdin by the enzyme heme oxygenase (HMOX). NADPH is used as the reducing agent, molecular oxygen enters the reaction, carbon monoxide (CO) is produced and the iron is released from the molecule as the ferrous ion (Fe2+).
CO acts as a cellular messenger and functions in vasodilation. In addition, heme degradation appears to be an evolutionarily-conserved response to oxidative stress. Briefly, when cells are exposed to free radicals, there is a rapid induction of the expression of the stress-responsive heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX1) isoenzyme that catabolizes heme (see below). The reason why cells must increase exponentially their capability to degrade heme in response to oxidative stress remains unclear but this appears to be part of a cytoprotective response that avoids the deleterious effects of free heme. When large amounts of free heme accumulates, the heme detoxification/degradation systems get overwhelmed, enabling heme to exert its damaging effects.
In the second reaction, biliverdin is converted to bilirubin by biliverdin reductase (BVR):  Bilirubin is transported into the liver by facilitated diffusion bound to a protein (serum albumin), where it is conjugated with glucuronic acid to become more water-soluble. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme UDP-glucuronosyltransferase. This form of bilirubin is excreted from the liver in bile. Excretion of bilirubin from liver to biliary canaliculi is an active, energy-dependent and rate-limiting process. The intestinal bacteria deconjugate bilirubin diglucuronide and convert bilirubin to urobilinogens. Some urobilinogen is absorbed by intestinal cells and transported into the kidneys and excreted with urine (urobilin, which is the product of oxidation of urobilinogen, and is responsible for the yellow colour of urine).
The remainder travels down the digestive tract and is converted to stercobilinogen. This is oxidized to stercobilin, which is excreted and is responsible for the brown color of feces. In health and disease Under homeostasis, the reactivity of heme is controlled by its insertion into the “heme pockets” of hemoproteins. Under oxidative stress however, some hemoproteins, e.g. hemoglobin, can release their heme prosthetic groups. The non-protein-bound (free) heme produced in this manner becomes highly cytotoxic, most probably due to the iron atom contained within its protoporphyrin IX ring, which can act as a Fenton's reagent to catalyze in an unfettered manner the production of free radicals.
It catalyzes the oxidation and aggregation of protein, the formation of cytotoxic lipid peroxide via lipid peroxidation and damages DNA through oxidative stress. Due to its lipophilic  properties, it impairs lipid bilayers in organelles such as mitochondria and nuclei. These properties of free heme can sensitize a variety of cell types to undergo programmed cell death in response to pro-inflammatory agonists, a deleterious effect that plays an important role in the pathogenesis of certain inflammatory diseases such as malaria and sepsis. There is an association between high intake of heme iron sourced from meat and increased risk of colon cancer.
The heme content of red meat is 10 times higher than that of white meat such as chicken. Genes  The following genes are part of the chemical pathway for making heme:   ALAD: aminolevulinic acid, δ-, dehydratase (deficiency causes ala-dehydratase deficiency porphyria)  ALAS1: aminolevulinate, δ-, synthase 1  ALAS2: aminolevulinate, δ-, synthase 2 (deficiency causes sideroblastic/hypochromic anemia)  CPOX: coproporphyrinogen oxidase (deficiency causes hereditary coproporphyria)  FECH: ferrochelatase (protoporphyria)  HMBS: hydroxymethylbilane synthase (deficiency causes acute intermittent porphyria)  PPOX: protoporphyrinogen oxidase (deficiency causes variegate porphyria)  UROD: uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase (deficiency causes porphyria cutanea tarda)  UROS: uroporphyrinogen III synthase (deficiency causes congenital erythropoietic porphyria)  Notes and references  Category:Porphyrins Category:Biomolecules Category:Cofactors Category:Iron(II) compounds Category:Iron complexes
S100 calcium-binding protein A8 (S100A8) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the S100A8 gene. It is also known as calgranulin A. The proteins S100A8 and S100A9 form a heterodimer called calprotectin. The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the S100 family of proteins containing 2 EF-hand calcium-binding motifs. S100 proteins are localized in the cytoplasm and/or nucleus of a wide range of cells, and involved in the regulation of a number of cellular processes such as cell cycle progression and differentiation. S100 genes include at least 13 members which are located as a cluster on chromosome 1q21.
This protein may function in the inhibition of casein kinase and as a cytokine. Altered expression of this protein is associated with the disease cystic fibrosis. References  Further reading  Category:S100 proteins
Voltage-dependent calcium channel gamma-4 subunit is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CACNG4 gene. L-type calcium channels are composed of five subunits. The protein encoded by this gene represents one of these subunits, gamma, and is one of several gamma subunit proteins. It is an integral membrane protein that is thought to stabilize the calcium channel in an inactive (closed) state. This gene is a member of the neuronal calcium channel gamma subunit gene subfamily of the PMP-22/EMP/MP20 family and is located in a cluster with two similar gamma subunit-encoding genes. See also  Voltage-dependent calcium channel  References  Further reading  External links       Category:Ion channels
Basket is a cheese made from cow's milk available fresh or dry. Fresh basket has no salt taste, while dry basket is mildly salty. Basket cheese gets its name from the way it is formed (inside a basket). See also Queso panela Ricotta  External links Cheeses from Middle East  Category:Cow's-milk cheeses Category:Middle Eastern cheeses Category:Turkish cheeses
Manipal is a locality of Udupi, located 5 kilometres from the centre of the city in India and is administered by the Udupi City Municipality. It is located in the part of Coastal Karnataka, 62.8 km north of Mangalore and  east of the Arabian Sea. From its location on a plateau, it commands a panoramic view of the Arabian Sea to the west and the Western Ghats to the east. Manipal got its name from Manipal Lake. Home to the Manipal Academy of Higher Education, the town attracts more than twenty five thousand students every year and hence most of the population are students or university workers.
It is one of the most cosmopolitan towns of India, reflected in its numerous bars and cafes attracting students and faculty from around 60 countries. There are numerous spots throughout the town that attract students from nearby Mangalore and Udupi such as End Point and DeeTee. The city owes its rapid development to Manipal Academy of Higher Education for converting this into a student town. It is called the campus town by the locals. Manipal is also the international headquarters of the Syndicate Bank. A regional information technology hub, Manipal has one of the highest densities of mobile phone users in India.
Location  Situated  east from the centre of  temple city of Udupi and  north of Mangalore, Manipal was previously part of the Shivalli village panchayat. Now it is part of Udupi city. The name is derived from "mann" and "palla", anglicised to Manipal. Mann means "mud" and palla means "lake" in Tulu language. This lake, roughly a 400m diameter circle, after which Manipal is named, is located in the middle of the town and about 6km away from the western coastal line of India, and used to offer boating facilities. Swarna River passes just north of Manipal. Recreation facilities are available through end point park.
Manipal was once a barren hill with few trees. This hill was transformed to a university town by Dr. T. M. A. Pai, who first started the Kasturba Medical College in 1953, now a part of the university. Tourist spots like Agumbe, Kudremukh, Kapu, Delta and Malpe are also located nearby. Climate From September to February, the weather in Manipal is tropical with daily temperatures averaging . From June to mid October, Manipal witnesses one of the most extreme monsoons in the world, with the annual precipitation ranging from . The months of December to May are hot and humid, with the daily temperatures typically peaking at .
Being away from large urban centres and the highly tropical climate of the town attracts a large number of birds, with 155 different species of birds being recorded in February 2015, including rarities such as the Tickell's Thrush, Blue-eared Kingfisher and Slaty-breasted Rail. Transport  Road Manipal is connected to Mangalore (Takes about 75 minutes via road) and towns such as Udupi, Karkala and Kundapur by several private bus services and KSRTC City Buses which run every thirty minutes. The town also has overnight bus services to cities including Bangalore, Hyderabad, Goa and Mumbai. Rail The nearest railway station is located about four kilometers west of Manipal in Udupi station (UD) on the Konkan railway line.
It has trains connecting towards Mumbai, Goa, Kerala, New Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Punjab. It is about a kilometer away from the National Highway 169A. Mangalore Central (MAQ) is the nearest major railway station and is located in Mangalore, 67 km south of the town . Air The nearest international airport is Mangalore International Airport, which is located around  south from Manipal, connecting it to Indian cities like Mumbai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Chennai and Delhi, and internationally to the middle eastern countries like Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. Pre-paid taxis are available to transport passengers to and from Manipal and Udupi.
Buses also connect Manipal directly to the Kempegowda International Airport in Bangalore, to cater to the large number of international students studying at the university. KSRTC recently started "Flybus", a premium daily bus service from Manipal to Kempegowda International Airport in Bangalore. Education    Manipal gained prominence in the mid-1950s, when its founder Dr. T.M.A. Pai founded the Kasturba Medical College in 1953. He also founded the Manipal Institute of Technology in 1957 which is a popular institute for engineering, and later 21 other colleges, all of which became a part of Manipal Academy of Higher Education in 1993. Manipal Academy of Higher Education has also been granted the status of Institute of Eminence in the year 2018.
Manipal Institute of Technology (MIT) has also been ranked among the top ten private engineering colleges within India. It is ranked 2nd, within the state of Karnataka. Pai also founded the Manipal Pre-University College. Manipal is a major technology and medical research hub, with major conferences and seminars organised almost every week. Since the establishment of MUTBI, the in-house business incubator of the university, a large number of student-run technology and media startups have sprung up. See also  List of twin towns and sister cities in India  Mangalore  Udupi  References  External links  Category:Manipal Category:Hill stations in Karnataka Category:Populated places in the Western Ghats Category:Cities and towns in Udupi district Category:University towns in India
Performance poetry is poetry that is specifically composed for or during a performance before an audience. During the 1980s, the term came into popular usage to describe poetry written or composed for performance rather than print distribution, mostly open to improvisation. History The term performance poetry originates from an early press release describing the 1980s performance poet Hedwig Gorski, whose audio recordings achieved success on spoken word radio programs around the world. Her band, East of Eden Band, was described as the most successful at music and poetry collaborations, allowing cassettes of her live radio broadcast recordings to stay in rotation with popular underground music recordings on some radio stations.
Gorski, an art school graduate, tried to come up with a term that would distinguish her text-based vocal performances from performance art, especially the work of performance artists, such as Laurie Anderson, who worked with music at that time. Performance poets relied more on the rhetorical and philosophical expression in their poetics than performance artists, who arose from the visual art genres of painting and sculpture. The Austin Chronicle newspaper, printing Gorski's bi-weekly "Litera" column, first published the term "performance poetry" to describe the work of Gorski with composer D'Jalma Garnier III as early as 1982. She began using the term, however, to describe a 1978 "neo-verse drama" and "conceptual spoken poetry for five voices" titled Booby, Mama!
that employs the cut-up method made popular by William Burroughs and conceptual art methods. The National Endowment for the Arts categorized performance art within the visual arts judging panels; it originally placed performance poetry within the category of theater before correcting it to literature in the 21st century. Since many performance poets did not have publications, the former classification made performance poets categorically ineligible for the NEA fellowship funding or recognition. Their audio cassettes were not acceptable sample material for literature grant consideration. A stated objection to this presentation method protested their performance poems translated into text on paper could not compete with poetry written for print publication.
The National Endowment for the Arts is now accepting varied presentations for publication verification for poetry fellowship applicants, including audio recordings that have no printed versions of the poems. Performance poetry with music peaked during the 1980s just as performance art peaked in the 1970s. During that time, San Francisco and New York were the centers for this type of activity; however, Austin, Texas (The Third Coast) also had a thriving scene during the 1980s with a coterie of unique characters. Some of the best original Austin performance poets and performing poets who went on to national and international notoriety include Raul Salinas, Konstantyn K. Kuzminsky, Joy Cole, Hedwig Gorski, Roxy Gordon, Ricardo Sanchez, Harryette Mullen, who was nominated for the National Book Award.
The Austin Poets Audio Anthology Project, a public arts project, recorded them for radio broadcasts. There were many others, though, and Hedwig Gorski once wrote in "Litera" that some were "eerie", a word used by one newspaper reviewer to describe Gorski's vocals on the East of Eden Band track "There's Always Something That Can Make You Happy". Other performing writers in the robust literary scene of the Austin area during that time when performance poetry turned into a school of poetry included Pat Littledog, Eleanor Crockett, Jim Ryan, Chuck Taylor, Greg Gauntner, Albert Huffstickler, W. Joe Hoppe, Andy Clausen, poet and playwright Isabella Russell-Ides (Getting Dangerously Close To Myself, Slough Press)  and David Jewell (poet); most recorded on Hedwig Gorski's audio anthology project.
Jewell deserves special mention as a transitional figure, younger than the aforementioned, and one not especially rooted in the Beats like Gorski who has strong connections to Ginsberg, Corso, Gary Snyder, and others. By the 1990s the general poetry public was less interested in the Beat Poets of the 1950s and 1960s. They were looking for something fresher, newer, hipper, more in touch with the times in which they were living. Performance poets established clubs, cafes, and media as venues that later became stages for the emerging slam poetry scene. Unlike Gorski, who with East of Eden Band, began broadcasting live performance poetry on radio  and distributing the recordings of these broadcasts in place of publishing in print, Jewell and slam poets were more interested in small live audiences.
Venues like Nuyorican Poets Cafe in New York City and mass media formats, like Gorski's and John Giorno's, form the two lines of influence leading to Def Poetry on HBO. Performing poets-writers and especially performance poets excelled in the ability to put the event of oral literature into the primary social/communicative function for literature. The plurality of the literary performance is under the control of the poet/writer, and the performer never minimizes the participation of the audience members. It is important to remember that performance was the primary distribution method for poetics since tribal times and ancient Greece. As Gorski often states, broadcast and technology surpass books in reaching mass audiences for poetry, and just as writing poetry for print made poetry a completely different artform since the invention of the book, audio "mediums influence the way poets write just as they do painters and sculptors".
Today, performance poetry is also being used as a means to promote literacy in public school systems. Global Writes Inc. has been incorporating technology, such as videoconferencing and podcasts, into literacy programs as a means for students to share their poetry. Performance poetry also provides avenues for students to perform their poems onstage. Poetry in oral cultures Performance poetry is not solely a postmodern phenomenon. It began with the performance of oral poems in pre-literate societies. By definition, these poems were transmitted orally from performer to performer and were constructed using devices such as repetition, alliteration, rhyme and kennings to facilitate memorization and recall.
The performer "composed" the poem from memory, using the version they had learned as a kind of mental template. This process allowed the performer to add their own flavor to the poem in question, although fidelity to the traditional versions of the poems was generally favored. Advent of printing Although popular works, including popular poems or collections of poems, were already being distributed for private reading and study in manuscript form, there can be little doubt that the introduction of cheap printing technologies accelerated this trend considerably. The result was a change in the poet's role in society. From having been an entertainer, the poet became primarily a provider of written texts for private readings.
The public performance of poetry became generally restricted, at least in a European context, to the staging of plays in verse and occasionally, for example in the cases of the Elizabethan madrigalists or Robert Burns, as texts for singing. Apart from this, the performance of poetry was restricted to reading aloud from printed books within families or groups of friends. 20th century The early years of the 20th century saw a general questioning of artistic forms and conventions. Poets like Basil Bunting and Louis Zukofsky called for a renewed emphasis on poetry as sound. Bunting in particular argued that the poem on the page was like a musical score; not fully intelligible until manifested through sound.
This attitude to poetry helped to encourage an environment in which poetry readings were fostered. This was reinforced by Charles Olson's call for a poetic line based on human breath. Clive Sansom devoted much of his life to gathering and contributing poetry and drama particularly suited to performance by children. During the 1950s, the American poet Cid Corman began to experiment with what he called oral poetry. This involved spontaneously composing poems into a tape recorder. Allen Ginsberg was to take up this practice in the 1960s. David Antin, who heard some of Corman's tapes, took the process one step further.
He composed his talk-poems by improvising in front of an audience. These performances were recorded and the tapes were later transcribed to be published in book form. Around the same time, Jerome Rothenberg was drawing on his ethnopoetic researches to create poems for ritual performances as happenings. The writers of the Beat generation held performance events that married poetry and jazz. In the late 1960s, other poets outside San Francisco and New York City were experimenting with performance pieces. Notable among these was David Franks, at the time a faculty member at the Maryland Institute College of Art. Franks' work was not poetry recited to a musical counterpoint but literary pieces in which the performance was a necessary and integral part of the work itself.
In Britain, sound poets like Bob Cobbing and Edwin Morgan were exploring the possibilities of live performance. Cobbing's groups Bird Yak and Konkrete Canticle involved collaborative performance with other poets and musicians and were partly responsible for drawing a number of the poets of the British Poetry Revival into the performance arena. Meanwhile, many more mainstream poets in both Britain and the United States were giving poetry readings, largely to small academic gatherings on university campuses. Poetry readings were given national prominence when Robert Frost recited "The Gift Outright" from memory at the inauguration of John F. Kennedy.After that event, spoken word recordings of Frost and other major figures enjoyed increased popularity.
The 1970s and after By the 1970s, three main forms of poetry performance had emerged. First was the poetry reading, at which poems that had been written for the page were read to an audience, usually by the author. Poetry readings have become widespread and poetry festivals and reading series are now part of the cultural landscape of most Western societies. However, most people would not consider the poetry readings of this type as part of the performance poetry phenomena. This leaves three types of poetry performance: poems written specifically for performance on the Jerome Rothenberg model and poems like those of David Antin that are composed during performance.
Both these types would generally be considered to constitute performance poetry. Another type based on the Beat method of reading their print poems is poetry with music. The bands with performance poets make spoken vocals an exercise in not singing, but the texts are not categorized as songs. While Ginsberg sang his Blake songs with a harmonium, the original practitioner of this third and most popular type of performance poetry is Hedwig Gorski, who coined the term performance poetry to describe her work with music. She is sometimes called a neo-beat, but considers herself an American "futurist". Unlike the Beats, Ginsberg and Kerouac, her poems were written for performance with music that was specifically composed for the poems.
Her spoken vocals have come as close to singing as possible without really singing. That is the key to Gorski's performance poetry: the marriage of poetry to music written specifically to fit poems written for vocal performance. The other type of performance poetry Gorski practiced is without music and tied to conceptual art, but that was at appearances in smaller venues that could not accommodate her band. Unlike Antin and Cormin, Gorski never improvised text but wrote poetry only for performance while eschewing printed poetry. In the U. S., the rise to prominence of the L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E poets with their distrust of speech as a basis for poetry has, broadly speaking, meant that performance poetry went out of fashion with the avant-garde.
However, the increasing popularity of open mics, which allow "unknown" poets to take the stage and share their own work in 3- to 5-minute increments and of poetry slams has meant that performance poetry is now one of the most widespread forms of popular poetry. Chief among the proponents of these new forms of popular poetry were Bob Holman in New York, Marc Smith in Chicago and Alan Kaufman in San Francisco. In the 1990s, the Favorite Poem project of then U.S. Poet Laureate Robert Pinsky gave new visibility to ordinary Americans reading and performing their favorite poems. Contemporary performance poets are now experimenting with poetry performances adapted to CD, to video, and to Web audiences.
The Beat Poets were the first to popularize crossing over into recorded media to distribute their performed poetry. The best-known Beat poet, Allen Ginsberg, followed the lead of fellow Beat, Jack Kerouac, in reciting his work for audio recording. Ginsberg always used music with his readings and often accompanied himself on the harmonium. Ginsberg put William Blake's poems to music and performed them with the harmonium. Even though the Beats did not use the term "Performance Poetry" to categorize their work with music and audio recordings, the Beats provided an immediate model for the work of Hedwig Gorski. She is a Nova Scotia College of Art and Design art school graduate in 1976.
The art school was infamous for starting the careers of numerous 1970s performance artists, such as Vito Acconci, known for photographing his bites. It is worth noting that Gorski, who coined the term "Performance Poetry" to describe her poems written only for performance, recordings, and broadcast usually with her musical band East of Eden Band, is the only woman, besides Patti Smith, in this group of late twentieth-century innovators reviving oral poetry. Similar to the ancient bards, touring became a widespread means for performance poets and slammers to distribute their work since the 1990s. The Poetry Slam is a competitive live performance format founded by poet Marc Smith in Chicago, which has become a hotbed for performance poetry.
Performance poetry has also been boosted considerably by the appearance of Def Jam—the hip-hop recording company helmed by Russell Simmons—on the scene. def jam has created a television show that showcases performance poets that runs on HBO, as well as a show of performance poets that ran on Broadway for almost a year and won a Tony Award. Hispanic performing artists, such as Pedro Pietri, Miguel Algarín, Giannina Braschi, and Guillermo Gómez-Peña, are known for their humorous and politically charged attacks against American imperialism. Later contemporary Latino poets such as Willie Perdomo, Edwin Torres (poet) and Caridad de la Luz would follow in this tradition.
Closely tied to Chicano poets is the Native American poet John Trudell who recorded and crossed over with his poetry and music cassettes. Trudell arose from the persecution on his reservation by FBI agents, who allegedly killed his wife and children. Protest is significant with the minority practitioners of performance poetry, such as def poets and slammers. This adds to the vitality of American performance poetry and connects to the social protest of Beat poets like Allen Ginsberg. In France, :fr:Lucien Suel, Akenaton, and many other represents the way of performance poetry ... The United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, where the influence of L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E was more limited, many avant-garde poets are deeply committed to continuing the performance of Cobbing and his peers.
Well-known names include cris cheek and Aaron Williamson. The work of UK poet Michael Horovitz in spreading this tradition in Britain during the early 1960s should also be acknowledged. His Live New Departures - a touring version of his poetry and arts journal New Departures (launched 1959) - gave space and opportunities to poets like Pete Brown and Adrian Mitchell as these three principals combined performed verse with the backing of jazz musicians like pianist Stan Tracey and saxophonist Bobby Wellins. However, the emergence of performed poetry as a popular art form can probably be linked to Allen Ginsberg's stunning performance at the Albert Hall in 1965 at the International Poetry Incarnation.
Horovitz, Brown and Mitchell would join Ginsberg and Beat colleagues Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Gregory Corso and other European poets at that landmark London occasion. These developments were also connected to the emergence of the Liverpool Poets, which referred mainly to the poets Roger McGough, Adrian Henri and Brian Patten who fired up audiences across the UK in the 70s and then the likes of John Hegley emerged in the 80s, influenced as much by stand-up comedy as a love for wordplay, creating the template for what became recognised as contemporary British performance poetry - a format still exemplified by the work of acts such as Murray Lachlan Young, Francesca Beard and Gerard McKeown.
Apples and Snakes, a collective promoting performance poetry in pubs and at festivals, was started by Mandy Williams, PR Murry and Jane Addison in London in 1982 inspired by the work of New Variety/CAST. They worked with 'ranting poets' such as Attila the Stockbroker and Seething Wells and other poets and musicians with a political message such as Billy Bragg and Linton Kwesi Johnson. Apples and Snakes continues today, 31 years later, as a national organisation. In the 90s, however, in big cities like Manchester and London, a different style emerged that was influenced more by hip hop with much less emphasis on comedy in the manner of Def Poets in the United States.
Well-known writers from this evolution include Lemn Sissay and the late Dike Omeje from the Manchester scene and Roger Robinson and El Crisis  from the London circuit. On the experimental front, a number of new initiatives have grown around collaborative stage work using poetry and movement. ShadoWork, for instance, aims to 'disrupt and enrich the conventional regimes of author, text and audience' by combining (simple) theatrical movement with the full range of voice and stage in ways designed to draw deeper attention to the text. Developments such as ShadoWork represent a 'counter-cultural' mode of performance poetry which shuns bald entertainment value, and others such as the Tell Tales initiative and Jonzi D's Lyrikal Fearta (which he calls choreo-poetry) go even further, extending spoken word to short prose productions and fusing performance poetry with dance.
British performance poetry continues to thrive at a grassroots level, with performances in pubs and theatres, as well as at arts festivals such as Glastonbury and The Edinburgh Fringe. Slams as well as open mics for more traditional writers remain popular. Media works influenced by radio performance poet Hedwig Gorski have gained ground; there has been some crossover into TV and radio. Many contemporary British performance poets have been influenced by punk poets like John Cooper Clarke and reggae poets like Linton Kwesi Johnson as well as by comedy and hip hop. In 2003 the first UK conference of performance poetry, organised by Lucy English, was held at Bath Spa University.
Speakers included performing poets from the United States Bob Holman and Charles Bernstein. Bath Spa university runs a performance poetry module as part of its Creative Writing programme. See also Australian performance poetry Fluxus poetry Hedwig Gorski Language poets List of performance poets Literary movements Poetry reading Slam poetry Spoken word  References  External links  Examples of poetry out loud  Category:Performance art Category:Poetry movements Category:Genres of poetry Category:20th-century literature
Omid Farokhzad (; born 1969) is an Iranian-American physician, scientist, and entrepreneur in the development of nanomedicines. Farokhzad is a Professor of Anesthesiology at Harvard Medical School. The Boston Globe selected him among the top innovators in Massachusetts and the Boston Business Journal selected him among the Health Care Champions for his innovations. He has also served as an associate editor for ACS Nano an international forum for the communication of comprehensive articles on nanoscience and nanotechnology research at the interfaces of chemistry, biology, materials science, physics, and engineering. He is widely recognized as leader in the field of nanomedicine  and drug delivery.
In 2016, he was the recipient of the Ellis Island Medal of Honor. He was also elected in the National Academy of Inventors in 2018. Career  Farokhzad completed his residency in Anesthesiology and fellowship in Pain Medicine at the Brigham and Women Hospital and Harvard Medical School. He completed a post-doctoral research training with Professor Robert Langer at MIT in the Harvard-MIT Program of Health Sciences and Technology. He joined Harvard Medical School in 2004 as a faculty member, after his clinical training, he served as Professor of Anesthesia. He has popularized the usage of specific targeting agents for the delivery of chemotherapy agents to cancerous cells found within a cancer patient.
Beyond cancerous phenotype he has addressed atherosclerosis-related disease, He has demonstrated the usage of targeted biodegradable nano ‘drones’ that delivered a special type of drug that promotes healing. This remodeling of the plaque environment would be predicted in humans to block plaque rupture and thrombosis and prevent heart attacks and strokes. References   Category:1969 births Category:Living people
Jamaican Patois, known locally as Patois (Patwa or Patwah)  and called Jamaican Creole by linguists, is an English-based creole language with West African influences (a majority of loan words of Akan origin) spoken primarily in Jamaica and among the Jamaican diaspora; it is spoken by the majority of Jamaicans as a native language. Patois developed in the 17th century when slaves from West and Central Africa were exposed to, learned and nativized the vernacular and dialectal forms of English spoken by the slaveholders: British English, Scots, and Hiberno-English. Jamaican Creole exhibits a gradation between more conservative creole forms that are not significantly mutually intelligible with English, and forms virtually identical to Standard English.
Jamaicans refer to their language as Patois, a term also used as a lower-case noun as a catch-all description of pidgins, creoles, dialects, and vernaculars. Creoles, including Jamaican Patois, are often stigmatized as a "lesser" language even when the majority of a local population speaks them as their mother tongue. Jamaican pronunciation and vocabulary are significantly different from English despite heavy use of English words or derivatives, but their writing system shows commonalities with the English alphabet. Significant Jamaican Patois-speaking communities exist among Jamaican expatriates in Miami, New York City, Toronto, Hartford, Washington, D.C., Nicaragua, Costa Rica,  and Panama (in the Caribbean coast), also London, Birmingham, Manchester, and Nottingham.
A mutually intelligible variety is found in San Andrés y Providencia Islands, Colombia, brought to the island by descendants of Jamaican Maroons (escaped slaves) in the 18th century. Mesolectal forms are similar to very basilectal Belizean Kriol. Jamaican Patois exists mostly as a spoken language and is also heavily used for musical purposes, especially in reggae and dancehall as well as other genres. Although standard British English is used for most writing in Jamaica, Jamaican Patois has been gaining ground as a literary language for almost a hundred years. Claude McKay published his book of Jamaican poems Songs of Jamaica in 1912.
Patois and English are frequently used for stylistic contrast (codeswitching) in new forms of Internet writing. Phonology Accounts of basilectal Jamaican Patois (that is, its most divergent rural varieties) suggest around 21 phonemic consonants with an additional phoneme () in the Western dialect. There are between nine and sixteen vowels. Some vowels are capable of nasalization and others can be lengthened. The status of  as a phoneme is dialectal: in western varieties, it is a full phoneme and there are minimal pairs ( 'hit' and  'eat'); in central and eastern varieties, vowel-initial words take an initial  after vowel-final words, preventing the two vowels from falling together, so that the words for 'hand' and 'and' (both underlyingly ) may be pronounced  or .
The palatal stops  and  are considered phonemic by some accounts and phonetic by others. For the latter interpretation, their appearance is included in the larger phenomenon of phonetic palatalization. Examples of palatalization include:   →  →  ('a quarter quart (of rum)')   →  →  ('guard')   →  →  ('weak')  Voiced stops are implosive whenever in the onset of prominent syllables (especially word-initially) so that  ('beat') is pronounced  and  ('good') as . Before a syllabic , the contrast between alveolar and velar consonants has been historically neutralized with alveolar consonants becoming velar so that the word for 'bottle' is  and the word for 'idle' is .
Jamaican Patois exhibits two types of vowel harmony; peripheral vowel harmony, wherein only sequences of peripheral vowels (that is, , , and ) can occur within a syllable; and back harmony, wherein  and  cannot occur within a syllable together (that is,  and  are allowed but  and  are not). These two phenomena account for three long vowels and four diphthongs:  Sociolinguistic variation Jamaican Patois features a creole continuum (or a linguistic continuum): the variety of the language closest to the lexifier language (the acrolect) cannot be distinguished systematically from intermediate varieties (collectively referred to as the mesolect) or even from the most divergent rural varieties (collectively referred to as the basilect).
This situation came about with contact between speakers of a number of Niger–Congo languages and various dialects of English, the latter of which were all perceived as prestigious and the use of which carried socio-economic benefits. The span of a speaker's command of the continuum generally corresponds to social context. Grammar The tense/aspect system of Jamaican Patois is fundamentally unlike that of English. There are no morphological marked past participles; instead, two different participle words exist: en and a. These are not verbs, but simply invariant particles that cannot stand alone like the English to be. Their function also differs from English.
According to Bailey (1966), the progressive category is marked by . Alleyne (1980) claims that  marks the progressive and that the habitual aspect is unmarked but by its accompaniment with words such as "always", "usually", etc. (i.e. is absent as a grammatical category). Mufwene (1984) and Gibson and Levy (1984) propose a past-only habitual category marked by  as in  ('where we used to live is not as cold as here'). For the present tense, an uninflected verb combining with an iterative adverb marks habitual meaning as in  ('Tom always knows when Katy tells/has told about him').
en is a tense indicator  a is an aspect marker  (a) go is used to indicate the future    I run (habitually); I ran   or   I am running   or   I was running   or   I have run; I had run    I am going to run; I will run  Like other Caribbean Creoles (that is, Guyanese Creole and San Andrés-Providencia Creole; Sranan Tongo is excluded)  has a number of functions, including:  Directional, dative, or benefactive preposition   ('They are fighting for us')  Genitive preposition (that is, marker of possession)   ('that's my book')  Modal auxiliary expressing obligation or futurity   ('he ought to come up here')  Pre-infinitive complementizer   ('you have to contribute something to the Guinean  People for playing their music')  Pronominal system  The pronominal system of Standard English has a four-way distinction of person, number, gender and case.
Some varieties of Jamaican Patois do not have the gender or case distinction, but all varieties distinguish between the second person singular and plural (you). I, me =   you, you (singular) =   he, him =  (pronounced  in the basilect varieties)  she, her =  or  (no gender distinction in basilect varieties)  we, us, our =   you (plural) =   they, them, their =  Copula   the Jamaican Patois equative verb is also a  e.g. ('I am the teacher')  Jamaican Patois has a separate locative verb deh  e.g. or  ('we are in London')  with true adjectives in Jamaican Patois, no copula is needed  e.g.
('I am old now')  This is akin to Spanish in that both have 2 distinct forms of the verb "to be" – ser and estar – in which ser is equative and estar is locative. Other languages, such as Portuguese and Italian, make a similar distinction. (See Romance Copula.) Negation    is used as a present tense negator:   ('If the cow knew that his throat wasn't capable of swallowing a pear seed, he wouldn't have swallowed it')   is used in the same way as English can't   ('It is a poor thing that can't mash an ant')   is a negative past participle.
('John did not steal the money')  Orthography Patois has long been written with various respellings compared to English so that, for example, the word "there" might be written , , or , and the word "three" as , , or . Standard English spelling is often used and a nonstandard spelling sometimes becomes widespread even though it is neither phonetic nor standard (e.g. for , 'child'). In 2002, the Jamaican Language Unit was set up at the University of the West Indies at Mona to begin standardizing the language, with the aim of supporting non-English-speaking Jamaicans according to their constitutional guarantees of equal rights, as services of the state are normally provided in English, which a significant portion of the population cannot speak fluently.
The vast majority of such persons are speakers of Jamaican Patois. It was argued that failure to provide services of the state in a language in such general use or discriminatory treatment by officers of the state based on the inability of a citizen to use English violates the rights of citizens. The proposal was made that freedom from discrimination on the ground of language be inserted into the Charter of Rights. They standardized the Jamaican alphabet as follows:  Nasal vowels are written with -hn, as in kyaahn (can't) and iihn (isn't it?) h is written according to local pronunciation, so that hen (hen) and en (end) are distinguished in writing for speakers of western Jamaican, but not for those of central Jamaican.
Vocabulary  Jamaican Patois contains many loanwords, most of which are African in origin, primarily from Twi (a dialect of Akan). Many loanwords come from English, but are also borrowed from Spanish, Portuguese, Hindi, Arawak and African languages as well as Scottish and Irish dialects. Examples from African languages include  meaning that (in the sense of "he told me that..." = ), taken from Ashanti Twi, and Duppy meaning ghost, taken from the Twi word dupon ('cotton tree root'), because of the African belief of malicious spirits originating in the root of trees (in Jamaica and Ghana, particularly the cotton tree known in both places as "Odom").
The pronoun , used for the plural form of you, is taken from the Igbo language. Red eboe describes a fair-skinned black person because of the reported account of fair skin among the Igbo in the mid 1700s. De meaning to be(at a location) comes from  Yoruba. From the Ashanti-Akan, comes the term Obeah which means witchcraft, from the Ashanti Twi word Ɔbayi which also means "witchcraft". Words from Hindi include ganja (marijuana), and janga (crawdad). Pickney or pickiney meaning child, taken from an earlier form (piccaninny) was ultimately borrowed from the Portuguese pequenino (the diminutive of pequeno, small) or Spanish pequeño ('small').
There are many words referring to popular produce and food items—ackee, callaloo, guinep, bammy, roti, dal, kamranga. See Jamaican cuisine. Jamaican Patois has its own rich variety of swearwords. One of the strongest is blood claat (along with related forms raas claat, bomba claat,   claat and others—compare with bloody in Australian English and British English, which is also considered a profanity). Homosexual men may be referred to with the pejorative term , fish or batty boys. Example phrases   – I nearly hit him   – He can't beat me, he simply got lucky and won. – Affirmative particle   – Foolish exhibition, a person who makes a foolish exhibition of him or herself, or an exclamation of surprise.
– Woman   – Boy  Literature and film  A rich body of literature has developed in Jamaican Patois. Notable among early authors and works are Thomas MacDermot's All Jamaica Library and Claude McKay's Songs of Jamaica (1909), and, more recently, dub poets Linton Kwesi Johnson and Mikey Smith. Subsequently, the life-work of Louise Bennett or Miss Lou (1919–2006) is particularly notable for her use of the rich colorful patois, despite being shunned by traditional literary groups. "The Jamaican Poetry League excluded her from its meetings, and editors failed to include her in anthologies." Nonetheless, she argued forcefully for the recognition of Jamaican as a full language, with the same pedigree as the dialect from which Standard English had sprung:  After the 1960s, the status of Jamaican Patois rose as a number of respected linguistic studies were published, by Frederic Cassidy (1961, 1967), Bailey (1966) and others.
Subsequently, it has gradually become mainstream to codemix or write complete pieces in Jamaican Patois; proponents include Kamau Brathwaite, who also analyses the position of Creole poetry in his History of the Voice: The Development of Nation Language in Anglophone Caribbean Poetry (1984). However, Standard English remains the more prestigious literary medium in Jamaican literature. Canadian-Caribbean science-fiction novelist Nalo Hopkinson often writes in Trinidadian and sometimes Jamaican Patois. Jean D'Costa penned a series of popular children's novels, including Sprat Morrison (1972; 1990), Escape to Last Man Peak (1976), and Voice in the Wind (1978), which draw liberally from Jamaican Patois for dialogue, while presenting narrative prose in Standard English.
Marlon James employs Patois in his novels including A Brief History of Seven Killings (2014). In his science fiction novel Kaya Abaniah and the Father of the Forest (2015), British-Trinidadian author Wayne Gerard Trotman presents dialogue in Trinidadian Creole, Jamaican Patois, and French while employing Standard English for narrative prose. Jamaican Patois is also presented in some films and other media, for example, the character Tia Dalma's speech from Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest, and a few scenes in Meet Joe Black in which Brad Pitt's character converses with a Jamaican woman. In addition, early Jamaican films like The Harder They Come (1972), Rockers (1978), and many of the films produced by Palm Pictures in the mid-1990s (e.g.
Dancehall Queen and Third World Cop) have most of their dialogue in Jamaican Patois; some of these films have even been subtitled in English. It was also used in the second season of Luke Cage but the accents were described as "awful" by Jamaican Americans. Bible In December 2011, it was reported that the Bible was being translated into Jamaican Patois. The Gospel of St Luke has already appeared as: Jiizas: di Buk We Luuk Rait bout Im. While the Rev. Courtney Stewart, managing the translation as General Secretary of the West Indies Bible Society, believes this will help elevate the status of Jamaican Patois, others think that such a move would undermine efforts at promoting the use of English.
The Patois New Testament was launched in Britain (where the Jamaican diaspora is significant) in October 2012 as "Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment", and with print and audio versions in Jamaica in December 2012. A comparison of the Lord's Prayer   ...as it occurs in Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment:   Wi Faada we iina evn,  mek piipl av nof rispek fi yu an yu niem. Mek di taim kom wen yu ruul iina evri wie. Mek we yu waahn apm pan ort apm,  jos laik ou a wa yu waahn fi apm iina evn apm  Tide gi wi di fuud we wi niid.
Paadn wi fi aal a di rang we wi du,  siem laik ou wi paadn dem we du wi rang. An no mek wi fies notn we wi kaaz wi fi sin,  bot protek wi fram di wikid wan. ...as it occurs in English Standard Version:   Our Father in heaven,  hallowed be Your name. Your kingdom come,  Your will be done,  on earth, as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread,  and forgive us our debts,  as we also have forgiven our debtors. And lead us not into temptation,  but deliver us from evil.
See also   African American Vernacular English  English-based creole languages  Jamaican English  Nation language  Rastafarian vocabulary  Notes  References  Citations  General sources  Further reading  External links   The Jamaican Language Unit  Jamaican Patois Dictionary  Jamaican Creole Language Course for Peace Corps Volunteers  Jammin Reggae Archives Patois Dictionary  Sample Jamaican Patois Translations  Jumieka Langwij    Category:Jamaican culture Category:Analytic languages Category:English-based pidgins and creoles Category:Languages of Jamaica Category:Languages of the African diaspora
Arron Herbert Fray (born 1 May 1987) is a footballer who plays for Erith and Belvedere, as a defender. Fray was born in Bromley and came through the Crystal Palace academy, making a surprise debut for the club against Italian club Internazionale in July 2005, playing on the opposite side of defence to his natural position of right-back. During the 2005–06 season, he played two matches in the Football League Cup for Crystal Palace, against Walsall and Coventry City. Fray was released by Palace in 2008 without making a league appearance and he subsequently signed for Dagenham & Redbridge. Fray did not make a league appearance for them either, and was released in 2009.
Fray then signed for non-league club Bromley. In 2011, Fray signed for Thurrock. He subsequently signed for Erith and Belvedere of the Southern Counties East Football League. References  External links Arron Fray player profile at cpfc.co.uk  Fray at holmesdale.net  Category:1987 births Category:Living people Category:Association football defenders Category:English footballers Category:Crystal Palace F.C. players Category:Dagenham & Redbridge F.C. players Category:Bromley F.C. players Category:Thurrock F.C. players Category:Erith & Belvedere F.C. players
An organoid is a miniaturized and simplified version of an organ produced in vitro in three dimensions that shows realistic micro-anatomy. They are derived from one or a few cells from a tissue, embryonic stem cells or induced pluripotent stem cells, which can self-organize in three-dimensional culture owing to their self-renewal and differentiation capacities. The technique for growing organoids has rapidly improved since the early 2010s, and it was named by The Scientist as one of the biggest scientific advancements of 2013. Organoids are used by scientists to study disease and treatments in a laboratory. History  Attempts to create organs in vitro started with one of the first dissociation-reaggregation experiments where Henry Van Peters Wilson demonstrated that mechanically dissociated sponge cells can reaggregate and self-organize to generate a whole organism.
In the subsequent decades, multiple labs were able to generate different types of organs in vitro through the dissociation and reaggregation of organ tissues obtained from amphibians and embryonic chicks. The phenomena of mechanically dissociated cells aggregating and reorganizing to reform the tissue they were obtained from subsequently led to the development of the differential adhesion hypothesis by Malcolm Steinberg. With the advent of the field of stem cell biology, the potential of stem cells to form organs in vitro was realized early on with the observation that when stem cells form teratomas or embryoid bodies, the differentiated cells can organize into different structures resembling those found in multiple tissue types.
The advent of the field of organoids, started with a shift from culturing and differentiating stem cells in 2D media, to 3D media to allow for the development of the complex 3-dimensional structures of organs. Since 1987, researchers have devised different methods for 3-D culturing, and were able to utilize different types of stem cells to generate organoids resembling a multitude of organs. In 2006, Yaakov Nahmias and David Odde showed the self-assembly of vascular liver organoid maintained for over 50 days in vitro. In 2008, Yoshiki Sasai and his team at RIKEN institute demonstrated that stem cells can be coaxed into balls of neural cells that self-organize into distinctive layers.
In 2009 the Laboratory of Hans Clevers at Hubrecht Institute and University Medical Center Utrecht, Netherlands, showed that single LGR5-expressing intestinal stem cells self-organize to crypt-villus structures in vitro without necessity of a mesenchymal niche. In 2010, Mathieu Unbekandt & Jamie A. Davies demonstrated the production of renal organoids from murine fetus-derived renogenic stem cells. Subsequent reports showed significant physiological function of these organoids in vitro and in vivo. In 2013, Madeline Lancaster at the Austrian Academy of Sciences established a protocol for culturing cerebral organoids derived from stem cells that mimic the developing human brain's cellular organization. In 2014, Artem Shkumatov et al.
at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign demonstrated that cardiovascular organoids can be formed from ES cells through modulation of the substrate stiffness, to which they adhere. Physiological stiffness promoted three-dimensionality of EBs and cardiomyogenic differentiation. Takebe et al. demonstrate a generalized method for organ bud formation from diverse tissues by combining pluripotent stem cell-derived tissue-specific progenitors or relevant tissue samples with endothelial cells and mesenchymal stem cells. They suggested that the less mature tissues, or organ buds, generated through the self-organized condensation principle might be the most efficient approach toward the reconstitution of mature organ functions after transplantation, rather than condensates generated from cells of a more advanced stage.
Properties  Lancaster and Knoblich define an organoid as a collection of organ-specific cell types that develops from stem cells or organ progenitors, self-organizes through cell sorting and spatially restricted lineage commitment in a manner similar to in vivo, and exhibits the following properties:   it has multiple organ-specific cell types;  it is capable of recapitulating some specific function of the organ (e.g. contraction, neural activity, endocrine secretion, filtration, excretion);  its cells are grouped together and spatially organized, similar to an organ. Process Organoid formation generally requires culturing the stem cells or progenitor cells in a 3D medium. The 3D medium can be made using an extracellular matrix hydrogel Matrigel or Cultrex BME, which is a laminin-rich extracellular matrix that is secreted by the Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm tumor line.
Organoid bodies can then be made through embedding stem cells in the 3D medium. When pluripotent stem cells are used for the creation of the organoid, the cells are usually, but not all the time, allowed to form embryoid bodies. Those embryoid bodies are then pharmacologically treated with patterning factors to drive the formation of the desired organoid identity. Organoids have also been created using adult stem cells extracted from the target organ, and cultured in 3D media. Types   A multitude of organ structures have been recapitulated using organoids. This section aims to outline the state of the field as of now through providing an abridged list of the organoids that have been successfully created, along with a brief outline based on the most recent literature for each organoid, and examples of how it has been utilized in research.
Cerebral organoid  A cerebral organoid describes artificially grown, in vitro, miniature organs resembling the brain. Cerebral organoids are created by culturing human pluripotent stem cells in a three-dimensional rotational bioreactor and develop over a course of months. The procedure has potential applications in the study of both physiology and brain function. Cerebral organoids may experience "simple sensations" in response to external stimulation and neuroscientists  Andrea Lavazza, Elan Ohayon and Hideya Sakaguchi are among those expressing concern that such organs could develop sentience. They propose that further evolution of the technique needs to be subject to a rigorous oversight procedure. Gut organoid  Gut organoids refer to organoids that recapitulate structures of the gastrointestinal tract.
The gastrointestinal tract arises from the endoderm, which during development forms a tube that can be divided in three distinct regions, which give rise to, along with other organs, the following sections of the gastrointestinal tract:   The Foregut gives rise to the oral cavity and the stomach  The Midgut gives rise to the small intestines and the ascending colon   The Hindgut gives rise to the rectum and the rest of the colon  Organoids have been created for the following structures of the gastrointestinal tract:  Intestinal organoid  Intestinal organoids have thus far been among the gut organoids to be generated directly from pluripotent stem cells.
One way human pluripotent stem cells can be driven to form intestinal organoids is through first the application of activin A to drive the cells into a mesoendodermal identity, followed by the pharmacological upregulation of Wnt3a and Fgf4 signaling pathways as they have been demonstrated to promote posterior gut fate. Intestinal organoids have also been generated from intestinal stem cells, extracted from adult tissue and cultured in 3D media. Intestinal organoids recapitulate the crypt-Villus structure of the intestine, by recapitulating its function, physiology and organization, and maintaining all the cell types found normally in the structure including intestinal stem cells.
Intestinal organoids recapitulate the crypt-Villus structure to high degree of fidelity that they have been successfully transplanted to mouse intestines, and are hence highly regarded as a valuable model for research. One of the fields of research that intestinal organoids have been utilized is that of stem cell niche. Intestinal organoids were used to study the nature of the intestinal stem cell niche, and research done with them demonstrated the positive role IL-22 has in maintaining in intestinal stem cells, along with demonstrating the roles of other cell types like neurons and fibroblasts in maintenance of intestinal stem cells. Intestinal organoids have also demonstrated therapeutic potential.
Stomach or gastric organoid  Gastric organoids recapitulate at least partly the physiology of the stomach. Gastric organoids have been generated directly from pluripotent stem cells through the temporal manipulation of the FGF, WNT, BMP, retinoic acid and EGF signalling pathways in three-dimensional culture conditions. Gastric organoids have also been generated using LGR5 expressing stomach adult stem cells. Gastric organoids have been used as model for the study of cancer  along with human disease and development. For example one study  investigated the underlying genetic alterations behind a patient's metastatic tumor population, and identified that unlike the patient's primary tumor, the metastasis had both alleles of the TGFBR2 gene mutated.
To further assess the role of TGFBR2 in the metastasis, the investigators created organoids where TGFBR2 expression is knocked down, through which they were able to demonstrate that reduced TGFBR2 activity leads to invasion and metastasis of cancerous tumors both in vitro and in vivo. Lingual organoid  Lingual organoids are organoids that recapitulate, at least partly, aspects of the tongue physiology. Epithelial lingual organoids have been generated using BMI1 expressing epithelial stem cells in three-dimensional culture conditions through the manipulation of EGF, WNT, and TGF-β. This organoid culture, however, lacks taste receptors, as these cells do not arise from Bmi1 expressing epithelial stem cells.
Lingual taste bud organoids containing taste cells, however, have been created using the LGR5+ or CD44+ stem/progenitor cells of circumvallate (CV) papilla tissue. These taste bud organoids have been successfully created both directly from isolated Lgr5- or LGR6-expressing taste stem/progenitor cells. and indirectly, through the isolation, digestion, and subsequent culturing of CV tissue containing Lgr5+ or CD44+ stem/progenitor cells. Other types of organoids    Thyroid organoid  Thymic organoid Thymic organoids recapitulate at least partly the architecture and stem-cell niche functionality of the thymus, which is a lymphoid organ where T cells mature. Thymic organoids have been generated through the seeding of thymic stromal cells in 3-dimensional culture.
Thymic organoids seem to successfully recapitulate the thymus’s function, as co-culturing human hematopoietic or bone marrow stem cells with mouse thymic organoids resulted in the production of T-cells. Testicular organoid  Hepatic organoid  Pancreatic organoid  Epithelial organoid  Lung organoid  Kidney organoid  Gastruloid (embryonic organoid) - Generates all embryonic axes and fully implements the collinear Hox gene expression patterns along the anteroposterior axis. Blastoid  (blastocyst-like organoid)  Cardiac organoid - In 2018 hollow cardiac organoids were made to beat, and to respond to stimuli to beat faster or slower. Retinal Organoid  Basic research  Organoids are an excellent tool to study basic biological processes.
Organoids enable to study how cells interact together in an organ, their interaction with their environment, how diseases affect them and the effect of drugs. In vitro culture makes this system easy to manipulate and facilitates their monitoring. While organs are difficult to culture because their size limits the penetration of nutrients, the small size of organoids limits this problem. On the other hand, they don't exhibit all organ features and interactions with other organs are not recapitulated in vitro. While research on stem cells and regulation of stemness was the first field of application of intestinal organoids, they are now also used to study e.g.
uptake of nutrients, drug transport and secretion of incretin hormones. This is of great relevance in the context of malabsorption diseases as well as metabolic diseases such as obesity, insulin resistance, and diabetes. Models of disease  Organoids provide an opportunity to create cellular models of human disease, which can be studied in the laboratory to better understand the causes of disease and identify possible treatments. In one example, the genome editing system called CRISPR was applied to human pluripotent stem cells to introduce targeted mutations in genes relevant to two different kidney diseases, polycystic kidney disease and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis.
These CRISPR-modified pluripotent stem cells were subsequently grown into human kidney organoids, which exhibited disease-specific phenotypes. Kidney organoids from stem cells with polycystic kidney disease mutations formed large, translucent cyst structures from kidney tubules. When cultured in the absence of adherent cues (in suspension), these cysts reached sizes of 1 cm in diameter over several months. Kidney organoids with mutations in a gene linked to focal segmental glomerulosclerosis developed junctional defects between podocytes, the filtering cells affected in that disease. Importantly, these disease phenotypes were absent in control organoids of identical genetic background, but lacking the CRISPR mutations. Comparison of these organoid phenotypes to diseased tissues from mice and humans suggested similarities to defects in early development.
As first developed by Takahashi and Yamanaka in 2007, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) can also be reprogrammed from patient skin fibroblasts. These stem cells carry the exact genetic background of the patient including any genetic mutations which might contribute to the development of human disease. Differentiation of these cells into kidney organoids has been performed from patients with Lowe Syndrome due to ORCL1 mutations. This report compared kidney organoids differentiated from patient iPSC to unrelated control iPSC and demonstrated an inability of patient kidney cells to mobilise transcription factor SIX2 from the golgi complex. Because SIX2 is a well characterised marker of nephron progenitor cells in the cap mesenchyme, the authors concluded that renal disease frequently seen in Lowe Syndrome (global failure of proximal tubule reabsorption or renal Fanconi syndrome) could be related to alteration in nephron patterning arising from nephron progenitor cells lacking this important SIX2 gene expression.
Other studies have used CRISPR gene editing to correct the patient's mutation in the patient iPSC cells to create an isogenic control, which can be performed simultaneously with iPSC reprogramming. Comparison of a patient iPSC derived organoid against an isogenic control is the current gold standard in the field as it permits isolation of the mutation of interest as the only variable within the experimental model. In one such report, kidney organoids derived from iPSC of a patient with Mainzer-Saldino Syndrome due to compound heterozygous mutations in IFT140 were compared to an isogenic control organoid in which an IFT140 variant giving rise to a non-viable mRNA transcript was corrected by CRISPR.
Patient kidney organoids demonstrated abnormal ciliary morphology consistent with existing animal models which was rescued to wild type morphology in the gene corrected organoids. Comparative transcriptional profiling of epithelial cells purified from patient and control organoids highlighted pathways involved in cell polarity, cell-cell junctions and dynein motor assembly, some of which had been implicated for other genotypes within the phenotypic family of renal ciliopathies. Another report utilising an isogenic control demonstrated abnormal nephrin localisation in the glomeruli of kidney organoids generated from a patient with congenital nephrotic syndrome. Personalised medicine Intestinal organoids grown from rectal biopsies using culture protocols established by the Clevers group have been used to model cystic fibrosis, and led to the first application of organoids for personalised treatment.
Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease that is caused by gene mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene that encodes an epithelial ion channel necessary for healthy epithelial surface fluids. Studies by the laboratory of Jeffrey Beekman (Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands) described in 2013 that stimulation of colorectal organoids with cAMP-raising agonists such as forskolin or cholera toxin induced rapid swelling of organoids in a fully CFTR dependent manner. Whereas organoids from non-cystic fibrosis subjects swell in response to forskolin as a consequence of fluid transport into the organoids' lumens, this is severely reduced or absent in organoids derived from people with cystic fibrosis.
Swelling could be restored by therapeutics that repair the CFTR protein (CFTR modulators), indicating that individual responses to CFTR modulating therapy could be quantitated in a preclinical laboratory setting. Schwank et al. also demonstrated that the intestinal cystic fibrosis organoid phenotype could be repaired by CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing in 2013. Follow-up studies by Dekkers et al. in 2016 revealed that quantitative differences in forskolin-induced swelling between intestinal organoids derived from people with cystic fibrosis associate with known diagnostic and prognostic markers such as CFTR gene mutations or in vivo biomarkers of CFTR function. In addition, the authors demonstrated that CFTR modulator responses in intestinal organoids with specific CFTR mutations correlated with published clinical trial data of these treatments.
This led to preclinical studies where organoids from patients with extremely rare CFTR mutations for who no treatment was registered were found to respond strongly to a clinically available CFTR modulator. The suggested clinical benefit of treatment for these subjects based on the preclinical organoid test was subsequently confirmed upon clinical introduction of treatment by members of the clinical CF center under supervision of Kors van der Ent (Department of Paediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands). These studies show for the first time that organoids can be used for the individual tailoring of therapy or personalised medicine.
As a model for developmental biology  Organoids offer researchers an exceptional model to study developmental biology. Since the identification of pluripotent stem cells, there have been great advancements in directing pluripotent stem cells fate in vitro using 2D cultures. These advancements in PSC fate direction, coupled with the advancements in 3D culturing techniques allowed for the creation of organoids that recapitulate the properties of various specific subregions of a multitude of  organs. The use of these organoids has thus greatly contributed to expanding our understanding of the processes of organogenesis, and the field of developmental biology. In central nervous system development, for example, organoids have contributed to our understanding of the physical forces that underlie retinal cup formation.
References  Further reading      Kelly Rae Chi (2015). Orchestrating Organoids. A guide to crafting tissues in a dish that reprise in vivo organs. The Scientist. Category:Stem cells Category:Tissue engineering
The ball and shot gun, often also known by the marketing name paradox gun, is a shotgun capable of firing both shot and solid projectiles. First built by Holland and Holland, the term paradox is a proprietary name applied to these guns by Holland and Holland. Design  Ball and shot guns resemble side by side double-barrelled shotguns, typically with pistol grips and flip up sights. The ball and shot gun has broad, shallow rifling in the chokes of smoothbore shotgun barrels. Ball and shot retained the ability to fire shotgun shells, whilst being able to fire useful bullets accurately at short ranges, in a gun of manageable weight.
A typical 12 bore ball and shot gun weighed , whilst a fully rifled 12 bore rifle would weigh over more than . Ball and shot guns were available in a variety of calibres, from 8 bore to 28 bore. The original 12 bore loading from Holland and Holland fired a  pure lead bullet that was accurate to ranges up to , Westley Richards developed a 12 bore loading that fired a  LT-capped bullet at slightly over  which was accurate to ranges up to . Westley Richards 20 bore ball and shot guns fired  bullets accurately to , whilst their 28 bore ball and shot guns fired bullets at  at ranges of .
History  The ball and shot gun was invented by COL George Fosbery, VC, who in 1885 took out the English patent (patent number 7565) for a system of very shallow rifling in the chokes of smoothbore shotgun barrels. Fosbery immediately offered the patent to Holland and Holland, who bought it and from 1886 until 1899, when the patent expired, had exclusive rights to build this class of firearm, marketing it as the Paradox gun. After the expiry of the patent, most of Britain's larger firearm makers offered similar firearms, some retaining the name paradox gun, others opting for new names such as the Jungle gun, Colindian or Cosmos, although the most famous of these was the Westley Richards' Explora (for 12 bore and above) and Faucita (for 20 bore and 28 bore).
Use The 8 bore and 10 bore guns were considered suitable for dangerous game, whilst the most common 12 bore was suitable for medium game. In his Thirty-seven years of big game shooting in Cooch Behar, the Duars, and Assam Nripendra Narayan, the Maharajah of Cooch Behar, states the 12 bore Paradox "is an excellent weapon for Tiger, Bear or Leopard at short ranges up to 100 yards." In his African Rifles and Cartridges, John "Pondoro" Taylor wrote that the 8 bore and particularly the 10 bore ball and shot guns were popular as stand by backups to smaller calibre rifles for lion shooting.
He states he used a paradox gun chiefly for shooting leopard, loading one barrel with a 750 gr solid lead bullet and the second with  of buckshot. In his Wild Beasts and Their Ways, Sir Samuel Baker described the 12 bore paradox gun as "a most useful weapon ..... wonderfully accurate within a range of 100 yards" and that "the penetration and shock are most formidable". Harold G.C. Swayne used an 8 bore paradox gun by Holland & Holland extensively in Africa and India, in his Seventeen trips through Somalialand he states he believed it to be "the best weapon in the market for heavy game such as elephant or rhino."
Great War service In the early stages of the First World War, Holland and Holland paradox guns were pressed into service to combat the threat from Zeppelins. Holland and Holland developed a special 12 bore incendiary round, known as the "Holland Buckingham .707 inch Incendiary shell", designed to ignite the airship's hydrogen cells. At least 12 paradox guns were purchased by the Royal Naval Air Service for use by UK based patrol aircraft and they remained in use until suitable .303 British incendiary ammunition was developed. Notes  See also  Double-barreled shotgun  Double rifle  References  External links  Imperial War Museums, "10 bore cartridge, Paradox, Eley", iwm.org.uk, retrieved 20 August 2017.
Imperial War Museums, "12 bore rifle, Westley Richards Explora Super Magnum", iwm.org.uk, retrieved 20 August 2017. Category:Multiple barrel firearms Category:Double-barreled shotguns Category:Rifles
Alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH) () are a group of dehydrogenase enzymes that occur in many organisms and facilitate the interconversion between alcohols and aldehydes or ketones with the reduction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to NADH. In humans and many other animals, they serve to break down alcohols that otherwise are toxic, and they also participate in generation of useful aldehyde, ketone, or alcohol groups during biosynthesis of various metabolites. In yeast, plants, and many bacteria, some alcohol dehydrogenases catalyze the opposite reaction as part of fermentation to ensure a constant supply of NAD+. Evolution  Genetic evidence from comparisons of multiple organisms showed that a glutathione-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase, identical to a class III alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH-3/ADH5), is presumed to be the ancestral enzyme for the entire ADH family.
Early on in evolution, an effective method for eliminating both endogenous and exogenous formaldehyde was important and this capacity has conserved the ancestral ADH-3 through time. Gene duplication of ADH-3, followed by series of mutations, led to the evolution of other ADHs. The ability to produce ethanol from sugar (which is the basis of how alcoholic beverages are made) is believed to have initially evolved in yeast. Though this feature is not adaptive from an energy point of view, by making alcohol in such high concentrations so that they would be toxic to other organisms, yeast cells could effectively eliminate their competition.
Since rotting fruit can contain more than 4% of ethanol, animals eating the fruit needed a system to metabolize exogenous ethanol. This was thought to explain the conservation of ethanol active ADH in species other than yeast, though ADH-3 is now known to also have a major role in nitric oxide signaling. In humans, sequencing of the ADH1B gene (responsible for production of an alcohol dehydrogenase polypeptide) shows several functional variants. In one, there is a SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) that leads to either a Histidine or an Arginine residue at position 47 in the mature polypeptide. In the Histidine variant, the enzyme is much more effective at the aforementioned conversion.
The enzyme responsible for the conversion of acetaldehyde to acetate, however, remains unaffected, which leads to differential rates of substrate catalysis and causes a buildup of toxic acetaldehyde, causing cell damage. This provides some protection against excessive alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence (alcoholism). Various haplotypes arising from this mutation are more concentrated in regions near Eastern China, a region also known for its low alcohol tolerance and dependence. A study was conducted in order to find a correlation between allelic distribution and alcoholism, and the results suggest that the allelic distribution arose along with rice cultivation in the region between 12,000 and 6,000 years ago.
In regions where rice was cultivated, rice was also fermented into ethanol. This led to speculation that increased alcohol availability led to alcoholism and abuse, resulting in lower reproductive fitness. Those with the variant allele have little tolerance for alcohol, thus lowering chance of dependence and abuse. The hypothesis posits that those individuals with the Histidine variant enzyme were sensitive enough to the effects of alcohol that differential reproductive success arose and the corresponding alleles were passed through the generations. Classical Darwinian evolution would act to select against the detrimental form of the enzyme (Arg variant) because of the lowered reproductive success of individuals carrying the allele.
The result would be a higher frequency of the allele responsible for the His-variant enzyme in regions that had been under selective pressure the longest. The distribution and frequency of the His variant follows the spread of rice cultivation to inland regions of Asia, with higher frequencies of the His variant in regions that have cultivated rice the longest. The geographic distribution of the alleles seems to therefore be a result of natural selection against individuals with lower reproductive success, namely, those who carried the Arg variant allele and were more susceptible to alcoholism. However, the persistence of the Arg variant in other populations argues that the effect could not be strong.
Discovery   The first-ever isolated alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) was purified in 1937 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (brewer's yeast). Many aspects of the catalytic mechanism for the horse liver ADH enzyme were investigated by Hugo Theorell and coworkers. ADH was also one of the first oligomeric enzymes that had its amino acid sequence and three-dimensional structure determined. In early 1960, it was discovered in fruit flies of the genus Drosophila. Properties  The alcohol dehydrogenases comprise a group of several isozymes that catalyse the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to aldehydes and ketones, respectively, and also can catalyse the reverse reaction. In mammals this is a redox (reduction/oxidation) reaction involving the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+).
Oxidation of alcohol  Mechanism of action in humans  Steps   Binding of the coenzyme NAD+  Binding of the alcohol substrate by coordination to zinc  Deprotonation of His-51  Deprotonation of nicotinamide ribose  Deprotonation of Thr-48  Deprotonation of the alcohol  Hydride transfer from the alkoxide ion to NAD+, leading to NADH and a zinc bound aldehyde or ketone  Release of the product aldehyde. The mechanism in yeast and bacteria is the reverse of this reaction. These steps are supported through kinetic studies. Involved subunits  The substrate is coordinated to the zinc and this enzyme has two zinc atoms per subunit. One is the active site, which is involved in catalysis.
In the active site, the ligands are Cys-46, Cys-174, His-67, and one water molecule. The other subunit is involved with structure. In this mechanism, the hydride from the alcohol goes to NAD+. Crystal structures indicate that the His-51 deprotonates the nicotinamide ribose, which deprotonates Ser-48. Finally, Ser-48 deprotonates the alcohol, making it an aldehyde. From a mechanistic perspective, if the enzyme adds hydride to the re face of NAD+, the resulting hydrogen is incorporated into the pro-R position. Enzymes that add hydride to the re face are deemed Class A dehydrogenases. Active site   The active site of human ADH1 (PDB:1HSO) consists of a zinc atom, His-67, Cys-174, Cys-46, Thr-48, His-51, Ile-269, Val-292, Ala-317, and Phe-319.
In the commonly studied horse liver isoform, Thr-48 is a Ser, and Leu-319 is a Phe. The zinc coordinates the substrate (alcohol). The zinc is coordinated by Cys-46, Cys-174, and His-67. Leu-319, Ala-317, His-51, Ile-269 and Val-292 stabilize NAD+ by forming hydrogen bonds. His-51 and Ile-269 form hydrogen bonds with the alcohols on nicotinamide ribose. Phe-319, Ala-317 and Val-292 form hydrogen bonds with the amide on NAD+. Structural zinc site   Mammalian alcohol dehydrogenases also have a structural zinc site. This Zn ion plays a structural role and is crucial for protein stability. The structures of the catalytic and structural zinc sites in horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase (HLADH) as revealed in crystallographic structures, which has been studied computationally with quantum chemical as well as with classical molecular dynamics methods.
The structural zinc site is composed of four closely spaced cysteine ligands (Cys97, Cys100, Cys103, and Cys111 in the amino acid sequence) positioned in an almost symmetric tetrahedron around the Zn ion. A recent study showed that the interaction between zinc and cysteine is governed by primarily an electrostatic contribution with an additional covalent contribution to the binding. Types  Human  In humans, ADH exists in multiple forms as a dimer and is encoded by at least seven different genes. There are five classes (I-V) of alcohol dehydrogenase, but the hepatic forms that are used primarily in humans are class 1.
Class 1 consists of α, β, and γ subunits that are encoded by the genes ADH1A, ADH1B, and ADH1C. The enzyme is present at high levels in the liver and the lining of the stomach. It catalyzes the oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde (ethanal):  CH3CH2OH + NAD+ → CH3CHO + NADH + H+  This allows the consumption of alcoholic beverages, but its evolutionary purpose is probably the breakdown of alcohols naturally contained in foods or produced by bacteria in the digestive tract. Another evolutionary purpose may be metabolism of the endogenous alcohol vitamin A (retinol), which generates the hormone retinoic acid, although the function here may be primarily the elimination of toxic levels of retinol.
Alcohol dehydrogenase is also involved in the toxicity of other types of alcohol: For instance, it oxidizes methanol to produce formaldehyde and ethylene glycol to ultimately yield glycolic and oxalic acids. Humans have at least six slightly different alcohol dehydrogenases. Each is a dimer (i.e., consists of two polypeptides), with each dimer containing two zinc ions Zn2+. One of those ions is crucial for the operation of the enzyme: It is located at the catalytic site and holds the hydroxyl group of the alcohol in place. Alcohol dehydrogenase activity varies between men and women, between young and old, and among populations from different areas of the world.
For example, young women are unable to process alcohol at the same rate as young men because they do not express the alcohol dehydrogenase as highly, although the inverse is true among the middle-aged. The level of activity may not be dependent only on level of expression but also on allelic diversity among the population. The human genes that encode class II, III, IV, and V alcohol dehydrogenases are ADH4, ADH5, ADH7, and ADH6, respectively. Yeast and bacteria  Unlike humans, yeast and bacteria (except lactic acid bacteria, and E. coli in certain conditions) do not ferment glucose to lactate. Instead, they ferment it to ethanol and .
The overall reaction can be seen below:   Glucose + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 ethanol + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP + 2 H2O  In yeast and many bacteria, alcohol dehydrogenase plays an important part in fermentation: Pyruvate resulting from glycolysis is converted to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, and the acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by an alcohol dehydrogenase called ADH1. The purpose of this latter step is the regeneration of NAD+, so that the energy-generating glycolysis can continue. Humans exploit this process to produce alcoholic beverages, by letting yeast ferment various fruits or grains. Yeast can produce and consume their own alcohol.
The main alcohol dehydrogenase in yeast is larger than the human one, consisting of four rather than just two subunits. It also contains zinc at its catalytic site. Together with the zinc-containing alcohol dehydrogenases of animals and humans, these enzymes from yeasts and many bacteria form the family of "long-chain"-alcohol dehydrogenases. Brewer's yeast also has another alcohol dehydrogenase, ADH2, which evolved out of a duplicate version of the chromosome containing the ADH1 gene. ADH2 is used by the yeast to convert ethanol back into acetaldehyde, and it is expressed only when sugar concentration is low. Having these two enzymes allows yeast to produce alcohol when sugar is plentiful (and this alcohol then kills off competing microbes), and then continue with the oxidation of the alcohol once the sugar, and competition, is gone.
Plants In plants, ADH catalyses the same reaction as in yeast and bacteria to ensure that there is a constant supply of NAD+. Maize has two versions of ADH - ADH1 and ADH2, Arabidopsis thaliana contains only one ADH gene. The structure of Arabidopsis ADH is 47%-conserved, relative to ADH from horse liver. Structurally and functionally important residues, such as the seven residues that provide ligands for the catalytic and noncatalytic zinc atoms, however, are conserved, suggesting that the enzymes have a similar structure. ADH is constitutively expressed at low levels in the roots of young plants grown on agar.
If the roots lack oxygen, the expression of ADH increases significantly. Its expression is also increased in response to dehydration, to low temperatures, and to abscisic acid, and it plays an important role in fruit ripening, seedlings development, and pollen development. Differences in the sequences of ADH in different species have been used to create phylogenies showing how closely related different species of plants are. It is an ideal gene to use due to its convenient size (2–3 kb in length with a ≈1000 nucleotide coding sequence) and low copy number. Iron-containing   A third family of alcohol dehydrogenases, unrelated to the above two, are iron-containing ones.
They occur in bacteria and fungi. In comparison to enzymes the above families, these enzymes are oxygen-sensitive. Members of the iron-containing alcohol dehydrogenase family include: Saccharomyces cerevisiae alcohol dehydrogenase 4 (gene ADH4) Zymomonas mobilis alcohol dehydrogenase 2 (gene adhB)  Escherichia coli propanediol oxidoreductase  (gene fucO), an enzyme involved in the metabolism of fucose and which also seems to contain ferrous ion(s). Clostridium acetobutylicum NADPH- and NADH-dependent butanol dehydrogenases  (genes adh1, bdhA and bdhB), enzymes that have activity using butanol and ethanol as substrates. E. coli adhE, an iron-dependent enzyme that harbours three different activities: alcohol dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (acetylating)  and pyruvate-formate-lyase deactivase.
Bacterial glycerol dehydrogenase  (gene gldA or dhaD). Clostridium kluyveri NAD-dependent 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (4hbd)   Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella pneumoniae 1,3-propanediol dehydrogenase  (gene dhaT)  Bacillus methanolicus NAD-dependent methanol dehydrogenase  E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium ethanolamine utilization protein eutG. E. coli hypothetical protein yiaY. Other types  A further class of alcohol dehydrogenases belongs to quinoenzymes and requires quinoid cofactors (e.g., pyrroloquinoline quinone, PQQ) as enzyme-bound electron acceptors. A typical example for this type of enzyme is methanol dehydrogenase of methylotrophic bacteria. Applications   In biotransformation, alcohol dehydrogenases are often used for the synthesis of enantiomerically pure stereoisomers of chiral alcohols. Often, high chemo- and enantioselectivity can be achieved.
One example is the alcohol dehydrogenase from Lactobacillus brevis (LbADH), which is described to be a versatile biocatalyst. The high chemospecificity has been confirmed also in the case of substrates presenting two potential redox sites. For instance cinnamaldehyde presents both aliphatic double bond and aldehyde function. Unlike conventional catalysts, alcohol dehydrogenases are able to selectively act only on the latter, yielding exclusively cinnamyl alcohol. In fuel cells, alcohol dehydrogenases can be used to catalyze the breakdown of fuel for an ethanol fuel cell. Scientists at Saint Louis University have used carbon-supported alcohol dehydrogenase with poly(methylene green) as an anode, with a nafion membrane, to achieve about 50 μA/cm2.
In 1949, E. Racker defined one unit of alcohol dehydrogenase activity as the amount that causes a change in optical density of 0.001 per minute under the standard conditions of assay. Recently, the international definition of enzymatic unit (E.U.) has been more common: one unit of Alcohol Dehydrogenase will convert 1.0 μmole of ethanol to acetaldehyde per minute at pH 8.8 at 25 °C. Clinical significance  Alcoholism   There have been studies showing that variations in ADH that influence ethanol metabolism have an impact on the risk of alcohol dependence. The strongest effect is due to variations in ADH1B that increase the rate at which alcohol is converted to acetaldehyde.
One such variant is most common in individuals from East Asia and the Middle East, another is most common in individuals from Africa. Both variants reduce the risk for alcoholism, but individuals can become alcoholic despite that. Researchers have tentatively detected a few other genes to be associated with alcoholism, and know that there must be many more remaining to be found. Research continues in order to identify the genes and their influence on alcoholism. Drug dependence   Drug dependence is another problem associated with ADH, which researchers think might be linked to alcoholism. One particular study suggests that drug dependence has seven ADH genes associated with it, however, more research is necessary.
Alcohol dependence and other drug dependence may share some risk factors, but because alcohol dependence is often comorbid with other drug dependences, the association of ADH with the other drug dependencies may not be causal. Poisoning   Fomepizole, a drug that competitively inhibits alcohol dehydrogenase, can be used in the setting of acute methanol or ethylene glycol toxicity. This prevents the conversion of the methanol or ethylene glycol to its toxic metabolites (such as formic acid, formaldehyde, or glycolate). The same effect is also sometimes achieved with ethanol, again by competitive inhibition of ADH.
See also   Alcohol dehydrogenase (NAD(P)+)  Aldehyde dehydrogenase  Oxidoreductase  Blood alcohol content for rates of metabolism  References  External links    PDBsum has links to three-dimensional structures of various alcohol dehydrogenases contained in the Protein Data Bank  ExPASy contains links to the alcohol dehydrogenase sequences in Swiss-Prot, to a Medline literature search about the enzyme, and to entries in other databases. PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Alcohol dehydrogenase 1A. PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Alcohol dehydrogenase 1B. PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Alcohol dehydrogenase 1C.
PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Alcohol dehydrogenase 4. PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Alcohol dehydrogenase class-3. Category:Protein families Category:EC 1.1.1 Category:NADH-dependent enzymes Category:Iron enzymes Category:Zinc enzymes Category:Alcohol and health
Present Arms is the second album by UB40 and was released in 1981. It spent 38 weeks on the UK album charts, reaching number 2. An album of original songs, it spawned two top 20 hits in 'One in Ten' (number 7) and 'Don't Let It Pass You By/Don't Slow Down' (16). Like their first album Signing Off, Present Arms contained many socially and politically charged lyrics, from the anti-militant title track to 'Sardonicus' which was linked to both President Ronald Reagan and Risus sardonicus, an ironic smile on tetanus victims' faces, The UK top-ten hit "One in Ten" was an attack on Thatcherism.
The album also touches on a subject very dear to UB40's heart: 'Lamb's Bread' and 'Don't Walk On The Grass' are written as part of the band's longstanding campaign for the legalisation of cannabis. Musically, the album continued in the heavy, reverb-drenched, mellifluous style of the debut. The title track has been used to open UB40 concerts from the mid 1990s onwards, usually with the blasting horn section beginning the concert. As with Signing Off, Present Arms was critically acclaimed and commercially successful in the UK. A dub version of this album called Present Arms in Dub was released soon after.
Track listing LP  Disc One (Album) Side 1 "Present Arms" – 4:08 "Sardonicus" – 4:29 "Don't Let It Pass You By" – 7:45 "Wildcat" – 3:04 Side 2 "One in Ten" – 4:32 "Don't Slow Down" – 4:28 "Silent Witness" – 4:15 "Lamb's Bread" – 4:48  Disc Two (EP) With the original 1981 release was a 12" single (7" single in some countries) containing two instrumental tracks. These were added to the CD album.
"Don't Walk on the Grass" – 5:07 "Dr X" – 5:20  Track listing CD  "Present Arms" – 4:08 "Sardonicus" – 4:29 "Don't Let It Pass You By" – 7:45 "Wildcat" – 3:04 "One in Ten" – 4:32 "Don't Slow Down" – 4:28 "Silent Witness" – 4:15 "Lamb's Bread" – 4:48 "Don't Walk on the Grass" – 5:07 "Dr X" – 5:20  Please note when the Present Arms CD was created an obvious labelling error had occurred and in reality the music tracks "Don't walk on the Grass" and "Dr X" have been reversed with the wrong track label assigned to each other's song.
( Example Track 9..Written As Don't Walk on the Grass Is Actually DR X and vice-a-versa). Personnel  UB40  Astro – Trumpet, Vocals, Toasting  Jimmy Brown – Drums, Vocals  Ali Campbell – Vocals, Guitar  Robin Campbell – Vocals, Guitar  Earl Falconer – Bass Guitar  Norman Hassan – Percussion, Trombone  Brian Travers – Saxophone  Michael Virtue – Keyboards  Production  Ray "Pablo" Falconer – Producer  Certifications  External links Official site  Category:UB40 albums Category:1981 albums
In mathematics, specifically in geometric topology, surgery theory is a collection of techniques used to produce one finite-dimensional manifold from another in a 'controlled' way, introduced by . Originally developed for differentiable (or, smooth) manifolds, surgery techniques also apply to piecewise linear (PL-) and topological manifolds. Surgery refers to cutting out parts of the manifold and replacing it with a part of another manifold, matching up along the cut or boundary. This is closely related to, but not identical with, handlebody decompositions. It is a major tool in the study and classification of manifolds of dimension greater than 3. More technically, the idea is to start with a well-understood manifold M and perform surgery on it to produce a manifold M ′ having some desired property, in such a way that the effects on the homology, homotopy groups, or other invariants of the manifold are known.
The classification of exotic spheres by  led to the emergence of surgery theory as a major tool in high-dimensional topology. Surgery on a manifold  If X, Y are manifolds with boundary, then the boundary of the product manifold is   The basic observation which justifies surgery is that the space  can be understood either as the boundary of  or as the boundary of . In symbols,   ,   where  is the q-dimensional disk, i.e., the set of points in  that are at distance one-or-less from a given fixed point (the center of the disk); for example, then,  is homeomorphic to the unit interval, while  is a circle together with the points in its interior.
Now, given a manifold M of dimension  and an embedding , define another n-dimensional manifold  to be  One says that the manifold M′ is produced by a surgery cutting out  and gluing in , or by a p-surgery if one wants to specify the number p. Strictly speaking, M′ is a manifold with corners, but there is a canonical way to smooth them out. Notice that the submanifold that was replaced in M was of the same dimension as M (it was of codimension 0). Surgery is closely related to (but not the same as) handle attaching.
Given an (n + 1)-manifold with boundary (L, ∂L) and an embedding : Sp × Dq → ∂L, where n = p + q, define another (n + 1)-manifold with boundary L′ by  The manifold L′ is obtained by "attaching a (p + 1)-handle", with ∂L′ obtained from ∂L by a p-surgery  A surgery on M not only produces a new manifold M′, but also a cobordism W between M and M′. The trace of the surgery is the cobordism (W; M, M′), with    the (n + 1)-dimensional manifold with boundary ∂W = M ∪ M′ obtained from the product M × I by attaching a (p + 1)-handle Dp+1 × Dq.
Surgery is symmetric in the sense that the manifold M can be re-obtained from M′ by a (q − 1)-surgery, the trace of which coincides with the trace of the original surgery, up to orientation. In most applications, the manifold M comes with additional geometric structure, such as a map to some reference space, or additional bundle data. One then wants the surgery process to endow M′ with the same kind of additional structure. For instance, a standard tool in surgery theory is surgery on normal maps: such a process changes a normal map to another normal map within the same bordism class.
Examples  Effects on homotopy groups, and comparison to cell-attachment Intuitively, the process of surgery is the manifold analog of attaching a cell to a topological space, where the embedding φ takes the place of the attaching map. A simple attachment of a (q + 1)-cell to an n-manifold would destroy the manifold structure for dimension reasons, so it has to be thickened by crossing with another cell. Up to homotopy, the process of surgery on an embedding φ: Sp × Dq → M can be described as the attaching of a (p + 1)-cell, giving the homotopy type of the trace, and the detaching of a q-cell to obtain N. The necessity of the detaching process can be understood as an effect of Poincaré duality.
In the same way as a cell can be attached to a space to kill an element in some homotopy group of the space, a p-surgery on a manifold M can often be used to kill an element . Two points are important however: Firstly, the element  has to be representable by an embedding φ: Sp × Dq → M (which means embedding the corresponding sphere with a trivial normal bundle). For instance, it is not possible to perform surgery on an orientation-reversing loop. Secondly, the effect of the detaching process has to be considered, since it might also have an effect on the homotopy group under consideration.
Roughly speaking, this second point is only important when p is at least of the order of half the dimension of M.  Application to classification of manifolds The origin and main application of surgery theory lies in the classification of manifolds of dimension greater than four. Loosely, the organizing questions of surgery theory are:  Is X a manifold? Is f a diffeomorphism? More formally, one must ask whether up to homotopy:  Does a space X have the homotopy type of a smooth manifold of the same dimension? Is a homotopy equivalence f: M → N between two smooth manifolds homotopic to a diffeomorphism?
It turns out that the second ("uniqueness") question is a relative version of a question of the first ("existence") type; thus both questions can be treated with the same methods. Note that surgery theory does not give a complete set of invariants to these questions. Instead, it is obstruction-theoretic: there is a primary obstruction, and a secondary obstruction called the surgery obstruction which is only defined if the primary obstruction vanishes, and which depends on the choice made in verifying that the primary obstruction vanishes. The surgery approach In the classical approach, as developed by William Browder, Sergei Novikov, Dennis Sullivan and C. T. C. Wall, surgery is done on normal maps of degree one.
Using surgery, the question "Is the normal map f: M → X of degree one cobordant to a homotopy equivalence?" can be translated (in dimensions greater than four) to an algebraic statement about some element in an L-group of the group ring . More precisely, the question has a positive answer if and only if the surgery obstruction  is zero, where n is the dimension of M.  For example, consider the case where the dimension n = 4k is a multiple of four, and . It is known that  is isomorphic to the integers ; under this isomorphism the surgery obstruction of f maps, up to a scalar factor, to the difference of the signatures  of X and M. Hence a normal map of degree one is cobordant to a homotopy equivalence if and only if the signatures of domain and codomain agree.
Coming back to the "existence" question from above, we see that a space X has the homotopy type of a smooth manifold if and only if it receives a normal map of degree one whose surgery obstruction vanishes. This leads to a multi-step obstruction process: In order to speak of normal maps, X must satisfy an appropriate version of Poincaré duality which turns it into a Poincaré complex. Supposing that X is a Poincaré complex, the Pontryagin–Thom construction shows that a normal map of degree one to X exists if and only if the Spivak normal fibration of X has a reduction to a stable vector bundle.
If normal maps of degree one to X exist, their bordism classes (called normal invariants) are classified by the set of homotopy classes . Each of these normal invariants has a surgery obstruction; X has the homotopy type of a smooth manifold if and only if one of these obstructions is zero. Stated differently, this means that there is a choice of normal invariant with zero image under the surgery obstruction map  Structure sets and surgery exact sequence The concept of structure set is the unifying framework for both questions of existence and uniqueness. Roughly speaking, the structure set of a space X consists of homotopy equivalences M → X from some manifold to X, where two maps are identified under a bordism-type relation.
A necessary (but not in general sufficient) condition for the structure set of a space X to be non-empty is that X be an n-dimensional Poincaré complex, i.e. that the homology and cohomology groups be related by isomorphisms  of an n-dimensional manifold, for some integer n. Depending on the precise definition and the category of manifolds (smooth, PL, or topological), there are various versions of structure sets. Since, by the s-cobordism theorem, certain bordisms between manifolds are isomorphic (in the respective category) to cylinders, the concept of structure set allows a classification even up to diffeomorphism. The structure set and the surgery obstruction map are brought together in the surgery exact sequence.
This sequence allows to determine the structure set of a Poincaré complex once the surgery obstruction map (and a relative version of it) are understood. In important cases, the smooth or topological structure set can be computed by means of the surgery exact sequence. Examples are the classification of exotic spheres, and the proofs of the Borel conjecture for negatively curved manifolds and manifolds with hyperbolic fundamental group. In the topological category, the surgery exact sequence is the long exact sequence induced by a fibration sequence of spectra. This implies that all the sets involved in the sequence are in fact abelian groups.
On the spectrum level, the surgery obstruction map is an assembly map whose fiber is the block structure space of the corresponding manifold. See also s-cobordism theorem h-cobordism theorem Whitehead torsion Dehn surgery Manifold decomposition orientation character Plumbing (mathematics)  References  External links Edinburgh Surgery Theory Study Group 2012 Oberwolfach Seminar on Surgery theory on the Manifold Atlas Project  2012 Regensburg Blockseminar on Surgery theory on the Manifold Atlas Project Jacob Lurie's 2011 Harvard surgery course Lecture notes Andrew Ranicki's homepage Shmuel Weinberger's homepage
Ajeet Bajaj (born 1965) is the first Indian to ski to the North Pole and the South Pole within a year. Early life Bajaj (also affectionately known as "Bagage") completed his schooling at Lawrence School, Sanawar. At the age of twelve he climbed the  Friendship Peak near Kullu, and then at sixteen years old he ascended the Hanuman Tibba, a  peak. He graduated from St. Stephen's College, Delhi. Adventure  Bajaj is the first Indian to have skied to both the North Pole  and the South Pole, and has undertaken travel in multiple countries spanning all seven continents. In July 2008 he kayaked along the coast of Greenland as part of an Indo-American team.
The expedition's aim was to create awareness about the effect of global warming on glaciers. Bajaj has won a bronze medal in the national games for kayaking and a silver and two bronze medals in international rafting competitions in Switzerland and Siberia, Russia. He has captained an international team for world white water championships in Turkey. Bajaj qualified as a climbing instructor at the French National School of Alpinism and Skiing and has experience in a host of other adventure sports including skiing, rock climbing, snorkeling, sea kayaking, scuba diving, bungee jumping and canyoning. He is a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and is former President of the Adventure Tour Operators Association of India.
He with his daughter Deeya Bajaj climbed Mount Everest on 16 May 2018. Making them the first father - daughter duo to do so. Achievements   Chief Instructor for kayaking course conducted for instructors of Nehru Institute of Mountaineering, Uttarkashi, India. Course director for River Running courses conducted for the National Institute of Water Sports, Goa, India. Leader of first descent expeditions on the Nubra, Shyok, Ravi and Beas rivers in India. Leader of rafting expeditions on Indus, Zanskar, Yamuna, Bhagirathi, Mandakini and Alaknanda rivers for the Indian Army. First descent by Kayak of upper Yamuna. Expedition leader and chief instructor for forty-five river running courses and expeditions for the Indian Armed Forces.
Many of these expeditions were on uncharted rivers in the Himalayas. Joint leader Indo-U.S. Kali-Sarda River Expedition (first descent) – 1987. Member of a number of international expeditions in India  Technical Director for Four Square International White Water Challenge 2001, India. Former President, Indian Association of Professional Rafting Outfitters of India. Member of executive committee Nehru Institute of Mountaineering. Awarded Padma Shri in 2012  See also Indian summiters of Mount Everest - Year wise List of Mount Everest summiters by number of times to the summit List of Mount Everest records of India List of Mount Everest records  References  External links  Snow Leopard Adventures Website  Category:Indian male skiers Category:Living people Category:Lawrence School, Sanawar alumni Category:Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society Category:Indian mountain climbers Category:Indian summiters of Mount Everest Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports Category:1965 births
24 Hours in A&E is a British documentary programme, set in a teaching hospital in inner London. Initially it was filmed in King's College Hospital in Denmark Hill, Camberwell, but in the seventh series, the setting was changed to St George's Hospital in Tooting, Wandsworth, and has been filmed there since. Cameras film round the clock for 28 days, 24 hours a day in A&E (Accident and Emergency). It offers unprecedented access to one of Britain's busiest A&E departments. Overview This Channel 4 documentary series gives viewers behind the scenes access to King's College Hospital in Camberwell and currently St George's Hospital Accident & Emergency Department, in Tooting, SW London.
Series one aired every Wednesday at 21:00 and consisted of 14 one-hour episodes. The filming took place over 28 days using 70 fixed cameras and is the largest documentary series Channel 4 has ever made. The series enables viewers to see the challenges that A&E staff face as they treat the patients that come through the doors every day. The episodes show how the staff work as a team to treat those patients present involved in a full range of minor and serious conditions, both medical (suspected heart attack, aortic abdominal aneurysm, stroke) and trauma (from household accidents to road traffic collisions).
The fly-on-the-wall footage is intercut with subsequent interviews with staff, patients and relatives giving their perspectives and background on the events shown. Filming for the second series ended in March 2012. It began broadcasting on 16 May 2012, again appearing in the Wednesday 21:00 slot. The seventh series was filmed in St George's Hospital, Tooting. The first episode of this series was broadcast on 30 October 2014 at 21:00. List of episodes  Series 1 (2011)  Series 2 (2012)  Series 3 (2013)  Series 4 (2013)  Series 5 (2014)  Series 6 (2014)  Series 7 (2014)  Series 7 started on 30 October 2014 with a new cast and new hospital.
The new series was set at St Georges Hospital in Tooting London. Series 8 (2015)  Series 9 (2015)  Series 10 (2015-16)  Series 11 (2016)  Series 12 (2016-17)  Series 13 (2017)  Series 14 (2018)  Series 15 (2018)  Series 16 (2018)  Series 17 (2019)  Series 18 (2019)  Series 19 (2019)  Series 20 (2020)  Specials  Related shows The production company behind the series (The Garden Productions) have also made a four-part observational documentary series about mental health. Two years in the making, Bedlam was filmed within clinical services provided by South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust (SLaM). Both SLaM and King's College Hospital are part of King's Health Partners Academic Health Sciences Centre.
Keeping Britain Alive: The NHS in a Day, also made by The Garden Productions, but for BBC Two, was based on the inverse premise to 24 Hours in A&E: instead of observing different days in a single institution, the eight-part series followed the work of a variety of NHS services on a single day, Thursday 18 October 2012. The series aired from March 2013. Due to the success of 24 Hours in A&E, Channel 4 commissioned a series with the same format that follows police officers in Luton, called 24 Hours in Police Custody. Awards and nominations  References  External links  Category:2010s British documentary television series Category:2020s British documentary television series Category:2011 British television series debuts Category:2010s British medical television series Category:2020s British medical television series Category:Channel 4 documentaries Category:Television series by ITV Studios Category:English-language television programs Category:Television shows set in London
The embryological origin of the mouth and anus is an important characteristic, and forms the morphological basis for separating bilaterian animals into two natural groupings: the protostomes and deuterostomes. In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, a dent forms in one side of the early, spheroidal embryo. This dent, the blastopore, deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus, while the gut eventually tunnels through the embryo until it reaches the other side, forming an opening that becomes the mouth. It was originally thought that the blastopore of the protostomes formed the mouth, and the anus was formed second when the gut tunneled through the embryo.
More recent research has shown that our understanding of protostome mouth formation is somewhat less secure than we had thought. Acoelomorpha, which form a sister group to the rest of the bilaterian animals, have a single mouth that leads into a blind gut (with no anus). The genes employed in the embryonic construction of the flatworm mouth are the same as those expressed for the protostome and deuterostome mouth, which suggests that the structures are equivalent homologous, and that the older ideas about protostome mouth formation were correct. An alternative way to develop two openings from the blastopore during gastrulation, called amphistomy, appears to exist in some animals, such as nematodes.
In humans the perforation of the anus and mouth happen at 8 weeks and 4 weeks respectively. When both the anus and mouth are perforated, the organism becomes topologically a torus. Evolutionary origin  Bilaterians likely evolved from an ancestor which was radially symmetrical. There have been suggestions that the blastopore started out as the digestive surface on a radial organism which became elongated (and thus bilaterially symmetrical) before its sides closed over to leave a mouth at the front and an anus at the rear. This matches with the "flaps-folding-over" model of gut formation, but an alternative view is that the original blastopore migrated forwards to one end of the ancestral organism before deepening to become a blind gut.
This is consistent with living Xenacoelomorpha, which are the sister taxon to protostomes and deuterostomes. The story is a little more complex, because the blastopore itself does not directly give rise to the mouth of these worms. This suggests that the last common ancestor of bilaterians had a similar gut configuration, and that the anus evolved after the mouth. Exactly how a through gut formed from this blind gut is somewhat harder to tell. The genetic mechanisms responsible for anus formation are quite variable, which might suggest that the anus evolved several times in different groups. Scientists are currently looking into this matter to generate a more complete picture.
In humans, the development proceeds differently. The buccopharyngeal membrane is created in the foregut and it is perforated during the 4th week of human development, creating the primitive mouth, whereas the cloacal membrane is created in the hindgut and it is perforated during the 8th week of human development, creating the primitive anus after the mouth opening has already been created. See also Embryology Gastrulation  References  Category:Embryology of digestive system Category:Mouth Category:Digestive system
Waikato Hospital is a major regional hospital in Hamilton, New Zealand. It provides specialised and emergency healthcare for the Midlands and Waikato area with patients referred there from feeder hospitals  like Whakatane, Lakes area, Tauranga, Thames, Tokoroa and Rotorua. Facilities   Waikato District Health Board employs more than 6000 people and plans, funds and provides hospital and health services to more than 372,865 people in a region covering eight per cent of New Zealand. Specialist services include:  The centre is the main trauma facility for the area, and close connection to road and air transport (air ambulances, helicopter or fixed wing plane) allow patient-hospital transport in less than an hour from any place in the region.
Waikato Hospital is home to one of New Zealand's four burns units. The unit primarily serves patients from the Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Gisborne and Taranaki regions. Henry Rongomau Bennett Centre  The Henry Rongomau Bennett Centre is the inpatient mental health unit for the Waikato DHB, located on the Waikato Hospital site. The centre consists of seven secure wards, including two forensic psychiatric wards providing mental health services to the Department of Corrections. In October 2019, the New Zealand Government announced NZ$100 million in funding for replacement of the facility, dependent on a final business case due in 2021. Other services   The hospital has an academic division of the Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University of Auckland, acting as a teaching and training centre for undergraduates and postgraduate medical and allied health science students.
There is a dedicated training facility, the Bryant Education Centre. Research is also undertaken in cooperation with the Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre and the University of Waikato. The hospital also has five chaplains who help perform social services and provide counselling, assisted by volunteers. The services are part-funded by the Ministry of Health, churches and donations. The hospital also operates 'Hilda Ross House', a hospital hotel owned by the District Health Board. History  The foundation stone of the first ward of the hospital to be built in brick was laid on July 1st 1905 by Andrew Primrose, Esq., J.P. The decision to expand the hospital had been made the previous year by the Waikato District Hospital and Charitable Aid Board (of which Andrew Primrose was a member since its institution) since the demand for admission had more than three times outgrown the accommodation .
During the ceremony to lay the foundation stone Mr. Primrose was presented with a silver trowel (which was on display prior to the ceremony in the window of a shop owned by one Mr. Howden ) which was engraved with the following inscription:  Diggers Bar and Café in Hamilton West was once the office of the Waikato District Hospital and Charitable Aid Board. Plastic surgeon Sir Archibald McIndoe trained as a house surgeon at Waikato hospital prior to working in the US and UK with his cousin Harold Gillies. Mary Anne Reidy was also a key figure in the preservation of the hospital.
It was also the hospital where Singaporean actor Aloysius Pang died on 24 January 2019, due to serious injuries sustained while on reservist in New Zealand. References  External links   Waikato Hospital (Official hospital website from the Waikato District Health Board)  Waikato Hospital Information page (Useful hospital information on a single page)  Category:Buildings and structures in Hamilton, New Zealand Category:Teaching hospitals in New Zealand Category:Hospitals with year of establishment missing
The Assistant is a 2019 American drama film written, directed, produced, and edited by Kitty Green. It stars Julia Garner, Matthew Macfadyen, Makenzie Leigh, Kristine Froseth, Noah Robbins and Jon Orsini. It had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on August 30, 2019. It was released on January 31, 2020, by Bleecker Street. Premise  A young female graduate enters a film production company, slowly understanding the shady behaviors and practices in use.
Cast  Julia Garner as Jane  Matthew Macfadyen as Wilcock  Kristine Froseth as Sienna  Makenzie Leigh as Ruby  Noah Robbins as Male Assistant  Jon Orsini as Male Assistant  Dagmara Domińczyk as Donna  Purva Bedi as Executive Assistant  Alexander Chaplin as Max  Juliana Canfield as Sasha  Bregje Heinen as Tatiana  Patrick Wilson as Famous Actor  Production In September 2018, it was announced Kitty Green would write and direct the film with James Schamus and Scott Macaulay producing under their Symbolic Exchange banner. In December 2018, Julia Garner joined the cast of the film. In April 2019, Matthew Macfadyen,  Kristine Froseth, Makenzie Leigh, Noah Robbins, Dagmara Domińczyk and Purva Bedi joined the cast of the film.
Production concluded that same month in New York City. The film helps explain how sexually predatory behavior by powerful men often remains hidden. Release The Assistant had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on August 30, 2019. Shortly after, Bleecker Street acquired distribution rights to the film, and set it for a January 31, 2020, release. Critical response On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 91% based on 171 reviews, with an average rating of 7.52/10. The critical consensus reads, "Led by a powerhouse performance from Julia Garner, The Assistant offers a withering critique of workplace harassment and systemic oppression."
On Metacritic, which assesses films on a score out of 100, The Assistant holds a score 76 based on reviews from 29 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews." See also Me Too movement Michelle Obama's October 13, 2016 speech Weinstein effect Time's Up  References  External links    Category:2019 films Category:2019 drama films Category:American drama films Category:American films Category:Bleecker Street films Category:Films about sexual harassment Category:Films produced by James Schamus Category:Films shot in New York City
Synovial sarcoma, X breakpoint (SSX) refers to a group of genes rearranged in synovial sarcoma. They include:  SSX1  SSX2 and SSX2B  SSX3  SSX4 and SSX4B  SSX5  SSX6  SSX7  SSX8  SSX9  SSX10  The group also has several associated pseudogenes, and the interacting protein SSX2IP. The translocation t(X;18) creates a fusion of the SYT gene(at 18q11) with either SSX1 or SSX2 (both at Xp11). Neither SYT, nor the SSX proteins contain DNA-binding domains. Instead, they appear to be transcriptional regulators whose actions are mediated primarily through protein–protein interactions, with BRM in the case of SYT, and with Polycomb group repressors in the case of SSX.
References  Category:Sarcoma
Christian Münzner (born 21 August 1981) is a German guitarist who plays for the band Alkaloid. He is also known for playing for the technical death metal band Necrophagist from 2002 until 2006, appearing on their 2004 release Epitaph. As well as Necrophagist, Münzner played in Defeated Sanity from 1999 to 2002 and Obscura from 2008 to 2014, after which he left to co-found the extreme progressive metal supergroup Alkaloid. In addition to being a prolific solo artist who has released two solo albums, Münzner is also a member of Ron Jarzombek's musical venture Terrestrial Exiled, and was featured on Hannes Grossmann's solo album.
In recent years he has suffered from focal dystonia in his left hand. Münzner is known for drawing huge influences from classical music, particularly Johann Sebastian Bach. Early life  Münzner began playing guitar aged 11, began playing his first live shows when he was just 12, and soon thereafter was introduced to the work of Yngwie Malmsteen, Steve Vai, Dream Theater, and Paul Gilbert. After seeing Gilbert perform, he developed a habit of practicing rigorously for 6–8 hours a day. In 2001 he attended the Munich Guitar Institute and studied with Wolfgang Zenk and Uli Wiedenhorn, before graduating in 2002.
Influences and style  His playing style is largely based on neo-classical scales, such as diminished, phrygian, harmonic minor. He cites many neoclassical guitar players as major influences, such as Tony MacAlpine, Jason Becker who inspired his sweep picking technique, Marty Friedman, Yngwie Malmsteen, Vinnie Moore, and John Petrucci, who also inspired his alternate picking technique. In regards to guitar technique, he says:  "Phrasing is what makes the big difference between just mindless noodling and a great guitar solo in my opinion. Think more about which notes you play and when you play them, and then just use your chops to play the notes you wanna play.
Don't think now I sweep, now I pick, now I tap, etc. Think of musical phrases and use speed to add intensity. Intensity is essential for good music in general to me." He wrote half the leads on Necrophagist's Epitaph, although he believes that "his phrasing wasn't as good as now as I tended to overplay". He's also a fan of symmetric and exotic scales, and he openly endorses using his knowledge of music theory when writing: "It helps me a lot to see and navigate through the fret-board a lot faster. [...] I think knowing all the theory also made me learn every other aspect of guitar a lot faster."
Music  Necrophagist  Münzner joined Necrophagist in 2002, and wrote the solos to the Epitaph album when he was just 23 years old, including songs like "Stabwound" and the title track. The album garnered critical acclaim amongst fans and critics alike for the complexity of the music and its substantive neoclassical influences. Münzner's tenure at Necrophagist lasted only four years, and in 2006 he left the band. However, he later stated that there was a lot of tension within the band, "which sucked out the fun of guitar playing", which prompted him to leave. In regards to his relationship with Muhammed and the contribution he made to the record, Münzner states:  "I know nothing about what this guy is up to.
Last time I spoke to him was more than 5 and a half years ago. We met briefly at a festival where both Necro and Obscura played 2 years ago, but we didn’t speak apart from a brief hello. We didn’t really part ways on the best terms... It kinda pisses me off though that so many people think that he wrote my leads on Epitaph, which is just bullshit." After leaving the band, Necrophagist announced that Münzner's departure was due to scheduling conflicts. Obscura  Shortly after leaving Necrophagist, Münzner joined Steffen Kummerer, Jeroen Paul Thesseling and Hannes Grossmann in Obscura, recording his first album with them, Cosmogenesis, in 2009.
Two years later, he recorded the third Obscura record, Omnivium, in 2011. Throughout his tenure, the band played more than 200 lives shows. Münzner stated that a large reason for his departure from Necrophagist and eagerness to join Obscura was because of the freedom afforded to him by this band, particularly Steffen Kummerer who welcomed his contributions. When writing for Obscura, Münzner stated that his main contributions were not so much in terms of songwriting, but generating riffs and solos for the band, which were then arranged by Grossmann. Apart from the song "Universe Momentum", Münzner said that he had not written any songs on his own, but relied on writing riffs and solos which were then organized into songs.
He appeared in the music video for the single "Anticosmic Overload". During his time with Obscura, Münzner began developing focal dystonia, which prohibited some of his playing and made touring exhaustive. Citing Obscura's extreme technicality and touring as a hindrance to this disease, Münzner decided to leave the band prior to the release of their fourth record. "My decision to step down from my position as the lead guitar player in Obscura after more than 6 years was not an easy one, but even though it may come unexpected for the majority of fans...I am still dealing with a neurologic condition in my fretting hand called Focal Dystonia, which almost took the ability to play guitar away from me completely by late 2011/early 2012.
Even though I regained most of my chops by now through re-training and Botox therapy, the condition is still there and I have to be very careful not to relapse and undo my progress by putting too much strain on my hand, which is why touring several months on an album cycle with material that brings me to the edge of my technical ability every night is not an option for me anymore in the near future." Alkaloid  After leaving Obscura, Münzner joined Morean, Danny Tunker, Linus Klausenitzer and Hannes Grossmann as the third guitarist, forming the progressive metal supergroup Alkaloid in 2014, and wrote two songs for their debut album, The Malkuth Grimoire.
Focal dystonia  After recording the Obscura album Omnivium in 2011, Münzner was diagnosed with focal dystonia. Despite having had this disorder for several years throughout his career, physicians couldn't characterize the disease. Münzner describes the disorder as impairing the coordination between both his index and middle fingers, making the technical demands of his music impossible, forcing him to change his fingering and technique. "Since the index finger is mostly on the strings when playing guitar, my middle finger cramps back into the hand and I can’t use it, and the most simple trill functions between the first 2 fingers became impossible and un-doable for me.
This is why I now tap a lot more with more fingers of my right hand and I use more slides with the index finger and the pinky...I still live in constant fear that it starts affecting other fingers...I have to reduce my performance and practice amount to a healthy degree"  Despite the disease, Münzner still wrote music and toured with Obscura until his departure from the band.
Equipment Guitars Ibanez RGT6EXFX Ibanez JEM77BFP Ibanez XPT707 seven string Ibanez JEM77V Ibanez RGD2127Z-ISH 7 string Ibanez RGA7 7 string  Amplifiers ENGL E 530 preamp ENGL 840/50 poweramp  Guitar picks Dunlop Jazz III  Effects TC Electronic G Major multi-effects unit Fractal Audio Axe FX II  Discography   Defeated Sanity - Promo (2000)  Defeated Sanity - Talk Evolution/The Parasite (2001)  Necrophagist - Epitaph (2004)  Obscura - Cosmogenesis (2009)  Terrestrial Exiled - Duodecimal Levorotation Single (2011)  Obscura - Omnivium (2011)  Timewarp (solo album) (2011)  Spawn of Possession - Incurso (2012)  Paradox - Tales of the Weird (2012)  Beyond The Wall Of Sleep (solo album) (2014)  Alkaloid - The Malkuth Grimoire (2015)  Eternity's End - The Fire Within (2016)  Eternity's End - Unyielding'' (2019)  Path of the hero (2020) (solo album)  References  Category:Death metal musicians Category:German heavy metal guitarists Category:Male guitarists Category:Living people Category:1981 births Category:Seven-string guitarists Category:Obscura (band) members Category:Necrophagist members Category:21st-century guitarists Category:21st-century German male musicians
Sinezona brucei is a species of minute sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc or micromollusc in the family Scissurellidae, the little slit snails. References  External links  To World Register of Marine Species  Category:Scissurellidae Category:Gastropods described in 2012
In accounting practices, vendor-specific objective evidence (VSOE) is a method of revenue recognition allowed by US GAAP that enables companies to recognize revenue on specific items on a multi-item sale based on evidence specific to a company that the product has been delivered. Description GAAP rules and pronouncements come from the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) which is a non-profit organization that the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has created to promulgate and to amend the rules of GAAP reporting as required. The Accounting Standards Executive Committee of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) instituted SOP 97-2. Purpose The purpose of GAAP is to level the playing field for public-company reporting – protecting shareholders and investors by preventing earnings from being stated before they are actually earned.
Therefore, a company selling software with a package including installation and a one-year maintenance contract can only record the sale on a deferred basis and earnings are recognized over the term of the maintenance contract. However based on VSOE, allocation occurs by splitting the fee amongst the products and related elements  – which is the price established by the vendor for the separate sale of each element and are able to recognize some of the revenue at delivery. This allows companies that sell items that have software licenses, support contracts and hardware items recognizing the revenue of the hardware items on delivery, and the software license or support contract based on the fulfillment of the time the contract it is related to.
Common use VSOE revenue recognition is commonly used by companies that sell software products and services in multiple-element bundles. VSOE focuses on the fair market value of an item sold individually, as opposed to the assigned sales value of the item sold as part of a multiple-element bundle. You can use the VSOE feature to determine VSOE prices of items and defer the recognition of this revenue. The VSOE feature is intended for use by United States companies to maintain GAAP compliance with the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) Statement of Position 97-2 (SOP 97-2) and SOP 98-9 (the residual method).
References  External links Program Akuntansi  Category:Accounting terminology Category:Revenue Category:United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
The Fairchild PT-19 (company designation Fairchild M62) is an American Fairchild Aircraft monoplane primary trainer aircraft that served with the United States Army Air Forces, RAF and RCAF during World War II. It was a contemporary of the Kaydet biplane trainer and was used by the USAAF during Primary Flying Training. As with other USAAF trainers of the period, the PT-19 had multiple designation(s) based on the powerplant installed. Design and development The PT-19 series was developed from the Fairchild M-62 when the USAAC first ordered the aircraft in 1940 as part of its expansion program. The cantilever low-wing monoplane with fixed landing gear and tailwheel design was based on a two-place, tandem-seat, open cockpit arrangement.
The simple but rugged construction included a fabric-covered welded steel tube fuselage. The remainder of the aircraft used plywood construction, with a plywood-sheathed center section, outer wing panels and tail assembly. The use of an inline engine allowed for a narrow frontal area which was ideal for visibility while the widely set-apart fixed landing gear allowed for solid and stable ground handling. The M-62 first flew in May 1939, and won a fly-off competition later that year against 17 other designs for the new Army training airplane. Fairchild was awarded its first Army PT contract for an initial order on 22 September 1939.
The original production batch of 275 were powered by the inline 175 hp Ranger L-440-1 engine and designated the PT-19. In 1941, mass production began and 3,181 of the PT-19A model, powered by the 200 hp L-440-3, were made by Fairchild. An additional 477 were built by Aeronca and 44 by the St. Louis Aircraft Corporation. The PT-19B, of which 917 were built, was equipped for instrument flight training by attaching a collapsible hood to the front cockpit. When a shortage of engines threatened production, the PT-23 model was introduced which was identical except for the 220 hp Continental R-670 radial powerplant.
A total of 869 PT-23s were built as well as 256 of the PT-23A, which was the instrument flight-equipped version. The PT-23 was manufactured in the US by Fairchild, Aeronca, St. Louis Aircraft Corporation and Howard Aircraft Corporation and in Canada by Fleet Aircraft Corporation as well as Fabrica do Galeao in Brazil (220 or 232 between 1944 and 1948). During 1943, USAAF Training Command received a number of complaints about durability issues with the plywood wings of the PT-19 and the PT-23 when exposed to the high heat and/or humidity of training bases located in Texas and Florida. Maintenance officers at the USAAF overhaul depots had been forced to order replacement of the wooden wing sections after only two to three months' active service because of wood rot and ply separation issues.
Subsequent to this incident, the USAAF incorporated a demand for all-metal wing sections on all future fixed-wing training aircraft. The final variant was the PT-26 which used the L-440-7 engine. The Canadian-built versions of these were designated the Cornell for use by the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan which was centered in Canada. Operational history  Compared to the earlier biplane trainers, the Fairchild PT-19 provided a more advanced type of aircraft. Speeds were higher and wing loading more closely approximated that of combat aircraft, with flight characteristics demanding more precision and care. Its virtues were that it was inexpensive, simple to maintain and, most of all, virtually viceless.
The PT-19 truly lived up to its nickname, the Cradle of Heroes. It was one of a handful of primary trainer designs that were the first stop on a cadet's way to becoming a combat pilot. These planes were delivered to various bases all over the country by WASPs (Women's Airforce Service Pilots) between 1942-1944. Thousands of the PT-19 series were rapidly integrated into the United States and Commonwealth training programs, serving throughout World War II and beyond. Even after their retirement in the late 1940s, a substantial number found their way onto the United States and other civil registers, being flown by private pilot owners.
Variants  PT-19 Initial production variant of the Model M62 powered by 175hp L-440-1, 270 built. PT-19A As the PT-19 but powered by a 200hp L-440-3 and detailed changes, redesignated T-19A in 1948, 3226 built. PT-19B Instrument training version of the PT-19A, 143 built and six conversions from PT-19A. XPT-23A A PT-19 re-engined with a 220hp R-670-5 radial engine. PT-23 Production radial-engined version, 774 built. PT-23A Instrument training version of the PT-23, 256 built. PT-26 PT-19A variant with enclosed cockpit for the Commonwealth Air Training Scheme, powered by a 200hp L-440-3, 670 built for the Royal Canadian Air Force as the Cornell I. PT-26A As PT-26 but with a 200hp L-440-7 engine, 807 built by Fleet as the Cornell II.
PT-26B AS PT-26A with minor changes, 250 built as the Cornell III. Cornell I RCAF designation for the PT-26. Cornell II RCAF designation for the PT-26A. Cornell III RCAF designation for the PT-26B. Operators   Brazilian Air Force   Royal Canadian Air Force   Chilean Air Force    Ecuadorian Air Force  Haiti Air Corps   Indian Air Force  Mexican Air Force   Nicaraguan Air Force   Royal Norwegian Air Force   Paraguayan Air Arm received a few Fairchild M-62s in 1940, followed by 15 Lend-Lease PT-19A in 1942-43. In the 1950s, 14 ex-Brazilian Air Force PT-19s (PT-3FG built under license in Brazil) were received. The last PT-19 was retired in 1972.
Peruvian Air Force  Philippines Air Force  South African Air Force  Rhodesian Air Force   Royal Air Force   United States Army Air Corps/United States Army Air Forces   Uruguayan Air Force received 17 PT-19As and PT-19Bs under Lend Lease in 1942, with 50 PT-26s being delivered in 1946–1947. Uruguayan Navy   Aviación Militar received 20 PT-19As under Lend Lease. Surviving aircraft  , there were 98 airworthy aircraft worldwide. One example is found at the Jimmy Doolittle Air & Space Museum, Travis Air Force Base, Fairfield, California. Another is in storage at the Reynolds-Alberta Museum in Wetaskiwin, Alberta. Specifications (PT-19A)  See also  References Notes  Bibliography   Andrade, John, U.S .Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909 Midland Counties Publications, 1979, .
Bridgman, Leonard. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1951–52. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, Ltd., 1951. Fricker, John. "Fuerza Aérea Paraguaya: Latin America's vest-pocket air force". Air International, Vol. 38 No. 5, May 1990. pp. 255–261. Mondey, David. American Aircraft of World War II (Hamlyn Concise Guide). London: Bounty Books, 2006. . "Shoestring Top Cover...The Uruguayan Air Force". Air International, Vol. 39 No. 2, August 1990. pp. 65–73. Steinemann, Peter. "Protector of the Plate". Air International, Vol. 42, No. 2, February 1992. pp. 73–78. . Swanborough, F.G. and Peter M. Bowers. United States Military Aircraft since 1909. London: Putnam, 1963.
Taylor, Michael J.H. Jane's Encyclopedia of Aviation Vol. 3. London: Studio Editions, 1989. . "Venezuela Refurbishes Her Aerial Sombrero". Air International, Vol. 5 No. 3, September 1973. pp. 118–124, 150. "The World's Air Forces". Flight. Vol. 67, No. 2416, 13 May 1955. pp. 615–668. External links    Cavanaugh Flight Museum PT-19  Golden Wings Flying Museum Fairchild PT-19A  Category:Low-wing aircraft Category:Single-engined tractor aircraft Category:1930s United States military trainer aircraft Category:World War II trainer aircraft of the United States PT-19 Category:Aircraft first flown in 1939
JSY may refer to:  Janani Suraksha Yojana, an Indian health programme  Jersey  Joseph State Airport, in Oregon, United States  Just Say Yes (disambiguation)  Syros Island National Airport, in Greece
A sewing machine needle is a specialized needle for use in a sewing machine.
A sewing machine needle consists of:  shank - clamped by the sewing machine's needle holder  shoulder - where the thick shank tapers down to the shaft  shaft - a length suitable for driving the eye and thread through the material and down to the bobbin  groove - cut in the front of the shaft to allow the thread to lie more closely to the needle as it passes through the fabric  scarf - provides extra room for the hook or shuttle to pass close by  eye - carries the thread  point - penetrates the material by either parting the threads or cutting a hole in the fabric  Domestic sewing machines, designed for use in homes as opposed to commercial sewing operations, use a common needle type referred to as "Groz-Beckert 130 / 705," "HAx1" or "15x1" needles.
Needles labeled as "universal" needles are of this type and are generally the type of needles found in retail sewing supply shops. There are several sizes and types of needles for commercial/industrial sewing machines. Construction The majority of sewing machine needles are made of various grades of hardened steel coated with either nickel or chromium, though certain specialty needles are coated with titanium nitride on top of chromium. Titanium nitride is a reflective golden-colored ceramic material which reduces abrasion allowing the needle to stay sharper longer and last many times longer than other varieties. The titanium does not make the needle any "stronger", however, and such needles will bend and snap just as easily as any other.
Nickel plating is the least expensive and least durable form of plating. Chrome plating lasts longer and gives better abrasion resistance. Titanium nitride on top of chromium is the most expensive and is superior in performance to both chrome and nickel. Size codes More than a dozen modern conventions exist for numbering the sizes of sewing machine needles, though only two remain in common use: the American (established and propagated by Singer) and the European (also called the "number metric" or "NM"). The European designation, established in 1942, corresponds to the diameter of the needle in hundredths of a millimeter at a non-reinforced point above the scarf.
In both cases, a larger number corresponds to a larger, heavier needle. Most sewing machine needles will have packaging that gives both of these numbers in its size description — (e.g. as either 100/16 or 16/100). The length of all sewing machine needles has been standardized and does not require a separate code. The following chart gives a comparison of the two systems:  Types Most currently manufactured needles are designated according to "type", and fall into the following categories:  Singer number and color codes Singer colors and numbers its needles with the following system of codes to indicate the needle point type and shaft size:  SVP Worldwide colour codes The coloured band on some types of Inspira needles indicates the needle type.
Kenmore color codes Kenmore colors its needles with a different system of color codes which indicate the needle's size:  Schmetz colour codes The coloured top band on some types of Schmetz needles indicates the needle type. References   Category:Sewing machines
Jan Sport is the stage persona of Charlie Mantione, an American drag queen and singer based in New York City best known as a competitor on the twelfth season of RuPaul's Drag Race. Early life  Mantione was born in New Jersey. He attended Christian Brothers Academy for high school. While attending school, he participated in both sports and theater. He was an avid soccer player until 17. Mantione participated in a number of school productions such as Oklahoma! and played Troy Bolton in a production of High School Musical. He attended the Boston Conservatory for musical theater. Career  After college, Mantione worked on a cruise ship and performed in New York City.
He auditioned for the national tour of Kinky Boots and made the final round. He has stated that he began drag in 2016 utilizing the likeness of Kris Jenner, performing her one-woman show I Am Kris under "Charlie Mantione as Kris Jenner." In 2016, he won New York City's Lady Liberty competition with his Kris Jenner impersonation. His current stage name "Jan Sport" is an homage to the backpack brand JanSport, and pays tribute to his athleticism. He formed the pop group Stephanie's Child along with queens Rosé and Lagoona Bloo in 2018. Mantione's drag mother is Alexis Michelle. In 2018, he won the title of Breakthrough Artist and was nominated for Best Vocalist at the 2018 NY Nightlife Awards.
Mantione appeared on The Voice Season 13 finale with Jessie J and competed on America's Got Talent with Stephanie's Child. RuPaul's Drag Race  Jan's casting on the twelfth season of RuPaul's Drag Race was announced on January 23, 2020. On the show, she is referred to as simply "Jan" to avoid trademark issues with the backpack brand. She ended up in the bottom two in episode eight and was eliminated after losing a lip-sync to Widow Von'Du. She placed 8th on the show.
While the show was airing, Jan contributed to a YouTube web series called Jan's Jukebox where she performed covers of the songs that queens had lip-synced to on the show that week, such as "S&M" by Rihanna and "This Is My Night" by Chaka Khan; the latter performance, which was the song she lip-synced to on the episode she was eliminated, was dedicated to her grandfather who had passed away due to complications surrounding COVID-19. Filmography  Television  Web series  Discography  Featured singles  Titles  References  Category:Living people Category:American dancers Category:American drag queens Category:American singers Category:Boston Conservatory alumni Category:People from New Jersey Category:People from New York City Category:RuPaul's Drag Race contestants
Chiang Rai (, ; : Mueang Jiang Hai; ,) is the northernmost large city in Thailand, with a population of about 200,000 people. It is located in Mueang Chiang Rai District, Chiang Rai Province. Chiang Rai was established as a capital city in the reign of King Mangrai, in 1262 CE. History  The city was founded by King Mangrai in 1262 and became the capital of the Mangrai Dynasty. The word 'Chiang' means 'city' in Thai, so Chiang Rai would mean 'the City of (Mang) Rai'. Subsequently, Chiang Rai was conquered by Burma and remained under Burmese rule for several hundred years.
It was not until 1786 that Chiang Rai became a Chiang Mai vassal. Siam (Thailand) annexed Chiang Mai in 1899, and Chiang Rai was proclaimed a province of Thailand in 1933. In 1432, during the reign of King Sam Fang Kaen of the Mangrai Dynasty (1402–1441), the Phra Kaeo, or Emerald Buddha, the most revered Buddha statue, was discovered in Chiang Rai when an earthquake split the chedi at Wat Phra Kaeo of Chiang Rai city. The beautiful jade figure was then seen concealed within. Another telling of the story has the "Emerald Buddha" hastily covered in mud just before marauders entered to pillage.
Many years later, the clunky-looking mud Buddha was found to actually house a magnificent jade statue, perhaps by way of the earthquake mentioned above—which caused a piece of the clay to break off—revealing the jade beneath. In 1992, the city pillar was moved from Wat Klang Wiang to Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong, where it is known as Sadue Mueang (), the "navel" or omphalos of the city. Geography Chiang Rai lies on the flat alluvial plain of the Kok River, a tributary of the Mekong, between the Daen Lao Range in the north and the Phi Pan Nam Range in the south.
The Kok River runs along Chiang Rai's north side, flowing eastwards out of Burma at Tha Ton(ท่าตอม) town, bending north-eastwards and joining the Mekong River about  north-east of the city. The Lao River, a tributary of the Kok, flows south of Chiang Rai. There are four bridges spanning the Kok River within the town's boundaries, each running south–north. Most of the terrain surrounding Chiang Rai town is either flat or has moderate hills. The exception is outward in the west and north-west directions, where limestone hills are evident, some of which have vertical exposed cliffs. That is also the direction where most of the region's hill tribe people have their villages, further afield.
The city is  north of Bangkok, about  north-east of Chiang Mai,  south of Mae Sai and the Burmese border;  south-west of the town of Chiang Saen on the Mekong River across from Laos; and  north of Phayao town. The Golden Triangle, the tripoint of the Thailand, Laos and Myanmar borders, is  north-east of the city. Climate Chiang Rai has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). Winters are fairly dry and warm. Temperatures rise until April, which is hot with the average daily maximum at . The monsoon season runs from late April through October, with heavy rain and somewhat cooler temperatures during the day, although nights remain warm.
Demographics According to the Thai National Statistical Office, as of September 2010, Chiang Rai municipal district had a population of 199,699. With the spread of the city extending into neighboring districts, the metropolitan area is considered somewhat larger by local residents. Chiang Rai city is the capital city and business center of the Chiang Rai Province, home to 1.1 million residents. A significant share—12.5 percent—of the population are of hill tribes descent. "Hill tribes" is a collective term for the minority ethnic groups in north Thailand such as the Karen, Akha, Lisu, Miao, and Hmong. Government  Chiang Rai City is the capital of Chiang Rai Province.
The city hall  houses the provincial offices. The thesaban houses the municipal offices . Buddhist temples   Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong,   Wat Phra Kaeo, Chiang Rai,   Wat Phra Sing, Chiang Rai,   Wat Doi Khao Khwai,   Wat Rong Khun, , a modern temple built since 1998 by Thai artist Chalermchai Kositpipat  Chedi Doi Trimoorati,  Education  Colleges and universities  Mae Fah Luang University  Chiang Rai Rajabhat University  Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, Chiang Rai Campus  International schools  Chiang Rai International School  Chiang Rai International Christian School  High schools  Samakkhi Witthayakhom School   Damrongratsongkroh School Chiang Rai Witthayakhom School  Chiangrai municiplarity school 6  Chiang Rai International School  Primary schools  PSEP Bilingual School.
Bansonkong School   Piti Suksa Montessori School   AMEC School, Chiang Rai  Hospitals In 2018 the survivors of the Tham Luang cave rescue were brought to Chiang Rai, the nearest large city for hospital care. Overbrook Hospital (semi-private) Founded in 1903 by Dr. William A. Briggs, as a Missionary hospital. Kasemrad Sriburin General Hospital, Private hospital. Chiang Rai Prachanukhro Hospital, Public hospital. Fort Mengraimaharaj Hospital, Military public hospital. Chiang Rai Inter Hospital, Private hospital. Bangkok Hospital - Chiang Rai, Private hospital by BDMS chain. Transportation Route 1 runs from Bangkok through Chiang Rai to Mae Sai on the Burma border. Chiang Rai is 839 kilometers from Bangkok, about 14 hours by car or by bus.
According to official bus schedules, the bus ride to Chiang Rai from Chiang Mai takes approximately 3 hours and 30 minutes, All of these times should take into account the rainy season which lasts from about June to late October, this can severely inhibit travel with road sections often completely flooded and even washed out. Several flights are available to and from Bangkok daily. Mae Fah Luang International Airport flight time is about 1 hour and 30 minutes. There are several major operators including Thai Airways, Air Asia, Nok Air. There is scheduled boat service between Chiang Rai and Thaton in Chiang Mai Province daily.
This journey will last about 3–4 hours and is a pleasant alternative to the bus ride through the mountains. There are currently no rail services to Chiang Rai as the railway line from Bangkok ends at Chiang Mai. There have been talks of extending the rail line from Den Chai to Chiang Rai in the near future, but this is unlikely to happen as the city's population is well below 1 million and there aren't as many international tourists visiting Chiang Rai as Chiang Mai. Also there are no major industrial complexes in the region as it is largely a rural economy.
References  External links     Chiang Rai Times Provincial and local news for Chiang Rai (English language)  Category:1262 establishments in Asia Category:Populated places in Chiang Rai Province Category:Cities and towns in Thailand Category:13th-century establishments in Siam
A bolometer is a device for measuring the power of incident electromagnetic radiation via the heating of a material with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance. It was invented in 1878 by the American astronomer Samuel Pierpont Langley. Principle of operation   A bolometer consists of an absorptive element, such as a thin layer of metal, connected to a thermal reservoir (a body of constant temperature) through a thermal link. The result is that any radiation impinging on the absorptive element raises its temperature above that of the reservoir – the greater the absorbed power, the higher the temperature. The intrinsic thermal time constant, which sets the speed of the detector, is equal to the ratio of the heat capacity of the absorptive element to the thermal conductance between the absorptive element and the reservoir.
The temperature change can be measured directly with an attached resistive thermometer, or the resistance of the absorptive element itself can be used as a thermometer. Metal bolometers usually work without cooling. They are produced from thin foils or metal films. Today, most bolometers use semiconductor or superconductor absorptive elements rather than metals. These devices can be operated at cryogenic temperatures, enabling significantly greater sensitivity. Bolometers are directly sensitive to the energy left inside the absorber. For this reason they can be used not only for ionizing particles and photons, but also for non-ionizing particles, any sort of radiation, and even to search for unknown forms of mass or energy (like dark matter); this lack of discrimination can also be a shortcoming.
The most sensitive bolometers are very slow to reset (i.e., return to thermal equilibrium with the environment). On the other hand, compared to more conventional particle detectors, they are extremely efficient in energy resolution and in sensitivity. They are also known as thermal detectors. Langley's bolometer   The first bolometers made by Langley consisted of two steel, platinum, or palladium foil strips covered with lampblack. One strip was shielded from radiation and one exposed to it. The strips formed two branches of a Wheatstone bridge which was fitted with a sensitive galvanometer and connected to a battery. Electromagnetic radiation falling on the exposed strip would heat it and change its resistance.
By 1880, Langley's bolometer was refined enough to detect thermal radiation from a cow a quarter of a mile away. This radiant-heat detector is sensitive to differences in temperature of one hundred-thousandth of a degree Celsius (0.00001 C). This instrument enabled him to thermally detect across a broad spectrum, noting all the chief Fraunhofer lines. He also discovered new atomic and molecular absorption lines in the invisible infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Nikola Tesla personally asked Dr. Langley if he could use his bolometer for his power transmission experiments in 1892. Thanks to that first use, he succeeded in making the first demonstration between West Point and his laboratory on Houston Street.
Applications in astronomy   While bolometers can be used to measure radiation of any frequency, for most wavelength ranges there are other methods of detection that are more sensitive. For sub-millimeter wavelengths (from around 200 µm to 1 mm wavelength, also known as the far-infrared or terahertz), bolometers are among the most sensitive available detectors, and are therefore used for astronomy at these wavelengths. To achieve the best sensitivity, they must be cooled to a fraction of a degree above absolute zero (typically from 50 mK to 300 mK). Notable examples of bolometers employed in submillimeter astronomy include the Herschel Space Observatory, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, and the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA).
Applications in particle physics   The term bolometer is also used in particle physics to designate an unconventional particle detector. They use the same principle described above. The bolometers are sensitive not only to light but to every form of energy. The operating principle is similar to that of a calorimeter in thermodynamics. However, the approximations, ultra low temperature, and the different purpose of the device make the operational use rather different. In the jargon of high energy physics, these devices are not called "calorimeters", since this term is already used for a different type of detector (see Calorimeter). Their use as particle detectors was proposed from the beginning of the 20th century, but the first regular, though pioneering, use was only in the 1980s because of the difficulty associated with cooling and operating a system at cryogenic temperature.
They can still be considered to be at the developmental stage. Microbolometers  A microbolometer is a specific type of bolometer used as a detector in a thermal camera. It is a grid of vanadium oxide or amorphous silicon heat sensors atop a corresponding grid of silicon. Infrared radiation from a specific range of wavelengths strikes the vanadium oxide or amorphous silicon, and changes its electrical resistance. This resistance change is measured and processed into temperatures which can be represented graphically. The microbolometer grid is commonly found in three sizes, a 640×480 array, a 320×240 array (384×288 amorphous silicon) or less expensive 160×120 array.
Different arrays provide the same resolution with larger array providing a wider field of view. Larger, 1024×768 arrays were announced in 2008. Hot electron bolometer The hot electron bolometer (HEB) operates at cryogenic temperatures, typically within a few degrees of absolute zero. At these very low temperatures, the electron system in a metal is weakly coupled to the phonon system. Power coupled to the electron system drives it out of thermal equilibrium with the phonon system, creating hot electrons. Phonons in the metal are typically well-coupled to substrate phonons and act as a thermal reservoir. In describing the performance of the HEB, the relevant heat capacity is the electronic heat capacity and the relevant thermal conductance is the electron-phonon thermal conductance.
If the resistance of the absorbing element depends on the electron temperature, then the resistance can be used as a thermometer of the electron system. This is the case for both semiconducting and superconducting materials at low temperature. If the absorbing element does not have a temperature-dependent resistance, as is typical of normal (non-superconducting) metals at very low temperature, then an attached resistive thermometer can be used to measure the electron temperature. Microwave measurement A bolometer can be used to measure power at microwave frequencies. In this application, a resistive element is exposed to microwave power. A dc bias current is applied to the resistor to raise its temperature via Joule heating, such that the resistance is matched to the waveguide characteristic impedance.
After applying microwave power, the bias current is reduced to return the bolometer to its resistance in the absence of microwave power. The change in the dc power is then equal to the absorbed microwave power. To reject the effect of ambient temperature changes, the active (measuring) element is in a bridge circuit with an identical element not exposed to microwaves; variations in temperature common to both elements do not affect the accuracy of the reading. The average response time of the bolometer allows convenient measurement of the power of a pulsed source. See also Thermocouple Scintillating bolometer Pyrometer Radiometer Tasimeter Thermistor Pyrheliometer Infrared sensing in snakes The structure and function of a pit organ has similarities to a bolometer.
References  External links  Introduction to bolometers (Richards group, Dept. of Physics, UC Berkeley) NASA on the history of the bolometer Langley's own words on the bolometer and its use  Category:Sensors Category:Radiometry Category:Measuring instruments Category:Particle detectors Category:Superconducting detectors
Colugos () are arboreal gliding mammals found in Southeast Asia, whose closest non-colugo relatives are primates. Just two extant species make up the entire family Cynocephalidae () and order Dermoptera. They are the most capable gliders of all gliding mammals, using flaps of extra skin between their legs to glide from higher to lower locations. They are also known as cobegos or flying lemurs, but they are not true lemurs, simply close relatives to primates. Characteristics Colugos are tree-dwelling mammals. They reach lengths of  and weigh . They have long, slender front and rear limbs, a medium-length tail, and a relatively light build.
The head is small, with large, front-focused eyes for excellent binocular vision, and small rounded ears. Colugos are proficient gliders, and they can travel as far as 70 m (230 ft) from one tree to another without losing much altitude, with a Malayan colugo (Galeopterus variegatus) individual having travelled about 150 m (490 ft) in one glide. Of all the gliding mammals,  colugos have the most perfected adaptation for flight. They have a large membrane of skin that extends between their paired limbs and gives them the ability to glide significant distances between trees. This gliding membrane, or patagium, runs from the shoulder blades to the fore paws, from the tip of the rear-most fingers to the tip of the toes, and from the hind legs to the tip of the tail.
The spaces between the colugo's fingers and toes are webbed. As a result, colugos were once considered to be close relatives of bats. Today, on account of genetic data, they are considered to be more closely related to primates. Colugos are unskilled climbers; they lack opposable thumbs and are not especially strong. They progress up trees in a series of slow hops, gripping onto the bark with their small, sharp claws. They spend most of the day curled up in tree hollows or hanging inconspicuously under branches. At night, colugos spend most of their time up in the trees foraging, with gliding being used to either find another foraging tree or to find possible mates and protect territory.
Colugos are shy, nocturnal, solitary animals found in the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. Consequently, very little is known about their behavior. They are herbivorous and eat leaves, shoots, flowers, sap, and fruit. They have well-developed stomachs and long intestines capable of extracting nutrients from leaves and other fibrous material. The incisor teeth of colugos are highly distinctive; they are comb-like in shape with up to 20 tines on each tooth. The incisors are analogous in appearance and function to the incisor suite in strepsirrhines, which is used for grooming. The second upper incisors have two roots, another unique feature among mammals.
The dental formula of colugos is:   Although they are placental mammals, colugos raise their young in a manner similar to marsupials. Newborn colugos are underdeveloped and weigh only 35 g (1.2 oz). They spend the first six months of life clinging to their mother's belly. The mother colugo curls her tail and folds her patagium into a warm, secure, quasipouch to protect and transport her young. The young do not reach maturity until they are two to three years old. In captivity, they live up to 15 years, but their lifespan in the wild is unknown. Status Both species are threatened by habitat destruction, and the Philippine flying lemur was once classified by the IUCN as vulnerable.
In 1996, the IUCN declared the species vulnerable owing to destruction of lowland forests and hunting. It was downlisted to least concern status in 2008, but still faces the same threats. In addition to the ongoing clearing of its rainforest habitat, it is hunted for its meat and fur. It is also a favorite prey item for the gravely endangered Philippine eagle; some studies suggest colugos account for 90% of the eagle's diet. Classification and evolution  Order Dermoptera   †Family Plagiomenidae? †Planetetherium  †Planetetherium mirabile  †Plagiomene  †Plagiomene multicuspis   †Family Mixodectidae? †Dracontolestes  †Dracontolestes aphantus  †Eudaemonema  †Eudaemonema cuspidata  †Mixodectes  †Mixodectes pungens  †Mixodectes malaris   Family Cynocephalidae  Cynocephalus  Philippine flying lemur, Cynocephalus volans  Galeopterus  Sunda flying lemur, Galeopterus variegatus  †Dermotherium  †Dermotherium major  †Dermotherium chimaera  The Mixodectidae and Plagiomenidae appear to be fossil Dermoptera.
Although other Paleogene mammals have been interpreted as related to dermopterans, the evidence for this association is uncertain and many of the fossils are no longer interpreted as being gliding mammals. At present, the fossil record of definitive dermopterans is limited to two species of the Eocene and Oligocene cynocephalid genus Dermotherium. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that colugos emerged as a basal Primatomorpha clade which is a basal Euarchontoglires clade. Treeshrews (order Scandentia) emerged as sister of Glires (lagomorphs and rodents), in an unnamed sister clade of the Primatomorpha. Synonyms The names Colugidae, Galeopithecidae, and Galeopteridae are synonyms for Cynocephalidae.
Colugo, Dermopterus, Galeolemur, Galeopithecus, Galeopus, and Pleuropterus are synonyms for Cynocephalus. References  External links  Flying lemurs are the closest relatives of primates Philippine eagle hunting Colugos    Category:Priabonian first appearances Category:Extant Eocene first appearances
Changes by weeks of gestation  Gestational age vs. embryonic age  Gestational age is the time that has passed since the onset of the last menstruation, which generally or as standard occurs 2 weeks before the actual fertilization. Embryonic age, in contrast measures the actual age of the embryo or fetus from the time of fertilization. Nevertheless, menstruation has historically been the only means of estimating embryonal/fetal age, and is still the presumed measure if not else specified. However, the actual duration between last menstruation and fertilization may in fact differ from the standard 2 weeks by several days. Thus, the first week of embryonic age is already week three counting with gestational age.
Furthermore, the number of the week is one more than the actual age of the embryo/fetus. For example, the embryo is 0 whole weeks old during the 1st week after fertilization. The following table summarizes the various expression systems during week number x of gestation. Week 3  Gestational age: 2 weeks and 0 days until 2 weeks and 6 days old. 15–21 days from last menstruation. Embryonic age: Week nr 1. 0 (whole) weeks old. 1–7 days from fertilization. Fertilization of the ovum to form a new human organism, the human zygote. (day 1 of fertilization)  The zygote undergoes mitotic cellular divisions, but does not increase in size.
This mitosis is also known as cleavage. A hollow cavity forms marking the blastocyst stage. (day 1.5–3 of fertilization.) The blastocyst contains only a thin rim of trophoblast cells and a clump of cells at one end known as the "embryonic pole" which include embryonic stem cells. The embryo hatches from its protein shell (zona pellucida) and performs implantation onto the endometrial lining of the mother's uterus. (day 5–6 of fertilization.) If separation into identical twins occurs, 1/3 of the time it will happen before day 5. Week 4  Gestational age: 3 weeks and 0 days until 3 weeks and 6 days old.
22–28 days from last menstruation. Embryonic age: Week nr 2. 1 week old. 8–14 days from fertilization. Trophoblast cells surrounding the embryonic cells proliferate and invade deeper into the uterine lining. They will eventually form the placenta and embryonic membranes. The blastocyst is fully implanted day 7–12 of fertilization. Formation of the yolk sac. The embryonic cells flatten into a disk, two cells thick. If separation into identical twins occurs, 2/3 of the time it will happen between days 5 and 9. If it happens after day 9, there is a significant risk of the twins being conjoined. Primitive streak develops.
(day 13 of fertilization). Primary stem villi appear. (day 13 of fertilization). Week 5  Gestational age: 4 weeks and 0 days until 4 weeks and 6 days old. 29–35 days from last menstruation. Embryonic age: Week nr 3. 2 weeks old. 15–21 days from fertilization. A notochord forms in the center of the embryonic disk. (day 16 of fertilization.) Gastrulation commences. (day 16 of fertilization.) A neural groove (future spinal cord) forms over the notochord with a brain bulge at one end. Neuromeres appear. (day 18 of fertilization.) Somites, the divisions of the future vertebra, form. (day 20 of fertilization.)
Primitive heart tube is forming. Vasculature begins to develop in embryonic disc. (day 20 of fertilization.) Week 6  Gestational age: 5 weeks and 0 days until 5 weeks and 6 days old. 36–42 days from last menstruation. Embryonic age: Week nr 4. 3 weeks old. 22–28 days from fertilization. The embryo measures  in length and begins to curve into a C shape. The heart bulges, further develops, and begins to beat in a regular rhythm. Septum primum appears. Pharyngeal arches, grooves which will form structures of the face and neck, form. The neural tube closes. The ears begin to form as otic pits.
Arm buds and a tail are visible. Lung bud, the first traits of the lung appear. Hepatic plate, the first traits of the liver appear. Buccopharyngeal membrane ruptures. This is the future mouth. Cystic diverticulum, which will become the gallbladder, and dorsal pancreatic bud, which will become the pancreas appear. Urorectal septum begins to form. Thus, the rectal and urinary passageways become separated. Anterior and posterior horns differentiate in the spinal cord. Spleen appears. Ureteric buds appear. Week 7  Gestational age: 6 weeks and 0 days until 6 weeks and 6 days old. 43–49 days from last menstruation. Embryonic age: Week nr 5.
4 weeks old. 29–35 days from fertilization. The embryo measures  in length and weighs about 1 gram. Optic vesicles and optic cups form the start of the developing eye. Nasal pits form. The brain divides into 5 vesicles, including the early telencephalon. Leg buds form and hands form as flat paddles on the arms. Rudimentary blood moves through primitive vessels connecting to the yolk sac and chorionic membranes. The metanephros, precursor of the definitive kidney, starts to develop. The initial stomach differentiation begins. Week 8  Gestational age: 7 weeks and 0 days until 7 weeks and 6 days old. 50–56 days from last menstruation.
Embryonic age: Week nr 6. 5 weeks old. 36–42 days from fertilization. The embryo measures  in length. Lungs begin to form. The brain continues to develop. Arms and legs have lengthened with foot and hand areas distinguishable. The hands and feet have digits, but may still be webbed. The gonadal ridge begins to be perceptible. The lymphatic system begins to develop. Main development of sex organs starts. Week 9  Gestational age: 8 weeks and 0 days until 8 weeks and 6 days old. 57–63 days from last menstruation. Embryonic age: Week nr 7. 6 weeks old. 43–49 days from fertilization.
The embryo measures  in length. Fetal heart tone (the sound of the heart beat) can be heard using doppler. Nipples and hair follicles begin to form. Location of the elbows and toes are visible. Spontaneous limb movements may be detected by ultrasound. All essential organs have at least begun. The vitelline duct normally closes. Changes by weeks of gestation  Weeks 10 to 12 Gestational age: 9 weeks and 0 days until 11 weeks and 6 days old. Embryonic age: 7 weeks and 0 days until 9 weeks and 6 days old. Embryo measures  in length. Ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds fuse during the 8th week  Intestines rotate.
Facial features continue to develop. The eyelids are more developed. The external features of the ear begin to take their final shape. The head comprises nearly half of the fetus' size. The face is well formed. The eyelids close and will not reopen until about the 28th week. Tooth buds, which will form the baby teeth, appear. The limbs are long and thin. The fetus can make a fist with its fingers. Genitals appear well differentiated. Red blood cells are produced in the liver. Heartbeat can be detected by ultrasound. Weeks 13 to 16 Gestational age: 12 weeks and 0 days until 15 weeks and 6 days old.
Embryonic age: 10 weeks and 0 days until 13 weeks and 6 days old. The fetus reaches a length of about . A fine hair called lanugo develops on the head. Fetal skin is almost transparent. More muscle tissue and bones have developed, and the bones become harder. The fetus makes active movements. Sucking motions are made with the mouth. Meconium is made in the intestinal tract. The liver and pancreas produce fluid secretions. From week 13, sex prediction by obstetric ultrasonography is almost 100% accurate. At week 15, main development of external genitalia is finished. Week 21 Gestational age: 20 weeks old.
Embryonic age: 18 weeks old. The fetus reaches a length of . Lanugo covers the entire body. Eyebrows and eyelashes appear. Nails appear on fingers and toes. The fetus is more active with increased muscle development. "Quickening" usually occurs (the mother and others can feel the fetus moving). The fetal heartbeat can be heard with a stethoscope. Week 23 Gestational age: 22 weeks old. Embryonic age: 20 weeks old. The fetus reaches a length of . The fetus weighs about 500g. Eyebrows and eyelashes are well formed. All of the eye components are developed. The fetus has a hand and startle reflex.
Footprints and fingerprints continue forming. Alveoli (air sacs) are forming in lungs. Week 26 Gestational age: 24 weeks old. Embryonic age: Week nr 25. 24 weeks old. The fetus reaches a length of . The fetus weighs about . The brain develops rapidly. The nervous system develops enough to control some body functions. The eyelids open and close. The cochleae are now developed, though the myelin sheaths in neural portion of the auditory system will continue to develop until 18 months after birth. The respiratory system, while immature, has developed to the point where gas exchange is possible. Week 31 Gestational age: 30 weeks old.
Embryonic age: Week nr 29. 28 weeks old. The fetus reaches a length of about . The fetus weighs about . The amount of body fat rapidly increases. Rhythmic breathing movements occur, but lungs are not fully mature. Thalamic brain connections, which mediate sensory input, form. Bones are fully developed, but are still soft and pliable. The fetus begins storing a lot of iron, calcium and phosphorus. Week 35 Gestational age: 34 weeks old. Embryonic age: Week nr 33. 32 weeks old. The fetus reaches a length of about . The fetus weighs about 2.5 to to 6 lb 12 oz).
Lanugo begins to disappear. Body fat increases. Fingernails reach the end of the fingertips. A baby born at 36 weeks has a high chance of survival, but may require medical interventions. Weeks 36 to 40  Gestational age: 35 and 0 days until 39 weeks and 6 days old. Embryonic age: Weeks nr 34–38. 33–37 weeks old. The fetus is considered full-term at the end of the 39th week of gestational age. It may be  in length. The lanugo is gone except on the upper arms and shoulders. Fingernails extend beyond fingertips. Small breast buds are present on both sexes. Head hair is now coarse and thickest.
References  Category:Human pregnancy
Massone S.A., also Instituto Massone S.A., is a pharmaceutical company based in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Products Among others Massone produces hMG (human menopausal gonadotropins or menotropins). Menotropins are extracted from the urine of postmenopausal women and used in infertility therapy. References  External links  Official web site  Category:Pharmaceutical companies of Argentina Category:Manufacturing companies based in Buenos Aires Category:Argentine brands
A marry-your-rapist law, marry-the-rapist law or rape-marriage law is a law regarding rape that exonerates a man from prosecution for rape, sexual assault, statutory rape, abduction or similar acts if the offender marries his female victim, or in some jurisdictions at least offers to marry her. The "marry-your-rapist" law is a legal way for such a rapist to avoid punishment and prosecution. Although the terms for this phenomenon were only coined in the 2010s, the practice has existed in a number of legal systems in history, and continues to exist in some societies today in various forms. Such laws were common around the world until the 1970s.
Since the late 20th century, the remaining laws of this type have been increasingly challenged and repealed in a number of countries. Laws that authorise courts to authorise an underage marriage on account of the pregnancy of a female minor when she is below the age of consent, commonly with parental consent, can in practice be a way for a statutory rapist to avoid prosecution for the statutory rape of a child. The law has been justified as recognition of the cultural value placed upon female virginity at marriage, in which "despoiled girls and women are a source of shame for their families, innocent of wrongdoing though they may be."
In some cases, the perpetrator rapes the girl or woman who he wants to marry after she rejected him. Background  Advocates for rape-marriage laws argue that they shield the victim and her family from the shame of rape. This is based on the idea that if a girl or woman is raped, it is her own fault and she thus brings her family into disrepute. As a result, many women do not report their sexual assault because they fear this shame, and the possibility of being murdered by a family member. If a woman simply marries her rapist, she preserves her family name and avoids a life of sexual shame.
In a study conducted in Taiwan in August 2000, 35 rape survivors were interviewed to analyze the trauma that was undergone by these women, as well as any sexual shame or anxiety they may have felt as a result of their assault. The results of this study show that these women feared being vocal about their assault, felt guilty for shaming their families, experienced sexual shame and self blame, and developed negative views of themselves as women. Those who are against rape-marriage laws do not think victims should be left feeling this way after they have suffered an attack, or feel the need to cover up the assault by marrying the perpetrator.
Opponents claim the laws promote impunity for rape, and further victimize rape victims. Thus, the social value of women, as proponents assign to family honour, female chastity and marital status, clashes with opponents' claim of women's right to individual happiness, freedom and sexual autonomy. According to Purna Sen, the policy director for UN Women, these laws were passed to normalise the unlawful sexual activities. They make the sexual relations more respectable in the society because it is considered problematic in a few cultures. Countries who have these laws fall under the category of undeveloped countries and conservative countries. History  Antiquity until 1900   Traditionally, the marriage of the perpetrator and the victim after the rape was often seen as an appropriate 'resolution' of the situation.
Among ancient cultures virginity was highly prized, and a woman who had been raped had little chance of marrying. These laws forced the rapist to provide for their victim. Deuteronomy 22:28 One such provision is believe by some to be found in the Hebrew Bible, Deuteronomy 22:28-29: "If a man finds a girl who is a virgin, who is not engaged, and seizes her and lies with her and they are discovered, then the man who lay with her shall give to the girl’s father fifty shekels of silver, and she shall become his wife because he has violated her; he cannot divorce her all his days."
Irrespective of whether or not the woman had given consent to the sexual act, or will give consent to marriage, the man is obligated to marry her by paying her parents a dowry to settle the matter. However, some christians believe that the command in Deuteronomy 22:28 does not refer to rape, but to a man enticing a woman to engage in consensual intercourse, as in the parallel passage in Exodus 22:16, which also explicitly states the father's right to confirm or refuse the marriage. The Hebrew sometimes rendered "rapes" here is the word shakab, which does not mean to rape, but to lie or to sleep with.
Adjacent scriptures that speak of forced sexual relations prescribe the death penalty for rapists (Deuteronomy 22:23-27). As Kyle Butte notes, "It is clearly evident from the immediate context of Deuteronomy 22 that rape is not being discussed in verses 28-29," arguing that "verses 25-27 give a clear instance in which rape is being discussed. ... The text says that the man who committed the crime 'shall die' (v. 25)". The text does not require that a rapist marry his victim, but that a rapist be put to death. Thus, neither Deuteronomy nor Exodus is speaking of a non-consensual act of copulation (rape), but both are speaking of two willing partners fornicating, at which point the partners are required to wed at the discretion of the woman's father.
But not all Christian scholars agree that Deut. 22:28-29 is mere consensual fornication:  "At first glance the next example, the rape of an unbetrothed girl, might appear to have been a lesser offense than those already described, but this was not the case at all. First, he seized (Heb. tāpaś, “lay hold of”) her and then lay down (šākab) with her, a clear case of violent, coercive behavior." Other verses Furthermore, Exodus 22:16-17 does not specify that the man "violated" her, but Deuteronomy 22:29 does. The Hebrew word for violated is עָנָה/anah, which means to be bowed down, afflicted. Every other time this word is used to describe two people interacting, it is always describing a man forcing a woman to have sex against her will (i.e., rape):   Later, if you no longer want her, you are to let her go free.
Since you forced her to have intercourse with you (Hebrew: anah), you cannot treat her as a slave and sell her. (Deuteronomy 21:14, Good News Translation. The GNT was "...published by the American Bible Society...it is a clear and simple modern translation that is faithful to the original Hebrew, Koine Greek, and Aramaic texts. The GNT is a highly trusted version." "If you mistreat (Hebrew: anah) my daughters, or if you take wives besides my daughters, although no man is with us, see, God is witness between you and me." (Genesis 31:50 NAU)    But the men of Gibeah rose up against me and surrounded the house at night because of me.
They intended to kill me; instead, they ravished (Hebrew: anah) my concubine so that she died. (Judges 20:5 NAS)     However, he would not listen to her; since he was stronger than she, he violated (Hebrew: anah) her and lay with her. (2 Samuel 13:14 NAS)    Jonadab, the son of Shimeah, David's brother, responded, "Do not let my lord suppose they have put to death all the young men, the king's sons, for Amnon alone is dead; because by the intent of Absalom this has been determined since the day that he violated (Hebrew: anah) his sister Tamar. (2 Samuel 13:32 NAU)   They ravished (Hebrew: anah )the women in Zion, The virgins in the cities of Judah.
(Lamentations 5:11 NAS)  12th century Rabbi Moses Maimonides said the man’s use of force would require that he marry his victim and never divorce her:  "every maiden expects to be married, her seducer therefore is only ordered to marry her; for he is undoubtedly the fittest husband for her. He will better heal her wound and redeem her character than any other husband. If, however, he is rejected by her or her father, he must give the dowry (Exodus 22:15). If he uses violence he has to submit to the additional punishment, " he may not put her away all his days " (Deuteronomy 22:29).
While the above grammatical and historical interpretation makes it appear one of the authors or editors of Deuteronomy were misogynist, that is only the concern of today's Christian apologists who wish to make the god of the bible appear harmonious with modern American concepts fairness, equality and woman's rights. But in Leviticus 19:20-22, the master who rapes a slave girl who had been previously betrothed to another man, is forgiven of the sin by simply giving up one of his animals to the priests. Some inerrantist Christian scholars agree it is reasonable to view this as "rape" and not merely consensual fornication:  "It is worth noting that only the man was considered blameworthy, not the female slave.
Being a slave, the woman may have felt she had little recourse in resisting a male who was a free man and thus more powerful both in the social and economic spheres." Furthermore, had this not been rape but mere consensual fornication, then it would have qualified as adultery, in which case the author's explicit refusal to impose the death penalty (Leviticus 20:10) is stated by him as the female's having lower social status:  "...because she was not free", so the misogyny persists in the text regardless of the efforts made to side-step it. Medieval and early modern interpretations In Christian medieval Europe, a man could 'rape' a woman, after which she could choose or be pressured to marry her attacker, because she was considered to be a damaged commodity, diminishing her marital prospects.
In this specific context, however, the term 'rape' could also refer to elopement: a woman would give her consent to being abducted by the man she loved, and thus avoid asking permission from her parents to marry him. Citing biblical injunctions (particularly Exodus 22:16–17 and Deuteronomy 22:25–30), Calvinist Geneva (1536–1564) permitted a single woman's father to consent to her marriage to her rapist, after which the husband would have no right to divorce; the woman had no explicitly stated separate right to refuse. The only consequence that the rapist faced was to pay a fine to the father of the woman that he raped.
According to Johannah Stiebert, women that were not engaged were not able to consent, so rape became a matter of male superiority. According to the Shulchan Aruch (1565), a codification of Jewish law by Joseph Karo, the girl or her father, depending on age, are given the option of demanding the man marry her in addition to paying a fine of 50 silver beyond any damages physical or mental. 20th and 21st century  In several Middle Eastern and North African countries, marry-the-rapist laws that were adopted upon achieving independence in the mid-20th century, were carried over from various earlier periods.
The origins of these laws are to be traced to a mixture of pre-existing local Arab traditions, Islamic jurisprudence (the Hanafi school), Ottoman imperial laws and European (French and British) colonial laws. Traditionally, a woman was considered to be the property of her father. If she was raped, she was considered damaged property “so the rapist must either pay ‘compensation’ or accept the damaged goods” and marry the victim. To avoid paying the family, the perpetrator often chose to marry the victim, who “had absolutely no choice but to marry the rapist and spend the rest of the life” with them.
In this way, some might argue that the victim of the assault had a harsher punishment than their attacker. Now, looking at India's Penal Code, the legislation “makes it amply clear that marriage does not act as an absolving factor in case of rape”. Marry-your-rapist laws were common around the world until the 1970s. Since the late 20th century, the remaining laws of this type have been increasingly challenged and repealed in a number of countries. By 1997, 15 Latin American countries had laws that exonerated a rapist if he offered to marry the victim and she accepted. These countries were Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru (since 1924), Paraguay, the Dominican Republic, Uruguay and Venezuela.
Costa Rica exonerated a rapist if he expresses an intention to marry the victim, even if she did not accept. The law in Peru was modified in 1991 to absolve all co-defendants in a gang rape case if any one of them married the victim. By 2017, all but four of these countries have definitively repealed these laws. Colombia repealed the law in 1997, Peru and Chile in 1999, Brazil and Uruguay in 2005, Nicaragua and Guatemala in 2006, Costa Rica in 2007, Panama in 2008, Argentina in 2012, Ecuador in 2014. Italy had similar laws until 1981. In 2017, a World Bank Group report claimed there were 12 countries left with marry-your-rapist laws: Angola, Bahrain, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Iraq, Jordan (repealed in August 2017), Lebanon, Libya, Palestine, the Philippines, Syria, and Tunisia (repealed in July 2017).
By July 2017, marry-your-rapist laws still existed – but were being challenged – in Algeria, Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, the Philippines, Syria and Tajikistan, amongst others, according to various media. Illegal continued existence  The practice of forcing victims of rape to marry their rapists continues even in many countries where the laws allowing this have been abolished, or never explicitly existed to begin with. This is the case, for example, in Ethiopia, where marriage by abduction remains common, despite it being illegal under the new 2004 Criminal Code. In Afghanistan, while formally there is no law, "in practice it is not uncommon for a prosecution to be dropped if marriage is offered by the perpetrator or his family."
Similar to Afghanistan, Somaliland also did not previously have any laws; however, it still wasn't uncommon for a rape victim's family to pressure them into marrying the perpetrator. Campaigns for repeal   Several human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch, and the United Nations Human Rights High Commission have strongly criticised "marry your rapist laws" in other parts of the world. These organizations have been working towards abolishing this kind of laws, and in several cases they have been successful. However, the opposition to the "marry-your-rapist" laws has been less significant than the other demands made by women's groups to criminalize marital rape altogether.
Bahrain   Article 353 of the Bahrain penal code, dating from 1958, has undergone several amendments since its adoption. It provides that if a perpetrator of rape marries the rape victim before the final sentence is pronounced, the charges will be dropped and criminal proceedings will be suspended. The man is then able to divorce the rape victim. The law has been criticized by the international community in the early 21st century. Parliament voted to abolish it on 31 May 2016, and the Bahraini government started the discussions of abolishing or reforming Article 353, and reached a final decision to repeal the article.
However, as at December 2016, the government was still examining the law, and as at July 2017, it was only willing to repeal the marriage option in case of a gang rape. Egypt   In 1999, Article 291 of the Egypt penal code was repealed by former president Hosni Mubarak by presidential decree. The original article had been adopted in 1904 and inspired by a French provision. The original article allowed any individual who committed sexual assault to avoid penalty if he entered into marriage with the female victim. "In the Egyptian parliamentary debate surrounding the decree to remove the ‘‘marriage loophole,’’ some lawmakers have objected to altering the existing law on the grounds that it provided raped women with their only chance to marry, since after having been raped, no other man would want them.
Rape law has, in statute and in practice, privileged the protection of social order over the provision of individual criminal justice." El Salvador   "In 1996 the Assembly of El Salvador repealed an old law that exonerated a rapist if he offered to marry the victim and she accepted." However, many rapists still had the ability to get away with rape by marrying the victim according to a law made in 1994 known as Article 14, which stated that as a general rule, persons under eighteen years of age can not marry, but established in the second paragraph, that exceptionally they can contract marriage if they are pubescent, they already have a child in common, or if the woman is pregnant.
This law was abolished in 2017. Iraq  Article 427 of Iraq's penal code, in its current form dating from 1969, states that if the perpetrator lawfully marries the victim, any legal action becomes void. Following parliamentary votes in favour of the abolition of similar laws in Lebanon, Jordan and Tunisia in 2017, women's rights activists made efforts to put the issue on the political agenda during the campaign for the 2018 Iraqi parliamentary election. Italy   Article 544 of the Italian Criminal Code considered rape an offence against 'public morality', not against an individual person. If the perpetrator married his victim, even if she was a minor, any sexual offence would lapse.
Neither the law nor society made a distinction between such premarital rape on the one hand, and consensual elopement (in Sicily commonly called fuitina) on the other. Socially, the victim was put under heavy pressure to agree to marrying her rapist; the alternative was being shunned for the rest of her life as una donna svergognata: a "woman without honour" (literally: a shameless woman). The victim was held responsible for the humiliation of losing her virginity out of wedlock, bringing shame upon herself and her family. If she agreed to marry her attacker, it was thus considered a "reparational marriage" (matrimonio riparatore), that restored her family's honour.
In 1966, Franca Viola was one of the first women to refuse a "reparational marriage" publicly. She was only 17 years old when she was raped with the intention of marriage in 1965. The aftermath of her trial ruled that rapists were no longer able to avoid punishment through the marriage of their victims. In 1981, Italy repealed Article 544. Jordan  Article 308 of the Jordanian penal code allowed for the perpetrator of sexual assault to avoid persecution and punishment if he married the victim. Only if the marriage lasts under three years does he need to serve his time.
Between 2010 and 2013, a total of 159 attackers walked free along the lines of their punishment. Jordan amended article 308 in 2016, barring full pardon in cases of rape but keeping a loophole clause that pardoned perpetrators if they married the victim if she is aged between 15 and 18 and if the assault was regarded as "consensual." Early in 2017, the 10-person Royal Committee for Developing the Judiciary and Enhancing the Rule of Law presented King Abdullah a report recommending the closing of the loophole. The article was abolished in a "historic vote" by the House of Representatives of the Parliament on 1 August 2017.
It was then approved by the Senate and ratified by the King. The article had roots in colonialism rather than in Islam. It was remnant of Ottoman codes which had derived it from the French penal code (France only removed a similar provision in 1994). Lebanon   Article 522 of the Lebanon Penal Code became a part of the law in the 1940s and stated that rape was a punishable offense, where the attacker could receive up to seven years in prison. However, no criminal prosecution would take place if the perpetrator and their victim got married, and stayed married for a minimum of three years.
In 2017, Article 522 of the Lebanon Penal Code, which had been labelled a "rape law" was repealed and Articles 505 and 518 are to be reexamined. After Article 522 was repealed, it was argued by many that the law still lived on through Articles 505 and 518. Article 505 involves the act of sex with a minor, while Article 518 deals with the seduction of a minor accompanied by the promise of marriage. Malaysia  Malaysia does not have a rape-marriage law, but nearly did by judicial ruling in 2015–16.
The Sessions Court verdict that a man accused of two counts of statutory rape of a 14-year-old girl from Petra Jaya in the Malaysian part of Borneo in October 2015, would escape punishment because he claimed to have married his victim, was overruled by the High Court in Sabah and Sarawak in August 2016 after large-scale protests argued this would set a dangerous precedent for child rapists to escape punishment. Because Malaysia does not have a law against marital rape, it is not uncommon for a rapist to marry their victim after an attack, then claim that the assault happened after they were married.
Perpetrators can indeed be punished for acts of sexual violence if they are not married to their victim, but the absence of a law against marital rape provides a loophole, allowing rapists to marry their victims to avoid punishment. Morocco    In 2012, Morocco amended Article 475, which provided between one- to five-year prison sentence for a perpetrator that abducted or deceived a minor with no resort to violence or threat, or attempted to do so. The Article included a second clause that permitted the withdrawal of a persecution if the perpetrator married the girl or woman. A number of protests and campaigns took place in Morocco prior to the abolition of the Article.
The Parliament abolished the law in 2014 as it was considered to be at odds with the 2011 constitution. Palestine  Since being annexed by Egypt in 1959, the Gaza Strip has applied Egyptian penal law Articles 290 and 291, although these have been repealed in Egypt itself in 1999. After being annexed by Jordan in 1950, the West Bank has applied the 1960 Jordanian penal law Article 308. It is unclear how often the law was applied in practice. Ikhlas Sufan, director of a Nablus victims of violence shelter, told Human Rights Watch that "between 2011 and 2017 prosecution for rape has been halted in 60 cases – in which the shelter was helping the women – after the alleged rapist agreed to marry the victim.
In 15 of these cases the women later divorced these men." After an activist campaign put pressure on the Palestinian Authority, president Mahmoud Abbas eventually signed Law no. 5 of 2018 on 14 March 2018, which repealed article 308 of the 1960 Penal Code enforced in the West Bank. However, because the Gaza Strip is de facto controlled by Hamas, the Egyptian-derived marry-your-rapist law still applies there. Peru   After gaining independence in 1821, the first draft of the Peruvian penal code included a section specifically focused on the violence against women. This section encompassed a certain legal code that was meant to protect the "virginity" of women.
It was not until 1924 when legislation was passed which stated that rapists were legally able to be exempt from sexual assault charges through a loophole. In cases of rape and to serve as a punishment for the perpetrator, the victim was required to enter into a marriage with their rapist. The notion that marriage could possibly restore a raped woman's honor has been linked to the countries historical, patriarchal, and gender norms. In 1991, this law was modified to absolve co-conspirators in a gang rape case if one of them marries the victim. These laws were enacted upon the belief that it would protect the honor of both the victim and their family.
According to cultural beliefs, instead of losing her virginity because of immoral behavior, a woman - or her father - retains the ability to claim that the act had taken place due to coercion, thereby saving the victims personal virtue. Marriage, in turn, would solve the problem of a lost virginity and possible illegitimate child, thus returning honor to the family. Peruvian government started to design and implement policies against domestic violence in 1988 after research showed them to have one of the highest rates of domestic violence against women ranking them 16th in the world. Per research, statistics from several Peruvian institutions, including emergency centers, police reports, and the Ministry for Women and Social Development, approximately 68,818 reports of sexual assaults were received during a ten-year span, which averages to an estimate of 18.8 cases that are reported per day.
On 3 April 1997, The Peruvian Congress voted to repeal the 1924 law that allowed rapists to be exonerated from sexual assault charges if they married their victims. The bill was passed by a vote of 86 to 1. According to congresswoman Beatriz Merino, who sponsored the bill, "This is a great victory for Peruvian women, and also for Peruvian men, since all of us together can celebrate the end of this embarrassment". Somalia  Somali law draws its inspiration from civil law, Islamic law and xeer. As of 2018, most cases of rape and sexual assault in Somalia are still settled through xeer, which is the country's native traditional "caste-based dispute resolution system in which traditional male elders dispense justice according to customary laws."
Following the customs of xeer, it is common for a 'diya' (a fine of money, camels or goats) to be paid by the rapist's family to the rape survivor's family, but in extreme scenarios, the victim is forced to marry her rapist. Since January 1991, Somalia has been in a state of civil war, without a functioning central government that controls the entire country. The northwestern region of Somaliland unilaterally declared independence in May 1991, while the northeastern region of Puntland unilaterally declared its regional autonomy within Somalia in 1998; both gradually evolved their own legal systems, and made efforts to outlaw the practice of forcing a rape victim to marry her attacker in the late 2010s.
Puntland  The self-declared autonomous region of Puntland adopted a Sexual Offences Act in 2017, that criminalised all forms of sexual violence against women. Somaliland  The unrecognised state of Somaliland, which declared its independence in 1991 but is internationally still considered part of Somalia, did not have any law explicitly allowing rapists to marry their victims in order to go free. However, since the practice is in fact occurring, which a number of politicians have found undesirable, efforts have been undertaken to formally ban it. In January 2018, the government "introduced a bill to outlaw rape and other violent sexual crimes for the first time in its history, which would see rapists imprisoned for up to 30 years".
The bill was approved by the lower house of Parliament. The president of Somaliland, Musa Bihi Adbi, hoped that this law will help to eliminate violence against women throughout the country. Syria  Syria’s family and criminal law are based on Sharia and as a result women and men are treated unequally under many of the current laws in place. This can be seen in the laws concerning rape, as rapists can escape punishment if the victim agrees to marriage as stated in Article 508 of the penal code, "If there is a contracted marriage between the man who commits rape, sexual abuse, kidnapping, sexual harassment and the victim, then there is no charge or the punishment is stopped”.
This law is particularly harmful because many victims are pressured into marrying their rapist due to societal stigma towards the victims. Unlike some other countries, rapists cannot marry victims that are too young to get married, even in cases of pregnancy and, in fact, receive an extended prison sentence. Tunisia  In July 2017, Tunisia repealed Article 227 of its Criminal Code which provided a rapist the exemption to avoid all investigations or legal consequences if he married his victim. This repeal of the "marry-your-rapist" law was part of a much larger law in Tunisia to outlaw all violence against women.
In a 2010 study by the National Office of Family and Population, 47% of Tunisian women reported being victims of violence. In an event that occurred in 2016, a young man raped his 13-year-old step-sister and married her after she became pregnant. An alleged rapist was able to end his prosecution if he married his victim. The court ruled that this was allowed under Article 277, which has since been removed. The backlash that was received after this ruling contributed to the repeal of the Article in 2017. The new law encompasses all forms of violence or discrimination against women, such as psychological abuse or economic discrimination, and is thus a breakthrough for women's rights in Tunisia.
The same law criminalizes marital rape, classifying it as a crime in its own right, and has been commended for its preventative measures to the issue of violence. Background  Under the Ben Ali regime, women's rights were not given much importance. Women made up only 20% of Tunisia's work force, and they were constrained to low-paying, insecure jobs. Rural Tunisian women also faced deprivation and hardship. Freedoms of expression and association were limited. Heavy restrictions on registration to work for women's organizations and political parties were in place. The overwhelming participation of women during the Tunisian revolution in 2011 made way for transformative changes in Tunisian politics in regards to gender.
Tunisia has since been a symbol of advancement of women's rights in the Arab world, being one of the first countries to establish women's voting rights, right to abortion, right to divorce and outlawing polygamy. At the outset of the revolution, women were as active as men in demanding equal access to jobs, education and basic rights and freedoms. Women were heavily involved in the drafting of the new constitution after the revolution, which guarantees equality based on gender in at least one area. Article 21 of the constitution states that "All male and female citizens have the same rights and duties.
They are equal before the law without discrimination." Candidate quotas were introduced in Article 16, which guaranteed equal representation of women in politics. Considering the importance given to women's rights, many considered the repeal of the "marry-your-rapist" law a matter of time. When Article 277 was repealed, Bochra Belhaj, a parliament member, passed out celebratory jasmine blossoms. Uruguay   Article 116 of the Penal Code and Articles 22 and 23 of the executive order nº 15.032 of Uruguay were repealed in 2006. The articles stated that in crimes of sexual assault, statutory rape, abduction, and disrespect of modesty, the penalty would be extinguished in cases where the assailant and the victim made a matrimonial contract.
United States   A certain phenomenon that resembles marry-your-rapist laws existed in some U.S. states, formerly in Missouri and Florida. This resulted from loopholes in laws that allow for marriage below the age of consent, thus circumventing statutory rape laws. Missouri   The age of consent in Missouri is 17. According to a March 2018 article in the Journal Star (Peoria), more than 300 men aged 21 or older married with 15-year-old girls in the state of Missouri between 1999 and 2015. For the men who had premarital sex with the girls they later married, this would constitute statutory rape according to Missouri law, which defines statutory rape as "anyone 21 or older having sex with someone younger than 17 outside of marriage".
However, sex is legal within marriage, even with a minor, and Missouri allowed marriage from the age of 15 until August 2018, when a law passed establishing a minimum age of 16 and forbidding marriages between someone under 18 and someone over 21. This created a loophole by which statutory rape could be covered up if the marriage is concluded before the authorities found out sexual intercourse has taken place (especially if it resulted in a pregnancy). This allowed for the suspect to be exempt from prosecution (for example, imprisonment and having to register as a sex offender). Social pressure could be put on the alleged victim to agree to marry her statutory rapist to make him avoid punishment.
Moreover, because of Missouri's age loophole, a number of out-of-state couples travelled to Missouri to marry. Florida   The age of consent in Florida is 18. However, until March 2018, the state of Florida allowed marriage without any minimum age for a girl if she was pregnant and a judge approved of the marriage. In this manner, the man who impregnated her could avoid being prosecuted for statutory rape. The current law requires anyone seeking marriage to be at least 18 years old, or 17 with the other partner not being more than two years older and the minor having received parental consent; pregnancy is no longer a factor.
Laws by country  Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically using the  icons. See also Raptio Rape culture Effects and aftermath of rape Types of rape Types of marriage  References   Category:Rape Category:Sex laws Category:Marriage law Category:Criminal law Category:Rape by type Category:Violence against women
The University of Paris (), metonymically known as the Sorbonne (), was a university in Paris, France, active 1150–1793, and 1806–1970. Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris, it was considered the second oldest university in Europe. Officially chartered in 1200 by King Philip II of France and recognised in 1215 by Pope Innocent III, it was later often nicknamed after its theological College of Sorbonne, in turn founded by Robert de Sorbon and chartered by French King Saint Louis around 1257. Internationally highly reputed for its academic performance in the humanities ever since the Middle Ages – notably in theology and philosophy – it introduced several academic standards and traditions that have endured ever since and spread internationally, such as doctoral degrees and student nations.
Vast numbers of popes, royalty, scientists, and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris. A few of the colleges of the time are still visible close to Pantheon and Luxembourg Gardens: Collège des Bernardins (18, rue de Poissy 75005), Hotel de Cluny (6, Place Paul Painleve 75005), College Sainte Barbe (4, rue Valette 75005), College d'Harcourt (44 Boulevard Saint-Michel 75006), and Cordeliers (21, Rue Ecole de Medecine 75006). In 1793, during the French Revolution, the university was closed and by Item-27 of the Revolutionary Convention, the college endowments and buildings were sold. A new University of France replaced it in 1806 with four independent faculties: the Faculty of Humanities (), the Faculty of Law (later including Economics), the Faculty of Science, the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Theology (closed in 1885).
In 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Origins In 1150 the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The earliest historical reference to it is found in Matthew Paris' reference to the studies of his own teacher (an abbot of St. Albans) and his acceptance into "the fellowship of the elect Masters" there in about 1170, and it is known that Pope Innocent III completed his studies there in 1182 at the age of 21.
The corporation was formally recognised as an "Universitas" in an edict by King Philippe-Auguste in 1200: in it, among other accommodations granted to future students, he allowed the corporation to operate under ecclesiastic law which would be governed by the elders of the Notre-Dame Cathedral school, and assured all those completing courses there that they would be granted a diploma. The university had four faculties: Arts, Medicine, Law, and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties.
The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin: France, Normandy, Picardy, and England. The last came to be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply: the English-German nation included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris (along with that of the University of Bologna) became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, to signify they were under the protection of the church.
Students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the king's laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, and its official had to appeal to Church courts for justice. Students were often very young, entering the school at 13 or 14 years of age and staying for six to 12 years. 12th century: Organization  Three schools were especially famous in Paris: the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, and that of Sainte-Geneviève Abbey. The decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries.
The glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning. The first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the eleventh century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres; Drogo of Paris; Manegold of Germany; and Anselm of Laon.
These two schools attracted scholars from every country and produced many illustrious men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Bishop of Kraków; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg; St. Stephen, third Abbot of Cîteaux; Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of the Abbey of Fontevrault etc. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, and Peter Lombard. Humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy (trivium and quadrivium). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and the Patristic Fathers. It was completed by the study of Canon law.
The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève. It was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor. Its most famous professors are Hugh of St. Victor and Richard of St. Victor. The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris, as it did elsewhere. A Bolognese compendium of canon law called the Decretum Gratiani brought about a division of the theology department. Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from so-called theology; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman law was taught.
In France, first Orléans and then Paris erected chairs of canon law. Before the end of the twelfth century, the Decretals of Gerard La Pucelle, Mathieu d'Angers, and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris, were added to the Decretum Gratiani. However, civil law was not included at Paris. In the twelfth century, medicine began to be publicly taught at Paris: the first professor of medicine in Paris records is Hugo, physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit. Professors were required to have measurable knowledge and be appointed by the university. Applicants had to be assessed by examination; if successful, the examiner, who was the head of the school, and known as scholasticus, capiscol, and chancellor, appointed an individual to teach.
This was called the licence or faculty to teach. The licence had to be granted freely. No one could teach without it; on the other hand, the examiner could not refuse to award it when the applicant deserved it. The school of Saint-Victor, under the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on the abbey or chapter. The diocese and the abbey or chapter, through their chancellor, gave professorial investiture in their respective territories where they had jurisdiction. Besides Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, there were several schools on the "Island" and on the "Mount".
"Whoever", says Crevier "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school." Thus a certain Adam, who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont"; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change" (Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris, I, 272). The number of students in the school of the capital grew constantly, so that lodgings were insufficient. French students included princes of the blood, sons of the nobility, and ranking gentry. The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them.
Popes Celestine II, Adrian IV and Innocent III studied at Paris, and Alexander III sent his nephews there. Noted German and English students included Otto of Freisingen, Cardinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz, St. Thomas of Canterbury, and John of Salisbury; while Ste-Geneviève became practically the seminary for Denmark. The chroniclers of the time called Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above Athens, Alexandria, Rome, and other cities: "At that time, there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the world."
("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Poets extolled the university in their verses, comparing it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world. As the university developed, it became more institutionalized. First, the professors formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris, John of Celles, twenty-first Abbot of St Albans, England, was admitted as a member of the teaching corps of Paris after he had followed the courses (Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. S. Alban). The masters, as well as the students, were divided according to national origin,. Alban wrote that Henry II, King of England, in his difficulties with St. Thomas of Canterbury, wanted to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various provinces (Hist.
major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This was likely the start of the division according to "nations," which was later to play an important part in the university. Celestine III ruled that both professors and students had the privilege of being subject only to the ecclesiastical courts, not to civil courts. The three schools: Notre-Dame, Sainte-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, may be regarded as the triple cradle of the Universitas scholarium, which included masters and students; hence the name University. Henry Denifle and some others hold that this honour is exclusive to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing.
He excludes Saint-Victor because, at the request of the abbot and the religious of Saint-Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the university was largely founded about 1208, as is shown by a Bull of Innocent III. Consequently, the schools of Saint-Victor might well have contributed to its formation. Secondly, Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. This is debatable and through the period, theology was taught. The chancellor of Ste-Geneviève continued to give degrees in arts, something he would have ceased if his abbey had no part in the university organization.
13th–14th century: Expansion  In 1200, King Philip II issued a diploma "for the security of the scholars of Paris," which affirmed that students were subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The provost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, unless to transfer him to ecclesiastical authority. The king's officers could not intervene with any member unless having a mandate from an ecclesiastical authority. His action followed a violent incident between students and officers outside the city walls at a pub. In 1215, the Apostolic legate, Robert de Courçon, issued new rules governing who could become a professor.
To teach the arts, a candidate had to be at least twenty-one, to have studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For a chair in theology, the candidate had to be thirty years of age, with eight years of theological studies, of which the last three years were devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the local schools under the direction of a master. In Paris, one was regarded as a scholar only by studies with particular masters.
Lastly, purity of morals was as important as reading. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because these sciences were less prominent. In 1229, a denial of justice by the queen led to suspension of the courses. The pope intervened with a Bull that began with lavish praise of the university: "Paris", said Gregory IX, "mother of the sciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters".
He commissioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Senlis and the Archdeacon of Châlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of the university, but by the end of 1230 they had accomplished nothing. Gregory IX then addressed a Bull of 1231 to the masters and scholars of Paris. Not only did he settle the dispute, he empowered the university to frame statutes concerning the discipline of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students (expanding upon Robert de Courçon's statutes). Most importantly, the pope granted the university the right to suspend its courses, if justice were denied it, until it should receive full satisfaction.
The pope authorized Pierre Le Mangeur to collect a moderate fee for the conferring of the license of professorship. Also, for the first time, the scholars had to pay tuition fees for their education: two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund. Rector The university was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was a rector. The office was elective and of short duration; at first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion, legate of the Holy See in France, realizing that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years.
Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations. Four "nations"  The "nations" appeared in the second half of the twelfth century. They were mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222. Later, they formed a distinct body. By 1249, the four nations existed with their procurators, their rights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries: the nations were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War, the English nation was replaced by the Germanic. The four nations constituted the faculty of arts or letters.
The territories covered by the four nations were:  French nation: all the Romance-speaking parts of Europe except those included within the Norman and Picard nations  English nation (renamed 'German nation' after the Hundred Years' War): the British Isles, the Germanic-speaking parts of continental Europe (except those included within the Picard nation), and the Slavic-speaking parts of Europe. The majority of students within that nation came from Germany and Scotland, and when it was renamed 'German nation' it was also sometimes called natio Germanorum et Scotorum ("nation of the Germans and Scots"). Norman nation: the ecclesiastical province of Rouen, which corresponded approximately to the Duchy of Normandy.
This was a Romance-speaking territory, but it was not included within the French nation. Picard nation: the Romance-speaking bishoprics of Beauvais, Noyon, Amiens, Laon, and Arras; the bilingual (Romance and Germanic-speaking) bishoprics of Thérouanne, Cambrai, and Tournai; a large part of the bilingual bishopric of Liège; and the southernmost part of the Germanic-speaking bishopric of Utrecht (the part of that bishopric located south of the Meuse River; the rest of the bishopric north of the Meuse River belonged to the English nation). It was estimated that about half of the students in the Picard nation were Romance-speakers (Picard and Walloon), and the other half were Germanic-speakers (West Flemish, East Flemish, Brabantian and Limburgish dialects).
Faculties To classify professors' knowledge, the schools of Paris gradually divided into faculties. Professors of the same science were brought into closer contact until the community of rights and interests cemented the union and made them distinct groups. The faculty of medicine seems to have been the last to form. But the four faculties were already formally established by 1254, when the university described in a letter "theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy". The masters of theology often set the example for the other faculties—e.g., they were the first to adopt an official seal. The faculties of theology, canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties".
The title of "Dean" as designating the head of a faculty, came into use by 1268 in the faculties of law and medicine, and by 1296 in the faculty of theology. It seems that at first the deans were the oldest masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was the rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared for theology, law and medicine, though it continued in arts. Eventually the superior faculties included only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the faculty of arts.
At this period, therefore, the university had two principal degrees, the baccalaureate and the doctorate. It was not until much later that the licentiate and the DEA became intermediate degrees. Colleges  The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris often made lodging difficult. Some students rented rooms from townspeople, who often exacted high rates while the students demanded lower. This tension between scholars and citizens would have developed into a sort of civil war if Robert de Courçon had not found the remedy of taxation. It was upheld in the Bull of Gregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification: its exercise was to be shared with the citizens.
The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from the owners nor the dangers of the world. Thus were founded the colleges (colligere, to assemble); meaning not centers of instruction, but simple student boarding-houses. Each had a special goal, being established for students of the same nationality or the same science. Often, masters lived in each college and oversaw its activities. Four colleges appeared in the 12th century; they became more numerous in the 13th, including Collège d'Harcourt (1280) and the Collège de Sorbonne (1257). Thus the University of Paris assumed its basic form.
It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology, law, and medicine. Men who had studied at Paris became an increasing presence in the high ranks of the Church hierarchy; eventually, students at the University of Paris saw it as a right that they would be eligible to benefices. Church officials such as St. Louis and Clement IV lavishly praised the university. Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, other collegia provided housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations.
There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students: the oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum, founded in 1257. Swedish students could, during the 13th and 14th centuries, live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense, the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense, named after the Swedish dioceses of Uppsala, Skara and Linköping. The  Collège de Navarre was founded in 1305, originally aimed at students from Navarre, but due to its size, wealth, and the links between the crowns of France and Navarre, it quickly accepted students from other nations. The establishment of the College of Navarre was a turning point in the University's history: Navarra was the first college to offer teaching to its students, which at the time set it apart from all previous colleges, founded as charitable institutions that provided lodging, but no tuition.
Navarre's model combining lodging and tuition would be reproduced by other colleges, both in Paris and other universities. The German College, Collegium alemanicum is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scots college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a merging of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville. The Collège de Montaigu was founded by the Archbishop of Rouen in the 14th century, and reformed in the 15th century by the humanist Jan Standonck, when it attracted reformers from within the Roman Catholic Church (such as Erasmus and Ignatius of Loyola) and those who subsequently became Protestants (John Calvin and John Knox).
At this time, the university also went the controversy of the condemnations of 1210–1277. 15th–18th century: Influence in France and Europe  In the fifteenth century, Guillaume d'Estouteville, a cardinal and Apostolic legate, reformed the university, correcting its perceived abuses and introducing various modifications. This reform was less an innovation than a recall to observance of the old rules, as was the reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government with regard to the three higher faculties. Nonetheless, and as to the faculty of arts, the reform of 1600 introduced the study of Greek, of French poets and orators, and of additional classical figures like Hesiod, Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero, Virgil, and Sallust.
The prohibition from teaching civil law was never well observed at Paris, but in 1679 Louis XIV officially authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty of decretals. The "faculty of law" hence replaced the "faculty of decretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but the university set about remedying the injury. Besides its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part in several disputes: in the Church, during the Great Schism; in the councils, in dealing with heresies and divisions; in the State, during national crises.
Under the domination of England it played a role in the trial of Joan of Arc. Proud of its rights and privileges, the University of Paris fought energetically to maintain them, hence the long struggle against the mendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the shorter conflict against the Jesuits, who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. It made extensive use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of theology and pronounced condemnation in its own name, as in the case of the Flagellants.
Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, when Paris was given over to factions, the university sought to restore peace; and under Louis XIV, when the Spaniards crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in the army (Jourdain, Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle, 132-34; Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique). 1793: Abolition by the French Revolution  The ancient university disappeared with the ancien régime in the French Revolution.
On 15 September 1793, petitioned by the Department of Paris and several departmental groups, the National Convention decided that independently of the primary schools, "there should be established in the Republic three progressive degrees of instruction; the first for the knowledge indispensable to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace the other professions of society; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men". Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution the department and the municipality of Paris are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic".
This was the death-sentence of the university. It was not to be restored after the Revolution had subsided, no more than those of the provinces. 1806–1968: Re-establishment The university was re-established by Napoleon on 1 May 1806. All the faculties were replaced by a single centre, the University of France. The decree of 17 March 1808 created five distinct faculties: Law, Medicine, Letters/Humanities, Sciences, and Theology; traditionally, Letters and Sciences had been grouped together into one faculty, that of "Arts". After a century, people recognized that the new system was less favourable to study. The defeat of 1870 at the hands of Prussia was partially blamed on the growth of the superiority of the German university system of the 19th century, and led to another serious reform of the French university.
In the 1880s, the "licence" (bachelor) degree is divided into, for the Faculty of Letters: Letters, Philosophy, History, Modern Languages, with French, Latin and Greek being requirements for all of them; and for the Faculty of Science, into: Mathematics, Physical Sciences and Natural Sciences; the Faculty of Theology is abolished by the Republic. At this time, the building of the Sorbonne was fully renovated. May 1968–1970: Shutdown In 1966, after a student revolt in Paris, Christian Fouchet, minister of education, had proposed "the reorganisation of university studies into separate two- and four-year degrees, alongside the introduction of selective admission criteria" as a response to overcrowding in lecture halls.
Dissatisfied with these educational reforms, students began protesting in November 1967, at the campus of the University of Paris in Nanterre; indeed, according to James Marshall, these reforms were seen "as the manifestations of the technocratic-capitalist state by some, and by others as attempts to destroy the liberal university". After student activists protested the Vietnam War, the campus was closed by authorities on 22 March and again on 2 May 1968. Agitation spread to the Sorbonne the next day, and many students were arrested in the following week. Barricades were erected throughout the Latin Quarter, and a massive demonstration took place on 13 May, gathering students and workers on strike.
The number of workers on strike reached about nine million by 22 May. As explained by Bill Readings: [President Charles de Gaulle] responded on May 24 by calling for a referendum, and [...] the revolutionaries, led by informal action committees, attacked and burned the Paris Stock Exchange in response. The Gaullist government then held talks with union leaders, who agreed to a package of wage-rises and increases in union rights. The strikers, however, simply refused the plan. With the French state tottering, de Gaulle fled France on May 29 for a French military base in Germany. He later returned and, with the assurance of military support, announced [general] elections [within] forty days.
[...] Over the next two months, the strikes were broken (or broke up) while the election was won by the Gaullists with an increased majority. 1970: Division Following the disruption, de Gaulle appointed Edgar Faure as minister of education; Faure was assigned to draft reforms about the French university system, with the help of academics. Their proposal was adopted on 12 November 1968; in accordance with the new law, the faculties of the University of Paris were to reorganize themselves. Some of the new universities took over the old faculties and the majority of their professors: social sciences by Panthéon-Sorbonne University; law by Panthéon-Assas University; humanities by Sorbonne Nouvelle and Paris-Sorbonne University; natural sciences by Paris Descartes University and Pierre and Marie Curie University.
The thirteen successor universities to the University of Paris are now split over the three academies of the Île-de-France region. Most of these successor universities have the joined the six groups of universities and (higher education) institutions in the Paris region, created in the 2010s.
In 2017, Paris IV and Paris VI merged to form the Sorbonne University and in 2019 Paris V and Paris VII merged to form the University of Paris, leaving the number of successor universities at 11.  Notable people  Faculty  Alumni   Carlos Alvarado-Larroucau, writer  Paul Biya, President of Cameroon  Jean-François Delmas, archivist, Director of the Bibliothèque Inguimbertine and the museums of Carpentras  Aklilu Habte-Wold, Ethiopian politician that served in Haile Selassie's cabinet  Leonardo López Luján, Mexican archaeologist and director of the Templo Mayor Project  Ekaterina Fleischitz, first female Russian criminal defense lawyer Darmin Nasution, Coordinating Minister for Economic Affairs of Indonesia  Jean Peyrelevade, French civil servant, politician and business leader.
Issei Sagawa, cannibal and murderer  Tamara Gräfin von Nayhauß, German television presenter  Michel Sapin, Deputy Minister of Justice from May 1991 to April 1992, Finance Minister from April 1992 to March 1993, and Minister of Civil Servants and State Reforms from March 2000 to May 2002.
Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson , Head of the Chabad-Lubavitch movement  Ahmed el-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar  Pol Theis, attorney, interior designer, and founder of P&T Interiors in New York City  Jean-Pierre Thiollet, French writer  Loïc Vadelorge, French historian  Reynald Abad, historian, winner of the Guizot Prize of the Académie française  Jean Baechler, historian, member of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques  Ranvijay Patwardhan, English lawyer, psychologist, art critic, litrateur and member of the Nobel Committee for Literature  Abhigyan Patwardhan, English lawyer, historian, political commentator and member of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques  Yves-Marie Bercé, historian, winner of the Madeleine Laurain-Portemer Prize of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques and member of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques  Kulbhushan Nikhanj, Lauded Professor of University of Paris - Sorbonne, English lawyer, Portrait Painter and Art Collector, Recipient of Legion of Honor of France  Janine Chanteur, philosopher, winner of the Biguet Prize of the Académie française  Jean-Claude Cheynet, historian and professor at the Collège de France  Phulrenu Guha, Indian Bengali politician and educationist, class of 1928  Shivansh Balsavar, Noted English Barrister, Professor of International human rights law at Edinburgh University and University of Paris - Sorbonne  Manimala Maravar, Professor of Ancient History and Figurative art and member of Académie française  Rukmini Dave, Professor of International Law and Political Philosophy at University of Paris - Sorbonne, Member of the Pulitzer Prize Committee and Visiting Professor at SOAS, London  Antoine Compagnon, professor of French literature at the Collège de France  Philippe Contamine, historian, member of the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres  Denis Crouzet, Renaissance historian, winner of the Madeleine Laurain-Portemer Prize of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques  Marc Fumaroli, member of the Académie française and professor at the Collège de France* Olivier Forcade, historian of Political and International relations at the University of Paris-Sorbonne and Sciences-Po Paris, member of the French National Council of Universities  Nrupadh Pendharkar, Member of Sciences-Po Paris, Linguist, Advisor on Human rights issues to UNICEF  Poorna Didwania, Acclaimed English Barrister, Businesswoman, Distinguished Professor of Ancient Greek Philosophy  Edith Philips, American writer and educator  Jean-Robert Pitte, geographist, member of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques  Arvind Shripad Mukherjee, Felicitated architect, lawyer, visiting professor at the Grenoble School of Management  William Broughtons, Noted Architect, Professor of Human Resource Management at European Business School Paris  Jean Favier, historian, member of the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, President of the French Commission for UNESCO  Nicolas Grimal, egyptologist, winner of the Gaston-Maspero prize of the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres et member of the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, winner of the Diane Potier-Boes Prize of the Académie française.
John Kneller (1916–2009), English-American professor and fifth President of Brooklyn College  Claude Lecouteux, professor of Medieval German literature, winner of the Strasbourg Prize of the Académie française  Jean-Luc Marion, philosopher, member of the Académie française  Danièle Pistone, musicologist, member of the Académie des beaux-arts  Jean-Yves Tadié, professor of French literature, Grand Prize of the Académie française  Jean Tulard, historian, member of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques  Khieu Samphan, former Khmer Rouge leader and head of state of Democratic Kampuchea   Haïm Brézis  Fabrice Bardeche  Philippe G. Ciarlet  Gérard Férey  Jacques-Louis Lions  Marc Yor  Bernard Derrida  François Loeser  Achille Mbembe, Cameroonian intellectual historian, political philosopher, author of On the Postcolony, introduced the concept of necropolitics  Claire Voisin  Jean-Michel Coron  Michel Talagrand  Claude Cohen-Tannoudji  Serge Haroche  Riad Al Solh First Prime-minister of Lebanon  Benal Nevzat İstar Arıman (1903–1990), one of the first woman members of the Turkish parliament (1935) Abdelkebir Khatibi, Moroccan literary critic, novelist, philosopher, playwright, poet, and sociologist  Nobel prizes  Alumni As of October 2019, the university counts 50 Nobel Prize winners, placing it in 14th position globally, and 2nd outside of the English-speaking world.
The Sorbonne has taught 11 French presidents, almost 50 French heads of government, 2 Popes, as well as many other political and social figures. The Sorbonne has also educated leaders of Albania, Canada, the Dominican Republic, Gabon, Guinea, Iraq, Jordan, Kosovo, Tunisia and Niger among others. List of Nobel Prize winners that had attended the University of Paris or one of its thirteen successors.
Albert Fert (PhD) – 2007  Alfred Kastler (DSc) – 1966  Gabriel Lippmann (DSc) – 1908  Jean Perrin (DSc) – 1926  Louis Néel (MSc) – 1970  Louis de Broglie (DSc) – 1929   Marie Curie (DSc) – 1903, 1911  Pierre Curie (DSc) – 1903  Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (DSc) – 1991  Serge Haroche (PhD, DSc) – 2012  Frédéric Joliot-Curie (DSc) – 1935  Gerhard Ertl (Attendee) – 2007  Henri Moissan (DSc) – 1906  Irène Joliot-Curie (DSc) – 1935  Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff (Attendee) – 2007  André Frédéric Cournand (M.D) – 1956  André Lwoff (M.D, DSc) – 1965  Bert Sakmann (Attendee) – 1991  Charles Nicolle (M.D) – 1928  Charles Richet (M.D, DSc) – 1913  François Jacob (M.D) – 1965  Françoise Barré-Sinoussi (PhD) – 2008  Jacques Monod (DSc) – 1965  Jean Dausset (MD) – 1980  Luc Montagnier (MD) – 2008  Gérard Debreu (DSc) – 1983  Maurice Allais (D.Eng.)
– 1988  Jean Tirole (PhD) – 2014  Albert Schweitzer (PhD) – 1952  Charles Albert Gobat (Attendee) – 1902  Ferdinand Buisson (DLitt) – 1927  Léon Bourgeois (DCL) – 1920  Louis Renault (DCL) – 1907  René Cassin (DCL) – 1968  Giorgos Seferis (LLB) – 1963  Henri Bergson (B.A) – 1927  Jean-Paul Sartre (B.A) – 1964  Patrick Modiano (Attendee) – 2014  Romain Rolland (D Litt) – 1915  T.S.Eliot (Attendee) – 1979  Faculty List of Nobel Prize winners that were affiliated with the University of Paris or one of its thirteen successors.
George Smoot (Professor) – 2006   Gabriel Lippmann (Professor) – 1908*   Jean Perrin (Professor) – 1926*   Louis de Broglie (Professor) – 1929*   Marie Curie (Professor) – 1903*, 1911*  Alfred Kastler (Researcher) – 1966  Henri Moissan (Professor) – 1906*  Irène Joliot-Curie (Professor) – 1935*  Peter Debye (Visiting Lecturer) – 1936  Charles Richet (Professor) – 1913*  Jules Bordet (Researcher) – 1919  Roger Guillemin (Researcher) – 1977  Jean Dausset (Professor) – 1980*  Louis Renault (Professor) – 1907*  T.S.
Eliot (Visitor) – 1948  Notes  Sources  Further reading  Franklin, Alfred: La Sorbonne: ses origines, sa bibliothèque, les débuts de l'imprimerie à Paris et la succession de Richelieu d'après des documents inédits, 2. édition, Paris: L. Willem, 1875  Leutrat, Jean-Louis: De l'Université aux Universités (From the University to the Universities), Paris: Association des Universités de Paris, 1997  Rivé, Phillipe: La Sorbonne et sa reconstruction (The Sorbonne and its Reconstruction), Lyon: La Manufacture, 1987  Tuilier, André: Histoire de l'Université de Paris et de la Sorbonne (History of the University of Paris and of the Sorbonne), in 2 volumes (From the Origins to Richelieu, From Louis XIV to the Crisis of 1968), Paris: Nouvelle Librairie de France, 1997  Verger, Jacques: Histoire des Universités en France (History of French Universities), Toulouse: Editions Privat, 1986  External links   Chancellerie des Universités de Paris (official homepage)  Projet Studium Parisiense: database of members of the University of Paris from the 11th to 16th centuries  Liste des Universités de Paris et d'Ile-de-France : nom, adresse, cours, diplômes...  Category:1150 establishments in Europe Category:1150s establishments in France Category:12th-century establishments in France Paris, University of
The opposite-colored bishops endgame is a chess endgame in which each side has a single bishop, but the bishops reside on opposite-colored squares on the chessboard, thus cannot attack or block each other. Without other   (but with pawns) these endings are notorious for their tendency to result in a draw. These are the most difficult endings in which to convert a small  advantage to a win. With additional pieces, the stronger side has more chances to win, but not as many as if the bishops were on the same color. Many players in a poor position have saved themselves from a loss by trading down to such an endgame.
They are often drawn even when one side has an advantage of two or even three pawns, since the weaker side can create a blockade on the squares on which its bishop operates. General principles Edmar Mednis gives two principles for endgames with bishops on opposite colors:  If a player is down  he should look for drawing chances in an endgame with only the bishops and pawns. With  (queen or rook) on the board, having bishops on opposite colors favors the side with an attack .
Ian Rogers gives three principles when there are only the bishops and pawns:   Two connected pawns are not sufficient to win unless they reach their sixth   If the attacker has two widely separated passed pawns that cannot be controlled by the opposing bishop on a single diagonal, they usually win  When the attacker has an outside passed pawn, it should be stopped by the bishop only when the king can block the opposing king . Drawing tendency In endings with opposite-colored bishops, a  advantage is less important than in most endgames and position is more important. Positions when one side has an extra pawn are usually drawn and even two extra pawns (and occasionally more) may not be enough to win .
About half of the endings with a bishop and two pawns versus a bishop on the opposite color are drawn . (By contrast, over 90% are won if the bishops are on the same color.) Zugzwang is a tool that often helps the superior side win an endgame. It is a fairly common occurrence in endings with bishops on the same color but is much less common in endgames with opposite-colored bishops . The weaker side should often try to make his bishop  by placing his pawns on the same color of his bishop in order to defend his remaining pawns, thereby creating an impregnable fortress .
The attacker should generally put his pawns on squares of the opposite color as his bishop to prevent a blockade . Bishop and pawn versus bishop  The attacker's bishop is practically useless and the defender can normally draw if his king can reach any square in front of the pawn that is not of the color of the attacking bishop; or if his bishop can permanently attack any square in front of the pawn . These endings are trivially drawn 99% of the time . Bishop and two pawns versus a bishop  About half of these positions are drawn. In most other endings, a two pawn advantage is usually an easy win.
For example, if the bishops were on the same color, 90% of the positions would be wins. There are three general cases, depending on the two pawns. In most endings, a pair of connected pawns have the best winning chances, but in these endings a widely separated pair of pawns have the best chances , except when one of the pawns is the wrong rook pawn. Doubled pawns With doubled pawns the position is a draw if the defending king can reach any square in front of the pawns that is not of the color of the attacker's bishop. The second pawn on the  is of no help, so this is like the ending with only one pawn.
If the defending king and bishop cannot accomplish this, the first pawn will win the defending bishop and the second one will promote . Isolated pawns  With isolated pawns (on non-adjacent files), the outcome depends on how widely separated the pawns are. The more widely separated they are, the better the winning chances . The rule that holds in most cases is that if only one file separates the pawns the game is a draw, otherwise the attacker wins. The reason is that if the pawns are more widely separated, the defending king must block one pawn while his bishop blocks the other pawn.
Then the attacking king can support the pawn blocked by the bishop and win the piece. If only one file is between the pawns, the defender can stop the advance of the pawns. See the diagram . If three files separate the pawns, they normally win . However, this is only a rule of thumb. There are positions where the defender can set up a blockade, especially if one of the pawns is the wrong rook pawn . In this position from Yuri Averbakh, Black draws since the bishop can restrain both pawns on the same diagonal with the help of the king and the white bishop is helpless.
1. Kd5 Kf6! The white king will not get to e6 2. Kc5 Ke7 3. Kb5 Bf4 4. Kb6 Kd8, draw . An example is the game N. Miller vs. A. Saidy, American Open 1971. White  in this position because he knew a "rule" articulated by Fine in the first edition of Basic Chess Endings: "If the pawns are two or more files apart, they win." Since here three files separate the pawns, White assumed his position was hopeless. However, the position is actually a fairly straightforward draw, since "White's King has such a powerful active location that he can keep Black's King from penetrating either side of the board."
Play might continue 1. Bh3+ Ke7 2. Bg2 Kf6 3. Bh3 Kg5 4. Bg2 Kf4 5. Kc4! Bd4 6. Kd3 Bg1 7. Bc6 Kg4 8. Bg2! Bf2 9. Kc4! Kf4 10. Kd3 Ke5 11. Kc4, when, "Clearly there is no way for Black to break the blockade." Wrong rook pawn  If one of the two pawns is the wrong rook pawn (i.e. an a- or h-pawn whose queening square is the opposite color from the squares on which the superior side's bishop moves), a fortress may allow the inferior side to draw irrespective of how far apart the two pawns are.
This is illustrated by Alekhine–Ed. Lasker, New York City 1924. (complete game) Three files separate Black's two extra pawns, but the players agreed to a draw after 52.Bb1 Kg7 53.Kg2. Alekhine explained in the tournament book that White "can now sacrifice his Bishop for the [d-pawn], inasmuch as the King has settled himself in the all-important corner" . If one of the pawns is the wrong rook pawn, it does not matter how widely separated or how advanced the pawns are. The outcome depends on whether or not the defending king can get into the corner in front of the rook pawn and sacrifice his bishop for the other pawn .
Recap Grandmaster Jesus de la Villa emphasizes the importance of this endgame and gives this breakdown depending on how many files separate the pawns:  If the pawns are separated by two files:  Two  normally win  With a  and a  the position is usually a draw, but there are winning chances if the knight pawn is not far advanced and the attacking bishop controls its promotion square  with a  and a central pawn the endgame is a draw  If the pawns are separated by three files:  With a knight pawn there are drawing chances if the pawn is far advanced  With a rook pawn the position is usually won  If the pawns are separated by four files  The ending is won because the attacking king gets between the pawns .
Connected pawns Positions with connected pawns are the most complex case, and the result depends on the  and  of the pawns and the colors and locations of the bishops. If one of the pawns is a  (on the a- or h- file) the position is normally drawn. If the pawns are on the opposite color as the defender's bishop, the defender may be able to blockade the pawns and draw. If both pawns can safely reach the sixth rank, they win unless one is the wrong rook pawn, i.e. the rook pawn that promotes on the square of the same color as the defending bishop .
The ideal drawing setup is seen in the diagram at left. Black's king (on a square not of the color of the opposing bishop) and bishop stay two ranks in front of the pawns, with both defending against a pawn advance (here d6 by White) to the same color square as the bishop. The defending bishop must maintain an attack on the pawn on the same color square as itself, so that the attacking king is not allowed to advance. If White  the other (unattacked) pawn, Black's bishop  itself for both pawns, with a draw. (If the second pawn is protected and advances instead, the position is also a draw.)
In the diagram position, Black on move passes (i.e. a waiting move that maintains the attack on the pawn) with 1... Bb8! 2. Ke4 Bc7! 3. Kf5 Bb8! and so on. White cannot make progress: 4. d6+ is met, as always, by 4... Bxd6 5. exd6+ Kxd6 with an immediate draw; 4. e6 gives Black an unbreakable blockade on the dark squares; and White can never prepare for d6+ by playing Kc5 because Black plays ... Bxe5. A similar position with White's pawns on the sixth rank is a win because the black bishop has no room to move and maintain the attack on the pawn on d6, thus Black is defeated because of zugzwang.
In the position at right, Black loses immediately. Black, on move, must give way with either bishop or king, allowing White to move e7, winning, or else play the hopeless 1... Bxd6 2. Kxd6. If White is to move in this position, he plays a waiting move such as 1. Kc6, placing Black in the same predicament (1... Ke8 2. Kc7#) . More pawns  Draws are possible with more pawns. This is an example of a drawing fortress with opposite-colored bishops when three pawns behind. White simply keeps his bishop on the h3 to c8 diagonal . (See Fortress (chess)#Opposite-colored bishops.)
Positions with three pawns versus none are wins 90% of the time . Examples from master games  Berger vs. Kotlerman  In Berger versus Kotlerman, the pawns are separated by two files, but the game was drawn . 1. Ke2 b3  2. Kd1 Kb4  3. Bh7 Ka3  4. Bg6 Kb2  5. Bf7! Ka2  6. Be6 Ka3  7. Bf5! ½–½ If 7. ...b2 then 8. Bb1. If Black keeps his king near the b pawn then White moves his king. If the king goes to g2 trying to displace the white king, White moves the bishop. Piskov vs. Nunn  In this game Black has an inferior position, but he draws by exchanging queens and rooks, giving up two pawns, and reaching a drawn endgame:  37.
Bf6 Qh5! 38. Qxh5 gxh5 39. Rxe8+ Bxe8 40. Be7 Bg6 41. Bxc5 Kf7! 42. Bxd4 a6 43. a3 Bd3 44. c5 Bc4 45. d6 Ke6 46. Kf2 Kd7  The blockade has been set up. Black's pawns can be protected by his bishop and White's passed pawns cannot make any progress. The game continued: 47. Kg3 Be6 48. h4 Kc6 49. ½–½ . Nunn  In this position from Nunn (a slight modification of a simultaneous game), White wins:  1... Be1  2. Kf6! Bh4  3. Kf5 Kd6  4. g3 fxg3  5. Bg2 Kc7   6. Ke5 g4  7. hxg4 and White wins easily by supporting the g-pawn with the king.
Black loses because he cannot defend the pawn on g5 with the bishop from d8 or e7. If the black king were on b8 then 1... Ba5 would draw . Sokolov vs. McShane  In the game between Ivan Sokolov and Luke McShane, Black discards his pawn and goes for a stalemate defense:  1... c4!? 2. Bxc4 Kf8  3. h5 Ke7  4. Bb3 Kf8  5. f6 Ke8 ½–½ and a draw was agreed, because White cannot break through, e.g. 6. Ba4+ Kf8 7. h6 Bxf6 8. Kxf6 stalemate . Lautier vs. Rublevsky  In an endgame with opposite-colored bishops, positional factors may be more important than  (see quotes below).
In this position, Black sacrifices a pawn (leaving him three pawns down) to reach a fortress. 1... Kf5! 2. Kxf7 Bh5+  3. Kg7 Bd1  4. Be7 ½–½ After 4... Be2 5. Kh6 Bd1 6. h5 Black just waits by playing 6... Be2 . Kotov vs. Botvinnik  Another position illustrating the above-stated principle is Kotov–Botvinnik, Moscow 1955. Grandmaster Lev Alburt writes, "Black has an extra pawn, but his opponent appears to have a reasonable blockade in place." . However, Botvinnik finds a way to create another passed pawn. 1... g5!! 2. fxg5  2.hxg5 h4 3.Bd6 Bf5 4.g6 Bxg6 5.f5 Bxf5 6.Kxb3 Kg2 costs White his bishop and the game  .
2...d4+! Black must keep his b-pawn  . 3. exd4  Black has gone from being a pawn up to temporarily being a pawn down, but he has a won game. If 3.Bxd4, then 3...Kg3 4.g6 Kxh4 5.Kd2 Kh3!! 6.Bf6 h4 7.Ke2 Kg2! 3... Kg3! Not 3...Kg4? 4.d5! Bxd5 5.Bf2, drawing . 4. Ba3  4.g6 Kxh4 5.g7 Kg4 also wins . 4.Be7 Kxh4 5.g6+ Kg4 wins . 4... Kxh4 5. Kd3 Kxg5 6. Ke4 h4 7. Kf3  Or 7.d5 Bxd5+ . 7... Bd5+ 0–1  Fischer vs. Donner  In this game between Bobby Fischer and Jan Hein Donner, White was winning, but Black had a swindle to save the game by getting to a drawn opposite-colored bishop endgame.
Play continued:   30... Rxc2  31. Bxf5 Rc1   32. Qxc1 Bxc1  33. Kf1 h6  If 33.d5, then 33...Ba3 stops the pawn. 34. Ke2 Kf8 ½–½   If Fischer had won this game, he would have tied with Boris Spassky for first place in the 1966 Piatigorsky Cup tournament. Fischer vs. Polugaevsky  In this position from a game between Fischer and Lev Polugaevsky a pair of rooks had just been exchanged. An endgame with opposite-colored bishops was reached, with three pawns to two, which was a dead draw . Vidmar vs. Maróczy In this 1932 game between Milan Vidmar and Géza Maróczy, White was three pawns ahead, but was unable to win.
Pawns are doubled on the rook , which would give White the wrong rook pawn, making the white bishop unable to assist in promotion. The game ended in a draw on move 129, because checkmate was impossible. Before the end, two insignificant underpromotions to bishops occurred. Advantageous with positional considerations As stated above, in endgames with opposite-colored bishops, positional factors may be more important than material differences. John Nunn makes two points:  usually the number of passed pawns is more important than the total number of pawns  small changes in the pawn structure may have a large effect . Against weak pawns  In some cases with more pawns on the board, if one side has weak pawns then it is actually advantageous to the other side to have the bishops on opposite colors.
In the 1925 game of Efim Bogoljubov versus Max Blümich, White wins because of the bishops being on opposite colors making Black weak on the black squares, the weakness of Black's isolated pawns on the , and the weak doubled pawns on the  . The game continued:   29. Kd2 Ke7  30. Kc3 f6  31. Kd4 Be6  32. Kc5 Kd7  33. Kb6 g5  34. Kxa6 Kc7  35. Bb6+ Kc8  36. Bc5 Kc7  37. Bf8 f5  38. Bxg7 f4  39. Bf6 f3  40. gxf3 exf3  41. Bxg5 Bxh3  42. Bf4+ 1–0  Positional advantages  Although endgames with opposite-colored bishops tend to be drawish, even with a material advantage, in some cases positional advantages can be enough to win with the same material on both sides.
In this position from a 1956 game between Reinhart Fuchs and Ratmir Kholmov, Black's positional advantages enabled him to win . In this 1976 game between Bojan Kurajica and Anatoly Karpov, the material is even but Black has pinned down White's  pawns and is preparing to break through. Black needs to create another weakness or passed pawn to win. White resigned after move 57 , . As a defensive resource Occasionally opposite-colored bishops endings offer a defender better scopes for draw than same-colored bishops endings. The weaker side can set up a color-blockade, so the side with the extra material or exchange cannot attack.
Liem vs. Svidler  Smyslov vs. Vaganian  Additional pieces If both sides have an additional matching piece, the situation is much more complex and cannot be easily codified. Generally, the presence of the additional pieces gives the stronger side more winning chances. Glenn Flear calls these "NQE"s ("Not Quite Endgames") . The initiative is very important in these types of endgames . Knight  With each side having a knight in addition to the bishops, the main idea is for the stronger side to create two passed pawns. If this can be done then the exchange of knights is acceptable for the stronger side.
However, the exchange of knights may benefit the defender, especially if there is only one passed pawn and he has no other weaknesses. This endgame occurs in about 0.6% of games between high-rated players . Rook  If each side has a rook in addition to the bishop, the stronger side has many more winning prospects. The attacking rook can have influence on both color of squares. Sometimes exchanging the rook for the defender's bishop breaks a fortress. Sometimes the defending bishop can be sacrificed for pawns to result in a rook and bishop versus rook endgame that can be drawn (see pawnless chess endgame).
The most difficult problem encountered by the stronger side is usually in breaking a blockade by the opposite bishop. These endgames occur in 2.8% of the games between high-rated players . Example  This type of endgame was reached in a 2006 game between Veselin Topalov and Levon Aronian, see the first diagram. (The game and analysis is on this page and the game score is also here.) White was able to make slow progress (see the second diagram, showing the position after 72 moves). The game concluded:  73. Rd4! Be6+  74. Kf8 Ra8+  75. Bd8 Bg4  76. c6 1–0 Black resigned because the pawn will advance to c7 and Black cannot defend against rook attacks on the seventh rank and the h-file.
Queen  When each side has an additional queen, the possibility of exchanging them is a paramount concern. The stronger side should try to get two widely spaced passed pawns before exchanging queens. Defending squares of the color of the stronger side's bishop can be difficult if there are weakness or threats on both sides of the board. The stronger side must increase his advantage before exchanging queens and sometimes this is done with a direct attack on the king. These endgames occur in 0.8% of the games between high-rated players . History  The earliest opposite-colored bishop endgame in the ChessBase database is an 1862 game between Louis Paulsen and Adolf Anderssen in their unofficial world championship match.
It was a draw because of the wrong rook pawn. Play continued:  55. Bf5+ Kh2  56. Bc2 h4  57. Be4 ½–½  This 1620 game between an unknown player and Gioachino Greco was won by Black on move 50. Quotes  "In endings with bishops of opposite color, material means NOTHING, position EVERYTHING." — Cecil Purdy (emphasis in the original) . See also  Bishop (chess)#Bishops on opposite colors  Chess endgame  Fortress (chess)  References  Bibliography  Further reading  Benko, Pal. "Opposite-Colored Bishops", Chess Life, November 2007, 56–57. External links  Edgar Walther vs. Bobby Fischer, 1959 Fischer draws two pawns down  Category:Chess endgames Category:Chess theory
In anatomy, the anus is the opening at the lower end of the digestive tract. Anus can also refer to:  Anus language  Anu (tribe)  Anuš, the spelling of Enosh in the religion of Mandaeism  Anusim, Jews forced to convert to another faith who still secretly practice Judaism  Anus (album), an album by Alaska Thunderfuck  Places:  Anus, Yonne, France  Anus, Indonesia, a small village in Indonesia  Anus, Batangas, Philippines, in the province of Batangas  Anus, Laguna, Philippines, a small village in the province of Laguna  Olonets, Russia, known in the Olonets Karelian language as Anus or Anuksenlinnu  See also  Anu (disambiguation)
"The Song of the Stormy Petrel" (, ) is a short piece of revolutionary literature written by the Russian writer Maxim Gorky in 1901. The poem is written in a variation of unrhymed trochaic tetrameter with occasional Pyrrhic substitutions. History  In 1901, no one could criticise the Tsar directly and hope to escape unhappy fate. "Aesopian language" of a fable, which had been developed into a form of art by earlier writers such as Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin, was not infrequently used by the critics of the regime. Maxim Gorky wrote "The Song of the Storm Petrel" in March 1901 in Nizhny Novgorod.
It is believed that originally the text was part of a larger piece, called "Spring Melodies" (Весенние мелодии) and subtitled "Fantasy" (Фантазия). In this "fantasy", the author overhears a conversation of birds outside his window on a late-winter day: a crow, a raven, and a bullfinch  representing the monarchist establishment; sparrows, "lesser people"; and anti-establishment siskins (чижики). As the birds discussing the approach of the spring, it is one of the siskins who sings to his comrades "the Song of the Stormy Petrel, which he had overheard somewhere", which appears as the "fantasy's" finale. In the "Song", the action takes place on an ocean coast, far from the streets of a central Russian town; the language calling for revolution is coded—the proud stormy petrel, unafraid of the storm (that is, revolution), as all other birds cower.
The publication of this parody of the Russian society was disallowed by the censors; however, apparently because of a censor's mistake, the siskin's "Song" was allowed to be published as a separate piece. The entire "fantasy" was published in Berlin in 1902. The "Song" was first published in the Zhizn magazine in April 1901. Gorky was arrested for publishing "The Song", but released shortly thereafter. The poem was later referred to as "the battle anthem of the revolution", and the epithet Burevestnik Revolyutsii (The Storm Petrel of the Revolution) soon became attached to Gorky himself. According to Nadezhda Krupskaya, "The Song" became one of Lenin's favorite works by Gorky.
The bird species in the song   As a poet, Gorky would not pay too much attention to precisely identifying the birds species appearing in his "Song". The Russian word burevestnik (modified by appropriate adjectives) is applied to a number of species in the families Procellariidae (many of whose species are known in English as petrels) and Pelecanoididae (diving-petrels). According to Vladimir Dal's Dal's Dictionary, Russia's favorite dictionary in Maxim Gorky's time, burevestnik could be understood as a generic word for all Procellariidae (including the European storm petrel). This Russian word is not, however, used to specifically name the species properly known in English as storm-petrel, or any other individual species from its family (the Hydrobatidae).
However, since the Russian burevestnik can be literally parsed by the speaker as 'the announcer of the storm', it was only appropriate for most translators into English to translate the title of the poem as "Stormy Petrel" (or, more rarely, "Storm Petrel"). Other avian characters of the poem are generic seagulls, loons (also known as "divers"; Russian, гагара), and a penguin. While North Hemisphere loons and south hemisphere penguins are not likely to meet in the wild, their joint participation in the poem is a legitimate example of a poetic license. Or the penguin might refer to the extinct great auk, genus Pinguinus, once known commonly as "penguins".
Translations  The Song was translated into many languages (and to almost all officially recognized languages of Russia), including German, Japanese, and Hebrew. The text of the poem The text in original Russian and English translation follows (the English translation is GFDL; note on translation on the discussion page). Commemoration The popularity of the poem in Russia's revolutionary circles, and the later "canonization" of Gorky as a preeminent classic of the "proletarian literature" ensured the wide spreading of the image of the Burevestnik ("stormy petrel") in the Soviet propaganda imagery. A variety of institutions, products, and publications would bear the name "Burevestnik",  including a national sports club, a series of hydrofoil boats, an air base in the Kuril Islands, a labor-union resort on the Gorky Reservoir, a Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod express train, and even a brand of candy.
(See Burevestnik for a very partial list of entities so named). Naturally, Burevestnik-themed names were especially popular in Gorky Oblast. Maxim Gorky himself would be referred to with the epithet "the Stormy Petrel of the Revolution" (Буревестник Революции); monuments, posters, postage stamps and commemorative coins depicting the writer would often be decorated with the image of a soaring aquatic bird. References  External links English translation, 1955  Category:1901 poems Category:Russian poems Category:Works by Maxim Gorky
Phospholipase C, gamma 1, also known as PLCG1, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PLCG1 gene. Function  The protein encoded by this gene catalyzes the formation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and diacylglycerol from phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. This reaction uses calcium as a cofactor and plays an important role in the intracellular transduction of receptor-mediated tyrosine kinase activators. For example, when activated by SRC, the encoded protein causes the Ras guanine nucleotide exchange factor RASGRP1 to translocate to the Golgi apparatus, where it activates Ras. Also, this protein has been shown to be a major substrate for heparin-binding growth factor 1 (acidic fibroblast growth factor)-activated tyrosine kinase.
The receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPmu (PTPRM) is capable of dephosphorylating PLCG1. Two transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene. Common to all PLC isozymes, PLCG1 consists of an N-terminal PH domain, which translocates PLC to the plasma membrane and binds PIP3; four EF hands; an X and Y catalytic region comprising the TIM barrel; and a C-terminal C2 domain. Specific to the PLCG isozymes is a large separation between the X and Y domains consisting of a split PH domain, tandem SH2 domains, and an SH3 domain. The SH2 domains bind phosphorylated tyrosine residues on target proteins via their FLVR sequence motifs, activating the catalytic function of PLCg; and the SH3 domain binds to proline-rich sequences on the target protein.
PLCG1 can be activated by receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and non-receptor tyrosine kinases. For example, when activated, fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 and epidermal growth factor receptor are RTKs that have phosphorylated tyrosines, which provide docking sites for PLCG1 SH2 domains. The activated RTKs phosphoylate PLCG1 at tyrosines located at position 472, 771, 775, 783, and 1254. Non-receptor tyrosine kinases interact with PLCG1 in large complexes at the plasma membrane. For example, in T cells, Lck and Fyn (Src family kinases) phosphorylate immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs) on the T-cell antigen receptor (TCR). The phosphorylated ITAMs recruit ZAP-70, which phosphorylates tyrosines in LAT and SLP-76.
PLCg1 binds to LAT through its n-terminal SH2 domain and to SLP-76 via its SH3 domain. Has been shown to interact with CISH which negatively regulates it by targeting it for degradation. The deletion of Cish in effector T cells has been shown to augment TCR signaling and subsequent effector cytokine release, proliferation and survival. The adoptive transfer of tumor-specific effector T cells knocked out or knocked down for CISH resulted in a significant increase in functional avidity and long-term tumor immunity. There are no changes in activity or phosphorylation of Cish's purported target, STAT5 in either the presence or absence of Cish.
Clinical significance  Researchers studying PLCg1 and its role in breast cancer metastasis discovered this gene can promote cancer metastasis and subsequently blocking it stopped cancer from spreading. Research is ongoing but this gene could lead to the development of new anti-cancer drugs. Interactions   PLCG1 has been shown to interact with:   BAG3,   CD117,   CD31,   Cbl gene  CISH  Epidermal growth factor receptor,   Eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 alpha 1,   FLT1,   GAB1,   GIT1,   Grb2,   HER2/neu,   IRS2,   ITK,   KHDRBS1,   Linker of activated T cells,   Lymphocyte cytosolic protein 2,   PDGFRA,   PLD2,   RHOA,   SOS1,  TUB,   TrkA,   TrkB,   VAV1,  and  Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein. See also   Phospholipase C  References   Category:Peripheral membrane proteins Category:EC 3.1.4
The Vibrionaceae are a family of Proteobacteria given their own order, Vibrionales. Inhabitants of fresh or salt water, several species are pathogenic, including the type species Vibrio cholerae, which is the agent responsible for cholera. Most bioluminescent bacteria belong to this family, and are typically found as symbionts of deep-sea animals. Vibrionaceae are Gram-negative organisms and facultative anaerobes, capable of fermentation. They contain oxidase and have one or more flagella, which are generally polar. Originally, these characteristics defined the family, which was divided into four genera. Two of these, Vibrio and Photobacterium, correspond to the modern group, although several new genera have been defined.
Genetic studies have shown the other two original members—Aeromonas and Plesiomonas—belong to separate families. The family Vibrionaceae currently comprises eight validly published genera: Aliivibrio, Catenococcus,  Enterovibrio, Grimontia, Listonella, Photobacterium, Salinivibrio, and Vibrio; although the status of Listonella has been questioned. Members of this family also synthesize tetrodotoxin (TTX), an ancient marine alkaloid and powerful neurotoxin (Na+ pump inhibitor, 1 mg can kill an adult) that serves to protect members of an order of fishes, the Tetraodontiformes (tetras-four and odontos-tooth), which include the puffer fish (see fugu, raw puffer fish served in Japan). As mentioned above, Vibrionaceae bacteria are in symbiosis with many marine organisms.
In the case of the puffer fish, and other marine organisms harboring TTX-producing Vibrionaceae, the symbiosis is an ancient and powerful one, providing protection against predation for the marine organisms that harbor these bacteria, while providing the bacteria a protected environment with plenty of nutrients for growth. TTX and saxitoxin provide good examples of convergent biochemical evolution: both toxins are extremely toxic at low levels, both are Na+ pump inhibitors and both have nearly identical binding constants on the Na+ pump in neurons. Pathology   A characteristic of the family is the broad host range susceptible to infection by vibrios. Pathogens of man, other than V. cholerae, include V. parahaemolyticus, a cause of gastroenteritis and V. vulnificus that can lead to acute and fatal septicaemia.
Other species of Vibrionaceae are associated with disease in a wide variety of finfish, one of the most notable and commonly occurring pathogens being Vibrio anguillarum, the cause of septicaemia in farmed salmonids such as Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout. Species such as V. tubiashii cause disease in larval stages of Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) while V. harveyi causes luminous vibriosis in penaeid shrimps (prawns). The extent of the host range is seen with species such as V. mediterranei and V. coralliilyticus, which can infect zooxanthellae, the plant symbionts of coral. These species of Vibrio are thought to be a cause of coral bleaching.
References     Category:Bacteria families
K R Balakrishnan is an Indian cardiothoracic surgeon, senior heart transplant surgeon and currently the Chairman of Cardiac Sciences, and the Director of Institute of Heart and Lung Transplant and Mechanical Circulatory Support at MGM Healthcare Chennai. He was the director of cardiac sciences at Fortis Malar Hospital Chennai till October 2019. Balakrishnan performed the first permanent artificial heart transplant in India with HeartMate II LVAD and performed the largest number of heart transplants in India. He has performed over 16000 cardiac surgeries for various types of heart diseases and disorders till date. He has performed several first cardiac surgeries in India that includes the first pediatric heart transplant on a 2 year old Russian kid.
He also did the first LVAD and HVAD pump transplant in India in 2012 and 2013 respectively. He is the member of Indian Medical Association. Fortis hospital has performed 100 free heart surgeries of needy children in India under the supervision of Balakrishnan funded by some clubs and Aishwarya Trust. Career K R Balakrishnan earned MBBS degree from JIPMER, Pondicherry in the year 1976. He completed MS in General Surgery from AIIMS, New Delhi in 1980. Balakrishnan also qualified M.Ch. in Cardio Thoracic Surgery from KEM Hospital, Mumbai, in the year 1982. Balakrishnan was the Professor and Head of Cardio Thoracic and Vascular Surgery at Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai from 1994 to 2008.
Balakrishnan has successfully done 200 heart transplant surgeries till 2012. He has successfully performed by pass surgery of a shop owner from Gujarat "Jaisukhabi Thakur" who had no pulse rate. Dr Balakrishnan has played a pioneering role in starting the Center for Heart Failure Management in Fortis Malar Hospital, Chennai which is the very first center in the country for Comprehensive Cardiac care. He is associated with academics and has over 30 publications to his name in renowned national and international medical journals.
Awards & recognitions FICCI Special Jury Award 2017 Best Doctor Award by the Tamilnadu Government in 2017 Double Helical National Health Award in 2017 Patent for Low Cost Ventricular Assist Device Patent for Flexible Polyurethane Membrane  Research Publications https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Komarakshi_Balakrishnan  Resources  External links   Interview with Economic Times Healthworld   Dr K R Balakrishnan Interview with HYBIZTV   Dr K R Balakrishnan Biography  Category:Living people Category:Indian cardiac surgeons Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Still Standing may refer to:  Music  Still Standing (Goodie Mob album), or the title song  Still Standing (Monica album)  "Still Standing" (Monica song), the title song  Still Standing (EP), an EP by Yellowcard  Still Standing, an album by Deadly Venoms  Still Standing, an album by Exile  Still Standing, an album by Jason & the Scorchers  "Still Standing" (Hilltop Hoods song)  "Still Standing", a song by The Rasmus from Dead Letters  "Still Standing", a song from by Kylie Minogue from the album Body Language  Television  Still Standing (TV series), a 2002-2006 American sitcom  Still Standing (Canadian TV series), a 2015-present Canadian comedy/reality show  Monica: Still Standing, a 2009-2010 reality television series  Other  I'm Still Standing (book), a 2012 autobiography by Fabrice Muamba  See also  "I'm Still Standing", a song by Elton John Standing Still (disambiguation)
{{Automatic taxobox | fossil_range = Messinian – Holocene  | image = Wildkatze MGH.jpg | image_caption =  European Wildcat, Felis silvestris | taxon = Felis | authority = Linnaeus, 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision =  Felis bietiFelis catusFelis chausFelis lybicaFelis margaritaFelis nigripesFelis silvestrisFelis attica †Felis lunensis † | range_map = Felis range.png | range_map_caption = Native Felis range }}Felis is a genus of small and medium-sized cat Felinae species native to most of Africa and south of 60° latitude in Europe and Asia to Indochina. The genus includes the domestic cat. The smallest Felis species is the black-footed cat with a head and body length from .
The largest is the jungle cat with a head and body length from . Genetic studies indicate that Felis, Otocolobus and Prionailurus diverged from a Eurasian progenitor about 6.2 million years ago, and that Felis species split off 3.04 to 0.99 million years ago. Etymology  The generic name Felis is derived from Classical Latin fēlis meaning "cat, ferret". Taxonomy Carl Linnaeus considered Felis to comprise all cat species known until 1758. Later taxonomists split the cat family into different genera. In 1917, the British zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock revised the genus Felis as comprising only the ones listed in the following table.
Estimated genetic divergence times of the listed species are indicated in million years ago (Mya), based on analysis of autosomal, xDNA, yDNA and mtDNA gene segments. Pocock accepted the Pallas's cat as the only member of the genus Otocolobus. Other scientists consider it also a Felis species. Several scientists consider the Chinese mountain cat a subspecies of F. silvestris. A black cat from Transcaucasia described in 1904 as F. daemon by Satunin turned out to be a feral cat, probably a hybrid of wildcat and domestic cat. The Kellas cat is a hybrid between domestic cat and European wildcat occurring in Scotland.
The Corsican wildcat is considered to have been introduced to Corsica before the beginning of the 1st millennium. A genetic study of a dozen individuals showed that they are closely related to the African wildcat originating in the Middle East. Phylogeny  The phylogenetic relationships of living Felis species are shown in the following cladogram:   Fossil Felis species  Fossil Felis species include:  Felis attica (Wagner, 1857)  Felis lunensis (Martelli, 1906)   Characteristics Felis'' species have high and wide skulls, short jaws and narrow ears with short tufts, but without any white spots on the back of the ears. Their pupils contract to a vertical slit.
References  External links  Category:Felines   Category:Mammal genera Category:Messinian first appearances Category:Extant Miocene first appearances Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Endomorphin-1 (EM-1) (amino acid sequence Tyr-Pro-Trp-Phe-NH2) is an endogenous opioid peptide and one of the two endomorphins. It is a high affinity, highly selective agonist of the μ-opioid receptor, and along with endomorphin-2 (EM-2), has been proposed to be the actual endogenous ligand of the μ-receptor. EM-1 produces analgesia in animals and is equipotent with morphine in this regard. The gene encoding for EM-1 has not yet been identified, and it has been suggested that endomorphins could be synthesized by an enzymatic, non-ribosomal mechanism. See also   β-Endorphin  References   Category:Mu-opioid agonists Category:Neuropeptides
Oportunidades (English: Opportunities; now rebranded as Prospera) is a government social assistance program in Mexico founded in 2002, based on a previous program called Progresa, created in 1997. It is designed to target poverty by providing cash payments to families in exchange for regular school attendance, health clinic visits, and nutrition support. Oportunidades is credited with decreasing poverty and improving health and educational attainment in regions where it has been deployed. Key features of Oportunidades include:  Conditional cash transfer (CCT): To encourage co-responsibility, receipt of aid is dependent on family compliance with program requirements, such as ensuring children attend school and family members receive preventative health care.
"Rights holders": Program recipients are mothers, the caregiver directly responsible for children and family health decisions. Cash payments are made from the government directly to families to decrease overhead and corruption. A system of evaluation and statistical controls to ensure effectiveness. Rigorous selection of recipients based on geographic and socioeconomic factors. Program requirements target measures considered most likely to lift families out of poverty, focusing on health, nutrition and children's education. Oportunidades championed the conditional cash transfer (CCT) model for programs instituted in other countries, such as a pilot program in New York City, the Opportunity NYC, and the Social Protection Network in Nicaragua.
Other countries that have instituted similar conditional cash transfer programs include Brazil, Peru, Honduras, Jamaica, Chile, Malawi and Zambia. Administration Progresa-Oportunidades is designed to be a centrally run program that relies on a horizontal integration of programs and services among the agencies and ministries in the executive branch. This required the establishment of a body with enough power to coordinate the participants in the program and monitor the budget. Instead of restructuring an old agency, it was decided to form a new agency with all of the appropriate powers and the backing from the president. Although this provided for an easier and faster startup, it also meant that many of the related agency structures, which Progresa-Oportunidades would have to rely on for its sustainability, were incompatible with the new program.
Officials in related structures such as the Ministry of Health and Education were not provided with the appropriate incentives to channel their work toward Progresa-Oportunidades. Many were individuals who had worked on earlier poverty programs and who now saw their resources shifting in a new direction. And officials often had more to gain politically from abandoning this program and starting a new one. As a centrally administered program, Oportunidades allows for low operational costs and a greater level of efficiency in the transmission of benefits directly to the participants in the program. The program has sometimes been criticized for this completely “top down” approach.
However, the lack of community participation in the identification of beneficiaries and the allocation of funding helps to limit the opportunities for corruption at the local level, which has traditionally been a problem with such government-funded programs. Information strategies  To effectively disseminate information about the program, Progresa-Oportunidades pursued a three-pronged strategy. First, an extensive amount of information was made generally available through the Internet. Secondly, information was provided to Congress and other government officials at all levels in the form of detailed budget proposals, program evaluations, and other relevant documents. Finally, public relations campaigns were initially minimal to avoid raised expectations.
However, since 2006, the public profile of the program has been raised, particularly through extensive radio and television advertisements. Transparency and accountability  Traditionally, most anti-poverty programs in Mexico have relied on presidential support to establish their funding and public profile. Although Oportunidades originally was no different in its dependence on Zedillo to support its startup costs, much effort has since been made to establish an image of Progresa-Oportunidades as independent of the president and national party politics, in order to heighten chances it would survive transfers of power in the executive branch. Several congressional provisions have helped to ensure this identity.
Among these are several provisions that prevent the program being used for political proselytizing. In 2000 and 2003, program officials were prohibited from signing up new beneficiaries within six months of national elections to prevent vote buying. In addition, budget provisions have been enacted that attempt to directly communicate with beneficiaries to educate them about rights and responsibilities regarding the program. Under political transitions The transition between the Zedillo and Fox administrations was a crucial test of the long-term sustainability of Progresa-Oportunidades. President Fox’s administration achieved early public recognition for its commitment to anti-poverty strategies as well as its willingness to continue with earlier initiatives that had proved to be successful.
Fox ultimately decided to continue with the program because its independent image meant that it had not become identified with the old ruling party (the PRI) or with former President Zedillo in the eyes of the public. In addition, Fox had received confirmation of the program’s benefits both from the program’s own impact evaluations and outside international financial institutions who held Oportunidades in high esteem and hoped to see it continue. Effectiveness Oportunidades has been hailed as a success by many in Mexico and globally. The first round of evaluations were carried out by the prestigious International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), between 1997 and 2000.
The #IFPRI-Progresa partnership played a large role in shaping Mexican social policy and in bringing the randomized controlled trial (RCT) and to the forefront of policy evaluation worldwide. Since 2002, the Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública (National Public Health Institute, INSP) and the Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social (Center for Research and Higher Studies in Social Anthropology, CIESAS) have been responsible for carrying out ongoing evaluations of both program operations and impact. The Oportunidades evaluation website contains a relatively comprehensive listing of the documents and databases produced during all of the evaluation rounds. IFPRI-Progresa  Communications between IFPRI and Progresa's leadership commenced in late 1997, with the final contract ($2.5 million USD) signed during the third quarter of 1998.
The IFPRI-Progresa research team's overall objective was to "determine if Progresa was functioning in practice as it [was] intended to by design." The evaluation was divided between 'operational' evaluation (is the program being carried out according to the design?) and 'impact' evaluation (is the program having the intended effect on the target population?). Without discounting the importance of the operational evaluation, the data focuses exclusively on impact evaluation, which received far greater attention and had a much broader audience. The impact evaluation involved the production of far more technical documents, reports, and later, published journal articles and books. The results of IFPRI's initial evaluations began to form into reports in late 1999 and early 2000; most final reports (18 in total) were submitted before the end of 2000, with the executive synthesis report published on September 1 that year.
The thematic core of the IFPRI evaluations conformed to the three program components: health, education, and nutrition. In these areas, Progresa increased school enrollment, lowered incidence of disease in children, and increased growth for young children receiving nutritional supplements. In sum "in the central impact areas...the results [were] encouraging." Methodology  According to the bulk of literature describing IFPRI-Progresa, the project was the first large-scale social policy evaluation implemented in a ‘developing’ country context to use randomized controlled trial (RCT) research design. In the perennial debates surrounding the RCT as a tool of social policy evaluation IFPRI-Progresa provided (and continues to provide) an important proof-of-concept, an example exalted by proponents and held aloft before critics.
Sampling Design  Original sample selection took place in mid-1997. All available information indicates that personnel at Secretaría de Desarrollo Social, Mexico undertook and directed the process before the arrival of most of the IFPRI research team.
One of the most detailed accounts is as follows:  "The design of the impact evaluation of Progresa in communities and households is quasi-experimental...To undertake this component of the evaluation, a random sample of communities with 'high' or 'very high' degrees of marginalization were selected which would be incorporated into the program during Phase II (November 1997) and which would serve as the [treatment] communities...Another sample of communities with similar characteristics was randomly designated from those that could have been the object of later selection, and that could function as controls...the size of the sample was estimated starting from a universe of 4,546 localities to choose 330 base localities, and from a universe of 1,850 to choose 191 control localities, using a distribution proportional to the size of the locality.”  Attrition  Attrition bias is a well-known issue in quantitative study designs which can create a situation "analytically similar" to selection bias in that "attrition lead[s] to selective [read: systematically different] samples."
"The IFPRI evaluation did not follow up migrants as part of the evaluation surveys," and yet by November 2000, 17% of households and 29% of individuals from the original November 1997 sample were no longer in the survey. Moreover, "attrition differ[ed] significantly between treatment and control groups, even after controlling for household characteristics and the eligibility criteria." The presence of nonrandom attrition indicates that even if the samples were experimentally selected and statistically equivalent to begin with, by the end of the experiment period they would have been significantly unequal. As opposed to selection bias, which features prominently in the IFPRI-Progresa documentation, only two final reports mention attrition bias (which creates essentially the same problem as selection bias from an analytic point of view).
Schultz (2000) carried out analyses of enrollment using a "panel sample" (households with data across all five survey rounds) and "pooled sample" (households with data in at least one survey round). While admitting that "it is not possible to implement a satisfactory sample-selection-correction model," the word 'attrition' appears only once. The rest of the report frames the use of both samples as a form of robustness testing. This framing turns attention away from attrition bias, instead highlighting the dual-sample testing as a strength of the analysis. Behrman and Todd (1999) discuss attrition more extensively. Contamination Here, contamination refers to the possibility that "families or individuals from control localities or other localities [can] immigrate to treatment group localities in order to receive program services" (the term can refer to several other concepts).
As with attrition bias, the decision to not track down sample out-migrants makes any quantification of this bias impossible. For later survey rounds, however, the outlook is worrisome: "The rapid expansion of the program, even before households in the original control communities started receiving transfers, meant that control communities often literally were surrounded by other communities that were already receiving them. Under such circumstances, it is likely that households in the control communities may have expected to receive [Progresa] transfers before they actually started to receive them, which complicates interpretation of the estimated program effects." Changing eligibility requirements  The targeting mechanisms Progresa employed were the subject of much discussion and varied across time.
To summarize, Progresa targeted beneficiaries using a three-tiered mechanism: (1) the selection of marginal communities according to specially-developed marginality index, (2) the selection of poor households using a multidimensional poverty line, and (3) community validation of the list of beneficiaries at a town meeting. The weighting of different household characteristics in the calculations of household (not community) eligibility was modified during mid-1999, between the IFPRI-Progresa surveys, a process dubbed densificación or densification (in response to "the tendency of the [targeting] method to classify as beneficiaries households with more children and to exclude smaller households or older households that have no young children,").
These adjustments shifted the definition of 'poor'/eligible households and increased the number of eligible households in the sample from 53% to 78% in the treatment group, and from 50% to 78% in the control group. As of November 1999, when the final round of ENCEL surveys was conducted, "819 of the 3023 densified households [27% of those added through densification, 3% of the overall sample] had been incorporated." Three of the final evaluation studies define 'eligible' households as only the group originally chosen for incorporation (pre-densification). Ten others employ the post-densification criteria, and finally two more experiment with both. Influence   IFPRI-Progresa catalyzed a number of changes in Mexican governance and global international development agendas.
By the time Progresa began to form in the heads of Mexican social policy designers, the controversy surrounding the long rule of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institutional Revolutionary Party, PRI) and its social policies was already entrenched. Under 'New Federalism,' president Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000) was attempting to de-politicize social programs. One of the paramount objectives at the core of Progresa’s development, therefore, was to establish the program's apolitical status by sustaining it through the presidential switch in 2000. Vicente Fox Quesada, leader of the Partido Acción Nacional (National Action Party, PAN), won the presidential elections on July 2, 2000 and took office on December 1.
Surviving the presidential election cycle — a feat never before accomplished by a Mexican social program — Progresa endured through the first changeover of the national ruling party in 71 years. The IFPRI final reports were released primarily during this interval. Program supporters used the transition period to convince skeptical parties in the new administration of Progresa' effectiveness through personal contact, meetings, and media reports. Due to the IFPRI evaluations, Progresa gained political hardiness and funding sources, while evaluation became a codified part of Mexican social programming. Fox continued the program and expanded it significantly into urban areas. A loan for US$1 billion from the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) for the expansion of the program was negotiated during 2001, and disbursed beginning in 2002.
In 2003, the Ley General de Desarollo Social (General Law of Social Development, LGDS) explicitly codified the requirement for independent evaluation for all federally run Mexican social programs and for this purpose established the Consejo Nacional de Evaluación (National Council on Evaluation, CONEVAL). The excitement for the new program spread not only through Mexico, but through the IDB and World Bank, too. Both organizations extensively employed the example of IFPRI-Progresa to forward CCTs and EBP (via rigorous evaluation of social programs). The World Bank featured the program as a model in the 2004 Conference on Poverty in Shanghai, and in 2006 the former President James D. Wolfensohn commented "Progresa’s rigorous emphasis on evaluation has set a standard for poverty reduction programs in the developing world."
The evaluation remains one of the programs' most celebrated features, having "inspired many others in Latin America and other regions." CCTs worldwide have drawn from the Oportunidades' model, often through direct consultation with its designers and managers. Subsequent evaluations of Oportunidades and other CCT programs have corroborated the positive effects found in the results found by IFPRI-Progresa. See also Bolsa Família  References  Further reading  Coady, D. and S. Parker (2002): A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Demand and Supply Side Education Interventions: the Case of Progresa in Mexico, FCND Discussion Paper, No. 127, Washington, D.C., International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)  Hoddinot, J. and E. Skoufias (2003): The Impact of Progresa on Food Consumption, FCND Discussion Paper, No.
150, Washington, D.C., International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). External links  Official Prospera program homepage World Bank's case study summary of Oportunidades Report from PBS on the program  Category:Government of Mexico Category:Welfare in Mexico
Peter Klock Hepler HonFRMS is the Constantine J. Gilgut and Ray Ethan Torrey Professor Emeritus in the Biology Department of the University of Massachusetts at Amherst who is notable for his work on elucidating the roles of calcium, membranes and the cytoskeleton in plant cell development and cell motility. Personal life Peter Klock Hepler was born on October 29, 1936, in Dover, New Hampshire, to Jesse Raymond Hepler and Rebecca Orpha Peterson Hepler. He married Margaret (Peggy) Dennison Hunt on March 7, 1964. They have three children: Sarah, Anna and Lukas. Peter and Peggy have six grandchildren: Finn, Leif, Louisa (Lulu), Jesse, Marit, and Haakon.
In an interview published in the Newsletter of the American Society of Plant Biologists, Hepler was asked, "What is your most treasured possession?" He answered, "My family; but I don't possess them." Peter and Peggy Hepler live on a farm in Pelham, Massachusetts that was established by John Gray in 1740 and is now a part of the Kestrel Land Trust. University life Peter Hepler graduated from Dover High School in 1954. He received his B.S. in chemistry from the University of New Hampshire in 1958 and earned his Ph.D. in plant cell biology from University of Wisconsin in 1964, studying the role of cortical microtubules in plant cell development with Eldon H. Newcomb.
After receiving his Ph.D., Hepler served at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research until 1966, studying malarial parasites. Hepler then returned to the University of Wisconsin for a postdoctoral fellowship and then became a postdoctoral fellow with Keith Porter at Harvard University from 1966-1967, where he continued his investigation of microtubules, focusing on their role in the mitotic apparatus and the phragmoplast of the endosperm cells of Haemanthus Katharinae. After being an assistant professor at Stanford University, Hepler joined the faculty in the Botany Department at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. He was an associate professor from 1977 to 1980, a professor from 1980-1989, and became the Ray Ethan Torrey Professor in 1989 and the Constantine J. Gilgut Professor in 1998.
Hepler retired from the Biology Department as the Constantine J. Gilgut and Ray Ethan Torrey Professor Emeritus, although he continues to do research. Hepler spent many summers teaching and doing research at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Hepler also participated in a multiyear international collaboration with Brian E. S. Gunning. Hepler was an Associate Editor of Protoplasma from 1994-2001 and Associate Editor of Plant Physiology from 1998-2000. He has been on the editorial boards of the Annual Review Plant Physiology, Plant and Cell Physiology, the Journal of Submicroscopic Cytology, Cell Motility and the Cytoskeleton, and BioEssays. Research Hepler's scientific method is to know thoroughly the classical botanical literature and then develop or apply modern physico-chemical techniques to answer salient and extensive biological questions using plants that are well-suited to answer those questions.
In so doing, Hepler opened whole areas of research. Hepler did pioneering work in showing the relationship of the microscopic elements of the cytoskeleton to the macroscopic properties of plant growth, development and function. He also did pioneering work on plasmodesmata, stomatal function,, the role of calcium in plant development and in the development of techniques useful for answering questions using light and electron microscopy. Hepler's scientific publications with Barry A. Palevitz are notable for quoting Woody Allen and Yogi Berra. Hepler described his realization of the influence a review he and Palevitz wrote on microtubules and microfilaments "to introduce new thoughts and promising avenues for future research" had with his characteristic self-deprecating sense of humor: "I became aware that the review was being read widely one summer (1979) while working in the library at the Marine Biological Laboratory.
I turned to the library's volume of the Annual Review of Plant Physiology that contained our paper and when I put the volume down, it literally fell open at our article; worn edges on the pages and the penciled corrections of all the misspellings and punctuation errors indicated that the chapter had been thoroughly perused." Hepler, along with Ledbetter and Porter, is considered to be a co-discoverer of microtubules. Microtubules and cell shape  In late 1962 and early 1963, Hepler tested the newly developed procedure using a glutaraldehyde pre-fix followed by an osmium post-fix to study plant cell structure using an electron microscope.
Building on the earlier work by Sinnott and Bloch, who had shown that wounding the existing tracheary elements in a Coleus stem induced neighboring parenchyma cells to differentiate into new tracheary elements, Hepler showed that cytoplasmic microtubules were localized specifically in the cortical cytoplasm immediately over the bands of new secondary wall thickenings. Moreover, Hepler discovered that the microtubules were oriented parallel to the cellulose microfibrils of the newly formed secondary wall thickenings. This work, along with the studies of Ledbetter and Porter and Green established the importance of cortical microtubules in controlling the alignment of cellulose microfibrils in the cell wall.
Further work with Barry Palevitz showed that microtubules were involved in orienting the cellulose microfibrils in the walls of guard cells in a pattern of radial micellation that is necessary for stomatal function. Hepler, along with the husband and wife team of Dale Callaham and Sue Lancelle, developed a method to achieve rapid freeze fixation of particularly small plant cells that showed that cortical microtubules are closely associated with one another, actin microfilaments, the endoplasmic reticulum and the plasma membrane.
Microtubules and cell motility  Building on the work of Shinya Inoué and Andrew Bajer using polarized light microscopy, Hepler used electron microscopy to elucidate the nature of the microtubule/chromosome attachments at the kinetochore as well as the arrangement of the microtubules in the phragmoplast during the development of the new cell wall, where microtubules from both sides of the phragmoplast were seen to overlap with one another in the plane of the cell plate. Hepler realized that microtubules were dynamic structures that were deployed in various locations throughout the cell, and became interested in the mechanisms involved in microtubule organization in cells that lacked a microtubule-organizing center known as the centrosome.
In order to understand how microtubule-organizing centers were generated, Hepler examined the de novo formation of the blepharoplast in the spermatogenous cells of Marsilea vestita. The blepharoplast in each spermatid generates 100–150 basal bodies, each of which gives rise to the 9+2 arrangement of microtubules in a cilium. During telophase of the penultimate division, flocculent material appears near clefts on the distal surfaces of the daughter nuclei. During prophase of the final division which gives rise to the spermatids, the flocculent material near each nucleus condenses to give rise to two blepharoplasts, which then separate, one going to each spermatid.
While Hepler was successful in identifying an aggregation of material that possessed microtubule-organizing capacity, he was not able to specify the biophysical mechanisms involved in organization. After Richard Weisenberg discovered that microtubule polymerization was sensitive to calcium concentration, Hepler realized that he had already seen a close association between elements of the endoplasmic reticulum and microtubules in the mitotic apparatus and in the phragmoplast and suggested that these membranes may function in controlling the concentration of free calcium in the mitotic apparatus. Along with Susan Wick and Steve Wolniak, Hepler showed that the endoplasmic reticulum contained stores of calcium and suggested that the endoplasmic reticulum may locally control the calcium concentration and thus the polymerization/depolymerization of microtubules.
Subsequently, Hepler, along with Dale Callaham, Dahong Zhang, and Patricia Wadsworth, observed calcium ion transients during mitosis and showed that the microinjection of calcium ions into the mitotic spindle does regulate the depolymerization of microtubules and the movement of chromosomes to the poles during mitosis. Microfilaments and cytoplasmic streaming  Hepler identified actin microfilaments in bundles at the ectoplasm-endoplasm interface of Nitella internodal cells by showing that the bundles bound heavy meromyosin, giving the characteristic arrowhead arrangement. The actin microfilaments had the correct polarity to be part of the actomyosin motor that provides the motive force for cytoplasmic streaming in these giant algal cells.
Calcium and plant development  Hepler has shown that calcium ions are a central regulator of plant growth and development specifically demonstrating that calcium is important for tip growth and in phytochrome. and cytokinin action. Pollen tube growth  Hepler’s research is currently aimed at finding the ionic and molecular components that make up the pacemaker that regulates the oscillatory growth of pollen tubes. He has shown that calcium ions and protons are essential for growth. The intracellular free calcium ions exist in a gradient dropping from 3000 nM at the tip to 200 nM 20 μm from the tip  and the intracellular H+ gradient falls from pH 6.8 at the tip to pH 7.5 10–30 μm from the tip.
The higher concentrations of intracellular Ca2+ and H+ at the tip result from the localization of the influx of these ions at the tip. The protons are effluxed at a region on the sides of the tube that corresponds to the location of the intracellular alkaline band. Energy is required for pollen tube growth and an H+-ATPase may mediate the efflux. Hepler has shown that the magnitude of the intracellular calcium and proton gradients and the extracellular fluxes of these ions oscillate with a period of 15-50 s. This period is identical to the period of oscillation in the rate of pollen tube growth, however, the intracellular calcium peak follows the growth rate peak by 1-4 seconds, and the extracellular calcium peak follows the growth rate peak by 11-15 seconds.
The delay between the extracellular and intracellular calcium peaks indicates that calcium ions do not immediately enter the cytoplasmic pool. Hepler postulates that the extracellular influx of calcium is not governed by the plasma membrane but by changes in the ion-binding properties of the pectin within the cell wall. The pectin is secreted in its uncharged methylester form. Subsequently, a pectin methylesterase in the wall results in the de-esterification of the methyl groups that yields carboxyl residues that bind calcium and form calcium-pectate cross-bridges. This calcium binding may account for the bulk of the observed extracellular current. The intracellular calcium gradient may direct the location of secretion of cell wall components that define the direction of pollen tube growth.
The intracellular components that contribute to pollen tube growth include the actin-mediated transfer of Golgi-derived secretory vesicles filled with methylesterified homogalacturonans and pectin methylesterase synthesized on the ER to the growing tip. The secretion of the vesicles at the growing tip anticipates the increase in growth rate, indicating that the turgor pressure driven intussusception of the methylesterified pectin into the cell wall at the growing tip and its subsequent demethylesterification by pectin methylesterase may relax the cell wall by robbing the load-bearing calcium pectate bonds of its Ca2+. This would result in a slightly delayed yet increased growth rate. The removal of the methoxy groups in the pectins at the flanks of the apical dome unmasks their negatively charged carboxylate groups.
The anionic homogalacturonans then bind Ca2+ and become stiffer as the new apical dome, which will incorporate more methylesterified pectins and pectin methylesterase, grows away from the stiffened flanks composed of calcium pectate. The external Ca2+ concentration is critical. When the external Ca2+ concentration is below 10 μM, the amount of calcium pectate is so low that the cell wall is too weak and the pollen tube bursts. When the external Ca2+ concentration is above 10 mM, the amount of calcium pectate is so high that the cell wall is too stiff and the pollen tube will not grow.
Honors and awards  In 1975, Hepler was the fourth recipient of the Jeanette Siron Pelton Award given by the Botanical Society of America, because his "penetrating analytical and experimental studies of the ultrastructure of differentiating cells have made a significant and lasting contribution to our perception of morphogenesis at the cellular level. In particular his work on the ultrastructure of differentiating xylem elements, on the roles of microtubules and microfibrils, and on the control of the orientation of mitotic spindles in differentiating cells have provided new insights which hold great promise for the future." In 2007, Hepler was named an inaugural Fellow of the American Society of Plant Biologists.
In 2010, Hepler was elected as a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for his contributions as "one of the most influential plant cell biologists, who has continuously and continues to achieve breakthroughs that have guided research directions of numerous plant scientists." In 2011, Hepler was honored with the Charles Reid Barnes Life Membership Award from the American Society of Plant Biologists. In 2015, Hepler was named an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society for his contributions to plant science, including publishing the first report suggesting a co-alignment of microtubules with cell wall cellulose microtubules.
A scholarship was named in honor of Hepler. The Peter K. Hepler Research Scholarship supports undergraduate research on a biological question in a laboratory or field setting outside of the United States. The Plant Biology Graduate Program at the University of Massachusetts Amherst held a symposium on October 14, 2017 entitled: Capturing the dynamic architecture of cells: Honoring the high-resolution career of Peter Hepler. Friends, family, students, and colleagues celebrated his life and contributions to plant cell biology. References  Category:Living people Category:People from Dover, New Hampshire Category:1936 births Category:University of New Hampshire alumni Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni Category:University of Massachusetts faculty Category:American microbiologists Category:Plant physiologists Category:Cell biologists Category:21st-century American botanists Category:Fellows of the Royal Microscopical Society
Maurice Polydore Marie Bernard Maeterlinck (29 August 1862 – 6 May 1949), also known as Count (or Comte) Maeterlinck from 1932, was a Belgian playwright, poet, and essayist who was Flemish but wrote in French. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1911 "in appreciation of his many-sided literary activities, and especially of his dramatic works, which are distinguished by a wealth of imagination and by a poetic fancy, which reveals, sometimes in the guise of a fairy tale, a deep inspiration, while in a mysterious way they appeal to the readers' own feelings and stimulate their imaginations".
The main themes in his work are death and the meaning of life. He was a leading member of La Jeune Belgique group and his plays form an important part of the Symbolist movement. Biography  Early life Maeterlinck was born in Ghent, Belgium, to a wealthy, French-speaking family. His mother, Mathilde Colette Françoise (née Van den Bossche), came from a wealthy family. His father, Polydore, was a notary who enjoyed tending the greenhouses on their property. In September 1874 he was sent to the Jesuit College of Sainte-Barbe, where works of the French Romantics were scorned and only plays on religious subjects were permitted.
His experiences at this school influenced his distaste for the Catholic Church and organized religion. He had written poems and short novels during his studies, but his father wanted him to go into law. After finishing his law studies at the University of Ghent in 1885, he spent a few months in Paris, France. He met some members of the new Symbolism movement, Villiers de l'Isle Adam in particular, who would have a great influence on Maeterlinck's subsequent work. Career  Maeterlinck instantly became a public figure when his first play, Princess Maleine, received enthusiastic praise from Octave Mirbeau, the literary critic of Le Figaro in August 1890.
In the following years, he wrote a series of symbolist plays characterized by fatalism and mysticism, most importantly Intruder (1890), The Blind (1890) and Pelléas and Mélisande (1892). He had a relationship with the singer and actress Georgette Leblanc from 1895 until 1918. Leblanc influenced his work for the following two decades. With the play Aglavaine and Sélysette Maeterlinck began to create characters, especially female characters, more in control of their destinies. Leblanc performed these female characters on stage. Even though mysticism and metaphysics influenced his work throughout his career, he slowly replaced his Symbolism with a more existential style.
In 1895, with his parents frowning upon his open relationship with an actress, Maeterlinck and Leblanc moved to the district of Passy in Paris. The Catholic Church was unwilling to grant her a divorce from her Spanish husband. They frequently entertained guests, including Mirbeau, Jean Lorrain, and Paul Fort. They spent their summers in Normandy. During this period, Maeterlinck published his Twelve Songs (1896), The Treasure of the Humble (1896), The Life of the Bee (1901), and Ariadne and Bluebeard (1902). In 1903, Maeterlinck received the Triennial Prize for Dramatic Literature from the Belgian government. During this period, and down to the Great War, he was widely looked up to, throughout Europe, as a great sage, and the embodiment of the higher thought of the time.
In 1906, Maeterlinck and Leblanc moved to a villa in Grasse. He spent his hours meditating and walking. As he emotionally pulled away from Leblanc, he entered a state of depression. Diagnosed with neurasthenia, he rented the Benedictine Abbey of St. Wandrille in Normandy to help him relax. By renting the abbey he rescued it from the desecration of being sold and used as a chemical factory and thus he received a blessing from the Pope. Leblanc would often walk around in the garb of an abbess; he would wear roller skates as he moved about the house. During this time, he wrote his essay "The Intelligence of Flowers" (1906), in which he expressed sympathy with socialist ideas.
He donated money to many workers' unions and socialist groups. At this time he conceived his greatest contemporary success: the fairy play The Blue Bird (1908, but largely written in 1906). After the writing "The Intelligence of Flowers", he suffered from a period of depression and writer's block. Although he recovered from this after a year or two, he was never so inventive as a writer again. His later plays, such as Marie-Victoire (1907) and Mary Magdalene (1910), provided with lead roles for Leblanc, were notably inferior to their predecessors, and sometimes merely repeat an earlier formula. Even though alfresco performances of some of his plays at St. Wandrille had been successful, Maeterlinck felt that he was losing his privacy.
The death of his mother on 11 June 1910 added to his depression. In 1910 he met the 18-year-old actress Renée Dahon during a rehearsal of The Blue Bird. She became his lighthearted companion. After having been nominated by Carl Bildt, member of the Swedish Academy, he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1911, which also served to lighten his spirits. By 1913, he was more openly socialist and sided with the Belgian trade unions against the Catholic party during a strike. He began to study mysticism and lambasted the Catholic Church in his essays for misconstruing the history of the universe.
By a decree of 26 January 1914, his opera omnia were placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum by the Roman Catholic Church. When Germany invaded Belgium in 1914, Maeterlink wished to join the French Foreign Legion, but his application was denied due to his age. He and Leblanc decided to leave Grasse for a villa near Nice, where he spent the next decade of his life. He gave speeches on the bravery of the Belgian people and placed guilt upon all Germans for the war. Although his patriotism, and his indifference to the harm he was doing to his standing in Germany, do him credit, it severely damaged his reputation as a great sage who stood above current affairs.
While in Nice he wrote The Mayor of Stilmonde, which was quickly labeled by the American press as a "Great War Play" and would be made into a British film in 1929. He also wrote The Betrothal, a sequel to The Blue Bird, in which the heroine of the play is clearly not a Leblanc archetype. On 15 February 1919 Maeterlinck married Dahon. He accepted an invitation to the United States. Samuel Goldwyn asked him to produce a few scenarios for film. Only two of Maeterlinck's submissions still exist; Goldwyn didn't use any of them. Maeterlinck had prepared one based on his The Life of the Bee.
After reading the first few pages Goldwyn burst out of his office, exclaiming: "My God! The hero is a bee!" After 1920 Maeterlinck ceased to contribute significantly to the theatre, but continued to produce essays on his favourite themes of occultism, ethics and natural history. The international demand for these fell off sharply after the early 1920s, but his sales in France remained substantial until the late 1930s. Dahon gave birth to a stillborn child in 1925. Confirmed plagiarism In 1926 Maeterlinck published La Vie des Termites (translated into English as The Life of Termites or The Life of  White Ants), an entomological book that plagiarised the book The Soul of the (White) Ant, researched and written by the Afrikaner poet and scientist Eugène Marais, in what has been called "a classic example of academic plagiarism" by University of London's professor of biology, David Bignell.
Marais accused Maeterlinck of having used his concept of the "organic unity" of the termitary in his book. Marais had published his ideas on the termitary in the South African Afrikaans-language press, both in Die Burger in January 1923 and in Huisgenoot, which featured a series of articles on termites under the title "Die Siel van die Mier" (The Soul of the (White) Ant) from 1925 to 1926. Maeterlinck's book, with almost identical content, was published in 1926. It is alleged that Maeterlinck had come across Eugene Marais' series of articles which had appeared in the Afrikaans magazine Die Huisgenoot from 1925 to 1926, and that it would have been easy for Maeterlinck to translate from Afrikaans to French, since Maeterlinck knew Dutch and had already made several translations from Dutch into French before.
It was common at the time for worthy articles published in Afrikaans to be reproduced in Flemish and Dutch magazines and journals. Marais wrote in a letter to Dr. Winifred de Kock in London about Maeterlinck that  The famous author had paid me the left-handed compliment of cribbing the most important part of my work ... He clearly desired his readers to infer that he had arrived at certain of my theories (the result of ten years of hard labour in the veld) by his own unaided reason, although he admits that he never saw a termite in his life.
You must understand that it was not merely plagiarism of the spirit of a thing, so to speak. He has copied page after page verbally. Supported by a coterie of Afrikaner Nationalist friends, Marais sought justice through the South African press and attempted an international lawsuit. This was to prove financially impossible and the case was not pursued. However, Marais gained a measure of renown as the aggrieved party and as an Afrikaner researcher who had opened himself up to plagiarism because he published in Afrikaans out of nationalistic loyalty. Marais brooded at the time of the scandal: "I wonder whether Maeterlinck blushes when he reads such things [critical acclaim], and whether he gives a thought to the injustice he does to the unknown Boer worker?"
Maeterlinck's own words in The Life of Termites indicate that the possible discovery or accusation of plagiarism worried him:  It would have been easy, in regard to every statement, to allow the text to bristle with footnotes and references. In some chapters there is not a sentence but would have clamoured for these; and the letterpress would have been swallowed up by vast masses of comment, like one of those dreadful books we hated so much at school. There is a short bibliography at the end of the volume which will no doubt serve the same purpose. Despite these misgivings, there is no reference to Eugène Marais in the bibliography.
Maeterlinck's other works on entomology include The Glass Spider (1932) and The Life of the Ant (1930). Professor V. E. d'Assonville wrote about Maeterlinck as "the Nobel Prize winner who had never seen a termite in his whole life and had never put a foot on the soil of Africa, least of all in the Waterberg". Robert Ardrey, an admirer of Eugène Marais's, attributed Marais' later suicide to this act of plagiarism and theft of intellectual property by Maeterlinck, although Marais' biographer, Leon Rousseau, speculated that Marais enjoyed and thrived on the controversy the attention it generated. Another case of alleged plagiarism was that of Maeterlinck's play Monna Vanna, which was alleged to have been based on Robert Browning's little-known play Luria.
Later life In 1930 he bought a château in Nice, France, and named it Orlamonde, a name occurring in his work Quinze Chansons. He was made a count by Albert I, King of the Belgians in 1932. According to an article published in the New York Times in 1940, he arrived in the United States from Lisbon on the Greek Liner Nea Hellas. He had fled to Lisbon in order to escape the Nazi invasion of both Belgium and France. The Times quoted him as saying, "I knew that if I was captured by the Germans I would be shot at once, since I have always been counted as an enemy of Germany because of my play, The Mayor of Stilmonde, which dealt with the conditions in Belgium during the German Occupation of 1918."
As with his earlier visit to America, he still found Americans too casual, friendly and Francophilic for his taste. He returned to Nice after the war on 10 August 1947. He was President of PEN International, the worldwide association of writers, from 1947 until 1949. In 1948, the French Academy awarded him the Medal for the French Language. He died in Nice on 6 May 1949 after suffering a heart attack. Honours   1920: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold. 1932: Created Count Maeterlinck, by Royal Decree. However, he neglected fulfilling the necessary paper work for registration and the creation was not implemented.
Static drama  Maeterlinck's posthumous reputation depends entirely on his early plays (published between 1889 and 1894), which created a new style of dialogue, extremely lean and spare, where what is suggested is more important than what is said. The characters have no foresight, and only a limited understanding of themselves or the world around them. Maeterlinck, an avid reader of Arthur Schopenhauer, considered man powerless against the forces of fate. He believed that any actor, due to the hindrance of physical mannerisms and expressions, would inadequately portray the symbolic figures of his plays. He concluded that marionettes were an excellent alternative.
Guided by strings operated by a puppeteer, Maeterlinck considered marionettes an excellent representation of fate's complete control over man. He wrote Interior, The Death of Tintagiles, and Alladine and Palomides for marionette theatre. From this, he gradually developed his notion of the "static drama." He felt that it was the artist's responsibility to create something that did not express human emotions but rather the external forces that compel people. Maeterlinck once wrote that "the stage is a place where works of art are extinguished. ... Poems die when living people get into them." He explained his ideas on the static drama in his essay "The Tragic in Daily Life" (1896), which appeared in The Treasure of the Humble.
The actors were to speak and move as if pushed and pulled by an external force, fate as puppeteer. They were not to allow the stress of their inner emotions to compel their movements. Maeterlinck would often continue to refer to his cast of characters as "marionettes." Maeterlinck's conception of modern tragedy rejects the intrigue and vivid external action of traditional drama in favour of a dramatisation of different aspects of life:  He cites a number of classical Athenian tragedies—which, he argues, are almost motionless and which diminish psychological action to pursue an interest in "the individual, face to face with the universe"—as precedents for his conception of static drama; these include most of the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles' Ajax, Antigone, Oedipus at Colonus, and Philoctetes.
With these plays, he claims:  Maeterlinck in music  Pelléas and Mélisande inspired several musical compositions at the turn of the 20th century:  1897: a suite for orchestra by William Wallace: Pelleas and Melisande  1898: an orchestral suite (sometimes described as incidental music) by Gabriel Fauré See: Pelléas et Mélisande (Fauré) (Op. 80)  1893–1902: an opera by Claude Debussy (L. 88, Paris), see Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)  1902–1903: a symphonic poem by Arnold Schoenberg (Op. 5)  1905: incidental music by Jean Sibelius (Op.
46), see Pelléas et Mélisande (Sibelius)Other musical works based on Maeterlinck's plays include:   Aglavaine and Sélysette orchestral prelude by Arthur Honegger  orchestral overture by Cyril Scott  Aladina and Palomid opera by Burghauser  opera by Osvald Chlubna  opera by Emil František Burian  Ariane et Barbe-bleue opera in 3 acts by Paul Dukas  incidental music by Anatoly Nikolayevich Alexandrov  The Betrothal incidental music by Armstrong Gibbs  The Blind opera by Beat Furrer  chamber opera Ślepcy by Polish composer Jan Astriab after Maeterlinck's Les aveugles opera by Lera Auerbach  The Death of Tintagiles symphonic poem by Charles Martin Loeffler  incidental music by Ralph Vaughan Williams  opera by Lawrance Collingwood  overture by Carse  opera by Nougues  symphonic poem by Santoliquido  orchestral prelude by Voormolen  Herzgewächse (Foliages of the Heart)  Lied for soprano with small ensemble by Arnold Schoenberg  Monna Vanna opera in 3 acts by Emil Ábrányi  Monna Vanna, opera in 4 acts by Henry Février  Monna Vanna, unfinished opera by Sergei Rachmaninoff  opera in 4 acts by Nicolae Brânzeu  L'oiseau bleu opera by Albert Wolff  13 scenes for orchestra by Fritz Hart  incidental music by Leslie Heward  incidental music by Engelbert Humperdinck  overture by Kricka  incidental music by Norman O'Neill  incidental music by Szeligowski  Princess Maleine overture by Pierre de Bréville  overture by Cyril Scott  unfinished opera (or incidental music) by Lili Boulanger  incidental music by Maximilian Steinberg  The Seven Princesses incidental music by Pierre de Bréville  opera by Vassili Vassilievitch Netchaïev  Sœur Beatrice opera by Alexander Grechaninov  chorus by Anatoly Liadov  opera Sor Beatriz by Marquez Puig  opera by Dmitri Mitropoulos  opera by Rasse (composer)  Intérieur opera by Giedrius Kuprevičius  Works  Poetry  Serres chaudes (1889)  Douze chansons (1896)  Quinze chansons (expanded version of Douze chansons) (1900)  Drama  La Princesse Maleine (Princess Maleine) (published 1889)  L'Intruse (Intruder) (published 1890; first performed 21 May 1891)  Les Aveugles (The Blind) (published 1890; first performed 7 December 1891)  Les Sept Princesses (The Seven Princesses) (published 1891)  Pelléas and Mélisande (published 1892; first performed 17 May 1893)  Alladine et Palomides (published 1894)  Intérieur (Interior) (published 1894; first performed 15 March 1895)  La Mort de Tintagiles (The Death of Tintagiles) (published 1894)  Aglavaine et Sélysette (first performed December 1896)  Ariane et Barbe-bleue (Ariane and Bluebeard) (first published in German translation, 1899)  Soeur Béatrice (Sister Beatrice) (published 1901)  Monna Vanna (first performed May 1902; published the same year)  Joyzelle (first performed 20 May 1903; published the same year)  Le Miracle de saint Antoine (The Miracle of Saint Antony) (first performed in German translation, 1904)  L'Oiseau bleu (The Blue Bird) (first performed 30 September 1908)  Marie-Magdeleine (Mary Magdalene) (first performed in German translation, February 1910; staged and published in French, 1913)  Le Bourgmestre de Stilmonde (first performed in Buenos Aires, 1918; an English translation was performed in Edinburgh in 1918; published 1919)  Les Fiançailles (published 1922)  The Cloud That Lifted (published 1923)  Le Malheur passe (published 1925)  La Puissance des morts (published 1926)  Berniquel (published 1926)  Marie-Victoire (published 1927)  Judas de Kerioth (published 1929)  La Princess Isabelle (published 1935)  Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc) (published 1948)  Essays  Le Trésor des humbles (The Treasure of the Humble) (1896)  La sagesse et la destinée (Wisdom and Destiny) (1898)  La Vie des abeilles (The Life of the Bee) (1901)  Le temple enseveli (The Buried Temple) (1902)  Le Double Jardin (The Double Garden, a collection of sixteen essays) (1904)  L'Intelligence des fleurs (The Intelligence of Flowers) (1907)  La Mort (Our Eternity ,first published in English, incomplete version entitled Death ,1911; in enlarged and complete version in original French, 1913)  L'Hôte inconnu (first published in English translation, 1914; in original French, 1917)  Les Débris de la guerre (1916)  Le grand secret (The Great Secret) (Fasquelle, 1921; Bernard Miall trans., 1922)  La Vie des termites (The Life of Termites) (1926)  La Vie de l'espace (The Life of Space) (1928)  La Grande Féerie (1929)  La Vie des fourmis (The Life of the Ant) (1930)  L'Araignée de verre (1932)  Avant le grand silence (Before the Great Silence) (1934)  L'Ombre des ailes (The Shadow of Wings) (1936)  Devant Dieu (1937)  L'Autre Monde ou le cadran stellaire (The Other World, or The Star System) (1941)  MemoirsBulles bleues (1948)  TranslationsLe Livre des XII béguines and L'Ornement des noces spirituelles, translated from the Flemish of Ruusbroec (1885)L'Ornement des noces spirituelles de Ruysbroeck l'admirable (1891)Annabella, an adaptation of John Ford's 'Tis Pity She's a Whore (performed 1894)Les Disciples à Saïs and Fragments de Novalis from the German of Novalis, together with an Introduction by Maeterlinck on Novalis and German Romanticism (1895) Translation and adaptation of Shakespeare's Macbeth (performed 1909)  See also   The 100th anniversary of Maurice Maeterlinck's greatest contemporary success, his play The Blue Bird, was selected as the main motif of a high-value collectors' coin: the Belgian 50 euro Maurice Maeterlinck commemorative coin, minted in 2008.
Belgian literatureLe Bourgmestre de Stilmonde (The Burgomaster of Stilemond) was translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos and performed several times in Britain between 1918–1927.
Notes  References  Further reading  W. L. Courtney, The Development of M. Maeterlinck (London, 1904)  M. J. Moses, Maurice Maeterlinck: A Study (New York, 1911)  E. Thomas, Maurice Maeterlinck, (New York, 1911)  J. Bethell, The life and Works of Maurice Maeterlinck (New York, 1913)  Archibald Henderson, European Dramatists (Cincinnati, 1913)  E. E. Slosson, Major Prophets of To-Day (Boston, 1914)  G. F. Sturgis, The Psychology of Maeterlinck as Shown in his Dramas'' (Boston, 1914)  P. McGuinness, "Maeterlinck and the making of Modern Theatre" (Oxford, 2000)  External links   The Social Significance of Modern Drama; Monna Vanna, Analysis of the play by Maurice Maeterlinck        Works by Maurice Maeterlinck at The Online Books Page  Transcript of the Nobel prize presentation speech  Video clips from four different productions of Maeterlinck's works  Edward Thomas.
Maurice Maeterlinck (biography). Contents Page. PEN International        Category:1862 births Category:1949 deaths Category:People from Ghent Category:Belgian dramatists and playwrights Category:Belgian Nobel laureates Category:Belgian poets in French Category:Counts of Belgium Category:French fantasy writers Category:Ghent University alumni Category:Modernist theatre Category:Nobel laureates in Literature Category:People involved in plagiarism controversies Category:Symbolist dramatists and playwrights Category:Flemish poets Category:19th-century French dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century French dramatists and playwrights Category:French male essayists Category:French male poets Category:French male dramatists and playwrights Category:19th-century Belgian poets Category:20th-century Belgian poets Category:Belgian male poets Category:Belgian essayists Category:Members of the Académie royale de langue et de littérature françaises de Belgique
Mark S. Soloway, M.D. Mark Soloway is a leading authority in urologic cancer, researcher, former departmental Chair, medical professor and invitational lecturer. He served as Chairman of the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine Department of Urology and is currently a Professor at the Miller School of Medicine. Born in Cleveland, Dr. Soloway received his B.S. from Northwestern University in Chicago, Il (1961–1964) and completed his M.D. and residency at Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine in Cleveland, Ohio (1964–1970). He completed a fellowship at the National Cancer Institute of the National Institute of Health in Bethesda, MD (1970–1972).
Dr. Soloway has received numerous awards for his work as a researcher and teacher, including the American Urological Association's Gold Cystoscope Award “For the individual who has contributed most to the field of urology within ten years of completion of his residency program” (1984), Mosby Scholarship for Scholastic Excellence (1967), North Central Section of American Urological Association Traveling Fellowship Award (1972) and many others. Honors and awards Over the years, Dr. Soloway has received numerous honors and awards. These include the prestigious Gold Cystoscope Award from the American Urological Association in 1984, and the Presidential Citation of 2008 from the American Urological Association for his contributions to clinical urology and his educational innovations.
Dr. Soloway was honored with a corresponding membership in the German Urology Association and the Dutch Urologic Society. Dr. Soloway has been the Visiting Professor in over 50 academic programs both nationally and internationally and a guest speaker at national meetings in over 30 countries. He was one of the founding members of the International Urologic Research Society. In 2004–2005 Dr. Soloway served the Chair of the first International Panel on Cancer, a project that included fourteen individual panels and over one hundred experts in different aspects of bladder cancer. The Societe Internationale de Urologie (governing body of the International Panel on Bladder Cancer) and the International Consultation of Urologic Diseases have jointly commissioned him again to Chair the second International Panel on Bladder Cancer.
This project is slated to be completed at the end of 2011. Research  Work at National Cancer Institute  Dr. Soloway’s contribution to the field of bladder cancer began when he was a Clinical Associate at the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health. While working at the NCI, Dr. Soloway was instrumental in developing a unique carcinogen-induced animal model for urothelial carcinoma. This FANFT-induced primary and transplantable tumor model allowed him to investigate the efficacy of several investigational chemotherapeutic drugs for the treatment of bladder cancer. Today, even after more than thirty years, this transplantable tumor model, now established as the MBT-2 tumor and its more malignant derivative MBT-9, are still being used by researchers all over the world to test experimental and targeted therapeutic agents.
Dr. Soloway’s research was supported by NIH funding throughout his residency in Urology at Case Western Reserve University and as faculty at the University of Tennessee Center for the Health Sciences. Orthotopic Development  At the same time Dr. Soloway was studying the usefulness of different investigational drugs in the animal model, he was also testing the hypothesis that the high rate of local recurrence of urothelial tumors may be the result of implantation of tumor cells on the urothelial surface following endoscopic resection of bladder tumors. By developing an orthotopic bladder implantation animal tumor model, Dr. Soloway was able to establish that an injury to the urothelium created the necessary environment for tumor implantation and the scientific evidence in support of early intravesical chemotherapy following transurethral resection of a bladder tumor.
Twenty years later, a series of prospective randomized clinical trials have firmly established the benefit of post-TURBT intravesical chemotherapy. It is also noteworthy that the orthotopic tumor model developed by Dr. Soloway is still the only tumor model that recapitulates the development of muscle invasive bladder cancer in patients. Use of Flexible Cystoscopy  Dr. Soloway was one of the first urologic oncologists to use flexible cystoscopy as an integral part of his office practice; today, the majority of the world uses it.
Transrectal Ultrasonography for Prostate Cancer  In contrast to Dr. Soloway’s work in bladder cancer, which was largely initiated by laboratory work using his animal model, his research on prostate cancer is clinically oriented and has focused in six different areas: the use of transrectal ultrasonography for the diagnosis of prostate cancer; the development of the periprostatic nerve block to decrease pain during biopsy; the evaluation of the role of androgen deprivation prior to radical prostatectomy for locally advanced prostate cancer; the importance of quality of life in treatment decision-making; the recognition of active surveillance as a management strategy for low-risk prostate cancer; and surgical techniques for total prostatectomy.
Always fascinated with new technology, very early on Dr. Soloway saw the potential of the ultrasound guided biopsies over the digitally guided biopsies and soon he began promoting the TRUS biopsy method to urologists for their outpatient clinics. In an effort to minimize the discomfort from the biopsies, he also popularized the use of the periprostatic nerve block. This procedure is used to minimize the pain associated with a prostate biopsy and is used in over 500,000 procedures annually in the US alone. Evaluating Androgen Deprivation  During the 1980s and early 1990s, a high percentage of patients with prostate cancer were diagnosed with locally advanced disease.
Anecdotally, many of these patients were given the newly developed LHRH analogs as initial treatment for their disease. Since their initial responses were impressive, it seemed reasonable to give androgen deprivation prior to prostatectomy with the hope of improving progression free and overall survival. Enlisting the cooperation of a multi-institutional group, Dr. Soloway initiated a prospective randomized trial to test the efficacy of neoadjuvant androgen deprivation therapy. This randomized trial showed that although the surgical margin rate was lower for men who had received androgen deprivation prior to prostatectomy, there was no improvement in progression free or overall survival. Other groups who later performed similar studies have substantiated these results.
Positive Surgical Margins  Another focus of Dr. Soloway’s clinical research has been on the relationship between positive surgical margins and the preservation of the bladder neck and approach to the seminal vesicles. His first publication in 1996 on this topic detailed pathological analysis of the location and consequences of positive surgical margins. In a more recent paper published in the Journal of Urology, he reported that the recurrence rate was only 20% in his patient cohort with a positive surgical margin and therefore, the routine adjuvant radiation therapy would over treat 80% of the patients. On the subject of urinary continence, for over 20 years, Dr. Soloway has been a proponent of bladder neck preservation for enhancing urinary continence without compromising cancer control for patients undergoing radical prostatectomy.
Dr. Soloway and Dr M. Manoharan have worked together to minimize the side effects of a radical prostatectomy. They have popularized the lower abdominal transverse incision to minimize pain and enhance recovery as well as providing a smaller, less obvious scar. They have shown that most patients do not require a drain and an inguinal hernia can be easily be repaired at the same operation of a radical prostatectomy using this transverse incision. Watchful Waiting Approach  With the advent of PSA and early detection of prostate cancer, Dr. Soloway, concerned about the risk of overtreatment, has been an advocate of active surveillance for patients with low-risk, low volume Gleason 6 prostate cancer who are compliant with careful monitoring.
In 2000 he published his first series of patients including those eligible for watchful waiting, as well as, active surveillance and reported that only a few of these patients went on to have treatment. Using a tighter definition for active surveillance, Dr. Soloway’s group reported that less than 15% of these prostate cancer patients went on to treatment. This series was updated recently in European Urology with the addition of quality of life parameters and a constant of 15% progressing to treatment. Work on Renal Tumors  As an embodiment of the true collaborative spirit, over the last two decades, Dr. Soloway has worked closely in tandem with a former resident and co-faculty member, Dr. Gaetano Ciancio on kidney cancer.
Together they have revolutionized the surgical approach for large renal tumors, particularly those in which the tumor extends into the vena cava. Dr. Ciancio is a urologist, who is fellowship trained in renal and liver transplantation. More than 10 years ago, Drs. Soloway and Ciancio worked as a team to reduce the perioperative morbidity and mortality associated with these large tumor masses. Their idea was to incorporate surgical techniques from liver transplantation to increase the exposure of the vena cava with the anticipation that this would reduce blood loss and obviate circulatory arrest. Together they have published over 35 articles beginning with their first description of this technique in 2000.
Their most recent publication is an update of their step-by-step approach toward minimizing complications related to renal cell carcinoma with vena cava thrombus. This series emphasizes the improvements in safety and reduction in operative mortality and morbidity related to their technique. Since most tertiary medical centers where these procedures are likely to be performed now have liver transplant surgeons, this technique can easily be duplicated. Cancer Support Group  Always putting the “patient first”, despite his busy clinical practice and research programs in the mid-1980s, Dr. Soloway recognized the need to address quality of life (QOL) issues associated with the treatments for prostate cancer.
He developed one of the first prostate cancer support groups in the country in Memphis, Tennessee. In 1992, he co-authored one of the first QOL studies examining patient preference related to LHRH versus orchiectomy for patients with advanced disease. In 1995 Dr. Soloway and his colleagues reported on a study that looked at patients with localized prostate cancer and the QOL implications of surgical management vs. radiation therapy. Recognizing that prostate cancer is a couple’s disease, Dr. Soloway also studied the psychosocial and sexual implications of this disease on patients and their partners. References   Category:1943 births Category:American medical academics Category:American urologists Category:Physicians from Cleveland Category:Living people
The Bass Formation, also known as the Bass Limestone, is a Mesoproterozoic rock formation that outcrops in the eastern Grand Canyon, Coconino County, Arizona. The Bass Formation erodes as either cliffs or stair-stepped cliffs. In the case of the stair-stepped topography, resistant dolomite layers form risers and argillite layers form steep treads. In general, the Bass Formation in the Grand Canyon region and associated strata of the Unkar Group-rocks dip northeast (10°-30°) toward normal faults that dip 60+° toward the southwest. This can be seen at the Palisades fault in the eastern part of the main Unkar Group outcrop area (below East Rim).
In addition, thick, prominent, and dark-colored basaltic sills intrude across the Bass Formation. The Bass Formation is the basal part of the Unkar Group. The Unkar Group is about  thick and composed of, in ascending order, the Bass Formation, Hakatai Shale, Shinumo Quartzite, Dox Formation, and Cardenas Basalt. The Unkar Group is overlain in ascending order by the Nankoweap Formation, about  thick; the Chuar Group, about  thick; and the Sixtymile Formation, about  thick. The Grand Canyon Supergroup, of which the Bass Formation is the lowermost formation, overlies deeply eroded granites, gneisses, pegmatites, and schists that comprise Vishnu Basement Rocks. There has been some discussion about the nomenclature of the Bass Formation.
It was originally named the Bass Limestone in 1914 for Bass Canyon, where it is typically exposed. The Bass Limestone has been reclassified as the Bass Formation by geologists because it consists of heterogeneous mixtures of clastic and carbonate sedimentary strata of which dolomite is the predominant rock type and limestone is only a minor rock type. In addition, its Hotauta Member was originally designated as the Hotauta Conglomerate in 1914 as a separate unit of formation status for Hotauta Canyon. It was later included in the Bass Formation as a member where it has remained. Description The Bass Formation consists of interbedded sandstone (arkose), and silty sandstone, prominent interbeds of conglomerate and dolomite, and subordinate interbeds of argillite and limestone.
Dolomite and sandy dolomite are the predominate lithologies. Beds of intraformational breccia are also found throughout the Bass Formation. The dolomites and limestones vary in color from gray to red-gray and sometimes contain biscuit-form and biohermal stromatolite beds. The conglomerates, breccias, sandstones, and argillites vary in color from purple-brown to dark red and reddish brown. Dolomite and limestone dominate the Bass Formation in the central part of the Grand Canyon, while the sandstone, conglomerate, and argillite dominate the Bass Formation in the eastern part of the Grand Canyon. The Bass Formation typically becomes generally finer grained toward the top. Volcanic ash layers occur in the Bass Formation.
They consist of layers of white, very fine-grained tephra, that are interbedded with dolomite and argillite toward the base of the formation. These layers are characterized by sharp basal contacts, some graded-bedding, and a diverse silicate mineral assemblage that differs from the carbonate or calcsilicate dominated mineral assemblages of adjacent strata. Zircons from one of these volcanic ash beds has been dated using Uranium-lead dating techniques. The base of both the Bass Formation and Unkar Group in eastern Grand Canyon is marked by the Hotauta Member of the Bass Formation. It is a prominent discontinuous, conglomerate, initially named the Hotauta Conglomerate and later redesignated the Hotauta Member.
This conglomerate consists of rounded, pebble to cobble-sized clasts of chert, granite, quartz, plagioclase crystals, and micropegmatites in a quartz sand matrix. About 80% of the gravel-size clasts consist of granite and quartzite. The quartzite gravel lacks any local equivalents in the Grand Canyon, indicating a distant source. Excellent exposures of the Hotauta Member occur at the Colorado River level near Hance Rapids (river mile 77) and along the South Kaibab and North Kaibab Trails. A variety of sedimentary structures have been reported from the Bass Formation. They include ripple marks; mudcracked surfaces; cone-in-cone structures; interformational breccias/conglomerates; both normal and reversed small-scale, graded bedding; and local channel fills.
The dolomite and limestone within the Bass formation have been affected by post-depositional alteration including: dolomitization, recrystallization, stylolitization, and silicification. Basaltic sills and dikes intrude all strata of the Unkar Group that underlie the Cardenas Lava. Only sills, whose feeder dikes are not exposed, can be observed intruding the Bass Formation. Where the sills have intruded siliceous dolomites in the Bass Formation, metasomatism and recrystallization have produced chrysotile asbestos, both above and below the sills. Veins of asbestos with fibers up to  in length, often commonly occur within  of the upper and lower contacts of the sills. The Bass Limestone shows generally, an increase in thickness to the northwest ranging from 37 (121 ft) to  thick.
Its average thickness is . It is  thick at Phantom Creek (north side of Isis Temple, Cheops Pyramid, & Utah Flats), and  thick at Crystal Creek. The thin section of Bass Formation at Crystal Creek likely reflects the presence of a Vishnu Basement Rocks topographic high in the paleosurface on which it accumulated. Contacts  The base of the Bass Formation is a major unconformity that also forms the base of the Grand Canyon Supergroup and the Unkar Group. This unconformity separates the underlying and deeply eroded crystalline basement, which consists of granites, gneisses, pegmatites, and schists of the Vishnu Basement Rocks, from stratified Proterozoic rocks of the Grand Canyon Supergroup.
This contact is a remarkably smooth surface that has a relief of about  in the Shinumo 15-minute topographic quadrangle and  in the Bright Angel and Vishnu 15-minute topographic quadrangles. In Hotauta Canyon, and at Granite Narrows, this surface is extremely smooth with a relief of only a few meters. The greatest relief on this surface can be seen opposite the mouth of Shinumo Creek where low rounded hills of Vishnu Basement Rocks rise  above the general level of a relatively flat surface. The Vishnu Basement Rocks underlying this surface are often deeply weathered to an average depth of  below it.
Where it has not been removed by erosion, prior to, and during the deposition of the overlying Bass Formation, a residual regolith developed by subaerial weathering of the underlying basement rocks – is present. Typically, this regolith consists of a dark-reddish brown, structureless, ferrigenous sediment that is usually a few centimeters to  thick. This contact is regarded as a classic example of an ancient peneplain. In the eastern part of the Grand Canyon, the contact between the Bass Formation and the overlying Hatakai Shale is typically gradational over an interval of a meter or so. For example, in Red Canyon, the contact consists of an interval in which stromatolitic limestone of the Bass Formation is intimately interbedded with coarse clastic sedimentary rock of the overlying Hakatai Shale.
In the eastern part of the Grand Canyon, the contact is sharp, but conformable. The contact between the Tapeats Sandstone and Bass Formation and the rest of the folded and faulted Unkar Group is a prominent angular unconformity, which is part of the Great Unconformity. The differential erosion of the Unkar Group left resistant beds of the Cardenas Basalt and Shinumo Quartzite as topographic highs, (today seen as ancient & weathered monadnocks), that are now buried by sandstones, shales, and conglomerates of the Tapeats Sandstone. These monadnocks served locally as sources of coarse-grained sediments during the marine transgression that deposited the Tapeats Sandstone and other members of the Tonto Group.
The contact between the Bass Formation and the Tapeats Sandstone forms part of a relative flat surface that lies between the monadnocks. Fossils  Fossil stromatolites occur within the Bass Formation. Diagnostic “columnar forms” of stromatolites are uncommon. Of these forms, only Collenia undosa Walcott, Collenia symmetrica Fenton & Fenton, and Collenia frequens Walcott, have been reported from the Bass Formation so far. The environment, in which these stromatolites grew, as judged by the associated sediments, was one of quiet, shallow marine waters. The common presence of ripple-marks and mud-cracks suggest intermittent desiccation. Thin layers of flake-breccia associated with them indicate occasional periods of turbulence of brief duration.
However, direct evidence specifically indicating an intertidal environment close to a shoreline is lacking. Various types of other fossils, i.e. jellyfish, sponges, worm trails, and bivalves have been reported from the Bass Formation. Critical examinations of these reported fossils have concluded that the fossil sponges are inorganic silica concretions; the jellyfish are either gas escape structures or algal colonies; and the worm trails are inorganic sedimentary structures. In addition, fossils of a bivalve of unknown affinity, which were reported from the Bass Formation, are now judged to be rounded mud-flakes or pellets that are likely oncolites of algal origin. Depositional environments  The lithology and sedimentary structures observed in the Bass Limestone indicate that, except for the Hotauta Member, it accumulated beneath a sea that transgressed from the west.
The Hotauta Member consists of fluvial sands and gravels that accumulated within valleys on an eroded surface of the Vishnu Basement Rocks. The quartzite gravel indicates that the conglomerates of the Hotauta Member were deposited by river systems that extended some unknown distance outside of the Grand Canyon region. Marine sediments buried the fluvial deposits of the Hotauta Member as a smooth surface, with a local relief of probably no more than  of the Vishnu Basement Rocks, being submerged by a marine transgression from the west. The dolomite of the Bass Formation likely was originally deposited as limestone and subsequently altered to dolomite by later diagenesis.
This limestone largely accumulated in clear, relatively warm, shallow marine waters by both biological and abiological processes. During the maximum, deepest, incursion of marine waters, limestone and deep-water mud accumulated in the western Grand Canyon, while stromatolites and shallow-water mud accumulated in the eastern Grand Canyon. Following the maximum incursion of marine waters, the sea slowly regressed and it accumulated in nearshore and coastal environments as indicated by ripple marks, mudcracks, oxidized shales, and other evidence of periodic subaerial exposure found in the upper part of the Bass Formation. Evaporite-forming conditions probably occurred, also during this regressive phase. Eventually, a shallow, near-shore marine environment, coastal plain mudflats, and deltas that marked the beginning of Hakatai Shale deposition – dominated the Grand Canyon area.
Age The uranium-lead dating of zircons from an ash bed in the Bass Formation, argon–argon dating of overlying igneous rocks, and thermochronologic studies of the underling Vishnu Basement Rocks – constrain the age of the Bass Formation and associated Unkar Group. Zircons from air-fallen, volcanic ash beds in its lower part yielded a uranium-lead date of 1,254.8 ± 1.6 Ma. This date is consistent with radiometric ages of Precambrian strata interpreted to be correlative with the Bass Formation and its age estimated from earlier paleomagentic studies. In addition, this date is consistent with the younger Cardenas Basalt having been erupted about 1,104 Ma.
Finally, the uranium-lead dating of zircons is consistent with studies of the underlying Vishnu Basement Rocks that indicate they were exhumed from depths of 25 to 10 km depths between 1,750 and 1,660 Ma and from a depth of 10 km to the surface on which the Bass Formation lies between 1,660 and 1,250 Ma. Asbestos mines  The presence of chrysotile asbestos veins in the Bass Formation was first noted in early exploration of the Grand Canyon by the Powell expedition. Shortly after 1890, mining claims were filed on these asbestos deposits. Later in the early 1900s, William Wallace Bass mined asbestos in the Shinumo Creek-Hakatai Canyon area and John Hance mined asbestos in Asbestos Canyon.
Although these deposits had good quality asbestos, little asbestos, at most a few tons, was produced from them because these deposits were fairly small and difficult to access. These asbestos mines are now abandoned and protected as historical sites. In the mid-1960s, Gregory H. Billingsley found several veins of asbestos up to  thick at the mouth of Tapeats Creek. These veins outcrop upstream along the Colorado River for nearly two miles up to Stone Creek. Green chlorite, green garnet, and talc are associated with the asbestos veins, which occur in a 0.6-to-0.9 m (2-to-3 ft) thick contact-metamorphism-zone associated with basaltic sills.
For unknown reasons, claims were never filed on these veins and no attempts were made to mine them. The Grand Canyon asbestos deposits are very similar in origin and nature to the asbestos deposits of the Sierra Ancha-Salt River Canyon region of Gila County, Arizona. As in the case of the Bass Formation, these chrysotile asbestos deposits are of the contact metamorphic type that occur in magnesium-bearing Mesoproterozoic dolomites and limestones altered by basaltic dikes and sills. As in the case of the Grand Canyon asbestos deposits, dolomite and limestone reacted with silica-bearing fluids, heated by the basalt intrusions, forming the serpentine mineral chrysotile.
Much like the Grand Canyon asbestos deposits, these basaltic sills and dikes range in age from 1,050 to 1,140 Ma. Quite unlike the Grand Canyon asbestos deposits, the asbestos deposits of the Sierra Ancha-Salt River Canyon region have been extremely productive. See also Geology of the Grand Canyon area Great Unconformity  References  External links   anonymous (nd) Abandoned asbestos mine, near Hakatai Rapids, mile 111, Colorado River, Grand Canyon. Colorado Plateau Archives, Special Collections and Archives, Arizona State University, Flagstaff. Arizona. Anonymous (2011) "Bass Limestone.'' U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia. Jorge, R, and T. Larry (2013a) Bass Mine (Bass property; Asbestos Camp), Bass Ferry vicinity, Grand Canyon region, Coconino Co., Arizona, USA.
mindat.org - the mineral and locality database. Jorge, R, and T. Larry (2013b) Hance Mine (Hance property; Hance Asbestos Company Mine), Shinumo quadrangle, Grand Canyon, Grand Canyon District, Coconino Co., Arizona, USA. mindat.org - the mineral and locality database. Keller, B., (2012) The Bass Limestone, Overview of the Grand Canyon Supergroup, Grand Hikes, Bob's Rock Shop. Mathis, A., and C. Bowman (2007) The Grand Age of Rocks: The Numeric Ages for Rocks Exposed within Grand Canyon, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, National Park Service, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. Noble, F. L. (1914) Geologic Map and Section of the Shinumo Quadrangle, Arizona.
National Geologic Map Database, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia. Stamm, N. (2011) Geologic Unit: Bass, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia. Timmons, M. K. Karlstrom, and C. Dehler (1999) Grand Canyon Supergroup Six Unconformities Make One Great Unconformity A Record of Supercontinent Assembly and Disassembly. Boatman's Quarterly Review. vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 29–32. Timmons, S. S. (2003) Learning to Read the Pages of a Book (Grand Canyon Geology Training Manual), National Park Service, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. Category:Geologic formations of Arizona Category:Natural history of the Grand Canyon Category:Mesoproterozoic geology Category:Precambrian United States Category:Geography of Coconino County, Arizona
The alveolar nerves include three superior alveolar nerves: the anterior superior alveolar nerve, middle superior alveolar nerve, and posterior superior alveolar nerve, and an inferior alveolar nerve. The superior alveolar nerves are all branches of the maxillary nerve which is the second branch of the trigeminal nerve. The inferior alveolar nerve is a branch of the mandibular nerve which is the third branch of the trigeminal nerve. References  Category:Maxillary nerve Category:Mandibular nerve
Ribozymes (ribonucleic acid enzymes) are RNA molecules that have the ability to catalyze specific biochemical reactions, including RNA splicing in gene expression, similar to the action of protein enzymes. The 1982 discovery of ribozymes demonstrated that RNA can be both genetic material (like DNA) and a biological catalyst (like protein enzymes), and contributed to the RNA world hypothesis, which suggests that RNA may have been important in the evolution of prebiotic self-replicating systems. The most common activities of natural or in vitro-evolved ribozymes are the cleavage or ligation of RNA and DNA and peptide bond formation. Within the ribosome, ribozymes function as part of the large subunit ribosomal RNA to link amino acids during protein synthesis.
They also participate in a variety of RNA processing reactions, including RNA splicing, viral replication, and transfer RNA biosynthesis. Examples of ribozymes include the hammerhead ribozyme, the VS ribozyme, Leadzyme and the hairpin ribozyme. Investigators studying the origin of life have produced ribozymes in the laboratory that are capable of catalyzing their own synthesis from activated monomers under very specific conditions, such as an RNA polymerase ribozyme. Mutagenesis and selection has been performed resulting in isolation of improved variants of the "Round-18" polymerase ribozyme from 2001. "B6.61" is able to add up to 20 nucleotides to a primer template in 24 hours, until it decomposes by cleavage of its phosphodiester bonds.
The "tC19Z" ribozyme can add up to 95 nucleotides with a fidelity of 0.0083 mutations/nucleotide. Attempts have been made to develop ribozymes as therapeutic agents, as enzymes which target defined RNA sequences for cleavage, as biosensors, and for applications in functional genomics and gene discovery. Discovery  Before the discovery of ribozymes, enzymes, which are defined as catalytic proteins, were the only known biological catalysts. In 1967, Carl Woese, Francis Crick, and Leslie Orgel were the first to suggest that RNA could act as a catalyst. This idea was based upon the discovery that RNA can form complex secondary structures. These ribozymes were found in the intron of an RNA transcript, which removed itself from the transcript, as well as in the RNA component of the RNase P complex, which is involved in the maturation of pre-tRNAs.
In 1989, Thomas R. Cech and Sidney Altman shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry for their "discovery of catalytic properties of RNA." The term ribozyme was first introduced by Kelly Kruger et al. in 1982 in a paper published in Cell. It had been a firmly established belief in biology that catalysis was reserved for proteins. However, the idea of RNA catalysis is motivated in part by the old question regarding the origin of life: Which comes first, enzymes that do the work of the cell or nucleic acids that carry the information required to produce the enzymes? The concept of "ribonucleic acids as catalysts" circumvents this problem.
RNA, in essence, can be both the chicken and the egg. In the 1980s Thomas Cech, at the University of Colorado at Boulder, was studying the excision of introns in a ribosomal RNA gene in Tetrahymena thermophila. While trying to purify the enzyme responsible for the splicing reaction, he found that the intron could be spliced out in the absence of any added cell extract. As much as they tried, Cech and his colleagues could not identify any protein associated with the splicing reaction. After much work, Cech proposed that the intron sequence portion of the RNA could break and reform phosphodiester bonds.
At about the same time, Sidney Altman, a professor at Yale University, was studying the way tRNA molecules are processed in the cell when he and his colleagues isolated an enzyme called RNase-P, which is responsible for conversion of a precursor tRNA into the active tRNA. Much to their surprise, they found that RNase-P contained RNA in addition to protein and that RNA was an essential component of the active enzyme. This was such a foreign idea that they had difficulty publishing their findings. The following year, Altman demonstrated that RNA can act as a catalyst by showing that the RNase-P RNA subunit could catalyze the cleavage of precursor tRNA into active tRNA in the absence of any protein component.
Since Cech's and Altman's discovery, other investigators have discovered other examples of self-cleaving RNA or catalytic RNA molecules. Many ribozymes have either a hairpin – or hammerhead – shaped active center and a unique secondary structure that allows them to cleave other RNA molecules at specific sequences. It is now possible to make ribozymes that will specifically cleave any RNA molecule. These RNA catalysts may have pharmaceutical applications. For example, a ribozyme has been designed to cleave the RNA of HIV. If such a ribozyme were made by a cell, all incoming virus particles would have their RNA genome cleaved by the ribozyme, which would prevent infection.
Structure and mechanism Despite having only four choices for each monomer unit (nucleotides), compared to 20 amino acid side chains found in proteins, ribozymes have diverse structures  and mechanisms. In many cases they are able to mimic the mechanism used by their protein counterparts. For example, in self cleaving ribozyme RNAs, an in-line SN2 reaction is carried out using the 2’ hydroxyl group as a nucleophile attacking the bridging phosphate and causing 5’ oxygen of the N+1 base to act as a leaving group . In comparison, RNase A, a protein that catalyzes the same reaction, uses a coordinating histidine and lysine to act as a base to attack the phosphate backbone.
Like many protein enzymes metal binding is also critical to the function of many ribozymes. Often these interactions use both the phosphate backbone and the base of the nucleotide, causing drastic conformational changes. There are two mechanism classes for the cleavage of phosphodiester backbone in the presence of metal. In the first mechanism, the internal 2’- OH group attacks phosphorus center in a SN2 mechanism. Metal ions promote this reaction by first coordinating the phosphate oxygen and later stabling the oxyanion. The second mechanism also follows a SN2 displacement, but the nucleophile comes from water or exogenous hydroxyl groups rather than RNA itself.
The smallest ribozyme is UUU, which can promote the cleavage between G and A of the GAAA tetranucleotide via the first mechanism in the presence of Mn2+. The reason why this trinucleotide rather than the complementary tetramer catalyze this reaction may be because the UUU-AAA pairing is the weakest and most flexible trinucleotides among the 64 conformations, which provides the binding site for Mn2+. Phosphoryl transfer can also be catalyzed without metal ions. For example, pancreatic ribonuclease A and hepatitis delta virus(HDV) ribozymes can catalyze the cleavage of RNA backbone through acid-base catalysis without metal ions. Hairpin ribozyme can also catalyze the self-cleavage of RNA without metal ions but the mechanism is still unclear.
Ribozyme can also catalyze the formation of peptide bond between adjacent amino acid by lowering the activation entropy. Activities  Although ribozymes are quite rare in most cells, their roles are sometimes essential to life. For example, the functional part of the ribosome, the biological machine that translates RNA into proteins, is fundamentally a ribozyme, composed of RNA tertiary structural motifs that are often coordinated to metal ions such as Mg2+ as cofactors. In a model system, there is no requirement for divalent cations in a five-nucleotide RNA catalyzing trans-phenylalanation of a four-nucleotide substrate with 3 base pairs complementary with the catalyst, where the catalyst/substrate were devised by truncation of the C3 ribozyme.
The best-studied ribozymes are probably those that cut themselves or other RNAs, as in the original discovery by Cech and Altman. However, ribozymes can be designed to catalyze a range of reactions (see below), many of which may occur in life but have not been discovered in cells. RNA may catalyze folding of the  pathological protein conformation of a prion in a manner similar to that of a chaperonin. Ribozymes and the origin of life  RNA can also act as a hereditary molecule, which encouraged Walter Gilbert to propose that in the distant past, the cell used RNA as both the genetic material and the structural and catalytic molecule rather than dividing these functions between DNA and protein as they are today; this hypothesis is known as the "RNA world hypothesis" of the origin of life.
Since nucleotides and RNA and thus ribozymes can arise by inorganic chemicals, they are candidates for the first enzymes, and in fact, the first "replicators", i.e. information-containing macro-molecules that replicate themselves. An example of a self-replicating ribozyme that ligates two substrates to generate an exact copy of itself was described in 2002. Artificial ribozymes Since the discovery of ribozymes that exist in living organisms, there has been interest in the study of new synthetic ribozymes made in the laboratory. For example, artificially-produced self-cleaving RNAs that have good enzymatic activity have been produced. Tang and Breaker isolated self-cleaving RNAs by in vitro selection of RNAs originating from random-sequence RNAs.
Some of the synthetic ribozymes that were produced had novel structures, while some were similar to the naturally occurring hammerhead ribozyme. In 2015, researchers at Northwestern University and the University of Illinois at Chicago have engineered a tethered ribosome that works nearly as well as the authentic cellular component that produces all the proteins and enzymes within the cell. Called Ribosome-T, or Ribo-T, the artificial ribosome was created by Michael Jewett and Alexander Mankin. The techniques used to create artificial ribozymes involve directed evolution. This approach takes advantage of RNA's dual nature as both a catalyst and an informational polymer, making it easy for an investigator to produce vast populations of RNA catalysts using polymerase enzymes.
The ribozymes are mutated by reverse transcribing them with reverse transcriptase into various cDNA and amplified with error-prone PCR. The selection parameters in these experiments often differ. One approach for selecting a ligase ribozyme involves using biotin tags, which are covalently linked to the substrate. If a molecule possesses the desired ligase activity, a streptavidin matrix can be used to recover the active molecules. Lincoln and Joyce developed an RNA enzyme system capable of self replication in about an hour. By utilizing molecular competition (in vitro evolution) of a candidate RNAmixture, a pair of ribozymes emerged, in which each synthesizes the other by joining synthetic oligonucleotides, with no protein present.
Although not true catalysts, the creation of artificial self-cleaving riboswitches, termed aptazymes, has also been an active area of research. Riboswitches are regulatory RNA motifs that change their structure in response to a small molecule ligand to regulate translation. While there are many known natural riboswitches that bind a wide array of metabolites and other small organic molecules, only one ribozyme based on a riboswitch has been described, glmS. Early work in characterizing self-cleaving riboswitches was focused on using theophylline as the ligand. In these studies an RNA hairpin is formed which blocks the ribosome binding site, thus inhibiting translation.
In the presence of the ligand, in these cases theophylline, the regulatory RNA region is cleaved off, allowing the ribosome to bind and translate the target gene. Much of this RNA engineering work was based on rational design and previously determined RNA structures rather than directed evolution as in the above examples. More recent work has broadened the ligands used in ribozyme riboswitches to include thymine pyrophosphate (2). Fluorescence-activated_cell_sorting has also been used to engineering aptazymes. Applications   Ribozymes have been proposed and developed for the treatment of disease through gene therapy (3). One major challenge of using RNA based enzymes as a therapeutic is the short half-life of the catalytic RNA molecules in the body.
To combat this, the 2’ position on the ribose is modified to improve RNA stability. One area of ribozyme gene therapy has been the inhibition of RNA-based viruses. A type of synthetic ribozyme directed against HIV RNA called gene shears has been developed and has entered clinical testing for HIV infection. Similarly, ribozymes have been designed to  target the hepatitis C virus RNA, SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Adenovirus and influenza A and B virus RNA. The ribozyme is able to cleave the conserved regions of the virus’s genome which has been shown to reduce the virus in mammalian cell culture. Despite these efforts by researchers, these projects have remained in the preclinical stage.
Known ribozymes Well validated naturally occurring ribozyme classes:   GIR1 branching ribozyme  glmS ribozyme  Group I self-splicing intron  Group II self-splicing intron - Spliceosome is likely derived from Group II self-splicing ribozymes. Hairpin ribozyme  Hammerhead ribozyme  HDV ribozyme  rRNA - Found in all living cells and links amino acids to form proteins. RNase P  Twister ribozyme  Twister sister ribozyme  VS ribozyme  Pistol ribozyme  Hatchet ribozyme  Viroids  See also   Deoxyribozyme Spiegelman Monster Catalysis Enzyme RNA world hypothesis Peptide nucleic acid Nucleic acid analogues PAH world hypothesis SELEX OLE RNA  Notes and references  Further reading  External links  Tom Cech's Short Talk: "Discovering Ribozymes"  Category:RNA   Category:Catalysts Category:Biomolecules * Category:Metabolism Category:Chemical kinetics Category:RNA splicing
Long Island Sound is a tidal estuary of the Atlantic Ocean, lying predominantly between the U.S. state of Connecticut to the north, and Long Island in New York to the south. From west to east, the sound stretches 110 miles (177 km) from the East River in New York City, along the North Shore of Long Island, to Block Island Sound. A mix of freshwater from tributaries and saltwater from the ocean, Long Island Sound is 21 miles (34 km) at its widest point and varies in depth from . Shoreline   Several major cities are situated along Long Island  Sound and more than 8 million people live within its watershed.
Major Connecticut cities on the Sound include Stamford, Norwalk, Bridgeport, New Haven, and New London. Cities on the New York side of the Sound include Rye, Glen Cove, New Rochelle, Larchmont and portions of Queens and the Bronx in New York City. Mansions and wealthy neighborhoods characterize a good portion of the coast of the sound from Port Jefferson and east on Long Island; and from Pelham Manor and New Rochelle (on the mainland of New York) to Madison in Connecticut. Property values in Westchester County, Long Island, and southwestern Connecticut are among the highest in the nation, due to the proximity to New York City and their location on "The Sound".
Climate and geography  The climate of Long Island Sound is warm temperate or Cfa in the Köppen climate classification. Summers are hot and humid often with convective showers and strong sunshine, while the cooler months feature cold temperatures and a mix of rain and occasional snow. Glacial history About 18,000 years ago, Connecticut, Long Island Sound, and much of Long Island were covered by a thick sheet of ice, part of the Late Wisconsin Glacier. About 3,300 feet (1,000 m) thick in its interior and about  thick along its southern edge, it was the most recent of a series of glaciations that covered the area during the past 10 million years.
Sea level at that time was about 330 feet (100 m) lower than today. The continental ice sheet scraped off an average of 65 feet (20 m) of surface material from the New England landscape, then deposited the material (known as drift) from the Connecticut coast into the Sound, creating what is now Long Island (the terminal moraine). When the ice sheet stopped advancing 18,000 years ago (as addition of snow at the origin was in equilibrium with the melting at the southern edge), a large amount of drift was deposited, known as the Ronkonkoma Moraine, which stretches along much of southern Long Island.
Later, another period of equilibrium resulted in the Harbor Hill Moraine along most of northern Long Island. The next moraines (recessional moraines) to the north were created just on and off the Connecticut coast. These moraines, created by much smaller deposits (probably from equilibrium states that were much shorter in time) are discontinuous and much smaller than those to the south. The Connecticut coast moraines are in two groups: the Norwalk area and the Madison-Old Saybrook area. Sandy plains and beaches resulted from the erosion of moraines and redeposition in these areas, and to the east of each, where the drift cover is thinnest, exposed bedrock creates rocky headlands, often with marshlands behind them.
The Captain Islands off Greenwich, Connecticut, along with the Norwalk Islands and Falkner Island off Guilford, Connecticut are parts of a recessional moraine. Other islands, including the Thimble Islands, are for the most part exposed bedrock with a thin amount of drift, often not continuous. Other shoals and islands off the Connecticut coast are a mixture of these two extremes. The glacier also created several sandy outwash deltas off the coast, including one off Bridgeport, Connecticut and another off New Haven, Connecticut. Fishers Island, New York appears to be related to the Harbor Hill Moraine. To the east of the Thimble Islands, inland moraines along the Connecticut coast include the broken Madison Moraine and the Old Saybrook Moraine.
The Long Island Sound basin existed before the glaciers came. It probably had been formed by stream flows. A relatively thick cover of sand and gravel (termed outwash) was left in the basin from glacial meltwater streams. On the west, a ridge rising to about 65 feet (20 m) below the present sea level is called the Mattatuck Sill. Its lowest point is about 80 feet (25 m) below sea level. Glacial meltwater formed "Lake Connecticut", a freshwater lake in the basin, until about 8,000 years ago, when the sea level rose to about 80 feet (25 m) below today's level.
Seawater then overflowed into the basin, transforming it from a nontidal, freshwater lake to a tidal, saline arm of the sea. Rivers  Numerous rivers empty into the Sound, including:  Connecticut  Connecticut River - Old Saybrook  Housatonic River - Stratford & Milford  Mianus River - Greenwich  Mill River (Quinnipiac River) - New Haven  Mill River (Fairfield) - Fairfield  Norwalk River - Norwalk  Pequonnock River - Bridgeport  Quinnipiac River - New Haven  Rooster River/Ash Creek - Bridgeport & Fairfield  Rippowam River - Stamford  Saugatuck River - Westport  Thames River (Connecticut) - Groton & New London  West River (Connecticut) - West Haven  New York  Byram River - Port Chester  Hutchinson River-The Bronx  Mamaroneck River - Mamaroneck Nissequogue River - Nissequogue & Ft Salonga  Rhode Island  Pawcatuck River  Watershed demographics  The whole watershed population is about 8.93 million as of the 2010 Census.
Due to the large chunk of New England being under the watershed, due to the Connecticut River, many riverside cities/towns are covered in the watershed, here is a list of some of the large towns and cities in the watershed from south to north, west to east:  New York   Huntington  Oyster Bay  Smithtown  Parts of these New York City boroughs:  The Bronx  Queens  Brooklyn  Port Chester  Connecticut   Stamford  Bridgeport  New Haven  New London  Danbury  Waterbury  Norwich  Willimantic  Torrington  Hartford  Rhode Island   Westerly  Massachusetts   Springfield  Worcester  Pittsfield  Vermont   Brattleboro  White River Jct. New Hampshire   Keene  West Lebanon  Fauna and flora  Flora  Seaweed Seaweeds in the Sound occur in greatest abundance in rocky areas between high tide and low tide as well as on rocks on the sea floor.
Green seaweed populations fluctuate with the seasons. Monostroma, reproduces in the early spring and dies out by late summer. Grinnellia appears in August and disappears four to six weeks later. In the rocky areas of the intertidal zone there are the seaweeds, which are characterized by their brown tone, Fucus and Ascophyllum, some species of which have air bladders that allow them to float and receive direct sunlight even at high tide. Also present are Ectocarpus and red algas Polysiphonia, Neosiphonia, Porphyra and Chondrus (Irish moss). In the marshy areas of the intertidal zone can be found Cladophora (mermaid's hair), Ulva (sea lettuce) and Codium.
In the subtidal zone (below low tide) are Palmaria palmata a red alga, along with two algae, Laminaria (kelp) and Chorda. Kelp can often be found washed up on the beach, and individual specimens are not uncommonly a yard or two long. Deeper in the subtidal zone are red algae such as Spermothamnion, Antithamnion and Callithamnion, which also often float freely. In tidal pools can be found red or pink colored Phymatolithon, which can often encrust rocks and mollusk shells. Also present are green algae, including Ulothrix, Cladophora, and Ulva. Plants found in tidal marshes Tidal marshes are some of the most productive biological systems in the world.
Along the sound, they produce three to seven tons per acre per year of vegetation, largely in the form of salt marsh grasses. Much of this, enriched by decomposition, is flushed yearly into the estuary water where it directly contributes to the great finfish and shellfish production of the sound. Salt marsh plants  Salt water cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) grows along ditches and on the seaside edges of marshes where high tides daily inundate it. Salt meadow cordgrass (Spartina patens) and spikegrass (Distichlis spicata) grow in areas less frequently inundated by saltwater, typically closer to dry land. A short form of salt water cordgrass can sometimes be found in the depressions (pannes) in the higher areas where salt water collects and evaporates, leaving water even higher in salinity than seawater.
Other plants in the pannes are sea lavender, salt marsh aster, seaside gerardia, and some species of glasswort. Plants found near the border of the marsh with the upland include bayberry and groundsel-tree shrubs, switchgrass (growing where occasional storm tides reach), reeds and marsh elder. Cattail marshes In areas where the Sound's salt water is more diluted with freshwater from rivers (including along the shores of the larger river estuaries such as the Connecticut River, cattail marshes replace salt marshes. Various types of grasses, including wild rice, and sedges, including bulrushes, are found here. Eelgrass meadows Eelgrass - sometimes known as "Saltwater Eelgrass" in order to distinguish it from Freshwater Eelgrass, which is a different species (Vallisneria americana) - is typically found in protected bays, coves, and other areas of brackish water, but it also persists along areas of exposed shoreline along Long Island's north shore near Orient.
Eelgrass is one of the few vascular plants found in the marine environment. Despite its name, it is actually not a species of underwater grass; instead, it is a plant that bears a physical resemblance to grass. It can tolerate a wide range of water salinity. It grows on muddy to sandy sediments (even among rocks), mostly below low tide, often forming large meadows. it grows best in shallow water because it is dependent upon sunlight, and the water of the Long island Sound can be very murky. Eelgrass roots help stabilize muddy sediments and can trap moving sand, helping prevent erosion.
The leaves, that can range in size from less than 1 m to 2 m long, slow currents, providing calm environments for many species of mollusks and other invertebrates. Eelgrass is also an important food source for waterfowl, especially brant, a type of goose. During the 1930s, the Long Island Sound was struck by an outbreak of a mold infection known as "eelgrass wasting disease". As a result, most of the eelgrass that grew in the sound was killed off, and as an extension, populations of wildlife in the area that depended upon the eelgrass either as food or as a habitat went into a sharp decline.
During the succeeding decades, areas along the Connecticut coast saw a slow gradual recovery of eelgrass populations. Unfortunately, the north shore of Long Island did not see much success, and efforts have been made to re-introduce eelgrass by planting it, especially in the eastern part of the Long Island Sound in the waters of Suffolk County. It is unlikely that the Long Island Sound will experience a complete recovery of its eelgrass population because there are still occasional outbreaks of eelgrass wasting disease within the Sound. Plants found on beaches and dunes Few undisturbed beach and dune systems exist on the Connecticut shore, the ones that do are located along the eastern portion of the coastline (east of the Connecticut River).
Sea rocket and dune grass occur here, but not in abundance. Dune grass and plants that thrive on dunes are largely responsible for the creation and growth of the dunes. On the seaward side of dunes can be found Lathyrus japonicus (beach pea), Dusty Miller, and seaside goldenrod. Other beach plants are orache, beach clotbur, seaside spurge, and jimson weed. On the more protected landward side of dunes are beach plum, bayberry and beach rose. Rare species found on the landward side are beach knotweed and sand false heather. Upland vegetation In areas next to the shoreline but hardly ever salty, the sound's environment can nevertheless be a crucial factor in the presence of certain species.
Areas near the Connecticut shore are the northern limit for some species needing the warmer environment provided by proximity to the Sound (which has a longer growing season than inland Connecticut and winters that are less harsh). These include sweetgum (only found in Connecticut in the extreme southwestern area of the state), the American holly, post oak and persimmon, which only exist in Connecticut along the shore. For many species which grow typically in sandy soils, the Connecticut shore is the northern limit. Mature upland vegetation along the Connecticut coast is mostly hardwood forest, with dominant tree species including oaks and hickories, especially white oak, black oak, pignut hickory and mockernut hickory.
Other trees include sassafras, black gum, and black cherry. Mature trees tend to be sparse in coastal forests, likely because of their greater exposure to the wind. This results in more sunlight reaching the forest floor, encouraging a jungle-like tangle of vines and shrubs, including the vines catbriar, poison ivy, bramble and bittersweet, and the shrubs blueberry, huckleberry, viburnum and hazelnut. Along with the moderate climate, rare coastline storms can have an important impact on observable vegetation patterns. The greatest storms to hit the Sound in the twentieth century were the 1938 hurricane, the 1955 hurricane, Hurricane Belle in 1976, Hurricane Gloria in 1985, Hurricane Irene in 2011, and Hurricane Sandy in 2012.
After Hurricane Belle, leaves near the coast were badly salt-burned, then turned brown and shriveled. Many trees were downed by the storm, leaving openings in the forest cover, promoting the growth of vines and shrubs. Fauna  Fish The Sound is inhabited by both marine fish and anadromous fish (oceanic or estuarine species that spawn in freshwater streams and rivers, see fish migration). The most common marine fish in the Sound include porgy, butterfish, winter flounder, summer flounder, windowpane flounder, fourspot flounder, northern and striped sea robin, little skate, menhaden, Atlantic silversides, black seabass, blackfish (tautog), cunner, bluefish, and smooth dogfish.
Frequently Atlantic bonito and false albacore, both members of the tuna family, enter the sound and can be caught by anglers from small boats and shore. Many species have declined rapidly since 1975 due to over fishing. Winter flounder may not be currently present except for rare, small local populations. Tautog and summer flounder are also less numerous. Anadromous fishes include striped bass, white perch, alewives, blueback herring, and American and hickory shad. Although several shark species likely infrequently wander in and out of the Sound, e.g. blue shark, mako shark, hammerhead shark and thresher shark, there are only four species of sharks which are regularly found in the area.
These are the sand tiger shark, the sandbar shark, the spiny dogfish and the smooth dogfish. Mollusks Mollusks (gastropods and bivalves) that can be found include the rough periwinkle near the high-tide line, the European periwinkle, the northern yellow periwinkle, the blue mussel (a popular, edible species), the eastern oyster, the Atlantic slipper shell or "common slippershell" (Crepidula fornicata), the hard clam (also known as the quahog, little neck clam or cherrystone clam), the Atlantic bay scallop, the mud snail (also known as the eastern mud nassa), the salt marsh snail (or "coffee bean snail"), the Atlantic oyster drill, the northern moon snail, Atlantic moon snail, the channeled and knobbed whelks.
Crustacea Crustaceans include crabs, shrimp and lobsters. In the Sound there are the green crab (a non-native species first reported in Boston around 1900, but a common crab found on the shore, where it feeds on eastern oysters and soft-shell clams), blue crab, red crab, Jonah crab in deepwater areas, and the Atlantic rock crab, which settles in large numbers along rocky shores, especially around Millstone Point, Niantic Bay and Fishers Island Sound. Other crabs found include the lady crab, spider crabs, and fiddler crabs; hermit crabs and mole crabs are also found. By the late 1980s, the Japanese shore crab, an invasive species, was the most commonly found crab in the sound.
The sand shrimp Crangon septemspinosa and two species of grass shrimp are plentiful along the shore, especially in late summer and fall. The American lobster is fished commercially. Mammals, reptiles, and amphibians Most animal species on the Connecticut side of the Sound also occur inland, but some are much more abundant along the shore. Animals along the Sound are most concentrated in the salt marshes. Two species of shrews, the masked shrew and the American short-tailed shrew, are common in salt marshes. The least shrew has been thought to exist in small numbers in the salt marshes of western Connecticut.
Rodents include the white-footed mouse, the meadow vole (probably the most abundant coastal mammal) and the meadow jumping mouse. Muskrats are heavily trapped but remain abundant. Raccoons and red foxes who live in areas near the marshes will hunt in them. The long-tailed weasel and short-tailed weasel are both found near the Sound, occasionally living in the salt marshes. Harbor seals and gray seals can be found among the rocks off Stonington and Groton at the eastern end. Long-finned pilot whales and harbor porpoises can also be infrequently sighted in open water, a few miles off the coast. In 1975, a finback whale beached itself in Groton.
Animals that need moist woodlands are found in the coastal area (and elsewhere), including the diamondback terrapin in salt marshes and brackish waters (and deposits and hatches its eggs on nearby sandy beaches). Terrapin meat became such a popular delicacy in the early 1900s that the price for a dozen adult females reached as high as US$120. Overhunting made the species uncommon and even rare through most of the Sound and completely eliminated at some places. After its popularity as food declined, the terrapin population started recovering. Sea turtles occasionally travel north on the Gulf Stream and wander into the Sound.
The loggerhead turtle, green turtle and leatherback turtle are rarely seen along the Connecticut shore. Other reptiles and amphibians found along the edges of the salt marshes and nearby bodies of water include the green frog, bullfrog, pickerel frog, spotted turtle, painted turtle, northern water snake, and common snapping turtle. On beaches and sandy areas there are Fowler's toads (which are also found inland but find sandy areas preferable), the American toad, and the hognose snake (which feeds on Fowler's toads). Birds There are six broad categories of bird habitats near Long Island Sound: (1) open water areas, including bays, coves, rivers and the Sound itself; (2) tidal marshes; (3) mudflats; (4) sandy beaches; (5) offshore islands; and (6) mainland uplands, including woodlands and fields.
Some birds are summer residents or winter residents, while others are spring and fall transients. Year round residents include herring gull, greater black-backed gull, common tern and double-crested cormorant. Much of the terns habitat and nesting areas have been taken over by the over-abundant cormorant over the last several decades. The terns are now not commonly seen. Coastal migrants (also called "transients") include shorebirds such as plovers, turnstones, sandpipers, willet and yellowlegs. Summer residents include the seaside sparrow, sharp-tailed sparrow, Nelson's sparrow, clapper rail, mallard and black duck, herons and egrets, including the black-crowned night heron and snowy egret as well as the least tern and piping plover.
Upland species include the hooded warbler, white-eyed vireo, eastern meadowlark and Carolina wren. Winter residents include large flocks of ducks, geese, and swans winter in the Sound. In West Haven, Connecticut 8,000 scaup (also called broadbills or bluebills) were regularly counted in the 1970s. Greater scaup, black ducks, mallards, and Canada geese are the most abundant wintering birds. There are also significant populations of red-breasted mergansers, common goldeneyes, buffleheads, scoters, American wigeons (also sometimes called baldpate), canvasbacks, oldsquaws and mute swans. Others (less abundant) include gadwalls, northern pintails, green-winged teal, northern shovelers (also sometimes called broadbill), ruddy ducks, redheads, ring-necked ducks, snow geese, and brant.
Rare and endangered species Rare, endangered and extinct species of the Sound include the eastern spadefoot, a rare, toadlike amphibian that hasn't been recorded in the area since 1935. Its overall coloring is beige or off-white with a pattern of green markings. Small orange dots punctuate this pattern. As many as 1,500 shortnose sturgeon, listed as 'endangered' by the Endangered Species Act, inhabit the Connecticut River (CDEP 2003, Savoy 2004). Approximately 900 of those live downstream of Holyoke Dam (Savoy and Shake 1992). While shortnose sturgeon primarily remain in their natal rivers, they will feed in estuarine waters like Long Island Sound and make extended trips along the Atlantic Coast, tagged individuals sometime being identified in multiple rivers during their lifetimes.
History  Long Island Sound was formed when the terminal moraine that dammed the waters of glacial Lake Connecticut failed, and sea water mixed with the lake's fresh waters. The first European to record the existence of Long Island Sound was the Dutch navigator Adriaen Block, who entered the sound from the East River in 1614. The sound was known as The Devil's Belt in colonial times and the reefs that run across the sound were known as Devil's Stepping Stones, from which Stepping Stones Lighthouse got its name. Uses  Transportation Ferries provide service between Long Island and Connecticut, notably the Bridgeport & Port Jefferson Ferry (between Port Jefferson and Bridgeport), and the Cross Sound Ferry (between Orient Point and New London).
The ferries that cross Long Island Sound carry automobiles, trucks and buses, as well as foot passengers. Fishing Long Island Sound has historically had rich recreational and commercial fishing, including oysters, lobsters, scallops, blue crabs, tuna  flounder, striped bass, and bluefish. However, in recent years the western part of the sound has become increasingly deficient of marine life. The fishing and lobster industries have encouraged efforts to identify the cause of the dead water and rectify the problem. Lobsters have suffered diseases of unknown cause, but recreational fishing improved dramatically in the last 10 years due, in large part, to restoring a key component in the food chain, menhaden (a.k.a.
"bunker") fish which are a mainstay of striped bass and other pelagic fish. The ban of netting of bunker - which were over-fished in the late 1990s - has significantly improved the quality and volume of the striped bass population in Long Island Sound. Further development Underwater cables transmit electricity under Long Island Sound, most notably a new and controversial Cross Sound Cable that runs from New Haven in western Connecticut, to Shoreham in central Long Island, and an older one from Rye in Westchester County to Oyster Bay on Long Island. Scientists debate whether submarine power cables are safe for underwater lifeforms.
Broadwater Energy LLC, a joint venture between the Shell Oil Company and TransCanada Corporation, has proposed building a floating liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminal  from the Connecticut shore and  from Long Island. The installation is estimated to save the region in excess of $600 million a year in energy costs. The terminal would regasify LNG offloaded from ships, and this gas would flow through pipelines under the sound to New York and Connecticut. Some politicians from both states, such as New York Senator Chuck Schumer, are fiercely opposed to the terminal, claiming that alternative energy sources and conservation should be pursued instead of adding new distribution lines and supply sources.
Local Connecticut politicians have little influence since the terminal would be located entirely within waters that are part of New York State (although Connecticut senators and representatives may be able to stop the platform at the federal level). At least one politician running for New York State Assembly has proposed offshore oil drilling in Long Island Sound, despite a lack of evidence that oil can be found there. The proposal met staunch opposition by residents of New York and Connecticut, and environmentalists. Over the years, bridges over the sound have been proposed, including a bridge between Rye in Westchester County and Oyster Bay on Long Island; between New Haven, Connecticut and Shoreham on Long Island; between Bridgeport, Connecticut and Port Jefferson on Long Island; or between Orient Point, New York and Rhode Island.
A tunnel under the sound, as between Rye and Oyster Bay has also been proposed, to carry both freeway lanes and railroads. However, no crossing has been built since the Throgs Neck Bridge in the early 1960s. Pollution The Long Island Sound ecosystem has historically been polluted by a number of different sources, including industry, agriculture and communities (untreated sewage and urban runoff). Pollutants entering the Sound include toxic substances such as heavy metals; a specific example includes mercury discharged by the hatting industry in Danbury, Connecticut. Other pollutants include pathogens, debris, and nutrients (which contain nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizer runoff).
Hypoxia and eutrophication (low oxygen level resulting conditions) are direct environmental impacts on the Sound that are exacerbated by higher temperatures, stratified water columns (when the water is not well mixed vertically) and excess nutrients. Algal blooms result from the overgrowth of algae that dies in large numbers, sinks to the bottom, and decomposes by using available oxygen in the water and leaving little for other species, causing the system to suffer as a whole. To date the primary target for water remediation tactics in Long Island Sound have been nutrients entering from waste water treatment facilities and watersheds such as the Connecticut River watershed.
The Connecticut River begins in Canada and extends though New England, carrying pollutants from all of the communities it passes into the Sound, at a rate of 18,400 cubic feet per second. Long Island Sound sustains significant populations of fish and nurseries. This biological function has been threatened by both terrestrial and chemical alterations resulting from urbanization of the area. Specifically 25–35% of the tidal wetlands in the Sound have been dredged, filled, and developed over and hypoxia and eutrophication resulting from pollution have led to low dissolved oxygen levels (less that 4.8 mg of oxygen per liter) in the water.
The low dissolved oxygen levels limit the fishes' ability to swim, feed, grow and reproduce and loss of habitat prevents success in fish larval growth. The impacts listed here are directly associated with these specific species in Long Island Sound: killifishes, silversides, bay anchovy, eels, menhaden, cunner, tautog, sticklebacks, winter flounder, weakfish, bluefish, tomcod and striped bass. An example of impacts from nitrogen is a shift in the types of plankton that make up their community in Long Island Sound. Over the last several decades, excess nitrogen may have adversely affected diatoms—microscopic, single-celled algae at the base of the food chain, which make shells ('frustules') of opaline silica.
When diatoms are less productive, they are replaced by other phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates or blue-green algae, which grow well in waters with high nitrogen levels, but do not need silica. Such changes in the base of the food chain leads to consequences such as an increase in abundance of jellyfish and decline in shellfish and other fish. Starting in the 1990s, Connecticut and federal United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) officials defined no-dumping areas in which commercial or recreational boat users were prohibited from releasing untreated sewage into the Sound near the coastline. In 2007 state and federal officials announced the ban had extended to the entire Connecticut coast and applied to both treated and untreated sewage.
New Hampshire and Maine have similar bans, but Massachusetts, Maine and New York do not (all are within the contributing watersheds). From the 1990s to 2007, the number of pumping stations for boat sewage tripled to 90 at marinas up and down the coast. Violators may be charged with a state misdemeanor and face $250 fines, or a federal civil penalty, with fines of up to $2,000. To address the water quality problems, EPA created the Long Island Sound Study (LISS) to support development of a nitrogen total maximum daily load (TMDL) in 1992. The TMDL implements innovative strategies, including a nitrogen credit trading program for sewage treatment plants in Connecticut, and bubble permits for sewage treatment plants in New York.
Results point to significant nitrogen reductions in Long Island Sound, and significant cost savings. By 1994, a plan to reduce nitrogen outputs of effluent into the Sound was agreed upon by the federal government and the states of New York and Connecticut. The goal was to reduce the amount of nitrogen entering the Sound by 58.5 percent as of 2014. New York City agreed with New York state and Connecticut to reduce nitrogen levels in 1998, but backed off its commitment and was sued by the state. In early 2006, the city agreed to lower nitrogen outputs and was given until 2017 to meet its reduction goals.
By 2007, $617 million had been spent in upgrading sewage treatment plants, with 39 out of 104 retrofitted with devices to remove nitrogen. According to the EPA National Estuary Program Coastal Protection Report for June 2007, the western part of the Sound was in the worst condition. The report gives a "fair" rating to water quality in the sound and poor marks to fish, bottom-feeders and sediment. High levels of PCBs were found in fish samples, and high concentrations of the pesticide DDT were found in sediment. Development resulting from population increases, past industrial pollution and stormwater runoff all contribute to the poor quality of the water, according to the report.
Nitrogen pollution in the Sound has been declining in the 21st century. At the end of 2014, wastewater treatment facilities reached 94 percent of their nitrogen reduction goal set by the TMDL. Achieving this goal has resulted in 108,000 fewer pounds of nitrogen were discharged into the Sound every day. In 2015 the Long Island Sound Study concluded that the Sound is cleaner and healthier than it has been, but still impaired from pollution and habitat loss. To continue improving the quality of Long Island Sound, both ongoing challenges and adapting to new conditions due to climate change need to be addressed.
Dumping of dredged sediment Polluted sediment from harbor, river and waterway dredging has been dumped in four sites in the Sound, although in late 2007 two of them at the eastern end of the Sound were scheduled to be closed at some future date. A dumping site near Stamford, Connecticut and another near New Haven, Connecticut were expected to remain open. In 2007, the U.S. EPA and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began a five- to seven-year, $16 million study on more environmentally friendly ways to dredge harbors in the Sound. Dumping the sediment in the Sound is considerably less expensive than other options, according to Connecticut harbor officials and state and federal environmental officials.
Federal officials had concluded that sediment from Bridgeport Harbor was too contaminated for disposal in the Sound, and in 2007 the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) required Norwalk, Connecticut to "cap"  of dumped sediment from a planned Norwalk Harbor dredging project with  of material. Silt and sediment from the harbor contains heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, according to DEP officials. Legal status  In 1985, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Long Island Sound is a juridical bay. The case involved a jurisdictional dispute among New York State, Rhode Island, and The United States. The classification of juridical bay means that the states, and not the federal government, have jurisdiction over the Long Island Sound waters.
This also means that the legal coastline of the United States incorporates the southern shore of Long Island, but not the alternative that would have been to consider the coastline to follow additionally the southern shores of Connecticut, and the eastern shores of Westchester County, The Bronx, and Manhattan. See also  Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation  Geography of New York City  Long Island Crossing - various proposed bridges and tunnels between Long Island and Connecticut/Rhode Island  Longshore Sailing School  Sound (geography)  References  Notes  Sources Working for Nature Series: Shortnose Sturgeon, CDEP (Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection) website. 2003. . Savoy, T. 2004.
Population estimate and utilization of the lower Connecticut River by shortnose sturgeon. Pages 345–352 in P.M. Jacobson et al. (Eds.) The Connecticut River ecological study (1965–1973) revisited : ecology of the lower Connecticut River 1973–2003. American Fisheries Society Monograph. Savoy, T. and D. Shake. 1992. Sturgeon status in Connecticut waters. Final Report to the National Marine Fisheries Service, Gloucester, Massachusetts. External links   What Makes Long Island Sound So Special?
- EPA website  Soundkeeper - non-profit preservation group  Long Island Sound Foundation - non-profit preservation group  Cross-Sound Cable - official CSC website  Human Nature - New York Times series on Long Island Sound   - Wesleyan University Research on the Eutrophication of Long Island Sound  SeagrassLI - LIS eelgrass restoration and monitoring  Fraudwater - Information on Shell Oil Broadwater campaign    Category:New England Category:Intracoastal Waterway Category:Borders of New York (state) Category:Borders of Connecticut Category:Geography of New England Category:Estuaries of Connecticut Category:Estuaries of New York (state) Category:Bodies of water of the Bronx Category:Bodies of water of Westchester County, New York Category:Bodies of water of Fairfield County, Connecticut
The STROBE (STrengthening the Reporting of OBservational studies in Epidemiology) Statement is a reporting guideline including a checklist of 22 items that are considered essential for good reporting of observational studies. It was published simultaneously in several leading biomedical journals in October and November 2007 and comprises both the checklist and an explanation and elaboration article which gives examples of good reporting and provides authors with more guidance on good reporting. It is also is referred to in the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals established by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors and is endorsed by hundreds of biomedical journals.
Purpose  The STROBE Statement was developed by the STROBE Initiative, an international collaboration of epidemiologists, methodologists, statisticians, researchers and journal editors with the aim to assist authors when writing up analytical observational studies, to support editors and reviewers when considering such articles for publication, and to help readers when critically appraising published articles. Extensions  There are many extensions to the STROBE Statement which cover a variety of different topic domains such as nutritional epidemiology, genetic association studies, rheumatology, molecular epidemiology, infectious disease molecular epidemiology, respondent-driven sampling, routinely collected health data  (e.g., health administrative data, electronic health records, and registry data), antimicrobial stewardship programs, seroepidemiologic studies for influenza, medical abortion, simulation-based research, newborn infection, veterinary, and sports injury and illness.
A draft checklist for reporting observational studies in conference abstracts is also available. Adaptations and Future  In 2010, three years after STROBE's publication, the original creators reconvened and deemed an update unnecessary at the time. However, since, calls have supported for the reporting guideline to be updated, similarly to other reporting guidelines (like CONSORT and PRISMA) which have been updated as needed. An assessment of extension content as well as a survey of authors of observational studies provided several areas to improve upon. The STROBE Statement checklist is also available to use within a Writing Aid Tool  Add-In for Microsoft Word that you can download and install.
It includes the STROBE checklist within the software. The STROBE Statement has also been adapted as a public, open-source repository for epidemiological research methods and reporting skills for observational studies. Epidemiologists, statisticians, and public health researchers are welcome to comment and edit the tool to inform future updates of the reporting guideline. See also  CONSORT EQUATOR Network  References  External links  STROBE Statement EQUATOR Network RECORD An extension of the STROBE-statement for nutritional epidemiology  Category:Epidemiological study projects Category:Quality assurance Category:Nursing research Category:Reporting guidelines
A feral child (also called wild child) is a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age, and so has had little or no experience of human care, behavior or human language. There are several confirmed cases and other speculative ones. Feral children may have experienced severe abuse or trauma before being abandoned or running away. They are sometimes the subjects of folklore and legends, typically portrayed as having been raised by animals. Description Feral children lack the basic social skills that are normally learned in the process of enculturation. For example, they may be unable to learn to use a toilet, have trouble learning to walk upright after walking on fours all their lives, or display a complete lack of interest in the human activity around them.
They often seem mentally impaired and have almost insurmountable trouble learning a human language. The impaired ability to learn a natural language after having been isolated for so many years is often attributed to the existence of a critical period for language learning, and taken as evidence in favor of the critical period hypothesis. There is little scientific knowledge about feral children. One of the best-documented cases has supposedly been that of sisters Amala and Kamala, described by Reverend J. A. L. Singh in 1926 as having been "raised by wolves" in a forest in India. French surgeon Serge Aroles, however, has persuasively argued that the case was a fraud, perpetrated by Singh in order to raise money for his orphanage.
Child psychologist Bruno Bettelheim states that Amala and Kamala were born mentally and physically disabled. Yet other scientific studies of feral children exist, such as the case of Genie. History  Prior to the 1600s, feral and wild children stories were usually limited to myths and legends. In those tales, the depiction of feral children included hunting for food, running on all fours instead of two, and not knowing language. Philosophers and scientists were infatuated with such children, and began to question if these children were part of a different species from the human family. The question was taken seriously as science tried to name and categorize the development of humans, and the understanding of the natural world in the 18th and 19th century.
Around the 20th century, psychologists were attempting to differentiate between behavior and biological culture. Feral children who lived in isolation or with animals provided examples of this dilemma. Documented cases of feral children  Raised by primates/monkeys   Marina Chapman claimed to have lived with weeper capuchin monkeys in the Colombian jungle from the age of five to about nine, following a botched kidnapping in about 1954. Unusual for feral children, she went on to marry, have children and live a largely normal life with no persisting problems. Robert Mayanja (1982) lost his parents in the Ugandan Civil War at the age of three, when Milton Obote's soldiers raided their village, around  from Kampala.
Robert then survived in the wild, presumably with vervet monkeys, for three years until he was found by soldiers of National Resistance Army. Saturday Mthiyane (or Mifune) (1987), a boy of around five, was found after spending about a year in the company of monkeys in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. He was given the name Saturday after the day he was found, and Mthiyane was the name of the headmistress of the Special School which took him in. In 2005 he died in a fire, at the age of around 17, he could still not talk, and still walked and jumped like a monkey.
He never ate cooked food and refused to share or play with other children. John Ssebunya, from Uganda, was a toddler when his dad killed his mother and hanged himself. Instead of going into a care facility, he went to live with vervet monkeys. For two years he learned how to forage and travel. The monkeys protected him in the wild. When he was around seven years old, he was brought back to civilization. According to a local villager, the only forms of communication he was capable of were crying and demanding food, and he was a "wild boy" whom everyone feared.
Raised by wolves   Hessian wolf-children (1304, 1341 and 1344) lived with the Eurasian wolf in the forests of Hesse. Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja (ca. 1946, Sierra Morena, Spain) lived for 12 years with wolves in the mountains of Southern Spain. He was discovered at age 19. Rodríguez's story was depicted in the 2010 Spanish-German film Entrelobos. For his portrayal of Rodríguez, young actor Manuel Camacho received a Best New Actor nomination at the 2011 Goya Awards. Raised by dogs   Oxana Malaya was an eight-year-old Ukrainian girl who lived with Black Russian Terriers for six years. She was found in a kennel with dogs in 1991.
She was neglected by her parents who were alcoholics. The three-year-old looking for comfort crawled into the farm and snuggled in with the dogs. Her behavior imitated dogs more than humans. She walked on all fours, bared her teeth, and barked. She was removed from her parents' custody by the social services. As she lacked human contact she did not know any words besides "yes" and "no". Upon adulthood, Oxana has been taught to subdue her dog-like behavior. She learned to speak fluently and intelligently and works at the farm milking cows, but remains somewhat intellectually impaired. Years later, Oxana admitted on a Russian talk show that her story was slightly less dramatic; neglected by her parents, she sought out the company of the dogs and learned to imitate them as they were more responsive than her parents.
Ivan Mishukov, a six-year-old boy was rescued by the police in 1998 from wild dogs, who he lived with for two years. He ran from his mother and her abusive alcoholic boyfriend at the age of four. He earned the dogs' trust by giving them food and in return the dogs protected him. The boy had risen to being "alpha male" of the pack. When the police found him, they set a trap for him and the dogs by leaving food in a restaurant kitchen. Because he had lived among the dogs for only two years, he relearned language fairly rapidly.
He studied in military school and served in the Russian Army. A 10-year-old Chilean boy (Dog Boy) was abandoned by his parents, lived with street dogs who hunted for food with him, and may have nursed him. At the age of five, the boy was abandoned by his parents and escaped a child care facility with 15 street dogs. The boy lived in a cave with the stray dogs and searched for food with them. He would search garbage cans to find leftover food to eat. He was raised by dogs since he was little. In 2001, he was found by the police, and he tried to escape by going into the water.
However, he was caught and hospitalized. Traian Căldărar, Romania (found in 2002) also known as "the Romanian Dog Boy" or "Mowgli". From the ages of four to seven, Traian lived without his family. The boy was found at the age of seven and was described as a three-year-old due to undernutrition. His mother had left her home because of domestic violence, and Traian ran from home sometime after his mother left. He lived in the wild and took shelter in a cardboard box. He suffered from infected wounds, having poor circulation, and a children's disease caused by vitamin D deficiency.
Traian was found by Manolescu Ioan, who had been walking across the country after his car broke down. In the surrounding area, a dog that had been eaten was also found. Many assume that the boy was eating the dog to stay alive. When Traian was being cared for, he would usually sleep under the bed and wanted to eat all the time. In 2007, Traian was being taken care of by his grandfather and was doing well in 3rd grade at school. Andrei Tolstyk (2004) was raised by dogs in a remote part of Siberia from the age of three months to 7 years.
He was neglected by his parents because he had speaking and hearing problems. Social workers who found the boy were curious about why the boy was not admitted to his local school. This boy was not able to talk as he lacked human interaction and had many dog-like characteristics including walking on all fours, biting people, and sniffing his food before eating. Madina, a three-year-old girl. Madina lived with dogs from birth until she was three years old. She slept with them in the cold, ate food with them, and played with them. Her father left her after she was born, this caused her mother to become an alcoholic and neglect Madina.
When found by social workers in 2013 she was completely nude and engaged in dog like behavior including chewing on bones. Afterwards doctors confirmed that she was still mentally and physically capable despite being neglected for nearly her entire life. Raised by bears   The three Lithuanian bear-boys (1657, 1669, 1694) – Serge Aroles shows from the archives of the Queen of Poland (1664–1688) that these are false. There was only one boy who lived in the forests of Lithuania with the Eurasian brown bear, he was found in spring 1663 and then brought to Poland's capital. Raised by sheep   An Irish boy brought up by sheep, reported by Nicolaes Tulp in his book Observationes Medicae (1672).
Serge Aroles gives evidence that this boy was severely disabled and exhibited for money. A 14-year-old boy also known as the sheep boy, was found in the former Soviet Union living in a sheep flock. He was raised by sheep for 8 years. He had no communication skills and could not use the toilet. His parents left to find work and was left with his grandmother. His grandmother took care of him until she died. Raised by cattle   The Bamberg boy – who grew up among cattle (late 16th century). Raised by goats   Daniel, Andes Goat Boy (1990) lived in the wild for about 8 years.
He was discovered in the mountains of Peru and was raised by goats. He walked and ran on all fours with the mountain goats. He drank goat's milk, ate berries, and roots. Raised by ostriches   The "ostrich boy" – A boy named Hadara was lost by his parents in the Sahara desert at the age of two, and was adopted by ostriches. At the age of 12, he was rescued and taken back to society and his parents. He later married and had children. The story of Hadara is often told in west Sahara. In 2000, Hadara's son Ahmedu told his father's story to the Swedish author Monica Zak, who compiled it to a book.
The book is a mixture of the stories told by Ahmedu and Zak's own fantasy. Other documented cases   Jean de Liège. Described by natural philosopher Sir Kenelm Digby in his book 'Two Treatises' (1644). The girl of Oranienburg (1717). The two Pyrenean boys (1719). Peter the Wild Boy of Hamelin (1724) – Mentally handicapped boy, affected with Pitt-Hopkins Syndrome. He lived only one year in the wild. Victor of Aveyron (1800) – Victor was a feral child in the forests of Aveyron for twelve years. The subject is treated with a certain amount of realism in François Truffaut’s 1970 film L’Enfant Sauvage (UK: The Wild Boy, US: The Wild Child), where a scientist's efforts in trying to rehabilitate a feral boy meet with great difficulty.
Marie-Angelique Memmie Le Blanc, was a famous feral child of the 18th century in France who was known as The Wild Girl of Champagne, The Maid of Châlons, or The Wild Child of Songy. Marie-Angélique survived for ten years living wild in the forests of France, between the ages of nine and 19, before she was captured by villagers in Songy in Champagne in September 1731. She was likely born in 1712 as a Native American of the Meskwaki (or "Fox") people, and brought to France in 1720; or she was born in an unknown location in 1721. Marie died in Paris in 1775.
Documents show that she learned to read and write as an adult, thus making her unique among feral children. Hany Istók (a.k.a. Steve of the Marsh) of Kapuvár, Hungary (1749). According to documents stored at the Catholic parish of Kapuvár, an abandoned child was once found in a marshy lakeside forest by two fishermen. He was brought to the town of Kapuvár, where he was christened and received the name Steven. The local governor took him to his castle and tried to raise him, but the boy eventually escaped and ran back to the forest. Later, numerous folk tales developed around his character, depicting him as a "half fish, half human creature" who lived in a nearby lake.
Kaspar Hauser (early 19th century), portrayed in the 1974 Werner Herzog film The Enigma of Kaspar Hauser (Jeder für sich und Gott gegen alle), who existed but whose account of his own early isolation may well have been a hoax. Ramachandra (1970s and 1980s) – First reported in 1973 in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, at roughly 12 years old, and as living an amphibian lifestyle in the Kuwano River. He was rescued in 1979 and taken to a nearby village. He only partly adapted to a conventional lifestyle, still preferring raw food, walking with an awkward gait, and spending most of his time alone in nearby rivers and streams.
He died in 1982 after approaching a woman who was frightened by him, and who badly scalded Ramachandra with boiling water. Historian Mike Dash speculates that Ramachandra's uncharacteristically bold approach to the woman was sparked by a burgeoning sexual attraction coupled with his ignorance of cultural mores and taboos. Cambodian jungle girl (2007) – Alleged to be Rochom P'ngieng, who lived 19 years in the Cambodian jungle. Other sources questioned these claims. In August 2016, after immigration officials spent two weeks reviewing the case, the woman left Cambodia with her family and returned to Vietnam. Vietnamese media reported that her birth father discovered her through photographs on Facebook.
The woman never learned to speak while living with her adoptive family in Cambodia, and according to her Vietnamese birth family, she has been that way since birth. Name Unknown, Uzbekistan, (2007) – A teenage boy found acting like a wild animal and snarling in the mountains of Samarkand after being reported missing in 1998. Ng Chhaidy, Theiva near Saiha, Mizoram, India (2012) – She went missing in a jungle aged four, returning 38 years later. When she was first seen, she was naked, long-haired, and with long fingernails, which caused her to be seen as a "wild woman". Alleged cases of feral children  Raised by pumas Vicente Caucau (1948) – Chilean boy found in a savage state at age 12, allegedly raised by pumas.
Raised with sheep The historian Herodotus wrote that Egyptian pharaoh Psammetichus I (Psamtik) sought to discover the origin of language by conducting an experiment with two children. Allegedly, he gave two newborn babies to a shepherd, with the instructions that no one should speak to them, but that the shepherd should feed and care for them while listening to determine their first words. The hypothesis was that the first word would be uttered in the root language of all people. When one of the children cried “bekos” (a sound quite similar to the bleating of sheep) with outstretched arms the shepherd concluded that the word was Phrygian because that was the sound of the Phrygian word for bread.
Thus, they concluded that the Phrygians were an older people than the Egyptians. Other alleged cases The Lobo Wolf Girl of Devil's River (1845) – A figure in Texas folklore, was captured in 1846, but escaped. She was last spotted at age 17 in 1852. Raised in confinement   Isabelle (1938) was almost seven years old when she was discovered. She had spent the first years of her life isolated in a dark room with her deaf-mute mother as her only contact. Only seven months later, she had learned a vocabulary of around 1,500 to 2,000 words. She is reported to have acquired normal linguistic abilities.
Anna (1938) was six years old when she was found, having been kept in a dark room for most of her life. She was born in March 1932 in Pennsylvania, United States. She was her mother's second illegitimate child. Her mother had tried to give Anna up for several months but no agency was willing to take the financial burden, as this was during the Great Depression. Anna was kept in a store room at least until she was five and half, out of the way of her disapproving grandfather, who was infuriated by her presence. Her mother also resented her, considering her troublesome.
She was tied to a broken chair which was too small for her, and is believed to have also been tied to a cot for long periods of time. She was mostly fed milk and was never bathed, trained, or caressed by anyone. When she was found, she was suffering from malnutrition as well as muscle atrophy. She was immobile, expressionless, and indifferent to everything. She was believed to be deaf as she did not respond to others (later it was found that her deafness was functional rather than physical). She could not talk, walk, feed herself, or do anything that showed signs of cognition.
Once she was taken away and placed in a foster home, she showed signs of improvement. At the age of nine she began to develop speech. She had started to conform to social norms and was able to feed herself, though only using a spoon. Her teachers described her as having a pleasant disposition. Anna died in August 1942 of hemorrhagic jaundice. Genie, discovered 1970 in Los Angeles. Confined to one room without external stimulation of any kind, strapped to a child's toilet and restrained in a makeshift harness for up to 13 hours per day. It was also theorized that Genie's father would beat her with a wooden plank kept in the room if Genie vocalized at all.
This abuse continue for approximately 13 years and 6 months. Attempts were made to teach Genie language, but results were limited. Genie's living situation was mostly unstable, often moving between hospitals, foster homes and even an unsuccessful stay with her own mother. As of 2016, Genie is a ward of the state of California. Sujit Kumar (1979), named the "Chicken Boy of Fiji" by the media, was born with cerebral palsy and epilepsy. Sujit's mother committed suicide when he was a toddler and his father left him confined under the house to live with the chickens. Sujit was rescued while still a boy and committed to the Samabula Old People's Home where he was confined to his room and tied to his bed.
He could not speak and his only verbalisation was clucking; his only interaction with people consisted of outbursts. Sujit remained at the old people's home for 20 years until he was found by Elizabeth Clayton, a wealthy Australian businesswoman who founded the Happy Home Trust to care for Sujit and other at-risk Fijian children. Sujit's behaviour has improved, but it is assumed that he will never learn to speak, and he remains profoundly disabled. Danielle Crockett, Plant City, Florida, United States (2007–2008), had been locked in her room and deprived of any human interaction for the first 7 years of her life, causing a variety of severe developmental delays.
She was found and adopted and is currently undergoing efforts to acclimate her to human conditioning including learning English and effective communication. As of 2017, Dani now lives in a group home but was unable to learn how to speak. Vanya Yudin, ("Russian bird boy"), Russia, (2008), a seven-year-old boy was found who spent his entire life living in a tiny two bedroom apartment surrounded by birds. His mother never spoke to him and treated him as a pet, and when found he was unable to communicate except for chirping and flapping his arms like wings. Natasha, Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia (2009), a five-year-old girl who spent her entire life locked in a room with cats and dogs, and no heat, water, or sewage system.
When she was found, she could not speak, would jump at the door and bark as caretakers left, and had "clear attributes of an animal". Sasha T., Russia (2012), a two-year-old boy who was kept in a room with goats his entire life by his mother. Having spent all his time in a room with goats and without human contact, he had not learned how to speak, and weighed only about two-thirds as much as a typical child his age when he was discovered by Russian social workers. Hoaxes Following the 2008 disclosure by Belgian newspaper Le Soir that the bestselling book Misha: A Mémoire of the Holocaust Years and movie Survivre avec les loups (“Surviving with Wolves”) was a media hoax, the French media debated the credulity with which numerous cases of feral children have been unquestioningly accepted.
Although there are numerous books on these children, almost none of them have been based on archives; the authors instead have used dubious second- or third-hand printed information. According to the French surgeon Serge Aroles, who wrote a general study of feral children based on archives (L'Enigme des Enfants-loups or The Enigma of Wolf-children, 2007), many alleged cases are totally fictitious stories:   The teenager of Kronstadt (1781) – According to the Hungarian document published by Serge Aroles, this case is a hoax: the boy, mentally handicapped, had a goitre and was exhibited for money. Syrian Gazelle Boy (1946) – A boy aged around 10 was reported to have been found in the midst of a herd of gazelles in the Syrian desert in the 1950s, and was only rescued with the help of an Iraqi army jeep, because he could run at speeds of up to 50 km/h.
However, it was a hoax, as are the other gazelle-boy cases. Amala and Kamala – Claimed to have been found in 1920 by missionaries near Midnapore, Calcutta region, India, later proved to be a hoax to gain charity for Rev. Singh's orphanage. Scholars from Japan and France launched a new inquiry about Amala and Kamala, and validated the discoveries and conclusions done by Serge Aroles 20 years before: the story was a hoax. Ramu, Lucknow, India, (1954) – A girl taken by a wolf as a baby, and raised in the jungle until the age of seven. Aroles made inquiries on the scene and classifies this as another hoax.
The bear-girl of Krupina, Slovakia (1767) – Serge Aroles found no traces of her in the Krupina archives. Legend, fiction, and popular culture  Myths, legends, and fiction have depicted feral children reared by wild animals such as wolves, apes, monkeys, and bears. Famous examples include Romulus and Remus, Ibn Tufail’s Hayy, Ibn al-Nafis’ Kamil, Rudyard Kipling’s Mowgli, Edgar Rice Burroughs’s Tarzan, George of the Jungle and the legends of Atalanta and Enkidu. Roman legend has it that Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Rhea Silvia and Mars, were suckled by a she-wolf. Rhea Silvia was a priestess, and when it was found that she had been pregnant and had children, King Amulius, who had usurped his brother's throne, ordered her to be buried alive and for the children to be killed.
The servant who was given the order set them in a basket on the Tiber river instead, and the children were taken by Tiberinus, the river god, to the shore where a she-wolf found them and raised them until they were discovered as toddlers by a shepherd named Faustulus. He and his wife Acca Larentia, who had always wanted a child but never had one, raised the twins, who would later feature prominently in the events leading up to the founding of Rome (named after Romulus, who eventually killed Remus in a fight over whether the city should be founded on the Palatine Hill or the Aventine Hill).
Legendary and fictional children are often depicted as growing up with relatively normal human intelligence and skills and an innate sense of culture or civilization, coupled with a healthy dose of survival instincts. Their integration into human society is made to seem relatively easy. One notable exception is Mowgli, for whom living with humans proved to be extremely difficult. The book Knowledge of Angels involves a feral girl found on a fictional island based upon Mallorca. She is the subject of an experiment to see if the knowledge of God is learned or innate. Placed in a convent, while she is there the nuns are instructed not to teach her about God or even mention him in front of her.
This is to see whether an atheist who washed up there should be condemned or not  The 2006 novel "Magic Hour" by Kristin Hannah is about a six-year-old feral child living during her formative years inside a cave in the Olympic National Forest. The girl wanders one day into the fictional small town of Rain Valley, Washington, searching for food and carrying her pet wolf pup and unable to speak. The police chief calls in her psychiatrist sister to teach the girl how to speak and to find the girl's family. See also  Child development  Cognitive ethology  Hermit  Language deprivation experiments  Psychogenic dwarfism  Street child  Wild man  References and notes  Bibliography  For the first opportune critical approach based on archives :  External links     Category:Adverse childhood experiences Category:Animals and humans Category:Child abuse Category:Child welfare Category:Crimes against children   Category:Language acquisition Category:Legends Category:Parenting Category:Recurring elements in folklore Category:Stock characters
How to Disappear Completely and Never Be Found is a book by Doug Richmond, originally released in 1985, which is a how-to guide on starting a new identity. It includes chapters on planning a disappearance, arranging for new identification, finding work, establishing credit, pseudocide (creating the impression of one's own death), and more. The book recommends a method of disappearing by assuming the identity of a dead person with similar vital statistics and age, and also includes a section on avoiding paper trails which, due to the age of the book, may no longer be relevant or useful. A play inspired by the book was released in 2005 by Fin Kennedy, about a man wanting to disappear, which won the John Whiting Award.
Radiohead's song "How To Disappear Completely" from their fourth album, Kid A, is named after this book and was originally going to be named after its full title. The Polish ambient music collective ‘How To Disappear Completely’ is named after this book. References  Category:1985 non-fiction books Category:Handbooks and manuals
In linear algebra, an eigenvector () or characteristic vector of a linear transformation is a nonzero vector that changes at most by a scalar factor when that linear transformation is applied to it. The corresponding eigenvalue is the factor by which the eigenvector is scaled. Geometrically, an eigenvector, corresponding to a real nonzero eigenvalue, points in a direction in which it is stretched by the transformation and the eigenvalue is the factor by which it is stretched. If the eigenvalue is negative, the direction is reversed. Loosely speaking, in a multidimensional vector space, the eigenvector is not rotated. However, in a one-dimensional vector space, the concept of rotation is meaningless.
Formal definition If  is a linear transformation from a vector space  over a field  into itself and  is a nonzero vector in , then  is an eigenvector of  if  is a scalar multiple of . This can be written as  where  is a scalar in , known as the eigenvalue,  characteristic value, or characteristic root associated with . There is a direct correspondence between n-by-n square matrices and linear transformations from an n-dimensional vector space into itself, given any basis of the vector space. Hence, in a finite-dimensional vector space, it is equivalent to define eigenvalues and eigenvectors using either the language of matrices or the language of linear transformations.
If  is finite-dimensional, the above equation is equivalent to  where  is the matrix representation of  and  is the coordinate vector of . Overview Eigenvalues and eigenvectors feature prominently in the analysis of linear transformations. The prefix eigen- is adopted from the German word eigen for "proper", "characteristic". Originally utilized to study principal axes of the rotational motion of rigid bodies, eigenvalues and eigenvectors have a wide range of applications, for example in stability analysis, vibration analysis, atomic orbitals, facial recognition, and matrix diagonalization. In essence, an eigenvector v of a linear transformation T is a nonzero vector that, when T is applied to it, does not change direction.
Applying T to the eigenvector only scales the eigenvector by the scalar value λ, called an eigenvalue. This condition can be written as the equation  referred to as the eigenvalue equation or eigenequation. In general, λ may be any scalar. For example, λ may be negative, in which case the eigenvector reverses direction as part of the scaling, or it may be zero or complex. The Mona Lisa example pictured here provides a simple illustration. Each point on the painting can be represented as a vector pointing from the center of the painting to that point. The linear transformation in this example is called a shear mapping.
Points in the top half are moved to the right and points in the bottom half are moved to the left proportional to how far they are from the horizontal axis that goes through the middle of the painting. The vectors pointing to each point in the original image are therefore tilted right or left and made longer or shorter by the transformation. Points along the horizontal axis do not move at all when this transformation is applied. Therefore, any vector that points directly to the right or left with no vertical component is an eigenvector of this transformation because the mapping does not change its direction.
Moreover, these eigenvectors all have an eigenvalue equal to one because the mapping does not change their length, either. Linear transformations can take many different forms, mapping vectors in a variety of vector spaces, so the eigenvectors can also take many forms. For example, the linear transformation could be a differential operator like , in which case the eigenvectors are functions called eigenfunctions that are scaled by that differential operator, such as  Alternatively, the linear transformation could take the form of an n by n matrix, in which case the eigenvectors are n by 1 matrices. If the linear transformation is expressed in the form of an n by n matrix A, then the eigenvalue equation above for a linear transformation can be rewritten as the matrix multiplication  where the eigenvector v is an n by 1 matrix.
For a matrix, eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be used to decompose the matrix, for example by diagonalizing it. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors give rise to many closely related mathematical concepts, and the prefix eigen- is applied liberally when naming them:  The set of all eigenvectors of a linear transformation, each paired with its corresponding eigenvalue, is called the eigensystem of that transformation. The set of all eigenvectors of T corresponding to the same eigenvalue, together with the zero vector, is called an eigenspace or characteristic space of T associated with that eigenvalue. If a set of eigenvectors of T forms a basis of the domain of T, then this basis is called an eigenbasis.
History Eigenvalues are often introduced in the context of linear algebra or matrix theory. Historically, however, they arose in the study of quadratic forms and differential equations. In the 18th century Leonhard Euler studied the rotational motion of a rigid body and discovered the importance of the principal axes. Joseph-Louis Lagrange realized that the principal axes are the eigenvectors of the inertia matrix. In the early 19th century, Augustin-Louis Cauchy saw how their work could be used to classify the quadric surfaces, and generalized it to arbitrary dimensions. Cauchy also coined the term racine caractéristique (characteristic root) for what is now called eigenvalue; his term survives in characteristic equation.<ref> Augustin Cauchy (1839) "Mémoire sur l'intégration des équations linéaires" (Memoir on the integration of linear equations), Comptes rendus, 8 :  827–830, 845–865, 889–907, 931–937.
From p. 827:  "On sait d'ailleurs qu'en suivant la méthode de Lagrange, on obtient pour valeur générale de la variable prinicipale une fonction dans laquelle entrent avec la variable principale les racines d'une certaine équation que j'appellerai léquation caractéristique, le degré de cette équation étant précisément l'order de l'équation différentielle qu'il s'agit d'intégrer." (One knows, moreover, that by following Lagrange's method, one obtains for the general value of the principal variable a function in which there appear, together with the principal variable, the roots of a certain equation that I will call the "characteristic equation", the degree of this equation being precisely the order of the differential equation that must be integrated.
)</ref>  Joseph Fourier used the work of Lagrange and Pierre-Simon Laplace to solve the heat equation by separation of variables in his famous 1822 book Théorie analytique de la chaleur. Charles-François Sturm developed Fourier's ideas further and brought them to the attention of Cauchy, who combined them with his own ideas and arrived at the fact that real symmetric matrices have real eigenvalues. This was extended by Charles Hermite in 1855 to what are now called Hermitian matrices. Around the same time, Francesco Brioschi proved that the eigenvalues of orthogonal matrices lie on the unit circle, and Alfred Clebsch found the corresponding result for skew-symmetric matrices.
Finally, Karl Weierstrass clarified an important aspect in the stability theory started by Laplace by realizing that defective matrices can cause instability. In the meantime, Joseph Liouville studied eigenvalue problems similar to those of Sturm; the discipline that grew out of their work is now called Sturm–Liouville theory. Schwarz studied the first eigenvalue of Laplace's equation on general domains towards the end of the 19th century, while Poincaré studied Poisson's equation a few years later. At the start of the 20th century, David Hilbert studied the eigenvalues of integral operators by viewing the operators as infinite matrices. He was the first to use the German word eigen, which means "own", to denote eigenvalues and eigenvectors in 1904, though he may have been following a related usage by Hermann von Helmholtz.
For some time, the standard term in English was "proper value", but the more distinctive term "eigenvalue" is standard today. The first numerical algorithm for computing eigenvalues and eigenvectors appeared in 1929, when Richard von Mises published the power method. One of the most popular methods today, the QR algorithm, was proposed independently by John G. F. Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya in 1961. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrices  Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are often introduced to students in the context of linear algebra courses focused on matrices.University of Michigan Mathematics (2016) Math Course Catalogue . Accessed on 2016-03-27. Furthermore, linear transformations over a finite-dimensional vector space can be represented using matrices, which is especially common in numerical and computational applications.
Consider -dimensional vectors that are formed as a list of  scalars, such as the three-dimensional vectors  These vectors are said to be scalar multiples of each other, or parallel or collinear, if there is a scalar  such that  In this case . Now consider the linear transformation of -dimensional vectors defined by an  by  matrix ,  or  where, for each row, . If it occurs that  and  are scalar multiples, that is if  then  is an eigenvector of the linear transformation  and the scale factor  is the eigenvalue corresponding to that eigenvector. Equation () is the eigenvalue equation for the matrix .
Equation () can be stated equivalently as  where  is the  by  identity matrix and 0 is the zero vector. Eigenvalues and the characteristic polynomial  Equation () has a nonzero solution v if and only if the determinant of the matrix  is zero. Therefore, the eigenvalues of A are values of λ that satisfy the equation  Using Leibniz' rule for the determinant, the left-hand side of Equation () is a polynomial function of the variable λ and the degree of this polynomial is n, the order of the matrix A. Its coefficients depend on the entries of A, except that its term of degree n is always (−1)nλn.
This polynomial is called the characteristic polynomial of A. Equation () is called the characteristic equation or the secular equation of A. The fundamental theorem of algebra implies that the characteristic polynomial of an n-by-n matrix A, being a polynomial of degree n, can be factored into the product of n linear terms,  where each λi may be real but in general is a complex number. The numbers λ1, λ2, ... λn, which may not all have distinct values, are roots of the polynomial and are the eigenvalues of A. As a brief example, which is described in more detail in the examples section later, consider the matrix  Taking the determinant of , the characteristic polynomial of A is  Setting the characteristic polynomial equal to zero, it has roots at  and , which are the two eigenvalues of A.
The eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue can be found by solving for the components of v in the equation . In this example, the eigenvectors are any nonzero scalar multiples of  If the entries of the matrix A are all real numbers, then the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial will also be real numbers, but the eigenvalues may still have nonzero imaginary parts. The entries of the corresponding eigenvectors therefore may also have nonzero imaginary parts. Similarly, the eigenvalues may be irrational numbers even if all the entries of A are rational numbers or even if they are all integers.
However, if the entries of A are all algebraic numbers, which include the rationals, the eigenvalues are complex algebraic numbers. The non-real roots of a real polynomial with real coefficients can be grouped into pairs of complex conjugates, namely with the two members of each pair having imaginary parts that differ only in sign and the same real part. If the degree is odd, then by the intermediate value theorem at least one of the roots is real. Therefore, any real matrix with odd order has at least one real eigenvalue, whereas a real matrix with even order may not have any real eigenvalues.
The eigenvectors associated with these complex eigenvalues are also complex and also appear in complex conjugate pairs. Algebraic multiplicity   Let λi be an eigenvalue of an n by n matrix A. The algebraic multiplicity μA(λi) of the eigenvalue is its multiplicity as a root of the characteristic polynomial, that is, the largest integer k such that (λ − λi)k divides evenly that polynomial. Suppose a matrix A has dimension n and d ≤ n distinct eigenvalues. Whereas Equation () factors the characteristic polynomial of A into the product of n linear terms with some terms potentially repeating, the characteristic polynomial can instead be written as the product of d terms each corresponding to a distinct eigenvalue and raised to the power of the algebraic multiplicity,  If d = n then the right-hand side is the product of n linear terms and this is the same as Equation ().
The size of each eigenvalue's algebraic multiplicity is related to the dimension n as  If μA(λi) = 1, then λi is said to be a simple eigenvalue. If μA(λi) equals the geometric multiplicity of λi, γA(λi), defined in the next section, then λi is said to be a semisimple eigenvalue. Eigenspaces, geometric multiplicity, and the eigenbasis for matrices  Given a particular eigenvalue λ of the n by n matrix A, define the set E to be all vectors v that satisfy Equation (),  On one hand, this set is precisely the kernel or nullspace of the matrix (A − λI).
On the other hand, by definition, any nonzero vector that satisfies this condition is an eigenvector of A associated with λ. So, the set E is the union of the zero vector with the set of all eigenvectors of A associated with λ, and E equals the nullspace of (A − λI). E is called the eigenspace or characteristic space of A associated with λ. In general λ is a complex number and the eigenvectors are complex n by 1 matrices. A property of the nullspace is that it is a linear subspace, so E is a linear subspace of ℂn.
Because the eigenspace E is a linear subspace, it is closed under addition. That is, if two vectors u and v belong to the set E, written , then  or equivalently A(u + v) = λ(u + v). This can be checked using the distributive property of matrix multiplication. Similarly, because E is a linear subspace, it is closed under scalar multiplication. That is, if  and α is a complex number,   or equivalently A(αv) = λ(αv). This can be checked by noting that multiplication of complex matrices by complex numbers is commutative. As long as u + v and αv are not zero, they are also eigenvectors of A associated with λ.
The dimension of the eigenspace E associated with λ, or equivalently the maximum number of linearly independent eigenvectors associated with λ, is referred to as the eigenvalue's geometric multiplicity γA(λ). Because E is also the nullspace of (A − λI), the geometric multiplicity of λ is the dimension of the nullspace of (A − λI), also called the nullity of (A − λI), which relates to the dimension and rank of (A − λI) as  Because of the definition of eigenvalues and eigenvectors, an eigenvalue's geometric multiplicity must be at least one, that is, each eigenvalue has at least one associated eigenvector.
Furthermore, an eigenvalue's geometric multiplicity cannot exceed its algebraic multiplicity. Additionally, recall that an eigenvalue's algebraic multiplicity cannot exceed n.  To prove the inequality , consider how the definition of geometric multiplicity implies the existence of  orthonormal eigenvectors , such that . We can therefore find a (unitary) matrix  whose first  columns are these eigenvectors, and whose remaining columns can be any orthonormal set of  vectors orthogonal to these eigenvectors of . Then  has full rank and is therefore invertible, and  with  a matrix whose top left block is the diagonal matrix . This implies that . In other words,  is similar to , which implies that .
But from the definition of  we know that  contains a factor , which means that the algebraic multiplicity of  must satisfy . Suppose  has  distinct eigenvalues , where the geometric multiplicity of  is . The total geometric multiplicity of ,  is the dimension of the sum of all the eigenspaces of 's eigenvalues, or equivalently the maximum number of linearly independent eigenvectors of . If , then  The direct sum of the eigenspaces of all of 's eigenvalues is the entire vector space . A basis of  can be formed from  linearly independent eigenvectors of ; such a basis is called an eigenbasis Any vector in  can be written as a linear combination of eigenvectors of .
Additional properties of eigenvalues Let  be an arbitrary  matrix of complex numbers with eigenvalues . Each eigenvalue appears  times in this list, where  is the eigenvalue's algebraic multiplicity. The following are properties of this matrix and its eigenvalues:  The trace of , defined as the sum of its diagonal elements, is also the sum of all eigenvalues,    The determinant of  is the product of all its eigenvalues,    The eigenvalues of the th power of ; i.e., the eigenvalues of , for any positive integer , are . The matrix  is invertible if and only if every eigenvalue is nonzero. If  is invertible, then the eigenvalues of  are  and each eigenvalue's geometric multiplicity coincides.
Moreover, since the characteristic polynomial of the inverse is the reciprocal polynomial of the original, the eigenvalues share the same algebraic multiplicity. If  is equal to its conjugate transpose , or equivalently if  is Hermitian, then every eigenvalue is real. The same is true of any symmetric real matrix. If  is not only Hermitian but also positive-definite, positive-semidefinite, negative-definite, or negative-semidefinite, then every eigenvalue is positive, non-negative, negative, or non-positive, respectively. If  is unitary, every eigenvalue has absolute value . if  is a  matrix and  are its eigenvalues, then the eigenvalues of matrix  (where  is the identity matrix) are .
Moreover, if , the eigenvalues of  are . More generally, for a polynomial  the eigenvalues of matrix  are . Left and right eigenvectors   Many disciplines traditionally represent vectors as matrices with a single column rather than as matrices with a single row. For that reason, the word "eigenvector" in the context of matrices almost always refers to a right eigenvector, namely a column vector that right multiplies the  matrix  in the defining equation, Equation (),  The eigenvalue and eigenvector problem can also be defined for row vectors that left multiply matrix . In this formulation, the defining equation is  where  is a scalar and  is a  matrix.
Any row vector  satisfying this equation is called a left eigenvector of  and  is its associated eigenvalue. Taking the transpose of this equation,  Comparing this equation to Equation (), it follows immediately that a left eigenvector of  is the same as the transpose of a right eigenvector of , with the same eigenvalue. Furthermore, since the characteristic polynomial of  is the same as the characteristic polynomial of , the eigenvalues of the left eigenvectors of  are the same as the eigenvalues of the right eigenvectors of . Diagonalization and the eigendecomposition  Suppose the eigenvectors of A form a basis, or equivalently A has n linearly independent eigenvectors v1, v2, ..., vn with associated eigenvalues λ1, λ2, ..., λn.
The eigenvalues need not be distinct. Define a square matrix Q whose columns are the n linearly independent eigenvectors of A,    Since each column of Q is an eigenvector of A, right multiplying A by Q scales each column of Q by its associated eigenvalue,    With this in mind, define a diagonal matrix Λ where each diagonal element Λii is the eigenvalue associated with the ith column of Q. Then    Because the columns of Q are linearly independent, Q is invertible. Right multiplying both sides of the equation by Q−1,    or by instead left multiplying both sides by Q−1,    A can therefore be decomposed into a matrix composed of its eigenvectors, a diagonal matrix with its eigenvalues along the diagonal, and the inverse of the matrix of eigenvectors.
This is called the eigendecomposition and it is a similarity transformation. Such a matrix A is said to be similar to the diagonal matrix Λ or diagonalizable. The matrix Q is the change of basis matrix of the similarity transformation. Essentially, the matrices A and Λ represent the same linear transformation expressed in two different bases. The eigenvectors are used as the basis when representing the linear transformation as Λ.  Conversely, suppose a matrix A is diagonalizable. Let P be a non-singular square matrix such that P−1AP is some diagonal matrix D. Left multiplying both by P, AP = PD.
Each column of P must therefore be an eigenvector of A whose eigenvalue is the corresponding diagonal element of D. Since the columns of P must be linearly independent for P to be invertible, there exist n linearly independent eigenvectors of A. It then follows that the eigenvectors of A form a basis if and only if A is diagonalizable. A matrix that is not diagonalizable is said to be defective. For defective matrices, the notion of eigenvectors generalizes to generalized eigenvectors and the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues generalizes to the Jordan normal form. Over an algebraically closed field, any matrix A has a Jordan normal form and therefore admits a basis of generalized eigenvectors and a decomposition into generalized eigenspaces.
Variational characterization  In the Hermitian case, eigenvalues can be given a variational characterization. The largest eigenvalue of  is the maximum value of the quadratic form . A value of  that realizes that maximum, is an eigenvector. Matrix examples  Two-dimensional matrix example  Consider the matrix  The figure on the right shows the effect of this transformation on point coordinates in the plane. The eigenvectors v of this transformation satisfy Equation (), and the values of λ for which the determinant of the matrix (A − λI) equals zero are the eigenvalues. Taking the determinant to find characteristic polynomial of A,  Setting the characteristic polynomial equal to zero, it has roots at  and , which are the two eigenvalues of A.
For , Equation () becomes,   ;   Any nonzero vector with v1 = −v2 solves this equation. Therefore,  is an eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 1, as is any scalar multiple of this vector. For , Equation () becomes   ;   Any nonzero vector with v1 = v2 solves this equation. Therefore,  is an eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 3, as is any scalar multiple of this vector. Thus, the vectors vλ=1 and vλ=3 are eigenvectors of A associated with the eigenvalues  and , respectively. Three-dimensional matrix example Consider the matrix  The characteristic polynomial of A is  The roots of the characteristic polynomial are 2, 1, and 11, which are the only three eigenvalues of A.
These eigenvalues correspond to the eigenvectors   and , or any nonzero multiple thereof. Three-dimensional matrix example with complex eigenvalues Consider the cyclic permutation matrix  This matrix shifts the coordinates of the vector up by one position and moves the first coordinate to the bottom. Its characteristic polynomial is 1 − λ3, whose roots are  where  is an imaginary unit with   For the real eigenvalue λ1 = 1, any vector with three equal nonzero entries is an eigenvector. For example,  For the complex conjugate pair of imaginary eigenvalues,  Then  and  Therefore, the other two eigenvectors of A are complex and are  and  with eigenvalues λ2 and λ3, respectively.
The two complex eigenvectors also appear in a complex conjugate pair,  Diagonal matrix example Matrices with entries only along the main diagonal are called diagonal matrices. The eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix are the diagonal elements themselves. Consider the matrix  The characteristic polynomial of A is  which has the roots , , and . These roots are the diagonal elements as well as the eigenvalues of A. Each diagonal element corresponds to an eigenvector whose only nonzero component is in the same row as that diagonal element. In the example, the eigenvalues correspond to the eigenvectors,  respectively, as well as scalar multiples of these vectors.
Triangular matrix example A matrix whose elements above the main diagonal are all zero is called a lower triangular matrix, while a matrix whose elements below the main diagonal are all zero is called an upper triangular matrix. As with diagonal matrices, the eigenvalues of triangular matrices are the elements of the main diagonal. Consider the lower triangular matrix,  The characteristic polynomial of A is  which has the roots , , and . These roots are the diagonal elements as well as the eigenvalues of A. These eigenvalues correspond to the eigenvectors,  respectively, as well as scalar multiples of these vectors.
Matrix with repeated eigenvalues example As in the previous example, the lower triangular matrix  has a characteristic polynomial that is the product of its diagonal elements,  The roots of this polynomial, and hence the eigenvalues, are 2 and 3. The algebraic multiplicity of each eigenvalue is 2; in other words they are both double roots. The sum of the algebraic multiplicities of each distinct eigenvalue is μA = 4 = n, the order of the characteristic polynomial and the dimension of A. On the other hand, the geometric multiplicity of the eigenvalue 2 is only 1, because its eigenspace is spanned by just one vector  and is therefore 1-dimensional.
Similarly, the geometric multiplicity of the eigenvalue 3 is 1 because its eigenspace is spanned by just one vector . The total geometric multiplicity γA is 2, which is the smallest it could be for a matrix with two distinct eigenvalues. Geometric multiplicities are defined in a later section. Eigenvector-eigenvalue identity  For a Hermitian matrix, the norm squared of the jth component of a normalized eigenvector can be calculated using only the matrix eigenvalues and the eigenvalues of the corresponding minor matrix, where  is the submatrix formed by removing the jth row and column from the original matrix. Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of differential operators  The definitions of eigenvalue and eigenvectors of a linear transformation T remains valid even if the underlying vector space is an infinite-dimensional Hilbert or Banach space.
A widely used class of linear transformations acting on infinite-dimensional spaces are the differential operators on function spaces. Let D be a linear differential operator on the space C∞ of infinitely differentiable real functions of a real argument t. The eigenvalue equation for D is the differential equation  The functions that satisfy this equation are eigenvectors of D and are commonly called eigenfunctions. Derivative operator example  Consider the derivative operator  with eigenvalue equation  This differential equation can be solved by multiplying both sides by dt/f(t) and integrating. Its solution, the exponential function  is the eigenfunction of the derivative operator. In this case the eigenfunction is itself a function of its associated eigenvalue.
In particular, for λ = 0 the eigenfunction f(t) is a constant. The main eigenfunction article gives other examples. General definition The concept of eigenvalues and eigenvectors extends naturally to arbitrary linear transformations on arbitrary vector spaces.
Let V be any vector space over some field K of scalars, and let T be a linear transformation mapping V into V,  We say that a nonzero vector v ∈ V is an eigenvector of T if and only if there exists a scalar λ ∈ K such that  This equation is called the eigenvalue equation for T, and the scalar λ is the eigenvalue of T corresponding to the eigenvector v. T(v) is the result of applying the transformation T to the vector v, while λv is the product of the scalar λ with v.  Eigenspaces, geometric multiplicity, and the eigenbasis  Given an eigenvalue λ, consider the set  which is the union of the zero vector with the set of all eigenvectors associated with λ. E is called the eigenspace or characteristic space of T associated with λ.
By definition of a linear transformation,  for (x,y) ∈ V and α ∈ K. Therefore, if u and v are eigenvectors of T associated with eigenvalue λ, namely u,v ∈ E, then  So, both u + v and αv are either zero or eigenvectors of T associated with λ, namely u + v, αv ∈ E, and E is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. The eigenspace E associated with λ is therefore a linear subspace of V. If that subspace has dimension 1, it is sometimes called an eigenline. The geometric multiplicity γT(λ) of an eigenvalue λ is the dimension of the eigenspace associated with λ, i.e., the maximum number of linearly independent eigenvectors associated with that eigenvalue.
By the definition of eigenvalues and eigenvectors, γT(λ) ≥ 1 because every eigenvalue has at least one eigenvector. The eigenspaces of T always form a direct sum. As a consequence, eigenvectors of different eigenvalues are always linearly independent. Therefore, the sum of the dimensions of the eigenspaces cannot exceed the dimension n of the vector space on which T operates, and there cannot be more than n distinct eigenvalues. Any subspace spanned by eigenvectors of T is an invariant subspace of T, and the restriction of T to such a subspace is diagonalizable.
Moreover, if the entire vector space V can be spanned by the eigenvectors of T, or equivalently if the direct sum of the eigenspaces associated with all the eigenvalues of T is the entire vector space V, then a basis of V called an eigenbasis can be formed from linearly independent eigenvectors of T. When T admits an eigenbasis, T is diagonalizable. Zero vector as an eigenvector  While the definition of an eigenvector used in this article excludes the zero vector, it is possible to define eigenvalues and eigenvectors such that the zero vector is an eigenvector. Consider again the eigenvalue equation, Equation ().
Define an eigenvalue to be any scalar λ ∈ K such that there exists a nonzero vector v ∈ V satisfying Equation (). It is important that this version of the definition of an eigenvalue specify that the vector be nonzero, otherwise by this definition the zero vector would allow any scalar in K to be an eigenvalue. Define an eigenvector v associated with the eigenvalue λ to be any vector that, given λ, satisfies Equation (). Given the eigenvalue, the zero vector is among the vectors that satisfy Equation (), so the zero vector is included among the eigenvectors by this alternate definition.
Spectral theory  If λ is an eigenvalue of T, then the operator (T − λI) is not one-to-one, and therefore its inverse (T − λI)−1 does not exist. The converse is true for finite-dimensional vector spaces, but not for infinite-dimensional vector spaces. In general, the operator (T − λI) may not have an inverse even if λ is not an eigenvalue. For this reason, in functional analysis eigenvalues can be generalized to the spectrum of a linear operator T as the set of all scalars λ for which the operator (T − λI) has no bounded inverse. The spectrum of an operator always contains all its eigenvalues but is not limited to them.
Associative algebras and representation theory  One can generalize the algebraic object that is acting on the vector space, replacing a single operator acting on a vector space with an algebra representation – an associative algebra acting on a module. The study of such actions is the field of representation theory. The representation-theoretical concept of weight is an analog of eigenvalues, while weight vectors and weight spaces are the analogs of eigenvectors and eigenspaces, respectively.
Dynamic equations  The simplest difference equations have the form    The solution of this equation for x in terms of t is found by using its characteristic equation    which can be found by stacking into matrix form a set of equations consisting of the above difference equation and the k – 1 equations  giving a k-dimensional system of the first order in the stacked variable vector  in terms of its once-lagged value, and taking the characteristic equation of this system's matrix. This equation gives k characteristic roots  for use in the solution equation    A similar procedure is used for solving a differential equation of the form    Calculation  The calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors is a topic where theory, as presented in elementary linear algebra textbooks, is often very far from practice.
Classical method The classical method is to first find the eigenvalues, and then calculate the eigenvectors for each eigenvalue. It is in several ways poorly suited for non-exact arithmetics such as floating-point. Eigenvalues The eigenvalues of a matrix  can be determined by finding the roots of the characteristic polynomial. This is easy for  matrices, but the difficulty increases rapidly with the size of the matrix. In theory, the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial can be computed exactly, since they are sums of products of matrix elements; and there are algorithms that can find all the roots of a polynomial of arbitrary degree to any required accuracy.
However, this approach is not viable in practice because the coefficients would be contaminated by unavoidable round-off errors, and the roots of a polynomial can be an extremely sensitive function of the coefficients (as exemplified by Wilkinson's polynomial). Even for matrices whose elements are integers the calculation becomes nontrivial, because the sums are very long; the constant term is the determinant, which for an  is a sum of  different products. Explicit algebraic formulas for the roots of a polynomial exist only if the degree  is 4 or less. According to the Abel–Ruffini theorem there is no general, explicit and exact algebraic formula for the roots of a polynomial with degree 5 or more.
(Generality matters because any polynomial with degree  is the characteristic polynomial of some companion matrix of order .) Therefore, for matrices of order 5 or more, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors cannot be obtained by an explicit algebraic formula, and must therefore be computed by approximate numerical methods. Even the exact formula for the roots of a degree 3 polynomial is numerically impractical. Eigenvectors Once the (exact) value of an eigenvalue is known, the corresponding eigenvectors can be found by finding nonzero solutions of the eigenvalue equation, that becomes a system of linear equations with known coefficients. For example, once it is known that 6 is an eigenvalue of the matrix  we can find its eigenvectors by solving the equation , that is  This matrix equation is equivalent to two linear equations   that is    Both equations reduce to the single linear equation .
Therefore, any vector of the form , for any nonzero real number , is an eigenvector of  with eigenvalue . The matrix  above has another eigenvalue . A similar calculation shows that the corresponding eigenvectors are the nonzero solutions of , that is, any vector of the form , for any nonzero real number . Simple iterative methods  The converse approach, of first seeking the eigenvectors and then determining each eigenvalue from its eigenvector, turns out to be far more tractable for computers. The easiest algorithm here consists of picking an arbitrary starting vector and then repeatedly multiplying it with the matrix (optionally normalising the vector to keep its elements of reasonable size); this makes the vector converge towards an eigenvector.
A variation is to instead multiply the vector by ; this causes it to converge to an eigenvector of the eigenvalue closest to . If  is (a good approximation of) an eigenvector of , then the corresponding eigenvalue can be computed as    where  denotes the conjugate transpose of . Modern methods Efficient, accurate methods to compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors of arbitrary matrices were not known until the  QR algorithm was designed in 1961. Combining the Householder transformation with the LU decomposition results in an algorithm with better convergence than the QR algorithm. For large Hermitian sparse matrices, the Lanczos algorithm is one example of an efficient iterative method to compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors, among several other possibilities.
Most numeric methods that compute the eigenvalues of a matrix also determine a set of corresponding eigenvectors as a by-product of the computation, although sometimes implementors choose to discard the eigenvector information as soon as it is no longer needed. Applications  Eigenvalues of geometric transformations The following table presents some example transformations in the plane along with their 2×2 matrices, eigenvalues, and eigenvectors. The characteristic equation for a rotation is a quadratic equation with discriminant , which is a negative number whenever  is not an integer multiple of 180°. Therefore, except for these special cases, the two eigenvalues are complex numbers, ; and all eigenvectors have non-real entries.
Indeed, except for those special cases, a rotation changes the direction of every nonzero vector in the plane. A linear transformation that takes a square to a rectangle of the same area (a squeeze mapping) has reciprocal eigenvalues. Schrödinger equation  An example of an eigenvalue equation where the transformation  is represented in terms of a differential operator is the time-independent Schrödinger equation in quantum mechanics:     where , the Hamiltonian, is a second-order differential operator and , the wavefunction, is one of its eigenfunctions corresponding to the eigenvalue , interpreted as its energy. However, in the case where one is interested only in the bound state solutions of the Schrödinger equation, one looks for  within the space of square integrable functions.
Since this space is a Hilbert space with a well-defined scalar product, one can introduce a basis set in which  and  can be represented as a one-dimensional array (i.e., a vector) and a matrix respectively. This allows one to represent the Schrödinger equation in a matrix form. The bra–ket notation is often used in this context. A vector, which represents a state of the system, in the Hilbert space of square integrable functions is represented by . In this notation, the Schrödinger equation is:    where  is an eigenstate of  and  represents the eigenvalue. is an observable self adjoint operator, the infinite-dimensional analog of Hermitian matrices.
As in the matrix case, in the equation above  is understood to be the vector obtained by application of the transformation  to . Molecular orbitals In quantum mechanics, and in particular in atomic and molecular physics, within the Hartree–Fock theory, the atomic and molecular orbitals can be defined by the eigenvectors of the Fock operator. The corresponding eigenvalues are interpreted as ionization potentials via Koopmans' theorem. In this case, the term eigenvector is used in a somewhat more general meaning, since the Fock operator is explicitly dependent on the orbitals and their eigenvalues. Thus, if one wants to underline this aspect, one speaks of nonlinear eigenvalue problems.
Such equations are usually solved by an iteration procedure, called in this case self-consistent field method. In quantum chemistry, one often represents the Hartree–Fock equation in a non-orthogonal basis set. This particular representation is a generalized eigenvalue problem called Roothaan equations. Geology and glaciology In geology, especially in the study of glacial till, eigenvectors and eigenvalues are used as a method by which a mass of information of a clast fabric's constituents' orientation and dip can be summarized in a 3-D space by six numbers. In the field, a geologist may collect such data for hundreds or thousands of clasts in a soil sample, which can only be compared graphically such as in a Tri-Plot (Sneed and Folk) diagram, or as a Stereonet on a Wulff Net.
The output for the orientation tensor is in the three orthogonal (perpendicular) axes of space. The three eigenvectors are ordered  by their eigenvalues ;  then is the primary orientation/dip of clast,  is the secondary and  is the tertiary, in terms of strength. The clast orientation is defined as the direction of the eigenvector, on a compass rose of 360°. Dip is measured as the eigenvalue, the modulus of the tensor: this is valued from 0° (no dip) to 90° (vertical). The relative values of , , and  are dictated by the nature of the sediment's fabric. If , the fabric is said to be isotropic.
If , the fabric is said to be planar. If , the fabric is said to be linear. Principal component analysis  The eigendecomposition of a symmetric positive semidefinite (PSD) matrix yields an orthogonal basis of eigenvectors, each of which has a nonnegative eigenvalue. The orthogonal decomposition of a PSD matrix is used in multivariate analysis, where the sample covariance matrices are PSD. This orthogonal decomposition is called principal component analysis (PCA) in statistics. PCA studies linear relations among variables. PCA is performed on the covariance matrix or the correlation matrix (in which each variable is scaled to have its sample variance equal to one).
For the covariance or correlation matrix, the eigenvectors correspond to principal components and the eigenvalues to the variance explained by the principal components. Principal component analysis of the correlation matrix provides an orthogonal basis for the space of the observed data: In this basis, the largest eigenvalues correspond to the principal components that are associated with most of the covariability among a number of observed data. Principal component analysis is used to study large data sets, such as those encountered in bioinformatics, data mining, chemical research, psychology, and in marketing. PCA is also popular in psychology, especially within the field of psychometrics.
In Q methodology, the eigenvalues of the correlation matrix determine the Q-methodologist's judgment of practical significance (which differs from the statistical significance of hypothesis testing; cf. criteria for determining the number of factors). More generally, principal component analysis can be used as a method of factor analysis in structural equation modeling. Vibration analysis  Eigenvalue problems occur naturally in the vibration analysis of mechanical structures with many degrees of freedom. The eigenvalues are the natural frequencies (or eigenfrequencies) of vibration, and the eigenvectors are the shapes of these vibrational modes. In particular, undamped vibration is governed by  or  that is, acceleration is proportional to position (i.e., we expect  to be sinusoidal in time).
In  dimensions,  becomes a mass matrix and  a stiffness matrix. Admissible solutions are then a linear combination of solutions to the generalized eigenvalue problem  where  is the eigenvalue and  is the (imaginary) angular frequency. The principal vibration modes are different from the principal compliance modes, which are the eigenvectors of  alone. Furthermore, damped vibration, governed by  leads to a so-called quadratic eigenvalue problem,  This can be reduced to a generalized eigenvalue problem by algebraic manipulation at the cost of solving a larger system. The orthogonality properties of the eigenvectors allows decoupling of the differential equations so that the system can be represented as linear summation of the eigenvectors.
The eigenvalue problem of complex structures is often solved using finite element analysis, but neatly generalize the solution to scalar-valued vibration problems. Eigenfaces  In image processing, processed images of faces can be seen as vectors whose components are the brightnesses of each pixel. The dimension of this vector space is the number of pixels. The eigenvectors of the covariance matrix associated with a large set of normalized pictures of faces are called eigenfaces; this is an example of principal component analysis. They are very useful for expressing any face image as a linear combination of some of them. In the facial recognition branch of biometrics, eigenfaces provide a means of applying data compression to faces for identification purposes.
Research related to eigen vision systems determining hand gestures has also been made. Similar to this concept, eigenvoices''' represent the general direction of variability in human pronunciations of a particular utterance, such as a word in a language. Based on a linear combination of such eigenvoices, a new voice pronunciation of the word can be constructed. These concepts have been found useful in automatic speech recognition systems for speaker adaptation. Tensor of moment of inertia In mechanics, the eigenvectors of the moment of inertia tensor define the principal axes of a rigid body. The tensor of moment of inertia is a key quantity required to determine the rotation of a rigid body around its center of mass.
Stress tensor In solid mechanics, the stress tensor is symmetric and so can be decomposed into a diagonal tensor with the eigenvalues on the diagonal and eigenvectors as a basis. Because it is diagonal, in this orientation, the stress tensor has no shear components; the components it does have are the principal components. Graphs In spectral graph theory, an eigenvalue of a graph is defined as an eigenvalue of the graph's adjacency matrix , or (increasingly) of the graph's Laplacian matrix due to its discrete Laplace operator, which is either  (sometimes called the combinatorial Laplacian) or  (sometimes called the normalized Laplacian''), where  is a diagonal matrix with  equal to the degree of vertex , and in , the th diagonal entry is .
The th principal eigenvector of a graph is defined as either the eigenvector corresponding to the th largest or th smallest eigenvalue of the Laplacian. The first principal eigenvector of the graph is also referred to merely as the principal eigenvector. The principal eigenvector is used to measure the centrality of its vertices. An example is Google's PageRank algorithm. The principal eigenvector of a modified adjacency matrix of the World Wide Web graph gives the page ranks as its components. This vector corresponds to the stationary distribution of the Markov chain represented by the row-normalized adjacency matrix; however, the adjacency matrix must first be modified to ensure a stationary distribution exists.
The second smallest eigenvector can be used to partition the graph into clusters, via spectral clustering. Other methods are also available for clustering. Basic reproduction number  The basic reproduction number () is a fundamental number in the study of how infectious diseases spread. If one infectious person is put into a population of completely susceptible people, then  is the average number of people that one typical infectious person will infect. The generation time of an infection is the time, , from one person becoming infected to the next person becoming infected. In a heterogeneous population, the next generation matrix defines how many people in the population will become infected after time  has passed.
is then the largest eigenvalue of the next generation matrix. See also  Antieigenvalue theory  Eigenoperator  Eigenplane  Eigenvalue algorithm  Introduction to eigenstates  Jordan normal form  List of numerical analysis software  Nonlinear eigenproblem  Quadratic eigenvalue problem  Singular value  Notes  References  Citations  Sources  External links    What are Eigen Values? – non-technical introduction from PhysLink.com's "Ask the Experts"  Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors Numerical Examples – Tutorial and Interactive Program from Revoledu. Introduction to Eigen Vectors and Eigen Values – lecture from Khan Academy      Eigenvectors and eigenvalues | Essence of linear algebra, chapter 10 – A visual explanation with 3Blue1Brown  Matrix Eigenvectors Calculator from Symbolab (Click on the bottom right button of the 2x12 grid to select a matrix size.
Select an  size (for a square matrix), then fill out the entries numerically and click on the Go button. It can accept complex numbers as well.) Theory        Eigenvector – Wolfram MathWorld  Eigen Vector Examination working applet  Same Eigen Vector Examination as above in a Flash demo with sound  Computation of Eigenvalues  Numerical solution of eigenvalue problems Edited by Zhaojun Bai, James Demmel, Jack Dongarra, Axel Ruhe, and Henk van der Vorst  Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors on the Ask Dr. Math forums: ,  Demonstration applets  Java applet about eigenvectors in the real plane  Wolfram Language functionality for Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors and Eigensystems  Category:Mathematical physics Category:Abstract algebra Category:Linear algebra Category:Matrix theory Category:Singular value decomposition
B-cell lymphoma-extra large (Bcl-xL), encoded by the BCL2-like 1 gene, is a transmembrane molecule in the mitochondria. It is a member of the Bcl-2 family of proteins, and acts as an anti-apoptotic protein by preventing the release of mitochondrial contents such as cytochrome c, which leads to caspase activation and ultimately, programmed cell death. Function It is a well-established concept in the field of apoptosis that relative amounts of pro- and anti-survival Bcl-2 family of proteins determine whether the cell will undergo cell death; if more Bcl-xL is present, then pores are non-permeable to pro-apoptotic molecules and the cell survives.
However, if Bax and Bak become activated, and Bcl-xL is sequestered away by gatekeeper BH3-only factors (e.g. Bim) causing a pore to form, cytochrome c is released leading to initiation of caspase cascade and apoptotic events. While the exact signaling pathway of Bcl-xL is still not known, it is believed that Bcl-XL differs highly from Bcl-2 in their mechanism of inducing apoptosis. Bcl-xL is about ten times more functional than Bcl-2 when induced by the chemotherapy drug, Doxorubicin and can specifically bind to cytochrome C residues, preventing apoptosis. It can also prevent the formation of Apaf-1 and Caspase 9 complex by acting directly upon Apaf-1 rather than Caspase 9, as shown in nematode homologs.
Clinical significance Bcl-xL dysfunction in mice can cause ineffective production of red blood cells, severe anemia, hemolysis, and death. This protein has also been shown as a requirement for heme production and in erythroid lineage, Bcl-xL is a major survival factor responsible for an estimated half of the total survival "signal" proerythroblasts must receive in order to survive and become red cells. Bcl-xL promoter contains GATA-1 and Stat5 sites. This protein accumulates throughout the differentiation, ensuring the survival of erythroid progenitors. Because iron metabolism and incorporation into hemoglobin occurs inside the mitochondria, Bcl-xL was suggested to play additional roles in regulating this process in erythrocytes which could lead to a role in polycythemia vera, a disease where there is an overproduction of erythrocytes.
Effects  Similar to Bcl-2, Bcl-xL has been implicated in the survival of cancer cells by inhibiting the function of p53, a tumor suppressor. In cancerous mouse cells, those which contained Bcl-xL were able to survive while those that only expressed p53 died in a small period of time. Related proteins  Other Bcl-2 proteins include Bcl-2, Bcl-w, Bcl-xs, and Mcl-1. References  Category:Mitochondria Category:Cancer research Category:Apoptosis
Samp is an African food consisting of dried corn kernels that have been stamped and chopped until broken but not as fine as mealie-meal or mielie rice. The coating around the kernel loosens and is removed during the pounding and stamping process. It is eaten by the Lozi and Tonga people of Zambia with sugar and sour milk. It can also be served with gravy and various additives. It is used in the Xhosa variant of umngqusho and sometimes eaten with chakalaka. It can also be served with beef, lamb, poultry and in stuffings. According to the American Heritage dictionary (4th edition), "samp" is of Native American origin, coming from the Narragansett word "nasàump."
New Englanders since early colonial times have referred to cornmeal mush or cereal as "samp." Like hominy, samp is prepared from groats (dehulled kernels) of maize, but the two are produced by different processes. Unbroken and unhusked maize (corn) kernels can also be cooked (boiled) until tender. This food is called stampmielies in Afrikaans. Samp is often served with beans, as in "samp and beans". See also  List of maize dishes  Dikgobe  References  Category:Maize Category:South African cuisine
7 April Stadium () is a football stadium in the Syrian city of Aleppo. Opened in 1948, the venue is considered to be the oldest football stadium in Syria. The stadium is home to the Syrian 2nd Division football club Al-Yarmouk SC. History The stadium was opened as the Aleppo Municipal Stadium in 1948 shortly-after the independence of Syria. In 1977, the stadium was enlarged and the seating capacity was increased to 12,000. In the same year, the stadium was renamed as 7 April Stadium to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the foundation of the Ba'ath Party. During the beginning of the 1980s, the natural grass of the stadium was replaced with a plastic pitch.
Later in 2001, an artificial turf was installed. The stadium has a nearby outdoor swimming pool and 2 outdoor tennis courts. After the breakout of the Syrian Civil War, the stadium remained intact during the Battle of Aleppo between 2012 and 2016. See also List of football stadiums in Syria  References  Category:Sports venues completed in 1948 Category:1948 establishments in Syria 7 April Aleppo Category:Sports venues in Aleppo
Rail transport in Australia is a crucial aspect of the Australian transport network. Rail in Australia is to a large extent state-based. As at 2018, the Australian rail network consisted of a total of  of track on three major track gauges. Except for a small number of private railways, most of the Australian railway network infrastructure is government-owned, either at the federal or state level. The Australian federal government is involved in the formation of national policies, and provides funding for national projects. Rail transport in Australia has often been neglected in favour of the Australian road transport network. National issues  Uniform gauge  Very little thought was given in the early years of the development of the colony-based rail networks of Australia-wide interests.
The most obvious issue to arise was determining a track gauge. Despite advice from London to adopt a uniform gauge, should the lines of the various colonies ever meet, gauges were adopted in different colonies, and indeed within colonies, without reference to those of other colonies. This has caused problems ever since. Attempts to fix the gauge problem are by no means complete. For example, the Mount Gambier line is isolated by gauge and of no operational value. Electrification   With the electrification of suburban networks, which began in 1919, a consistent electric rail traction standard was not adopted. Electrification began in Melbourne in 1919 using 1500 V DC.
Sydney's lines were electrified from 1926 using 1500 V DC, Brisbane's from 1979 using 25 kV AC, and Perth's from 1992 using 25 kV AC. There has also been extensive non-urban electrification in Queensland using 25 kV AC, mainly during the 1980s for the coal routes. From 2014 Adelaide's lines are being gradually electrified at 25 kV AC. 25 kV AC voltage has now become the international standard. History  The first railways in Australia were built by private companies, based in the then colonies of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. The first railway was privately owned and operated and commissioned by the Australian Agricultural Company in Newcastle in 1831, a cast-iron fishbelly rail on an inclined plane as a gravitational railway servicing A Pit coal mine.
The first steam-powered line opened in Victoria in 1854. The 4 km long Flinders Street to Sandridge (now Port Melbourne) line was opened by the Hobsons Bay Railway Company at the height of the Victorian gold rush. In these early years there was very little thought of Australia-wide interests in developing the colony-based networks. The most obvious issue to arise was determining a uniform gauge for the continent. Despite advice from London to adopt a uniform gauge, should the lines of the various colonies ever meet, gauges were adopted in different colonies, and indeed within colonies, without reference to those of other colonies.
This example has caused problems ever since at the national level. In the 1890s, the establishment of an Australian Federation from the six colonies was debated. One of the points of discussion was the extent that railways would be a federal responsibility. A vote to make it so was lost narrowly, instead the new constitution allows "the acquisition, with the consent of a State, of any railways of the State on terms arranged between the Commonwealth and the State" (Section 51 xxxiii) and "railway construction and extension in any State with the consent of that State" (Section 51 xxxiv). However, the Australian Government is free to provide funding to the states for rail upgrading projects under Section 96 ("the Parliament may grant financial assistance to any State on such terms and conditions as the Parliament thinks fit").
Suburban electrification began in Melbourne in 1919 (1500 V DC). Sydney's lines were electrified from 1926 (1500 V DC), Brisbane's from 1979 (25 kV AC), and Perth's from 1992 (25 kV AC). Mainline electrification was first carried out in Victoria in 1954, closely followed by New South Wales which continued to expand their network. These networks have fallen into decline, in contrast to Queensland where 25 kV AC equipment was introduced from the 1980s for coal traffic. Diesel locomotives were introduced to Australian railways from the early 1950s. Most units were of local design and construction, using imported British or American technology and power equipment.
The three major firms were Clyde Engineering partnered with GM-EMD, Goninan with General Electric, and AE Goodwin (later Comeng) with the American Locomotive Company (ALCO). The major British company was English Electric, with Swiss firm Sulzer also supplying some equipment. This continues today, with Downer Rail and UGL Rail the modern incarnations of Clyde and Goninan respectively. Milestones Note: Narrow gauge below is , standard gauge below is  and broad gauge below is  1831 – New South Wales – Australian Agricultural Company's cast-iron fishbelly rail on an inclined plane as a gravitational railway servicing A Pit coal mine. 1837 – New South Wales – Australian Agricultural Company's cast-iron fishbelly rail on an inclined plane as a gravitational railway servicing B Pit coal mine.
1842 – New South Wales – Australian Agricultural Company's cast-iron fishbelly rail on an inclined plane as a gravitational railway servicing C Pit coal mine. 1854 – South Australia – (horse-drawn line) Goolwa to Port Elliot 1854 – Victoria – First steam powered railway from Melbourne to Sandridge (Port Melbourne). 1855 – New South Wales – standard gauge steam powered railway from Sydney to Parramatta opened. 1856 – South Australia – broad gauge Adelaide to Port Adelaide railway opened 1865 – Queensland – narrow gauge Ipswich to Bigges Camp (renamed Grandchester in honour of occasion) on the way to Toowoomba railway opened, first narrow gauge main line in the world.
1871 – Tasmania – Deloraine to Launceston railway opened as broad gauge, converted to narrow gauge in 1888 1879 – Western Australia – narrow gauge Geraldton to Northampton railway opened 1883 – Railways of New South Wales and Victoria meet at Albury 1887 – Railways of Victoria and South Australia meet at Serviceton 1888 – Railways of New South Wales and Queensland meet at Wallangara 1889 – Western Australia's first land grant railway opened, the narrow gauge Great Southern Railway, completed from Beverley to Albany, linking Perth to the colony's only deep-water port 1889 – Northern Territory – narrow gauge Darwin to Pine Creek railway opened 1891 – Western Australia – first sections of narrow gauge privately funded land grant Midland Railway opened, completed from Midland Junction to Walkaway in 1894.
1915 – Standard gauge Canberra to Queanbeyan railway opened 1917 – Standard gauge Trans-Australian Railway completed between Kalgoorlie and Port Augusta 1919 – Railways of New South Wales and South Australia meet at Broken Hill with break-of-gauge 1919 – First electric suburban trains run in Melbourne 1924 – Final section of North Coast line opens, linking Cairns to the rest of the Australian railway system 1925 – Great White Train is created to promote industry and tours in New South Wales. 1930 – Standard gauge Sydney–Brisbane railway completed with trains crossing the Clarence River on a train ferry until the opening of a bridge at Grafton in 1932.
1937 – Trans-Australian Railway extended to Port Pirie Junction and the broad gauge railway from Adelaide to Redhill extended to Port Pirie Ellen Street 1954 – first main line electrification, from Dandenong to Traralgon in Victoria 1962 – Albury to Melbourne standard gauge railway opened, completing the Sydney–Melbourne railway 1966 – Western Australia's first private standard gauge railway opened - the Goldsworthy railway transported iron ore 112 km from Mount Goldsworthy mine to Port Hedland 1968 – Kalgoorlie to Perth standard gauge railway opened 1969 – Broken Hill to Port Pirie standard gauge railway opened, completing the Sydney–Perth railway 1980 – Tarcoola to Alice Springs standard gauge railway opened 1982 – Adelaide to Crystal Brook standard gauge railway opened 1989 – Electrification of the final section of the Brisbane-Rockhampton line, completing a ~2,100 km electrified network 1995 – Melbourne–Adelaide railway standard gauge railway completed 2004 – Adelaide–Darwin railway standard gauge railway completed  Government funding  While Australian federal governments have provided substantial funding for the upgrading of roads, since the 1920s they have not regularly funded investment in railways except for their own railway, the Commonwealth Railways, later the Australian National Railways Commission, which was privatised in 1997.
They have considered the funding of railways owned by State Governments to be a State responsibility. Nevertheless, Australian governments have made loans to the states for gauge standardisation projects from the 1920s to the 1970s. From the 1970s to 1996, the Australian Government has provided some grant funding to the States for rail projects, particularly the Keating Government's One Nation program, announced in 1992, which was notable for standardising the Adelaide to Melbourne line in 1995. Significant government funding was also made available for the Alice Springs to Darwin Railway, opened in 2004. Substantial funding is now being made available for freight railways through the Australian Rail Track Corporation and the AusLink land transport funding program.
Australian Rail Track Corporation  The Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC) is a federal government owned corporation established in 1997 that owns, leases, maintains and controls the majority of main line standard gauge railway lines on the mainland of Australia, known as the Designated Interstate Rail Network (DIRN). In 2003 the Australian and New South Wales Governments agreed that ARTC would lease the NSW interstate and Hunter Valley networks for 60 years. As part of this agreement, ARTC agreed to a $872 million investment programme on the interstate rail network. The funding sources for the investment included an Australian Government equity injection into ARTC of $143 million and a funding contribution of almost $62 million by the New South Wales Government.
AusLink  Under the AusLink program introduced in July 2004, the Australian Government has introduced the opportunity for rail to gain access to funds on a similar basis to that of roads. AusLink established a defined national network (superseding the former National Highway system) of important road and rail infrastructure links and their intermodal connections. Rail funding has been announced for signalling upgrades to numerous railway lines, gauge conversion of existing broad gauge lines in Victoria to standard gauge, new rail links to intermodal freight precincts, and extensions to existing crossing loops to permit longer trains to operate.
Funding is focused on the National Network, including the following rail corridors, connecting at one or both ends to State Capital Cities:  Sydney–Melbourne railway  Sydney–Brisbane railway Sydney to Adelaide, via Sydney–Melbourne railway to Cootamundra and then the Cootamundra–Parkes line, Parkes–Crystal Brook line and the Adelaide–Darwin railway  Melbourne-Adelaide railway Adelaide to Perth – Sydney–Perth railway  Adelaide–Darwin railway Brisbane to Townsville – the North Coast railway line in Queensland Townsville to Mount Isa  Hobart to Burnie, including link to Bell Bay, Tasmania Melbourne to Mildura via Geelong  Sydney to Dubbo Some urban links in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide, connecting the long distance links to each other and to ports and airports  Hunter Region rail links from Dubbo to Newcastle via the Dubbo-Merrygoen, Merrygoen–Binnaway, Binnaway–Werris Creek and Werris Creek–Port of Newcastle lines and the Merrygoen–Gulgong, Merrygoen–Sandy Hollow and Sandy Hollow–Muswellbrook lines  Infrastructure Australia  After the 2007 federal election, the government body Infrastructure Australia was created to oversee all rail, road, airports and other infrastructure at a national level.
Rail infrastructure  Construction and maintenance of network infrastructure is consolidated into non-profit government bodies and contracted private: in the case of the interstate network and various non-urban railways of New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia, the Australian Government-owned Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC); the New South Wales Regional Network, John Holland Rail; and rail infrastructure throughout the southern half of Western Australia, Arc Infrastructure. ARTC "has a working relationship with Queensland Rail about the use of the 127 kilometres of standard gauge line between the Queensland border and Fisherman Island. ARTC intends to start discussions with Queensland about leasing this track once the NSW arrangements are bedded down".
ARTC also maintains the NSW Hunter Valley network under contract. On 1 January 2012, John Holland commenced the operation and maintenance of the New South Wales Regional Network under contract from Transport for NSW, comprising 2,700 kilometres of operational freight and passenger rail lines. Arc Infrastructure has a lease until 2049 on 5,100 kilometres of Western Australian rail infrastructure, from Geraldton in the north, to Leonora and Kalgoorlie in the east, and south to Esperance, Albany and Bunbury. It is responsible for maintaining the network and granting access to operators.
Other railways continue to be integrated, although access to their infrastructure is generally required under National Competition Policy principles agreed by the Federal, State and Territory governments:  Queensland – Queensland Rail and Aurizon  Tasmania – TasRail  Victorian non-interstate lines – V/Line and Metro Trains Melbourne  South Australian non-interstate lines – One Rail Australia  Tarcoola-Darwin line – One Rail Australia  Inland Rail is a railway construction project extending from Melbourne to Brisbane along a route west of the Great Dividing Range. Construction in stages commenced in 2018 and is scheduled to be completed in 2025, using existing routes where appropriate.
Operators  Rail freight  The major freight operators on the rail networks (excluding integrated mining railways) are:  Aurizon  Pacific National  Other rail freight operators include:  Bowmans Rail  One Rail Australia  Qube Logistics  SCT Logistics  Southern Shorthaul Railroad  TasRail  Licensing of personnel with nationally recognised credentials facilitates the transfer of those employees from one state or operator to another, as traffic demands. Total freight movement Including the mining railways, in 2015–16, there were 413.5 billion tonne kilometres of freight moved by rail. Overall railway freight in Australia is dominated by bulk freight, primarily iron ore and coal. In 2015–16 Australian railways carried over 1.34 billion tonnes of freight, 97 per cent of which were bulk movements.
Intrastate bulk freight in Western Australia—principally iron-ore movements—accounted for 61 per cent of national rail freight tonnes. Bulk movements in Queensland and NSW—principally coal—were 17 per cent and 14 per cent, respectively. Long-distance passenger   Long-distance rail and regional rail mostly operates on a state-by-state basis. The main companies that provide service are Journey Beyond, NSW TrainLink, Queensland Rail and V/Line. Journey Beyond operates three primarily tourist cross-country trains:  Indian Pacific (Sydney–Adelaide–Perth): 1 round trip per week  The Ghan (Adelaide–Alice Springs–Darwin): 1 round trip per week  The Overland (Melbourne–Adelaide): 2 round trips per week  New South Wales government-controlled NSW TrainLink operates ten long-distance passenger routes.
All routes originate from Sydney: Grafton XPT: daily Casino XPT: daily Brisbane XPT: daily Canberra Xplorer: 3 round trips per day Melbourne XPT: 2 round trips per day Griffith Xplorer: 1 round trip per week Central West XPT (to Dubbo): daily Outback Xplorer (to Broken Hill): 1 round trip per week Armidale Xplorer: daily Moree Xplorer: daily  V/Line, a Victorian government-owned not-for-profit statutory corporation , operates both regional and long distance services along the Victorian regional network.
V/Line operates eight long distance services from Melbourne:  Warrnambool line: 4 round trips per weekday, 3 round trips per Sat/Sun  Ararat line: 4 round trips per weekday, 3 round trips per Sat/Sun  Maryborough line: 2 round trips per day  Swan Hill line: 2 round trips per day  Echuca line: 1 round trip per weekday, 2 round trips per Sat/Sun  Shepparton line: 4 round trips per weekday, 3 round trips per Sat/Sun  Albury line: 3 round trips per day  Bairnsdale line: 3 round trips per Mon-Sat, 2 round trips per Sun  Queensland Rail, a state entity, operates several passenger lines under its Traveltrain subsidiary.
Six routes target the domestic market:  Spirit of Queensland (Brisbane–Cairns express): 3 round trips per week  Electric Tilt Train (Brisbane–Rockhampton express): 12 round trips per week  Spirit of the Outback (Brisbane–Longreach): 2 round trips per week  The Westlander (Brisbane–Charleville): 2 round trips per week  The Inlander (Townsville–Mount Isa): 2 round trips per week  An additional three Queensland Rail routes are aimed at providing tourist services. These services are operated under contract:  The Savannahlander (Cairns–Forsayth): 1 round trip per week  The Gulflander (Normanton–Croydon): 1 round trip per week  Kuranda Scenic Railway (Cairns–Kuranda): daily  The Public Transport Authority, a government agency of Western Australia, operates various buses and four long distance rail routes through its Transwa subsidiary.
All routes originate from Perth:  The Prospector: (Perth-Kalgoorie) 9 round trips per week  AvonLink: (Perth(Midland)-Northam) 1 round trip per day  MerredinLink: (Perth-Merridin) 3 round trips per week  The Australind: (Perth-Bunbury) 2 round trips per day  Urban rail   Sydney Trains is the state government operator of the Sydney suburban railway network. Metro Trains Sydney, a private entity whose majority owner is MTR Corporation, operates the Sydney Metro rapid transit line. NSW TrainLink, the intercity counterpart of Sydney Trains, provides local suburban services in Newcastle and Wollongong. These services largely run using double-decker electric trains, with much of the rolling stock used on intercity services shared with Sydney Trains.
Metro Trains Melbourne, a private entity whose majority owner is MTR Corporation, operates the Melbourne suburban railway network. V/Line, a state government organisation, operates the Victorian regional rail network. Queensland Rail through their City network division (formerly Citytrain) is the state government operator of the South East Queensland railway network. Transperth trains operates the five lines of the Perth suburban rail network and is a division of government body Transperth. Adelaide Metro, a South Australian government agency, operates the Adelaide suburban railway network. This system features six lines. Urban light rail and trams  Yarra Trams, which is a subsidiary of Keolis Downer, operates the 250 km, 29 lines of the Melbourne tram network.
The multinational transportation group Transdev operates Sydney's 12.8 km Dulwich Hill Line, or L1 on behalf of Transport for NSW, which purchased the formerly privately owned light rail network in 2012. A second Light rail line CBD and South East Light Rail, or L2 and L3, also operated by Transdev, became fully operational in April 2020. Keolis Downer operates G:link, a 20 km light rail line on the Gold Coast. The line is part of the TransLink network. Adelaide Metro operates the 15 km, 3 lines the Glenelg tram line in Adelaide. Canberra Metro Operations, a private joint venture between John Holland and Pacific Partnerships, operates the 12 km Canberra Metro light rail line.
This line commenced operations in 2019. Keolis Downer, locally branded as Newcastle Transport, operates the 2.7 km Newcastle Light Rail line, which opened in 2018. Tourist and heritage railways   There are many heritage railways and heritage tramways in Australia, often run by community organisations and preservation societies. There are also some privately operated passenger services, such as:  The Skitube Alpine Railway is a private railway in the New South Wales snowfields. Owned by the Perisher Ski Resort, it connects the main entrance of this tourist destination with ski areas that are inaccessible via road. The line mainly operates underground. The Byron Bay Train service operates as a shuttle between Byron Bay station in the Byron Bay township and North Beach station.
The privately run service operates on a 3 km section of the disused Murwillimbah line. Private railways  Cane Tramways with  gauge for the transport of sugarcane have always been operated as private concerns associated with the relevant sugar cane mill. These tramways are quite advanced technically, with hand-me-down rails cascaded from the normal rails, remote-controlled brake vans, concrete sleepers in places, and tamping machines in miniature. The twenty or so separate tramways cooperate in research and development. Timber Tramways were often associated with the transport of timber to sawmills. Various gauges were used, including the  gauge which was also commonly used for cane haulage.
Wider gauges were sometimes used as well; Queensland had a number of  systems, some on wooden rails. In some areas  was used, a considerable investment of resources. In the early 21st century, the disused Queensland Rail line to Esk  in the Brisbane Valley was used for timber haulage. Iron ore  Five isolated heavy duty railways for the cartage of iron ore in the Pilbara region of Western Australia have always been private concerns operated as part of the production line between mine and port, initially commencing in 1966 with Goldsworthy Mining Associates' Goldsworthy railway, and recently in 2008 with Fortescue Metals Group's Fortescue railway and in 2015 with Roy Hill Holdings' Roy Hill railway.
These lines are continually optimising axle loads (currently the heaviest in the world) and train lengths, that have pushed the limit of the wheel to rail interface and led to much useful research of value to railways worldwide. An open access sixth standard gauge iron ore network was proposed to the Oakajee Port in the Mid-West region to the south of the Pilbara but the project is currently on hold pending a viable business case. High speed rail  Medium-speed passenger services  Several medium-speed rail services operate on existing track that has been upgraded to accommodate faster services and/or tilting technology.
Some of these services use high-speed capable rolling stock. In Western Australia Westrail began using high-speed diesel railcars in 1971 on The Prospector service from Perth to Kalgoolie, and set a new Australian speed record. Now operated by Transwa, the railcars were replaced in 2004 with new units capable of , although track condition currently limits this to . The same type of cars are used on the AvonLink service. New South Wales commenced operations with the XPT in 1982. Based on the British InterCity 125 train, it has a maximum service speed of  and set an Australian speed record for the time of  on a test run in 1992.
The train is not often used to its full potential, operating along winding steam-era alignments. New South Wales trialled the Swedish X 2000 tilt train in 1995. Propelled by two specially modified XPT power cars, the train carried passengers between Sydney and Canberra in an eight-week trial. Queensland Rail's Electric Tilt Train service operates from Brisbane to Rockhampton, while the Diesel Tilt Train service runs from Brisbane to Cairns. These routes were partially upgraded in the 1990s at a cost of $590 million, with the construction of  of deviations to straighten curves. Both with a service speed of , the electric train set an Australian rail speed record of  in 1999.
In Victoria the State Government upgraded railway lines as part of the Regional Fast Rail project, with V/Line operating VLocity diesel railcars at a maximum speed of  over the lines. In the early stages of the project the Victorian Government incorrectly referred to it as the 'Fast Train' or 'Very Fast Train', and this practice continues among some politicians and members of the public. High speed rail   High speed rail has been repeatedly raised as an option since the 1980s, and has had bipartisan support for research and land purchase. The focus usually falls on Sydney to Melbourne where it is seen as a competitor to the busy Sydney–Melbourne air corridor, with Sydney to Brisbane also proposed.
The benefits of regional city development are frequently raised. A detailed study was undertaken from 2011–2013, after which the government indicated it would start purchasing land for a rail corridor. In 2016 the Prime Minister indicated a high speed rail link might be funded privately and by value capture. The Queensland Rail Electric Tilt Train's record speed of 210 km/h is just above the internationally accepted definition of high-speed rail of 200 km/h (120 mph). The maximum test speed of 193 km/h set by NSW TrainLink's XPT is approximately that. The Transwa WDA/WDB/WDC class railcars used on the medium-speed Transwa Prospector service are high-speed capable, but are limited to 160 km/h in service.
The XPT is also theoretically capable of reaching speeds of 200 km/h. References  External links
Selene Gallio is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She is a mutant, and an enemy of the X-Men often associated with the Hellfire Club's Inner Circle. She made her live-action debut in Dark Phoenix played by Kota Eberhardt. Publication history  Selene first appeared in New Mutants #9 (November 1983), written by Chris Claremont and illustrated by Sal Buscema. Fictional character biography Selene is the oldest known human mutant. Functionally immortal, her millennia-long life is attributed to her ability to drain the life essence from other beings to extend her own existence indefinitely. Her name derives from the ancient lunar deity Selene, daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia.
Claiming to have already been old when modern mankind was just emerging, Selene was born over 17,000 years ago somewhere in what is now Central Europe, "after the Oceans swallowed Atlantis and before the rise of the Aryas". Her tribe's elders recognized her for what she was and commanded the entire tribe, including her own mother, to sacrifice their lives to feed her. Hyborian Age Selene was revealed to have been an old enemy of the sorcerer Kulan Gath. Kulan Gath was active during the Hyborian Age (before any recorded civilizations) and is known to have faced both Conan the Barbarian and Red Sonja.
In fact, Sonja reportedly managed to kill him and his spirit would not manifest again until the modern era. Thus, Selene was active at least as early as the Hyborian age. Rome and Eliphas Selene came to reside in Rome during the height of its empire. She approached Eliphas, a well-respected senator whose wife had left him for a general named Mascius. Selene offered him immortality in exchange for helping her kill and absorb every soul in Rome. Eliphas went about drawing pentagrams and performing rituals at several locations in the city, but warned a small girl to get her family out.
The girl's father alerted the authorities and Eliphas and Selene were captured before the spell could be carried out. Just before they were burned at the stake Selene killed the guards. She then cursed Eliphas for his perceived betrayal with an eternal life of torture, transforming him into a vampire-like creature. Eliphas was buried alive for 700 years until a farmer discovered him in his field. Nova Roma In relatively recent times, Selene was trapped for centuries in the Amazon in the Romanesque town of Nova Roma. She was worshipped as a goddess and worked to maintain the isolation of the town so she could maintain control.
Eliphas, having at some point in time changed his name to "Eli Bard," finally locates Selene in Nova Roma. Still in love with her despite her curse, Bard realizes that he must make an offering to her before he approaches her. She also was able to marry several times and have descendants, including Amara Aquilla. Her most recent known husband was Marcus Domitius Gallio, a senator of Nova Roma. In Nova Roma, Selene attempted to kill Amara Aquilla. She knocked Amara into a lava pool, thereby releasing her latent mutant powers, as Magma. Selene fought and defeated Magma, and plotted to turn Danielle Moonstar into a psychic vampire like herself and conquer the world.
Selene fought the New Mutants, and was cast into lava and buried alive. Becoming the Black Queen Selene directed her worshippers to undertake tasks that eventually allowed her to leave Nova Roma. Selene made her way to New York City, where she encountered Juggernaut at a bar. Selene planned to seduce and murder him, but was prevented from doing this when Wolverine manipulated a bar-room brawl between Juggernaut and Colossus. Selene then discovered the existence of Rachel Summers, who Selene sought to turn into her slave only to be defeated by the X-Men. Prior to the X-Men saving her, Selene had tracked Rachel down to the home of a young man named Nicholas Damiano who had let the homeless Rachel spend the night at his place.
Selene savagely murdered the young man, resulting in Rachel swearing revenge against Selene. With help from one of her worshippers, Friedrich Von Roehm, Selene made contact with the Hellfire Club and forced the group to take her on as the new Black Queen. Selene became critical in the X-Men's attempt to stop Kulan Gath, after he conquered New York City with a reality-altering spell though she ultimately attempted to doublecross the X-Men in order to steal Gath's talisman of power. Selene's time with the Hellfire Club was a turbulent time, due to her contempt for Sebastian Shaw and her quite open desire to rule the Hellfire Club as its sole leader.
This led Shaw and Emma Frost to conspire to kill Selene by manipulating and training the young mutant Firestar to assassinate her, though this failed when Firestar realized what they were planning. Selene and the Hellfire Club's relationship with the X-Men came to a head with Rachel Summers making an unauthorized assassination attempt on Selene. Wolverine felt honor-bound to prevent Rachel from becoming a murderer, and so, saved Selene's life by severely injuring Summers. However, Selene was enraged, and used the incident to force the Lords Cardinal to agree to hunt and kill Rachel. A battle over this issue immediately commenced between the X-Men and Lords Cardinal, but it was unexpectedly halted when it drew the attention of Nimrod, the super-sentinel who had murdered Selene's assistant Rhoem, and who was bent on killing the X-Men and the Lords Cardinal.
The Lords Cardinal and the X-Men hastily agreed to a truce, fighting well-enough to cause Nimrod to flee. After this battle, in the pages of New Mutants, much was made about Selene having secret plans involving Nova Roma and Magma. Due to her love for Empath, Magma left the New Mutants to join the Hellions, only to be called home by her father to enter into an arranged marriage with a resident there. However, Magma's escort back home to Nova Roma was Empath, who ultimately decided to stay in the city with her. The two became lovers and ultimately Magma was freed from her arranged marriage plans so that she could be with him.
Writer changes and the book's transition into X-Force caused the storyline to be aborted. Furthermore, it was revealed in New Warriors #31, via Empath, that Nova Roma was nothing more than an elaborate lie, concocted by Selene several decades prior. In a desperate bid to relive happier days in which she lived in ancient Rome, Selene arranged for hundreds of people to be kidnapped and taken to the jungles of the Amazon, to a city constructed per her designs. There she was somehow able to utterly brainwash her prisoners to believe themselves descendants of ancient Romans living in the Amazon.
Magma was one of these kidnapped and brainwashed souls according to Empath. The city was disbanded and the residents returned to their regular lives across the globe. Years later, due to Chris Claremont wishing to undo writer Fabian Nieciza's dismantling of the concept of Nova Roma, Claremont ignored said story and wrote Magma as she had been originally written. He later had Magma make cryptic references to having been manipulated into believing Nova Roma was a lie by parties unknown that sought to hurt Magma by taking away her childhood home. Furthermore, the five-issue mini-series "New Mutants Forever" revealed that Claremont originally planned on revealing Magma to be Selene's granddaughter.
This family connection would be stated as well (with no build-up) in New Mutants V3 #6-8, which had Selene resurrect Magma's teammate Cypher to try to kill Magma. Furthermore, it was strongly implied during "Necrosha" that Sebastian Shaw and Emma Frost manipualted the Empath/Magma relationship in order to get Empath inside Nova Roma. In the event that Selene struck first and eliminated both, Empath would then use his powers to dismantle the city via convincing the residents that their lives were lies concocted by Selene. Selene ultimately was the deciding vote to vote Sebastian Shaw out of the Hellfire Club, when tension between Shaw and the newly recruited White King Magneto came to blows.
Unknown to Magneto or Emma Frost, however, Selene had decided that she no longer had any need for the Club and began plotting its destruction by gathering an army of young mutants, with help from the mutant omnipath known as the Gamesmaster, calling them the Upstarts. Under her authority, the Upstarts engaged in a killing spree that led to many presumed deaths (Magneto, Sebastian Shaw, Donald Pierce, and the Reavers), mortal injuries (Emma Frost), and outright deaths (the Hellions). Selene manipulated her young followers with the promise of a game, where each murder committed would land them points that would ultimately lead to them being granted a prize, described as "being the next best thing to immortality" by the Gamemaster.
However, with another writer change, Selene's involvement with the Upstarts was cut short as she herself was betrayed by Trevor Fitzroy. Selene was kept in a torture device that repeatedly ripped her flesh from her body (to attract the attention of the Gamesmaster, who took advantage of the situation to proclaim himself the new leader of the Upstarts). She would be freed by Amanda Sefton, though the torture left her weak and scarred. Needing to replenish her power, Selene first attacked and killed the other surviving Externals. Though she was opposed by X-Force, she managed to complete the slaughter and knock out the mutants, until Cable arrived.
Selene's attempt to absorb Cable's life backfired when she touched his techno-organic arm and she was forced to flee to maintain her power. Shortly afterwards, she tried to access the power of a mystical convergence using a Runestaff made from the roots of Yggdrasil, the Norse World Tree. She came to the Exploding Colossal Man festival in New Mexico, but was again opposed by X-Force, who managed to wrest the Runestaff away from her and destroy the Colossal Man mannequin it activated. Selene missed her opportunity for ultimate power and vowed vengeance on X-Force. She next appeared back in Brazil, where she had tracked Sunspot, along with Deviants posing as S.H.I.E.L.D.
agents. She lured Sunspot to her defense, and offered him a position of power in the Hellfire Club, which he refused, regardless of the illusions with which she tempted him. However, Sunspot went along with Selene to stop the Deviants in the Damocles Foundation from activating a Celestial Gatherer. Selene herself was attacked by the Sword strike team, but she managed to cast a spell that devolved them back to lizards. Along with the rest of X-Force, Selene was able to usurp control of the machinery that activated the Gatherer, but Moonstar and Arcadia destroyed the Celestial artifact before Selene could access its power.
Selene then returned to her post as the Black Queen of the Hellfire Club, after striking a deal with the demon Blackheart and seemingly throwing out the rest of the Inner Circle. She offered Sunspot the position of Black Rook, which he initially refused but then accepted when Selene and Blackheart revealed that his doing so would allow them to resurrect the spirit of Juliana Sandoval, the girl who died saving Sunspot's life when he first joined the New Mutants. Sunspot had no choice to accept and become Selene's protégé. However, with Sebastian Shaw's return to the Hellfire Club, Selene was somehow trapped inside the catacombs under the Club.
However, she gained limited mobility from an alliance with Donald Pierce. When the X-Men, including Rachel Summers arrived, during a membership change in the Hellfire Club, Selene plotted to use Rachel to completely free herself. She followed Rachel to Hong Kong via a transport portal and saved her from being corrupted by a telepathic agent of Courtney Ross, who was trying to become the next White Queen. This move was only a prelude to Selene taking over Rachel's mind, but Marvel Girl was too strong for Selene and expelled her, keeping Selene trapped for a time beneath the Hellfire Club headquarters.
After M-Day Selene was one of the few mutants to retain her powers after the events of M-Day. Selene, disguised as an old woman, befriends Wither and they live together in Mutant Town. She encourages him to use his powers and not be afraid of his natural gifts. She then asks him if he would use his powers to save his or her life. She had been killing a large number of people by draining their life-forces, and during her last feeding her disguise was spotted by a witness. She reveals to Wither that Laurie has died, while he was away.
Later she is attacked by the police and managed to kill two of them before being shot multiple times. Wither arrives and kills the other two officers, only for Selene to drop her disguise, telling him she is immortal and that they are two of a kind and should be together. She tells Wither that she will be his queen if he agrees, then kisses him, and he consents. Eli Bard's offering Selene's relationship with Eli Bard is explained by Warpath to the other members of X-Force. It is revealed he had originally planned to sacrifice the Purifiers to Selene but changed his plans upon seeing Bastion reprogram an offspring of Magus.
Using the Technarch transmode virus he reanimated the corpses in the burial grounds of the Apache tribe that he had decimated decades earlier along with Caliban. He presented them to Selene for the purpose of finding other dead mutants and resurrecting them by the same means, so that Bard can sacrifice them and their powers to her. Necrosha  One week before the event of Necrosha, Selene has the recently resurrected Destiny brought before her where she asks what her future holds. Selene returns to the place of her birth in central Europe, accompanied by new Inner Circle, consisting of Blink, Senyaka, Mortis, Wither, and Eli Bard.
She sets her plan into motion of becoming a goddess with her Inner Circle; they go to the New York branch of the Hellfire Club, where they slaughter everyone present. Selene then targets others who she feels have obstructed, or otherwise failed, her in her quest for divinity, namely Sebastian Shaw, Donald Pierce, Emma Frost (against whom she especially holds a grudge because of Frost's use of the "Black Queen" codename when working for the Dark X-Men), the X-Men, and Magma. Caliban and Thunderbird then lead her to the ruins of Genosha. Selene dubs the ruins Necrosha and swears that her journey will end here.
While most of the resurrected mutants attack the X-Men and Utopia, Selene is seen with Eli Bard resurrecting the massacred residents of Genosha, with Cerebro detecting the rise of mutant numbers in millions (the first life-signs detected by Bastion's computers include Spoor, Katu, Unus, REM-RAM, Static, and Barnacle). There is a major problem though: a lot of the deceased have been depowered, despite having been killed BEFORE M-day. Wither and Mortis explain what happened and the Coven begins to set up base at Necrosha. It turns out that Selene can't do the ritual yet, because Eli Bard lost the knife that was required to do it.
She then dispatches her crew and they end up taking the knife back, capturing Warpath in the process. Once Bard gives Selene the knife and proclaims his eternal love for her, Selene stabs Eli, killing him (much to Wither's delight). Warpath is eventually rescued by the Vanisher but Selene absorbs the many souls around her, turning light blue and growing in size. She finally becomes the goddess she had sought to be for so long. Turning to her followers, she commands them to get her more souls. Warpath was able to destroy Selene by plunging his dagger into her chest, after teaching X-Force the Ghost Dance, a ritual meant to kill evil spirits such as Selene.
Shocked that her moment of godhood was taken away so quickly, Selene explodes into rays of light. Sometime after Selene's death, Blink attempted to resurrect the Black Queen. Blink  was eventually stopped by Emma Frost and a small team of X-Men (consisting of Blindfold, Pixie, Husk, Warpath) along with former Sorcerer Supreme Doctor Strange who managed successfully to purge Blink of Selene's corrupted influence. She also assisted in the resurrection of Alexa's husband Aleksander Lukin who also joined the Power Elite. Though the side-effect also revived a remnant of the Red Skull's mind that was in Aleksander. Dawn of X Selene was eventually welcomed to the new mutant island of Krakoa, created by Xavier, Magneto and Moira.
She entered through the teleportation gateway alongside other villainous and fractious mutants, who had been invited to join the nation in order to heal mutantdom and start over as a whole species together. Selene alongside Emplate, had been tasked by Xavier with measuring the amount of psychic energy that Krakoa would take from its inhabitants. A similar protocol was put in place for them both as they also need to nourish on mutants for survival. Powers and abilities Selene is both a mutant and a powerful sorceress. She possesses a wide range of superhuman abilities, but it has never been clearly defined which of these are her actual mutant abilities and which are skills derived from magic or other sources.
Selene is a "psychic vampire" with the ability to sustain herself by psionically draining the life force of other human beings into herself. If she drains a person's entire life force, the victim dies and crumbles to dust in seconds. If Selene only drains the victim's life force partially, she achieves a measure of psychic control over her victim's mind, thereby subverting them to her will. Through unknown means Selene can also cause a human being to become a psychic vampire like herself, but be subordinate to Selene's own will. Selene's youthful appearance and vitality depends upon her absorbing the life forces of one or more people on a regular basis.
This restores Selene to a youthful and healthy appearance when she has been injured, or when she over-exerts her other powers, and sustains her centuries-long life. A side effect of this process is that Selene remembers the life of anyone she absorbs. By using the absorbed life energies that sustain her, Selene can enhance her physical strength, speed, stamina, agility, reflexes, and durability to superhuman levels. The amount of energy she has retained from her victims does seem to correlate somewhat with her physical strength and resistance to injury. Selene can momentarily move at superhuman speeds of around 175 miles/hour, though this requires a heavy expenditure of energy and can cause her to age rapidly and require more life energy immediately.
It is not known how often Selene must drain a human's life force in order to survive. Great expenditure of power causes Selene to age rapidly, but she can rejuvenate herself by absorbing more life force. Selene appears to be immune to most forms of conventional injury; she has survived both a knife wound and a crossbow bolt to her heart with no apparent lasting effects. While not indestructible, she once survived and recovered completely from molecular discorporation, though it took considerable time to reconstitute herself. Selene's most direct weapon is the telekinetic power to animate and/or levitate inorganic matter on a molecular level, by projecting part of her absorbed life force into it.
She can affect nearly anything within her line of sight, and can warp and alter the molecules of inanimate matter to her whim, causing objects to wrap around and constrict others, creating lifelike humanoid structures to combat her opponents, or simply reducing objects to dust. She can use this power in more standard ways, such as creating powerful force fields around herself, and can levitate herself and others but cannot truly fly. Selene can also control and manipulate fire in a variety of ways, though she cannot create the fire herself; whether this is a facet of her telekinesis or a separate power is unclear.
Selene's telekinetic powers fail to affect beings who can control themselves down to the molecular level, such as the robot Nimrod. Selene possesses an undefined level of telepathic ability, though she is not as powerful as high-order telepaths such as Professor X, Emma Frost, or Jean Grey, and is vulnerable to psionic attack should she be directly engaged. Selene has used her abilities to scan minds for information and was able to communicate mentally within a limited radius. However, it appears that she lacks the telepathic strength to communicate over long distances, as she once used Rachel Grey in order to do so.
She often uses her telepathy to blend her psychic signature into the background thoughts around her, making her difficult for other psionics to locate or track, or to induce a hypnotic trance in others, during which she slips away at superhuman speed, leaving them with the impression that she simply vanished. Selene is able to temporarily assume the appearance of others. Like many of her other abilities, it is unknown if this is achieved through magic, telepathy, or other means. Selene possesses considerable magical abilities and extensive knowledge of sorcery, enabling her to cast and counteract spells. While the full extent of Selene's magical skill is not known, her greatly extended lifespan has given her sufficient knowledge and experience to be considered a threat to Kulan Gath.
She was able to cast an illusion sufficient to fool Kulan Gath at his most powerful. Selene was revealed as one of several magic-users with the potential to be the next Sorcerer Supreme after Doctor Strange by the Eye of Agamotto. Selene was briefly depicted as a being of semi-substantial living darkness with the ability to appear and disappear at will and, similar to Blackheart, imprison people in the dark energy she appears to be composed of. In more recent appearances, however, she has apparently regained her humanoid form and displays her original powers. In other media Selene appears in Wolverine and the X-Men, voiced by April Stewart.
In the episode "Shades of Grey", she appears as a member of the Inner Circle of the Hellfire Club. In the episode "Foresight" [Pt. 1], she and the Hellfire Club end up fighting Cyclops in order to prevent the X-Man from disrupting a ritual that would transfer the Phoenix Force from Jean Grey to the Stepford Cuckoos. She uses her psychic vampirism on Cyclops, but displays none of her other powers in her brief appearance. Film Selene appears in Dark Phoenix played by Kota Eberhardt. This version is a part of Magneto's Brotherhood of Mutants. Selene works closely with Magneto on Genosha.
She and Ariki join him when trying to confront Jean Grey and is captured with the rest by the U.S. government. She displays telepathic abilities during the film. During the fight with the D'Bari on a train owned by the U.S. government, Selene and Ariki are killed in battle. Video games  Selene appeared as the final boss of Gambit's stage in the 1992 video game Spider-Man and the X-Men in Arcade's Revenge. She also appeared as a boss in the SNES game Wolverine: Adamantium Rage. Selene appears in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, voiced by Jeannie Elias. She is one of the many characters to make a cameo.
Selene is a captive in Apocalypse's citadel, and the X-Men free her as part of a deal the X-Men made with Sebastian Shaw earlier in the game. Selene promises to give them information, but upon being freed reveals she had no information, and had only said that so the X-Men would help her. Selene appears in Marvel: Avengers Alliance. References  External links  Selene at Marvel.com  Selene at the Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe    Selene:The High Priestess  "Selene - la belle dame sans merci" at UncannyXmen.net    Category:Characters created by Chris Claremont Category:Characters created by Sal Buscema Category:Comics characters introduced in 1983 Category:Female characters in comics Category:Fictional ancient Romans Category:Fictional characters with immortality Category:Fictional mass murderers Category:Marvel Comics characters who use magic Category:Marvel Comics female supervillains Category:Marvel Comics mutants Category:Marvel Comics supervillains Category:Marvel Comics telepaths Category:Marvel Comics vampires Category:X-Men supporting characters
In enzymology, an aromatic-hydroxylamine O-acetyltransferase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction  N-hydroxy-4-acetylaminobiphenyl + N-hydroxy-4-aminobiphenyl  N-hydroxy-4-aminobiphenyl + N-acetoxy-4-aminobiphenyl  Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are N-hydroxy-4-acetylaminobiphenyl and N-hydroxy-4-aminobiphenyl, whereas its two products are N-hydroxy-4-aminobiphenyl and N-acetoxy-4-aminobiphenyl. This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, specifically those acyltransferases transferring groups other than aminoacyl groups. The systematic name of this enzyme class is N-hydroxy-4-acetylaminobiphenyl:N-hydroxy-4-aminobiphenyl O-acetyltransferase. Other names in common use include aromatic hydroxylamine acetyltransferase, arylhydroxamate acyltransferase, arylhydroxamate N,O-acetyltransferase, arylhydroxamic acid N,O-acetyltransferase, arylhydroxamic acyltransferase, N,O-acetyltransferase, and N-hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluorene N-O acyltransferase. References     Category:EC 2.3.1 Category:Enzymes of unknown structure
Gliding motility is a type of translocation used by microorganisms that is independent of propulsive structures such as flagella, pili, and fimbriae. Gliding allows microorganisms to travel along the surface of low aqueous films. The mechanisms of this motility are only partially known. Twitching motility also allows microorganisms to travel along a surface, but this type of movement is jerky and uses pili as its means of transport. Bacterial gliding is a type of gliding motility that can also use pili for propulsion. The speed of gliding varies between organisms, and the reversal of direction is seemingly regulated by some sort of internal clock.
For example the apicomplexans are able to travel at fast rates between 1–10 μm/s. In contrast Myxococcus xanthus bacteria glide at a rate of 5 μm/min. Cell-invasion and gliding motility have TRAP (thrombospondin-related anonymous protein), a surface protein, as a common molecular basis that is both essential for infection and locomotion of the invasive apicomplexan parasite. Micronemes are secretory organelles on the apical surface of the apicomplexans used for gliding motility. Types of motility Bacterial gliding is a process of motility whereby a bacterium can move under its own power. Generally, the process occurs whereby the bacterium moves along a surface in the general direction of its long axis.
Gliding may occur via distinctly different mechanisms, depending on the type of bacterium. This type of movement has been observed in phylogenetically diverse bacteria such as cyanobacteria, myxobacteria, cytophaga, flavobacteria, and mycoplasma. Bacteria move in response to varying climates, water content, presence of other organisms, and firmness of surfaces or media. Gliding has been observed in a wide variety of phyla, and though the mechanisms may vary between bacteria, it is currently understood that it takes place in environments with common characteristics, such as firmness and low-water, which enables the bacterium to still have motility in its surroundings. Such environments with low-water content include biofilms, soil or soil crumbs in tilth, and microbial mats.
Purpose Gliding, as a form of motility, appears to allow for interactions between bacteria, pathogenesis, and increased social behaviours. It may play an important role in biofilm formation, bacterial virulence, and chemosensing. Swarming motility Swarming motility occurs on softer semi-solid and solid surfaces (which usually involves movement of a bacterial population in a coordinated fashion via quorum sensing, using flagella to propel them), or twitching motility on solid surfaces (which involves extension and retraction of type IV pili to drag the bacterium forward). Proposed mechanisms The mechanism of gliding might differ between species. Examples of such mechanisms include:    Motor proteins found within the inner membrane of the bacteria utilize a proton-conducting channel to transduce a mechanical force to the cell surface.
The movement of the cytoskeletal filaments causes a mechanical force which travels to the adhesion complexes on the substrate to move the cell forward. Motor and regulatory proteins that convert intracellular motion into mechanical forces like traction force have been discovered to be a conserved class of intracellular motors in bacteria that have been adapted to produce cell motility. A-motility (adventurous motility) as a proposed type of gliding motility, involving transient adhesion complexes fixed to the substrate while the organism moves forward. For example, in Myxococcus xanthus, a social bacterium. Ejection or secretion of a polysaccharide slime from nozzles at either end of the cell body.
Energized nano-machinery or large macromolecular assemblies located on the bacterium's cell body. "Focal adhesion complexes" and "treadmilling" of surface adhesins distributed along the cell body. The gliding motility of Flavobacterium johnsoniae uses a helical track superficially similar to M. xanthus, but via a different mechanism. Here the adhesin SprB is propelled along the cell surface (spiraling from pole to pole), pulling the bacterium along 25 times faster than M. xanthus. Flavobacterium johnsoniae move via a screw-like mechanism and are powered by a proton motive force. See also  Extracellular polymeric substance  Microneme  Mucilage  References  Category:Cell movement
Daniel Richard Duffy (born December 21, 1988) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Kansas City Royals of Major League Baseball (MLB). After being drafted by the Royals in 2007, Duffy spent the next several years in the Royals' minor league system, and represented the team in the 2009 All-Star Futures Game. However, personal issues led Duffy to temporarily retire from baseball in 2010, although he returned to the Royals to make his major league debut in 2011. After his rookie season, Duffy did not pitch in the major leagues on a regular basis again until 2014. Duffy was a member of the Royal's pitching staffs during the team's successful 2014 and 2015 seasons, and won the World Series championship with the Royals in 2015.
Duffy had a career year in 2016, setting career highs in many statistical categories. After the 2016 season, Duffy signed a $65 million extension to remain with the Royals and has remained a regular starting pitcher, although he has not again reached his 2016 statistical peak. Early life Duffy was born on December 21, 1988 in Goleta, California. He was exposed to the game of baseball at an early age, both through playing competitively in local youth leagues and practicing with his family. He attended Cabrillo High School in Vandenberg Village, California, where he played both baseball and basketball. For the baseball team, Duffy had a 5–3 win–loss record, a 0.60 earned run average, and 127 strikeouts in  innings pitched in his senior year.
Professional career  Minor leagues The Kansas City Royals drafted Duffy in the third round of the 2007 Major League Baseball draft out of high school. He began his professional career that season with the Arizona Royals of the rookie-level Arizona League, where he pitched in 11 games and had a 1.45 earned run average (ERA). The Royals promoted Duffy to Burlington Bees of the Class-A Midwest League in 2008, where he had an 8–4 record and a 2.20 ERA in 17 starts. He was named Burlington's Pitcher of the Year. In 2009, Duffy started 24 games for the Wilmington Blue Rocks of the Class-A Advanced Carolina League.
He was named a Carolina League All-Star, and finished the season with a 9–3 record and a 2.98 ERA. Duffy represented the Royals in the 2009 All-Star Futures Game, where he pitched  scoreless innings. The Royals invited Duffy to spring training in 2010. However, Duffy abruptly retired from baseball in March 2010, at the age of 21. He informed the Royals' organization that he wanted to "reassess his life priorities". The move reminded many of Zack Greinke's departure from the Royals' camp in 2006. Realizing that he missed the game of baseball, Duffy decided to unretire and return to the Royals in June, showing up at the extended spring training in Surprise, Arizona.
Later that season, Duffy pitched for Wilmington, the Idaho Falls Chukars of the rookie-level Pioneer League, and Northwest Arkansas Naturals of the Class AA Texas League. Duffy went 5–2 with a 2.95 ERA in seven regular-season starts for the Naturals, and 1–0 with a 1.69 ERA in two playoff games, as the Naturals won the Texas League championship. He pitched in the Arizona Fall League after the season. Heading into the 2011 season, Baseball America rated Duffy as the 68th best prospect in baseball. The Royals again invited Duffy to spring training. Duffy began the 2011 season with the Omaha Storm Chasers of the Class-AAA Pacific Coast League .
With Omaha, Duffy was named Pacific Coast League Pitcher of the Week for the week of April 25 – May 1. Duffy pitched to a 3–1 record and 3.00 ERA in seven starts for Omaha, recording 43 strikeouts while only walking 10 and allowing 30 hits in 36 innings. Kansas City Royals  2011–2015 The Royals promoted Duffy to the majors, and he made his MLB debut on May 18, 2011. He gave up two runs in four innings; he did not earn the decision in a 5–4 loss to the Texas Rangers. He recorded his first major league win on June 14, pitching six innings against the Oakland Athletics.
Duffy finished the 2011 season with a 4–8 record and 5.64 ERA in 20 MLB starts. After signing a contract for $487,750 prior to the 2012 season, Duffy competed for, and won, a spot in the starting rotation during spring training. Duffy made six starts in 2012 before suffering a torn ulnar collateral ligament in his left elbow that required Tommy John surgery on June 13, 2012. Prior to being sidelined, Duffy had a 2-2 record with an ERA of 3.90. On November 2, 2012, the Royals reinstated Duffy from the 60-day disabled list; however, he was not expected to return to pitching for the Royals until late June or early July.
Duffy signed a one-year $505,125 contract on February 20, 2013. On May 26, 2013, Duffy began a rehab assignment with the Northwest Arkansas Naturals. While still undergoing rehab from his injury, Duffy was reassigned to the Omaha Storm Chasers (a higher level minor league affiliate than the Naturals) on June 6. He was optioned to Omaha at the end of the rehab period on June 25. Duffy was recalled from Omaha on August 7, and returned on August 8. He was recalled on August 16 to start the first game of a doubleheader against the Detroit Tigers, in a game the Royals went on to win.
On March 2, 2014, Duffy signed a one-year $526,000 contract. During spring training in 2014, Yordano Ventura won the final spot in the Royals' starting rotation over Duffy. However, when Bruce Chen went down with a back injury early in the season, Duffy took over his spot in the rotation. He posted a 9-12 record with a 2.53 ERA over  innings. Duffy pitched to a 4.08 ERA during the 2015 season. In September, Duffy was moved from the starting rotation to the bullpen. In the 2015 World Series, Duffy made three relief appearances as the Royals defeated the New York Mets in five games to win the World Series championship.
2016–present Duffy signed a one-year, $4.225 million contract with the Royals for the upcoming 2016 season. He began the season as a relief pitcher, but rejoined the Royals' starting rotation in May. Duffy responded to the move out of the bullpen with a strong season, setting a career high in wins with a 12-3 win-loss record. On August 1, 2016, Duffy set the Royals' record for most strikeouts in a single game with a 16-strikeout performance against the Tampa Bay Rays. In that game, Duffy carried a no-hitter into the eighth, losing it on a leadoff double by Desmond Jennings of the Tampa Bay Rays.
On August 11, Duffy pitched all nine innings in a game against the Chicago White Sox for his first career complete game. Duffy was considered to be a contender for the American League Cy Young Award, the annual award given to the best pitcher in each league, although Duffy ultimately received no votes for that award. Besides his career-high 12 wins, Duffy pitched to a  3.51 ERA and increased his strikeouts per 9 innings pitched ratio to 9.4. He had the highest zone percentage of all major league pitchers, with 49.8% of his pitches being in the strike zone. On January 16, 2017, Duffy signed a five-year contract extension with the Royals worth $65 million.
On April 3, 2017, Duffy was the Royals' Opening Day starter against the Minnesota Twins. He pitched six innings, throwing eight strikeouts, allowing three hits and three walks. Despite hopes that Duffy could build upon the momentum from his 2016 season, multiple injuries limited his playing time. On May 30, Duffy was placed on the 15-day disabled list due to a Grade 1 oblique strain. On August 26, Duffy was again placed on the 10-day disabled list, this time due to left elbow impingement. He finished the regular season in 2017 with a 9-10 record and an era of 3.81.
He pitched  innings in 24 games at the major league level, all as a starter. In the offseason before the 2018 season, Duffy was widely rumored to be a potential trade piece, leading Duffy to post on Twitter "bury me a Royal" to signal his opposition to being traded. Duffy had a poor start to the 2018 season, but finished with a respectable 8-12 record and 4.88 ERA over 28 starts. He also finished second in the American League in wild pitches and 7th in walks allowed, indicating struggles with his command. Heading into the 2019 season, Duffy was viewed as a potential "building block" for the Royals' pitching staff.
However, left shoulder tightness led to Duffy beginning the season on the injured list. He was activated on April 26th. After returning, Duffy was a consistent starter in the Royals' rotation, and pitched a season-high 8 innings against the Minnesota Twins on June 22. He made another appearance on the injured list in August with a strained hamstring. This injury sidelined Duffy for about a month, although he returned in September, starting five games and winning two of them. Duffy ended the season with a 7-6 record, a 4.34 ERA, and 115 strikeouts in  innings. International career Duffy was a member of the United States national baseball team in the Pan American Games Qualifying Tournament, in the 210-2011 offseason, along with future Royals teammates Mike Moustakas and Eric Hosmer.
Duffy also represented the United States as a member of the national team competing at the 2017 World Baseball Classic, an international tournament. Duffy's performance included wins against the national teams of Canada and the Dominican Republic. The United States' team went on to win the tournament. Personal life His father, Dan, is an investigator for the Santa Barbara County Sheriff's Office. His mother, Deanna, worked as a California Highway Patrol officer. She played softball, and throws batting practice for Danny. On August 27, 2017, Duffy was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol after passing out in the drive-thru of a Burger King in Overland Park, Kansas.
At the time of his arrest, he was on the disabled list due to his elbow injury and was not traveling with the Royals. He entered a guilty plea and was sentenced to one year of probation in January 2018. Duffy has been open about his struggles with depression (which had forced his temporary retirement in 2010), and has been outspoken about the need for better mental health support in professional sports. References  External links  Category:1988 births Category:Living people Category:Arizona League Royals players Category:Burlington Bees players Category:Wilmington Blue Rocks players Category:Idaho Falls Chukars players Category:Northwest Arkansas Naturals players Category:Omaha Storm Chasers players Category:Kansas City Royals players Category:All-Star Futures Game players Category:Major League Baseball pitchers Category:Baseball players from California Category:People from Lompoc, California Category:Surprise Rafters players Category:2017 World Baseball Classic players
The Brute Man is a 1946 American horror thriller film starring Rondo Hatton as the Creeper, a murderer seeking revenge against the people he holds responsible for the disfigurement of his face. Directed by Jean Yarbrough, the film features Tom Neal and Jan Wiley as a married pair of friends the Creeper blames for his deformities. Jane Adams also starred as a blind pianist for whom the Creeper tries to raise money for an operation to restore her vision. The film was produced by Universal Pictures near the end of their horror film period. According to legend, as the result of its pending merger with International Pictures, Universal Pictures adopted a policy against releasing any more B movies, so sold The Brute Man  for $125,000 to poverty row's Producers Releasing Corporation, which distributed the film without any mention of Universal's involvement in publicity or credits.
In fact, Universal released at least one B-western following the merger, and still had numerous other titles in active circulation from the preceding few years, at the time of the merger. Most experts tend to believe that Universal simply found the exploitation of the deceased Hatton and his deformity for the third time, in his last film (in which evidence of his impending demise may be foreshadowed in his acting), and of a poorly-developed story, to be detrimental to its corporate image but did not want to take a financial loss by simply shelving the film permanently. The film was released to home video in 1982.
The Brute Man received generally negative reviews, drawing particular criticism for Hatton's poor performance. The film was featured in a 1996 episode of the movie-mocking comedy television series Mystery Science Theater 3000. Plot The police investigate a string of murders committed by the Creeper (Rondo Hatton), a mysterious killer with a hideously disfigured face. The Creeper attacks and murders Professor Cushman (John Hamilton), a professor from the nearby Hampton University. Later that night, the killer approaches a woman named Joan Bemis (Janelle Johnson) in front of her home and identifies himself as Hal Moffet. Joan screams hysterically at the sight of him until he is driven to kill her.
When police cars approach, the Creeper climbs the fire escape of a city tenement building to escape and enters the apartment of Helen Paige (Jane Adams), a blind pianist. Unable to see the Creeper's deformed face, Helen is not afraid of the intruder, even when he admits to fleeing. When police officers knock on her door, failing to identify themselves, Helen encourages him to hide in her bedroom, where he escapes through the window. The next day, a general store delivery boy named Jimmy (Jack Parker) listens to a radio report about the Creeper's murders. The cantankerous store owner Mr. Haskins (Oscar O'Shea) arrives with a handwritten letter slipped under the door, requesting groceries be delivered to a nearby dock.
Jimmy brings the groceries to the dock and leaves them at a door, where the Creeper takes them into his hideout. But, when Jimmy tries to spy on him through a window, the Creeper sneaks up on Jimmy and kills him. Meanwhile, at the police station, Captain M.J. Donelly (Donald MacBride) and Lieutenant Gates (Peter Whitney) receive complaints from the mayor's office about their failure to arrest the Creeper, but they deflect the blame. The two officers then get a call about the missing delivery boy and head to the dock to investigate. The Creeper sneaks out and escapes while Donelly and Gates infiltrate his hideout and discover Jimmy's corpse.
Donnelly also finds a newspaper clipping with a man named Hal Moffet and two of his friends, Clifford Scott (Tom Neal) and Virginia Rogers (Jan Wiley), during their college days. The police visit Clifford and Virginia, who are now married and wealthy. Clifford tells the officers during college, Hal was a handsome college football star who competed with Clifford for Virginia's affections. One day, while helping Hal prepare for a chemistry exam, a jealous Clifford deliberately gave him the wrong answers, resulting in Hal being asked by Professor Cushman to remain after class for extra work. While working on a chemistry experiment, Clifford walks by the window with Virginia to boast.
Furious, Hal hurls a beaker to the ground, accidentally causing an explosion that disfigures his face. Donnelly speculates that Hal is the Creeper, and that he killed Professor Cushman and Joan because he holds them partially responsible for his accident. Meanwhile, the Creeper goes to a pawn store to buy a brooch for Helen, and kills the pawnbroker (Charles Wagenheim) following a fight. He later brings the brooch to Helen, who he realizes for the first time is blind. Hal learns she needs $3,000 for surgery that would restore her eyesight. When Helen tries to touch his face, Hal angrily storms out.
He then goes to the Scott residence and demands money from Clifford and Virginia, whom he blames for his disfigurement. Clifford draws a gun and shoots Hal twice in the stomach, but the weakened Hal manages to strangle Clifford to death before escaping with Virginia's jewels. He brings them to Helen, who is concerned about Hal's injuries, but he flees before she can learn he is shot. Helen brings the jewels to an appraiser, who recognizes them as having recently been reported stolen. Donelly and Gates bring Helen into the station, where they inform her Hal is the Creeper and accuse her of harboring a murderer.
Reluctantly, she agrees to help them capture him. The next day, the newspapers run stories about Helen cooperating with police, which infuriates Hal. Feeling betrayed, he sneaks back into her apartment and finds her playing the piano. Sneaking up from behind, Hal is about to strangle her when the police seize and arrest him. The film ends with Donelly and Gates assuring Helen she will get the operation she needs.
Cast Rondo Hatton as Hal Moffat/'The Creeper'  Tom Neal as Clifford Scott  Jan Wiley as Virginia Rogers Scott Jane Adams as Helen Paige  Donald MacBride as Police Captain M. J. Donelly  Peter Whitney as Police Lieutenant Gates  Fred Coby as Young Hal Moffat Janelle Johnson Dolenz as Joan Bemis  Joseph Crehan as Police Commissioner Salisbury (uncredited)  John Hamilton as Professor Cushman (uncredited)  Production  Writing The screenplay for The Brute Man was written by George Bricker and M. Coates Webster based on a story by Dwight V. Babcock. An author of pulp fiction stories and novels, Babock started writing for Universal Pictures in 1943, where he worked primarily on horror films.
The Brute Man marked the last of nine films Babcock wrote for Universal before he left for a job at Columbia Pictures. Bricker wrote several screenplays in a variety of genres, from horror films and mysteries to comedies, and worked primarily as a freelancer jumping from studio to studio. Babcock and Brister previously worked together on several low-budget horror films, including The Devil Bat (1940), House of Dracula (1945), Pillow of Death (1945), She-Wolf of London (1946) and House of Horrors (1946). Bricker and Webster both previously wrote the screenplays for Universal Pictures films featuring The Brute Man star Rondo Hatton: Bricker penned House of Horrors, and Webster wrote The Jungle Captive (1947), the third in a series of films about an ape that transforms into a beautiful woman.
The Brute Man is a quasi-prequel to House of Horrors, in which Hatton played a deformed madman named "The Creeper" who kills people by breaking their backs. In The Brute Man Hatton also plays "The Creeper", while the story explains how he became deformed and why he has a murderous personality. Hatton also played a disfigured killer called the Huxton Creeper in The Pearl of Death, a 1944 Sherlock Holmes film, but neither House of Horrors nor The Brute Man have any connection to that film. In establishing a backstory explaining the Creeper's motives, The Brute Man's script seeks to humanize the character and elicit more sympathy for him than the Creeper's other films, in which he is generally portrayed as a two-dimensional murderer.
The origin of the Creeper is based partially on autobiographical details from Hatton's real life. Before becoming disfigured by an accident, the Creeper was a handsome young college football hero. Hatton himself was also a football player at the University of Florida before suffering from the effects of acromegaly, a syndrome that causes abnormal bone growth due to excess growth hormone from the pituitary gland. In the film, the character is disfigured by chemicals during a laboratory accident in school. While Hatton's real-life abnormalities stemmed from acromegaly, it was often incorrectly stated by Universal Pictures publicity materials that they were the result of exposure to mustard gas attacks during Hatton's service in World War I.
The film's setting, which appears to be a major city, is never identified in The Brute Man, but it has been suggested that it is Manhattan, since that is where House of Horrors took place. Commentators have noted similarities between The Brute Man and other films, including the Charlie Chaplin silent comedy City Lights (1931), and the Universal Pictures horror film Bride of Frankenstein (1935). City Lights, like The Brute Man, included a protagonist (Chaplin's Tramp character) who falls in love with a blind girl and seeks money for an operation to restore her eyesight. Likewise, the scenes between the Creeper and Helen Paige share a similar premise and dialogue as the scenes between Frankenstein's monster and the blind hermit in Bride of Frankenstein.
In both films, the protagonists are shunned by society based on their physical appearance, but find companionship in a blind loner who knows nothing about their deformities. In both instances, the protagonist is first drawn to their blind companions by music. The Creeper heard Helen playing the piano, while Frankenstein's monster heard the hermit playing the violin. Commentators have noted other similarities between the two films. For example, the Creeper smashes a mirror after looking at his misshapen face, much like the Monster lashes out at his reflection in a waterfall pool. Casting The Brute Man marked one of several films in which Universal Pictures cast Hatton as a murderer, taking advantage of his natural deformities for shock value.
As a result of his acromegaly, Hatton had abnormally enlarged and shaped bones on his head and hands, and the Universal Pictures publicity department often promoted the fact that Hatton did not need make-up for his roles. Tom Neal, who had recently appeared in the cult classic noir film Detour (1945), was cast as Clifford Scott. Having appeared in dozens of low-budget films throughout the early-1940s, Neal began to become known as the "King of the B Pictures". In The Brute Man, Neal portrayed Scott both in his older years and in the flashback scenes, where the character appears as a college student.
To differentiate between the two, Neal was fitted with make-up and costumes to make him better resemble a middle-aged man during his non-flashback scenes. Jane Adams was cast as the blind pianist Helen Paige. Adams had appeared in several Universal Pictures films before, including the Lon Chaney, Jr. film House of Dracula (1945). Jan Wiley was cast as Scott's wife, Virginia. Although Wiley had appeared in several movies throughout the 1930s and 1940s, The Brute Man marked one of her final film performances. It was also recalled as one of her most memorable film appearances along with another Universal Pictures B horror film, She-Wolf of London.
However, her performance in The Brute Man proved to be a less than memorable one for her, so much so that in an interview shortly before Wiley's death in 1993, she could barely remember even having appeared in the film. Donald MacBride and Peter Whitney portray the police officers Captain M.J. Donelly and Lieutenant Gates, respectively. Their roles serve as comic relief for the film. Their characters portray the incompetence of the police force in their inability to find and arrest the Creeper and their focus on passing blame for their failures rather than diverting resources toward his arrest. Filming The Brute Man was developed by Universal Pictures Company, Inc. in the later years of their successful production of horror films, including Dracula (1931), Frankenstein (1931) and The Mummy (1932).
While those films were great critical and financial successes, The Brute Man was filmed during what was widely considered the low point of the studio's horror film period. It was produced by Ben Pivar and directed by Jean Yarbrough, both of whom had worked on House of Horrors and many other horror films for Universal over the years. The Brute Man was filmed in 13 days, during November 1945. The flashback scenes—which depict how Hal Moffet became disfigured and ultimately became the Creeper—were all shot on the final day of filming. Jane Adams said Hatton's acromegaly was becoming progressively worse by the time The Brute Man was filmed, and it made acting difficult for him.
Hatton had trouble remembering his lines, focusing on his performance, and responding to the other actors. Hatton occasionally appears confused even on screen, like during one scene where he says "yes" while shaking his head "no." Adams called him a friendly and thoughtful man, but called him "so pathetic to work with [and] almost autistic". Maury Gertsman was the director of photography on The Brute Man. Since the film focused on a disfigured serial killer, Gertsman sought to give the movie a dark, diseased look appropriate for the film's subject matter and urban setting. Although primarily a horror thriller film, Gertsman uses several film noir elements in his photography, including shadowed lighting, unbalanced compositions, and chiaroscuro contrasts between light and dark.
As a result, The Brute Man features a bleak, at times dismal visual atmosphere. Hans J. Salter, who composed the scores for many of the Universal Pictures films of the 1940s and 1950s, worked as composer for The Brute Man as well. Salter's score for the film strongly resembled the music he composed for the Universal horror films Black Friday (1940) and The Invisible Man's Revenge (1944). Philip Cahn edited The Brute Man. Raymond Kessler and Ralph Slosser worked as dialogue director and assistant director, respectively, while John B. Goodman and Abraham Grossman worked as art directors. Other crew included Russell A. Gausman and Edward R. Robinson as set decorators, Joe Lapis as sound technician, Jack Pierce as make-up director, Carmen Dirigo as hair stylist, and Vera West as gowns supervisor.
Release  Distribution Although produced by Universal Pictures, The Brute Man was distributed by Producers Releasing Corporation, one of the smaller film studios from Hollywood's Poverty Row. In 1945, Universal merged with the company International Pictures, and the new organization adopted a policy against developing any more B movies, including Westerns, horror films, serials and movies running 70 minutes or less. This resulted in the firing of numerous production personnel members and the sale of several already-developed films, including The Brute Man. The sale was also perpetuated in part by the death of star Rondo Hatton. He died as a result of his acromegaly on February 2, 1946, about eight months before The Brute Man was first screened, making it his final film.
Universal feared releasing the film so soon after his death would lead to accusations that the studio was exploiting the illness that ultimately killed Hatton. Now embarrassed by the film, the studio was anxious to sell it. Universal sold the film to PRC for $125,000, which represented the negative cost plus interest. The transaction occurred around August 1946, but was not made public until it was screened for the trade press on October 1, marking its official release date. The sale occurred so quickly and hastily on the copyright files stores at the Library of Congress, the name Universal Pictures was crossed out and Pathe Industries, PRC's corporate body, was written in its place in pencil.
Some pressbook advertisements circulated for the film still included the Universal Pictures logo. PRC had previously produced a horror film about acromegaly called The Monster Maker (1944), in which a mad scientist injects human subjects with the disease as part of his experiments. Reception  The Brute Man received generally negative critical reviews following its release on October 1, 1946. A 1946 review in the Harrison's Reports trade journal, found that the film had some suspenseful moments and could be enjoyed by fans of the genre, but that the overall effect was "artificial and stagy". The review stated most audiences "will find it tiresome in plot and in treatment [...] in fact, some of the action and dialogue may provoke laughs, instead of serious response."
New York Post critic Arthur Winsten criticized the story and the acting of Rondo Hatton, commenting that his facial disfigurements alone did not make up for his poor acting skills: "Just as clothes don't make a gentleman, so a face doesn't make both a villain and continuous thrills. All this picture has is a face, handicapped by encircling improbabilities." In a review published in 1947, Wanda Hale of the New York Daily News called it "a crude production [...] compiled of bits from various B thrillers". In contrast, Mandel Herbstman of The Motion Picture Herald, said although the film used standard thriller film devices, The Brute Man "stands favorably" in its genre and director Jean Yarbrough kept the film moving at a brisk pace.
Decades after the film's release, contemporary reviews of The Brute Man were similarly negative, with many commentators criticizing the exploitation of Hatton's real-life acromegaly. Film reviewer Leonard Maltin gave the film one-and-a-half out of four stars. John Stanley, host of the KTVU television show Creature Features, described it as a dull and "shoddy thriller", criticizing both the performances and the mood from the direction and photography. The authors of Universal Horrors: The Studio's Classic Films, 1931-1946 were highly critical of the film's dialogue, and claimed much of the script seemed to be "time-killing stuff" to pad the film's already-short running time.
They wrote that Hatton's acting was so bad, it "wouldn't be acceptable even at a pre-production cast get-together and table reading, much less in the movie itself". Donald C. Willis, a writer who wrote about horror and science fiction films, described the horror scenes as completely lacking suspense, and said the film was "so flimsy that its three co-plots seem to be operating independently of one another". Keith Brown of the University of Edinburgh, in his paper "Notes on the Terror Film", argued that The Brute Man is an example of what he calls the "terror film", a genre distinguishable from the horror film due to its emphasis on naturally occurring sources of fear, rather than fantastical or otherworldly horror elements.
Brown wrote that the Creeper character "blurs the boundary between human and animal on account of his grotesque, deformed features, but is natural and thus a figure of terror". Home video For decades after the film's theatrical release, copies of The Brute Man were unavailable, and it became regarded as a lost film. However, the film was eventually discovered and mass-produced by Admit One, a home video distribution company that focused specifically on lesser-known B films. The Brute Man was first released on Betamax and VHS in 1982 by Admit One. It has been reissued on VHS several times since then, and was released on laserdisc format in 1990.
The Brute Man was most recently released on VHS by Image Entertainment in 1999, a year which also marked the first DVD release of the film, also by Image Entertainment. In his 2004 DVD guide book, Douglas Pratt complimented both the picture and sound transfers of the 1999 DVD release: "The picture looks great. There are a couple shots where a few speckles pop up, but much of the time the image is clean, with deep blacks and sharp, finely graded contrasts." In popular culture  Rondo Hatton's likeness from The Brute Man inspired the appearance of one of the villain characters in Dave Stevens' Rocketeer comic book as well as the 1991 film adaptation, The Rocketeer.
In the film, the seven-foot-tall Tiny Ron Taylor portrays Lothar, an ugly and murderous henchman for the story's antagonist. Rick Baker, the special make-up effects artist that worked on the film, designed the character's facial make-up to resemble Hatton's Creeper character, and Lothar dresses in a dark coat and hat similar to his clothing from The Brute Man. In 2002, the founders of the website The Classic Horror Film Board created the Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards to honor horror works in film, television and publishing. The awards were named after the actor, and award recipients received statuettes with miniature busts of Hatton as he appeared portraying the Creeper in House of Horrors and The Brute Man.
The statuettes were sculpted by illustrator Kerry Gammill and cast by modeler Timothy M. Lindsey. The full story of the making of "The Brute Man," plus a Rondo Hatton biography, are found in the Scott Gallinghouse-Tom Weaver-Robert J. Kiss book "Scripts from the Crypt: 'The Brute Man'" (BearManor Media, 2019). MST3K appearance  The Brute Man was featured in a seventh season episode of the satirical TV series Mystery Science Theater 3000 alongside the industrial short The Chicken of Tomorrow. The Brute Man was the second episode of the seventh season, which was broadcast on Comedy Central on February 10, 1996.
The description for The Brute Man in The Mystery Science Theater 3000 Amazing Colossal Episode Guide, a book by the cast and writers of the series, reads: "A dark film about dark things. Rondo Hatton's swan song; he died just weeks after the film was completed. So murky and dark, it makes M look like Mrs. Doubtfire." Michael J. Nelson, the show's head writer who also plays the character of the same name, said the staff initially felt strange making jokes at the expense of Rondo Hatton and his real-life illness; however, Nelson said, "Then you realize it's the whole point of the movie: he's a guy with a big ugly face...And he is a terribly bad actor."
Paul Chaplin, another writer with the series, said of the actor's acromegaly: "That fact opens up a large, irresolvable issue concerning the movie industry's use of this poor afflicted fellow; he was paid, after all, and movie work is nice work. Yet it can seem exploitative of misfortune." References  Notes  Bibliography  External links  Review of film at Variety  Category:1946 films Category:1946 horror films Category:1940s serial killer films Category:American films Category:American black-and-white films Category:American horror thriller films Category:English-language films Category:American films about revenge Category:Films directed by Jean Yarbrough Category:Producers Releasing Corporation films Category:Universal Pictures films Category:Films scored by Hans J. Salter Category:Films featured on Mystery Science Theater 3000
is an Apollo asteroid and a near-Earth object discovered in September 2013 by the Catalina Sky Survey. The asteroid is roughly 300 meters in diameter. It was listed on the Sentry Risk Table in September 2013. It was detected by radar soon after discovery. On 2013-Oct-17 the asteroid passed  from Earth. See also List of Apollo asteroids  References  External links     # Category:Minor planet object articles (unnumbered) # # 20130915 20130908
The central dogma of molecular biology is an explanation of the flow of genetic information within a biological system. It is often stated as "DNA makes RNA and RNA makes protein," although this is not its original meaning. It was first stated by Francis Crick in 1957, then published in 1958:  and re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970:  A second version of the central dogma is popular but incorrect. This is the simplistic DNA → RNA → protein pathway published by James Watson in the first edition of The Molecular Biology of the Gene (1965). Watson's version differs from Crick's because Watson describes a two-step (DNA → RNA and RNA → protein) process as the central dogma.
While the dogma, as originally stated by Crick, remains valid today, Watson's version does not. The dogma is a framework for understanding the transfer of sequence information between information-carrying biopolymers, in the most common or general case, in living organisms. There are 3 major classes of such biopolymers: DNA and RNA (both nucleic acids), and protein. There are 3×3=9 conceivable direct transfers of information that can occur between these. The dogma classes these into 3 groups of 3: three general transfers (believed to occur normally in most cells), three special transfers (known to occur, but only under specific conditions in case of some viruses or in a laboratory), and three unknown transfers (believed never to occur).
The general transfers describe the normal flow of biological information: DNA can be copied to DNA (DNA replication), DNA information can be copied into mRNA (transcription), and proteins can be synthesized using the information in mRNA as a template (translation). The special transfers describe: RNA being copied from RNA (RNA replication), DNA being synthesised using an RNA template (reverse transcription), and proteins being synthesised directly from a DNA template without the use of mRNA. The unknown transfers describe: a protein being copied from a protein, synthesis of RNA using the primary structure of a protein as a template, and DNA synthesis using the primary structure of a protein as a template - these are not thought to naturally occur.
Biological sequence information   The biopolymers that comprise DNA, RNA and (poly)peptides are linear polymers (i.e. : each monomer is connected to at most two other monomers). The sequence of their monomers effectively encodes information. The transfers of information described by the central dogma ideally are faithful, deterministic transfers, wherein one biopolymer's sequence is used as a template for the construction of another biopolymer with a sequence that is entirely dependent on the original biopolymer's sequence. General transfers of biological sequential information   {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+Table of the three classes of information transfer suggested by the dogma |- !General ! ! Special !
! Unknown  |- | DNA → DNA || RNA → DNA || protein → DNA |- | DNA → RNA || RNA → RNA || protein → RNA |- | RNA → protein || DNA → protein || protein → protein |}  DNA replications   In the sense that DNA replication must occur if genetic material is to be provided for the progeny of any cell, whether somatic or reproductive, the copying from DNA to DNA arguably is the fundamental step in the central dogma. A complex group of proteins called the replisome performs the replication of the information from the parent strand to the complementary daughter strand.
The replisome comprises:   a helicase that unwinds the superhelix as well as the double-stranded DNA helix to create a replication fork  SSB protein that binds open the double-stranded DNA to prevent it from reassociating  RNA primase that adds a complementary RNA primer to each template strand as a starting point for replication  DNA polymerase III that reads the existing template chain from its 3' end to its 5' end and adds new complementary nucleotides from the 5' end to the 3' end of the daughter chain  DNA polymerase I that removes the RNA primers and replaces them with DNA  DNA ligase that joins the two Okazaki fragments with phosphodiester bonds to produce a continuous chain  This process typically takes place during S phase of the cell cycle.
Transcription   Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is replicated in the form of a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA). Enzymes facilitating the process include RNA polymerase and transcription factors. In eukaryotic cells the primary transcript is pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA must be processed for translation to proceed. Processing includes the addition of a 5' cap and a poly-A tail to the pre-mRNA chain, followed by splicing. Alternative splicing occurs when appropriate, increasing the diversity of the proteins that any single mRNA can produce. The product of the entire transcription process (that began with the production of the pre-mRNA chain) is a mature mRNA chain.
Translation   The mature mRNA finds its way to a ribosome, where it gets translated. In prokaryotic cells, which have no nuclear compartment, the processes of transcription and translation may be linked together without clear separation. In eukaryotic cells, the site of transcription (the cell nucleus) is usually separated from the site of translation (the cytoplasm), so the mRNA must be transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it can be bound by ribosomes. The ribosome reads the mRNA triplet codons, usually beginning with an AUG (adenine−uracil−guanine), or initiator methionine codon downstream of the ribosome binding site. Complexes of initiation factors and elongation factors bring aminoacylated transfer RNAs (tRNAs) into the ribosome-mRNA complex, matching the codon in the mRNA to the anti-codon on the tRNA.
Each tRNA bears the appropriate amino acid residue to add to the polypeptide chain being synthesised. As the amino acids get linked into the growing peptide chain, the chain begins folding into the correct conformation. Translation ends with a stop codon which may be a UAA, UGA, or UAG triplet. The mRNA does not contain all the information for specifying the nature of the mature protein. The nascent polypeptide chain released from the ribosome commonly requires additional processing before the final product emerges. For one thing, the correct folding process is complex and vitally important. For most proteins it requires other chaperone proteins to control the form of the product.
Some proteins then excise internal segments from their own peptide chains, splicing the free ends that border the gap; in such processes the inside "discarded" sections are called inteins. Other proteins must be split into multiple sections without splicing. Some polypeptide chains need to be cross-linked, and others must be attached to cofactors such as haem (heme) before they become functional. Special transfers of biological sequential information  Reverse transcription   Reverse transcription is the transfer of information from RNA to DNA (the reverse of normal transcription). This is known to occur in the case of retroviruses, such as HIV, as well as in eukaryotes, in the case of retrotransposons and telomere synthesis.
It is the process by which genetic information from RNA gets transcribed into new DNA. RNA replication   RNA replication is the copying of one RNA to another. Many viruses replicate this way. The enzymes that copy RNA to new RNA, called RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, are also found in many eukaryotes where they are involved in RNA silencing. RNA editing, in which an RNA sequence is altered by a complex of proteins and a "guide RNA", could also be seen as an RNA-to-RNA transfer. Direct translation from DNA to protein  Direct translation from DNA to protein has been demonstrated in a cell-free system (i.e.
in a test tube), using extracts from E. coli that contained ribosomes, but not intact cells. These cell fragments could synthesize proteins from single-stranded DNA templates isolated from other organisms (e,g., mouse or toad), and neomycin was found to enhance this effect. However, it was unclear whether this mechanism of translation corresponded specifically to the genetic code. Transfers of information not explicitly covered in the theory  Post-translational modification   After protein amino acid sequences have been translated from nucleic acid chains, they can be edited by appropriate enzymes. Although this is a form of protein affecting protein sequence, not explicitly covered by the central dogma, there are not many clear examples where the associated concepts of the two fields have much to do with each other.
Inteins   An intein is a "parasitic" segment of a protein that is able to excise itself from the chain of amino acids as they emerge from the ribosome and rejoin the remaining portions with a peptide bond in such a manner that the main protein "backbone" does not fall apart. This is a case of a protein changing its own primary sequence from the sequence originally encoded by the DNA of a gene. Additionally, most inteins contain a homing endonuclease or HEG domain which is capable of finding a copy of the parent gene that does not include the intein nucleotide sequence.
On contact with the intein-free copy, the HEG domain initiates the DNA double-stranded break repair mechanism. This process causes the intein sequence to be copied from the original source gene to the intein-free gene. This is an example of protein directly editing DNA sequence, as well as increasing the sequence's heritable propagation. Methylation   Variation in methylation states of DNA can alter gene expression levels significantly. Methylation variation usually occurs through the action of DNA methylases. When the change is heritable, it is considered epigenetic. When the change in information status is not heritable, it would be a somatic epitype. The effective information content has been changed by means of the actions of a protein or proteins on DNA, but the primary DNA sequence is not altered.
Prions   Prions are proteins of particular amino acid sequences in particular conformations. They propagate themselves in host cells by making conformational changes in other molecules of protein with the same amino acid sequence, but with a different conformation that is functionally important or detrimental to the organism. Once the protein has been transconformed to the prion folding it changes function. In turn it can convey information into new cells and reconfigure more functional molecules of that sequence into the alternate prion form. In some types of prion in fungi this change is continuous and direct; the information flow is Protein → Protein.
Some scientists such as Alain E. Bussard and Eugene Koonin have argued that prion-mediated inheritance violates the central dogma of molecular biology. However, Rosalind Ridley in Molecular Pathology of the Prions (2001) has written that "The prion hypothesis is not heretical to the central dogma of molecular biology—that the information necessary to manufacture proteins is encoded in the nucleotide sequence of nucleic acid—because it does not claim that proteins replicate. Rather, it claims that there is a source of information within protein molecules that contributes to their biological function, and that this information can be passed on to other molecules."
Natural genetic engineering  James A. Shapiro argues that a superset of these examples should be classified as natural genetic engineering and are sufficient to falsify the central dogma. While Shapiro has received a respectful hearing for his view, his critics have not been convinced that his reading of the central dogma is in line with what Crick intended. Use of the term "dogma"  In his autobiography, What Mad Pursuit, Crick wrote about his choice of the word dogma and some of the problems it caused him:  "I called this idea the central dogma, for two reasons, I suspect. I had already used the obvious word hypothesis in the sequence hypothesis, and in addition I wanted to suggest that this new assumption was more central and more powerful.
... As it turned out, the use of the word dogma caused almost more trouble than it was worth. Many years later Jacques Monod pointed out to me that I did not appear to understand the correct use of the word dogma, which is a belief that cannot be doubted. I did apprehend this in a vague sort of way but since I thought that all religious beliefs were without foundation, I used the word the way I myself thought about it, not as most of the world does, and simply applied it to a grand hypothesis that, however plausible, had little direct experimental support."
Similarly, Horace Freeland Judson records in The Eighth Day of Creation:  "My mind was, that a dogma was an idea for which there was no reasonable evidence. You see?!" And Crick gave a roar of delight. "I just didn't know what dogma meant. And I could just as well have called it the 'Central Hypothesis,' or — you know. Which is what I meant to say. Dogma was just a catch phrase." Comparison with the Weismann barrier  The Weismann barrier, proposed by August Weismann in 1892, distinguishes between the "immortal" germ cell lineages (the germ plasm) which produce gametes and the "disposable" somatic cells.
Hereditary information moves only from germline cells to somatic cells (that is, somatic mutations are not inherited). This, before the discovery of the role or structure of DNA, does not predict the central dogma, but does anticipate its gene-centric view of life, albeit in non-molecular terms. See also    Alternative splicing  Genetic code  Riboswitch  References  Further reading     Baker, Harry F. (2001). Molecular Pathology of the Prions (Methods in Molecular Medicine). Humana Press. External links    The Elaboration of the Central Dogma – Scitable: By Nature education  Animation of Central Dogma from RIKEN - NatureDocumentaries.org   Discussion on challenges to the "Central Dogma of Molecular Biology"  Explanation of the central dogma using a musical analogy  "Francis Harry Compton Crick (1916–2004)" by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia  Category:Molecular biology Category:Molecular genetics Category:1958 in biology
Ribosomal translocation takes place in the elongation of a protein in:       Archaeal translation
Adventure Time is an American animated television series created by Pendleton Ward for Cartoon Network. The series follows the adventures of Finn (voiced by Jeremy Shada), a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake (John DiMaggio), a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo.
Throughout the series, they interact with the show's other main characters: Princess Bubblegum (Hynden Walch), the sovereign of the Candy Kingdom and a sentient piece of gum; the Ice King (Tom Kenny), a demented but largely misunderstood ice wizard; Marceline the Vampire Queen (Olivia Olson), a thousand-year-old vampire and rock music enthusiast; Lumpy Space Princess (Pendleton Ward), a melodramatic and immature princess made out of "irradiated stardust"; BMO (Niki Yang), a sentient video game console-shaped robot that lives with Finn and Jake; and Flame Princess (Jessica DiCicco), a flame elemental and ruler of the Fire Kingdom. The pilot first aired in 2007 on Nicktoons Network, where it was later re-aired on the incubator series Random!
Cartoons. The pilot was eventually uploaded onto the internet and became a cult hit on YouTube. After Nickelodeon declined to turn the short into a full-fledged show, Cartoon Network purchased the rights, and Adventure Time launched as a series on April 5, 2010. The series concluded its ten-season run on September 3, 2018. On October 23, 2019, it was announced that four specials, collectively entitled Adventure Time: Distant Lands, will air on HBO Max in 2020. Each Adventure Time episode is about eleven minutes in length; pairs of episodes are often telecast in order to fill a half-hour program time slot.
For the first five seasons, the show aired on Monday nights. However, starting with the early sixth-season episode "Breezy", the show began to shift both its timeslot and its day of airing. Upon its debut, Adventure Time was a ratings success for Cartoon Network, with its highest-rated episodes scoring over 3 million viewers. The show received positive reviews from critics and has developed a strong following among teenagers and adults, many of whom are attracted due to the series' animation, stories, and characters.Adventure Time has won three Annie Awards, eight Primetime Emmy Awards, two British Academy Children's Awards, a Motion Picture Sound Editors Award, a Pixel Award, a Peabody Award, and a Kerrang!
Award. The series has also been nominated for three Critics' Choice Television Awards, two Annecy Festival Awards, a TCA Award, and a Sundance Film Festival Award, among others. Domestically, several compilation DVDs containing a random assortment of episodes have been released; additionally, all the seasons have been released in North America on DVD and seasons one to six were released on Blu-ray. All seasons were released on Blu-ray in Australia only. A North American box set containing the entire series was also released on DVD on April 30, 2019. During its run, Adventure Time was produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios.
Series overview  Episodes  Pilot (2007)  Season 1 (2010)  Season 2 (2010–11)  Season 3 (2011–12)  Season 4 (2012)  Season 5 (2012–14)  Season 6 (2014–15)  Season 7 (2015–16)  Season 8 (2016–17)  Season 9 (2017)  Season 10 (2017–18)  Specials  "Diamonds and Lemons" (2018)  On November 17, 2017, it was announced that a bonus episode entitled "Diamonds and Lemons" would be produced by Microsoft's gaming studio Mojang and air sometime in the summer of 2018. The episode is based on the sandbox video game Minecraft. According to Adam Muto, "Diamonds and Lemons" was produced separately from the show's final season. Distant Lands  On October 23, 2019, it was announced that four specials, each an hour long, would air in 2020 on HBO Max.
Shorts  "The Wand" (2012)  This short was released on the season one DVD. "Graybles Allsorts" (2015)  These shortsreferred to as "Graybles Allsorts" by the Adventure Time production staffwere produced during the show's sixth season. They were released on CartoonNetwork.com between July 6 and November 1, 2015. "Sow, Do You Like Them Apples", the penultimate short, was originally intended to be the final one uploaded, but the shorts were eventually released "slightly out of order". The shorts were eventually re-released on the seventh season DVD. "Frog Seasons" (2016)  These were advertised as "Adventure Time shorts" and were produced during the show's seventh season.
The first four aired on Cartoon Network between April 2, 2016 and April 23, 2016, and the final short was released exclusively online. Each of these shorts feature Finn and Jake following a crown-carrying frog during a different season of the year. The shorts were eventually re-released on the seventh season DVD. Home media  DVD releases  Blu-ray releases  Notes   Air date and season clarifications   Directors           Explanatory notes  References     Category:Cartoon Network-related lists Category:Lists of American children's animated television series episodes Category:2000s television-related lists Category:2010s television-related lists
Letraset was a company known mainly for manufacturing sheets of typefaces and other artwork elements that can be transferred to artwork being prepared. Letraset has been acquired by the Colart group and become part of its subsidiary Winsor & Newton. Corporate history   The Letraset business was founded in London in 1959, introducing innovative media for commercial artists and designers. Their original product was the Letraset Type Lettering System. By 1961, Letraset's dry rub-down Instant Lettering was perfected. This was to be its core product for many years to come. Starting in 1964, Letraset also applied the dry rub-down transfer technique to create a children's game called Action Transfers, which would later develop into Kalkitos (marketed by Gillette) and many other series of transferable figures that were very popular up to the 1980s.
Seeing a decline in the sales of its materials in the early 1990s, Letraset moved into the desktop publishing industry, releasing software packages such as ImageStudio and ColorStudio for the Macintosh. These never saw widespread success. However, as Letraset held the rights to their fonts that had been popular on the dry transfer sheets, it made sense to enter the digital font market (see, for example, Charlotte Sans). Letraset thus began releasing many fonts in formats such as PostScript. Fonts from designers such as Alan Meeks, Martin Wait, Tim Donaldson and David Quay were released, and many can be found on online retailers such as Fontshop.
Some fonts retain 'Letraset' in their title, whereas others have been renamed by their new vendors such as ITC. A selection of fonts is still sold from its website, separated into fonts from Fontek and Red Rooster. Software include Manga Studio EX and Envelopes, a plug-in for Adobe Illustrator. Letraset is the maker of the refillable Tria markers, formerly Pantone Tria markers, which have a three-nib design and 200 colors. Additionally, Letraset offers three lines of dual-tipped markers, the alcohol based ProMarker and FlexMarker lines, each with 148 mostly different colors, and the water based AquaMarkers with 60 colors, all of which have gained wide acceptance in the hobby and crafting communities.
Letraset was based in Le Mans, France, having previously been based in Ashford, Kent, until being acquired in June 2012 by the Colart group and becoming part of its subsidiary Winsor & Newton. Product   In common usage, the name Letraset originally referred to sheets of transfer lettering which were originally manufactured as a wet process in 1959, with each character selected and cut from a sheet, placed face-down on a small silk screen frame and wetted with a paint brush to soften and release the gum arabic adhesive which held it. The frame was then turned over and the letter located over the artwork, and the character pressed into contact with the page, with the mounting base slid away as with model aircraft transfers.
Later, in 1961, the process was much simplified and a dry transferable lettering system was developed, and it was this that made Letraset a household name. The range of available typefaces became extensive, incorporating both classic and contemporary type designs of the period, and each style was usually available in a wide range of type weights and sizes. Letraset sheets were used extensively by professional and amateur graphic designers, architects and artists in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. For the first time amateurs could produce affordable and attractive artwork of professional appearance. As a result, and because of its ease of use, it also came to be used by printers, design studios and advertising agencies.
In the late 1980s Letraset started to be replaced by desktop publishing. Today Letraset sheets are traded on eBay and elsewhere, and sometimes used so that a designer can avoid a digital look. The name is also often used to refer generically to sheets of dry transfer lettering of any brand. This technique was very widespread for lettering and other elements before the advent of the phototypesetting and laser computer techniques of word processing and desktop publishing. Currently, Letraset's line of print patterns and textures are more commonly used than its lettering. Lorem Ipsum  Lorem Ipsum filler text has been featured on Letraset advertisements for decades.
There are some indications its use predates Letraset, but nothing concrete has surfaced prior to Letraset's popularizing it. See also   Dry transfer  Screentone  References  External links Letraset – Official website ColorStudio wins MacUser Editor's Choice award 1990  Category:Ashford, Kent Category:Cold type foundries Category:Commercial type foundries Category:Companies based in Kent
Charles Skinner Hallpike, CBE, FRS (19 July 1900 – 26 September 1979) was an English otologist. He was born in Murree, India, a hill station now in Pakistan, the son of Frank Hallpike. The family returned to the UK when he was 3 years old. He attended St Paul's School (London) as a classical scholar and then Guy's Hospital in 1919 on an Arts scholarship. He qualified MRCS and LRCP in 1924. He then obtained an MB of the University of London in 1926 and was elected FRCS in 1931. He was House Surgeon at the Ear, Nose and Throat Department of Guy's Hospital and the Cheltenham General Hospital.
He became a Research Fellow at the Middlesex Hospital in 1929 where he specialised in the physical aspects of hearing and balance. In 1940 he moved to join the Medical Research Council team at the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery in Queen Square, London as Assistant Aural Surgeon and later Aural Physician, which post he held till his retirement in 1967. He published with Sir Hugh Cairns in 1938 a ground-breaking paper on the causes of Ménière's disease. He is best remembered for describing the Dix-Hallpike test used in the diagnosis of benign positional vertigo. In 1935 he had married Barbara Lee Anderson; they had two sons and a daughter.
References  External links   Category:English surgeons Category:1900 births Category:1979 deaths Category:People of British India Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:People from Murree Category:British otolaryngologists
Likud (, translit. HaLikud, lit., The Consolidation), officially the Likud – National Liberal Movement, is a centre-right to right-wing political party in Israel. A secular party, it was founded in 1973 by Menachem Begin and Ariel Sharon in an alliance with several right-wing parties. Likud's landslide victory in the 1977 elections was a major turning point in the country's political history, marking the first time the left had lost power. In addition, it was the first time in Israel that a right-wing party won the plurality of the votes. However, after ruling the country for most of the 1980s, the party lost the Knesset election in 1992.
Nevertheless, Likud's candidate Benjamin Netanyahu did win the vote for Prime Minister in 1996 and was given the task of forming a government after the 1996 elections. Netanyahu's government fell apart after a vote of no confidence, which led to elections being called in 1999 and Likud losing power to the One Israel coalition led by Ehud Barak. In 2001, Likud's Ariel Sharon, who replaced Netanyahu following the 1999 election, defeated Barak in an election called by the Prime Minister following his resignation. After the party recorded a convincing win in the 2003 elections, Likud saw a major split in 2005 when Sharon left to form the Kadima party.
This resulted in Likud slumping to fourth place in the 2006 elections and losing 28 seats in the Knesset. Following the 2009 elections, Likud was able to gain 15 seats, and, with Netanyahu back in control of the party, formed a coalition with fellow right-wing parties Yisrael Beiteinu and Shas to take control of the government from Kadima, which earned a plurality, but not a majority. Netanyahu has been Prime Minister since and Likud had been the leading vote-getter in each election until April 2019, when Likud tied with Blue and White and September 2019, when Blue and White won one more seat than the Likud.
A member of the party is called a Likudnik (). History  Formation and Begin years The Likud was formed as a secular party by an alliance of several right-wing parties prior to the 1973 elections—Herut, the Liberal Party, the Free Centre, the National List, and the Movement for Greater Israel. Herut had been the nation's largest right-wing party since growing out of the Irgun in 1948. It had already been in coalition with the Liberals since 1965 as Gahal, with Herut as the senior partner. Herut remained the senior partner in the new grouping, which was given the name Likud, meaning "Consolidation", as it represented the consolidation of the Israeli right.
It worked as a coalition under Herut's leadership until 1988, when the member parties merged into a single party under the Likud name. From its establishment in 1973, Likud enjoyed great support from blue-collar Sephardim who felt discriminated against by the ruling Alignment. Likud made a strong showing in its first elections in 1973, reducing the Alignment's lead to 12 seats. The party went on to win the 1977 elections, finishing 11 seats ahead of the Alignment. Begin was able to form a government with the support of the religious parties, consigning the left-wing to opposition for the first time since independence.
A former leader of the hard-line paramilitary Irgun, Begin helped initiate the peace process with Egypt, which resulted in the 1978 Camp David Accords and the 1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. Likud was reelected with a significantly reduced mandate in 1981. Likud has long been a loose alliance between politicians committed to different and sometimes opposing policy preferences and ideologies. The 1981 elections highlighted divisions that existed between the populist wing of Likud, headed by David Levy of Herut, and the Liberal wing, who represented a policy agenda of the secular bourgeoisie. Shamir, Netanyahu's first term, and Sharon Begin resigned in October 1983 and was succeeded as Likud leader and Prime Minister by Yitzhak Shamir.
Shamir, a former commander of the Lehi underground, was widely seen as a hard-liner with an ideological commitment both to the settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the growth of which he encouraged, and to the idea of aliyah, facilitating the mass immigration of Jews to Israel from Ethiopia and the former Soviet Union. Although Shamir lost the 1984 election, the Alignment was unable to form a government on its own. Likud and the Alignment thus formed a national unity government, with Peres as Prime Minister and Shamir as foreign minister. After two years, Peres and Shamir switched posts.
This government remained in power through 1990, when the Alignment pulled out and Shamir stitched together a right-wing coalition that held on until its defeat in 1992 by Labor. Shamir retired shortly after losing the election. His successor, Benjamin Netanyahu, became the third Likud Prime Minister in May 1996, following the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin. Netanyahu proved to be less hard-line in practice than he made himself out to be rhetorically, and felt pressured by the United States and others to enter negotiations with the Palestine Liberation Organization and Yasser Arafat, despite his harsh criticism of the Oslo accords and hawkish stance in comparison to Labor.
In 1998, Netanyahu reluctantly agreed to cede territory in the Wye River Memorandum. While accepted by many in the Likud, some Likud MKs, led by Benny Begin (Menachem Begin's son), Michael Kleiner and David Re'em, broke away and formed a new party, named Herut – The National Movement, in protest. Yitzhak Shamir (who had expressed harsh disappointment in Netanyahu's leadership), gave the new party his support. Less than a year afterward, Netanyahu's coalition collapsed, resulting in the 1999 election and Labor's Ehud Barak winning the premiership on a platform of immediate settlement of final status issues. Likud spent 1999–2001 on the opposition benches.
Barak's "all-or-nothing" strategy failed, however, and early elections for Prime Minister were called for March 2001. Surprisingly, Netanyahu declined to be the Likud candidate for Prime Minister, meaning that the fourth Likud premier would be Ariel Sharon. Sharon, unlike past Likud leaders, had been raised in a Labor Zionist environment and had long been seen as something of a maverick. In the face of the Second Intifada, Sharon pursued a varied set of policies, many of which were controversial even within the Likud. The final split came when Sharon announced his policy of unilateral disengagement from Gaza and parts of the West Bank.
The idea proved extremely divisive within the party. Kadima split Sharon's perceived shift to the political center, especially in his execution of the Disengagement Plan, alienated him from some Likud supporters and fragmented the party. He faced several serious challenges to his authority shortly before his departure. The first was in March 2005, when he and Netanyahu proposed a budget plan that met fierce opposition, though it was eventually approved. The second was in September 2005, when Sharon's critics in Likud forced a vote on a proposal for an early leadership election, which was defeated by 52% to 48%. In October, Sharon's opponents within the Likud Knesset faction joined with the opposition to prevent the appointment of two of his associates to the Cabinet, demonstrating that Sharon had effectively lost control of the Knesset and that the 2006 budget was unlikely to pass.
The next month, Labor announced its withdrawal from Sharon's governing coalition following its election of the left-wing Amir Peretz as leader. On 21 November 2005, Sharon announced he would be leaving Likud and forming a new centrist party, Kadima. The new party included both Likud and Labor supporters of unilateral disengagement. Sharon also announced that elections would take place in early 2006. As of 21 November seven candidates had declared themselves as contenders to replace Sharon as leader: Netanyahu, Uzi Landau, Shaul Mofaz, Yisrael Katz, Silvan Shalom and Moshe Feiglin. Landau and Mofaz later withdrew, the former in favour of Netanyahu and the latter to join Kadima.
Netanyahu's second term Netanyahu went on to win the chairmanship elections in December, obtaining 44.4% of the vote. Shalom came in a second with 33%, leading Netanyahu to guarantee him second place on the party's list of Knesset candidates. Shalom's perceived moderation on social and foreign-policy issues were considered to be an electoral asset. Observers noted that voter turnout in the elections was particularly low in comparison with past primaries, with less than 40 percent of the 128,000 party members casting ballots. There was much media focus on far-right candidate Moshe Feiglin achieving 12.4% of votes. The founding of Kadima was a major challenge to the Likud's generation-long status as one of Israel's two major parties.
Sharon's perceived centrist policies have drawn considerable popular support as reflected by public opinion polls. The Likud is now led by figures who oppose further unilateral evacuations, and its standing in the polls has suffered. After the founding of Kadima, Likud came to be seen as having more of a right-wing tendency than a moderate centre-right one. However, there exist several parties in the Knesset even more right-wing than the post-Ariel Sharon Likud. Prior to the 2006 election, the party's Central Committee relinquished control of selecting the Knesset list to the "rank and file" members at Netanyahu's behest. The aim was to improve the party's reputation, as the central committee had gained a reputation for corruption.
In the election, the Likud vote collapsed in the face of the Kadima split. Other right-wing nationalist parties such as Yisrael Beiteinu gained votes, with Likud coming only fourth place in the popular vote, edging out Yisrael Beiteinu by only 116 votes. With only twelve seats, Likud was tied with the Shas for the status of third-largest party. In the 2009 Israeli legislative election, Likud won 27 seats, a close second-place finish to Kadima's 28 seats, and leading the other parties. After more than a month of coalition negotiations, Benjamin Netanyahu was able to form a government and become Prime Minister.
"Pride in the Likud", a political advocacy group of LGBT conservatives affiliated with the party, was founded in 2011. Following the appointment of Amir Ohana as the Likud's first openly gay member in the Knesset, in December 2015, Netanyahu said he was "proud" to welcome him into parliament. A leadership election was held on 31 January 2012, with Netanyahu defeating Feiglin. Partnership with Yisrael Beiteinu On 25 October 2012, Netanyahu and Avigdor Lieberman announced that their respective political parties, Likud and Yisrael Beiteinu, would run together on a single ballot in Israel's 2013 parliamentary election. "A joining of forces will give us the strength to defend Israel from military threats, and the strength to spearhead social and economic changes in the country", Netanyahu said.
In January 2013, Lieberman said the Yisrael Beitinu merge with the Likud party will end within one month of the election. The Likud-Yisrael Beiteinu merger led to speculation that Lieberman would eventually seek the leadership of Likud. "Every soldier must strive to be chief of staff, just as every politician wants, eventually, to stand at the top of the system. I'm not obsessed with this, but that is my goal", Lieberman said. In the 2013 election, the Likud-Yisrael Beiteninu alliance won 31 seats, 20 of which were Likud members. Netanyahu continued as Prime Minister after forming a coalition with Yesh Atid, the Jewish Home and Hatnuah.
The electoral alliance was unpopular among both Likud and Yisrael Beiteinu. In November 2013, it was reported that both parties would be holding discussions on whether to end their partnership. According to Haaretz, "the alliance stoked anger among senior Likud politicians, both because of the historic change and the high price the party ostensibly paid...." Efforts by Yisrael Beitenu to formally merge with Likud after the election were rebuffed by Likud activists who worried about the effect an influx of organized new power centers could have on their own influence in the ruling party. 2019 elections During the course of the April 2019 Israeli legislative election campaign, Likud facilitated the formation of the Union of Right-Wing Parties between the Jewish Home, Tkuma and Otzma Yehudit by providing a slot on its own electoral list to Jewish Home candidate Eli Ben-Dahan.
In the aftermath of the election, Kulanu merged into Likud. During the September 2019 Israeli legislative election campaign, Likud agreed to a deal with Zehut, whereby the latter party would drop out of the election and endorse Likud in exchange for a ministerial post for its leader, Moshe Feiglin, as well as policy concessions. Ideological positions  Likud emphasizes national security policy based on a strong military force when threatened with continued enmity against Israel. It has shown reluctance to negotiate with its neighbors whom it believes continue to seek the destruction of the Jewish state, that based on the principle of the party founder Menachem Begin concerning the preventive policy to any potential attacks on State of Israel.
Its suspicion of neighboring Arab nations' intentions, however, has not prevented the party from reaching agreements with the Arabs, such as the 1979 peace treaty with Egypt. Likud's willingness to enter mutually accepted agreements with the Arabs over the years is related to the formation of other right-wing parties. Like other right-wing parties in Israel, Likud politicians have sometimes criticized particular Supreme Court decisions, but it remains committed to rule of law principles that it hopes to entrench in a written constitution. , the party remains divided between moderates and hard-liners. Likud is considered to be the leading party in the national camp in Israeli politics.
Platform   The 1999 Likud Party platform emphasizes the right of settlement. "The Jewish communities in Judea, Samaria, and Gaza are the realization of Zionist values. Settlement of the land is a clear expression of the unassailable right of the Jewish people to the Land of Israel and constitutes an important asset in the defense of the vital interests of the State of Israel. The Likud will continue to strengthen and develop these communities and will prevent their uprooting." Similarly, they claim the Jordan River as the permanent eastern border to Israel and it also claims Jerusalem as belonging to Israel.
The 'Peace & Security' chapter of the 1999 Likud Party platform rejects a Palestinian state. "The Government of Israel flatly rejects the establishment of a Palestinian Arab state west of the Jordan river. The Palestinians can run their lives freely in the framework of self-rule, but not as an independent and sovereign state. Thus, for example, in matters of foreign affairs, security, immigration, and ecology, their activity shall be limited in accordance with imperatives of Israel's existence, security and national needs." With Likud back in power, starting in 2009, Israeli foreign policy is still under review. Likud leader Benjamin Netanyahu, in his "National Security" platform, neither endorsed nor ruled out the idea of a Palestinian state.
"Netanyahu has hinted that he does not oppose the creation of a Palestinian state, but aides say he must move cautiously because his religious-nationalist coalition partners refuse to give away land." On 14 June 2009, Netanyahu delivered a speech at Bar-Ilan University (also known as "Bar-Ilan Speech"), at Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, that was broadcast live in Israel and across parts of the Arab world, on the topic of the Middle East peace process. He endorsed for the first time the creation of a Palestinian state alongside Israel, with several conditions. However, on 16 March 2015, Netanyahu stated in the affirmative, that if he were elected, a Palestinian state would not be created.
Netanyahu argued, "anyone who goes to create today a Palestinian state and turns over land, is turning over land that will be used as a launching ground for attacks by Islamist extremists against the State of Israel." Some take these statements to mean that Netanyahu and Likud oppose a Palestinian state. After having been criticised by U.S. White House Spokesperson Josh Earnest for the "divisive rhetoric" of his election campaign, on 19 March 2015, Netanyahu retreated to "I don't want a one-state solution. I want a peaceful, sustainable two-state solution. I have not changed my policy." The Likud Constitution of May 2014 is more vague and ambiguous.
Though it contains commitments to the strengthening of Jewish settlement in the West Bank, it does not explicitly rule out the establishment of a Palestinian state. Economy  The Likud party claims to support a free market capitalist and liberal agenda, though, in practice, it has mostly adopted mixed economic policies. Under the guidance of Finance minister and current party leader Benjamin Netanyahu, Likud pushed through legislation reducing value added tax (VAT), income and corporate taxes significantly, as well as customs duty. Likewise, it has instituted free trade (especially with the European Union and the United States) and dismantled certain monopolies (Bezeq and the seaports).
Additionally, it has privatized numerous government-owned companies, e. g., El Al and Bank Leumi, and has moved to privatize land in Israel, which until now has been held symbolically by the state in the name of the Jewish people. Netanyahu was the most ardent free-market Israeli finance minister to date. He argued that Israel's largest labor union, the Histadrut, has so much power as to be capable of paralyzing the Israeli economy, and claimed that the main causes of unemployment are laziness and excessive benefits to the unemployed." Under Netanyahu, Likud has and is likely to maintain a comparatively fiscally conservative economic stance.
However, the party's economic policies vary widely among members, with some Likud MKs supporting more leftist economic positions that are more in line with popular preferences. Palestinians  Likud has historically espoused opposition to Palestinian statehood and support of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. However, it has also been the party that carried out the first peace agreements with Arab states. For instance, in 1979, Likud Prime Minister Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords with Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat, which returned the Sinai Peninsula (occupied by Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967) to Egypt in return for peace between the two countries.
Yitzhak Shamir was the first Israeli Prime Minister to meet Palestinian leaders at the Madrid Conference following the Persian Gulf War in 1991. However, Shamir refused to concede the idea of a Palestinian state, and as a result was blamed by some (including United States Secretary of State James Baker) for the failure of the summit. On 14 June 2009, as Prime Minister Netanyahu gave a speech at Bar-Ilan University in which he endorsed a "Demilitarized Palestinian State", though said that Jerusalem must remain the unified capital of Israel. In 2002, during the Second Intifada, Israel's Likud-led government reoccupied Palestinian towns and refugee camps in the West Bank.
In 2005, Ariel Sharon defied the recent tendencies of Likud and abandoned the policy of seeking to settle in the West Bank and Gaza. Though re-elected Prime Minister on a platform of no unilateral withdrawals, Sharon carried out the Gaza disengagement plan, withdrawing from the Gaza Strip, as well as four settlements in the northern West Bank. Though losing a referendum among Likud registered voters, Sharon achieved government approval of this policy by firing most of the cabinet members who opposed the plan before the vote. Sharon and the faction who supported his disengagement proposals left the Likud party after the disengagement and created the new Kadima party.
This new party supported unilateral disengagement from most of the West Bank and the fixing of borders by the Israeli West Bank barrier. The basic premise of the policy was that the Israelis have no viable negotiating partner on the Palestinian side, and since they cannot remain in indefinite occupation of the West Bank and Gaza, Israel should unilaterally withdraw. Netanyahu, who was elected as the new leader of Likud after Kadima's creation, and Silvan Shalom, the runner-up, both supported the disengagement plan; however, Netanyahu resigned his ministerial post before the plan was executed. Most current Likud members support the Jewish settlements in the West Bank and oppose Palestinian statehood and the disengagement from Gaza.
Although settlement activity has continued under recent Likud governments, much of the activity outside the major settlement blocs has been to accommodate the Jewish Home, a coalition partner; support within Likud to build outside the blocs is not particularly strong. In the 2019 election, Likud was widely criticized as a "racist party" after scaremongering anti-Arab rhetoric by its members as well as  Netanyahu who claimed minority Arabs and Palestinians in Israel as "threats" and "enemies,". Culture  Likud generally advocates free enterprise and nationalism, but it has sometimes compromised these ideals in practice, especially as its constituency has changed. Its support for populist economic programs are at odds with its free enterprise tradition, but are meant to serve its largely nationalistic, lower-income voters in small towns and urban neighborhoods.
On religion and state, Likud has a moderate stance, and supports the preservation of status quo. With time, the party has played into the traditional sympathies of its voter base, though the origins and ideology of Likud are secular. Religious parties have come to view it as a more comfortable coalition partner than Labor. Likud promotes a revival of Jewish culture, in keeping with the principles of Revisionist Zionism. Likud emphasizes such Israeli nationalist themes as the use of the Israeli flag and the victory in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. In July 2018, Likud lawmakers backed controversial Nation-State bill into law which declaring Israel as 'nation-state of the Jewish people'.
Likud publicly endorses press freedom and promotion of private sector media, which has grown markedly under governments Likud has led. A Likud government headed by Ariel Sharon, however, closed the popular right-wing pirate radio station Arutz Sheva ("Channel 7"). Arutz Sheva was popular with the Jewish settler movement and often criticised the government from a right-wing perspective. Historically, the Likud and its pre-1948 predecessor, the Revisionist movement advocated secular nationalism. However, the Likud's first prime minister and long-time leader Menachem Begin, though secular himself, cultivated a warm attitude to Jewish tradition and appreciation for traditionally religious Jews—especially from North Africa and the Middle East.
This segment of the Israeli population first brought the Likud to power in 1977. Many Orthodox Israelis find the Likud a more congenial party than any other mainstream party, and in recent years also a large group of Haredim, mostly modern Haredim, joined the party and established The Haredi faction in the Likud. Leaders  Current MKs Likud currently has 32 Knesset members. They are listed below in the order that they appeared on the party's list for the September 2019 elections.
Benjamin Netanyahu  Yuli-Yoel Edelstein  Yisrael Katz  Gilad Erdan  Moshe Kahlon  Gideon Sa'ar  Miri Regev  Yariv Levin  Yoav Galant  Nir Barkat  Gila Gamliel  Avi Dichter  Ze'ev Elkin  Haim Katz  Eli Cohen  Tzachi Hanegbi  Ofir Akunis  Yuval Steinitz  Tzipi Hotovely  Dudi Amsalem  Amir Ohana  Ofir Katz  Eti Atiya  Yoav Kish  David Bitan  Keren Barak  Shlomo Karai  Miki Zohar  Yifat Shasha-Biton  Sharren Haskel  Michal Shir  Keti Shitrit  Party organs Likud Executive  Director General of the Likud: Gadi Arielli  Deputy DG, head of the Municipal Division: Rafi Dwek  Director of Foreign Affairs: Eli Hazan  Manager of the Likud Chairman's Office: Hanni Bleiweiss  Head of the Computer Division: Tsuri Siso  Likud Spokeswoman: Noga Katz (Rappaport)  Head of Internet & New Media: Shai Mordov  Likud Central Committee  Likud Secretariat  Likud Bureau  Likud Court  Legal Advisor of the Likud Movement  Likud Youth Movement  Member group of the International Young Democrat Union  World Likud  Knesset election results  See also  List of Likud Knesset Members  New Likudniks  References  External links  Likud Nederland  Likud Knesset website  Category:Political parties in Israel Category:Liberal conservative parties Category:Political parties established in 1973 Category:Revisionist Zionism Category:Zionist political parties in Israel Category:Conservative parties in Israel Category:National liberal parties Category:Betar   Category:Liberal parties in Israel Category:National conservative parties Category:Right-wing populist parties Category:1973 establishments in Israel
The Eden Formula is an American 2006 made-for-television science fiction film written and directed by John Carl Buechler. Produced for the Syfy channel, the film recycles footage from the 1993 film Carnosaur, a film which Buechler had previously worked on as a special effects designer. Synopsis Dr. Harrison Parker (Jeff Fahey) is a scientist working at Calgorin Industries who developed the Eden Formula, a chemical that can reproduce organisms and cure various diseases. However, unknown to Parker, deep underground the general area of his industrial district, other Calgorin Industries scientists have created a Tyrannosaurus rex from Parker's formula and keep it locked away in a subterranean location in order to impress stockholders.
Soon enough, industry spies enter a laboratory at Calgorin Industries so they can steal the formula and pass it off as their own, making millions of dollars. The spies accidentally set loose the bloodthirsty Tyrannosaur, which obliterates all objects and beings in the lab and rampages into the streets of Los Angeles. Parker and his friend Rhonda Shapton (Dee Wallace) now have to team up with a police officer (Tony Todd) so that they can stop both the determined rival company of Calgorin Industries and the Tyrannosaurus rex that continuously adds to its body count.
Cast  Jeff Fahey as Dr. Harrison Parker  Dee Wallace as Rhonda Shapton  Tony Todd as James Radcliffe  Alexandra Ford as Rebecca Winters  Stephen Wastell as Eddie    Miranda Kwok as Kate Lo   Gregory Gast as Harlon McVicker  Gregory Abbott Jr. as Samson Webb  Daniel Anthony as Rockoff  Robert Axelrod as Wally  Sarah Elbert as Officer Pattison  Reception  The reviews for the film were mostly negative, with criticisms directed towards the film's plot and its puppetry effects. It has a rating of 3.0/10 on IMDb and currently holds a 6% rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. Home media The film  was released on DVD on February 20, 2007.
References  External links    Category:2006 films Category:2006 horror films Category:2006 television films Category:Biopunk films Category:Dinosaur films Category:Films directed by John Carl Buechler Category:2000s monster movies Category:Syfy original films Category:2000s science fiction horror films Category:American monster movies
NATO targets are a series of standard armoured targets defined by NATO designed to test the armour penetration of weapons. The purpose of the triple heavy target is to represent the difficulty a projectile would face in penetrating the skirt, roadwheel, and hull of a Soviet tank. They are defined as:  References  Category:NATO Standardization Agreements Category:Targeting (warfare)
The International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry, located in Brussels, were founded by the Belgian industrialist Ernest Solvay in 1912, following the historic invitation-only 1911 Conseil Solvay, considered a turning point in the world of physics. The Institutes coordinate conferences, workshops, seminars, and colloquia. Following the initial success of 1911, the Solvay Conferences (Conseils Solvay) have been devoted to outstanding preeminent open problems in both physics and chemistry. The usual schedule is every three years, but there have been larger gaps. Notable Solvay Conferences  First Conference Hendrik Lorentz was chairman of the first Solvay Conference held in Brussels from 30 October to 3 November 1911.
The subject was Radiation and the Quanta. This conference looked at the problems of having two approaches, namely classical physics and quantum theory. Albert Einstein was the second youngest physicist present (the youngest one was Lindemann). Other members of the Solvay Congress included such luminaries as Marie Curie and Henri Poincaré (see image for attendee list). Third Conference The Third Solvay Conference was held in April 1921, soon after World War I. Most German scientists were barred from attending. In protest at this action, Albert Einstein, himself a citizen and a vocal supporter of the infant Weimar Republic, declined his invitation to attend the conference where most of his countrymen were barred.
However, the real reason of Einstein's absence is because he accepted the invitation by Dr. Chaim Weizmann for a trip to the United States. Fifth Conference Perhaps the most famous conference was the Fifth Solvay Conference on Electrons and Photons held from 24 to 29 October 1927, where the world's most notable physicists met to discuss the newly formulated quantum theory. The leading figures were Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. 17 of the 29 attendees were or became Nobel Prize winners, including Marie Curie, who alone among them, had won Nobel Prizes in two separate scientific disciplines. A. Piccard, E. Henriot, P. Ehrenfest, E. Herzen, Th.
de Donder, E. Schrödinger, J. E. Verschaffelt, W. Pauli, W. Heisenberg, R. H. Fowler, L. Brillouin; P. Debye, M. Knudsen, W.L. Bragg, H. A. Kramers, P. A. M. Dirac, A. H. Compton, L. de Broglie, M. Born, N. Bohr; I. Langmuir, M. Planck, M. Curie, H.A . Lorentz, A. Einstein, P. Langevin, Ch.-E. Guye, C. T. R. Wilson, O. W. Richardson Fifth conference participants, 1927. Institut International de Physique Solvay in Leopold Park. Solvay Conferences on Physics  Conferences on Physics gallery  Solvay Conferences on Chemistry  Conferences on Chemistry gallery  References  Further reading    Franklin Lambert & Frits Berends: Vous avez dit : sabbat de sorcières ?
La singulière histoire des premiers Conseils Solvay, EDP Sciences - Collection : Sciences et Histoire - octobre 2019   Frits Berends, Franklin Lambert: paperity.org "Einstein's witches' sabbath: the first Solvay council", Europhysics News, 42/5 pp 15–17, 2011  External links    International Solvay Institutes (official website)  The Solvay Science Project(Exhibition and database)  Previous Solvay Conferences on Physics  Previous Solvay Conferences on Chemistry  Proceedings 1911  Proceedings 1913  Proceedings 1933  Overview of the transcript of the famous Fifth Conference  American Institute of Physics  Bacciagaluppi G., Valentini A. (2009.) Quantum Theory at the Crossroads: Reconsidering the 1927 Solvay Conference, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK  Category:Chemistry conferences Category:Physics conferences Category:Recurring events established in 1911 Category:1911 establishments in Belgium Category:Science events in Belgium
National Front or Front National can refer to the following political parties and coalitions:  Africa  Botswana National Front  National Front for the Salvation of Libya  Namibia National Front  Front National (South Africa) , a Boer-Afrikaner political party in South Africa  South African National Front, neo-fascist organisation associated with the British National Front  Swaziland National Front, a political party in Swaziland  Asia  Chin National Front, a political and military organization in Burma  Mizo National Front, India  National Front (India)  National Front (Iran) (Jebhe-ye Melli Iran)  Barisan Nasional (National Front) in Malaysia  Balawaristan National Front, Pakistan  United National Front (Sri Lanka)  Europe  National Front (Albania)  Partyja BPF, Belarus  National Front (Belgium)  Bulgarian National Front  National Front (Czechoslovakia)  National Front (East Germany)  Rahvarinne, Estonia  Finnish People's Blue-whites, known as National Front 1997–2001  National Rally (France), a far-right populist political party, known as National Front 1972–2018  National Front (French Resistance), a World War II French Resistance group  Front National des Musiciens, organization of musicians in Nazi-occupied France  Nationalist Front, a German neo-Nazi group that is sometimes translated as National Front  National Front (Greece)  National Front (Hungary)  National Front (Italy, 1967)  National Front (Italy, 1990)  National Front (Italy, 1997)  Black Front (Netherlands) (1934–41), known as National Front 1940–41  National Front (Spain, 1986)  National Front (Spain, 2006)  National Front (Switzerland)  National Front (UK), a far-right fascist British political party founded in 1967, which peaked during the 1970s1980s and declined in the 1990s.
Other places  National Front (Australia)  National Front (Colombia) (1958–1974), an agreement between the Liberal and Conservative parties  New Zealand National Front  See also  National Front Party (disambiguation)  National Resistance Front (disambiguation)  Popular front  United front
The oyster omelette () is a dish of Hokkien and Teochew origin that is renowned for its savory flavor in its native Chaoshan and Minnan region, along with Taiwan and many parts of Southeast Asia such as the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore due to the influence of the Hokkien and Teochew diaspora. Variations of the dish exist in some southern regions of China. In Thailand it was adapted to mussel omelettes; most Thai people have the misconception that oyster omelettes and mussel omelettes originated from  Thai cuisine rather than Chinese. In Bangkok, notable areas for oyster omelettes include Talat Wang Lang near Siriraj Hospital; Wang Lang (Siriraj) Pier in Bangkok Noi where there are two restaurants; Yaowarat neighborhood, where there is one Michelin-Bib Gourmand restaurant with Charoen Krung neighborhood in Bang Rak, among others.
In 2017, the World Street Food Congress announced that oyster omelette is one of the three most notable street food among the street foods of Thailand. The oyster omelette is a Taiwanese "night market favorite", and has constantly been ranked by many foreigners as the top dish from Taiwan. Its generous proportions and affordable price demonstrates the trait of night market cuisines. Ingredients The dish consists of an omelet with a filling primarily composed of small oysters. Starch (typically potato starch) is mixed into the egg batter, giving the resulting egg wrap a thicker consistency. Pork lard is often used to fry the resulting omelet.
Depending on regional variations, a savory sauce may then be poured on top of the omelette for added taste. Spicy or chili sauce mixed with lime juice is often added to provide an intense kick. Shrimp can sometimes be substituted in place of oysters; in this case, it is called shrimp omelette (蝦仁煎). Names  In different Chinese languages, the "oyster omelette" is known by various names in different Chinese geographical regions. See also  Hangtown fry  Pad thai - popular counterpart in Thailand  List of Chinese dishes  List of egg dishes  List of seafood dishes  References   Category:Teochew cuisine Category:Fujian cuisine Category:Singaporean cuisine Category:Taiwanese cuisine Category:Egg dishes Category:Malaysian cuisine Category:Thai cuisine Category:Omelettes Category:Oyster dishes
Loading may refer to:  Biology  Carbohydrate loading, a strategy employed by endurance athletes to maximize the storage of glycogen in the muscles  Creatine loading, a phase of use of creatine supplements  Vocal loading, the stress inflicted on the speech organs when speaking for long periods  Engineering  Application of a structural load to a system  Disk loading, the pressure maintained over the swept area of a helicopter's rotor  Seismic loading, one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering  Wing loading, the loaded weight of an aircraft divided by the area of its wing  Loading characteristic, a measure of traffic on a telephone system  Insertion of an electrical load into a circuit  Use of a loading coil to increase inductance  Loading (computing), the process in which the contents of an executable file are read into a computer's memory  Other uses  Task loading, the number of tasks taken on by a diver  See also  Lading  Load (disambiguation)  Loaded (disambiguation)  Loader (disambiguation)
Heinrich Obersteiner (13 November 1847 – 19 November 1922) was an Austrian neurologist born in Vienna. In 1870 earned his doctorate from the University of Vienna, where he worked in the laboratory of Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke (1819–1892). In 1873 he earned his habilitation for pathology and anatomy of the nervous system at the University of Vienna, becoming an associate professor in 1880, and receiving the title of "full professor" in 1898. He was also director of a private mental institution at Oberdöbling, outside of Vienna. In 1882 he established an internationally known neurological institute in Vienna. The eponymous Obersteiner–Redlich line is named after him, along with Emil Redlich (1866–1930).
This zone is where the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system meet, as well as the place where Schwann cells meet oligodendroglia cells. Written works    Anleitung beim Studium des baues der nervösen Centralorgane im gesunden und kranken Zustande. Leipzig and Vienna, 1888; fifth edition, 1912. translated into English, French, Italian, and Russian. English translation by Alexander Hill as "Introduction to the Study of the Anatomy of the Central Nervous Organs in Health and Disease" (1890). Die Lehre vom Hypnotismus. Leipzig and Vienna, 1893 – Lessons on hypnotism. Die Krankheiten des Rückenmarks, with Emil Redlich. in Ebstein and Schwalbe's Handbuch der praktischen Medizin, in Verbindung mit Zahlreichen Gelehrten.
Makroskopische Untersuchung des Zentralnervensystems, in Alberhalden's Handbuch der biologischen Arbeitsmethoden, part 8, T. 1; Berlin and Vienna, Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1924 – Macroscopic examination of the central nervous system. References  External links  Heinrich Obersteiner @ Who Named It  Category:Physicians from Vienna Category:Austrian neurologists Category:1847 births Category:1922 deaths Category:University of Vienna faculty
Water resources  are natural resources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. All living things require water to grow and reproduce. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is  found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing, with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia, South America and North America, although it is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened.
The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights. Sources of fresh water  Surface water   Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge. Although the only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within its watershed, the total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on many other factors. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates.
All of these factors also affect the proportions of water loss. Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans often increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans often increase runoff quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing the stream flow. The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.
Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling. To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed. Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another watershed through a canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources listed here, however in practice the quantities are negligible.
Humans can also cause surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution. Brazil is estimated to have the largest supply of fresh water in the world, followed by Russia and Canada. Under river flow   Throughout the course of a river, the total volume of water transported downstream will often be a combination of the visible free water flow together with a substantial contribution flowing through rocks and sediments that underlie the river and its floodplain called the hyporheic zone. For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of flow may greatly exceed the visible flow. The hyporheic zone often forms a dynamic interface between surface water and groundwater from aquifers, exchanging flow between rivers and aquifers that may be fully charged or depleted.
This is especially significant in karst areas where pot-holes and underground rivers are common. Groundwater   Groundwater is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between groundwater that is closely associated with surface water and deep groundwater in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water"). Groundwater can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and storage. The critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, groundwater storage is generally much larger (in volume) compared to inputs than it is for surface water.
This difference makes it easy for humans to use groundwater unsustainably for a long time without severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a groundwater source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source. The natural input to groundwater is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from groundwater are springs and seepage to the oceans. If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater source may become saline. This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization.
Humans can also cause groundwater to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution. Humans can increase the input to a groundwater source by building reservoirs or detention ponds. Frozen water   Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water source, however to date this has only been done for research purposes. Glacier runoff is considered to be surface water. The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain some of the most extensive and rough high altitude areas on Earth as well as the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles.
Ten of Asia's largest rivers flow from there, and more than a billion people's livelihoods depend on them. To complicate matters, temperatures there are rising more rapidly than the global average. In Nepal, the temperature has risen by 0.6 degrees Celsius over the last decade, whereas globally, the Earth has warmed approximately 0.7 degrees Celsius over the last hundred years. Desalination   Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water) is converted to fresh water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis. Desalination is currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination.
It is usually only economically practical for high-valued uses (such as household and industrial uses) in arid areas. However, there is growth in desalination for agricultural use, and highly populated areas such as Singapore or California. The most extensive use is in the Persian Gulf. Water uses  Agriculture   It is estimated that 70% of worldwide water is used for irrigation, with 15–35% of irrigation withdrawals being unsustainable. It takes around 2,000 – 3,000 litres of water to produce enough food to satisfy one person's daily dietary need. This is a considerable amount, when compared to that required for drinking, which is between two and five litres.
To produce food for the now over 7 billion people who inhabit the planet today requires the water that would fill a canal ten metres deep, 100 metres wide and 2100 kilometres long. Increasing water scarcity   Around fifty years ago, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At that time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers.
Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because there are now seven billion people on the planet, their consumption of water-thirsty meat and vegetables is rising, and there is increasing competition for water from industry, urbanisation biofuel crops, and water reliant food items. In the future, even more water will be needed to produce food because the Earth's population is forecast to rise to 9 billion by 2050. An additional 2.5 or 3 billion people, choosing to eat fewer cereals and more meat and vegetables could add an additional five million kilometres to the virtual canal mentioned above.
An assessment of water management in agriculture sector was conducted in 2007 by the International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for its growing population. It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering from water scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to meet all demands. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where the lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible for authorities to satisfy the demand for water.
In addition, one third of the world's population does not have access to clean drinking water, which is more than 2.3 billion people. The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required in future, but that continuation of today's food production and environmental trends would lead to crises in many parts of the world. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently. In some areas of the world, irrigation is necessary to grow any crop at all, in other areas it permits more profitable crops to be grown or enhances crop yield.
Various irrigation methods involve different trade-offs between crop yield, water consumption and capital cost of equipment and structures. Irrigation methods such as furrow and overhead sprinkler irrigation are usually less expensive but are also typically less efficient, because much of the water evaporates, runs off or drains below the root zone. Other irrigation methods considered to be more efficient include drip or trickle irrigation, surge irrigation, and some types of sprinkler systems where the sprinklers are operated near ground level. These types of systems, while more expensive, usually offer greater potential to minimize runoff, drainage and evaporation. Any system that is improperly managed can be wasteful, all methods have the potential for high efficiencies under suitable conditions, appropriate irrigation timing and management.
Some issues that are often insufficiently considered are salinization of groundwater and contaminant accumulation leading to water quality declines. As global populations grow, and as demand for food increases in a world with a fixed water supply, there are efforts under way to learn how to produce more food with less water, through improvements in irrigation  methods  and technologies, agricultural water management, crop types, and water monitoring. Aquaculture is a small but growing agricultural use of water. Freshwater commercial fisheries may also be considered as agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a lower priority than irrigation (see Aral Sea and Pyramid Lake).
Industries    It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry. Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants, which use water for cooling, ore and oil refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent. Water withdrawal can be very high for certain industries, but consumption is generally much lower than that of agriculture. Water is used in renewable power generation. Hydroelectric power derives energy from the force of water flowing downhill, driving a turbine connected to a generator. This hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. Significantly, hydroelectric power can also be used for load following unlike most renewable energy sources which are intermittent.
Ultimately, the energy in a hydroelectric powerplant is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higher altitudes and flows downhill. Pumped-storage hydroelectric plants also exist, which use grid electricity to pump water uphill when demand is low, and use the stored water to produce electricity when demand is high. Hydroelectric power plants generally require the creation of a large artificial lake. Evaporation from this lake is higher than evaporation from a river due to the larger surface area exposed to the elements, resulting in much higher water consumption. The process of driving water through the turbine and tunnels or pipes also briefly removes this water from the natural environment, creating water withdrawal.
The impact of this withdrawal on wildlife varies greatly depending on the design of the powerplant. Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns are used for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment. It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent overheating, or prevent saw blades from overheating. This is generally a very small source of water consumption relative to other uses. Water is also used in many large scale industrial processes, such as thermoelectric power production, oil refining, fertilizer production and other chemical plant use, and natural gas extraction from shale rock.
Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and increased water temperature (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge. Most of this pure water is generated on site, either from natural freshwater or from municipal grey water. Industrial consumption of water is generally much lower than withdrawal, due to laws requiring industrial grey water to be treated and returned to the environment. Thermoelectric power plants using cooling towers have high consumption, nearly equal to their withdrawal, as most of the withdrawn water is evaporated as part of the cooling process.
The withdrawal, however, is lower than in once-through cooling systems. Domestic use[house hold]   It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for domestic purposes. These include drinking water, bathing, cooking, toilet flushing, cleaning, laundry and gardening. Basic domestic water requirements have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding water for gardens. Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the water supplied to domestic, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation.
Recreation   Sustainable management of water resources (including provision of safe and reliable supplies for drinking water and irrigation, adequate sanitation, protection of aquatic ecosystems, and flood protection) poses enormous challenges in many parts of the world. Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Recreational water use is mostly tied to reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller than it would otherwise be for recreation, then the water retained could be categorized as recreational usage. Release of water from a few reservoirs is also timed to enhance whitewater boating, which also could be considered a recreational usage.
Other examples are anglers, water skiers, nature enthusiasts and swimmers. Recreational usage is usually non-consumptive. Golf courses are often targeted as using excessive amounts of water, especially in drier regions. It is, however, unclear whether recreational irrigation (which would include private gardens) has a noticeable effect on water resources. This is largely due to the unavailability of reliable data. Additionally, many golf courses utilize either primarily or exclusively treated effluent water, which has little impact on potable water availability. Some governments, including the Californian Government, have labelled golf course usage as agricultural in order to deflect environmentalists' charges of wasting water.
However, using the above figures as a basis, the actual statistical effect of this reassignment is close to zero. In Arizona, an organized lobby has been established in the form of the Golf Industry Association, a group focused on educating the public on how golf impacts the environment. Recreational usage may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water retained in a reservoir to allow boating in the late summer is not available to farmers during the spring planting season. Water released for whitewater rafting may not be available for hydroelectric generation during the time of peak electrical demand.
Environment   Explicit environment water use is also a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Environmental water may include water stored in impoundments and released for environmental purposes (held environmental water), but more often is water retained in waterways through regulatory limits of abstraction. Environmental water usage includes watering of natural or artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders, and water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn, or to restore more natural flow regimes  Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places.
For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may not be available to farms upstream, and water retained in a river to maintain waterway health would not be available to water abstractors downstream. Water stress   The concept of water stress is relatively simple: According to the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, it applies to situations where there is not enough water for all uses, whether agricultural, industrial or domestic. Defining thresholds for stress in terms of available water per capita is more complex, however, entailing assumptions about water use and its efficiency. Nevertheless, it has been proposed that when annual per capita renewable freshwater availability is less than 1,700 cubic meters, countries begin to experience periodic or regular water stress.
Below 1,000 cubic meters, water scarcity begins to hamper economic development and human health and well-being. Population growth   In 2000, the world population was 6.2 billion. The UN estimates that by 2050 there will be an additional 3.5 billion people with most of the growth in developing countries that already suffer water stress. Thus, water demand will increase unless there are corresponding increases in water conservation and recycling of this vital resource. In building on the data presented here by the UN, the World Bank goes on to explain that access to water for producing food will be one of the main challenges in the decades to come.
Access to water will need to be balanced with the importance of managing water itself in a sustainable way while taking into account the impact of climate change, and other environmental and social variables. Expansion of business activity  Business activity ranging from industrialization to services such as tourism and entertainment continues to expand rapidly. This expansion requires increased water services including both supply and sanitation, which can lead to more pressure on water resources and natural ecosystem. Rapid urbanization   The trend towards urbanization is accelerating. Small private wells and septic tanks that work well in low-density communities are not feasible within high-density urban areas.
Urbanization requires significant investment in water infrastructure in order to deliver water to individuals and to process the concentrations of wastewater – both from individuals and from business. These polluted and contaminated waters must be treated or they pose unacceptable public health risks. In 60% of European cities with more than 100,000 people, groundwater is being used at a faster rate than it can be replenished. Even if some water remains available, it costs increasingly more to capture it. Climate change   Climate change could have significant impacts on water resources around the world because of the close connections between the climate and hydrological cycle.
Rising temperatures will increase evaporation and lead to increases in precipitation, though there will be regional variations in rainfall. Both droughts and floods may become more frequent in different regions at different times, and dramatic changes in snowfall and snow melt are expected in mountainous areas. Higher temperatures will also affect water quality in ways that are not well understood. Possible impacts include increased eutrophication. Climate change could also mean an increase in demand for farm irrigation, garden sprinklers, and perhaps even swimming pools. There is now ample evidence that increased hydrologic variability and change in climate has and will continue have a profound impact on the water sector through the hydrologic cycle, water availability, water demand, and water allocation at the global, regional, basin, and local levels.
Depletion of aquifers   Due to the expanding human population, competition for water is growing such that many of the world's major aquifers are becoming depleted. This is due both for direct human consumption as well as agricultural irrigation by groundwater. Millions of pumps of all sizes are currently extracting groundwater throughout the world. Irrigation in dry areas such as northern China, Nepal and India is supplied by groundwater, and is being extracted at an unsustainable rate. Cities that have experienced aquifer drops between 10 and 50 meters include Mexico City, Bangkok,  Beijing, Madras and Shanghai. Pollution and water protection   Water pollution is one of the main concerns of the world today.
The governments of numerous countries have striven to find solutions to reduce this problem. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most widespread, especially in developing countries, is the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters;  this method of sewage disposal is the most common method in underdeveloped countries, but also is prevalent in quasi-developed countries such as China, India, Nepal and Iran. Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic pollutants are all dumped into the water. Even if sewage is treated, problems still arise. Treated sewage forms sludge, which may be placed in landfills, spread out on land, incinerated or dumped at sea.
In addition to sewage, nonpoint source pollution such as agricultural runoff is a significant source of pollution in some parts of the world, along with urban stormwater runoff and chemical wastes dumped by industries and governments. Water and conflicts   Competition for water has widely increased, and it has become more difficult to conciliate the necessities for water supply for human consumption, food production, ecosystems and other uses. Water administration is frequently involved in contradictory and complex problems. Approximately 10% of the worldwide annual runoff is used for human necessities. Several areas of the world are flooded, while others have such low precipitations that human life is almost impossible.
As population and development increase, raising water demand, the possibility of problems inside a certain country or region increases, as it happens with others outside the region. Over the past 25 years, politicians, academics and journalists have frequently predicted that disputes over water would be a source of future wars. Commonly cited quotes include: that of former Egyptian Foreign Minister and former Secretary-General of the United Nations Boutrous Ghali, who forecast, “The next war in the Middle East will be fought over water, not politics”; his successor at the UN, Kofi Annan, who in 2001 said, “Fierce competition for fresh water may well become a source of conflict and wars in the future,” and the former Vice President of the World Bank, Ismail Serageldin, who said the wars of the next century will be over water unless significant changes in governance occurred.
The water wars hypothesis had its roots in earlier research carried out on a small number of transboundary rivers such as the Indus, Jordan and Nile. These particular rivers became the focus because they had experienced water-related disputes. Specific events cited as evidence include Israel's bombing of Syria's attempts to divert the Jordan's headwaters, and military threats by Egypt against any country building dams in the upstream waters of the Nile. However, while some links made between conflict and water were valid, they did not necessarily represent the norm. The only known example of an actual inter-state conflict over water took place between 2500 and 2350 BC between the Sumerian states of Lagash and Umma.
Water stress has most often led to conflicts at local and regional levels. Tensions arise most often within national borders, in the downstream areas of distressed river basins. Areas such as the lower regions of China's Yellow River or the Chao Phraya River in Thailand, for example, have already been experiencing water stress for several years. Water stress can also exacerbate conflicts and political tensions which are not directly caused by water. Gradual reductions over time in the quality and/or quantity of fresh water can add to the instability of a region by depleting the health of a population, obstructing economic development, and exacerbating larger conflicts.
Shared water resources can promote collaboration   Water resources that span international boundaries are more likely to be a source of collaboration and cooperation than war. Scientists working at the International Water Management Institute have been investigating the evidence behind water war predictions. Their findings show that, while it is true there has been conflict related to water in a handful of international basins, in the rest of the world's approximately 300 shared basins the record has been largely positive. This is exemplified by the hundreds of treaties in place guiding equitable water use between nations sharing water resources. The institutions created by these agreements can, in fact, be one of the most important factors in ensuring cooperation rather than conflict.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) published the book Share: Managing water across boundaries. One chapter covers the functions of trans-boundary institutions and how they can be designed to promote cooperation, overcome initial disputes and find ways of coping with the uncertainty created by climate change. It also covers how the effectiveness of such institutions can be monitored. Water shortages   In 2025, water shortages will be more prevalent among poorer countries where resources are limited and population growth is rapid, such as the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia. By 2025, large urban and peri-urban areas will require new infrastructure to provide safe water and adequate sanitation.
This suggests growing conflicts with agricultural water users, who currently consume the majority of the water used by humans. Generally speaking the more developed countries of North America, Europe and Russia will not see a serious threat to water supply by the year 2025, not only because of their relative wealth, but more importantly their populations will be better aligned with available water resources. North Africa, the Middle East, South Africa and northern China will face very severe water shortages due to physical scarcity and a condition of overpopulation relative to their carrying capacity with respect to water supply. Most of South America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern China and India will face water supply shortages by 2025; for these latter regions the causes of scarcity will be economic constraints to developing safe drinking water, as well as excessive population growth.
Economic considerations   Water supply and sanitation require a huge amount of capital investment in infrastructure such as pipe networks, pumping stations and water treatment works. It is estimated that Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations need to invest at least US$200 billion per year to replace aging water infrastructure to guarantee supply, reduce leakage rates and protect water quality. International attention has focused upon the needs of the developing countries. To meet the Millennium Development Goals targets of halving the proportion of the population lacking access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015, current annual investment on the order of US$10 to US$15 billion would need to be roughly doubled.
This does not include investments required for the maintenance of existing infrastructure. Once infrastructure is in place, operating water supply and sanitation systems entails significant ongoing costs to cover personnel, energy, chemicals, maintenance and other expenses. The sources of money to meet these capital and operational costs are essentially either user fees, public funds or some combination of the two. An increasing dimension to consider is the flexibility of the water supply system. See also   Deficit irrigation  Flexible barge Spragg Bag  Peak water  Shared vision planning  Socio-hydrology  Virtual water  Water law  Water resources management  Xerochore (European action plan)  References  Further reading  Pearce, Fred When the Rivers Run Dry: Water—The Defining Crisis of the Twenty-First Century Beacon Press, 2006,    Sustaining Water for All in a Changing Climate The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development-The World Bank, 2010.
The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities The World Bank, 2010. The World Bank on public-private water mechanisms for urban utilities The World Bank, 2009, . Vazken Andréassian and Jean Margat, Rivers and Rivals. Quae publishing, Versailles, 2012, . External links Renewable water resources in the world by country Portal to international hydrology and water resources  Category:Aquatic ecology Category:Hydrology Category:Irrigation Resources Category:Water and the environment Category:Water management Resources Category:Water management authorities
Maggot (real name Andrew Major) (born 1976) is a Welsh rapper. Goldie Lookin Chain   Several Goldie Lookin Chain songs have been written about him. These include "The Maggot" (Greatest Hits); based on the tune of "You've Got to Pick a Pocket or Two" from the musical Oliver! and "Maneater" by Hall & Oates together with a Steeleye Span hook. "The Maggot" also namechecks Fagin, Dick Turpin, Penelope Keith and Kylie Minogue and features fellow GLC member Mystikal. Another song, "Maggot at Midnight" (from Safe as Fuck), namechecks (Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Nosferatu, The Crystal Maze, Michael Jackson and Jackson's song "Thriller") and features a sample from the television show 'Danger Mouse'.
Another short track he features on is called "Maggot's Stand-Up" where Maggot does a short stand-up comic style set; it mostly features scatological references. Maggot also identifies himself as The Hip Hop Vampire, which is one of his aliases. He's also the subject of the GLC song "Six Feet Tall" which features Lionel Richies "Easy Like Sunday Morning" as the background track and is a tribute to Maggot, basically reminiscing on his time with the GLC and how they miss him in the band. Maggot, like the other members of the group is a supporter of Liverpool F.C. although he has never seen them play.
Maggot has now left Goldie Lookin Chain to pursue other interests. Celebrity Big Brother   He appeared in the fourth series of Celebrity Big Brother in 2006, finishing third, trailing Michael Barrymore and eventual winner Chantelle Houghton. References  External links   Category:Welsh male rappers Category:Living people Category:People from Newport, Wales Category:1976 births
Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically for metalworking processes, such as machining and stamping. There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include oils, oil-water emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists), and air or other gases. Cutting fluid are made from petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils, water and air, or other raw ingredients. Depending on context and on which type of cutting fluid is being considered, it may be referred to as cutting fluid, cutting oil, cutting compound, coolant, or lubricant. Most metalworking and machining processes can benefit from the use of cutting fluid, depending on workpiece material.
Common exceptions to this are cast iron and brass, which may be machined dry (though this is not true of all brasses, and any machining of brass will likely benefit from the presence of a cutting fluid). The properties that are sought after in a good cutting fluid are the ability to:  keep the workpiece at a stable temperature (critical when working to close tolerances). Very warm is acceptable, but extremely hot or alternating hot-and-cold are avoided. maximize the life of the cutting tip by lubricating the working edge and reducing tip welding. ensure safety for the people handling it (toxicity, bacteria, fungi) and for the environment upon disposal.
prevent rust on machine parts and cutters. Function  Cooling  Metal cutting  generates heat due to friction and energy lost deforming the material. The surrounding air has low thermal conductivity (conducts heat poorly) meaning it is a poor coolant. Ambient air cooling is sometimes adequate for light cuts and low duty cycles typical of maintenance, repair and operations (MRO) or hobbyist work. Production work requires heavy cutting over long time periods and typically produces more heat than air cooling can remove. Rather than pausing production while the tool cools, using liquid coolant removes significantly more heat more rapidly, and can also speed cutting and reduce friction and tool wear.
However, it is not just the tool which heats up but also the work surface. Excessive temperature in the tool or work surface can ruin the temper of both, soften either to the point of uselessness or failure, burn adjacent material, create unwanted thermal expansion or lead to unwanted chemical reactions such as oxidation. Lubrication  Besides cooling, cutting fluids also aid the cutting process by lubricating the interface between the tool's cutting edge and the chip. By preventing friction at this interface, some of the heat generation is prevented. This lubrication also helps prevent the chips from being welded onto the tool, which would interfere with subsequent cutting.
Extreme pressure additives are often added to cutting fluids to further reduce tool wear. Delivery methods  Every conceivable method of applying cutting fluid (e.g., flooding, spraying, dripping, misting, brushing) can be used, with the best choice depending on the application and the equipment available. For many metal cutting applications the ideal has long been high-pressure, high-volume pumping to force a stream of liquid (usually an oil-water emulsion) directly into the tool-chip interface, with walls around the machine to contain the splatter and a sump to catch, filter, and recirculate the fluid. This type of system is commonly employed, especially in manufacturing.
It is often not a practical option for MRO or hobbyist metalcutting, where smaller, simpler machine tools are used. Fortunately it is also not necessary in those applications, where heavy cuts, aggressive speeds and feeds, and constant, all-day cutting are not vital. As technology continually advances, the flooding paradigm is no longer always the clear winner. It has been complemented since the 2000s by new permutations of liquid, aerosol, and gas delivery, such as minimum quantity lubrication and through-the-tool-tip cryogenic cooling (detailed below). Through-tool coolant systems, also known as through-spindle coolant systems, are systems plumbed to deliver coolant through passages inside the spindle and through the tool, directly to the cutting interface.
Many of these are also high-pressure coolant systems, in which the operating pressure can be hundreds to several thousand psi (1 to 30 MPa)—pressures comparable to those used in hydraulic circuits. High-pressure through-spindle coolant systems require rotary unions that can withstand these pressures. Drill bits and endmills tailored for this use have small holes at the lips where the coolant shoots out. Various types of gun drills also use similar arrangements. Types  Liquids  There are generally three types of liquids: mineral, semi-synthetic, and synthetic. Semi-synthetic and synthetic cutting fluids represent attempts to combine the best properties of oil with the best properties of water by suspending emulsified oil in a water base.
These properties include: rust inhibition, tolerance of a wide range of water hardness (maintaining pH stability around 9 to 10), ability to work with many metals, resist thermal breakdown, and environmental safety. Water is a good conductor of heat but has drawbacks as a cutting fluid. It boils easily, promotes rusting of machine parts, and does not lubricate well. Therefore, other ingredients are necessary to create an optimal cutting fluid. Mineral oils, which are petroleum-based, first saw use in cutting applications in the late 19th century. These vary from the thick, dark, sulfur-rich cutting oils used in heavy industry to light, clear oils.
Semi-synthetic coolants, also called soluble oil, are an emulsion or microemulsion of water with mineral oil. In workshops using British English soluble oil is colloquially known as SUDS. These began to see use in the 1930s. A typical CNC machine tool usually uses emulsified coolant, which consists of a small amount of oil emulsified into a larger amount of water through the use of a detergent. Synthetic coolants originated in the late 1950s and are usually water-based. The official technique to measure oil concentration in cutting fluid samples is manual titration: 100ml of the fluid under test is titrated with a 0.5M HCl solution to an endpoint of pH 4 and the volume of titrant used to reach the endpoint is used to calculate the oil concentration.
This technique is accurate and not affected by fluid contamination, but needs to be performed by trained personnel in a laboratory environment. A hand-held refractometer is the industrial standard used to determine the mix ratio of water-soluble coolants that estimates oil concentration from the sample refractive index measured in the Brix scale. The refractometer allows for in situ measurements of oil concentration within industrial plants. However, contamination of the sample reduces the accuracy of the measure. Other techniques are used to measure the oil concentration in cutting fluids, such as measure of the fluid viscosity, density, and ultrasound speed. Other test equipment is used to determine such properties as acidity and conductivity.
Others include:  Kerosene and rubbing alcohol often give good results when working on aluminum. WD-40 and 3-In-One Oil work well on various metals. The latter has a citronella odor; if the odor offends, mineral oil and general-purpose lubricating oils work about the same. Way oil (the oil made for machine tool ways) works as a cutting oil. In fact, some screw machines are designed to use one oil as both the way oil and cutting oil. (Most machine tools treat way lube and coolant as separate things that inevitably mix during use, which leads to tramp oil skimmers being used to separate them back out.)
Motor oils have a slightly complicated relationship to machine tools. Straight-weight non-detergent motor oils are usable, and in fact SAE 10 and 20 oils used to be the recommended spindle and way oils (respectively) on manual machine tools decades ago, although nowadays dedicated way oil formulas prevail in commercial machining. While nearly all motor oils can act as adequate cutting fluids in terms of their cutting performance alone, modern multi-weight motor oils with detergents and other additives are best avoided. These additives can present a copper-corrosion concern to brass and bronze, which machine tools often have in their bearings and leadscrew nuts (especially older or manual machine tools).
Dielectric fluid is used as a cutting fluid in electrical discharge machines (EDMs). It is usually deionized water or a high-flash-point kerosene. Intense heat is generated by the cutting action of the electrode (or wire) and the fluid is used to stabilize the temperature of the workpiece, along with flushing any eroded particles from the immediate work area. The dielectric fluid is non-conductive. Liquid- (water- or petroleum oil-) cooled water tables are used with the plasma arc cutting (PAC) process. Neatsfoot oil of the highest grade is used as a lubricant. It is used in metalworking industries as a cutting fluid for aluminum.
For machining, tapping and drilling aluminum, it is superior to kerosene and various water-based cutting fluids. Pastes or gels  Cutting fluid may also take the form of a paste or gel when used for some applications, in particular hand operations such as drilling and tapping. In sawing metal with a bandsaw, it is common to periodically run a stick of paste against the blade. This product is similar in form factor to lipstick or beeswax. It comes in a cardboard tube, which gets slowly consumed with each application. Aerosols (mists)  Some cutting fluids are used in aerosol (mist) form (air with tiny droplets of liquid scattered throughout).
The main problems with mists have been that they are rather bad for the workers, who have to breathe the surrounding mist-tainted air, and that they sometimes don't even work very well. Both of those problems come from the imprecise delivery that often puts the mist everywhere and all the time except at the cutting interface, during the cut—the one place and time where it's wanted. However, a newer form of aerosol delivery,  (minimum quantity of lubricant), avoids both of those problems. The delivery of the aerosol is directly through the flutes of the tool (it arrives directly through or around the insert itself—an ideal type of cutting fluid delivery that traditionally has been unavailable outside of a few contexts such as gun drilling or expensive, state-of-the-art liquid delivery in production milling).
MQL's aerosol is delivered in such a precisely targeted way (with respect to both location and timing) that the net effect seems almost like dry machining from the operators' perspective. The chips generally seem like dry-machined chips, requiring no draining, and the air is so clean that machining cells can be stationed closer to inspection and assembly than before. MQL doesn't provide much cooling in the sense of heat transfer, but its well-targeted lubricating action prevents some of the heat from being generated in the first place, which helps to explain its success. CO2 Coolant  Carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2) is also used as a coolant.
In this application pressurized liquid CO2 is allowed to expand and this is accompanied by a drop in temperature, enough to cause a change of phase into a solid. These solid crystals are redirected into the cut zone by either external nozzles or through-the-spindle delivery, to provide temperature controlled cooling of the cutting tool and work piece. Air or other gases (e.g., nitrogen)  Ambient air, of course, was the original machining coolant. Compressed air, supplied through pipes and hoses from an air compressor and discharged from a nozzle aimed at the tool, is sometimes a useful coolant. The force of the decompressing air stream blows chips away, and the decompression itself has a slight degree of cooling action.
The net result is that the heat of the machining cut is carried away a bit better than by ambient air alone. Sometimes liquids are added to the air stream to form a mist (mist coolant systems, described above). Liquid nitrogen, supplied in pressurized steel bottles, is sometimes used in similar fashion. In this case, boiling is enough to provide a powerful refrigerating effect. For years this has been done (in limited applications) by flooding the work zone. Since 2005, this mode of coolant has been applied in a manner comparable to MQL (with through-the-spindle and through-the-tool-tip delivery). This refrigerates the body and tips of the tool to such a degree that it acts as a "thermal sponge", sucking up the heat from the tool–chip interface.
This new type of nitrogen cooling is still under patent. Tool life has been increased by a factor of 10 in the milling of tough metals such as titanium and inconel. Alternatively, using airflow combined with a quick evaporating substance (ex. alcohol, water etc.) can be used as an effective coolant when handling hot pieces that cannot be cooled by alternate methods. Past practice   In 19th-century machining practice, it was not uncommon to use plain water. This was simply a practical expedient to keep the cutter cool, regardless of whether it provided any lubrication at the cutting edge–chip interface. When one considers that high-speed steel (HSS) had not been developed yet, the need to cool the tool becomes all the more apparent.
(HSS retains its hardness at high temperatures; other carbon tool steels do not.) An improvement was soda water (sodium bicarbonate in water), which better inhibited the rusting of machine slides. These options are generally not used today because more effective alternatives are available. Animal fats such as Tallow or Lard were very popular in the past. It is used infrequently today, because of the wide variety of other choices, but it remains an option. Old machine shop training texts speak of using red lead and white lead, often mixed into lard or lard oil. This practice is obsolete due to the toxicity of lead.
From the mid-20th century to the 1990s, 1,1,1-trichloroethane was used as an additive to make some cutting fluids more effective. In shop-floor slang it was referred to as "one-one-one". It has been phased out because of its ozone-depleting and central nervous system-depressing properties. Safety concerns Cutting fluids present some mechanisms for causing illness or injury in workers. Occupational exposure is associated with increases in cardiovascular disease. These mechanisms are based on the external (skin) or internal contact involved in machining work, including touching the parts and tooling; being splattered or splashed by the fluid; or having mist settle on the skin or enter the mouth and nose in the normal course of breathing.
The mechanisms include the chemical toxicity or physical irritating ability of:  the fluid itself  the metal particles (from previous cutting) that are borne in the fluid  the bacterial or fungal populations that naturally tend to grow in the fluid over time  the biocides that are added to inhibit those life forms  the corrosion inhibitors that are added to protect the machine and tooling  the tramp oils that result from the way oils (the lubricants for the slideways) inevitably finding their way into the coolant  The toxicity or irritating ability is usually not high, but it is sometimes enough to cause problems for the skin or for the tissues of the respiratory tract or alimentary tract (e.g., the mouth, larynx, esophagus, trachea, or lungs).
Some of the diagnoses that can result from the mechanisms explained above include irritant contact dermatitis; allergic contact dermatitis; occupational acne; tracheitis; esophagitis; bronchitis; asthma; allergy; hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP); and worsening of pre-existing respiratory problems. Safer cutting fluid formulations provide a resistance to tramp oils, allowing improved filtration separation without removing the base additive package. Room ventilation, splash guards on machines, and personal protective equipment (PPE) (such as safety glasses, respirator masks, and gloves) can mitigate hazards related to cutting fluids. Additionally, Skimmers may be used to remove tramp oil from the surface of cutting fluid, which prevents the growth of micro-organisms.
Bacterial growth is predominant in petroleum-based cutting fluids. Tramp oil along with human hair or skin oil are some of the debris during cutting which accumulates and forms a layer on the top of the liquid; anaerobic bacteria proliferate due to a number of factors. An early sign of the need for replacement is the "Monday-morning smell" (due to lack of usage from Friday to Monday). Antiseptics are sometimes added to the fluid to kill bacteria. Such use must be balanced against whether the antiseptics will harm the cutting performance, workers' health, or the environment. Maintaining as low a fluid temperature as practical will slow the growth of microorganisms.
Degradation, replacement, and disposal  Cutting fluids degrade over time due to contaminants entering the lubrication system. A common type of degradation is the formation of tramp oil, also known as sump oil, which is unwanted oil that has mixed with cutting fluid. It originates as lubrication oil that seeps out from the slideways and washes into the coolant mixture, as the protective film with which a steel supplier coats bar stock to prevent rusting, or as hydraulic oil leaks. In extreme cases it can be seen as a film or skin on the surface of the coolant or as floating drops of oil.
Skimmers are used to separate the tramp oil from the coolant. These are typically slowly rotating vertical discs that are partially submerged below the coolant level in the main reservoir. As the disc rotates the tramp oil clings to each side of the disc to be scraped off by two wipers, before the disc passes back through the coolant. The wipers are in the form of a channel that then redirects the tramp oil to a container where it is collected for disposal. Floating weir skimmers are also used in these situation where temperature or the amount of oil on the water becomes excessive.
Since the introduction of CNC additives, the tramp oil in these systems can be managed more effectively through a continuous separation effect. The tramp oil accumulation separates from the aqueous or oil based coolant and can be easily removed with an absorbent. Old, used cutting fluid must be disposed of when it is fetid or chemically degraded and has lost its usefulness. As with used motor oil or other wastes, its impact on the environment should be mitigated. Legislation and regulation specify how this mitigation should be achieved. Modern cutting fluid disposal involves techniques such as ultrafiltration using polymeric or ceramic membranes which concentrates the suspended and emulsified oil phase.
Chip handling and coolant management are interrelated. Over the decades they have been improved, to the point that many metalworking operations now use engineered solutions for the overall cycle of collecting, separating, and recycling both chips and coolant. For example, the chips are graded by size and type, tramp metals (such as bolts and scrap parts) are separated out, the coolant is centrifuged off the chips (which are then dried for further handling), and so on. References  Notes  Bibliography  External links Metalworking Fluids - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health  Category:Coolants Category:Metalworking Category:Lubricants Category:Petroleum products Category:Oils  it:Lubrorefrigerante
Legal Marijuana Now is a political third party in the United States established in 1998 to oppose drug prohibition. The party shares many of the progressive values of the Farmer-Labor Party but with an emphasis on marijuana/hemp legalization issues. The Legal Marijuana Now Party is an offshoot of the Grassroots Party, and the organization traces their roots to the Youth International Party of the 1960s. Legal Marijuana Now is active in the U.S. states of Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. A primary goal of the Legal Marijuana Now Party, aside from getting pro-cannabis candidates into office, is to increase voter turnout in elections.
Legal Marijuana Now is a social democratic party that is anti-war, pro-labor and supports the rights of all minority groups. The Legal Marijuana Now Party promotes wise environmental stewardship, and denounces corporate personhood. Platform  United States Bill of Rights The permanent platform of the Legal Marijuana Now party is the Bill of Rights. All Legal Marijuana Now candidates would end marijuana/hemp prohibition, thus re-legalizing cannabis for all its uses. Social democracy The Legal Marijuana Now Party is a grassroots group that derives their strength from the people. Legal Marijuana Now Party is pro-labor and anti-war. Prohibition endangers public safety by fostering corruption, curtailing civil liberties, and perpetuating racism.
The Legal Marijuana Now Party believes legalization would bring more jobs and money into the economy. Ecological democracy The hemp plant provides multiple durable goods such as rope, fabric, industrial oil, and biofuel. Cannabis itself is food and medicine. According to Mark Elworth, Jr., the Legal Marijuana Now Party candidate for vice president in 2016, "Let's let farmers produce environmentally-friendly hemp again." Mascot  Cannabis leaf The official mascot of the Legal Marijuana Now party is the cannabis leaf. Marvelous Cannabis Leaf is a personification of the mascot that was first drawn as part of the cartoon "Marijuana Legalization in Minnesota is Not Inevitable" on April 20, 2015, by artist and standup comedian Andy Schuler.
Panda A panda wearing a cannabis-leaf shirt is an alternate mascot of the Legal Marijuana Now Party. Logo The party logo consists of a raised fist, superimposed with the cannabis leaf mascot and the name of the party, Legal Marijuana Now. Colors Legal Marijuana Now Party official colors are the Rastafari colors, green, gold, and red, and sometimes black. The colors are from the flag of Ethiopia and are also the colors of the Youth International Party flag. Alternate colors for the Legal Marijuana Now Party are a rainbow flag, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet, representing inclusiveness. And alternate Legal Marijuana Now Party colors are red, white, and blue, representing the flag of the United States.
Banner The official banner is the name of the party in white lettering, on an emerald green background. The letter 'O' in the word 'Now' on the banner is interwoven with a cannabis leaf. Name The name of the party is from the Yippie chant, "What do we want?" "Legal marijuana." "When do we want it?" "Now!" The name Legal Marijuana Now was chosen so that the message is clear and every vote would be counted as an unmistakable vote to legalize Marijuana. Ideology  The Legal Marijuana Now Party pledge  Legalize homegrown cannabis  Erase past marijuana convictions  Ban employment drug testing  Abolish the Drug Enforcement Administration  Philosophy of the Legal Marijuana Now Party  The Legal Marijuana Now Party philosophy is from the Bible.
The Book of Revelation (22:2) states, "The leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations." In a speech to the Saint Paul branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in October 2014, Legal Marijuana Now candidate for Attorney General of Minnesota, Dan Vacek, said, "Like alcohol prohibition, drug prohibition must be repealed and replaced by regulation, education, and moderation. When we take that step, we take the first step toward healing our nation." Structure and composition  Movement Grassroots organizations are associated with bottom-up rather than top-down decision making. The Legal Marijuana Now Party seeks to engage ordinary people in political discourse to the greatest extent possible.
Leadership All decisions on important organizational and financial subjects must be reached by a leadership Head Council, which consists of Legal Marijuana Now Party members with at least three consecutive years participation in the party and officers elected by the members at an annual convention held in January. State and local chapters Legal Marijuana Now Party has state chapters in Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. And Congressional District chapters in Saint Paul and Omaha. U.S. presidential candidates  In 2016, Legal Marijuana Now placed their presidential candidates on the ballot in two states, Iowa and Minnesota. And as a write-in candidate nationwide.
Legal Marijuana Now Party results in presidential elections  History  Early history The Youth International Party, formed in 1967 to advance the counterculture of the 1960s, often ran candidates for public office. The Yippie flag is a five-pointed star superimposed with a cannabis leaf. The Grassroots Party was founded in Minnesota in 1986 and ran numerous candidates for state and federal offices. The party was active in Iowa, Minnesota, and Vermont. Grassroots Party ran candidates in every presidential election from 1988 to 2000. In 1996 the Minnesota Grassroots Party split, forming the Independent Grassroots Party for one election cycle. John Birrenbach was the Independent Grassroots Presidential candidate and George McMahon was the Vice-presidential candidate.
Dan Vacek was the Independent Grassroots candidate for United States Representative, District 4, in 1996. In 1998, members of the Independent Grassroots Party formed the Legal Marijuana Now political party. 1998 election results in Minnesota  Iowa history  Iowa Legal Marijuana Now Party placed their presidential candidates on the 2016 ballot by petitioning the state. If the party receives two-percent of the vote in a statewide race they can claim minor party access in Iowa. Legal Marijuana Now Iowa is organizing a petition drive to put candidates onto the ballot in 2020. Minnesota history  According to the Legal Marijuana Now Party of Minnesota, the right to grow a garden is protected by the Minnesota Constitution.
Minnesota does not allow voters to petition to put the law itself onto the ballot for a vote. The only petition the people can use in Minnesota is to nominate independent and third party candidates for office. In 2014, Dan Vacek ran for Minnesota Attorney General as the Legal Marijuana Now candidate and got 57,604 votes, qualifying the party to be officially recognized and to receive public funding from the state. Minnesota Legal Marijuana Now held their first convention and adopted a party constitution on November 26, 2014. Founding members Oliver Steinberg, Marty Super, and Dan Vacek comprised the organization's 2015 leadership council.
In 2016, Michael Ford was elected chairperson of the Minnesota Legal Marijuana Now Party. The Legal Marijuana Now Party placed a candidate, Zach Phelps, on the ballot in the Minnesota State Senate District 35 Special Election, in February 2016. Minnesota Legal Marijuana Now nominated candidates by petition to appear on the ballot for the November 6, 2018 election. The Legal Marijuana Now Party placed a candidate, John “Sparky” Birrenbach, of Pine City on the ballot in the Minnesota State Senate District 11 Special Election, in February 2019. Results in Minnesota state elections  Results in federal elections in Minnesota  Nebraska history The Nebraska Legal Marijuana Now Party is petitioning to be recognized as a major political party.
That earns candidates inclusion in the official state voters guide. To make the ballot, Legal Marijuana Now Party must have valid signatures equal to at least one-percent of the total votes cast for governor in 2014, or 5,397 signatures statewide. The party also must have a certain number of signatures from each of the state's three congressional districts. In July, 2016, volunteers turned in 9,000 signatures to the Nebraska Secretary of State. However, the Secretary of State said that half of the signatures were invalid, falling short of the 5,397 needed. After failing to make it onto Nebraska ballots in 2016, party organizer Mark Elworth began circulating petitions for 2020 ballot access for a Nebraska Legal Marijuana Now Party in September, 2016.
Elworth said the group will collect double the number of signatures they submitted in 2016, in order to ensure their success. As of September, 2017, Elworth told a television reporter that Legal Marijuana Now Party had gathered signatures of 10,000 registered Nebraska voters. New Jersey history  The New Jersey Legalize Marijuana Party was established in 1998 by Edward Forchion to protest cannabis prohibition. Forchion ran for US Representative in 1998, Camden County Freeholder in 1999, New Jersey Governor in 2005, and US Senator in 2006. In 2014 Don Dezarn ran for US Representative in New Jersey's 12th congressional district as the Legalize Marijuana candidate.
Forchion filed a lawsuit in an attempt to get onto the ballot in 2014 for New Jersey's 3rd congressional district, but a judge dismissed the lawsuit. Forchion ran for US Representative for New Jersey's 12th congressional district in 2016. Results in New Jersey state elections  Results in federal elections in New Jersey  Publications  Freedom Gazette Minnesota Legal Marijuana Now Party's e-newsletter, Freedom Gazette, is published quarterly. The Freedom Gazette is edited by Dan Vacek.
Further reading Simons, Abby (November 5, 2014) Minors Lead on Marijuana Star Tribune Gettman, Jon (February 9, 2016) Minnesota Maverick Pushes Legalization Platform in Special Election High Times Pluhacek, Zach (September 14, 2016) Marijuana groups already petitioning for 2018 ballot Lincoln Journal Star Bierschbach, Briana (November 7, 2018) Minnesota poised to get two new major pot parties Minnesota Public Radio Legal Marijuana Now Party Gains Traction WCCO-TV, November 7, 2018  References  External links Legal Marijuana Now Party (United States) facebook.com/LMN.USA twitter.com/MarijuanaNowUSA instagram.com/legalmarijuananow Iowa Legal Marijuana Now Party facebook.com/LMN.Iowa Minnesota Legal Marijuana Now Party  facebook.com/LMN.Minnesota Nebraska Legal Marijuana Now Party facebook.com/MJPNE New Jersey Legalize Marijuana Party facebook.com/NJLMP420 Wisconsin Legal Marijuana Now Party facebook.com/LMNWisconsin  Category:1998 establishments in the United States Category:Cannabis law reform organizations based in the United States Category:Cannabis political parties of the United States Category:Drug policy organizations based in the United States Category:Political parties established in 1998 Category:Political parties in the United States Category:Progressive parties in the United States Category:Social democratic parties in the United States
The MG T-Type is a series of body-on-frame open two-seater sports cars that were produced by MG from 1936 to 1955. The series included the MG TA, MG TB, MG TC, MG TD, and MG TF Midget models. The last of these models, the TF, was replaced by the MGA. Although the design was similar to contemporary cars of the 1930s, it came to be considered outdated by the 1950s. The TF name was reinstated in 2002 on the mid-engined MG TF sports car. TA Midget  The TA Midget replaced the PB in 1936. It was an evolution of the previous car and was  wider in its track at  and  longer in its wheelbase at .
The previous advanced overhead-cam inline-four engine was by then not in use by any other production car so it was replaced by the MPJG OHV unit from the Wolseley 10, but with twin SU carburettors, modified camshaft and manifolding. The engine displaced just 1292 cc, with a stroke of  and a bore of  and power output was 50 hp (40.3 kW) at 4,500 rpm. The four-speed manual gearbox now had synchromesh on the two top ratios and was connected to the engine by a cork-faced clutch running in oil. Unlike the PB, hydraulic brakes were fitted with  drums. Like the PB, most were two-seat open cars with a steel body on an ash frame.
A bench-type seat was fitted with storage space behind. The T-type was capable of reaching almost  in standard tune with a 0–60 mph time of 23.1 seconds. Allan Tomlinson won the 1939 Australian Grand Prix handicap driving an MG TA. 3,003 were made and in 1936 it cost £222 on the home market, the same as the PB. When first introduced the model was known as the T Type and only after the advent of the TB did the TA designation come into use. Tickford drophead coupé From 1938 the car could also be had with a more luxurious Tickford drophead coupé body by Salmons of Newport Pagnell, and 252 were made.
The soft top could be used in three positions, fully open, closed or open just over the seats. Wind-up windows were fitted to the higher topped doors making the car more weathertight and individual bucket seats used in the fully carpeted interior. Complete chassis were fitted with a very basic body at the Abingdon factory and driven to Newport Pagnell to have their coachwork fitted. Airline fixed head coupé  A closed Airline coupé made by Carbodies, as fitted to the P type, was also offered but only one or two are thought to have been made. TB Midget  The TA was replaced by the TB Midget in May 1939.
It had a smaller but more modern XPAG engine as fitted to the Morris Ten Series M, but in a more highly tuned state and like the TA with twin SU carburettors. This 1250 cc straight-four unit featured a slightly less undersquare  bore and  stroke and had a maximum power output of  at 5200 rpm. The oil-immersed clutch was also replaced by a dry-plate type and gear ratios revised. Available as an open two-seater or more luxurious Tickford drophead coupé, this is the rarest of the T-type cars, as production began just prior to Britain's entry into World War II.
Only 379 TBs were made before the MG factory emptied its buildings and switched to making major aircraft components and modifying tanks. TC Midget  The TC Midget was the first postwar MG, and was launched in 1945. The TC is quite accurately well known as the (specific) car that caused the Sport Car "craze" in America. It was quite similar to the pre-war TB, sharing the same  pushrod-OHV engine with a slightly higher compression ratio of 7.4:1 giving  at 5200 rpm. The makers also provided information for several alternative stages of tuning for "specific purposes". The XPAG engine is well known for its tunability.
The TC engine was a slightly improved version of the XPAG first introduced to MG in the TB. Notable improvement was through the addition of a hydraulically (oil pressure) adjusted timing chain tensioner. All TCs utilized a (single battery) 12 volt electrical system. All TCs came with 19" Dunlop wire wheels. Automatic mechanical timing advance was built into the ignition distributor. It was exported to the United States, even though the car was only ever built in right-hand drive. The export version had slightly smaller US specification sealed-beam headlights (7-inch buckets) and twin tail lights, as well as turn signals and chromed front and rear bumpers with over riders.
The body was approximately 4 inches (100 mm) wider than the TB measured at the rear of the doors to give more cockpit space. The overall car width remained the same resulting in narrower running boards with two tread strips as opposed to the previous three. The tachometer was directly in front of the driver, while the speedometer/odometer was on the other side of the dash in front of the passenger, a nod to MG's trials history. 10,001 TCs were produced, from September 1945 (chassis number TC0251) to November 1949 (chassis number TC10251), more than any previous MG model. It cost £527 on the home (UK) market in 1947.
Fuel consumption was . Its 0–60 mph time was 22.7 seconds, a respectable performance at the time. A low fuel warning light would glow on the dash to alert the driver. TD Midget  The 1950 TD Midget announced in January 1950 combined the TC's drivetrain, a modified hypoid-geared rear axle, the MG Y-type chassis, a familiar T-type style body and independent suspension on front axle using coil springs from the MG Y-type saloon:  a 1950 road-test report described as "most striking" the resulting "transformation ... in the comfort of riding". The reference cited here was incorrect to infer the entire drive train was lifted from the TC, as along with the new hypoid differential, a completely different transmission was used (albeit also a four-speed).
Also lifted from the company's successful 1¼-litre saloon was the (still highly geared) rack and pinion steering. In addition the TD featured smaller  disc type road wheels, a left-hand drive option and standard equipment bumpers and over-riders. The car was also  wider with a track of . It was seen by enthusiasts at the time as a disappointment, mild and  "not a sports car". ". . . the new model is largely designed to consolidate and expand the car's sale in North America." The first TDs were actually built in late 1949. For the driver the "all-weather protection" was good by the standards of the time.
For night driving, instrument illumination was "effective but not dazzling, by a pale green lighting effect". There was still no fuel gauge, but the  of tank capacity gave a range between refuelling stops of about 300 miles (480 km) and a green light on the facia flashed a "warning" when the fuel level was down to about . In 1950 the TD MkII Competition Model was introduced, produced alongside the standard car, with a more highly tuned engine using an 8.1:1 compression ratio giving  at 5,500 rpm. The higher compression ratio engine was offered with export markets in mind, and would not have been suitable for the UK, where thanks to the continued operation of wartime fuel restrictions, buyers were still limited to 72 octane "pool petrol".
The TD MkII also featured twin fuel pumps, additional Andrex dampers, and a higher ratio rear-axle. Nearly 30,000 TDs had been produced, including about 1700 Mk II models, when the series ended in 1953 with all but 1656 exported, 23,488 of them to the US alone. The main complaint that US owners had with the MG TD sold in the US was the British 12-volt electrical system, which was hard to service when most US cars were still using 6 volts. Also, they had minor complaints over the lack of water temperature and fuel gauges. But in general in surveys, owners of the Americanised MG TD had more positive remarks than negative.
The 0– time was 22.7 seconds according to Popular Mechanics. An example tested by The Motor magazine in 1952 had a top speed of  and could accelerate from 0– in 18.2 seconds. A fuel consumption of  was recorded. In 1998, the rights, intellectual properties and trademarks associated with the production of the MG TD were acquired by TD Cars Sdn Bhd in Malaysia to reproduce the TD series as TD2000. TF and TF 1500 Midget  The TF Midget, launched on 15 October 1953, was a facelifted TD, fitted with the TD Mark II engine, headlights faired into the fenders, a sloping radiator grille concealing a separate radiator, and a new pressurised cooling system along with a simulated external radiator cap.
This XPAG engine's compression ratio had been increased to 8.1:1 and extra-large valves with stronger valve springs and larger carburettors increased output to 57.5 bhp at 5,500 rpm. In mid-1954 the engine capacity was increased by 17 per cent to 1466 cc and designated XPEG. The bore was increased to  and compression raised to 8.3:1 giving  at 5,000 rpm and a 17 per cent increase in torque. The car was designated TF1500, and externally distinguished by a cream background enamel nameplate on both sides of the bonnet, placed just to the rear of the forward bonnet-release buttons. Production ended at chassis number TF10100 on 4 April 1955 after 9,602 TFs had been manufactured, including two prototypes and 3,400 TF1500s.
The TF was superseded by the MGA. See also MG Car Club  References Notes  Bibliography  Further reading  External links   MG TF 1500 1955  TTT2, a free bimonthly online technical MG T-Type publication  The MG Car Club T Register  1950 MGTD Restoration Project  The story of "Winston" Dr. Jim Brown's 1954 MGTF  The Original MGTD Midget  The Original MGTF Midget  The New England MG T Register, Ltd.  T Category:Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Category:Roadsters Category:Coupés Category:Sports cars Category:1930s cars Category:1940s cars Category:1950s cars Category:24 Hours of Le Mans race cars Category:Cars introduced in 1936
Sofia the First is an American computer-animated television series that incorporates characters from the Disney Princess franchise. The series stars Ariel Winter as Sofia, a young girl who becomes a princess when her mother, Miranda, marries King Roland II of the kingdom of Enchancia. On April 14, 2015, the series was renewed for a fourth season by Disney Junior, which released on April 28, 2017. The series finale aired on September 8, 2018. Series overview  Episodes  Pilot (2012)  Season 1 (2013–14) All episodes in this season are directed by Jamie Mitchell. Season 2 (2014–15) All episodes in this season are directed by Jamie Mitchell.
Notes:  Season 3 (2015–17)  Notes  Season 4 (2017–18) All episodes in this season are directed by Jamie Mitchell and Mircea Kyle Mantta. DJ Melodies  "Brave Adventure" – April 4, 2015  "The More the Merrier" – April 9, 2015  References  Sofia the First Sofia the First Episodes
Ginger Minj is the stage name of Joshua Allen Eads, an American drag queen, actor, singer, songwriter, and reality television personality most known for placing as the runner-up on the seventh season of the reality television competition RuPaul's Drag Race and subsequently the second season of RuPaul's Drag Race: All Stars. Early life Eads was born in Lake County, Florida, and majored in theater at school. His drag mother is Rusty Fawcett. Career  Eads as Ginger Minj competed on the seventh season of the reality television competition RuPaul's Drag Race, which was announced on March 2, 2015. He placed in the top three in the season, but lost to Violet Chachki.
He was announced as one of ten contestants for the second season of RuPaul's Drag Race: All Stars on June 17, 2016. He was eliminated in the third episode, placing eighth. He appeared as a guest for the first challenge in the premiere of season eleven of Drag Race. Music  Eads released his first single, "Ooh Lala Lala" on June 1, 2015. A second single, "Bad, Bad Boy" was released on October 21, 2016. His debut album, Sweet T, was released in October 2016 The album consists of a mix of original songs and covers and features of variety of styles including pop, rock, dance, jazz, and soul.
Minj contributed to the compilation album Christmas Queens 3 in 2017. His second album Clown Fucker was set to be released in December 2018, and was pushed back to early 2019, but remains unreleased. Acting  Eads was an actor in Clandestine Arts' production of Avenue Q. He performed with other All Stars 2 queens at the Trailblazer Honors for Harvey Fierstein as the only singing performer on July 7, 2016. He was with Katya and Alyssa Edwards on commercial bumpers for a Mama's Family marathon for the Logo channel. Minj voiced the character Lemon Chiffon in the 2018 Netflix original series Super Drags.
In 2018, he starred in the musical comedy film Dumplin'. In 2020, Eads portrayed Tommy and drag queen Fanny Pak on the Netflix comedy AJ and the Queen alongside RuPaul in the episode "Fort Worth". Personal life Eads is from Florida, and was married to his husband by Michelle Visage at a DragCon convention in 2017. Discography  Studio albums  Singles  Other appearances  Filmography  Film credits  Television credits  Music videos  Web series  References  External links   Joshua Allan Eads at IMDb  Ginger Minj discography at Discogs  Category:Living people Category:Actors from Florida Category:American drag queens Category:LGBT male actors Category:LGBT people from Florida Ginger Minj Category:Year of birth missing (living people) Ginger Minj
Fish acute toxicity syndrome (FATS) is a set of common chemical and functional responses in fish resulting from a short-term, acute exposure to a lethal concentration of a toxicant, a chemical or material that can produce an unfavorable effect in a living organism. By definition, modes of action are characterized by FATS because the combination of common responses that represent each fish acute toxicity syndrome characterize an adverse biological effect. Therefore, toxicants that have the same mode of action elicit similar sets of responses in the organism and can be classified by the same fish acute toxicity syndrome. Background   During the 1970s, large-scale production of chemicals dramatically increased initiating new legislation to appease public concern about potential harmful effects.
After implementation of the Toxic Substances Control Act in 1977, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) required chemicals, new and existing, to be assessed for risks to human health and ecological systems. Since thousands of new chemicals are registered a year, it is important to utilize a screening technique that predicts toxicity of chemicals in a consistent, efficient manner. As a result, researchers in the field of toxicology focused on the development of QSAR models as a means of assessing toxic effects of chemicals in fish. In toxicology, the quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) approach is a method for predicting toxicity based on the properties and structure of a toxicant.
This method has been developed under the assumption that a group of chemicals, with similar structural components, will result in similar toxic effects due to having the same activity, or mode of action. In other words, the toxicity of a chemical is directly related to the chemical's structure. Therefore, QSAR are used to create predictive computer programs and models to correlate structure and activity of chemicals. Overall, the objective is to aid in toxicology by providing databases and predictive models for classifying toxicants by modes of action as well as estimate acute toxicity of a chemical. To utilize the QSAR approach, researchers need to establish a pool of variables to be considered in this modelling process.
QSAR models are differentiated by groups of chemicals characterized by a common mode of action. However, limited data is available on defined relationships between toxic responses and chemicals with known modes of action. Consequently, toxicologists have focused on the development of FATS to define these responses to better predict modes of action. This approach focuses on grouping chemical and functional responses in a manner so that individual chemicals with known modes of action can be separated into specific FATS. Overall, FATS aid QSAR models by providing a systematic way of defining and predicting modes of action. Determination   In 1987, McKim and colleagues began a series of experiments to characterize FATS.
These experiments involved whole-fish in vivo analyses. The animals used in these experiments were Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss formerly known as Salmo gairdneri). The fish underwent surgery prior to the exposure to implant respiratory and cardiovascular monitoring devices, and immobilize them. During the experiment, the fish were kept in a Plexiglas respiratory-metabolism chamber, which was filled with Lake Superior water. Water temperature was maintained for the duration of the experiments, and other water quality parameters (pH, total hardness, alkalinity, and acidity) were recorded once. The toxicants used in these experiments were chosen because they had a known mode of action.
The only exception to this was the narcotics. McKim et al. and  Bradbury et al. used compounds known to be narcotics, and with a discriminant function analysis Bradbury et al. and colleagues identified two separate narcosis syndromes, I and II, which correspond to nonpolar and polar narcotics, respectively. By using compounds with known modes of action, these scientists could develop sets of respiratory-cardiovascular responses unique to a particular mode of action. In the first experiment, two narcotics, tricaine methanesulfonate and 1-octanol, and two uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation, pentachlorophenol and 2,4-dinitrophenol, were used. During the second experiment, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and respiratory irritants were evaluated.
The acetylcholinesterase inhibitors were an organophosphate, Malathion and a carbamate, Carbaryl. The respiratory irritants were Acrolein and Benzaldehyde. In part three of the experiment series, polar narcotics phenol, 2,4-dimethylphenol, aniline, 2-chloroaniline and 4-chloroaniline were evaluated. In the last experiment, central nervous system seizure agents were analyzed. These included an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, Chlorpyrifos; two pyrethroid insecticides, Fenvalerate and Cypermethrin; two cyclodiene insecticides, Endrin and Endosulfan; and a rodenticide, Strychnine. The duration of the exposure depended on the experiment, but the range was from 24 to 48 hours. Therefore, exposure resulted in acute toxicity. The Rainbow trout were exposed to a 24- to 48-hour lethal concentration of the toxicant.
The respiratory and cardiovascular responses monitored throughout the exposure were cough rate, ventilation rate, ventilation volume, total oxygen consumption, oxygen utilization, heart rate, arterial blood pressure, arterial blood oxygen, arterial blood carbon dioxide, arterial blood pH, hematocrit, hemoglobin, electrocardiogram, plasma ions (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and chloride), and osmolality. Pre-dose values were obtained prior to the exposure. The responses were measured at two-hour intervals throughout the exposure, except for blood parameters, which were measured every four to eight hours, and blood ions, which were measured just before death. Using the results of the experiment, each toxicant was then characterized by a set of respiratory-cardiovascular responses.
Statistical analyses were used to determine significant differences in responses between toxicants with different modes of action. Finally, because each toxicant had a known mode of action, the set of responses characterized the mode of action. Types  Nonspecific  Narcosis   Narcosis Narcosis refers to the general depression of biological activity from exposure to a nonspecifically acting toxicant. Toxicants that induce narcosis are known as narcotics or anesthetics. Alcohol is an example of a narcotic and can result in intoxication, a form of narcosis. Using the FATS approach, researchers are able to predict toxicity by assessing responses elicited by narcotics. Narcotics are a diverse group of chemicals including: inert gases, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, ketones, aldehydes, weak acids and bases, and aliphatic nitro compounds.
Although narcosis can be induced by a wide range of chemical agents, there are a few chemicals that are not considered narcotics. This includes chemicals that: form irreversible bonds by electrophilic reaction; are metabolically activated by electrophiles; form Schiff bases with amino groups; and any type of a Michael acceptor. In general, narcotics are non-reactive. Many organic chemicals in high enough concentrations induce narcotic symptoms. Thus, most toxicants can be considered narcotics. Baseline toxicity, or lowest toxicity is often used to refer to narcosis because this mode of action is considered the minimal effect. QSAR models are often used to predict minimum or baseline toxicity of chemicals acting through nonspecific mechanisms.
Mechanisms of action   Narcosis is a reversible state that is considered nonspecific because a single mechanism of action has yet to be established. Although the mechanisms of narcosis remain unclear, current theories suggest that narcosis is associated with altered structure and function of cell membranes. The Critical-Volume Hypothesis theorizes that symptoms of narcosis are due the toxicant dissolving in the lipid component of a cell membrane. This results in an increased volume of cell membranes and consequently, altered membrane structure and function. The Protein Binding Theory suggests that a narcotic binds to receptors on the hydrophobic region of cellular membrane proteins.
In both theories, the cell membranes are targeted by narcotics resulting in decreased functionality, narcosis. Symptoms   General responses to narcotics include: lethargy, unconsciousness, and overall depression in respiratory-cardiovascular activity. Narcosis can result in death by nonspecific, sustained symptoms. In the final phases of narcosis, McKim and colleagues  observed  tissue hypoxia, generalized loss of respiratory-cardiovascular function and ultimately, respiratory paralysis. For example, rainbow trout exposed to two narcotics, MS-222 and 1-octanol exhibited a variety of respiratory-cardiovascular responses. The narcotic symptoms included: loss of reaction to external stimuli, loss of equilibrium, decline in respiratory rate and medullary collapse. Narcosis I and narcosis II   Studies have suggested that two distinct modes of action exist for narcosis: narcosis I and narcosis II.
Narcosis I is induced by nonpolar compounds while narcosis II relates to polar compounds. If polar and nonpolar narcotics induced the same effects, baseline-narcosis models should be able to accurately predict toxicity for both groups of chemicals. However, polar compounds have exhibited greater toxicity than predicted by baseline toxicity models. This difference in toxicity between nonpolar and polar narcotics supports the theory that two separate mechanisms of action exist for the different modes of narcosis. Based on the QSAR approach, differences in the chemical structure can be used to predict the activity of toxicants. The polarity of toxicants can be used to differentiate narcotic modes of action into the two groups: narcosis I and narcosis II.
In narcosis I, nonpolar chemicals induced generalized depression of respiratory-cardiovascular responses. I narcosis II, polar chemicals first result in increased activity. The unique response of narcosis II is supported by research conducted on rainbow trout. When exposed to polar narcotics, rainbow trout first exhibited increased muscular activity followed by incoordination and unresponsiveness to external stimuli. In general, narcosis II is characterized by greater toxicity than narcosis I. Thus, Baseline-narcosis models should be used for predicting the toxicity of nonpolar narcotics. In addition, narcosis I is the generalized depression of biological activity. In contrast, narcosis II symptoms include stimulation of respiratory-cardiovascular responses followed by generalized depression of activity.
Specific   Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation*AChE inhibitors Irritants CNS seizure agents Respiratory blockers*Dioxins  A toxicant which exhibits a specific mode of action binds to a site on a particular biological molecule thereby altering or inhibiting a biological process. In comparison, a toxicant that exhibits non-specific action, also referred to as a narcotic, simply depresses biological activity by unknown means. Scientists are still unsure what site(s) a narcotic binds to, and the biochemical responses that result. Specific action is unique in comparison to non-specific in that relatively lower amounts of toxicant are needed to elicit a response. Because lower concentrations of toxicant are need to elicit a response, specific modes of action are usually seen before non-specific modes of action.
Ultimately, with high enough concentrations though, most toxicants are narcotic (demonstrate non-specific modes of action). There are a variety of specific-action FATS which have been studied and documented. These include acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors, respiratory irritants, respiratory blockers,  dioxin,  central nervous system seizure agents, and uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation. Acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme which degrades acetylcholine an important neurotransmitter, has been demonstrated to be inhibited by particular toxicants like organophosphates and carbamates. Respiratory irritants bind to respiratory tissue membranes, which are the first tissue membranes available for exposure. Respiratory blockers are known to affect the electron transport chain in the mitochondria of cells.
Central Nervous System seizure agents are associated with effects such as partial or whole body seizures and coughing. Dioxin is recognized as having a different mode of action than the others, but has not been studied by the FATS method. Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation   Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation are specifically acting toxicants. Oxidative phosphorylation is a coupling reaction in which ATP is synthesized from phosphate groups using energy obtained from the oxidation-reduction reactions in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. ATP production is very important because it is essentially the energy currency in biological systems. Under normal circumstances, oxidation-reduction reactions in the mitochondrial electron transport chain produce energy.
This energy is used to shuttle protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, from the mitochondrial matrix into the inner membrane space. This creates a pH gradient where conditions are acidic (i.e. higher concentrations of protons) in the inner membrane space, and more basic (i.e. low concentrations of protons) in the mitochondrial matrix. Due to this gradient, protons pass through ATPase, a protein embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane, down their concentration gradient, into the mitochondrial matrix driving the production of ATP. Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation disrupt the production of ATP. They do so by binding to the protons in the inner membrane space, and shuttling them into the mitochondrial matrix  Therefore, the chemical gradient which drives ATP synthesis is broken down and energy production slows.
Oxygen consumption increases to counteract the effects of low ATP production. Also, lactic acid concentrations increase as tissues are switching to anaerobic metabolism which poisons the mitochondria. Cardiovascular-respiratory responses associated with exposure to uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation, as determined by the FATS experiment, are the following. Overall, metabolic rate increased so rapid and continuous increases in ventilation volume and oxygen consumption was observed. However, changes in ventilation rate or oxygen utilization were not been observed. This means the fish increased water flow across their gills, but oxygen removal from the water was maintained at a constant rate. However, oxygen consumption increased in the mitochondrial electron transport chain, in an attempt to reproduce the proton gradient and stimulate ATP production.
However, the toxicant continued to break down the proton gradient, inevitably leading to mortality. Applications   As mentioned previously, FATS have been used to establish models that predict toxicity of chemicals. For instance, FATS data is used to develop quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models. QSAR models developed using FATS data are then used to establish computer based systems that predict toxicity. For example, Russom and colleagues used Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas) 96-hour acute toxicity tests data, FATS data and QSARs to create a computer based expert system that predicts chemical toxicity based on chemical structures and properties. These models and systems are useful for screening chemicals to prioritize more toxic substances for further toxicity testing.
This is particularly useful for industrial chemicals with unknown toxicity. This due to the quantity of industrial chemicals with unknown toxicity, for which individual toxicity testing is not realistic. In addition, models and computer systems that predict toxicity are also cost-effective in comparison to running toxicity tests on all unknown chemicals. In conclusion, predictive screening techniques derived from FATS data are practical and cost efficient. References  External links   Category:Fish diseases Category:Syndromes in fish
The Capitol Mall or Capitol Mall Boulevard is a major street and landscaped parkway in the state capital city of Sacramento, California. It connects the city of West Sacramento in Yolo County to Downtown Sacramento. Capitol Mall begins at the eastern approach to the Tower Bridge, and runs east to 10th Street and the California State Capitol. Route description Capitol Mall begins at the eastern end of Tower Bridge, which crosses the Sacramento River to West Sacramento. It runs eastward past the Riverfront Promenade park, and over the Interstate 5 to the 1860s landmark California State Capitol building and parks.
There is no direct connection to Interstate 5, so drivers will have to use other routes. Some of Sacramento's major businesses and law firms are located on the Capitol Mall. Due to Sacramento's street grid system downtown, Capitol Mall would theoretically be called "M Street" if it used the gird system's conventions. The Capitol Mall was previously part of State Route 275, but was relinquished to the city in January 2006. Capitol Mall Boulevard landmarks Landmarks on the Capitol Mall, from the west (Tower Bridge and Sacramento River) to the east (California State Capitol), include:  1 Capitol Mall  Located at 1 Capitol Mall, Drexel University Sacramento is the California campus of renowned Drexel University, based in Philadelphia.
It is located near the iconic Tower Bridge, between the Sacramento River and the Mall's crossing over Interstate 5. 100 Capitol Mall Located at 100 Capitol Mall near the Tower Bridge, the 242 room 'Embassy Suites Sacramento - Riverfront Promenade' is a hotel popular with tourists, due to its proximity to Old Town in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park and the Riverfront Promenade park along the Sacramento River. 300 Capitol Mall Located at the gateway to downtown, the busy intersection of 3rd Street and Capitol Mall, 300 Capitol Mall stands 18 stories high with 383,238 square feet of rentable area.
The tower was designed by Daniel, Mann, Johnson & Mendenhall (DMJM) and completed in 1984. 301 Capitol Mall  301 Capitol Mall is the site of the former home of the Sacramento Union newspaper. Construction began here in 2006 for The Towers on Capitol Mall I & II, two planned 53-story and massive  mixed-use towers. The project had been on hold since January 2007 due to liens being filed against developer. 400 Capitol Mall — Wells Fargo Center  Located at 400 Capitol Mall, the 'Wells Fargo Center' is currently the tallest building in Sacramento. It is  high, and has 33 stories, with 29 above the ground floor lobby and 3 below.
The skyscraper won the BOMA Building of the Year award in 1994. A museum is located in the lobby, dedicated to the history of Wells Fargo Bank in the Sacramento area. Located within the Wells Fargo Center: Il Fornaio, a popular restaurant; and Price Waterhouse Coopers, a major tenant. 500 Capitol Mall -- Bank of the West Tower  500 Capitol Mall, also known as the 'Bank of the West Tower', is a 25-story  high-rise on Capitol Mall in downtown Sacramento with a 10-level, 800 stall parking garage. The building consists of a 5-story atrium/lobby, ground floor retail, office space, and a 2-level penthouse restaurant or meeting facility.
The structure has a steel frame and features a granite curtain wall with stone-on-precast and stone-on-truss panels on the exterior. The building, opened for business and welcomed its first tenant on May 26, 2009. California State Capitol  At the eastern terminus of the Capitol Mall, the landmark California State Capitol stands. It and the surrounding grounds contain the California State Capitol Museum. The Beaux-Arts and Neoclassical style building with dome was under construction from 1860 to 1874. The capitol and grounds are a California Historical Landmark, a National Historic Landmark District, and on the National Register of Historic Places in Sacramento County, California.
Public transportation  Sacramento Regional Transit District—RT serves public transport to/from and along the Capitol Mall. RT serves the city of Sacramento, and much of the northern portion of Sacramento County. Light rail RT has two light rail stops located on the Capitol Mall. The 7th & Capitol Stop is only for southbound trains, while the 8th & Capitol Stop is only for northbound trains. The two stops serve all three RT light rail routes: the Gold Line, Blue Line, and Green Line. Busses  There are also bus stops located on the Capitol Mall operated by RT, with service between 5:00 a.m. and 9:00 p.m. daily.
The bus fleet is powered by compressed natural gas. See also Old Sacramento State Historic Park — 2 blocks north of the Mall. Crocker Art Museum — 2 blocks south of the Mall. Sacramento Convention Center Complex — with Community Center Theatre. List of tallest buildings in Sacramento  References   emporis.com rsconstruction.com cbre.com skyscraperpage.com  External links  Sacramento Capitol Mall Design Competition — by the City of Sacramento and the American Institute of Architects. Category:Transportation in Sacramento, California Category:Streets in Sacramento County, California Category:Landmarks in Sacramento, California
Primula vulgaris, the common primrose, is a species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae, native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and parts of southwest Asia. The common name is primrose, or occasionally common primrose or English primrose to distinguish it from other Primula species also called primroses. None of these are closely related to the evening primroses (genus Oenothera). Etymology The scientific name Primula is a diminutive of the Latin primus, "prime", alluding to the fact that this flower is among the first to appear in spring. The vernacular name has the same meaning: primrose derives from a late Latin form prima rosa, consisting of prima, "first" (feminine), and rosa, "rose".
The Latin specific epithet vulgaris means "common", in the sense of "widespread". Description  Primula vulgaris is a perennial growing  tall, with a basal rosette of leaves which are more-or-less evergreen in favoured habitats. It flowers in early spring in the northern hemisphere (February–April) on slopes and meadows. The leaves are 5–25 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, often heavily wrinkled, with an irregularly crenate to dentate margin. The leaf blade is gradually attenuated towards the base and unevenly toothed. The single stem, extremely short, is hidden in the centre of the leaf rosette. The delicately scented flowers are 2–4 cm in diameter, borne singly on short slender stems.
The flowers are typically pale yellow, though white or pink forms are often seen in nature. The flowers are actinomorphic with a superior ovary which later forms a capsule opening by valves to release the small black seeds. The flowers are hermaphrodite but heterostylous; individual plants bear either pin flowers (longuistylous flower: with the capita of the style prominent) or thrum flowers (brevistylous flower: with the stamens prominent). Fertilisation can only take place between pin and thrum flowers. Pin-to-pin and thrum-to-thrum pollination is ineffective. Distribution The native range of P. vulgaris encompasses western and southern Europe. In the north, the distribution area extends from central Norway near the Faroe Islands via the British Isles, Denmark, northern Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France to southern Portugal in the south and the tip of North Africa in Algeria.
To the east, the range extends through the southern European peninsulas to the Crimea, Balkans, Syria, Turkey and Armenia. Habitat In appropriate conditions, P. vulgaris can cover the ground in open woods and shaded hedgerows. It is found mainly by streams, under bushes, in orchards and clear, moist deciduous forests. Occasionally it also appears in meadows. In Central Europe plants thrive best on nutrient-rich, but lime-poor, humus-rich, loose and often stony loam soils in winter-mild situations. In more populated areas it has sometimes suffered from over-collection and theft so that few natural displays of primroses in abundance can now be found.
However it is common on motorway verges and railway embankments where human intervention is restricted. To prevent excessive damage to the species, picking of primroses or the removal of primrose plants from the wild is illegal in many countries, e.g. the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (Section 13, part 1b). Ecology Most (90%) individuals are heterostylous, the minority monostylous. The flowers of the species are visited by a variety of insects, such as butterflies (Lepidoptera), Hymenoptera, beetles (Coleoptera) and Diptera. Which visitors pollinate plants is not fully established. However, good pollinators are said to be bumblebees and hairy flies of the genus Bombylius.
However, the most common visitors to the flowers are small beetles of the genus Meligethes – often there are up to 12 or more pollen-covered individuals in a single flower. The beetles also fly from flower to flower and, at least theoretically, are well suited as pollinators. The seeds have an elaiosome and are spread by ants (myrmecochory). Subspecies  There are three subspecies: Primula vulgaris subsp. vulgaris. Western and southern Europe. As described above; flowers pale yellow. Primula vulgaris subsp. balearica (Willk.) W.W.Sm. & Forrest. Balearic Islands (endemic). Flowers white. Leaf stem longer than leaf blade. Primula vulgaris subsp. sibthorpii (Hoffmanns.)
W.W.Sm. & Forrest. Balkans, southwest Asia. Flowers pink to red or purple. The primrose is distinguished from other species of Primula by its pale yellow (in the nominate subspecies) flowers produced singly on long flower stalks which are covered in rather shaggy hairs. The flowers open flat rather than concave as in the case of Primula veris, the cowslip. A pink form is widely seen, growing amongst the much more common yellow forms; this may be a genetic variant rather than a garden escape. Occasional red forms are more likely to be naturalised from garden varieties. Cultivation The wild primrose is a staple of cottage garden plantings, and is widely available as seeds or young plants.
It grows best in moist but well-drained soil in light shade. It is increased by seed and division. The throat is usually coloured rich yellow. Primrose breeding of named coloured varieties became popular in the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Numerous cultivars have been selected for garden planting, often derived from subsp. sibthorpii or hybrids between the subspecies; these and other garden hybrids are available in a wide range of colours, including white, yellow and red, or brown and red in all gradations as well as dark red, pink, purple, dark brown and dark blue, and with an extended flowering season.
The term Polyanthus, or Primula polyantha, refers to various tall-stemmed and multi-coloured strains of P. vulgaris × P. veris hybrids. Though perennial, they may be short-lived and are typically grown from seed or from young plants as biennials. P. vulgaris  and its subspecies sibthorpii have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Usage Both flowers and leaves are edible, the flavour ranging between mild lettuce and more bitter salad greens. The leaves can be cooked in soup but preferably with other plants because they are sometimes a little strong. The leaves can also be used for tea, and the young flowers can be made into primrose wine.
In the past the whole plant and especially the root were considered to have analgesic, anti-spasmodic, diuretic and expectorant properties. It contains small amounts of saponins, and was given for colds. Culture The primrose was Benjamin Disraeli's favourite flower; Primrose Day and the Primrose League were given their names in honour of this. It was voted the county flower of Devon in 2002 following a poll by the wild flora conservation charity Plantlife. Primroses also appear as a charge in heraldry, for example the coat of arms of the Earl of Rosebery.
Gallery  References  External links  vulgaris Category:Flora of Europe Category:Flora of North Africa Category:Flora of Western Asia Category:Flora of Algeria Category:Flora of Austria Category:Flora of Belgium Category:Flora of Bulgaria Category:Flora of the Czech Republic Category:Flora of Denmark Category:Flora of England Category:Flora of Estonia Category:Flora of Finland Category:Flora of France Category:Flora of Germany Category:Flora of Iraq Category:Flora of Iran Category:Flora of Italy Category:Flora of Lebanon Category:Flora of Libya Category:Flora of Morocco Category:Flora of the Netherlands Category:Flora of Norway Category:Flora of Poland Category:Flora of Portugal Category:Flora of Romania Category:Flora of Russia Category:Flora of Slovakia Category:Flora of Spain Category:Flora of Sweden Category:Flora of Tunisia Category:Flora of Turkey Category:Flora of Ukraine Category:Flora of Great Britain Category:Flora of the Crimean Peninsula Category:Flora of the Faroe Islands Category:Flora of the Pyrenees Category:Garden plants of Africa Category:Garden plants of Asia Category:Garden plants of Europe Category:Flora of Ireland
North American Piedmontese cattle are a breed of domestic beef cattle originating from an imported herd of select Italian purebred Piedmontese cattle (Piemontese or razza bovina Piemontese). The foundation line of breeding stock was first imported from Italy into Canada in 1979, and into the United States in the early 1980s. Piedmontese cattle are distinguished by a unique, naturally occurring gene identified as the myostatin allele mutation, or inactive myostatin gene. Myostatin prohibits muscle growth whereas an inactive gene has the opposite effect. Purebred Piedmontese are homozygous, (2 copy), which means they have two identical alleles present for this unique gene.
Research indicates the presence of the myostatin allele mutation produces morphological characteristics unique to the breed, such as double-muscling, beef tenderness, reduced fat content and high yield. According to the North American Piedmontese Association (NAPA), they are the first breed registry to base animal registration requirements on the presence of this specific gene which can be easily verified by DNA testing. Evolution and history  North American Piedmontese cattle originated from a line of Italian purebred Piedmontese cattle, (Italian: Piemontese or razza bovina Piemontese), in the region of Piedmont in northwest Italy. They continue to be cultivated in Italy as a "dual-purpose animal...having very rich milk used for specialty cheese production and beef marketed as a premium product."
There is much speculation on the breed's evolution, but Italian professor Silvano Maletto theorizes  based on evidence obtained from fossil records and cave writings  that the breed descends from ancient Aurochs cattle and the Pakistan Zebu cattle. Reports of the first historical evidence for breeding Piedmontese cattle dates back only to the late 1800s, and credits the work of another Italian professor, Domenico Vallada. In 1979, the Piedmontese Breeding Co-operative, Ltd. of Saskatchewan, Canada (PBL Co-op of Canada) began preparations to import the first Piedmontese cattle into North America. There had been prior attempts at importation of the breed by the PBL Co-op of Canada and other cattle breeders, but the Italian Association was reluctant to sell any of their purebred breeding stock.
Health protocols also created substantial levels of difficulty. The first successful importation occurred in the fall of 1979 with the arrival of five animals into Canada. Obtaining authorization and transfers to import the first five animals was the culmination of a half decade of effort, the cost of which is estimated at $100,000 per animal based on 2014 values. The following year, Canada received more Italian imports of Piedmontese cattle, including five more bulls. The next year, Italian imports arrived in the US, including three additional sire lines and two cows. It was from that genetic base that the North American breed of Piedmontese cattle began.
In 1983, the Canadian Piedmontese Association (CPA) was formed, followed by the Piedmontese Association of the United States (PAUS) in 1984. By the 1990s, imports of semen and embryos were more substantial. Today there are several bloodlines available to cattle raisers in North America. Genetics and crossbreeding Like the original Italian Piedmontese, North American Piedmontese cattle are distinguished genetically by the presence of the myostatin allele mutation which causes the breed's hypertrophic muscle growth, or "double muscling". According to an evaluation program at the U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, the birthing and survival rates of half-blood Piedmontese cattle were similar to Hereford x Angus cross calves, producing an average birth weight of 80.2 lbs.
with 92.5% unassisted calving. The survival rate to weaning was 91.1%. Compared with normal breeds of beef cattle, North American Piedmontese cattle are more proficient in converting feed into lean muscle. They also produce a higher percentage of the most desirable cuts of meat. They average 20% more muscle with less bone and fat. Research indicates that there is less connective tissue within the muscle of "double-muscled" cattle; this would imply less background toughness and therefore more tender meat. Prevalence among United States cattle There are an estimated 28–30 million head of cattle currently in the United States. Of that total, nearly 70% of all beef cattle are derived from Angus cattle.
Less than one-half of one percent are Piedmontese, or bred to Piedmontese cattle. As of 2014, the number of registered Piedmontese pure-blood breeding stock in the United States is estimated to be around 2,900 head. In the United States Piedmontese beef is regulated by the USDA, which requires that organisations involved in the sale of Piedmontese beef meet labeling and nutritional verification requirements. Characteristics The color of fullblood Piedmontese males is gray-white with a considerable amount of black hairs on the head, most notable around the eyes, neck, shoulders, and on the distal regions of the legs. They occasionally have dark stains or spots on their hind legs or lateral faces of the trunk.
The cows are primarily white with varying shades of gray or light red. Calves are born a pale fawn color which changes to gray-white as they mature. Fullbloods are naturally horned, and have black pigmentation on the muzzle, eyelids, ears, tongue, tassel of the tail, anal opening, and on the outer skin of the sexual organs. The color of Naturalean composites or crossbred cattle can be solid black or solid red with black or reddish pigmentation in the same areas as the pigmentation on fullbloods. They may be horned or polled, and homozygous (2 copy), or heterozygous (1 copy). Fullbloods and Naturalean bulls are often crossed with traditional beef breeds like Black Angus or Hereford cattle because of substantial benefits in the crossbred results, including a higher protein meat that is lower in saturated fat, improved tenderness, and an approximate 7% yield increase in salable carcass.
Calving problems are also reduced in the crossbreds. North American Piedmontese Association (NAPA) The North American Piedmontese Association (NAPA) was organized in September 2000, and is the official breed registry for North American Piedmontese cattle. It is a member-based, nonprofit breed registry headquartered in Washington, U.S., and the first cattle breed registry with mandatory registration requirements based on the presence of the Piedmontese-specific myostatin allele mutation. There are different categories of registration and recordation within the registry. Only homozygous animals (2 copy) can be registered, therefore breed true, and are eligible for registration in either the Fullblood (based on pedigree record), or Naturalean divisions.
The Naturalean division is for Piedmontese cattle that are either crossbred or could have qualified for Fullblood registration but failed to meet the pedigree requirements, perhaps because of unregistered or unverified parentage. Prior to registration or recording, DNA testing is required to confirm the animal carries at least 1 copy of the Piedmontese-specific myostatin gene. Naturalean animals that are DNA tested heterozygous (1-copy) are not registered, rather they are issued a registration number with the prefix "recorded". The 0-copy (non-carriers) cattle are ineligible for registration in any category. According to the North American Piedmontese Cattle Association, in the last decade of the 20th century, there was a noticeable upsurge in the importation of genetic material (i.e., embryos and semen).
Thus, it is said that "there are now a wealth of blood lines" available from which to choose. See also  Belgian Blue  References  Notes  Citations  External links   North American Piedmontese Cattle Association  Italian Piedmontese Association  Piedmontese Association of the United States  Category:Cattle breeds Category:Cattle breeds originating in the United States Category:Beef cattle breeds
Chairs are known from Ancient Egypt and have been widespread in the Western world from the Greeks and Romans onwards. They were in common use in China from the twelfth century, and were used by the Aztecs. Surviving examples of chairs from medieval Europe are often ornate works associated with royalty and nobility. During the Renaissance, chairs came into more common use, their design reflecting the changing costumes and furnishings of the period. Distinctive designs developed in France and England. In modern times the range of chair designs and materials has increased enormously. Egyptian chairs  Egyptian chairs. appear to have been of great richness and splendour.
Fashioned of ebony and ivory, or of carved and gilded wood and metal, they were covered with costly materials and supported upon representations of the legs of beasts or the figures of captives. Egyptians believed that the chairs need to represent natural forms to avoid creating chaos in the universe, by creating an artificial object. This tendency is seen all over Egyptian art and manufacture. An arm-chair in fine preservation found in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings is astonishingly similar, even in small details, to that "Empire style" which followed Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. The earliest monuments of Nineveh represent a chair without a back but with tastefully carved legs ending in lions' claws or bulls' hoofs.
Others are supported by figures in the nature of caryatides or by animals. Greco-Roman Chairs  The earliest known form of Greek chair dates back to six or seven centuries BCE. On the frieze of the Parthenon, Zeus occupies a square seat with a bar-back and thick turned legs; it is ornamented with winged sphinxes and the feet of beasts. The characteristic Roman chairs were of marble, also adorned with sphinxes. The curule chair was originally very similar in form to the modern folding chair, but eventually received a good deal of ornament. The most famous of the very few chairs which have come down from a remote antiquity is the reputed Chair of Saint Peter in St Peter's Basilica at Rome.
The wooden portions are much decayed, but it would appear to be Byzantine work of the 6th century, and to be really an ancient sedia gestatoria. It has ivory carvings representing the labours of Hercules. A few pieces of an earlier oaken chair have been let in; the existing one, Gregorovius says, is of acacia wood. The legend that this was the curile chair of the senator Pudens is necessarily apocryphal. It is not, as is popularly supposed, enclosed in Gian Lorenzo Bernini's bronze chair, but is kept under triple lock and exhibited only once in a century. Byzantium, like Greece and Rome, affected the curule form of chair, and in addition to lions’ heads and winged figures of Victory (or Nike) and dolphin-shaped arms used also the lyre-back which has been made familiar by the pseudo-classical revival of the end of the 18th century.
Mexican chairs One type of chair in ancient Mexico is called the icpalli and is mentioned by Jacques Soustelle. The icpalli can be seen in Diego Rivera's mural of the Aztec market of Tlatelolco, Palacio Nacional, Mexico City. The icpalli is also featured in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis; dignitaries and emperors are depicted sitting in them. Medieval chairs  The chair of Maximian in the cathedral of Ravenna is believed to date from the middle of the 6th century. It is of marble, round, with a high back, and is carved in high relief with figures of saints and scenes from the Gospels—the Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi, the flight into Egypt and the baptism of Christ.
The smaller spaces are filled with carvings of animals, birds, flowers and foliated ornament. The Chair of St. Augustine, dating from at least the early thirteenth century is one of the oldest cathedrae is not in use. Another very ancient seat is the so-called "Chair of Dagobert" in the Louvre. It is of cast bronze, sharpened with the chisel and partially gilt; it is of the curule or faldstool type and supported upon legs terminating in the heads and feet of animals. The seat, which was probably of leather, has disappeared. Its attribution depends entirely upon the statement of Suger, abbot of St Denis in the 12th century, who added a back and arms.
Its age has been much discussed, but Viollet-le-Duc dated it to early Merovingian times, and it may in any case be taken as the oldest faldstool in existence. To the same generic type belongs the famous abbots’ chair of Glastonbury; such chairs might readily be taken to pieces when their owners travelled. The faldisterium in time acquired arms and a back, while retaining its folding shape. The most famous, as well as the most, ancient, English chair is that made at the end of the 13th century for Edward I, in which most subsequent monarchs have been crowned. It is of an architectural type and of oak, and was covered with gilded gesso which long since disappeared.
Passing from these historic examples we find the chair monopolized by the ruler, lay or ecclesiastical, to a comparatively late date. As the seat of authority it stood at the head of the lord's table, on his dais, by the side of his bed. The seigneurial chair, more common in France and the Netherlands than in England, is a very interesting type, approximating in many respects to the episcopal or abbatial throne or stall. It early acquired a very high back and sometimes had a canopy. Arms were invariable, and the lower part was closed in with panelled or carved front and sides—the seat, indeed, was often hinged and sometimes closed with a key.
That we are still said to sit "in" an arm-chair and "on" other kinds of chairs is a reminiscence of the time when the lord or seigneur sat "in his chair." These throne-like seats were always architectural in character, and as Gothic feeling waned took the distinctive characteristics of Renaissance work. The furniture makers also covered their crude work with gold which is called gilding. Chinese chairs  Before the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), the predominant sitting positions in the Han Chinese culture, as well as several of its neighbors, were the seiza and lotus position on the floor or sitting mats.
The earliest images of chairs in China are from sixth-century Buddhist murals and stele, but the practice of sitting in chairs at that time was rare. It was not until the twelfth century that chairs became widespread in China. Scholars disagree on the reasons for the adoption of the chair. The most common theories are that the chair was an outgrowth of indigenous Chinese furniture, that it evolved from a camp stool imported from Central Asia, that it was introduced to China by Nestorian missionaries in the seventh century, and that the chair came to China from India as a form of Buddhist monastic furniture.
In modern China, unlike Korea or Japan, it is not common to sit at floor level. Renaissance In Europe, it was owing in great measure to the Renaissance that the chair ceased to be a mark of high office, and became the customary companion of whoever could afford to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily came into general use. We find almost at once began to reflect the fashions of the hour. No piece of furniture has ever been so close an index to sumptuary changes. It has varied in size, shape and sturdiness with the fashion not only of women's dress but of men's also.
Thus the chair which was not, even with its arms purposely suppressed, too ample during the several reigns of some form or other of hoops and farthingale, became monstrous when these protuberances disappeared. Again, the costly laced coats of the dandy of the 18th and early 19th centuries were so threatened by the ordinary form of seat that a “conversation chair” was devised, which enabled the buck and the ruffler to sit with his face to the back, his valuable tails hanging unimpeded over the front. The early chair almost invariably had arms, and it was not until towards the close of the 16th century that the smaller form grew common.
The majority of the chairs of all countries until the middle of the 17th century were of timber (the commonest survival is oak) without upholstery, and when it became customary to cushion them, leather was sometimes employed; subsequently velvet and silk were extensively used, and at a later period cheaper and often more durable materials. . In Abraham Bosse's engraving (illustration, left), a stylish Parisian musical party of about 1630 have pulled their low chairs (called "backstools" in contemporary England) away from the tapestry-hung walls where they were normally lined up. The padded back panels were covered with needlework panels to suit the tapestries, or in other settings with leather, plain or tooled.
Plain cloth across the back hid the wooden framing. Stools with column legs complement the set, but aren't en suite. In seventeenth century France the bergère chair became fashionable among the nobility and was often made of walnut. Leather was not infrequently used even for the costly and elaborate chairs of the faldstool form—occasionally sheathed in thin plates of silver—which Venice sent all over Europe. To this day, indeed, leather is one of the most frequently employed materials for chair covering. The outstanding characteristic of most chairs until the middle of the 17th century was massiveness and solidity. Being usually made of oak, they were of considerable weight, and it was not until the introduction of the handsome Louis XIII chairs with cane backs and seats that either weight or solidity was reduced.
English chairs  Although English furniture derives so extensively from foreign and especially French and Italian models, the earlier forms of English chairs owed but little to exotic influences. This was especially the case down to the end of the Tudor period, after which France began to set her mark upon the British chair. The squat variety, with heavy and sombre back, carved like a piece of panelling, gave place to a taller, more slender, and more elegant form, in which the framework only was carved, and attempts were made at ornament in new directions. The stretcher especially offered opportunities which were not lost upon the cabinet-makers of the Restoration.
From a mere uncompromising cross-bar intended to strengthen the construction it blossomed, almost suddenly, into an elaborate scroll-work or an exceedingly graceful semicircular ornament connecting all four legs, with a vase-shaped knob in the centre. The arms and legs of chairs of this period were scrolled, the splats of the back often showing a rich arrangement of spirals and scrolls. This most decorative of all types appears to have been popularized in England by the cavaliers who had been in exile with Charles II, and had become familiar with it in the north-western parts of the European continent. During the reign of William III and Mary II these charming forms degenerated into something much stiffer and more rectangular, with a solid, more or less fiddle-shaped splat and a cabriole leg with pad feet.
The more ornamental examples had cane seats and ill-proportioned cane backs. From these forms was gradually developed the Chippendale chair, with its elaborately interlaced back, its graceful arms and square or cabriole legs, the latter terminating in the claw and ball or the pad foot. George Hepplewhite, Thomas Sheraton and Robert Adam all aimed at lightening the chair, which, even in the master hands of Thomas Chippendale, remained comparatively heavy. The endeavour succeeded, and the modern chair is everywhere comparatively slight. 18th-century chairs  Informal, galante manners and a new half-reclining posture that replaced the former bolt-upright demeanor of court and aristocracy in the age of Louis XIV went hand-in-hand with new commodious seat furniture, developed in Paris about 1720 (illustration, right).
The new Rococo chairs were upholstered à chassis, on removable frames secured by clips, so that changes from winter to summer furniture could be effected without recourse to the menuisier. Off-season upholstered frames were stored in the garde-meuble. These early Louis XV chairs have backs upholstered à la reine, with the back in a flat panel that was ordinarily placed squared to the wall, so that the top-rails' curves complemented those of the boiserie panels behind them. In the illustration, the symmetrical cusped and scrolling seatrails that flow into stubby cabriole legs of these comfortable low armchairs (chauffeuses) have their direct origins in Chinese lacquer tables (not chairs).
French fashions in chairs, as with everything else, radiated from Paris. From the late 1720s, fashionable "Louis XV" French chairs were constructed without stretchers, which interfered with the unified flow of curved seatrails into cabriole legs that generally ended in scroll feet. According to strict guild regulations in force until the Revolution, French chairmaking was the business of the menuisier alone, whose craft was conjoined with that of the upholsterer (huissier), both of whom specialized in seat-furniture-making in Paris. A range of specialised seats were developed and given fanciful names, of which the comfortable bergère ("shepherdess") is the most familiar.
Walnut and beech were the characteristics woods employed; finishes were painted in clear light tones en suite with wall panelling, gilded (sometimes rechampi en blanc) or left in the natural color (á la capuchine), in which case walnut was the timber used. Fruitwoods were popular for chairmaking in the provinces, where the menuisier might also be called upon to provide carved and moulded boiseries for rooms. Lyon, Bordeaux and Liège all produced characteristic variations on Paris models between ca. 1725 and 1780. In the late 1760s in Paris the first Parisian neoclassical chairs were made, even before the accession of Louis XVI, whose name is attached to the first phases of the style.
Straight tapering fluted legs joined by a block at the seat rail and architectural mouldings, characterize the style, in which each element is a discrete entity. Louis Delanois, Jean-Claude Sené and Georges Jacob were three leading chairmakers in the 1770s and 80s. The 18th century was indeed the golden age of the chair, especially in France and England (including Colonial America), between which there was considerable give and take of ideas. Even Diderot could not refrain from writing of them in his Encyclopédie. The typical Louis Seize style chair, oval-backed and ample of seat, with descending arms and round-reeded legs, covered in Beauvais or some such gay tapestry woven with Boucher or Watteau-like scenes, is a very gracious object, in which the period reached its high-water mark.
The Empire brought in squat and squabby shapes, comfortable enough no doubt, but entirely destitute of inspiration. English Empire chairs were often heavier and more sombre than those of French design. Though some stories attribute its invention to Benjamin Franklin, historians trace the rocking chair's origins to North America during the early 18th century. It arrived in England shortly after its development, although work continued in America. The production of wicker rocking chairs reached its peak in America during the middle of the 18th century. 19th-century chairs The art nouveau school produced chairs of simplicity. The Arts and Crafts movement produced heavy, straight lined, minimally ornamented chairs.
One of the most famous of those chairs is the Michael Thonet Bendwood chair or the bistro chair, created in 1859. It has revolutionized the industry and is still being produced today. 20th-century and modern chairs The 20th century saw an increasing use of technology in chair construction with such things as all-metal folding chairs, metal-legged chairs, the Slumber Chair, moulded plastic chairs and ergonomic chairs, recliner chairs (easy chair), butterfly chair, beanbag chairs, the egg or pod chair, plywood and laminate wood chairs, and massage chairs. Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Eero Saarinen also designed chairs to match the design of their buildings.
See also Bergère Watchman's chair Windsor chair  References  External links Rani Chair - Galleries of ancient chairs  Further reading    * Chair
Michael Karl "Dozer" Shower (born February 14, 1968) is an American politician and a Republican member of the Alaska State Senate since February 22, 2018, representing District E. Shower was appointed by Governor Bill Walker to fill a vacancy created by Mike Dunleavy, who resigned in to focus on his run for governor. Shower is an Air Force veteran and a pilot for FedEx. Shower has an MBA from Touro University. He reached the rank of lieutenant colonel as a pilot in the U.S. Air Force, piloting F-15C Eagles and F-22 Raptors. References  External links Biography at Ballotpedia  Category:1968 births Category:Alaska Republicans Category:Alaska state senators Category:Living people Category:People from Wasilla, Alaska Category:United States Air Force Academy alumni
The Sheriff of Nottingham is the main antagonist in the legend of Robin Hood. He is generally depicted as an unjust tyrant, who mistreats the local people of Nottinghamshire, subjecting them to unaffordable taxes. Robin Hood fights against him, stealing from the rich, and the Sheriff, in order to give to the poor; a characteristic for which Robin Hood is best known. It is not conclusively known exactly who this character is based on, but it would have been one of (or a composite of multiple of) the people who have occupied the post of the High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and the Royal Forests.
If, as in many versions of the Robin Hood legend, the action of the story is placed during the absence of King Richard I of England during the Third Crusade, the character could be identified with the little-known William de Wendenal; however, the Sheriff more usually remains either anonymous or pseudonymous. Character The holder of the office of Nottingham's Sheriff, it is his task to capture outlaws such as Robin Hood, either to ensure the safety of trade routes through Sherwood Forest or to keep them from poaching the King's deer. In some stories, the Sheriff of Nottingham is portrayed as having a lecherous desire for Robin Hood's lady Maid Marian.
He is widely considered to be the principal villain of the Robin Hood stories, appearing frequently alongside such enemies of Robin Hood as Sir Guy of Gisbourne or Prince John (though rarely both). The legends are generally set far from Nottingham; this fits the historical position of High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and the Royal Forests (from 1068 until 1568). In the film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, the Sheriff's influence outside the region of Nottingham has grown so great, he attempts to take control of the throne. In some versions, the Sheriff is a cowardly schemer while his assistant, Sir Guy of Gisbourne, is a more competent and determined physical threat to Robin.
In other versions, the Sheriff answers to Prince John. Portrayals  On stage He was portrayed on Broadway in 1891 in The Sheriff of Nottingham by H. C. Barnabee. In film and television  In the 1938 film The Adventures of Robin Hood, starring Errol Flynn in the title role, the Sheriff is played by Melville Cooper. He is nominally characterised as a coward and a secondary to Sir Guy of Gisbourne but is actually quite intelligent. For instance, he is the one who prudently advises Sir Guy to increase their caravan's security to ward off a possible ambush by Robin Hood, which Sir Guy disregards to his sorrow, and he is the mastermind of the archery tournament trap that successfully captures Robin Hood.
In the 1950s ITV series The Adventures of Robin Hood, he is played by Alan Wheatley who portrays him as a competent and ruthless enemy who is not quite Robin's equal in combat. Wheatley was replaced late in the series with John Arnatt as the deputy Sheriff, a more treacherous, duplicitous villain who was more on par with Robin's fighting skills. In The Goon Show episode, Ye Bandit of Sherwood Forest first broadcast on 28 December 1954, the Sheriff of Nottingham is played by Peter Sellers as Hercules Grytpype-Thynne. When the script was rewritten as Robin Hood and his Mirry Mon, recorded on 2 December 1956, the part was played by Valentine Dyall.
In Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, in which he is the main antagonist, he is played by Alan Rickman. His given name is said to be George. As the Prince John character is completely absent from this adaptation, this Sheriff is more ambitious than most depictions. The Sheriff's agenda is apparently to supplant Richard the Lionheart by marrying into royalty, eventually becoming king, or at least ensuring his future descendants would assume the throne. He was played by Keith Allen in the BBC series Robin Hood, from 2006. Allen plays the Sheriff, named Vaisey, as a psychopath with a manipulative, sarcastic nature.
In the show's third series, Vaisey is deposed by Prince John as a result of his failure to assassinate King Richard, whereupon he fakes his own death. He is temporarily replaced by his seeming killer, Guy of Gisborne, for one episode before Gisborne is outlawed; Gisborne's sister Isabella becomes Sheriff for several episodes before Vaisey returns, planning to regain Nottingham by force, in the series finale. In the Disney version of Robin Hood, the Sheriff is a large anthropomorphic gray wolf voiced by Alabama-born comedian Pat Buttram. He serves as Prince John's chief enforcer, collecting unlimited taxes from the people of Nottingham and hunting Robin Hood and Little John.
This version is depicted as being far less smart than he realizes, claiming he can see through Robin Hood's disguises when he fails to see through two of them. In addition, he has vulture soldiers named Nutsy and Trigger that work for him. In the film's climax, he briefly battles Robin inside Prince John's burning tower and is left trapped behind some curtains, but the film's final scene makes it clear that he survived. He is last seen breaking rocks down in the Royal Rock Pile, having been sentenced to do so along with Prince John and Sir Hiss by King Richard while being overseen by Nutsy and Trigger.
During story development, the animators considered experimenting with a different animal concept for the villain by making him a goat. However, they were over-ruled by the director who wanted to keep to traditional animal stereotypes and ordered the Sheriff be a wolf. In the 1975 BBC TV series The Legend of Robin Hood, the Sheriff is played by Paul Darrow. He is portrayed as a ruthless schemer, willing to murder the Archbishop of Grantham in order to guarantee silence. He is close friends with Prince John, usually sharing his plans with him, and is frequently seen playing chess with himself.
In the anime series Robin Hood no Daibōken, the main antagonist Baron Alwyn (Voiced by Masashi Ebara) is based on the Sheriff of Nottingham in both character design and personality as well as actions. He taxes the people and his workers while keeping them working for him. Near the end of the series, due to Robin's constant thwarting and a near death experience by him, he seemingly starts to make a change for the better until coming across a plot that would allow him to take over the kingdom; thus changing him back to his greedy, inconsiderate self. Once again, however, his plan of action is stopped by Robin and his allies as well as King Richard.
The Richard Kluger novel The Sheriff of Nottingham gives a positive portrayal of the real-life 13th-century sheriff Philip Mark as a good man doing a thankless task. (The same sheriff appeared as a ruthless despot in an episode of the Robin of Sherwood TV series.) In the animated series Young Robin Hood, The Sheriff of Nottingham (Voiced by A.J. Henderson) is a harsh man and good swordsman. He serves as one of the show's main antagonists. The Sheriff of Nottingham is spoofed as Mervyn, "The Sheriff of Rottingham" (Roger Rees), in Mel Brooks' 1993 movie Robin Hood: Men in Tights.
This depiction of the Sheriff appears to suffer from a form of aphasia, often mixing up his words. The Sheriff was parodied in the children's television series Maid Marian and her Merry Men as a foolish schemer, played by Tony Robinson. The Sheriff is more sympathetically portrayed by Robert Shaw in the 1976 film Robin and Marian. He is also shown in this film to not only equal Robin physically, but also be superior to him, as he dominates Robin in a one-on-one sword fight towards the end of the movie, almost killing Robin. In Robin of Sherwood, the Sheriff is portrayed as a cynical opportunist given to violent outbursts, played by Nickolas Grace.
His name, Robert de Rainault, comes from Evelyn Charles Vivian's retelling of the legend. He also bears the dubious honour of being the first sheriff to successfully kill Robin. Grace's portrayal of a moody and obsessive individual, with a sardonic sense of black humour, was a notable influence on future interpretations of the role. A cowardly, inept and lecherous Sheriff of Nottingham who desires Cate Blanchett's Lady Marion is played by actor Matthew Macfadyen in the 2010 Ridley Scott film Robin Hood. The original spec script from which the film developed, "Nottingham", the Sheriff, based on Robert of Thornham, is the protagonist in the story, working to solve a string of murders for which an antihero Robin Hood has been falsely accused.
In the Star Trek The Next Generation episode "Qpid", Q takes on the role of the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the 2001 video game Stronghold Crusader, the Sheriff of Nottingham appears in it as an AI character. He is portrayed as a cruel lord who will use every dirty trick in the book to increase his power. The Sheriff of Nottingham is the main villain in Beyond Sherwood Forest where he is named Malcolm and portrayed by Julian Sands. In this film as part of his plan to find Robin Hood, Malcolm uses a cursed girl named Alina (portrayed by Katharine Isabelle) who can turn into a dragon-like creature.
By the end of the film, Alina's creature form sacrifices her life so that Robin Hood can slay Malcolm. In 2013, Wil Traval portrayed the Sheriff and his counterpart Keith in Lacey, an episode of the second season of Once Upon a Time. Ben Miller played the Sheriff in "Robot of Sherwood", the third episode of the eighth series of Doctor Who. In this portrayal, he is killed when Robin Hood knocks him into a vat of liquid gold. Ben Mendelsohn portrayed the Sheriff in the 2018 film Robin Hood. After Mendelsohn's Sheriff is hanged by Robin during the film's climax, he is succeeded by Will Scarlet, played by Jamie Dornan.
In literature  The Sheriff of Nottingham appears as an antagonist in a series of Young adult fantasy books “Sisters Grimm”, where he is depicted as a law enforcer in Ferryport Landing, still harboring a deep hatred for Robin Hood, his sworn enemy. In other popular culture  The Sheriff is portrayed as the main antagonist in the board game Sheriff of Nottingham by Arcane Wonders where players take turns in his role while the other players try to smuggle goods past his notice. References  External links   Full listings of previous Sheriffs at this Robin Hood website  Nottingham City Council page on the sheriff's office  A list of historical sheriffs can be seen on a Robin Hood research site  Category:Adventure film characters Category:History of Nottinghamshire Category:Local government in Nottinghamshire Category:Nottingham Category:Fictional nobility Nottingham, Sheriff of Category:Male literary villains Category:Male film villains Category:Robin Hood characters Category:Action film villains Category:Disney animated villains
Leflunomide (original brand name Arava) is an immunosuppressive disease-modifying antirheumatic drug (DMARD), used in active moderate-to-severe rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis. It is a pyrimidine synthesis inhibitor that works by inhibiting dihydroorotate dehydrogenase. Medical use Rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis are the only indications that have received regulatory approval. Arava was developed by Sanofi Aventis and approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1998. Clinical studies regarding the following diseases have been conducted:    Polyoma BK virus nephropathy  Kimura's disease  Systemic lupus erythematosus  Felty's syndrome  Takayasu arteritis  Granulomatosis with polyangiitis  Ankylosing spondylitis  Crohn's disease  Sarcoidosis  Uveitis  Still's disease  Prostate cancer  Pemphigoid  Prevention of organ transplant rejection  Side effects The dose-limiting side effects are liver damage, lung disease and immunosuppression.
The most common side effects (occurring in >1% of those treated with it) are, in approximately descending order of frequency: diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, hair loss, high blood pressure, rash, nausea, bronchitis, headache, abdominal pain, abnormal liver function tests, back pain, indigestion, urinary tract infection, dizziness, infection, joint disorder, itchiness, weight loss, loss of appetite, cough, gastroenteritis, pharyngitis, stomatitis, tenosynovitis, vomiting, weakness, allergic reaction, chest pain, dry skin, eczema, paraesthesia, pneumonia, rhinitis, synovitis, cholelithiasis and shortness of breath. Whereas uncommon side effects (occurring in 0.1-1% of those treated with the drug) include: constipation, oral thrush, stomatitis, taste disturbance, thrombocytopenia and hives.
Rarely (in 0.1% of those treated with it) it can cause: anaphylaxis, angiooedema, anaemia, agranulocytosis, eosinophilia, leucopenia, pancytopenia, vasculitis, toxic epidermal necrolysis, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, cutaneous lupus erythematosus, severe infection, interstitial lung disease, cirrhosis and liver failure. Though not reported elsewhere, 80 cases of interstitial pneumonitis involving leflunomide have been reported in Japan between 2003 and 2006. One such case resulting in a death was reported in a 2006 article from Japan and the authors suggest a "an inter-racial difference" for the interstitial pneumonitis. Contraindications Contraindications include:   Pregnancy, women of childbearing potential (unless contraception used)  Liver disease, hepatitis B/C seropositive  Active serious infections  Hypersensitivity  Interactions Other immunomodulatory treatments should be avoided due to the potential for additive immunosuppressant effects, or in the case of immunostimulants like echinacea or astragalus, reduced therapeutic effects.
Likewise live vaccines (like haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine and yellow fever vaccines) should be avoided due to the potential for severe infection due to the immunosuppressive nature of the treatment. The concomitant use of methotrexate, in particular, may lead to severe or even fatal liver-damage or hepatotoxicity. Seventy-five percent of all cases of severe liver damage reported until early 2001 were seen under combined drug therapy leflunomide plus methotrexate. However, some studies have shown that the combination of methotrexate and leflunomide in patients with rheumatoid arthritis gave better results than either drug alone. Mechanism of action Leflunomide is an immunomodulatory drug that achieves its effects by inhibiting the mitochondrial enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH), which plays a key role in the de novo synthesis of uridine monophosphate (rUMP), which is required for the synthesis of DNA and RNA.
Hence, leflunomide inhibits the reproduction of rapidly dividing cells, especially lymphocytes. The inhibition of human DHODH by teriflunomide, the active metabolite of leflunomide, occurs at levels (approximately 600 nM) that are achieved during treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Teriflunomide also inhibits several tyrosine kinases. Teriflunomide prevents the expansion of activated and autoimmune lymphocytes by interfering with their cell cycle progression while nonlymphoid cells are able to use another pathway to make their ribonucleotides by use of salvage pyrimidine pathway, which makes them less dependent on de novo synthesis. Teriflunomide also has antiviral effects against numerous viruses including CMV, HSV1 and the BK virus, which it achieves by inhibiting viral replication by interfering with nucleocapsid tegumentation and hence virion assembly.
Pharmacokinetics It has an oral bioavailability of 80%, protein binding of >99%, metabolism sites of the GI mucosa and liver, volume of distribution (Vd) of 0.13 L/kg, elimination half-life of 14–18 days and excretion routes of faeces (48%) and urine (43%). Leflunomide metabolism Teriflunomide is the main active in vivo metabolite of leflunomide. Upon administration of leflunomide, 70% of the drug administered converts into teriflunomide. The only difference between the molecules is the opening of the isoxazole ring. Upon oral administration of leflunomide in vivo, the isoxazole ring of leflunomide is opened and teriflunomide is formed. "Regardless of the substance administered (leflunomide or teriflunomide), it is the same molecule (teriflunomide)—the one exerting the pharmacological, immunological or metabolic action in view of restoring, correcting or modifying physiological functions, and does not present, in clinical use, a new chemical entity to patients."
Because of this, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) initially had not considered teriflunomide to be a new active substance. References  External links  ARAVA® (leflunomide) 14 mg tablets — Arava HCP website  National Rheumatoid Arthritis Society (NRAS) Information about Disease Modifying drugs such as Leflunomide  http://www.rheuma-online.de/medikamente/leflunomid-arava/studien-zu-leflunomid-arava/gibt-es-untersuchungen-zu-leflunomid-in-weiteren-einsatzgebieten.html (in German, regarding potential indications)  http://www.arznei-telegramm.de/register/0204507.pdf (in German, regarding discontinuation of the drug)  https://web.archive.org/web/20061120230350/http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/561101en.pdf (warning as of 2001 regarding hepatotoxicity) (URL DEAD 16 Oct 2010)  The safety of leflunomide Australian Prescriber  Category:Anilides Category:Antirheumatic products Category:Immunosuppressants Category:Isoxazoles Category:Trifluoromethyl compounds Category:Prodrugs Category:Sanofi
1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid (systematic name 3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrrole-2-carboxylic acid) is a cyclic imino acid. Its conjugate base and anion is 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C). In solution, P5C is in spontaneous equilibrium with glutamate-5-semialdhyde (GSA). The stereoisomer (S)-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (also referred to as L-P5C) is an intermediate metabolite in the biosynthesis and degradation of proline and arginine. In prokaryotic proline biosynthesis, GSA is synthesized from γ-glutamyl phosphate by the enzyme γ-glutamyl phosphate reductase. In most eukaryotes, GSA is synthesised from the amino acid glutamate by the bifunctional enzyme 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase(P5CS). The human P5CS is encoded by the ALDH18A1 gene. The enzyme pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase converts P5C into proline  In proline degradation, the enzyme proline dehydrogenase produces P5C from proline, and the enzyme 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase converts GSA to glutamate.
In many prokaryotes, proline dehydrogenase and P5C dehydrogenase form a bifunctional enzyme that prevents the release of P5C during proline degradation. In arginine degradation, the enzyme ornithine-δ-aminotransferase mediates the transamination between ornithine and a 2-oxo acid (typically α-ketoglutarate) to form P5C and an L-amino acid (typically glutamate). Under specific conditions, P5C may also be used for arginine biosynthesis via the reverse reaction of ornithine-δ-aminotransferase. References   Category:Pyrrolines Category:Carboxylic acids
The Tarbell Course in Magic is a notable encyclopedia of magic amongst professional and amateur magicians. It has eight volumes; the first five were part of the original home-study correspondence course compiled in 1928 by Dr. Harlan Tarbell, the remaining three volumes being added on later. This magic volume series was originally designed as a correspondence course for budding magicians. Once they were collected and bound, the series has become an unparalleled reference standard for magicians. In its impact on the magic world, it is second perhaps in its influence on the art of magic only to Hoffman's Modern Magic, and many professional magicians have based their careers on the Tarbell Course.
__TOC__  Structure   The entire collection comprises more than one-hundred lessons in every aspect of magic including micromagic/close-up magic, escapology, mentalism and stage illusions. It is the most comprehensive literary work in magic history. The original five volumes contained sixty correspondence lessons with more than 3,000 illustrations. In addition to teaching specific tricks, The Tarbell Course also teaches patter, marketing, the history of magic, ethics, advertising, routining, presentation, diction and elocution, magic theory, performance theory, acting, misdirection, timing and showmanship. Volume 7 of the series was written by Harry Lorayne and compiled from contributions by other magicians; it is valued largely for its comprehensive index, subdivided by title, contributor, and properties, to the first seven volumes.
Volume 8 of the series was compiled and edited by Richard J. Kaufman and Steve Burton. It collected Tarbell's widely scattered and previously uncollected writings on magic, which Kaufman then fashioned into something resembling the first six volumes of the course. Since most of the book was written and illustrated by Tarbell, it is linked more closely to the rest of the course than Volume 7. History   Publishers T. Grant Cooke and Walter A. Jordan hoped to produce a correspondence course in magic in the mid-1920s and approached Harlan Tarbell and Walter Baker to work on the project. Baker abandoned the project early on to concentrate on his performances.
Tarbell was thus dropped from the project. Cooke and Jordan then approached Harry Houdini to create the course. Houdini declined due to lack of time but recommended Tarbell. Ultimately, the publishers agreed and offered Tarbell $50,000 for the course. The series sold 10,000 copies until Cooke and Jordan discontinued it in 1931. In 1941, Louis Tannen purchased the rights to the course and reworked the correspondence lessons into book form and ultimately added three additional volumes. D. Robbins and Co./ E-Z Magic purchased all rights from Tannens in 1962 and is the current publisher and distributor of the Tarbell Course in Magic.
The Encyclopedia was also translated into the Korean and Japanese language. The course was ultimately so successful that it became a textbook for magicians all over the world. A magician traveling in India offered to buy some of the secrets of a Hindu Fakir and was surprised to learn that they came from the Tarbell Course. In Africa, tribal medicine men asked that the volumes be sent in a plain brown wrapper to keep their followers from learning that their magic came from Chicago. From 2016 onward, Penguin Magic adapted the Tarbell Course for online video, with each trick and technique taught in order by magician Dan Harlan.
It is released monthly, lesson-by-lesson.
Lessons  Original Mail-Order Course Lessons    The History of Magic  The History of Sleight-of-Hand  Necromancy & Divination  Development of Superstitions  Magic & Religion  Magic & the Science of Medicine  The Rope & Tape Principle  The Relations of Magic to Other Sciences  The Principles of Card Effects  Confidence & Enthusiasm  The Penetrating Ring, The Jumping Rubber Band, Thumb Tie with Rubber Band  The Japanese Thumb Tie  Cards That Pass in the Night, The Cars up the Sleeve  The Regular Pass, The Card Stab, The Extremist-Ray Knife, The Magnetic Knife  The Force, Producing a Card from a Whole Orange, The Card & the Banana  Guide to Card Positions, Various Principles of Palming & Shifts, The Conjurer's Touch, A Mysterious Discovery, "Marvello," Cards, Envelope & Hat  "Tack It", New Era Version of card Through Handkerchief, Three Cards Through the Handkerchief, Rising Cards Through Handkerchief  "Snap It", Flash Card Production, Mystery of the Glass House  Rising Cards  The Enchanted Cards & Envelope, Bewitched Rising Cards & Envelope, Rising Cards from Book, A Book & a card, Rising Cards Through Hat, Rising Cards out of a Hat  How to Please Your Audience, Keeping up with the Times, Making an Impression, Maintain a Healthy Attitude Toward Magic, The Vanishing Wand, King Solomon's Marriage Bands, Arrangement of Programs  Sleight-of-Hand with Coins  The Homing Coins, Invisible Money Transit, The Coin in the Magical Envelopes  The Miser's Dream, The Coin, Envelope & Handkerchief, The Passé Coins & Glasses, The Passé Coins from Hand-to-Hand, the Phantom Coin  Humpty Dumpty Outdone, The Egg Bag  I am Saving You Money, Effects with Rabbits  Simplicity is the Key-Note of the Tarbell System of Magic, The Cut & Restored Ribbon, A card & Ribbon Mystery Ribbon, A Spirit Communication, A Wandering Ribbon  The Famous Needle Trick, A Thimble Act  Silks, The Egg, the Glass, & the Handkerchief, The Wandering Handkerchief, The Silk & the Flame, The Candle, the Silk, & the Paper Tube, The Educated Knot  Divisions of Modern Magic, Unlimited Opportunities in Magic, Specialization, Presentation, Creating of Effects, Experiments of Super Mentality, The Chess Knight's Tour, A Mind Reading Act, The Yogi's Prediction, The X-Ray Cards, Telepathic Pictures  Making Money with Magic, Wand from Pocketbook, Cigar from Pocketbook, Wand from Card Case, Silk Production from Hat, A Rabbit Traveling Bag, Deluxe Silk Production from Hat, Production of Rabbit from Silks, Chinese Box Vanish for Rabbit  A Modern Crystal Gazing Act, Rapid Mental Transference, A Good "One Man" Mind Reading Act, Distant Mental Communication, Blindfold Card Reading, A Mystic Discovery  Your Relation to Other Magicians, Ethics at a Magic Performance, Silk Handkerchief Magic, Mystic Knots, The Dissolving Single Knot, The Speedy Single Knot, The Fade-Away Double Knot, Quick Release Double Knot, Leg Tie & Release with Handkerchief, The Magical Bow Knot, Repeat Handkerchief Vanish, AN Eggs-traordinary Eggs-Plantation, A "Sucker" Handkerchief Vanish, A One-Man Handkerchief Vanish, The Sympathetic Silks, Elusive Silks  Cigarette Magic, The Burning Cigarette & Silk Handkerchief, The Phantom Cigarette, The Vanishing Cigarette, The Dollar Bill in the Cigarette, Catching Cigarettes in the Air, An Odd Cigarette Vanish, Cardini's Floating Cigarette, to Produce Lighted Cigarette from Box  Twelve Impromptu Effects with Cards  Sleight-of-Hand with Cards  More Card Magic, Production of Cards from the Mouth, Cascade Production from Boy's Nose, Easy Methods for Forcing Cards, The Circus Trick, False Counting, Four Ace Effects, Card Fountains  Oriental Magic, Chinese Color-Changing Coins, Chink-a-Chink, The Phantom Knot, The Mystic Knots, Chefalo's Knot, Mysterious Japanese Tie, The Chinese Burning Tapes, Hindu Cut & Restored Turban  Oriental Magic, Japan-O-Tie, The Mystic Smoke, The Chinese Sticks, The Climbing Balls, The Disappearing Grain, The Hindu Jar of Grain, The Productive Japanese Lantern  More Handkerchief Magic, The Handkerchief Ball, The Soup Plate & Handkerchiefs, Two Soup Plates & Handkerchiefs, The Twentieth Century Silks, Tarbell's Color Changing Handkerchief, Double Handkerchief Color Change, The Dyeing Handkerchiefs, The Birth of Old Glory  Character Analysis Related to Magic  Billiard Ball Manipulation  The "Clean Cut" Color Changing Handkerchief, The "Vice-Versa" Color Changing Handkerchiefs, Handkerchief to Billiard Ball, The Elusive Rainbow, Spot the Red, Watch the Lemon, The Magic Chocolates, Popping Corn in a Hat, Nursing Bottle from the Hat  Coat & Hat Productions, Comedy Egg Production, A Master Hat Production, Rabbit Productions, An Unexpected Rabbit Production, Rapid Production of Rabbit from Hat, Silks & the Rabbit, Rabbit Production from Paper Ribbon, Rabbit Production from Gentleman's Coat, A Chicken Produced from Gentleman's Coat, Production of Bottle of Milk or Liquor from Gentleman's Hip Pocket, Changing Rabbit to Box of Candy, Sausages from Boy's Coat  Chemical & Mechanical Magic, A Novel Transmission of Smoke, Wine & Water, The Wandering Glass & Bottle, A Magical Transformation, A Cooking Lesson, The Welsh Rarebit  Spiritualistic Magic, The Living & the Dead, Spirit Photography, The Psychic Paper, Spirit Slate Writing, A Parlor Séance  More Spiritualistic Magic, The Dark Séance at the Table, The Dark Circle, Gysel's Mysterious Lights, Dr. Bridge's Thought Projection, The Siberian Chain Escape, The Cabinet Séance, Another Good Tie, The Throw-Away Coat Tie  Chinese Linking Rings, Weber's Emergency Routine  More Oriental Magic, Tarbell's Mysterious Firecrackers, Kolar's Balloon & Silks, Ching-A-Ling Chinese Lantern Production, The Hindu Mango Tree Growth, Tarbell's Hindu Plant Growth, Comedy Flower Growth  Specialty Chinese Magic, Production of a Large Bowl of Water, Production of Stack of Four Bowls of Water, Chinese Production of the Four Bowls, Production of a Child, Modern Production of Bowl of Water on Table, Chinese Production of Doves, The Mysterious Self-Filling Lota, Ching Ling Foo's Magic Water Can, Mystery of the Paper Ball, Egg, Frog, & Baby Chicken  The Tarbell Rope Mystery  Illusions, The Mystery of King Tut, Who & Which  Building Illusions, Black Art Illusions, The Elusive Hindu, A Daughter of the Sun, The Mystery of the Girl in the Trunk, The Phantom Flight  Escape & Substitution Illusions, The Substitution Trunk Mystery, The Canvas Box Mystery, The Packing Box Escape, The Paper Bag Escape  The Black Art Table, The Treasure Chest, The Chinese Pigeon Production, Thayer's Super-Vanish of Doves  The Egyptian Mummy, The Mystery of the Dancing Girls, The Doll House Illusion  The Sword Box, The Penetrative Steel Bars, The Indestructible Girl, Sawing a Woman in Half  The Chinaman, The Ghost & the Cat, The Mystery of The Three Ghosts  The Phantom of the Circus  Making the Box Office Pay  Advertising & Publicity  Book Volumes   Volume 6  Novel Ball Magic  Unique Card Effects  Novelty Magic  Rope Magic  Mind Reading Mysteries  X-Ray Eyes and Blindfold Effects  Silk and Rope Penetrations  Escapes and Substitutions  Spirit Ties and Vest Turning  Modern Stage Magic  Stage Productions  Magic As Theatre  Volume 7  More Mental Magic  Card Magic  Rope Magic  Novelty Magic  Money Magic  Silk Magic  Illusions  Miscellaneous Late Arrivals   Volume 8 - (Tarbell's Graduate Course in Magic)  Thoughts and Advice  Further Unique Mysteries  Magic with Cards  Oriental Magic  Magic of the Mind  Rope Magic  Chalk Talk Magic  Magic with Apparatus  Comedy Magic  Pantomime Illusions  Making Magic Pay  Selling of the Tarbell System  References   Category:Magic books Category:Encyclopedias of art
Parent material is the underlying geological material (generally bedrock or a superficial or drift deposit) in which soil horizons form. Soils typically inherit a great deal of structure and minerals from their parent material, and, as such, are often classified based upon their contents of consolidated or unconsolidated mineral material that has undergone some degree of physical or chemical weathering and the mode by which the materials were most recently transported. Consolidated Parent materials that are predominantly composed of consolidated rock are termed residual parent material. The consolidated rocks consist of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock, etc. Residual Soil developed in residual parent material is that which forms in consolidated geologic material.
Unconsolidated Parent material is classified by its last means of transport. Material that was transported to a location by glacier, then deposited elsewhere by streams, is classified as stream-transported parent material, or glacial fluvial parent material. Ice transported Glacial till is material dragged with a moving ice sheet. Because it is not transported with liquid water, the material is not sorted by size. Water transported Within water transported parent material there are several important types. Parent material transported by streams is called alluvium of which there are three main types. Floodplains are the parts of river valleys that are covered with water during floods.
Due to their seasonal nature, floods create stratified layers in which larger particles tend to settle nearer the channel and smaller particles settle nearer the edges of the flooding area. Alluvial fans are sedimentary areas formed by narrow valley streams that suddenly drop to lowlands and widen dramatically. Sedimentary in these types of deposits tend to be larger closer to the uplands and finer near the edges of the fan. Delta deposits, the third of type of alluvium, are finer sediments that are discharged from streams into lakes and eventually settle near the mouth of the river. Lake deposited parent material is called lacustrine parent material.
Beach ridges may be present where glacial lakes once washed up sand. Lacustrine material is well sorted and fine-textured, having finer silts and clays. Soils formed from lacustrine parent material have low permeability in part because of this high clay content. Ocean deposited parent materials, called marine sediments, are collections of material that have been carried by rivers and streams to the ocean and eventually sink to the bottom. Such materials can vary in texture. Gravity transported Collections of large rock fragments that have traveled downslope by gravity are called colluvial debris or colluvium. Wind transported Parent materials can also be transported by wind, which includes loess and wind-blown (aeolian) sand.
Climate and weathering  Climate is generally considered the most important factor influencing physical and chemical weathering processes. Physical weathering is especially important during the early stages of soil development. Rock can be disintegrated by changes in temperature which produces differential expansion and contraction. Changes in temperature can also cause water to freeze. The forces produced by water freezing can be as great as 2.1 × 105 kPa, which can split rocks apart, wedge rocks upward in the soil, and heave and churn soil material. Chemical weathering: the principal agent is percolating rainwater charged with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Parent material becomes hydrolyzed by the acidic solution to produce minerals and to release cations.
See also   Saprolite  Soil production function  References  Category:Pedology
International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, with operations in over 170 countries. The company began in 1911, founded in Endicott, New York, as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) and was renamed "International Business Machines" in 1924. IBM is incorporated in New York. IBM produces and sells computer hardware, middleware and software, and provides hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a major research organization, holding the record for most U.S. patents generated by a business () for 27 consecutive years. Inventions by IBM include the automated teller machine (ATM), the floppy disk, the hard disk drive, the magnetic stripe card, the relational database, the SQL programming language, the UPC barcode, and dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).
The IBM mainframe, exemplified by the System/360, was the dominant computing platform during the 1960s and 1970s. IBM has continually shifted business operations by focusing on higher-value, more profitable markets. This includes spinning off printer manufacturer Lexmark in 1991 and the sale of personal computer (ThinkPad/ThinkCentre) and x86-based server businesses to Lenovo (in 2005 and 2014, respectively), and acquiring companies such as PwC Consulting (2002), SPSS (2009), The Weather Company (2016), and Red Hat (2019). Also in 2015, IBM announced that it would go "fabless", continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the world's largest employers, with () over 352,600 employees, known as "IBMers".
At least 70% of IBMers are based outside the United States, and the country with the largest number of IBMers is India. IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology (USA) and five National Medals of Science (USA). History  In the 1880s technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of International Business Machines (IBM). Julius E. Pitrap patented the computing scale in 1885; Alexander Dey invented the dial recorder (1888); Herman Hollerith (1860–1929) patented the Electric Tabulating Machine; and Willard Bundy invented a time clock to record a worker's arrival and departure time on a paper tape in 1889.
On June 16, 1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York; Dayton, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Washington, D.C.; and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat, and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr., fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, in 1914, was offered a position at CTR.
Watson joined CTR as General Manager then, 11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Patterson's pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTR's companies. He implemented sales conventions, "generous sales incentives, a focus on customer service, an insistence on well-groomed, dark-suited salesmen and had an evangelical fervor for instilling company pride and loyalty in every worker". His favorite slogan, "THINK", became a mantra for each company's employees. During Watson's first four years, revenues reached $9 million ($ today) and the company's operations expanded to Europe, South America, Asia and Australia.
Watson never liked the clumsy hyphenated name "Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company" and on February 14, 1924, chose to replace it with the more expansive title "International Business Machines". By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, IBM. In 1937 IBM's tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process huge amounts of data, its clients including the U.S. Government, during its first effort to maintain the employment records for 26 million people pursuant to the Social Security Act, and the tracking of Jews and other persecuted groups by Hitler's Third Reich, largely through the German subsidiary Dehomag. The social security-related business gave an 81% increase in revenue from 1935 to 1939.
In 1949 Thomas Watson, Sr., created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952 he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, and his son Thomas Watson, Jr. was named president. In 1956 the company demonstrated the first practical example of artificial intelligence when Arthur L. Samuel of IBM's Poughkeepsie, New York, laboratory programmed an IBM 704 not merely to play checkers but "learn" from its own experience. In 1957 the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961 IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines and introduced the highly successful Selectric typewriter.
In 1963 IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flights of the Mercury astronauts. A year later, it moved its corporate headquarters from New York City to Armonk, New York. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, participating in the 1965 Gemini flights, 1966 Saturn flights, and 1969 lunar mission. On April 7, 1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360. It spanned the complete range of commercial and scientific applications from large to small, allowing companies for the first time to upgrade to models with greater computing capability without having to rewrite their applications.
It was followed by the IBM System/370 in 1970. Together the 360 and 370 made the IBM mainframe the dominant mainframe computer and the dominant computing platform in the industry throughout this period and into the early 1980s. In 1974 IBM engineer George J. Laurer developed the Universal Product Code. IBM and the World Bank first introduced financial swaps to the public in 1981 when they entered into a swap agreement. The IBM PC, originally designated IBM 5150, was introduced in 1981, and it soon became an industry standard. In 1991 IBM spun out its printer manufacturing into a new business called Lexmark.
In 1993 IBM posted a US$8 billion loss – at the time the biggest in American corporate history. Lou Gerstner was hired as CEO from RJR Nabisco to turn the company around. In 2002 IBM acquired PwC consulting, and in 2003 it initiated a project to redefine company values, hosting a three-day online discussion of key business issues with 50,000 employees. The result was three values: "Dedication to every client's success", "Innovation that matters—for our company and for the world", and "Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships". In 2005 the company sold its personal computer business to Chinese technology company Lenovo and, in 2009, it acquired software company SPSS Inc. Later in 2009, IBM's Blue Gene supercomputing program was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by U.S. President Barack Obama.
In 2011, IBM gained worldwide attention for its artificial intelligence program Watson, which was exhibited on Jeopardy! where it won against game-show champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. The company also celebrated its 100th anniversary in the same year on June 16. In 2012 IBM announced it has agreed to buy Kenexa, and a year later it also acquired SoftLayer Technologies, a web hosting service, in a deal worth around $2 billion. Also that year, the company designed a video surveillance system for Davao City. In 2014 IBM announced it would sell its x86 server division to Lenovo for $2.1 billion.
Also that year, IBM began announcing several major partnerships with other companies, including Apple Inc., Twitter, Facebook, Tencent, Cisco, UnderArmour, Box, Microsoft, VMware, CSC, Macy's, Sesame Workshop, the parent company of Sesame Street, and Salesforce.com. In 2015 IBM announced three major acquisitions: Merge Healthcare for $1 billion, data storage vendor Cleversafe, and all digital assets from The Weather Company, including Weather.com and the Weather Channel mobile app. Also that year, IBMers created the film A Boy and His Atom, which was the first molecule movie to tell a story. In 2016, IBM acquired video conferencing service Ustream and formed a new cloud video unit.
In April 2016, it posted a 14-year low in quarterly sales. The following month, Groupon sued IBM accusing it of patent infringement, two months after IBM accused Groupon of patent infringement in a separate lawsuit. In 2015, IBM bought the digital part of The Weather Company; and in October 2018, IBM announced its intention to acquire Red Hat for $34 billion, which was completed on July 9, 2019. Headquarters and offices  IBM is headquartered in Armonk, New York, a community  north of Midtown Manhattan. A nickname for the company is the "Colossus of Armonk". Its principal building, referred to as CHQ, is a  glass and stone edifice on a  parcel amid a 432-acre former apple orchard the company purchased in the mid-1950s.
There are two other IBM buildings within walking distance of CHQ: the North Castle office, which previously served as IBM's headquarters; and the Louis V. Gerstner, Jr., Center for Learning (formerly known as IBM Learning Center (ILC)), a resort hotel and training center, which has 182 guest rooms, 31 meeting rooms, and various amenities. IBM operates in 174 countries , with mobility centers in smaller markets areas and major campuses in the larger ones. In New York City, IBM has several offices besides CHQ, including the IBM Watson headquarters at Astor Place in Manhattan. Outside of New York, major campuses in the United States include Austin, Texas; Research Triangle Park (Raleigh-Durham), North Carolina; Rochester, Minnesota; and Silicon Valley, California.
IBM's real estate holdings are varied and globally diverse. Towers occupied by IBM include 1250 René-Lévesque (Montreal, Canada) and One Atlantic Center (Atlanta, Georgia, USA). In Beijing, China, IBM occupies Pangu Plaza, the city's seventh tallest building and overlooking Beijing National Stadium ("Bird's Nest"), home to the 2008 Summer Olympics. IBM India Private Limited is the Indian subsidiary of IBM, which is headquartered at Bengaluru, Karnataka. It has facilities in Bengaluru, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Pune, Gurugram, Noida, Bhubaneshwar, Coimbatore, Visakhapatnam and Hyderabad.
Other notable buildings include the IBM Rome Software Lab (Rome, Italy), Hursley House (Winchester, UK), 330 North Wabash (Chicago, Illinois, United States), the Cambridge Scientific Center (Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States), the IBM Toronto Software Lab (Toronto, Canada), the IBM Building, Johannesburg (Johannesburg, South Africa), the IBM Building (Seattle) (Seattle, Washington, United States), the IBM Hakozaki Facility (Tokyo, Japan), the IBM Yamato Facility (Yamato, Japan), the IBM Canada Head Office Building (Ontario, Canada) and the Watson IoT Headquarters (Munich, Germany). Defunct IBM campuses include the IBM Somers Office Complex (Somers, New York) and Tour Descartes (Paris, France). The company's contributions to industrial architecture and design include works by Marcel Breuer, Eero Saarinen, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and I.M.
Pei. Van der Rohe's building in Chicago was recognized with the 1990 Honor Award from the National Building Museum. IBM was recognized as one of the Top 20 Best Workplaces for Commuters by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2005, which recognized Fortune 500 companies that provided employees with excellent commuter benefits to help reduce traffic and air pollution. In 2004, concerns were raised related to IBM's contribution in its early days to pollution in its original location in Endicott, New York. Finance For the fiscal year 2017, IBM reported earnings of US$5.7 billion, with an annual revenue of US$79.1 billion, a decline of 1.0% over the previous fiscal cycle.
IBM's shares traded at over $125 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$113.9 billion in September 2018. IBM ranked No. 34 on the 2018 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. Products and services  IBM has a large and diverse portfolio of products and services. , these offerings fall into the categories of cloud computing, Artificial intelligence, commerce, data and analytics, Internet of Things (IoT), IT infrastructure, mobile, Digital workplace and security. IBM Cloud includes infrastructure as a service (IaaS), software as a service (SaaS) and platform as a service (PaaS) offered through public, private and hybrid cloud delivery models.
For instance, the IBM Bluemix PaaS enables developers to quickly create complex websites on a pay-as-you-go model. IBM SoftLayer is a dedicated server, managed hosting and cloud computing provider, which in 2011 reported hosting more than 81,000 servers for more than 26,000 customers. IBM also provides Cloud Data Encryption Services (ICDES), using cryptographic splitting to secure customer data. IBM also hosts the industry-wide cloud computing and mobile technologies conference InterConnect each year.
Hardware designed by IBM for these categories include IBM's POWER microprocessors, which are employed inside many console gaming systems, including Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Nintendo's Wii U. IBM Secure Blue is encryption hardware that can be built into microprocessors, and in 2014, the company revealed TrueNorth, a neuromorphic CMOS integrated circuit and announced a $3 billion investment over the following five years to design a neural chip that mimics the human brain, with 10 billion neurons and 100 trillion synapses, but that uses just 1 kilowatt of power. In 2016, the company launched all-flash arrays designed for small and midsized companies, which includes software for data compression, provisioning, and snapshots across various systems.
IT outsourcing also represents a major service provided by IBM, with more than 60 data centers worldwide. alphaWorks is IBM's source for emerging software technologies, and SPSS is a software package used for statistical analysis. IBM's Kenexa suite provides employment and retention solutions, and includes the BrassRing, an applicant tracking system used by thousands of companies for recruiting. IBM also owns The Weather Company, which provides weather forecasting and includes weather.com and Weather Underground. Smarter Planet is an initiative that seeks to achieve economic growth, near-term efficiency, sustainable development, and societal progress, targeting opportunities such as smart grids, water management systems, solutions to traffic congestion, and greener buildings.
Services provisions include Redbooks, which are publicly available online books about best practices with IBM products, and developerWorks, a website for software developers and IT professionals with how-to articles and tutorials, as well as software downloads, code samples, discussion forums, podcasts, blogs, wikis, and other resources for developers and technical professionals. IBM Watson is a technology platform that uses natural language processing and machine learning to reveal insights from large amounts of unstructured data. Watson was debuted in 2011 on the American game-show Jeopardy!, where it competed against champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter in a three-game tournament and won.
Watson has since been applied to business, healthcare, developers, and universities. For example, IBM has partnered with Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center to assist with considering treatment options for oncology patients and for doing melanoma screenings. Also, several companies have begun using Watson for call centers, either replacing or assisting customer service agents. In January 2019, IBM introduced its first commercial quantum computer IBM Q System One. IBM also provides infrastructure for the New York City Police Department through their IBM Cognos Analytics to perform data visualizations of CompStat crime data. In March 2020 it was announced that IBM will build the first quantum computer in Germany.
The computer should allow researchers to harness the technology without falling foul of the EU’s increasingly assertive stance on data sovereignty. Research  Research has been a part of IBM since its founding, and its organized efforts trace their roots back to 1945, when the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory was founded at Columbia University in New York City, converting a renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side into IBM's first laboratory. Now, IBM Research constitutes the largest industrial research organization in the world, with 12 labs on 6 continents.
IBM Research is headquartered at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center in New York, and facilities include the Almaden lab in California, Austin lab in Texas, Australia lab in Melbourne, Brazil lab in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, China lab in Beijing and Shanghai, Ireland lab in Dublin, Haifa lab in Israel, India lab in Delhi and Bangalore, Tokyo lab, Zurich lab and Africa lab in Nairobi. In terms of investment, IBM's R&D expenditure totals several billion dollars each year. In 2012, that expenditure was approximately US$6.9 billion. Recent allocations have included $1 billion to create a business unit for Watson in 2014, and $3 billion to create a next-gen semiconductor along with $4 billion towards growing the company's "strategic imperatives" (cloud, analytics, mobile, security, social) in 2015.
IBM has been a leading proponent of the Open Source Initiative, and began supporting Linux in 1998. The company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on Linux through the IBM Linux Technology Center, which includes over 300 Linux kernel developers. IBM has also released code under different open source licenses, such as the platform-independent software framework Eclipse (worth approximately US$ million at the time of the donation), the three-sentence International Components for Unicode (ICU) license, and the Java-based relational database management system (RDBMS) Apache Derby. IBM's open source involvement has not been trouble-free, however (see SCO v. IBM).
Famous inventions and developments by IBM include: the Automated teller machine (ATM), Dynamic random access memory (DRAM), the electronic keypunch, the financial swap, the floppy disk, the hard disk drive, the magnetic stripe card, the relational database, RISC, the SABRE airline reservation system, SQL, the Universal Product Code (UPC) bar code, and the virtual machine. Additionally, in 1990 company scientists used a scanning tunneling microscope to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms to spell out the company acronym, marking the first structure assembled one atom at a time. A major part of IBM research is the generation of patents. Since its first patent for a traffic signaling device, IBM has been one of the world's most prolific patent sources.
In 2018, the company holds the record for most patents generated by a business, marking 25 consecutive years for the achievement. Five IBMers have received the Nobel Prize: Leo Esaki, of the Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, N.Y., in 1973, for work in semiconductors; Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, of the Zurich Research Center, in 1986, for the scanning tunneling microscope; and Georg Bednorz and Alex Müller, also of Zurich, in 1987, for research in superconductivity. Several IBMers have also won the Turing Award, including the first female recipient Frances E. Allen. Current research includes a collaboration with the University of Michigan to see computers act as an academic advisor for undergraduate computer science and engineering students at the university, and a partnership with AT&T, combining their cloud and Internet of Things (IoT) platforms to make them interoperable and to provide developers with easier tools.
The company is also involved in research into advanced algorithms and machine learning and their decision-making processes. To that end, the company recently released an analysis tool for how and why algorithms make decisions while scanning for biases in automated decision-making. Brand and reputation  IBM is nicknamed Big Blue in part due to its blue logo and color scheme, and also partially since IBM once had a de facto dress code of white shirts with blue suits. The company logo has undergone several changes over the years, with its current "8-bar" logo designed in 1972 by graphic designer Paul Rand.
It was a general replacement for a 13-bar logo, since period photocopiers did not render large areas well. Aside from the logo, IBM used Helvetica as a corporate typeface for 50 years, until it was replaced in 2017 by the custom-designed IBM Plex. IBM has a valuable brand as a result of over 100 years of operations and marketing campaigns. Since 1996, IBM has been the exclusive technology partner for the Masters Tournament, one of the four major championships in professional golf, with IBM creating the first Masters.org (1996), the first course cam (1998), the first iPhone app with live streaming (2009), and first-ever live 4K Ultra High Definition feed in the United States for a major sporting event (2016).
As a result, IBM CEO Ginni Rometty became the third female member of the Master's governing body, the Augusta National Golf Club. IBM is also a major sponsor in professional tennis, with engagements at the U.S. Open, Wimbledon, the Australian Open, and the French Open. The company also sponsored the Olympic Games from 1960–2000, and the National Football League from 2003–2012. In 2012, IBM's brand was valued at $75.5 billion and ranked by Interbrand as the second-best brand worldwide. That same year, it was also ranked the top company for leaders (Fortune), the number two green company in the U.S. (Newsweek), the second-most respected company (Barron's), the fifth-most admired company (Fortune), the 18th-most innovative company (Fast Company), and the number one in technology consulting and number two in outsourcing (Vault).
In 2015, Forbes ranked IBM the fifth-most valuable brand. People and culture  Employees  IBM has one of the largest workforces in the world, and employees at Big Blue are referred to as "IBMers". The company was among the first corporations to provide group life insurance (1934), survivor benefits (1935), training for women (1935), paid vacations (1937), and training for disabled people (1942). IBM hired its first black salesperson in 1946, and in 1952, CEO Thomas J. Watson, Jr. published the company's first written equal opportunity policy letter, one year before the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown vs. Board of Education and 11 years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
The Human Rights Campaign has rated IBM 100% on its index of gay-friendliness every year since 2003, with IBM providing same-sex partners of its employees with health benefits and an anti-discrimination clause. Additionally, in 2005, IBM became the first major company in the world to commit formally to not use genetic information in employment decisions; and in 2017, IBM was named to Working Mothers 100 Best Companies List for the 32nd consecutive year. IBM has several leadership development and recognition programs to recognize employee potential and achievements. For early-career high potential employees, IBM sponsors leadership development programs by discipline (e.g., general management (GMLDP), human resources (HRLDP), finance (FLDP)).
Each year, the company also selects 500 IBMers for the IBM Corporate Service Corps (CSC), which has been described as the corporate equivalent of the Peace Corps and gives top employees a month to do humanitarian work abroad. For certain interns, IBM also has a program called Extreme Blue that partners top business and technical students to develop high-value technology and compete to present their business case to the company's CEO at internship's end. The company also has various designations for exceptional individual contributors such as Senior Technical Staff Member (STSM), Research Staff Member (RSM), Distinguished Engineer (DE), and Distinguished Designer (DD).
Prolific inventors can also achieve patent plateaus and earn the designation of Master Inventor. The company's most prestigious designation is that of IBM Fellow. Since 1963, the company names a handful of Fellows each year based on technical achievement. Other programs recognize years of service such as the Quarter Century Club established in 1924, and sellers are eligible to join the Hundred Percent Club, composed of IBM salesmen who meet their quotas, convened in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Each year, the company also selects 1,000 IBMers annually to award the Best of IBM Award, which includes an all-expenses-paid trip to the awards ceremony in an exotic location.
IBM's culture has evolved significantly over its century of operations. In its early days, a dark (or gray) suit, white shirt, and a "sincere" tie constituted the public uniform for IBM employees. During IBM's management transformation in the 1990s, CEO Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. relaxed these codes, normalizing the dress and behavior of IBM employees. The company's culture has also given to different plays on the company acronym (IBM), with some saying is stands for "I've Been Moved" due to relocations and layoffs, others saying it stands for "I'm By Myself" pursuant to a prevalent work-from-anywhere norm, and others saying it stands for "I'm Being Mentored" due to the company's open door policy and encouragement for mentoring at all levels.
In terms of labor relations, the company has traditionally resisted labor union organizing, although unions represent some IBM workers outside the United States. In Japan, IBM employees also have an American football team complete with pro stadium, cheerleaders and televised games, competing in the Japanese X-League as the "Big Blue". In 2015, IBM started giving employees the option of choosing either a PC or a Mac as their primary work device, resulting in IBM becoming the world's largest Mac shop. In 2016, IBM eliminated forced rankings and changed its annual performance review system to focus more on frequent feedback, coaching, and skills development.
IBM alumni Many IBMers have also achieved notability outside of work and after leaving IBM. In business, former IBM employees include Apple Inc. CEO Tim Cook, former EDS CEO and politician Ross Perot, Microsoft chairman John W. Thompson, SAP co-founder Hasso Plattner, Gartner founder Gideon Gartner, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) CEO Lisa Su, former Citizens Financial Group CEO Ellen Alemany, former Yahoo! chairman Alfred Amoroso, former AT&T CEO C. Michael Armstrong, former Xerox Corporation CEOs David T. Kearns and G. Richard Thoman, former Fair Isaac Corporation CEO Mark N. Greene, Citrix Systems co-founder Ed Iacobucci, ASOS.com chairman Brian McBride, former Lenovo CEO Steve Ward, Maria Azua is SVP of Distributed Hosting & Cloud Enablement Services for Fidelity Investments and former Teradata CEO Kenneth Simonds.
In government, alumna Patricia Roberts Harris served as United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the first African American woman to serve in the United States Cabinet. Samuel K. Skinner served as U.S. Secretary of Transportation and as the White House Chief of Staff. Alumni also include U.S. Senators Mack Mattingly and Thom Tillis; Wisconsin governor Scott Walker; former U.S. Ambassadors Vincent Obsitnik (Slovakia), Arthur K. Watson (France), and Thomas Watson Jr. (Soviet Union); and former U.S. Representatives Todd Akin, Glenn Andrews, Robert Garcia, Katherine Harris, Amo Houghton, Jim Ross Lightfoot, Thomas J. Manton, Donald W. Riegle Jr., and Ed Zschau.
Others are NASA astronaut Michael J. Massimino, Canadian astronaut and Governor-General Julie Payette, Harvey Mudd College president Maria Klawe, Western Governors University president emeritus Robert Mendenhall, former University of Kentucky president Lee T. Todd Jr., NFL referee Bill Carollo, former Rangers F.C. chairman John McClelland, and recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature J. M. Coetzee. Thomas Watson Jr. also served as the 11th national president of the Boy Scouts of America. Board and shareholders The company's 15 member Board of Directors are responsible for overall corporate management and includes the current or former CEOs of Anthem, Dow Chemical, Johnson and Johnson, Royal Dutch Shell, UPS, and Vanguard as well as the presidents of Cornell University and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and a retired U.S. Navy admiral.
In 2011, IBM became the first technology company Warren Buffett's holding company Berkshire Hathaway invested in. Initially he bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars. Over the years he increased his IBM holdings however he reduced it by 94.5% to 2.05 million shares at the end of 2017. By May 2018 he was completely out of IBM. See also   List of electronics brands  List of largest Internet companies  List of largest manufacturing companies by revenue  Tech companies in the New York City metropolitan region  Top 100 US Federal Contractors  References  Further reading                            .
External links            Category:1888 establishments in New York (state) Category:Technology companies established in 1888 Category:American companies established in 1888 Category:Cloud computing providers Category:Collier Trophy recipients Category:Companies based in Westchester County, New York Category:Companies formed by merger Category:Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Category:Data companies Category:Data quality companies Category:Display technology companies Category:Electronics companies of the United States Category:Foundry semiconductor companies Category:Information technology consulting firms of the United States Category:Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Category:National Medal of Technology recipients Category:Outsourcing companies Category:Point of sale companies Category:Software companies based in New York (state) Category:Storage Area Network companies Category:Software companies of the United States
The ancient Egyptians had an elaborate set of funerary practices that they believed were necessary to ensure their immortality after death (the afterlife). These rituals and protocols included mummifying the body, casting magic spells, and burial with specific grave goods thought to be needed in the Egyptian afterlife. The ancient Egyptian burial process evolved over time as old customs were discarded and new ones adopted, but several important elements of the process persisted. Although specific details changed over time, the preparation of the body, the magic rituals, and grave goods were all essential parts of a proper Egyptian funeral. There were many different gods to prepare for.
The ancient Egyptians believed that each god would separately judge the deceased before he could enter the afterlife. History  Although no writing survives from Predynastic Egypt, scholars believe the importance of the physical body and its preservation originated there. This would explain why people of that time did not follow the common practice of cremation but rather buried the dead. Some also believe they may have feared the bodies would rise again if mistreated after death. Early bodies were buried in simple, shallow oval pits, with a few burial goods. Sometimes multiple people and animals were placed in the same grave.
Over time, graves became more complex, with the body placed in a wicker basket, then later in wooden or terracotta coffins. The latest tombs Egyptians made were sarcophagi. These graves contained burial goods like jewelry, food, games and sharpened splint. This demonstrates that this ancient period had a sense of the afterlife, though archaeological evidence may show the average person had little chance of getting into it. This may be because admission required that the deceased must be able to serve a purpose there. The pharaoh was allowed in because of his role in life, and others needed to have some role there.
Human sacrifices found in early royal tombs reinforce this view. Those sacrificed were probably meant to serve the pharaoh in his afterlife. Eventually, figurines and wall paintings begin to replace human victims. Some of these figurines may have been created to resemble certain people, so they could follow the pharaoh after their lives ended. Note that not only the lower classes had to rely on the pharaoh's favor, but also the noble classes. They believed that when he died, the pharaoh became some sort of god, who could bestow upon certain individuals the ability to have an afterlife. This belief existed from the predynastic period through the Old Kingdom.
Although many spells from the predeceasing texts were carried over, the new coffin texts also had additional new spells added, along with slight changes made to make this new funerary text more relatable to the nobility. In the First Intermediate Period, however, the importance of the pharaoh declined. Funerary texts, previously restricted to royal use, became more widely available. The pharaoh was no longer a god-king in the sense that only he was allowed in the next life due to his status here, now he was merely the ruler of the population who upon his death would be leveled down towards the plane of the mortals.
Prehistory, earliest burials The first funerals in Egypt are known from the villages of Omari and Maadi in the north, near present-day Cairo. The people of these villages buried their dead in a simple, round grave with a pot. The body was neither treated nor arranged in a regular way as would be the case later in the historical period. Without any written evidence, there is little to provide information about contemporary beliefs concerning the afterlife except for the regular inclusion of a single pot in the grave. Given later customs, the pot was probably intended to hold food for the deceased.
Predynastic period, development of customs Funerary customs were developed during the Predynastic period from those of the Prehistoric Period. At first, people excavated round graves with one pot in the Badarian Period (4400-3800 B.C.E. ), continuing the tradition of Omari and Maadi cultures. By the end of the Predynastic period, there were increasing numbers of objects deposited with the body in rectangular graves, and there is growing evidence of rituals practiced by Egyptians of the Naquada II Period (3650-3300 B.C.E). At this point, bodies were regularly arranged in a crouched or fetal position with the face toward either the east the rising sun or the west (which in this historical period was the land of the dead).
Artists painted jars with funeral processions and perhaps ritual dancing. Figures of bare-breasted women with birdlike faces and their legs concealed under skirts also appeared in some graves. Some graves were much richer in goods than others, demonstrating the beginnings of social stratification. Gender differences in burial emerged with the inclusion of weapons in men's graves and cosmetics palettes in women's graves. By 3,600 BCE, Egyptians had begun to mummify the dead, wrapping them in linen bandages with embalming oils (conifer resin and aromatic plant extracts). Early Dynastic Period, tombs and coffins By the First Dynasty, some Egyptians were wealthy enough to build tombs over their burials rather than placing their bodies in simple pit graves dug into the sand.
The rectangular, mud-brick tomb with an underground burial chamber, called a mastaba, developed in this period. These tombs had niched walls, a style of building called the palace-façade motif because the walls imitated those surrounding the palace of the king. Since commoners as well as kings, however, had such tombs, the architecture suggests that in death, some wealthy people did achieve an elevated status. Later in the historical period, it is certain that the deceased was associated with the god of the dead, Osiris. Grave goods expanded to include furniture, jewelry, and games as well as the weapons, cosmetic palettes, and food supplies in decorated jars known earlier, in the Predynastic period.
Now, however, in the richest tombs, grave goods numbered in the thousands. Only the newly invented coffins for the body were made specifically for the tomb. There is also some inconclusive evidence for mummification. Other objects in the tombs that had been used during daily life suggest that Egyptians already in the First Dynasty anticipated needing in the next life. Further continuity from this life into the next can be found in the positioning of tombs: those persons who served the king during their lifetimes chose burials close to their lord. The use of stela in front of the tomb began in the First Dynasty, indicating a desire to individualize the tomb with the deceased's name.
Old Kingdom, pyramids and mummification  In the Old Kingdom, kings first built pyramids for their tombs surrounded by stone mastaba tombs for their high officials. The fact that most high officials were also royal relatives suggests another motivation for such placement: these complexes were also family cemeteries. Among the elite, bodies were mummified, wrapped in linen bandages, sometimes covered with molded plaster, and placed in stone sarcophagi or plain wooden coffins. At the end of the Old Kingdom, mummy masks in cartonnage (linen soaked in plaster, modeled and painted) also appeared. Canopic containers now held their internal organs. Amulets of gold, faience, and carnelian first appeared in various shapes to protect different parts of the body.
There is also the first evidence of inscriptions inside the coffins of the elite during the Old Kingdom. Often, reliefs of everyday items were etched onto the walls supplemented grave goods, which made them available through their representation. The new false door was a non-functioning stone sculpture of a door into the tomb, found either inside the chapel or on the outside of the mastaba; it served as a place to make offerings and recite prayers for the deceased. Statues of the deceased were now included in tombs and used for ritual purposes. Burial chambers of some private people received their first decorations in addition to the decoration of the chapels.
At the end of the Old Kingdom, the burial chamber decorations depicted offerings, but not people. First Intermediate Period, regional variation The political situation in the First Intermediate Period, with many centers of power, is reflected in the many local styles of art and burial at this time. The many regional styles for decorating coffins make their origins easy to distinguish from each other. For example, some coffins have one-line inscriptions, and many styles include the depiction of Wadjet eyes (the human eye with the markings of a falcon). There are also regional variations in the hieroglyphs used to decorate coffins.
Occasionally men had tools and weapons in their graves, while some women had jewelry and cosmetic objects such as mirrors. Grindstones were sometimes included in women's tombs, perhaps to be considered a tool for food preparation in the next world, just as the weapons in men's tombs imply men's assignment to a role in fighting. Middle Kingdom, new tomb contents  Burial customs in the Middle Kingdom reflect some of the political trends of this period. During the Eleventh Dynasty, tombs were cut into the mountains of Thebes surrounding the king's tomb or in local cemeteries in Upper and Middle Egypt; Thebes was the native city of the Eleventh Dynasty kings, and they preferred to be buried there.
But the Twelfth Dynasty, high officials served the kings of a new family now ruling from the north in Lisht; these kings and their high officials preferred burial in a mastaba near the pyramids belonging to their masters. Moreover, the difference in topography between Thebes and Lisht led to a difference in tomb type: in the north, nobles build mastaba tombs on the flat desert plains, while in the south, local dignitaries continued to excavate tombs in the mountain. For those of ranks lower than royal courtiers during the Eleventh Dynasty, tombs were simpler. Coffins could be simple wooden boxes with the body either mummified and wrapped in linen or simply wrapped without mummification, and the addition of a cartonnage mummy mask.
Some tombs included wooded shoes and a simple statue near the body. In one burial there were only twelve loaves of bread, a leg of beef, and a jar of beer for food offerings. Jewelry could be included but only rarely were objects of great value found in non-elite graves. Some burials continued to include the wooden models that were popular during the First Intermediate Period. Wooden models of boats, scenes of food production, craftsmen and workshops, and professions such as scribes or soldiers have been found in the tombs of this period. Some rectangular coffins of the Twelfth Dynasty have short inscriptions and representations of the most important offerings the deceased required.
For men, the objects depicted were weapons and symbols of office as well as food. Women's coffins depicted mirrors, sandals, and jars containing food and drink. Some coffins included texts that were later versions of the royal Pyramid Texts. Another kind of faience model of the deceased as a mummy seems to anticipate the use of shabti figurines (also called shawabti or an ushabti) later in the Twelfth Dynasty. These early figurines do not have the text directing the figure to work in the place of the deceased that is found in later figurines. The richest people had stone figurines that seem to anticipate shabtis, though some scholars have seen them as mummy substitutes rather than servant figures.
In the later Twelfth Dynasty, significant changes occurred in burials, perhaps reflecting administrative changes enacted by King Senwosret III (1836–1818 B.C.E.). The body was now regularly placed on its back, rather than its side as had been done for thousands of years. Coffin texts and wooden models disappeared from new tombs of the period while heart scarabs and figurines shaped like mummies were now often included in burials, as they would be for the remainder of Egyptian history. Coffin decoration was simplified. The Thirteenth Dynasty saw another change in decoration. Different motifs were found in the north and south, a reflection of decentralized government power at the time.
There was also a marked increase in the number of burials in one tomb, a rare occurrence in earlier periods. The reuse of one tomb by a family over generations seems to have occurred when wealth was more equitably spread. Second Intermediate Period, foreigner burials Known graves from the Second Intermediate Period reveal the presence of non-Egyptians buried in the country. In the north, graves associated with the Hyksos, a western Semitic people ruling the north from the northeast delta, include small mud-brick structures containing the body, pottery vessels, a dagger in a men's graves and often a nearby donkey burial.
Simple pan-shaped graves in various parts of the country are thought to belong to Nubian soldiers. Such graves reflect very ancient customs and feature shallow, round pits, bodies contracted and minimal food offerings in pots. The occasional inclusion of identifiable Egyptian materials from the Second Intermediate Period provides the only marks distinguishing these burials from those of Predynastic and even earlier periods. New Kingdom, new object purposes  The majority of elite tombs in the New Kingdom were rock-cut chambers. Kings were buried in multi-roomed, rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings and no longer in pyramids. Priests conducted funerary rituals for them in stone temples built on the west bank of the Nile opposite of Thebes.
From the current evidence, the Eighteenth Dynasty appears to be the last period in which Egyptians regularly included multiple objects from their daily lives in their tombs; beginning in the Nineteenth Dynasty, tombs contained fewer items from daily life and included objects made especially for the next world. Thus the change from the Eighteenth to the Nineteenth Dynasties formed a dividing line in burial traditions: The Eighteenth Dynasty more closely remembered the immediate past in its customs whereas the Nineteenth Dynasty anticipated the customs of the Late Period. People of the elite ranks in the Eighteenth Dynasty placed furniture as well as clothing and other items in their tombs, objects they undoubtedly used during life on earth.
Beds, headrests, chairs, stools, leather sandals, jewelry, musical instruments, and wooden storage chests were present in these tombs. While all of the objects listed were for the elite, many poor people did not put anything beyond weapons and cosmetics into their tombs. No elite tombs survive unplundered from the Ramesside period. In this period, artists decorated tombs belonging to the elite with more scene of religious events, rather than the everyday scene that had been popular since the Old Kingdom. The funeral itself, the funerary meal with multiple relatives, the worshipping of the gods, even figures in the underworld were subjects in elite tomb decorations.
The majority of objects found in the Ramesside period tombs were made for the afterlife. Aside from the jewelry, which could have been used also during life, objects in Ramesside tombs were manufactured for the next world. Third Intermediate Period  Although the political structure of the New Kingdom collapsed at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty, the majority of burials in the Twenty-first Dynasty directly reflect developments from the earlier period. At the beginning of this time, reliefs resembled those from the Ramesside period. Only at the very end of the Third Intermediate Period did new funerary practices of the Late Period begin to be seen.
Little is known of tombs from this period. The very lack of decorations in tombs seems to have led to much more elaborate decoration of coffins. The remaining grave goods of the period show fairly cheaply made shabties, even when the owner was a queen or a princess. Late Period, monumentality and return to traditions Burials in the Late Period could make use of large-scale, temple-like tombs built for the non-royal elite for the first time. But the majority of tombs in this period were in shafts sunk into the desert floor. In addition to fine statuary and reliefs reflecting the style of the Old Kingdom, the majority of grave goods were specially made for the tomb.
Coffins continued to bear religious texts and scenes. Some shafts were personalized by the use of stela with the deceased prayers and name on it. Shabties in faience for all classes are known. Canopic jars, though often nonfunctional, continued to be included. Staves and scepters representing the deceased's office in life were often present as well. A figure of either the god Osiris or of the composite deity Ptah-Sokar-Osiris could be found, along with heart scarabs, both gold and faience examples of djed-columns, Eye of Horus amulets, figures of gods, and images of the deceased's ba. Tools for the tomb's ritual called the "opening of the mouth" as well as "magical bricks" at the four compass points could be included.
Ptolemaic period, Hellenistic influences Following Egypt's conquest by Alexander the Great, the country was ruled by the descendants of Ptolemy, one of his generals. The Macedonian Greek family fostered a culture that promoted both Hellenistic and ancient Egyptian ways of life: while many Greek-speaking people living in Alexandria followed the customs of mainland Greece, others adopted Egyptian customs, while Egyptians continued to follow their own already ancient customs. Very few Ptolemaic tombs are known. Fine temple statuary of the period suggests the possibility of tomb sculpture and offering tables. Egyptian elite burials still made use of stone sarcophagi. Books of the Dead and amulets were also still popular.
Roman period, Roman influences  The Romans conquered Egypt in 30 B.C., ending the rule of the last and most famous member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, Cleopatra VII. During Roman rule, an elite hybrid burial style developed incorporating both Egyptian and Roman elements. Some people were mummified and wrapped in linen bandages. The front of the mummy was often painted with a selection of traditional Egyptian symbols. Mummy masks in either traditional Egyptian style or Roman style could be added to the mummies. Another possibility was a Roman-style mummy portrait, executed in encaustic (pigment suspended in wax) on a wooden panel.
Sometimes the feet of the mummy was covered. An alternative to this was a complete shroud with Egyptian motifs but a portrait in the Roman style. Tombs of the elite could also include fine jewelry. Funerary rituals  Greek historians Herodotus (5th century BC) and Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC) provide the most complete, surviving evidence of how Ancient Egyptians approached the preservation of a dead body. Before embalming, or preserving the dead body as to delay or prevent decay, mourners, especially if the deceased had high status, covered their faces with mud, and paraded around town while beating their chests.
If the wife of a high-status male died, her body was not embalmed until three or four days have passed, because this prevented abuse of the corpse. In the case that someone drowned or was attacked, embalming was carried out immediately on their body, in a sacred and careful manner. This kind of death was viewed as venerated, and only priests were permitted to touch the body. After embalming, the mourners may have carried out a ritual involving an enactment of judgement during the Hour Vigil, with volunteers to play the role of Osiris and his enemy brother Seth, as well as the gods Isis, Nephthys, Horus, Anubis, and Thoth.
As the tale goes, Seth was envious of his brother Osiris for being granted the throne before him, so he plotted to kill him. Osiris's wife, Isis, battled back and forth with Seth to gain possession of Osiris's body, and through this struggle, Osiris's spirit was lost. Nonetheless, Osiris resurrected and was reinstated as a god. In addition to the reenactment of the judgement of Osiris, numerous funeral processions were conducted throughout the nearby necropolis, which symbolized different sacred journeys. The funeral procession to the tomb generally included cattle pulling the body in a sledge-type of carrier, with friends and family to follow.
During the procession, the priest burned incense and poured milk before the dead body. Upon arrival to the tomb, and essentially the next life, the priest performed the Opening of The Mouth ceremony on the deceased. The deceased's head was turned towards the south, and the body was imagined to be a statue replica of the deceased. Opening the mouth of the deceased symbolized allowing the person to speak and defend themselves during the judgment process. Goods were then offered to the deceased to conclude the ceremony. Mummification  Embalming The preservation of a dead body was critical if the deceased wanted a chance at acceptance into the afterlife.
Within the Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul, ka, which represented vitality, leaves the body once the person dies. Only if the body is embalmed in a specific fashion will ka return to the deceased body, and rebirth will take place. The embalmers received the body after death, and in a systematized manner, prepared it for mummification. The family and friends of the deceased had a choice of options that ranged in price for the preparation of the body, similar to the process at modern funeral homes. Next, the embalmers escorted the body to ibw, translated to “place of purification,” a tent in which the body was washed, and then per nefer, “the House of Beauty,” where mummification took place.
Mummification process  In order to live for all eternity and be presented in front of Osiris, the body of the deceased had to be preserved by mummification, so that the soul could reunite with it, and take pleasure in the afterlife. The main process of mummification was preserving the body by dehydrating it using natron, a natural material found in Wadi Natrun which is like a combination of baking soda and salt. The body was drained of any liquids and left with the skin, hair and muscles preserved. The process of mummification was available for anyone who could afford it.
It was believed that even those who could not afford this process could still enjoy the afterlife with the right reciting of spells. Mummification existed in three different processes, ranging from most expensive, moderately expensive, and most simplistic, or cheapest. The most classic, common, and most expensive method of mummification dates back to the 18th Dynasty. The first step was to remove the internal organs and liquid so that the body would not decay. The embalmers took out the brain through a process named excerebration by inserting a metal hook through the nostril, breaking through it into the brain. They removed as much as they could with the hook, and the rest they liquefied with drugs and drained out.
They threw out the brain because they thought that the heart did all the thinking. The next step was to remove the internal organs, the lungs, liver, stomach, and intestines, and place them in canopic jars with lids shaped like the heads of the protective deities, the four sons of Horus: Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef, and Qebhseneuf. Imsety was human-headed, and guarded the liver; Hapy was ape-headed, and guarded the lungs; Duamutef was jackal-headed, and guarded the stomach; Qebhseneuf was hawk-headed, and guarded the small and large intestines. [25] Sometimes the four canopic jars were placed into a canopic chest, and buried with the mummified body.
A canopic chest resembled a "miniature coffin" and was intricately painted. The Ancient Egyptians believed that by burying the deceased with their organs, they may rejoin with them in the afterlife. [26] Other times, the organs were cleaned and cleansed, and then returned into the body. The body cavity was then rinsed and cleaned with wine and an array of spices. The body was sewn up with aromatic plants and spices left inside. The heart stayed in the body, because in the hall of judgment, it would be weighed against the feather of Ma'at. After the body was washed with wine, it was stuffed with bags of natron.
The dehydration process took 40 days. [27]  The second part of the process took 30 days. This was the time where the deceased turned into a semi divine being, and all that was left in the body from the first part was removed, followed by applying first wine and then oils. The oils were for ritual purposes, as well as for preventing the limbs and bones from breaking while being wrapped. The body was sometimes colored with a golden resin, which protected the body from bacteria and insects. Additionally, this practice was based on the belief that divine beings had flesh of gold.
Next, the body was wrapped in linen cut into strips with amulets while a priest recited prayers and burned incense. The linen was adhered to the body using gum, opposed to a glue. The dressing provided the body physical protection from the elements, and depending on how wealthy the deceased's family was, the deceased could be dressed with an ornamented funeral mask and shroud. Special care was given to the head, hands, feet, and genitals, as contemporary mummies reveal extra wrappings and paddings in these areas. Mummies were identified via small, wooden name-tags tied typically around the deceased's neck. The 70-day process is connected to Osiris and the length the star Sothis was absent from the sky.
[28]  The second, moderately expensive option for mummification did not involve an incision into the abdominal cavity or the removal of the internal organs. Instead, the embalmers injected the oil of a cedar tree into the body, which prevented liquid from leaving the body. The body was then laid in natron for a specific number of days. The oil was then drained out of the body, and with it came the internal organs, the stomach and the intestines, which were liquefied by the cedar oil. The flesh dissolved in the natron, which left only skin and bones left of the deceased body.
The remains are given back to the family. The cheapest, most basic method of mummification, which was often chosen by the poor, involved purging out the deceased's internal organs, and then laying the body in natron for 70 days. The body was then given back to the family. Burial rituals  After the mummy was prepared, it would need to be re-animated, symbolically, by a priest. The opening of the mouth ceremony was conducted by a priest who would utter a spell and touch the mummy or sarcophagus with a ceremonial adze – a copper or stone blade. This ceremony ensured that the mummy could breathe and speak in the afterlife.
In a similar fashion, the priest could utter spells to reanimate the mummy's arms, legs, and other body parts. The priests, maybe even the king's successor, move the body through the causeway to the mortuary temple. This is where prayers were recited, incense was burned, and more rituals were performed to help prepare the king for his final journey. The king's mummy was then placed inside the pyramid along with enormous amount of food, drink, furniture, clothes, and jewelry which were to be used in the afterlife. The pyramid was sealed so that no one would ever enter it again.
However the king's soul could move through the burial chamber as it wished. After the funeral the king becomes a god and could be worshipped in the temples beside his pyramid. In ancient times Egyptians were buried directly in the ground. Since the weather was so hot and dry, it was easy for the bodies to remain preserved. Usually the bodies would be buried in the fetal position. Ancient Egyptians believed the burial process to be an important part in sending humans to a comfortable afterlife. The Egyptians believed that, after death, the deceased could still have such feelings of anger, or hold a grudge as the living.
The deceased were also expected to support and help their living family. They believed that the Ba and Ka are what enabled the dead to support their family. The Ba made it possible for an invisible twin to be released from the body to support the family, while the Ka would recognize the twin when it would come back to the body. With the ideas of the dead being so valuable, it is clear why the Egyptians treated the deceased with respect. The less fortunate Egyptians still wanted their family members to be given a proper burial. A typical burial would be held in the desert where the family would wrap the body in a cloth and bury it with everyday objects for the dead to be comfortable.
Although some could afford mummification, most commoners were not mummified due to the expense. Often the poor are found in mass graves where their bodies are not mummified and only with minimal household objects, spread out throughout the desert, often in areas that are now populated. Tombs   The tomb was the housing for the deceased and served two crucial functions: the tomb provided infinite protection for the deceased to rest, as well as a place for mourners to perform rituals in which aided the deceased into eternal life. Therefore, the Ancient Egyptians were very serious about the way in which the tombs were built.
Two hallmarks of the tomb included (1) a burial chamber, which housed the physical body of the deceased (inside a coffin) as well as funerary objects deemed most important, and (2) A "cult place," which resembled a chapel where mourners, family, and friends could congregate. The tomb of a king included a full temple, instead of a chapel. Typically, the tomb of a deceased person was located somewhere close by their home community. The Ancient Egyptians opted to bury the deceased in land that was not particularly fertile or useful for vegetation. Therefore, tombs were mostly built in desert areas.
Tombs were usually built near each other, and rarely stood alone. For a deceased king, however, the tomb was located in a place of utmost sacredness. In the Prehistoric Egypt, bodies were buried in deserts because they would naturally be preserved by dehydration. The "graves" were small oval or rectangular pits dug in the sand. They could give the body of the deceased in a tight position on its left side alongside a few jars of food and drink and slate palettes with magical religious spells. The size of graves eventually increased but according to status and wealth. The dry, desert conditions were a benefit in ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the complex burial preparations that the wealthy had.
The simple graves evolved into mudbrick structures called mastabas. Royal mastabas later developed into "step pyramids" and then "true pyramids." As soon as a king took the throne he would start to build his pyramid. Rituals of the burial, including the "Opening of the mouth ceremony" took place at the Valley Temple. While a pyramid's large size was made to protect against robbery, it may also be connected to a religious belief about the sun god, Ra. A majority of cemeteries were located on the west bank of the Nile, which was metaphorically viewed as "the realm of the dead."
The tomb was said to represent the deceased's place in the cosmos, which ultimately depended on the social class of the deceased. If the deceased was of a notably high-class, they were buried near the king, whereas middle and lower class individuals were simply buried near the communities in which they had lived. In many cases, the tombs of the high-class were situated in accordance with the tombs of the lower classes so that they would be viewed as a "focal point." For example, one burial site was designed so that the tombs of the governors were placed alongside the slope of a hill, whereas the tombs of the governor's attendants were placed at the foot of the hill.
Coffins  After having been preserved, the mummy was placed into a coffin. Although the coffins that housed the deceased bodies were made simply of wood, they were intricately painted and designed to suit each individual. During the Old Kingdom, the following was included on each coffin: the title of the deceased, a list of offerings, a false compartment through which ka could pass through, and painted eyes so that the deceased could look through the coffin. The decorations on the coffin usually fit the deceased's status. During the Middle Kingdom, the coffin was treated as if it were a "miniature tomb" and was painted and inscribed like so.
Goddesses Isis and Nephthys were painted on the coffins, and were said to guard the deceased in the afterlife. Along the sides of the coffins, the four sons of Horus were painted, amongst other gods. Prayers were often inscribed on the coffins as well. Anthropoid coffins soon emerged, which were tailored to the contour of the deceased's body. The deceased's face and hair was painted onto the coffin so to personalize it further. A sarcophagus, which is a large, stone container, was used to house the coffin, and provide supplementary protection to the dead body. The Ancient Egyptians translated the word "sarcophagus" to mean "possessor of life," and therefore, the sarcophagus would aid the deceased into the afterlife.
Damnation  One of the funerary practices followed by the Egyptians was preparing properly for the afterlife. Ka, the vital force within the Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul, would not return to the deceased body if embalming was not carried out in the proper fashion. In this case, the body decayed, and possibly became unrecognizable, which rendered the afterlife unattainable for the deceased person. If the proper precautions were not taken, damnation would occur. Damnation meant that Egyptians would not experience the glories of the afterlife where they became a deified figure and would be welcomed by the Gods. Instead, damnation was depicted in the books of the underworld.
It was a place of opposites; chaos, fire, and struggle. Different pages of the books of the underworld depict different perspectives of what happens during damnation. It discusses cutting out humanity and individuality from the person and reversing the cosmic order. Funerary texts  Many mummies were provided with some form of funerary literature to take with them to the afterlife. Most funerary literature consists of lists of spells and instructions for navigating the afterlife. During the Old Kingdom, only the pharaoh had access to this material, which scholars refer to as the Pyramid Texts. The Pyramid Texts are a collection of spells to assure the royal resurrection and protect the pharaoh from various malignant influences.
The Pharaoh Unas was the first to use this collection of spells, as he and a few subsequent pharaohs had them carved on the walls of their pyramids. These texts were individually chosen from a larger bank of spells. In the First Intermediate Period and in the Middle Kingdom, some of the Pyramid Text spells also are found in burial chambers of high officials and on many coffins, where they begin to evolve into what scholars call the Coffin Texts. In this period, the nobles and many non-royal Egyptians began to have access to funerary literature. Although many spells from the earlier texts were carried over, the new coffin texts also had additional spells, along with slight changes made to make this new funerary text more fit for the nobility.
In The New Kingdom, the Coffin texts became the Book of the Dead, or the Funeral Papyri, and would last through the Late Kingdom. The text in these books was divided according to chapters/ spells, which were almost two-hundred in number. Each one of these texts was individualized for the deceased, though to varying degrees. If the person was rich enough, then they could commission their own personal version of the text that would include only the spells that they wanted. However, if one was not so wealthy, then one had to make do with the pre-made versions that had spaces left for the name of the deceased.
If the scribe ran out of room while doing the transcription, he would just stop the spell wherever he was and would not continue. It is not until the Twenty-sixth Dynasty that there began to be any regulation of the order or even the number of spells that were to be included in the Book of the Dead. At this time, the regulation is set at 192 spells to be placed in the book, with certain ones holding the same place at all times. This makes it seem as if the order of the texts was not what was important, so the person could place them in an order that he was comfortable with, but rather that it was what was written that mattered.
Judgement The idea of judgement went as follows: in order to be considered for the admittance into the afterlife, those who died were obligated to undergo a multi-step judgement by certain gods. The concept and belief in judgement is outlined in the Book of the Dead, a funerary text of the new kingdom. The Book of the Dead is composed of spells relating to the deceased and the afterlife. Spell 125, in particular, is understood to be delivered by the deceased at the outset of the judgement process. The visual picture of what judgement looks like has been discovered through Ancient Egyptian ruins and artefacts.
The procedure was depicted as follows: The deceased's heart was weighed in comparison to a feather, while a vicious beast awaited to eat the heart (if the deceased was found to be a sinner). Osiris was the judge (among others), and represented an ideal output of the judgement process for the deceased who entered his judgement hall. This is because he resurrected and regained his godly status after he was justified against his brother Seth, who wrongly murdered him. The deceased pleaded to Osiris, among 42 judges, that they had not committed sin, which is known as a "negative confession."
The 42 judges assessed how virtuous the life of the deceased was, and this represented the principal element of the deceased entering the afterlife. After passing judgement, the family and friends of the deceased celebrated them and boasted about their righteousness to attain entry into the afterlife. Burial goods   Although the types of burial goods changed throughout ancient Egyptian history, their purpose to protect the deceased and provide sustenance in the afterlife remained. From the earliest periods of Egyptian history, all Egyptians were buried with at least some goods that they thought were necessary after death. At a minimum, these consisted of everyday objects such as bowls, combs, and other trinkets, along with food.
Wealthier Egyptians could afford to be buried with jewelry, furniture, and other valuables, which made them targets of tomb robbers. In the early Dynastic Period, tombs were filled with daily life objects, such as furniture, jewelry and other valuables. They also contained many stone and pottery vessels. As burial customs developed in the Old Kingdom, wealthy citizens were buried in wooden or stone coffins. However, the number of burial goods declined. They were often just a set of copper models, tools and vessels. Starting in the First Intermediate period, wooden models became very popular burial goods. These wooden models often depict everyday activities that the deceased expected to continue doing in the afterlife.
Also, a type of rectangular coffin became the standard, being brightly painted and often including an offering formula. Objects of daily use were not often included in the tombs during this period. At the end of the Middle Kingdom, new object types were introduced into burials, such as the first shabtis and the first heart scarabs. Shabtis were little clay statues made to perform tasks on command for the pharaoh. Now objects of daily use appear in tombs again, often magical items already employed for protecting the living. Scarabs (beetles) collect animal dung and roll it into little balls. To the Egyptians, these balls looked like the life-giving Sun, so they hoped that scarabs would bring them long life.
Scarabs have been found in tombs and graves. In the New Kingdom, some of the old burial customs changed. For example, an anthropoid coffin shape became standardized, and the deceased were provided with a small shabti statue, which the Egyptians believed would perform work for them in the afterlife. Elite burials were often filled with objects of daily use. Under Ramses II and later all daily life objects disappear from tombs. They most often only contained a selection of items especially made for the burial. Also, in later burials, the numbers of shabti statues increased; in some burials, numbering more than four hundred statues.
In addition to these shabti statues, the deceased could be buried with many different types of magical figurines to protect them from harm. Funerary Boats  Funerary boats were a part of some ancient Egyptian burials. Boats played a major role in Egyptian religion because they were conceived as the main means by which the gods traveled across the sky and through to the netherworld. One type of boat used at funerals was for making pilgrimages to holy sites such as Abydos. A large funerary boat, for example, was found near the pyramid of the Old Kingdom Pharaoh Cheops. The funerary boats are called Felucca and they were usually made of wood; the Egyptians used a collection of papyrus reeds and tied them together with the wood very tightly.
The most common route for funerary boats was the River Nile to the afterlife. The boat carried the coffin and often had a dog in the boat since they believed a dog would lead the deceased to the afterlife. The boats usually measured about 20 feet or longer. These however didn't match those of the great pharaohs like Pharaoh Khufu (who built the Great Pyramid.) His funerary boat was approximately 144 foot long with 12 oars. Common funerary boats were smaller sized with few oars. Role of Animals  Several kinds of animal remains have been discovered in tombs all around Dayr al-Barsha, a Coptic village in Middle Egypt.
The remains found in the shafts and burial chambers included dogs, foxes, eagle owls, bats, rodents, and snakes. These were determined to be individuals that had entered the deposits by accident. Other animal remains that were found were more common and recurred more than those individuals that wound up accidentally trapped in these tombs. These remains included numerous gazelle and cattle bones, as well as calves and goats which were believed to have been in result of human behavior. This was due to finding that some remains had fragments altered, missing, or separated from their original skeletons. These remains also had traces of paint and cut marks on them, seen especially with cattle skulls and feet.
Based on this, the natural environment of the Dayr al-Barsha tombs, and the fact that only some parts of these animals were found, the possibility of natural deposition can be ruled out, and the cause of these remains in fact are most likely caused by animal sacrifices, as only the head, foreleg, and feet were apparently selected for deposition within the tombs. According to a study by Christopher Eyre, cattle meat was actually not a part of the daily diet in Ancient Egypt, as the consumption of meat only took place during celebrations including funerary and mortuary rituals, and the practice of providing the deceased with offerings of cattle going back to the Predynastic Period.
Ancient Egyptian mummification and funeral in fiction  Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh (1895), depicts the whole process of mummification and funeral at the fall of the 20th Dynasty and New Kingdom. See also   Death and afterlife in Ancient Egypt  Egyptian mummies  References   Allen, James P. (2000). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. pp. 315. . David, Rosalie (2002). Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt. Penguin. p. 93. . David, Rosalie. "Journey through the afterlife". Elsevier Ltd. 377.9759 (2011): pp. 20. Web. 10 May. 2012. "The History Place—Mummies: Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt".
7 May 2012.<https://web.archive.org/web/20190213212925/http://www.historyplace.com/specials/slideshows/mummies/index.html>. British Museum; Bowers Museum. "Egyptian Afterlife". Egyptian Afterlife. Web. 7 May 2012. <https://www.egypttoursportal.com/the-afterlife-and-judgment/>  Hornung, Erik (1999). The Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife. Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. . James, T.G.H. (2005). The British Museum Concise Introduction to Ancient Egypt. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. pp 122. . Kamrin, Janice; Ikram, Salima. "The Ancient Egyptian View Of The AFTERLIFE." Calliope 17.1 (2006): pp. 10–11. MasterFILE	Premier. Web. 7 May 2012. Lesko, Leonard H. "Religion And The Afterlife." Calliope 12.1 (2001): pp. 4–5. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 8 May 2012. "Mummies – Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt."
Taylor, John (2001). Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. University of Chicago Press.pp. 187–193. . Grajetzki, Wolfram ?92003). Burial Customs in Ancient Egypt: Life in Death for Rich and Poor. London: Duckworth . ROBERSON, JOSHUA AARON. "A SEASON IN HELL". Expedition'' 57, no. 2 (Fall 2015): 17-23. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed September 20, 2017)  External links  Digital Egypt page on burial customs  Egyptian mummification  A Virtual Kelvingrove in Internet Archaeology    Egypt Egypt Category:Egyptology
In mathematics and solid state physics, the first Brillouin zone is a uniquely defined primitive cell in reciprocal space. In the same way the Bravais lattice is divided up into Wigner–Seitz cells in the real lattice, the reciprocal lattice is broken up into Brillouin zones. The boundaries of this cell are given by planes related to points on the reciprocal lattice. The importance of the Brillouin zone stems from the Bloch wave description of waves in a periodic medium, in which it is found that the solutions can be completely characterized by their behavior in a single Brillouin zone. The first Brillouin zone is the locus of points in reciprocal space that are closer to the origin of the reciprocal lattice than they are to any other reciprocal lattice points (see the derivation of the Wigner-Seitz cell).
Another definition is as the set of points in k-space that can be reached from the origin without crossing any Bragg plane. Equivalently, this is the Voronoi cell around the origin of the reciprocal lattice. There are also second, third, etc., Brillouin zones, corresponding to a sequence of disjoint regions (all with the same volume) at increasing distances from the origin, but these are used less frequently. As a result, the first Brillouin zone is often called simply the Brillouin zone. In general, the n-th Brillouin zone consists of the set of points that can be reached from the origin by crossing exactly n − 1 distinct Bragg planes.
A related concept is that of the irreducible Brillouin zone, which is the first Brillouin zone reduced by all of the symmetries in the point group of the lattice (point group of the crystal). The concept of a Brillouin zone was developed by Léon Brillouin (1889–1969), a French physicist. Critical points  	  Several points of high symmetry are of special interest – these are called critical points. Other lattices have different types of high-symmetry points. They can be found in the illustrations below. See also   Fundamental pair of periods  Fundamental domain  References  Bibliography  External links Brillouin Zone simple lattice diagrams by Thayer Watkins Brillouin Zone 3d lattice diagrams by Technion.
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Brillouin Zones" Aflowlib.org consortium database (Duke University) AFLOW Standardization of VASP/QUANTUM ESPRESSO input files (Duke University)  Category:Crystallography Category:Electronic band structures
"Two Months Off" is the first single by Underworld from the album A Hundred Days Off, originally released in 2002. This track was one of the first songs that they released as a duo. The single peaked on the UK Singles Chart at number 12 as well as number two for three weeks on the US dance chart. The track contains samples from Don Airey's 1989 album K2. A short spoken word vocal section can be heard above the track lead-in. The contributing artist for these vocals is Juanita Boxill, whose voice also features in "Little Speaker", track 5 of A Hundred Days Off.
Boxill is the namesake of separate Underworld single Juanita / Kiteless / To Dream of Love.
Track listing  CD: Junior Boy's Own, JBO5020093 (UK) Part 1/2   "Two Months Off (Radio Edit)" – 3:58  "Two Months Off (King Unique Sunspots Vocal Mix)" – 8:17  "Headset" – 5:58  CD: Junior Boy's Own, JBO5020098 (UK) Part 2/2   "Two Months Off" – 9:09  "Two Months Off (John Ciafone Vocal Remix)" – 7:32  "Tiny Clicks" – 2:13  CD: Junior Boy's Own, JBO5020818 (SE)   "Two Months Off (Radio Edit)" – 3:58  "Two Months Off (King Unique Sunspots Vocal Mix)" – 8:17  CD: Junior Boy's Own, JBO5020813 (EU)   "Two Months Off (Radio Edit)" – 3:58  "Two Months Off (King Unique Sunspots Vocal Mix)" – 8:17  "Two Months Off (John Ciafone Vocal Remix)" – 7:32  "Two Months Off" – 9:09  CD: V2, V2A0009 (AU)   "Two Months Off (Radio Edit)" – 3:58  "Two Months Off (King Unique Sunspots Vocal Mix)" – 8:17  "Two Months Off (John Ciafone Vocal Remix)" – 7:32  "Tiny Clicks" – 2:13  "Headset" – 5:58  CD: V2, V2CP 141 (JP)   "Two Months Off (Radio Edit)" – 3:58  "Two Months Off" – 9:09  "Two Months Off (John Ciafone Vocal Remix)" – 7:32  "Tiny Clicks" – 2:13  "Two Months Off (King Unique Sunspots Vocal Mix)" – 8:17  "Headset" – 5:58  CD: Junior Boy's Own, JBO5020093P (UK) promo   "Two Months Off (Radio Edit)" – 3:58  12": Junior Boy's Own, JBO5020096 (UK)   "Two Months Off" – 9:09  "Two Months Off (King Unique Sunspots Vocal Mix)" – 8:17  12": Junior Boy's Own, JBO5020090 (UK)   "Two Months Off (John Ciafone Vocal Remix)" – 7:32  "Two Months Off (John Ciafone Vocal Mix 2)" – 7:00  12": Junior Boy's Own, JBO5020096P (UK) promo; V2, V2AB-27753-1 (US) promo    "Two Months Off" – 9:09  12": Junior Boy's Own, JBO5020090P (UK) promo   "Two Months Off (King Unique Sunspots Vocal Mix)" – 8:17  "Two Months Off (John Ciafone Vocal Remix)" – 7:32  Appearances A stripped down and slightly sonically reworked version of the song's bridge set the backdrop for the lighting of the Olympic cauldron during the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony.
A cover of the song by Techno Masters was featured in Dance Dance Revolution SuperNova 2, a music video game produced by Konami. It was also featured in EA Sports FIFA Football 2004's soundtrack. Charts  References  External links Underworldlive.com   Discogs  Category:Underworld (band) songs Category:2002 singles Category:UK Dance Singles Chart number-one singles Category:UK Independent Singles Chart number-one singles Category:2002 songs Category:Songs written by Rick Smith (Underworld) Category:Songs written by Karl Hyde
In color theory, color harmony refers to the property that certain aesthetically pleasing color combinations have. These combinations create pleasing contrasts and consonances that are said to be harmonious. These combinations can be of complementary colors, split-complementary colors, color triads, or analogous colors. Color harmony has been a topic of extensive study throughout history, but only since the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution has it seen extensive codification. Artists and designers make use of these harmonies in order to achieve certain moods or aesthetics. Types  Complementary colors  Complementary colors exist opposite each other on the color wheel. They create the most contrast and therefore greatest visual tension by virtue of how dissimilar they are.
Split-complementary colors  Split-complementary colors are like complementary colors, except one of the complements is split into two nearby analogous colors. This maintains the tension of complementary colors while simultaneously introducing more visual interest with more variety. Color polygons  Triads  Similarly to split-complementary colors mentioned above, color triads involve three colors in a geometric relationship. Unlike split-complementary colors, however, all three colors are equidistant to one another on the color wheel in an equilateral triangle. The most common triads are the primary colors. From these primary colors are obtained the secondary colors. Analogous colors  The simplest and most stable harmony is that of analogous colors.
It is composed of a root color and two or more nearby colors. It forms the basis for a color scheme, and in practice many color schemes are a combination of analogous and complementary harmonies in order to achieve both visual interest through variety, chromatic stability, and tension through contrast. Relationship  It has been suggested that "Colors seen together to produce a pleasing affective response are said to be in harmony". However, color harmony is a complex notion because human responses to color are both affective and cognitive, involving emotional response and judgement. Hence, our responses to color and the notion of color harmony is open to the influence of a range of different factors.
These factors include individual differences (such as age, gender, personal preference, affective state, etc.) as well as cultural, sub-cultural and socially-based differences which gives rise to conditioning and learned responses about color. In addition, context always has an influence on responses about color and the notion of color harmony, and this concept is also influenced by temporal factors (such as changing trends) and perceptual factors (such as simultaneous contrast) which may impinge on human response to color.
The following conceptual model illustrates this 21st century approach to color harmony:  Wherein color harmony is a function (f) of the interaction between color/s (Col 1, 2, 3, …, n) and the factors that influence positive aesthetic response to color: individual differences (ID) such as age, gender, personality and affective state; cultural experiences (CE); contextual effects (CX) which include setting and ambient lighting; intervening perceptual effects (P); and temporal effects (T) in terms of prevailing social trends. In addition, given that humans can perceive over 2.8 million different hues, it has been suggested that the number of possible color combinations is virtually infinite thereby implying that predictive color harmony formulae are fundamentally unsound.
Despite this, many color theorists have devised formulae, principles or guidelines for color combination with the aim being to predict or specify positive aesthetic response or "color harmony". Color wheel models have often been used as a basis for color combination principles or guidelines and for defining relationships between colors. Some theorists and artists believe juxtapositions of complementary color will produce strong contrast, a sense of visual tension as well as "color harmony"; while others believe juxtapositions of analogous colors will elicit positive aesthetic response. Color combination guidelines suggest that colors next to each other on the color wheel model (analogous colors) tend to produce a single-hued or monochromatic color experience and some theorists also refer to these as "simple harmonies".
In addition, split complementary color schemes usually depict a modified complementary pair, with instead of the "true" second color being chosen, a range of analogous hues around it are chosen, i.e. the split complements of red are blue-green and yellow-green. A triadic color scheme adopts any three colors approximately equidistant around a color wheel model. Feisner and Mahnke are among a number of authors who provide color combination guidelines in greater detail. Color combination formulae and principles may provide some guidance but have limited practical application. This is because of the influence of contextual, perceptual and temporal factors which will influence how color/s are perceived in any given situation, setting or context.
Such formulae and principles may be useful in fashion, interior and graphic design, but much depends on the tastes, lifestyle and cultural norms of the viewer or consumer. As early as the ancient Greek philosophers, many theorists have devised color associations and linked particular connotative meanings to specific colors. However, connotative color associations and color symbolism tends to be culture-bound and may also vary across different contexts and circumstances. For example, red has many different connotative and symbolic meanings from exciting, arousing, sensual, romantic and feminine; to a symbol of good luck; and also acts as a signal of danger.
Such color associations tend to be learned and do not necessarily hold irrespective of individual and cultural differences or contextual, temporal or perceptual factors. It is important to note that while color symbolism and color associations exist, their existence does not provide evidential support for color psychology or claims that color has therapeutic properties. See also  References  Category:Color
Ricardo Domingos Barbosa Pereira (born 6 October 1993) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a full-back for English club Leicester City and the Portugal national team. After starting out at Vitória de Guimarães – winning the 2013 Taça de Portugal and being the competition's top scorer in the process – he signed with Porto, being part of the squad that won the 2017–18 Primeira Liga but also spending two years on loan to French club Nice. An international since 2015, Pereira represented Portugal at the 2018 World Cup. Club career  Guimarães Born in Lisbon of Cape Verdean descent, Pereira began playing youth football with local C.F.
Benfica, signing in 2010 with Associação Naval 1º de Maio after a six-year spell at Sporting CP's academy. He moved to Vitória S.C. after only one year, completing his development with the Guimarães-based club. On 1 April 2012, Pereira made his first-team – and Primeira Liga – debut, playing 12 minutes in a 3–1 home win against F.C. Paços de Ferreira. He scored six goals in as many games in the 2012–13 edition of the Portuguese Cup, including the 2–1 winner in the final against S.L. Benfica as the Minho Province side won the tournament for the first time in their history.
Porto On 16 April 2013, before the season was over, Pereira agreed to join FC Porto on 1 July, moving alongside teammate Tiago Rodrigues. He alternated constantly between the first and the second teams during his early tenure, also being reconverted into a fullback by manager Paulo Fonseca; his maiden appearance in the UEFA Champions League took place on 26 August 2014, when he replaced injured Casemiro late into the 2–0 home win over Lille OSC for the play-off round. In summer 2015, after only 33 first-team appearances in two seasons combined, Pereira was loaned for two years to French club OGC Nice.
He made his debut in Ligue 1 on 12 September, playing the entire 0–1 home loss to En Avant de Guingamp. In April 2016, Pereira was voted as the French League's best full-back by the International Centre for Sports Studies. Leicester City On 17 May 2018, a €25 million deal was agreed for Pereira to move to Leicester City. He made his Premier League debut on 10 August, playing the entire 1–2 away defeat against Manchester United. He scored his first goal while celebrating his 25th birthday, netting after a counter-attack in a 1–2 home loss to Everton. At the end of the campaign, he was voted both his team's Player of the Season and Players’ Player of the Season.
In September 2019, Pereira scored in consecutive wins over Tottenham Hotspur and Newcastle United both at the King Power Stadium, and the following 4 March he netted the only goal against Birmingham City in the fifth round of the FA Cup to put the Foxes into the last eight for the first time in eight years. Days later, he was ruled out for the rest of the season with an anterior cruciate ligament injury. International career Pereira won 35 caps for Portugal at youth level, scoring 12 goals. He was part of the under-21 squad that finished second at the 2015 UEFA European Championship, contributing with four starting appearances and netting in the 5–0 semi-final drubbing of Germany.
Pereira was called up to the full side for the second time on 6 November 2015, ahead of friendlies against Russia and Luxembourg. He made his debut in the former match, featuring eight minutes in the 0–1 defeat in Krasnodar. Pereira was selected by manager Fernando Santos for his 2018 FIFA World Cup squad. He made his debut in the competition on 30 June, playing the entire 2–1 Round of 16 loss against Uruguay.
Career statistics  Club  International  Honours  Vitória Guimarães  Taça de Portugal: 2012–13  Porto  Primeira Liga: 2017–18  Portugal  UEFA European Under-21 Championship: Runner-up 2015  Individual  Taça de Portugal Top Scorer: 2012–13  Leicester City Player of the Season: 2018–19  Leicester City Players' Player of the Season: 2018–19  References  External links  National team data   Category:1993 births Category:Living people Category:Portuguese people of Cape Verdean descent Category:Sportspeople from Lisbon Category:Black Portuguese sportspeople Category:Portuguese footballers Category:Association football defenders Category:Association football wingers Category:Association football utility players Category:Primeira Liga players Category:LigaPro players Category:Vitória S.C. players Category:Vitória S.C. B players Category:FC Porto B players Category:FC Porto players Category:Ligue 1 players Category:OGC Nice players Category:Premier League players Category:Leicester City F.C.
players Category:Portugal youth international footballers Category:Portugal under-21 international footballers Category:Portugal international footballers Category:2018 FIFA World Cup players Category:Portuguese expatriate footballers Category:Expatriate footballers in France Category:Expatriate footballers in England Category:Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in France Category:Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in England
Speedtest.net is a web service that provides free analysis of Internet access performance metrics, such as connection data rate and latency. It was founded by Ookla in 2006, and is based in Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. The service measures the data throughput (speed) and latency (connection delay) of an Internet connection against one of 8,000 geographically dispersed servers (as of November 2019). Each test measures the data rate for the download direction, i.e. from the server to the user computer, and the upload data rate, i.e. from the user's computer to the server. The tests are performed within the user's web browser or within apps.
, over 21 billion speed tests have been completed. Tests were previously performed using the HTTP protocol at Layer 7 of the OSI model. To further improve accuracy, Speedtest.net now performs tests via direct Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) sockets and uses a custom protocol for communication between servers and clients. The site also offers detailed statistics based on test results. This data has been used by numerous publications in the analysis of Internet access data rates around the world. History The owner and operator of Speedtest.net, Ookla, was established in 2006 by a small team of internet and technology veterans.
Ookla was acquired by Ziff Davis in 2014. Acquisitions  Technology The technology of Speedtest.net is similar to that of Ookla NetGauge, which is provided to a wide variety of companies and organizations on a licensed basis. Speedtest.net Mini was a free, stripped-down Flash version of the speed test technology used on Speedtest.net that users could run on their own web server, however it was replaced in 2016 with Speedtest Custom, an HTML5-based tool. Speedtest.net data  Speedtest market reports In 2016, Speedtest began releasing market reports for different countries and cities, providing raw statistics regarding download and upload speeds for the past year for ISPs and mobile carriers.
It also includes analysis of the current ISP and mobile markets of the respective country and breakdowns by region and city. ISPs and mobile carriers are ranked by their geographic performance. See also   List of countries by Internet connection speeds  References  Category:Internet technology companies of the United States Category:Internet properties established in 2006 Category:Network performance Category:Computer network analysis Category:Mobile applications Category:IOS software Category:Android (operating system) software Category:Free network management software
Wild Mountain Thyme is an upcoming drama film written and directed by John Patrick Shanley, based on his play Outside Mullingar. Premise Family conflicts arise when the patriarch threatens to give their farm over to an American nephew as opposed to his own son. Cast Jamie Dornan as Anthony Reilly Emily Blunt as Rosemary Muldoom Jon Hamm as Adam Christopher Walken as Tony Reilly Dearbhla Molloy as Aoife Muldoom Danielle Ryan as Maeve  Production It was announced in May 2019 that John Patrick Shanley would write and direct an adaptation of his play Outside Mullingar, starring Jamie Dornan and Holliday Grainger   By August, Emily Blunt, Jon Hamm, Christopher Walken and Dearbhla Molloy were added to the cast, with Blunt replacing Grainger in her role, and Molloy reprising her role from the play.
Filming began in Crossmolina, Co. Mayo, Ireland on September 30, 2019. References  External links    Category:Upcoming films Category:American films Category:American drama films Category:American films based on plays Category:Films with screenplays by John Patrick Shanley Category:Films directed by John Patrick Shanley Category:Bleecker Street films Category:Lions Gate Entertainment films Category:HanWay Films films
A humanoid robot is a robot with its body shape built to resemble the human body. The design may be for functional purposes, such as interacting with human tools and environments, for experimental purposes, such as the study of bipedal locomotion, or for other purposes. In general, humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs, though some forms of humanoid robots may model only part of the body, for example, from the waist up. Some humanoid robots also have heads designed to replicate human facial features such as eyes and mouths. Androids are humanoid robots built to aesthetically resemble humans.
Purpose  Humanoid robots are now used as research tools in several scientific areas. Researchers study the human body structure and behavior (biomechanics) to build humanoid robots. On the other side, the attempt to simulate the human body leads to a better understanding of it. Human cognition is a field of study which is focused on how humans learn from sensory information in order to acquire perceptual and motor skills. This knowledge is used to develop computational models of human behavior and it has been improving over time. It has been suggested that very advanced robotics will facilitate the enhancement of ordinary humans.
See transhumanism. Although the initial aim of humanoid research was to build better orthosis and prosthesis for human beings, knowledge has been transferred between both disciplines. A few examples are powered leg prosthesis for neuromuscularly impaired, ankle-foot orthosis, biological realistic leg prosthesis and forearm prosthesis. Besides the research, humanoid robots are being developed to perform human tasks like personal assistance, through which they should be able to assist the sick and elderly, and dirty or dangerous jobs. Humanoids are also suitable for some procedurally-based vocations, such as reception-desk administrators and automotive manufacturing line workers. In essence, since they can use tools and operate equipment and vehicles designed for the human form, humanoids could theoretically perform any task a human being can, so long as they have the proper software.
However, the complexity of doing so is immense. They are also becoming increasingly popular as entertainers. For example, Ursula, a female robot, sings, plays music, dances and speaks to her audiences at Universal Studios. Several Disney theme park shows utilize animatronic robots that look, move and speak much like human beings. Although these robots look realistic, they have no cognition or physical autonomy. Various humanoid robots and their possible applications in daily life are featured in an independent documentary film called Plug & Pray, which was released in 2010. Humanoid robots, especially those with artificial intelligence algorithms, could be useful for future dangerous and/or distant space exploration missions, without having the need to turn back around again and return to Earth once the mission is completed.
Sensors  A sensor is a device that measures some attribute of the world. Being one of the three primitives of robotics (besides planning and control), sensing plays an important role in robotic paradigms. Sensors can be classified according to the physical process with which they work or according to the type of measurement information that they give as output. In this case, the second approach was used. Proprioceptive Proprioceptive sensors sense the position, the orientation and the speed of the humanoid's body and joints. In human beings the otoliths and semi-circular canals (in the inner ear) are used to maintain balance and orientation.
In addition humans use their own proprioceptive sensors (e.g. touch, muscle extension, limb position) to help with their orientation. Humanoid robots use accelerometers to measure the acceleration, from which velocity can be calculated by integration; tilt sensors to measure inclination; force sensors placed in robot's hands and feet to measure contact force with environment; position sensors, that indicate the actual position of the robot (from which the velocity can be calculated by derivation) or even speed sensors. Exteroceptive  Arrays of tactels can be used to provide data on what has been touched. The Shadow Hand uses an array of 34 tactels arranged beneath its polyurethane skin on each finger tip.
Tactile sensors also provide information about forces and torques transferred between the robot and other objects. Vision refers to processing data from any modality which uses the electromagnetic spectrum to produce an image. In humanoid robots it is used to recognize objects and determine their properties. Vision sensors work most similarly to the eyes of human beings. Most humanoid robots use CCD cameras as vision sensors. Sound sensors allow humanoid robots to hear speech and environmental sounds, and perform as the ears of the human being. Microphones are usually used for this task. Actuators  Actuators are the motors responsible for motion in the robot.
Humanoid robots are constructed in such a way that they mimic the human body, so they use actuators that perform like muscles and joints, though with a different structure. To achieve the same effect as human motion, humanoid robots use mainly rotary actuators. They can be either electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, piezoelectric or ultrasonic. Hydraulic and electric actuators have a very rigid behavior and can only be made to act in a compliant manner through the use of relatively complex feedback control strategies. While electric coreless motor actuators are better suited for high speed and low load applications, hydraulic ones operate well at low speed and high load applications.
Piezoelectric actuators generate a small movement with a high force capability when voltage is applied. They can be used for ultra-precise positioning and for generating and handling high forces or pressures in static or dynamic situations. Ultrasonic actuators are designed to produce movements in a micrometer order at ultrasonic frequencies (over 20 kHz). They are useful for controlling vibration, positioning applications and quick switching. Pneumatic actuators operate on the basis of gas compressibility. As they are inflated, they expand along the axis, and as they deflate, they contract. If one end is fixed, the other will move in a linear trajectory.
These actuators are intended for low speed and low/medium load applications. Between pneumatic actuators there are: cylinders, bellows, pneumatic engines, pneumatic stepper motors and pneumatic artificial muscles. Planning and control   In planning and control, the essential difference between humanoids and other kinds of robots (like industrial ones) is that the movement of the robot must be human-like, using legged locomotion, especially biped gait. The ideal planning for humanoid movements during normal walking should result in minimum energy consumption, as it does in the human body. For this reason, studies on dynamics and control of these kinds of structures has become increasingly important.
The question of walking biped robots stabilization on the surface is of great importance. Maintenance of the robot’s gravity center over the center of bearing area for providing a stable position can be chosen as a goal of control. To maintain dynamic balance during the walk, a robot needs information about contact force and its current and desired motion. The solution to this problem relies on a major concept, the Zero Moment Point (ZMP). Another characteristic of humanoid robots is that they move, gather information (using sensors) on the "real world" and interact with it. They don’t stay still like factory manipulators and other robots that work in highly structured environments.
To allow humanoids to move in complex environments, planning and control must focus on self-collision detection, path planning and obstacle avoidance. Humanoid robots do not yet have some features of the human body. They include structures with variable flexibility, which provide safety (to the robot itself and to the people), and redundancy of movements, i.e. more degrees of freedom and therefore wide task availability. Although these characteristics are desirable to humanoid robots, they will bring more complexity and new problems to planning and control. The field of whole-body control deals with these issues and addresses the proper coordination of numerous degrees of freedom, e.g.
to realize several control tasks simultaneously while following a given order of priority. Timeline of developments  Notes  References Asada, H. and Slotine, J.-J. E. (1986). Robot Analysis and Control. Wiley. . Arkin, Ronald C. (1998). Behavior-Based Robotics. MIT Press. . Brady, M., Hollerbach, J.M., Johnson, T., Lozano-Perez, T. and Mason, M. (1982), Robot Motion: Planning and Control. MIT Press. . Horn, Berthold, K. P. (1986). Robot Vision. MIT Press. . Craig, J. J. (1986). Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control. Addison Wesley. . Everett, H. R. (1995). Sensors for Mobile Robots: Theory and Application. AK Peters. . Kortenkamp, D., Bonasso, R., Murphy, R. (1998).
Artificial Intelligence and Mobile Robots. MIT Press. . Poole, D., Mackworth, A. and Goebel, R. (1998), Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. Oxford University Press. . Russell, R. A. (1990). Robot Tactile Sensing. Prentice Hall. . Russell, S. J. & Norvig, P. (1995). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. Prentice-Hall. Prentice Hall. . http://www.techentice.com/manav-indias-first-3d-printed-robot-from-iit-mumbai/  http://www.livemint.com/Industry/rc86Iu7h3rb44087oDts1H/Meet-Manav-Indias-first-3Dprinted-humanoid-robot.html  Further reading Carpenter, J., Davis, J., Erwin‐Stewart, N., Lee. T., Bransford, J. & Vye, N. (2009). Gender representation in humanoid robots for domestic use. International Journal of Social Robotics (special issue). 1 (3), 261‐265. The Netherlands: Springer. Carpenter, J., Davis, J., Erwin‐Stewart, N., Lee. T., Bransford, J.
& Vye, N. (2008). Invisible machinery in function, not form: User expectations of a domestic humanoid robot. Proceedings of 6th conference on Design and Emotion. Hong Kong, China. Williams, Karl P. (2004). Build Your Own Human Robots: 6 Amazing and Affordable Projects. McGraw-Hill/TAB Electronics. . . See also  Frankenstein complex  Personal robot  Lists of types of robots  External links  Humanoid Robots' jobs in Japan Ulrich Hottelet: Albert is not happy - How robots learn to live with people, African Times, June 2009    Category:Japanese inventions
Truth is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard. Religious views on truth vary between religions. Abrahamic religions  Christianity  Christian philosopher William Lane Craig notes that the Bible typically uses the words true or truth in non-philosophical senses to indicate such qualities as fidelity, moral rectitude, and reality. However, it does sometimes use the word in the philosophical sense of veracity. Some Christians believe that other authorities are sources of doctrinal truth. Catholics believe that the Pope is infallible when pronouncing on certain, rather specific, matters of church doctrine.
In Christian Science, (not recognised as a Christian organization by the bulk of mainstream churches) Truth is God. The Magisterium of the Church  The magisterium of the Catholic Church is the church's authority or office to establish teachings. That authority is vested uniquely in the Pope and the bishops, under the premise that they are in communion with the correct and true teachings of the faith which is shown in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Sacred scripture and sacred tradition "make up a single sacred deposit of the Word of God, which is entrusted to the Church", and the magisterium is not independent of this, since "all that it proposes for belief as being divinely revealed is derived from this single deposit of faith."
Biblical inerrancy  Biblical inerrancy, as formulated in the "Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy", is the doctrine that the Protestant Bible "is without error or fault in all its teaching";<ref>Geisler, NL. and Roach, B., Defending Inerrancy: Affirming the Accuracy of Scripture for a New Generation, Baker Books, 2012.</ref> or, at least, that "Scripture in the original manuscripts does not affirm anything that is contrary to fact". Various interpretations have been applied, depending on the tradition.Stephen T. Davis, The debate about the Bible: Inerrancy versus infallibility (1977) According to some interpretations of the doctrine, all of the Bible is without error, i.e., is to be taken as true, no matter what the issue.
Other interpretations hold that the Bible is always true on important matters of faith, while other interpretations hold that the Bible is true but must be specifically interpreted in the context of the language, culture and time that relevant passages were written. Judaism There is no unilateral agreement among the different denominations of Judaism concerning truth. In Orthodox Judaism, truth is the revealed word of God, as found in the Hebrew Bible, and to a lesser extent, in the words of the sages of the Talmud. For Hasidic Jews truth is also found in the pronouncements of their rebbe, or spiritual leader, who is believed to possess divine inspiration.
Kotzk, a Polish Hasidic sect, was known for their obsession with truth. In Conservative Judaism, truth is not defined as literally as it is among the Orthodox. While Conservative Judaism acknowledges the truth of the Tanakh, generally, it does not accord that status to every single statement or word contained therein, as do the Orthodox. Moreover, unlike Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism believes that the nature of truth can vary from generation to generation, depending on circumstances. For instance, with respect to halakha, or Jewish law, Conservative Judaism believes that it can be modified or adapted depending on the needs of the people.
In Orthodox Judaism, by contrast, the halakha is fixed (by the sages of the Talmud and later authorities); the present-day task, therefore, is to interpret the halakha, but not to change it. Reform Judaism takes a much more liberal approach to truth. It does not hold that truth is found only in the Tanakh; rather, there are kernels of truth to be found in practically every religious tradition. Moreover, its attitude towards the Tanakh is, at best, a document parts of which may have been inspired, but with no particular monopoly on truth, or in any way legally binding. Indian religions Buddhism  The Four Noble Truths  The Four Noble Truths are the most fundamental Buddhist teachings and appear countless times throughout the most ancient Buddhist texts, the Pali Canon.
They arose from Buddha's enlightenment and are regarded in Buddhism as deep spiritual insight, not as philosophical theory, with Buddha noting in the Samyutta Nikaya: "These Four Noble Truths, monks, are actual, unerring, not otherwise. Therefore, they are called noble truths." The Four Noble Truths (Catvāry Āryasatyāni) are as follows:   The truth that suffering exists (Dukkha). The truth that suffering exists with a root cause (craving). The truth that suffering can be eliminated (Nirvana). The truth that there is a way to eliminate suffering known as the Noble Eightfold Path. Two Truths Doctrine  The two truths doctrine in Buddhism differentiates between two levels of truth in Buddhist discourse, a "relative", or commonsense truth (Tibetan: kun-rdzob bden-pa; Sanskrit: samvrtisatya), and an  "ultimate" or absolute spiritual truth  (Tibetan: don-dam bden-pa; Sanskrit: paramarthasatya).
Stated differently, the Two Truths Doctrine holds that truth exists in conventional and ultimate forms, and that both forms are co-existent. Other schools, such as Dzogchen, hold that the Two Truths Doctrine are ultimately resolved into nonduality as a lived experience and are non-different. The doctrine is an especially important element of Buddhism and was first expressed in complete modern form by Nagarjuna, who based it on the Kaccāyanagotta Sutta. Hinduism  According to the principle scripture of Hinduism, the Bhagavad-gītā, truth is Lord Krishna Himself. This is confirmed by Vyasa as stated in the verse, You are the Supreme Personality of Godhead, the ultimate abode, the purest, the Absolute Truth.
You are the eternal, transcendental, original person, the unborn, the greatest. All the great sages such as Nārada, Asita, Devala and Vyāsa confirm this truth about You, and now You Yourself are declaring it to me.' And Lord Krishna Himself declares Himself to be the ultimate truth, There is no truth superior to Me. Everything rests upon Me, as pearls are strung on a thread. In the scriptures related to dharma (moral behavior), Manu Samhita, the truth should be spoken, one must be honest, straight forward and non-duplicitous in ones dealing the world and in a pleasing way. Jainism  Although, historically, Jain authors have adopted different views on truth, the most prevalent is the system of anekantavada or "not-one-sidedness".
This idea of truth is rooted in the notion that there is one truth, but only enlightened beings can perceive it in its entirety; unenlightened beings perceive only one side of the truth (ekanta). Anekantavada works around the limitations of a one-sided view of truth by proposing multiple vantage points (nayas) from which truth can be viewed (cf. Nayavāda). Recognizing that there are multiple possible truths about any particular thing, even mutually exclusive truths, Jain philosophers developed a system for synthesizing these various claims, known as syadvada. Within the system of syadvada'', each truth is qualified to its particular view-point; that is "in a certain way", one claim or another or both may be true.
See also   Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity  Notes  Category:Epistemology of religion Category:Religious belief and doctrine Category:Truth
Louis Vincent Albano (July 29, 1933 – October 14, 2009) was an Italian-American professional wrestler, manager and actor. He was active as a professional wrestler from 1953 until 1969 before becoming a manager until 1995. Over the course of his 42-year career, Albano guided 15 different tag teams and three singles competitors to championship gold. Albano was one of the "Triumvirate of Terror", a threesome of nefarious WWF managers which included The Grand Wizard of Wrestling and Freddie Blassie. The trio was a fixture in the company for a decade until The Grand Wizard's death in 1983. A unique showman, with an elongated beard, rubber band facial piercings, and loud outfits, Albano was the forefather of the 1980s Rock 'n' Wrestling Connection.
Collaborating with Cyndi Lauper, Albano helped usher in wrestling's crossover success with a mainstream audience. Capitalizing on his success, he later ventured into Hollywood with various television, film, and music projects. He became well known to a new generation of fans as the actor and voice of Mario in The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! Early life Albano's parents, Carmen Louis Albano and Eleanor Albano née Morrone, were of Italian heritage but both born in the United States. Eleanor was a classical concert pianist who had performed at Carnegie Hall and later became a registered nurse. Her brother, a physician, introduced her to Carmen in the 1930s, who was training to be an obstetrician.
After marrying, they temporarily relocated to Italy while Carmen pursued his medical degree at the University of Bari. He later co-patented a forceps instrument to assist in breech birth deliveries. Louis Albano was born in Italy when his father had three months remaining at the university. He was baptized in the Vatican, and his parents shortly thereafter returned to the New York City area aboard the R.M.S. Majestic. Lou was one of nine children, of whom five lived to adulthood. The family settled in the Mount Vernon area. Lou attended Archbishop Stepinac High School in White Plains, New York, where he competed in track and field, and finally rose to the position of captain of the football team.
It was this rank that later inspired his wrestling moniker, "Captain" Lou Albano. His skills were such that he received 32 offers of full scholarship from universities around the country, and he chose the University of Tennessee on the strength of their football team. Here, Albano was teammates with the likes of Darris McCord, Doug Atkins, and his roommate, Sam Rutigliano. Albano had conflicts with the dean due to poor behavior and was expelled after attempting to cheat on a final exam. He then joined the United States Army, but due to a childhood injury exacerbated by his football days, Albano was honorably discharged after only eight months.
Professional wrestling career  Early career (1953-1967) Although Albano's father, retired from medicine, wanted to open an insurance agency with his son, Lou instead began training as a boxer. A distant cousin and family friend, Lou Duva, introduced Albano to Willie Gilzenberg, a boxing promoter who later became the first titular president of the WWWF. Gilzenberg, noting Albano's relatively short stature, instead encouraged him to enter wrestling. Albano's father had himself been an amateur wrestler, and Albano himself had been introduced to professional wrestling at an event held at Fort Dix during his tenure in the Army, where he had seen the likes of Gorgeous George, Arnold Skaaland, Soldier Barry, and Lenny Montana—all of whom Albano later worked with.
Gilzenberg asked Soldier Barry to help train Albano, and in 1952, the two began doing house shows in the New York area. Albano was originally seen as a "pretty boy," and wrestled as the babyface "Leaping Lou Albano." After a non-wrestling injury caused a gash on his forehead, he purposefully did not allow the scar to heal, and the minor disfigurement allowed him to turn heel. Now billed as the "Mount Vernon Mauler," and occasionally a pirate, he began establishing himself in the New York professional wrestling community. At this point, Gilzenberg introduced Albano to Vince McMahon Sr., promoter of the new Capitol Wrestling Corporation in Washington, DC—the first predecessor to what is today WWE.
Albano worked for Capitol Wrestling and its successors, under Vince McMahon and his son, for the rest of his career. He made little impact as a solo wrestler, working prelims in various circuits, but he achieved moderate success as a tag team performer with partner Tony Altomare. Dubbed The Sicilians, Altomare and Albano competed as a stereotypical Italian gangster combo in the mode of the then-popular television series The Untouchables. The pair won the Midwest tag team championship on the undercard of June 30, 1961 Comiskey Park event starring Pat O'Connor and Buddy Rogers that set the all-time record gate in the United States to that point.
Their realistic depiction of gangster characters caught the attention of actual mafiosi in 1961. In Chicago, Tony Accardo and two associates "requested" that Albano and Altomare cease using the word "mafia." During their run as Midwest tag team champions, personal differences with bookers and other wrestlers resulted in the pair abandoning the territory quickly enough that they did not lose the title before leaving. WWWF (1964, 1967-1986) In 1964, Albano wrestled for the World Wide Wrestling Federation as a singles competitor. Sicilians and break up (1967-1970) He returned in 1967 Tony Altomare. In July, they won the WWWF United States Tag Team Championship from Arnold Skaaland and Spiros Arion.
Albano and Altomare only held the championship for two weeks, a title change which was not even acknowledged on WWWF television outside the Atlantic City market. But several photographs of the pair with their title belts were taken, which elevated Albano's reputation in the wrestling magazines of the time, and provided good publicity fodder later in his career. By 1969 the Sicilians disbanded and went their separate ways. Albano went as a singles competitor. Becoming a manager (1970) In 1970, fellow wrestler Bruno Sammartino mentioned to McMahon that Albano, a mediocre wrestler who was nonetheless an entertaining speaker, might be better utilized as a manager.
In professional wrestling, a manager might be tasked with behind-the-scenes efforts to help push forward a charge's career or handle his booking, but plays an equal or even greater role in the ring, speaking for his charge and helping rile up the crowd for or against him. Sammartino recalled: "One day I said to Vince Sr., this guy [Albano] isn't the best wrestler, as a team, they [Albano & Altomare] can only go so far. But he'd be a great mouthpiece for some guy. Lou has such a gift of gab that he can help out some people. As a wrestler, he just seemed limited.
He was always the same. He was never looked upon by promoters as someone who could be anyone special. But as a manager, he shined. That was his calling." Albano, realizing that wrestlers had only a limited lifespan in the ring, and still dealing with his old football injury, agreed. Although it was his decision to split up his ten-year tag team partnership with Altomare, the two remained very close until the latter's death in 2003. At this time, managers were relatively rare in the pro wrestling world—WWWF had only two others. However, a promising new wrestler, Oscar "Crusher" Verdu, had just recently emigrated from Spain.
His in-ring capabilities were hampered by a limited command of English, and Albano was assigned to be his mouthpiece. Albano emphasized Verdu's physique and insisted that he had never been taken off his feet during a match. To rile up audiences, he also engaged in ethnic slurs, which were then a more common part of WWWF banter; Albano promised that Verdu would stomp on "that Italian" (Sammartino); the fact that Albano was known to be Italian himself only heightened the audience's reaction. Sammartino later said, "They wanted to see me beat the hell out of Verdu to make Albano a liar.
He could get the kind of heat that nobody else could." The result was a Madison Square Garden sellout when Verdu faced Sammartino in June 1970, the first for the company in five years and a then-record gate for a wrestling event in that arena. The record lasted only a month, when a rematch brought in over $85,000 in ticket receipts. After losing that match, Verdu cycled out of the WWWF rotation, but Albano remained as the top heel manager for the next 15 years. Thus began his transition into the brash, bombastic manager "Captain" Lou Albano. With a quick wit and a grating personality, Albano delivered memorable promos and earned the scorn of the wrestling audience as he attempted to dethrone World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF) superstar and Heavyweight Champion Bruno Sammartino.
Albano described the strategy behind his overblown, ranting interview style: "I just remember the point I wanna bring across, and then I just babble before, during, and after. Somehow, in the middle, I said the two or three sentences that sold tickets. Mostly, I just tried to make people want to see me get my ass kicked, and along the way, hopefully the guy I was managing would catch a beating too!" Growing out his hair and beard, and packing on extra pounds, Albano gave the image of a wild man. He developed a later trademark, applying rubber bands to his beard, after having seen a homeless man do the same.
He also often wore a rubber band hanging from a safety pin pushed through his cheek. Career as a manager (1971-1984) In January 1971, Albano was the manager when Ivan Koloff ended Sammartino's seven-year reign as champion. Koloff's title reign was a transitional one, lasting just three weeks. Koloff had a typical heel run against Sammartino in 1969, but Albano spent months claiming that his previous manager had trained him incorrectly, and that Koloff would beat Sammartino under Albano's expert tutelage. The shock of Koloff's victory was such that the crowd fell totally silent, and Sammartino momentarily feared that he'd lost his hearing.
Koloff and Albano were quickly rushed out of the ring by security without the championship belt as the crowd began to riot. Albano, his wife, and a family friend, who were both in attendance, escaped to a taxi outside the Garden. The mob surrounded the cab and began breaking windows, so the trio ran to a nearby bar, followed by the crowd who were pelting them with mud and objects. The mob was beginning to destroy the bar as the police finally arrived. Vince McMahon received a bill for damages totaling $27,000 ($171,472 in 2019 dollars), cementing Albano's unparalleled ability to "draw heat" (arouse anger in the audience).
Albano then resumed his role as the mastermind trying to lead his latest bad guy protege to the gold. For the remainder of the 1970s and into the mid-1980s, Albano's cadre of loyal henchmen were unable to re-secure the heavyweight championship, held by either Sammartino, Pedro Morales, Bob Backlund or Hulk Hogan. However, Albano guided singles wrestlers Don Muraco and Greg Valentine to the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship. Furthermore, Albano guided fifteen teams to the WWF World Tag Team Championships, including The Valiant Brothers, The Wild Samoans, The Yukon Lumberjacks, The Blackjacks, The Moondogs, The Masked Executioners, and after becoming a face (short for babyface, a wrestling term for a good guy/heroic character), the U.S. Express and the British Bulldogs.
It was during his stewardship of the Valiant Brothers that Albano picked up his "Captain" nickname, as the act was promoted as "Captain Lou and the Valiants too." By the end of his career, Albano had managed over 50 different wrestlers who won two dozen championships. Albano could also help elevate wrestlers by splitting from them. In 1982, despite being managed by the villainous Albano, Jimmy Snuka was unexpectedly becoming a fan favorite due to his high-flying ring style. An interview segment revealed that Snuka had no legal contract with Albano, and thus was able to leave his manager. Shortly thereafter, a bloody beatdown by Albano, Freddie Blassie and Ray Stevens, helped transform Snuka into a sympathetic figure, and triggered the most successful period of his career.
Albano had previously helped turn the villainous Intercontinental Champion Pat Patterson into a fan favorite, by "purchasing" Patterson's contract against his will. He also managed the U.S. Express at WrestleMania. Final storylines (1984-1986) In 1984, Albano met pop singer Cyndi Lauper on a plane flight from Puerto Rico. Her manager, David Wolff, suggested that the two collaborate on a project at some point in the future. In 1984, the opportunity came when Lauper's video for "Girls Just Want to Have Fun" needed an actor to play the singer's father, and Albano was suggested. Initially reluctant, he was convinced by his wife to agree, and Lauper and Albano thereafter formed a lifelong friendship.
He appeared in several of her music videos and she appeared on Roddy Piper's "Piper's Pit" program to discuss the collaboration. Albano, in character, began denigrating Lauper and women in general and claimed to have written all her songs and been the only reason for her success. Lauper, in turn, assaulted Albano with her purse, and the two agreed to settle their differences in the ring. Albano and Lauper agreed to compete by proxy, each choosing a female wrestler to contend. Lauper chose Wendi Richter, while Albano chose The Fabulous Moolah. The match, scheduled for July 23, 1984, was dubbed The Brawl to End it All, and was broadcast live on MTV.
During the match, Lauper interfered on Richter's behalf by hitting Moolah in the head with her purse, dubbed "The Loaded Purse of Doom". At the conclusion of the match, Richter had defeated Moolah for the WWF Women's Championship, which the WWF had promoted Moolah as having held for the previous 28 years. For a time in the 1980s, Albano also managed the rock group NRBQ. The group recorded a 1986 album, "Lou and the Q," which contained a song titled "Captain Lou"—on which Albano himself sings and rants. In the meantime, Albano had become involved in several charities. His brother's brother-in-law had recently died of multiple sclerosis, and the experience led Albano to lend his time to raising awareness and funds to combat the disease, occasionally alongside Lauper.
His increasingly public benevolence clashed with his in-ring persona, which violated the principles of kayfabe—maintaining the appearance of reality within professional wrestling—which were still strictly adhered to at the time. In 1984, Albano decided it was time, after 32 years as a heel, to turn face. He therefore arranged for Lauper to receive an in-ring award for her contributions to both wrestling and the fight against MS, for which he also came out and congratulated her. In the course of the ceremony, Roddy Piper and "Cowboy" Bob Orton came into the ring to sarcastically praise Albano before breaking Lauper's award, a gold record plaque, over his head.
Lauper and her boyfriend-manager David Wolff were also attacked by Piper and Orton. The melee was broken up by Hulk Hogan, but the altercation allowed Albano to now wrestle and manage as a crowd favorite. His last two (heel) singles protégés, Valentine and Ken Patera, were paired with Jimmy Hart and Bobby Heenan, respectively, after Albano's face turn. Although he continued his overblown, rambling interviews—one of the lead announcers for the WWF, Gorilla Monsoon, continued to refer to Albano as "The Fountain of Misinformation"—Albano was now leading fan favorites such as The U.S. Express, George Steele, The British Bulldogs, Hulk Hogan and André the Giant into battle.
The U.S. Express and British Bulldogs became the first tag teams to win the WWF Tag Team Championships with Albano as a "face" manager. Retirement (1986-1991) Albano left the WWF in late 1986 with one final match on an episode of Wrestling Challenge that aired on November 16, 1986, teaming with The British Bulldogs to defeat The Dream Team and Luscious Johnny Vailant. Albano would then make a one-time appearance on a "Piper's Pit" on an episode of Superstars of Wrestling in February 1987 to ask André the Giant to reconsider his recent alignment with Bobby Heenan. Albano briefly worked in Herb Abram's UWF promotion in 1991, where he hosted an interview segment.
Return to WWF (1994-1995) Albano returned to the WWF in 1994 to manage the newly face-turned Headshrinkers, helping lead them to the WWF Tag Team Championship. He left in early 1995, making sporadic appearances as a guest from then-on, but never as a manager. Pennsylvania Championship Wrestling (1996-1997) Albano returned to wrestling in 1996 for the independent promotion, Pennsylvania Championship Wrestling. He had not wrestled in a decade. On November 1, Albano defeated Judd the Studd in a Stretcher match. They would have a feud. Albano's last match was on June 7, 1997, as he lost to Judd the Studd.
Legacy in the WWE The events leading up to Albano's face turn proved to be pivotal in the history of the WWF. Hogan, Piper, and Orton began a feud at Lauper's award ceremony that culminated in The War to Settle the Score (which also featured the culmination of Lauper and Moolah's continuing feud). The outcome of the War—Hogan winning by disqualification—was the impetus for the primary match at the first WrestleMania, in which Albano also participated, as a face manager. More importantly, the involvement of Lauper, a celebrity completely unrelated to wrestling, in the pro wrestling world was unprecedented. MTV's decision to broadcast the Brawl to End it All tremendously increased the WWF's public profile, especially in the coveted young adult demographic.
This led directly to the 1980s professional wrestling boom. Wrestling Observer's Dave Meltzer wrote, "Without Albano, wrestling history would have been monumentally different because if you take Lauper's involvement out of the equation, the early losses on expanding nationally and buying so much television time were on the verge of putting the company under... Without her, there would have been no MTV special, no national media publicity, and it's highly unlikely without it that the first WrestleMania would have been a success.
If you take Albano's participation out of the equation, there is a good chance the McMahon expansion would have hit an iceberg and died in early 1985... the attention garnered by the Rock & Wrestling Connection, stemming from that chance meeting on an airplane between Lauper and Albano less than two years earlier, led NBC to make the decision to air Saturday Night's Main Event several times per year in the Saturday Night Live time slot." Television and film Albano appeared in the 1986 film Wise Guys, starring Danny DeVito. He played the role of Mario, Nintendo's mascot, in both the live-action and animated segments of The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!, a TV series based on the Super Mario Bros. game series.
He also had roles in the TV series 227, Hey Dude,  and Miami Vice, the 1992 film Stay Tuned, and was a recurring guest on the game show Hollywood Squares. Albano played a villainous caricature of himself named "Captain Lou Morano" in the 1987 movie Body Slam, starring Dirk Benedict and Roddy Piper. The film also featured cameo appearances by wrestlers Ric Flair, Freddie Blassie, and Bruno Sammartino. Albano played the role of the father in Cyndi Lauper's music videos for "Girls Just Want to Have Fun", "The Goonies 'R' Good Enough"  and "She Bop", as well as a cook in the video for her song "Time After Time".
Personal life and death In 1953, Albano married his high school sweetheart, Geraldine Tango. The marriage lasted 56 years, until his death. Albano has been noted by several others for his faithfulness to his wife, a rare characteristic in the on-the-road world of 1970s and 1980s professional wrestling. Albano released his autobiography, Often Imitated, Never Duplicated, on July 20, 2008, through his website. The book includes a foreword by Cyndi Lauper. The other Albano siblings are Vincent, George, Eleanor, and Carl, all of whom became teachers. Albano's brother, Carl, taught health for 32 years at Ridgewood High School in Ridgewood, New Jersey, and was head of the Ridgewood High health department from 1974 until 2001.
Carl's students have noted that he used his brother Lou as an example of the difference between crazy and unique. George served as the principal of Lincoln Elementary School in Mount Vernon, New York and often brought Lou in to delight the school's students during their lunch hour. Vincent was an art teacher and lived part-time in a lake house in Connecticut. Eleanor was a music teacher for preschool students in Connecticut and impacts the lives of countless students through music. Albano's son, Carl Albano, has been a member of the Putnam County Legislature since 2011. During the 1990s, Albano shed 150 pounds (70 kg) following a health scare.
In May 2005, Albano suffered a heart attack, but later recovered. Albano was sent home from the hospital and again began watching his health. The song "Captain Lou" by Kimya Dawson is dedicated to him. In 1983 the band NRBQ wrote a song about Albano called "Captain Lou." Albano was featured as a singer on that song as well on another called "Boardin' House Pie." Both of these songs appear on NRBQ's Tap Dancin' Bats compilation, their Lou and Q spoken-word comedy record, as well as their out-of-print, hard-to-find single which Albano used to sell at his wrestling matches. Albano died on October 14, 2009, of a heart attack while residing in hospice care.
He was 76 years old.
Championships and accomplishments Cauliflower Alley Club Other honoree (1995) Fred Kohler Enterprises Midwest Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Tony Altomare New England Wrestling Alliance NEWA Hall of Fame (Class of 2011) Pro Wrestling Illustrated Manager of the Year (1974, 1981, 1986) Editors' Award (1994) Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum Class of 2009 World Wide Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Federation WWWF United States Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Tony Altomare WWF Hall of Fame (Class of 1996) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Best on Interviews (1981) tied with Roddy Piper Worst Worked Match of the Year (1985) vs. Freddie Blassie at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 2012)  Notes  References  "WWE Hall of Fame Profile" "Wrestling Museum Hall of Fame Induction Article"  External links  Lou Albano on Posterous  Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame profile  Category:1933 births Category:2009 deaths Category:20th-century Italian male actors Category:21st-century Italian male actors Category:American color commentators Category:American male professional wrestlers Category:American male voice actors Category:Archbishop Stepinac High School alumni Category:Burials in New York (state) Category:Italian emigrants to the United States Category:Italian male professional wrestlers Category:People from Putnam County, New York Category:People of Lazian descent Category:Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum Category:Professional wrestling managers and valets Category:Sportspeople from Mount Vernon, New York Category:United States Army soldiers Category:Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame Category:WWE Hall of Fame inductees
Past Masters is a two-disc compilation album set by the English rock band the Beatles, released on 7 March 1988 as part of the first issue of the band's entire catalogue on compact disc. Compiled by noted Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn, this collection of many of the band's biggest hits, as well as rarities, includes every song released commercially by the band that was not available on the Beatles' 12 original UK albums or the US Magical Mystery Tour LP. The majority of the Past Masters set consists of A- and B-sides from the band's singles, including single versions of songs that appeared in a different form on the band's albums.
Also included are the full contents of the UK-only Long Tall Sally EP, two German-language tracks, a song recorded for the American market and a track released on a charity compilation album. Release history  Past Masters was originally issued as two separate CDs, Past Masters, Volume One and Past Masters, Volume Two, on 7 March 1988. The two volumes were included in The Beatles Box Set. A double LP set, titled Past Masters, Volumes One & Two (also titled simply Past Masters),  was subsequently released in the US on 24 October 1988 and in the UK on 10 November 1988.
Both volumes were also released as a double cassette bundle on March 7, 1988. The double set was re-released on CD, titled simply Past Masters, on 9 September 2009, as part of the remastering of the original Beatles catalogue, and was included in The Beatles (The Original Studio Recordings) box set. This release includes stereo mixes of both "From Me to You" and "Thank You Girl", whereas the original 1988 issue contained the two tracks in mono. Mark Lewisohn's name was removed from this reissue. The Beatles in Mono box set, released at the same time, includes the album Mono Masters, which contains a similar track list of dedicated mono mixes.
A remastered-for-vinyl version of the Past Masters double LP set was released on 12 November 2012. Track listings  The dates provided are the dates when the tracks were originally released, not recorded. All songs written and composed by Lennon–McCartney, except where noted. Tracks are in stereo, except where noted.
Past Masters, Volume One   Contains recordings originally released between 1962 and 1965: Eleven tracks from British singles (including B-sides) Both tracks from the German single "Komm, Gib Mir Deine Hand" / "Sie Liebt Dich" All four tracks from the Long Tall Sally EP The US-only track "Bad Boy", from the album Beatles VI (although the song was also on the 1966 A Collection of Beatles Oldies album released by Parlophone)  Past Masters, Volume Two   Contains recordings originally released between 1965 and 1970: Fourteen tracks from British singles (including B-sides) The "Wildlife" version of "Across the Universe" from the charity album No One's Gonna Change Our World  The 1970 stereo mix of "The Inner Light" had only been previously available on a limited edition 1981 EP.
Past Masters, Volumes One & Two  Charts and certifications  Past Masters: Volume 1  Charts  Certifications  Past Masters: Volume 2  Charts  Certifications  Past Masters  Charts  Certifications  References   Category:1988 compilation albums Category:Albums produced by George Martin Category:Albums recorded at Abbey Road Studios Category:Albums recorded at Trident Studios Category:Apple Records compilation albums Category:B-side compilation albums Category:The Beatles compilation albums Category:Capitol Records compilation albums Category:Compilation album series Category:Compilation albums published posthumously Category:German-language compilation albums Category:Parlophone compilation albums Category:Albums recorded at Apple Studios
Siamesed cylinders are engine cylinders arranged in such a way that they have no channels between them to allow water or other coolant to circulate. Cylinders are generally arranged in this manner when the engine block is of limited size or when stability of the cylinder bores is of concern, such as in racing engines. References  Category:Engine cooling systems Category:Engines Category:Engines by cylinder layout
British teenager Lesley Whittle was kidnapped on 14 January 1975 and her body discovered 7 March 1975. Whittle's kidnapping and murder dominated national headlines for 11 months. The investigation involved over 400 officers from the [[West Mercia Constabulary], Staffordshire and West Midlands police forces and the Metropolitan Police. Whittle, aged 17, was kidnapped from her home in Highley, Shropshire, by Donald Neilson, who by that time had committed over 400 burglaries and three murders. He was known to the British press as the Black Panther, for the black balaclava he wore during robberies of post offices. Neilson held Whittle in an underground drainage shaft of a reservoir at Bathpool Park in Kidsgrove, Staffordshire.
He had placed a hood over her head, left her naked, and tethered her to the side of the shaft by a wire noose. After what was later seen as a bungled police operation, including two failed attempts to engage with Neilson's demand for a ransom of £50,000, her body was found hanging in the shaft on 7 March 1975. After being arrested 11 months later in Mansfield, in July 1976 at Oxford Crown Court Neilson was convicted of the kidnapping and murder of Whittle, for which he was sentenced to life imprisonment. Three weeks later he was convicted of the murder of three post office workers, and given three further life sentences.
Lesley Whittle Lesley Whittle, born in 1957, was the daughter of George Whittle, the founder of Whittle Coaches, and his girlfriend Dorothy. At the time of her kidnapping, Lesley was a student at Wulfrun College, Wolverhampton. Background To avoid estate taxes, George Whittle gave three houses plus £70,000 in cash to Dorothy, £107,000 to his son Ronald, and £82,000 to Lesley during his life. He died in 1970, aged 65. As he had left nothing to her, George's estranged wife, Selina Whittle, began legal proceedings in May 1972 to obtain money from her husband's estate. The story was picked up by the Daily Express.
Kidnapping Requiring money, Neilson read about a dispute between Whittle and Selina. He decided he was going to kidnap either Ronald or Dorothy Whittle and hold them until a £50,000 ransom had been paid. He had estimated that the Whittles could easily afford £50,000. Police subsequently found that ex-British Army soldier Neilson had put three years of planning into the kidnapping, having read a 1972 news article pertaining to inheritance Dorothy had been bequeathed when her father had passed away. On 14 January 1975, Dorothy Whittle returned to the house in Highley, Shropshire, at 1:30 am. Having found her daughter asleep in bed, Dorothy took two sleeping tablets and went to bed herself.
Neilson later cut the telephone line (suspecting a burglar alarm) and then entered the Whittles' home through the garage. Encountering Lesley by mistake, he decided to kidnap her instead. Gagging the teenager, who was wearing only her dressing gown and slippers, he took her to his green Morris 1100 car, where he tied her up and laid her down on the back seat. Neilson then drove Lesley to Bathpool Park in Kidsgrove, Staffordshire. There he forced her down into the drainage shaft of the nearby reservoir. Inside the shaft he placed a hood over her head, removed the dressing gown leaving her naked and then tethered her to the side of the shaft by a wire noose.
There was a mattress and a sleeping bag. The following morning, after her daughter failed to come down for breakfast, Dorothy discovered in Lesley's bedroom that her daughter's clothes for that day were untouched and a ransom note punched out on a 6 ft strip of Dymotape. It demanded £50,000 and instructed the family not to contact the police, but to wait for a telephone call at a phonebox at the Swan shopping centre in Kidderminster that evening. Dorothy picked up her home telephone to ring Lesley's brother Ronald, but on finding it dead, rushed in her dressing gown to her car.
She drove to Ronald's house and then returned with Ronald and his wife, Gaynor, back to the Whittle family home, where they found a second copy of the Dymotape ransom note tucked inside a box of Turkish Delight in the lounge. After finding that Lesley's dressing gown and slippers were missing, confirming that she had been kidnapped, Ronald Whittle immediately called the police. Investigation An investigation led by Detective Chief Superintendent Robert Booth of West Mercia Police, with assistance from Scotland Yard sent a team led by Commander John Morrison that included DCI Walter Boreham. During the height of the investigation, it involved over 250 officers from the Shropshire, Staffordshire and West Midlands police forces, plus Scotland Yard.
But a series of police bungles and other circumstances delayed the investigation. The story quickly leaked to the press, and was carried on the evening television news that day. No telephone call came to the Swan shopping centre phonebox in Kidderminster. At 11:45 pm on 16 January, in a tape played by Neilson over the telephone, a message recorded by Lesley told her family that she was alright, and that someone from her family was to go to the phonebox in Kidsgrove, Stoke-on-Trent, to retrieve a second message that was behind the back-board of the phonebox. Verifying the voice as Lesley's, it was agreed that Ronald Whittle would undertake the drop, monitored by a police radio network that could give him assistance within two minutes.
After the police had taken two hours to make extensive arrangements, Ronald left Bridgnorth police station at 1:30 am on 17 January, with a suitcase packed with £50,000 to drive to Kidsgrove. But being unfamiliar with the area he got lost, eventually arriving at Kidsgrove Post Office phonebox late. After searching for thirty minutes, he found a Dymotape message that directed him to Bathpool Park, which was situated about  away. The message instructed him to:  Arriving at Bathpool Park 90 minutes late, Ronald turned into the "No Entry" sign as instructed, but in the dark he did not see the low wall that edged the railway bridge, and drove to the end of the lane.
He stopped, flashed his lights and then got out of the car and shouted; there was no-one there. Ronald left the park and met up again with the police at an arranged meeting point. West Mercia police officers put the blame for the failed operation onto Staffordshire Police, after a patrol car was seen driving through the area. A courting couple in a car had also parked near where the ransom was to have been left. A subsequent search of Bathpool Park by police revealed no clues. A week later, West Midlands Police contacted West Mercia. On the same night of the failed ransom drop, a car had been left near a Freightliner railway terminal in Dudley, where security guard Gerald Smith had been shot in the back six times, and was now in hospital recovering.
In the car were a cassette tape with Lesley Whittle's voice on it, asking her relatives to co-operate with the kidnapper, her slippers, and a roll of plastic tape, all of which linked Neilson to the kidnapping. Ballistics evidence and finger prints on the cartridges also linked the same man to the Freightliner shooting, the previous post office robberies and thus the Black Panther murders. On 10 February 1975, the news black-out was lifted. On 5 March, Chief Superintendent Booth and Ronald Whittle appeared together on both national and local television. The next day a headmaster at a local school told police that a pupil had brought him a piece of Dymotape that read "DROP SUITCASE INTO HOLE" and, subsequently, other pupils had found a torch wedged in the grilles of what was locally known as the "glory-hole", one of the capped ventilation shafts of the old Harecastle Tunnel.
The boys who found the torch in Bathpool Park had given it to the headmaster several weeks before, but neither had realised the significance of the find until the television broadcast. On 6 March 1975, police started a second thorough search of Bathpool Park, starting with the glory-hole, within which a detective constable found a Dymotape machine and a roll of Dymotape. An inspection of the second shaft revealed nothing. The third shaft, the deepest of the three and once an air ventilation shaft for Nelson's Coal Mine, was then uncapped. As it was subject to HM Inspectorate of Mines regulations it had to be checked for gas, and so late in the day the investigation was suspended.
On Friday, 7 March 1975, after gas tests had been passed, police officers and mine rescue staff entered the third shaft. Accessed by a vertical ladder,  down on the first landing, a broken police torch was found from the previous day's work. A further  down on a second landing, a cassette tape recorder was found. A further  down on a third landing, the team found a rolled up sleeping bag that was acting as a pillow, a yellow foam mattress and a survival blanket. Lesley's body was found hanging from a steel wire, only  from the bottom of the shaft.
Subsequent inspection of the floor of the shaft,  below the third landing, found 3 inch strips of elastoplast which had been used as a blindfold; a pair of brown size 7 trainers; more Dymotape; a cassette tape; a microphone and lead; a Thermos flask; blue cord trousers; and a reporter's note pad. Out of all of the items recovered from the three shafts which were later forensically inspected by the police, there was only one partial fingerprint, on the reporter's notepad. After four months of every other fingerprint investigation in the nation practically being put on hold, no match could be found.
Consequent actions Chief Superintendent Bob Booth, who led the investigation into Lesley's kidnapping, was subsequently demoted from CID to a uniformed beat officer. DCI Walter Boreham later recalled that, although the Scotland Yard team finished up with several million handwritten index cards, as well as tens of thousands of statements and other documents, Home Office computer scientists were sceptical that computerising the case, then a rarity, would be an improvement. Alex Rennie, who was Chief Constable of West Mercia Police when Lesley Whittle was murdered, had all of the notes not used during the trial destroyed when he retired. Rennie, in retirement, later explained:  Cause of Whittle's death and post mortem findings It is widely believed that Neilson pushed Lesley off the ledge in the drainage shaft, strangling her.
An alternative scenario is that Neilson was not present when Whittle died and that he fled on the night of the failed ransom collection without returning to the shaft, believing the police were closing in on him, leaving Whittle alive in the dark for a considerable period of time before falling to her death. Post-mortem examination showed that Whittle had not died from strangulation but had died instantly from vagal inhibition. The shock of the fall had caused her heart to stop beating. The pathologist, Dr John Brown, reported that this would have been induced by high blood pressure in her carotid artery, caused by the constrictive wire loop around her neck triggering an alarm to her brain via the vagus nerve.
The brain's response to this urgent signal for reduction in artery pressure would be to radically slow down the heart, and when that failed, her heart stopped altogether. The pathologist reported that Lesley weighed only 7 stone (98 lb or 44 kg) when found; her stomach and intestines were completely empty, she had lost a considerable amount of weight and she was emaciated. Arrest and conviction  Neilson subsequently became Britain's most wanted man. In December 1975, two police officers spotted a man seen acting suspiciously in Mansfield, who turned out to be Neilson. Armed with a sawn-off shotgun, he was arrested with the help of several customers in a nearby fish and chip shop.
In the subsequent investigation, Neilson's fingerprints were found to match one of those in the drain shaft. In the interview at Kidsgrove police station when he confessed to the kidnapping of Lesley, Neilson gave an 18-page statement to DCS Harold Wright, head of Staffordshire CID, and Commander Morrison of Scotland Yard, with the statement hand-written by DCI Walter Boreham. During his trial at Oxford Crown Court, Neilson's defence lawyer suggested that Lesley had accidentally fallen from the ledge and had hanged herself, and that Neilson had cared for her, feeding her chicken soup, spaghetti and meatballs, and buying her fish and chips and chicken legs.
In July 1976, Neilson was convicted of the murder of Lesley Whittle, for which he was given a life sentence; and a total of 61 years (running concurrently, with the longest being 21 years) for other offences. Three weeks later he was convicted of the murder of three post office workers, and given three further life sentences. The offences regarding the shooting of security guard Gerald Smith were left on file, as Smith had died more than a year and a day after the shooting. 2008 appeal and Neilson's death In 2008, Neilson was suffering from motor neurone disease and appealed against his sentence, requesting it be commuted to a maximum of 30 years.
Mr Justice Teare ruled that he must never be released from prison, saying:  Neilson died in hospital, still serving his sentence, in December 2011. See also List of kidnappings List of solved missing persons cases The Black Panther (1977 film)  References  External links BBC Shropshire, Audio slideshow: Lesley Whittle remembered  Category:1975 in England Category:1975 murders in the United Kingdom Category:1970s missing person cases Category:1970s trials Category:Crime in Shropshire Category:Crime in Staffordshire Category:Deaths by person Category:Incidents of violence against women Category:January 1975 crimes Category:January 1975 events in the United Kingdom Category:Kidnappings in the United Kingdom Category:Missing person cases in England Category:Murder in England Category:Murder trials Category:Trials in England
Beak 2 (stylized >> or Beak>>) is the second studio album of British band Beak. Track listing  Accolades  References  Category:2012 albums Category:Albums produced by Geoff Barrow
Dejerine–Roussy syndrome or thalamic pain syndrome is a condition developed after a thalamic stroke, a stroke causing damage to the thalamus. Ischemic strokes and hemorrhagic strokes can cause lesioning in the thalamus. As initial stroke symptoms (numbness and tingling) dissipate, an imbalance in sensation causes these later syndromes, characterizing Dejerine–Roussy syndrome. Although some treatments exist, they are often expensive, chemically based, invasive, and only treat patients for some time before they need more treatment, called "refractory treatment". Symptoms Dejerine–Roussy syndrome is most commonly preceded by numbness in the affected side. In these cases, numbness is replaced by burning and tingling sensations, widely varying in degree of severity across all cases.
The majority of those reported are cases in which the symptoms are severe and debilitating. Burning and tingling can also be accompanied by hypersensitivity, usually in the form of dysaesthesia or allodynia. Less commonly, some patients develop severe ongoing pain with little or no stimuli. Allodynia is pain from a stimulus that would normally not cause pain. For example, there is a patient who experiences unrelenting pain when a breeze touches his skin. Most patients experiencing allodynia, experience pain with touch and pressure, however some can be hypersensitive to temperature. Dysaesthesia is defined as an unpleasant, abnormal sense of touch.
It often presents as pain. In this condition it is due to thalamic lesioning. This form of neuropathic pain can be any combination of itching, tingling, burning, or searing experienced spontaneously or from stimuli. Allodynia and dysaesthesia replace numbness between one week and a few months after a thalamic stroke. In general, once the development of pain has stopped, the type and severity of pain will be unchanging and if untreated, persist throughout life. Consequentially, many will undergo some form of pain treatment and adjust to their new lives as best they can. Pain associated with Dejerine–Roussy syndrome is sometimes coupled with anosognosia or somatoparaphrenia which causes a patient having undergone a right-parietal, or right-sided stroke to deny any paralysis of the left side when indeed there is, or deny the paralyzed limb(s) belong to them.
Although debatable, these symptoms are rare and considered part of a "thalamic phenomenon", and are not normally considered a characteristic of Dejerine–Roussy syndrome. Mechanism Although there are many contributing factors and risks associated with strokes, there are very few associated with Dejerine–Roussy syndrome and thalamic lesions specifically. In general, strokes damage one hemisphere of the brain, which can include the thalamus. The thalamus is generally believed to relay sensory information between a variety of subcortical areas and the cerebral cortex. It is known that sensory information from environmental stimuli travels to the thalamus for processing and then to the somatosensory cortex for interpretation.
The final product of this communication is the ability to see, hear or feel something as interpreted by the brain. Dejerine–Roussy syndrome most often compromises tactile sensation. Therefore, the damage in the thalamus causes miscommunication between the afferent pathway and the cortex of the brain, changing what or how one feels. The change could be an incorrect sensation experienced, or inappropriate amplification or dulling of a sensation. Because the brain is considered plastic and each individual's brain is different, it is almost impossible to know how a sensation will be changed without brain mapping and individual consultation. Recently, magnetic resonance imaging has been utilized to correlate lesion size and location with area affected and severity of condition.
Although preliminary, these findings hold promise for an objective way to understand and treat patients with Dejerine–Roussy syndrome. Diagnosis Dejerine-Roussy is a rare pain syndrome. Individuals with emerging Dejerine–Roussy syndrome usually report they are experiencing unusual pain or sensitivity that can be allodynic in nature or triggered by seemingly unrelated stimuli (sounds, tastes). Symptoms are typically lateralized and may include vision loss or loss of balance (position sense). Workup should be performed by a neurologist and brain imaging to look for evidence of infarction or tumor should be obtained. Treatments Many chemical medications have been used for a broad range of neuropathic pain including Dejerine–Roussy syndrome.
Symptoms are generally not treatable with ordinary analgesics. Traditional chemicals include opiates and anti-depressants. Newer pharmaceuticals include anti-convulsants and Kampo medicine. Pain treatments are most commonly administered via oral medication or periodic injections. Topical In addition, physical therapy has traditionally been used alongside a medication regimen. More recently, electrical stimulation of the brain and spinal cord and caloric stimulation have been explored as treatments. The most common treatment plans involve a schedule of physical therapy with a medication regimen. Because the pain is mostly unchanging after development, many patients test different medications and eventually choose the regimen that best adapts to their lifestyle, the most common of which are orally and intravenously administered.
Pharmaceutical treatment Opiates contain the narcotics morphine, codeine, and papaverine which provide pain relief. Opiates activate μ-opioid receptors in the brain which alter the brain's perception of sensory input, alleviating pain and sometimes inducing pleasure for a short time period. When intravenously administered, opiates can relieve neuropathic pain but only for a time between 4 and 24 hours. After this time window, the pain returns and the patient must be treated again. Although this method of treatment has been proven to reduce pain, the repetitive use of opiates has also been linked to the activation of the brain's reward system and therefore poses a threat of addiction.
Heavy doses of opiates can also cause constipation, and respiratory depression. More common side effects include light-headedness, dizziness, sedation, itching, nausea, vomiting, and sweating. Anti-depressants are traditionally administered for treatment of mood disorders, also linked to the thalamus, and can be used to treat Dejerine–Roussy symptoms. Specifically, tricyclic anti-depressants such as amitriptyline and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have been used to treat this symptom and they are effective to some degree within a short time window. Anti-convulsants reduce neuronal hyperexcitability, effectively targeting Dejerine–Roussy syndrome. Gabapentin and pregabalin are the most common anti-convulsants. They have significant efficacy in treatment of peripheral and central neuropathic pain.
Treatments last 4–12 hours and in general are well tolerated, and the occurrence of adverse events does not differ significantly across patients. Commonly reported side-effects are dizziness, decreased intellectual performance, somnolence, and nausea. Topical treatment such as lidocaine patches can be used to treat pain locally. The chemical is released to the skin to act as a numbing agent that feels cool, then feels warm, much like IcyHot. Kampo medicine has been research in a case study to test the efficacy of a medicine called "Sokeikakketsuto decoction" in Dejerine–Roussy pain symptoms. The patients studied did not respond to anti-depressants and anti-epileptic drugs, and turned to Kampo medicine as a treatment option.
Pain experienced by patients significantly decreased and some had improved dysaesthesia. The mechanism of action blocking pain is currently unknown. The effects of this treatment lasted ≈10 days, a comparatively longer refractory period than any of the traditional pharmaceutical treatments. Stimulation treatments Electrode stimulation from surgically implanted electrodes has been studied in the past decade in hopes of a permanent pain treatment without refraction. Electric stimulation utilizing implants deliver specific voltages to a specific part of the brain for specific durations. More recently, research is being done in radiation therapy as long term treatment of Dejerine–Roussy syndrome. In general, these studies have concluded initial efficacy in such implants, but pain often re-appears after a year or so.
Long-term efficacy of stimulation treatments must be further tested and evaluated. Expensive and invasive, the above treatments are not guaranteed to work, and are not meeting the needs of patients. There is a need for a new, less expensive, less invasive form of treatment, two of which are postulated below. Spinal cord stimulation has been studied in the last couple of years. In a long case study, 8 patients were given spinal cord stimulation via insertion of a percutaneous lead at the appropriate level of the cervical or thoracic spine. Between 36 and 149 months after the stimulations, the patients were interviewed.
6 of the 8 had received initial pain relief, and three experienced long-term pain relief. Spinal cord stimulation is cheaper than brain stimulation and less invasive, and is thus a more promising option for pain treatment. ▪ Perispinal Etanercept: A novel use. In published, peer-reviewed scientific articles by Dr. Edward L Tobinick, director of the Institute of Neurological Recovery in Boca Raton FL, and other physicians and scientists, the authors have suggested the efficacy of using an already FDA approved drug in a novel, off-label way for post-stroke neurological dysfunction These publications are relevant to Dejerine–Roussy syndrome. The alleviated symptoms may include reduction in spasticity and reduction in chronic post-stroke pain.
Randomized, placebo-controlled trials are in development or underway (see for example, https://www.griffith.edu.au/menzies-health-institute-queensland/our-research/clinical-trials/stroke, accessed October 3, 2018). Epidemiology 8% of all stroke patients will experience central pain syndrome, with 5% experiencing moderate to severe pain. The risk of developing Dejerine–Roussy syndrome is higher in older stroke patients, about 11% of stroke patients over the age of 80. History In 1906, Joseph Jules Dejerine and Gustave Roussy provided descriptions of central post-stroke pain (CPSP) in their paper entitled: "Le syndrome thalamique". The name Dejerine–Roussy syndrome was coined after their deaths. The syndrome included "…severe, persistent, paroxysmal, often intolerable, pains on the hemiplegic side, not yielding to any analgesic treatment".
In 1911, it was found that the patients often developed pain and hypersensitivity to stimuli during recovery of function. And thus it was thought that the pain associated after stroke was part of the stroke and lesion repair process occurring in the brain. It is now accepted that Dejerine–Roussy syndrome is a condition developed due to lesions interfering with the sensory process, which triggered the start of pharmaceutical and stimulation treatment research. The last 50 years have been filled with refractory treatment research. As of the early 2000s, longer treatments lasting months to years have been explored in the continued search for permanent removal of abnormal pain.
Eponym Dejerine–Roussy syndrome has also been referred to as: "Posterior Thalamic Syndrome", "Retrolenticular Syndrome", "Thalamic Hyperesthetic Anesthesia", "Thalamic Pain Syndrome", "Thalamic Syndrome", "Central Pain Syndrome", and "Central Post-Stroke Syndrome". This condition is not associated with Roussy–Lévy syndrome or Dejerine–Sottas disease, both of which are genetic disorders. See also Central post-stroke pain Central pain syndrome  References  External links   Category:Cerebrovascular diseases Category:Syndromes affecting the nervous system Category:Thalamus
Chondrostei are primarily cartilaginous fish showing some degree of ossification. The cartilaginous condition is thought to be derived, and the ancestors of this group were bony fish with fully ossified skeletons. Members of this group  share with the Elasmobranchii certain features such as the possession of spiracles, a heterocercal tail, and the absence of scales. Nevertheless, the fossil record suggests they have more in common with the teleosts. The Chondrostei are probably a paraphyletic grouping; the 52 living species are divided among two orders, the Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes), and the Polypteriformes (reedfishes and bichirs). Characteristics The main distinguishing feature of this group is the cartilaginous nature of the skeleton, although some older fish show a degree of calcification.
The ancestors of the chondrosteans are thought to be bony fish, but that this characteristic of an ossified skeleton was lost in later evolutionary development, resulting in a lightening of the frame. Elderly chondrostean individuals show beginnings of ossification of the skeleton, which suggests this process is delayed rather than wholly lost in these fishes. Taxonomy This group has at times been classified with the sharks because the chondrosteans, like the latter, mostly lack bone, and their structure of the jaw is more akin to that of sharks than of other bony fish; further, both groups lack scales (excluding the Polypteriforms).
Additional shared features include spiracles and, in sturgeons and paddlefishes, a heterocercal tail (the vertebrae extend into the larger lobe of the caudal fin). However, the fossil record suggests these fish have more characters in common with the Teleostei than their external appearance might suggest. The Chondrostei taxon as described below is paraphyletic, meaning this subclass does not contain all the descendants of their common ancestor; reclassification of the Chondrostei is therefore not out of the question. In particular, the article Actinopteri, describing the Chondrosteans' parent group, places the Polypteriformes outside the Chondrostei as a sister group to the Actinopteri.
The name comes from Greek chondros meaning cartilage and osteo meaning bone. Classification Acipenseriformes Acipenseridae — sturgeons Polyodontidae — paddlefishes Chondrosteidae(†) Errolichthyidae(†) Cheirolepidiformes(†) Guildayichthyiformes(†) Luganoiiformes(†) Palaeonisciformes(†) Acrolepidae(†) Birgeriidae(†) Palaeoniscidae(†) Perleidiformes(†) Phanerorhynchiformes(†) Pholidopleuriformes(†) Polypteriformes Polypteridae - bichirs and reedfish Ptycholepiformes(†) Saurichthyiformes(†) Tarrasiiformes(†)  References  * Category:Extant Silurian first appearances Category:Paraphyletic groups
Quartodecimanism (from the Vulgate Latin quarta decima in Leviticus 23:5, meaning fourteenth) refers to the custom of early Christians celebrating Passover beginning with the eve of the 14th day of Nisan (or Aviv in the Hebrew Bible calendar). The modern Jewish Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread is seven days, starting with the sunset at the beginning of Nisan 15. Judaism reckons the beginning of each day at sunset, not at sunrise as is the ancient custom in European traditions. The biblical law regarding Passover is said to be a "perpetual ordinance" (), to some degree also applicable to proselytes ().
Regarding the chronology of Jesus, some claim the Gospel of John (e.g., , , ) implies that Nisan 14 was the day that Jesus was crucified in Jerusalem and that the Synoptic Gospels instead place the execution on the first day of Unleavened Bread (). In Ancient Israel the first day of Unleavened Bread was on Nisan 15 and began a seven-day feast to the Lord (). By the time of Christ, many customs in regard to the festival had changed, notable among them the intermixing of the two festivals in some customs and terminology. The eight days, passover and the feast of unleavened bread, were often collectively referred to as the Passover, or the Pesach Festival.
History The Quartodeciman controversy arose because Christians in the churches of Jerusalem and Asia Minor observed The Lord's Supper on the 14th of the first month (Nisan (postexilic), Aviv/Abib (preexilic)) no matter the day of the week on which it occurred, while the churches in and around Rome changed to the practice of celebrating Easter always on the Sunday following Nisan 14, calling it "the day of the resurrection of our Saviour". The difference was turned into an ecclesiastical controversy when the practice was condemned by synods of bishops. Background Of the disputes about the date when the Christian Pascha should be celebrated, disputes known as Paschal/Easter controversies, the Quartodeciman is the first recorded.
In the mid–2nd century, the practice in Asia Minor was for the pre-Paschal fast to end and the feast to be held on the 14th day (the full moon) of the Jewish lunar month of Nisan (no matter the day of the week on which it occurred), the date on which the Passover sacrifice had been offered when the Second Temple stood, and "the day when the people put away the leaven". Those who observed this practice were called Quartodecimani, Latin for "fourteenthers", because of holding their celebration on the fourteenth day of Nisan. The practice had been followed by Polycarp, who was a disciple of John the Apostle and bishop of Smyrna (c. 69 – c. 155) - one of the seven churches of Asia, and by Melito of Sardis (d. c. 180).
Irenaeus says that Polycarp visited Rome when Anicetus was its bishop (c. 68-153), and among the topics discussed was this divergence of custom, with Rome instituting the festival of Easter in place of the Pasch. Irenaeus noted:  But neither considered that the disagreement required them to break off communion and initiate a schism. Indeed, "Anicetus conceded the administration of the eucharist in the church to Polycarp, manifestly as a mark of respect. And they parted from each other in peace, both those who observed, and those who did not, maintaining the peace of the whole church." Sozomen also wrote:  A modern source says that the discussion between Polycarp and Anicetus in Rome took place within the framework of a synod.
Thus the churches in Asia appealed to the Apostle John in support of their practice, while Sozomen wrote that the Roman custom (observed, according to Irenaeus, since at least the time of Bishop Xystus of 115–25) was believed to have been handed down by the Apostles Peter and Paul, and Eusebius states that in Palestine and Egypt the Sunday observance was also believed to have originated with the Apostles. Condemnatory synods According to Eusebius, in the last decade of the 2nd century a number of synods were convened to deal with the controversy, ruling unanimously that the celebration of Easter should be observed and be exclusively on Sunday.
These synods were held in Palestine, Pontus and Osrhoene in the east, and in Rome and Gaul in the west. The council in Rome, presided over by its bishop Victor, took place in 193 and sent a letter about the matter to Polycrates of Ephesus and the churches of the Roman province of Asia. Within the same year, Polycrates presided over a council at Ephesus attended by several bishops throughout that province, which rejected Victor's authority and kept the province's paschal tradition. Polycrates emphatically stated that he was following the tradition passed down to him:  Excommunication On receiving the negative response of Polycrates, Victor attempted to cut off Polycrates and the others who took this stance from the common unity, but reversed his decision after bishops who included Saint Irenaeus, bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, interceded, recommending that Victor follow the more peaceful attitude of his predecessors.
Resolution In the short following chapter of the account by Eusebius, a chapter headed "How All came to an Agreement respecting the Passover", he recounts that the Palestinian bishops Narcissus and Theophilus, together with the bishops of Tyre and Ptolemais, wrote a lengthy review of the tradition of Sunday celebration of Easter "which had come to them in succession from the apostles", and concluded by saying:  Historically, there had been a debate about when quartodecimanism disappeared and in particular whether it disappeared before or after the first ecumenical council (Nicaea I) in 325. In 1880, Louis Duchesne showed that quartodecimanism was not the subject of Nicaea I.
According to Mark DelCogliano, "the older opinion persists" but Duchesne's opinion "has gained widespread acceptance." According to DelCogliano, "by the early 4th century all Christians were celebrating Easter on a Sunday. Accordingly, it was not the Quartodeciman practice that Constantine sought to eliminate, but rather the so-called 'Protopaschite' practice which calculated the paschal full moon according to the Jewish lunar calendar and not the Julian solar calendar". As shown, for instance, by the Sardica paschal table, it was quite common at that time that the Jewish calendrical year started before the equinox. In case the previous year had started after the equinox, two Passovers would be celebrated in the same solar year (the solar New Year was starting on March 21).
Since the 3rd century this disorder of the Jewish calendar of the time was lamented by several Christian writers, who felt that the Jewish were often using a wrong lunation as their Nisan month and advocated the introduction of an independent computus by the Christians. In a letter to the bishops who had not been present, Emperor Constantine I said that it had been decided to adopt a uniform date, rejecting the custom of the Jews, who had crucified Jesus and whose practice often meant that two passovers were celebrated in the same solar year:  Eschatology of the quartodeciman Paschal celebration In his study The Eucharistic Words of Jesus, the Lutheran scriptural scholar Joachim Jeremias made a compelling argument that the Quartodecimans preserved the original understanding and character of the Christian Easter (Passover) celebration.
He states that in Jewish tradition four major themes are associated with Passover, i.e., the creation of the world, the Akedah or binding of Isaac, the redemption of Israel from Egypt (both the passing over of the First-born during the Passover meal and Israel's passage through the Red Sea) and the coming of the Messiah (announced by the Prophet Elijah). For Christians, the central events of the Paschal Mystery of Christ, i.e., his passion, death and resurrection, also are obviously associated with Passover. Thus it was inevitable that the very earliest Christians expected the imminent return of Christ to also occur during their Passover celebrations.
Jeremias notes that Quartodecimans began their Christian Passover celebrations by reading the appropriate readings from the Hebrew Scriptures, i.e., the twelve readings from the Hebrew Scriptures that still are read at the Easter Vigil in the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Armenian traditions. At midnight, when Christ had not reappeared to inaugurate the great eschatological banquet, the Christians would celebrate the Paschal Eucharist in anticipation of that final act of the drama of the redemption of Christ.
As this original eschatological fervor began to die down, and as Christianity became an increasingly Gentile movement, this original eschatological orientation of the Christian Passover celebration was lost; and with the development of the practice of baptizing catechumens during the twelve readings so they would share the Eucharist for the first time with the Christian community at the conclusion of the Paschal Vigil, the baptismal themes came to dominate the celebrations of the Paschal Vigil, as they do again in those churches which have begun again to baptize its adult converts during the Easter Vigil. Major liturgical scholars such as Louis Bouyer and Alexander Schmemann concur with Jeremias' essential position and one has only to examine the Christian liturgical texts for Paschal Vigil to see evidence of this.
E.g., the Eucharistic Preface for the Easter Vigil in the Roman, Lutheran and Anglican/Episcopalian traditions, which state:  "...on this night when Christ became our Passover sacrifice" or the Eastern Orthodox Troparion for Great and Holy Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, which warns the Christian community "Behold the Bridegroom comes in the middle of the night and blessed are those servants he shall find awake..."  In short, no one knows when Christ will appear at the end of time, but given other central events of redemption which occurred during Passover, the earliest Christians assumed that Christ would probably appear during the Paschal Eucharist, just as he first appeared to his original disciples during their meal on the first Easter Sunday.
Legacy It is not known how long the Nisan 14 practice lasted. The church historian Socrates of Constantinople knew of Quartodecimans who were deprived of their churches by John Chrysostom, and harassed in unspecified ways by Nestorius, both bishops of Constantinople. This indicates that the Nisan 14 practice, or a practice that was called by the same name, lingered into the 4th century. Because this was the first-recorded Easter controversy, it has had a strong influence on the minds of some subsequent generations. Wilfrid, the 7th-century bishop of York in Northumbria, styled his opponents in the Easter controversy of his day "quartodecimans", though they celebrated Easter on Sunday.
Many scholars of the 19th and 20th centuries thought that the dispute over Easter that was discussed at Nicaea was between the Nisan 14 practice and Sunday observance. According to one account, "A final settlement of the dispute was one among the other reasons which led Constantine to summon the council at Nicaea in 325. At that time, the Syrians and Antiochenes were the solitary champions of the observance of the 14th day. The decision of the council was unanimous that Easter was to be kept on Sunday, and on the same Sunday throughout the world, and that 'none hereafter should follow the blindness of the Jews.
A new translation, published in 1999, of Eusebius' Life of Constantine suggests that this view is no longer widely accepted; its view is that the dispute at Nicaea was between two schools of Sunday observance: those who followed the traditional practice of relying on Jewish informants to determine the lunar month in which Easter would fall, and those who wished to set it using Christian computations. Laurent Cleenewerck suggests that the East-West schism could even be argued to have started with Victor's attempt to excommunicate the Asian churches. Despite Victor's failure to carry out his intent to excommunicate the Asian churches, many Catholic theologians point to this episode as evidence of papal primacy and authority in the early Church, citing the fact that none of the bishops challenged his right to excommunicate but rather questioned the wisdom and charity of doing so.
From the Orthodox perspective, Victor had to relent in the end and we see that the Eastern Churches never grant him presidency over anything other than his own church, his own synod. Cleenewerck points out that Eusebius of Caesarea simply refers to Victor as one of the "rulers of the Churches", not the ruler of a yet unknown or unformed "universal Church". As the date of observance of the Resurrection of Christ as being on the day of the week Sunday rather than the 14th day of the month was not resolved by Papal authority it was only finally resolved by an Ecumenical Council.
The rejection of Bishop Anicetus' position on the Quartodeciman by Polycarp, and later Polycrates' letter to Pope Victor I, has been used by Orthodox theologians as proof against the argument that the Churches in Asia Minor accepted the Primacy of the Bishop of Rome and or the teaching of Papal supremacy. Jehovah's Witnesses and Bible Students worldwide celebrate the Memorial of Christ's death on Nisan 14. The Living Church of God keeps the Quartodeciman Passover on the evening beginning Nisan 14 in the manner of the First Century Church. See also Easter controversy Celtic Christianity Celtic Rite Christian view of the Law Expounding of the Law New Covenant Christian Torah-submission Paschal mystery  Notes  References  Citations  Sources       .
External links   . . . Category:Judeo-Christian topics Category:Vulgate Latin words and phrases Category:Schisms in Christianity Category:Ancient Christian controversies Category:Early Christianity and Judaism Category:Christian terminology Category:Easter date Category:Mosaic law in Christian theology
The eighteenth series of the British medical drama television series Holby City commenced airing in the United Kingdom on 13 October 2015, and concluded on 4 October 2016. The series consists of 52 episodes. Oliver Kent continues his position as the show's executive producer, while Simon Harper serves as the series producer. Sixteen cast members reprised their roles from the previous series, while several recurring characters, and numerous guest stars feature in the series. Four actors depart during the series and two cast members reprise their roles after taking breaks in the previous series. Jemma Redgrave appeared in the series between February and September 2016 as general surgeon Bernie Wolfe.
Jason Robertson joined the semi-regular cast in February 2016 as Jason Haynes, and two new cast members joined the serial in summer 2016: Marc Elliott as registrar Isaac Mayfield and Lucinda Dryzek as F1 doctor Jasmine Burrows. Several crossover events with Holby City sister show Casualty occurred during the series. Four Holby City cast members appeared in Casualty during the series, while five Casualty actors starred in Holby City during the series, including former Holby City actress Amanda Mealing. Several storylines featured in the series with on-off relationships becoming a common theme throughout. One storyline sees CT1 doctor Dominic Copeland (David Ames) attacked by an aggressive partner, who is married.
A prominent storyline in the series is CT2 doctor Arthur Digby's (Rob Ostlere) melanoma diagnosis, which proves to be terminal. Ostlere raised awareness for the illness off-screen too, and the story concluded in "I'll Walk You Home", which features Ostlere's departure. Series 18 of Holby City attracted 4.5 million viewers on average with three episodes failing to reach the top 30 rated programmes of the week. During the series, Holby City was nominated for several awards, including a nomination at the 2016 British Academy Television Awards and the 2016 Broadcast Awards. Four cast members and three storylines were nominated at the 2016 Inside Soap Awards, and Ostlere won the "Best Drama Star" accolade.
The serial also received a positive reaction to the characters and storylines with a domestic abuse storyline featured in the series prompting 177 calls to the BBC Action Line and 2,032 visits to the BBC Action Line's website. Episodes  Production  Holby City eighteenth series was produced by the BBC and aired its 52 episodes on BBC One in the United Kingdom. The series aired in the 8 pm timeslot on Tuesdays across the United Kingdom, except in Scotland, where the series has no fixed timeslot. Each episode runs for 60 minutes. There was no break between series 17 and series 18, with the premiere of series 18 airing one week after the finale of series 17, in the same timeslot.
Oliver Kent continues his role as the executive producer of the show, while Simon Harper serves as the series producer. In October 2015, Harper announced the show would receive a new opening titles sequence and the new sequence was first previewed in November 2015. The new opening titles sequence first aired in the episode, "In Which We Serve", broadcast on 1 December 2015 as the eighth episode of the series. Harper confirmed in October 2015 that the series would feature a standalone episode, which would air in January 2016. The episode centres around junior doctors, Arthur Digby (Rob Ostlere), Morven Shreve (Eleanor Fanyinka), Oliver Valentine (James Anderson) and Zosia March (Camilla Arfwedson), and Harper confirmed that it would answer several "'will they, won't they?'
questions". The episode, "Young Hearts, Run Free", aired on 5 January 2016 as the thirteenth episode of the series. Crossovers  This series featured several crossover events with Holby City sister show Casualty. Harper confirmed this series would feature crossovers with the show, especially around the time of Casualty thirtieth anniversary in September 2016. Guy Henry made three guest appearances as Henrik Hanssen in Casualty between January and May 2016, while Rosie Marcel guest appeared in a February 2016 episode of Casualty as her character Jac Naylor. On 28 June 2016, it was announced that Marcel, Henry and Alex Walkinshaw would guest appear in Casualty feature-length anniversary episode "Too Old for This Shift", originally broadcast on 27 August 2016, as their characters Jac, Hanssen and Adrian "Fletch" Fletcher respectively.
Walkinshaw previously appeared in the serial as a regular character between 2012 and 2014. Marcel and John Michie, who portrays Guy Self, appeared again in Casualty two episodes later. On 27 August 2016, it was confirmed that Amanda Mealing would appear in an episode of Holby City as her character Connie Beauchamp. The actress previously appeared in the serial between 2004 and 2010. Mealing appeared in episode 47, "Protect and Serve", broadcast on 30 August 2016. Michael Stevenson and Lloyd Everitt also appeared in the episode as paramedics Iain Dean and Jez Andrews while Tonicha Lawrence guest starred as Steph Sims, a patient who appeared in Casualty.
George Rainsford also appeared during the eighteenth series as his Casualty character, Ethan Hardy. Rainsford appeared for Ostlere's final scenes as Arthur Digby after they pleaded with producers to allow them to share a scene together. Storyline development  In an October 2015 interview with Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy, Harper revealed a selection of upcoming storylines to feature in the series. He explained that a "dramatic and exciting" twist in a storyline involving Cara Martinez (Niamh Walsh) and her husband, Jed Martinez (Jody Latham), would challenge Cara's relationship with Raf di Lucca (Joe McFadden), while a theme of "people's pasts coming back to haunt them" would be explored with the characters of Mo Effanga (Chizzy Akudolu) and Serena Campbell (Catherine Russell).
He stated that Mo would re-evaluate her life and relationship with Derwood "Mr T" Thompson (Ben Hull) following the return of her surrogate son, whereas Serena would begin a relationship in a new storyline before her past is explored. Harper also announced plans to explore the on-again, off-again relationships between audience favourites Zosia and Oliver, Arthur and Morven, Sacha Levy (Bob Barrett) and Essie Harrison (Kaye Wragg), and Mo and Mr T, adding that they would answer some ongoing questions in late 2015. He also stated that Zosia and Oliver would be "caught in the crossfire" of Jac Naylor's (Rosie Marcel) rivalry with Guy Self (John Michie) following Guy's move to Darwin ward.
Harper said that Sacha and Essie's relationship would be challenged by Essie wanting to have a child as well as Sacha's Jewish family being unable to overlook Essie's grandfather's Nazi background. Harper also expressed an interest in creating more nurse characters as he felt the show lacked nursing characters. In February 2016, David Ames revealed that his character, Dominic Copeland, would be attacked. The storyline began in autumn 2015 when Dominic begins a relationship with patient Lee Cannon (Jamie Nichols), although he is "gutted" when Lee steals from him and disappears. Lee returns when his pregnant wife, Alison Jones (Elizabeth Cadwallader), is admitted onto Keller ward, where she discovers Lee and Dominic had a fling.
Lee becomes aggressive and confronts Dominic in the staffroom. Ames explained that Lee is "furious with the fact his whole world has crumbled" so Dominic reminds Lee about his misdemeanours. The actor stated that when Lee grabs a knife, he creates a "tug of war" between them and someone is stabbed. The storyline is revisited in May 2016 when Alison is readmitted onto the ward, leaving Dominic astounded. Dominic helps Alison as she delivers her child, but he becomes enraged when Alison asks him to accompany her to visit Lee in prison. Ames said that Dominic warns Alison that "you can't hold on to the past", something which he has to remind himself.
In his October 2015 interview with Kilkelly, Harper teased a "heartbreaking and touching" storyline to air in 2016 which would bring together every character. This storyline commenced in February 2016 when Arthur is tested as a liver donor for Morven's father, Austin Shreve (Clinton Blake). While testing, Essie discovers a mole on Arthur's back and believes it could be melanoma, however Arthur dismisses her claims as being "over-protective". Essie requests a second opinion from Hanssen, who orders for it to be removed and examined. Ostlere explained that Arthur "feels like the rug has been pulled out from under him" after his diagnosis.
Off-screen, Ostlere raised awareness for melanoma, issuing his support during Melanoma Awareness Month. Arthur learns he has secondary tumours on his lungs, before discovering his treatment is not working and his cancer is terminal. The storyline concluded with Ostlere's departure from the show; on-screen, Arthur and Morven decided to travel together but before they can leave, Arthur collapses and falls unconscious. Since Arthur's cancer is too advanced, his life cannot be saved and he soon dies surrounded by his colleagues. Ostlere found filming his final scenes emotional and said he would miss playing the character. Cast  Overview  The eighteenth series of Holby City began with 16 roles receiving star billing, a similar amount to previous series.
Guy Henry appeared as Henrik Hanssen, the hospital's chief executive officer and consultant general surgeon. Catherine Russell played deputy chief executive officer, clinical lead of the Acute Assessment Unit (AAU) and consultant general surgeon Serena Campbell. John Michie portrayed director of neurosurgery and consultant neurosurgeon Guy Self. Don Gilet stars as consultant anaesthetist and later, consultant general surgeon Jesse Law. Chizzy Akudolu featured as specialist registrar of cardiothoracic surgery and later, consultant cardiothoracic surgeon Mo Effanga. Bob Barrett appeared as Sacha Levy, the clinical skills tutor and specialist registrar, specialising in general surgery, who is later promoted to consultant general surgeon.
James Anderson starred as cardiothoracic specialist registrar Oliver Valentine, while Joe McFadden portrayed Raf di Lucca, a specialist registrar of general surgery. Rob Ostlere appeared as CT2 doctor Arthur Digby, while Camilla Arfwedson and David Ames continued their roles as F2 doctors, and later CT1 doctors Zosia March and Dominic Copeland. Eleanor Fanyinka featured as F1 doctor, and later F2 doctor Morven Shreve (later credited as Morven Digby). Alex Walkinshaw starred as AAU ward manager Adrian Fletcher, while Kaye Wragg appeared as staff nurse and transplant co-ordinator Essie Harrison. Niamh Walsh portrayed staff nurse Cara Martinez, while Petra Letang featured as healthcare assistant and later, student nurse Adele Effanga.
Additionally, Ben Hull and Carli Norris continued their semi-regular roles as Derwood "Mr T" Thompson, a consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist, and agency nurse Fran Reynolds. Norris departed the serial in episode 11 at the conclusion of Fran's storyline. Letang made her final appearance as Adele in episode 25 after over two years in the role. Gilet also departed the serial and Jesse made his final appearance in episode 27. Hull temporarily departed the serial in episode 31, although returned in episode 48. Ostlere opted to quit his role as Arthur, with producers making the decision to kill off his character.
The actor decided to leave to pursue new challenges, but stated the decision was "difficult". Arthur departed in episode 35 when he died following a battle with terminal cancer. Walsh left her role as Cara after appearing on the serial for a year. The character departed in episode 37. After taking maternity leave in April 2015, Rosie Marcel returned to her role as consultant cardiothoracic surgeon Jac Naylor in November 2015. On Jac's return, Harper said, "What's great about Jac's return is that the bitch is definitely back." Jac returned in episode 7. Hugh Quarshie's return in the role of consultant general surgeon Ric Griffin was confirmed in October 2015, following his break during the previous series.
It was revealed that upon his return, Ric would begin a new role within the hospital, later explained to be the clinical lead of Keller ward. Ric returned in episode 12. Jimmy Akingbola and Lauren Drummond reprised their roles as Antoine Malick and Chantelle Lane respectively for a cameo appearance in episode 35. On 3 September 2015, it was announced that actress Jemma Redgrave would join the cast as "feisty" general surgeon Bernie Wolfe, who has experience working in the army. The character was created with Redgrave in mind and producers were "utterly thrilled" when she agreed to join the cast.
Bernie initially appeared as a patient, before joining Keller ward. Redgrave was contracted for six months. Bernie arrived in episode 17, and departed in episode 51 at the conclusion of Redgrave's contract. Jason Haynes, portrayed by Jason Robertson, was introduced in episode 18 as the nephew of Serena. Robertson began filming with the serial in October 2015. Marc Elliott's casting in the role of Isaac Mayfield, a "charming, confident and twinkly" doctor, was announced in April 2016. Isaac is a love interest for Dominic, who joins Keller ward. Elliott was contracted for six months. The character made his first appearance in episode 37.
Lucinda Dryzek joined the cast as Jac's half-sister, F1 doctor Jasmine Burrows in 2016. The character made her first appearance in episode 41. Commenting on her character, Dryzek said "Jasmine is a little firework. She's lovely, she's a really good doctor and very instinctive with her work. In some senses she's the complete opposite to Jac. She's cheery, fun and smiley." Episode 48 marked the first appearance of Inga Olsen (Kaisa Hammarlund), Mr T's fiancée who works as a bank nurse on Darwin ward. Series 18 featured several recurring characters, and numerous guest stars. Jody Latham continued his role of Jed Martinez, the husband of Cara, from the previous series, departing in episode 6.
Susannah Corbett reprised her role as Sorcia Winters in episode 1 to aid the introduction of William Winters (Jackson Allison), who appeared until episode 5. Caroline Lee-Johnson reprised her role as Patsy Brassvine from the previous series in episodes 4 and 5. Jamie Nichols began appearing in episode 5 as patient Lee Cannon, who becomes romantically involved with Dom. His storyline was teased by Harper who said it test Dom and Arthur's relationship. The character departed in episode 8, although he made another appearance in episode 18. Macey Chipping guest starred in episode 10 as Evie Fletcher, the daughter of Fletch.
The character returned for two episodes in August 2016. Mark Healy joined the semi-regular cast in episode 12 as Robbie Medcalf, a love interest for Serena. The character was mentioned by Harper, who promised a romance for Serena. Rupert Frazer appeared between episodes 22 and 27 as Sir Dennis Hopkins-Clarke, a consultant cardiothoracic surgeon working on Darwin ward. Episode 30 marked the first appearance of Kai O'Loughlin, who portrays Mikey Fletcher, the son of Fletch. He continued to star in four further episodes until the end of the series. Lorna Brown starred in five episodes between episodes 30 and 39 as consultant psychiatrist Naomi Palmer, a love interest for Fletch and Raf.
Jocelyn Jee Esien made her first appearance as pharmacist Mel Watson in episode 40, featuring prominently in the following episode as she was held hostage by a drug addict. Esien appeared in episode 44, before making her final appearance in episode 46. Cameron Dunn, the son of Bernie, was introduced in episode 44, portrayed by Nic Jackman. He made a further appearance in episode 47.
Main characters  Chizzy Akudolu as Mo Effanga David Ames as Dominic Copeland James Anderson as Oliver Valentine Camilla Arfwedson as Zosia March Bob Barrett as Sacha Levy Lucinda Dryzek as Jasmine Burrows Eleanor Fanyinka as Morven Shreve Don Gilét as Jesse Law Guy Henry as Henrik Hanssen Petra Letang as Adele Effanga Rosie Marcel as Jac Naylor Joe McFadden as Raf di Lucca John Michie as Guy Self Rob Ostlere as Arthur Digby Hugh Quarshie as Ric Griffin Jemma Redgrave as Bernie Wolfe Catherine Russell as Serena Campbell Alex Walkinshaw as Adrian Fletcher Niamh Walsh as Cara Martinez Kaye Wragg as Essie Harrison  Recurring characters  Macey Chipping as Evie Fletcher Marc Elliott as Isaac Mayfield Kaisa Hammarlund as Inga Olsen Mark Healy as Robbie Medcalf Ben Hull as Derwood "Mr T" Thompson Nic Jackman as Cameron Dunn Jonathan McGuiness as Tristan Wood Carli Norris as Fran Reynolds Kai O'Loughlin as Mikey Fletcher Jules Robertson as Jason Haynes  Guest characters  Jimmy Akingbola as Antoine Malick Jackson Allison as William Winters Lorna Brown as Naomi Palmer Darcey Burke as Emma Naylor Susannah Corbett as Sorcia Winters Lauren Drummond as Chantelle Lane Jocelyn Jee Esien as Mel Watson Lloyd Everitt as Jez Andrews Rupert Frazer as Sir Dennis Hopkins-Clarke Jody Latham as Jed Martinez Tonicha Lawrence as Steph Sims Caroline Lee-Johnson as Patsy Brassvine Amanda Mealing as Connie Beauchamp Jamie Nichols as Lee Cannon George Rainsford as Ethan Hardy Michael Stevenson as Iain Dean  Reception  Critical response  On 29 December 2015, it was revealed that a storyline on Holby City about domestic abuse prompted 177 calls to the BBC Action Line and 2,032 visits to the BBC Action Line's website.
Arthur's melanoma storyline also helped one viewer, Rachel Green, to realise that she has melanoma. Green credits the show with making her realise she might have melanoma after they raised awareness on the subject. Actor Jules Robertson received a positive response to his character Jason's introduction. Rachel Sigee of Evening Standard believed that his introduction would begin "a breakthrough year for actors with autism". Nick Llewellyn, the artistic director of charity Access All Areas, told Sigee that he thinks Holby City casting director Sarah Hughes began the process that led to more awareness when she created the BBC Talent Alert for disabled actors.
The series received praise from television critics. The introduction of Jasmine Burrows (episode 41) was enjoyed by Vicki Power (Daily Express), who described her entrance as "memorable" and "like a shot in the arm for the medical soap". Victoria Wilson (What's on TV) called the scene where Fletch asks Raf to care for his children if he dies (episode 49) "heart-breaking". Episode 35, "I'll Walk You Home", was applauded by critics, who found it emotional and upsetting. Sara Wallis of the Daily Mirror dubbed the episode "a particularly gritty and gruelling episode of Holby City". Sarah Deen, writing for the Metro, called the episode "one of [the show's] saddest episodes ever" and said that it managed to "pull at the heart strings".
Anthony D. Langford of TVSource Magazine was upset by Arthur's exit and said that he would miss the character. However, he anticipated Isaac's arrival in episode 37 and predicted a "nice meaty love story" between him and Dom. Accolades  During series eighteen, Holby City was nominated for the "Best Soap and Continuing Drama" award at the 2016 British Academy Television Awards, however lost to BBC soap opera EastEnders. In November 2015, the serial was nominated in the "Best Soap/Continuing Drama" category at the 2016 Broadcast Awards, Judges credited storylines such as Arthur's death, Serena and Bernie's "blooming" romance, Jasmine's introduction and crossovers with Casualty as reasons for the serial's nomination.
At the 2016 Inside Soap Awards, the storylines "Arthur's death", "Fletch saves the day! ", and "Zosia and Ollie's romance" were longlisted in the "Best Drama Storyline" category; the first two were then shortlisted and "Arthur's death" was announced as winner. At the same awards ceremony, four cast members — Ames, Ostlere, Arfwedson and Marcel − were longlisted in the "Best Drama Star" category; Ames and Ostlere were then shortlisted. Actress Fanyinka was nominated in the "Rising Star" category and semi-regular cast member Francis was nominated in the "Male Performance in TV" category at the Screen Nation Film and Television Awards in March 2016.
Ratings  Holby City eighteenth series averaged 4.5 million viewers. Three episodes of the series failed to reach the top 30 rated programmes. On 17 November 2015, episode 6 received 3.64 million viewers and a 15.8% share of the viewing audience, a drop in ratings due to clashing with a football match. Despite being above the series average, episode 11, broadcast on 22 December 2015, failed to reach the top 30 rated programmes with 4.54 million viewers and a 21.2% share of the viewing audience. The following episode, broadcast on 29 December 2015, received 4.23 million viewers and a 20% share of the viewing audience.
Additionally, episode 33, broadcast on 24 May 2016, experienced a drop in ratings to 3.84 million viewers. References  External links  Holby City series 18 at BBC Online  Holby City series 18 at the Internet Movie Database  18 Category:2015 British television seasons Category:2016 British television seasons
Kenneth Noble Stevens (March 24, 1924 – August 19, 2013) was the Clarence J. LeBel Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, and Professor of Health Sciences and Technology at the Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT. Stevens was head of the Speech Communication Group in MIT's Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), and was one of the world's leading scientists in acoustic phonetics. He was awarded the National Medal of Science from President Bill Clinton in 1999, and the IEEE James L. Flanagan Speech and Audio Processing Award in 2004. He died in 2013 from complications of Alzheimer's disease. Education  Early education  Ken Stevens was born in Toronto on March 23, 1924.
His older brother, Pete, was born in England; Ken was born four years later, shortly after the family emigrated to Canada. His childhood ambition was to become a doctor, because he admired an uncle who was a doctor. He attended high school at a school attached to the Department of Education at the University of Toronto. Stevens attended college in the School of Engineering at the University of Toronto on a full scholarship. He lived at home throughout his undergraduate years. Though Stevens himself could not fight in World War II because of his visual impairment, his brother was away for the entire war; his parents tuned in nightly to the BBC for updates.
Stevens majored in engineering physics at the university, covering topics from the design of motorized machines through to basic physics, which was taught by the physics department. During summers he worked in the defense industry, including one summer at a company that was developing radar. He received both his S.B. and S.M. degrees in 1945. Stevens had been a teacher since his undergraduate years, when he lectured sections of home economics that involved some aspect of physics. After receiving his master's degree, he stayed at the University of Toronto as an instructor, teaching courses to young men returning from the war, including his own older brother.
He was a fellow of the Ontario Foundation from 1945 to 1946, then worked as an instructor at the University of Toronto until 1948. During his master's research Stevens became interested in control theory, and took courses from the applied mathematics department, where one of his professors recommended that he should apply to MIT for doctoral studies. Doctoral studies  Shortly after Stevens was admitted to MIT, a new professor named Leo Beranek noticed that Stevens had taken acoustics. Beranek contacted Stevens in Toronto, to ask if he would be a teaching assistant for Beranek's new acoustics course, and Stevens agreed.
Shortly after that, Beranek contacted Stevens again to offer him a research position on a new speech project, which Stevens also accepted. The Radiation Laboratory at MIT (building 20) was converted, after the war, into the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE); among other labs, RLE hosted Beranek's new Acoustics Lab. In November 1949, the office next to Ken's was given to a visiting doctoral student from Sweden named Gunnar Fant, with whom he formed a friendship and collaboration that would last more than half a century. Stevens focused on the study of vowels during his doctoral research; in 1950 he published a short paper arguing that the autocorrelation could be used to discriminate vowels, while his 1952 doctoral thesis reported perceptual results for vowels synthesized using a set of electronic resonators.
Fant convinced Stevens that a transmission-line model of the vocal tract was more flexible than a resonator model and the two published this work together in 1953. Ken credits Fant with the association between the Linguistics Department and the Research Laboratory for Electronics at MIT. Roman Jakobson, a phonologist at Harvard, had an office at MIT by 1957, while Morris Halle joined the MIT Linguistics Department and moved to RLE in 1951. Stevens' collaborations with Halle began with acoustics, but grew to focus on the way in which acoustics and articulation organize the sound systems of language. Stevens defended his doctoral thesis in 1952; his doctoral committee included his adviser Leo Beranek, as well as J. C. R. Licklider and Walter A. Rosenblith.
After receiving his doctorate, Stevens went to work at Bolt, Beranek and Newman (now BBN Technologies) in Harvard Square. In the early 1950s, Beranek decided to retire from the MIT faculty in order to work full-time at BBN. He knew that Stevens loved to teach, so he encouraged Stevens to apply for a position on the MIT faculty. Stevens did so, and joined the faculty in 1954. Research, teaching and service  Scientific contributions  Stevens is best known for his contributions to the fields of Phonology, speech perception, and speech production. Stevens' most well-known book, Acoustic Phonetics, is organized according to the distinctive features of Stevens' phonological system.
Contributions to phonology  Stevens is perhaps best known for his proposal of a theory that answers the question: Why are the sounds of the world's languages (their phonemes or segments) so similar to one another? On first learning a foreign language, one is struck by the remarkable differences that can exist between one language's sound system and that of any other. Stevens turned the student's  perception on its head: rather than asking why languages are different, he asked, if the sound system of each language is completely arbitrary, why are languages so similar? His answer is the quantal theory of speech.
Quantal theory is supported by a theory of language change, developed in collaboration with Samuel Jay Keyser, which postulates the existence of redundant or enhancement features. Contributions to speech perception  The quantal theory suggests that the phonological inventory of a language is defined primarily by the acoustic characteristics of each segment, with boundaries specified by the acoustic-articulatory mapping. The implication is that phonological segments must have some type of acoustic invariance. Blumstein and Stevens demonstrated what appeared to be an invariant relationship between the acoustic spectrum and the perceived sound: by adding energy to the burst spectrum of "pa" at a particular frequency, it is possible to turn it into "ta" or "ka" respectively, depending on the frequency.
Presence of the extra energy causes perception of the lingual consonant; its absence causes perception of the labial. Stevens' recent work has re-structured the theory of acoustic invariance into a shallow hierarchical perceptual model, the model of acoustic landmarks and distinctive features. Contributions to speech production  While on sabbatical at KTH in Sweden in 1962, Stevens volunteered as a participant in cineradiography experiments being conducted by Sven Öhman. Stevens' cineradiographic films are among the most widely distributed; copies exist on laserdisc, and some are available online. After returning to MIT, Stevens agreed to supervise the research of a dentistry student named Joseph S. Perkell.
Perkell's knowledge of oral anatomy permitted him to trace Stevens' X-ray films onto paper, and to publish the results. Other contributions to the study of speech production include a model by which one can predict the spectral shape of turbulent speech excitation (depending on the dimensions of the turbulent jet), and work related to the vocal fold configurations that lead to different modes of phonation. Stevens as a mentor  Stevens joined MIT as an assistant professor in 1954. He became an associate professor in 1957, a full professor in 1963, and was appointed as the Clarence J. Lebel Chaired Professor in 1977.
One of his long-time collaborators, Dennis Klatt (who wrote DECtalk while working in Stevens' lab), said that "As a leader, Ken is known for his devotion to students and his miraculous ability to run a busy laboratory while appearing to manage by a principle of benevolent anarchy." The first doctoral thesis Stevens signed at MIT was that of his fellow student, James L. Flanagan, in 1955. Flanagan started graduate school at MIT in the same year as Stevens, but without a prior master's degree; he earned his M.S. in 1950 under Beranek's supervision, then finished his doctoral thesis under Stevens' supervision in 1955.
Stevens estimated in 2001 that he had supervised approximately forty Ph.D. candidates. On the occasion of his receipt of the Gold Medal of the Acoustical Society of America, in 1995, colleagues wrote of Stevens' Speech Group that "during its existence of almost four decades" it "has been outstanding in the support that it has provided to women researchers, many of whom have gone on to populate the upper echelons of research labs throughout the world.". Stevens’ laboratory has been referred to by colleagues as a "national treasure"  Professional service  Stevens was active in the Acoustical Society of America since his time as a graduate student.
He was a member of the executive council from 1963 to 1966, Vice President from 1971–2, and President of the Society from 1976–7. He is a Fellow of the ASA. In 1983 he received its Silver Medal in Speech Communication, and in 1995 he received the Gold Medal from the society. Stevens was also active in the IEEE, where he held the rank of IEEE Life Fellow. In 2004, Ken Stevens and Gunnar Fant were the joint first winners of the IEEE James L. Flanagan Speech and Audio Processing Award. Stevens was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a member of the National Academy of Engineering, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and a 1999 recipient of the United States National Medal of Science.
References  External links Stevens biography at RLE/MIT  Category:1924 births Category:2013 deaths Category:National Medal of Science laureates Category:People from Toronto Category:Phoneticians Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering Category:American electrical engineers Category:American computer scientists Category:Speech processing researchers Category:Fellow Members of the IEEE Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Fellows of the Acoustical Society of America Category:ASA Gold Medal recipients Category:Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Adaptive reuse refers to the process of reusing an existing building for a purpose other than which it was originally built or designed for. It is also known as recycling and conversion. Adaptive reuse is an effective strategy for optimizing the operational and commercial performance of built assets. Adaptive reuse of buildings can be an attractive alternative to new construction in terms of sustainability and a circular economy. It has prevented thousands of buildings' demolition and has allowed them to become critical components of urban regeneration. Not every old building can qualify for adaptive reuse. Architects, developers, builders and entrepreneurs who wish to become involved in rejuvenating and reconstructing a building must first make sure that the finished product will serve the need of the market, that it will be completely useful for its new purpose, and that it will be competitively priced.
Definition Adaptive Reuse is defined as the aesthetic process that adapts buildings for new uses while retaining their historic features. Using an adaptive reuse model can prolong a building's life, from cradle-to-grave, by retaining all or most of the building system, including the structure, the shell and even the interior materials. This type of revitalization is not restricted to buildings of historic significance and can be a strategy adopted in case of obsolete buildings. Some urban planners see adaptive reuse as an effective way of reducing urban sprawl and environmental impact. Revitalizing the existing built fabric by finding a new use or purpose for obsolete buildings can be a wonderful resource to a community by "keeping neighborhoods occupied and vital".
According to Yung and Chan, "adaptive reuse is a new kind of maintainable rebirth of city, as it covers the building’s lifetime and evades destruction waste, encourages recycles of the embodied dynamism and also delivers substantial social and economic profits to the world". Advantages of adaptive reuse  According to Zaitzevsky and Bunnell, old buildings physically link us to our past and become a part of our cultural heritage; they should be preserved because of their "architectural beauty" and the "character and scale they add to the built environment". Retention and rehabilitation of existing buildings also reduces the consumption of building materials, resources, energy and water needed for new construction.
Cost savings on building material: Adaptive reuse involves the refurbishment of existing building members, which is labor-intensive process and relies less on purchasing and installing many new building materials. Cost of building materials has risen sharply over the past few decades, while the cost of labor has increased only marginally compared to that of building materials. Therefore, it is economically viable to renovate and reuse an existing building. Cost savings on demolition: Demolition costs can run as high as 5% to 10% of the total cost of new construction. This expense is often overlooked by many building owners. Some urban areas have strict building safety regulations and may not allow the usage of a swinging ball and other more efficient demolition techniques.
Under these circumstances, buildings must be demolished piece by piece, which can be quite expensive and time-consuming. Saves time; faster than brand new construction: The total time required to renovate an existing building is generally less than the time required to construct a comparable amount of floor space in an entirely new building. A major advantage of renovating an existing building is that a refurbished portion of the building becomes suitable for occupancy before completion of the whole project. This provides as a huge advantage for private developers as it keeps the cash inflow during while the rest of the project undergoes construction.
Tax advantages: Tax provisions in several states and municipalities across the United States, provide incentives for rehabilitating historic structures. Availability of Federal, State and local funds: The United States' National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 established matching grants-in-aid, obtained through state historic preservation offices, that can be used for the acquisition and restoration of properties listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Similarly, community development block grants provided to municipalities by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development are a major source of funds for neighborhood preservation projects. Decreased public and social costs: As these heritage settlements have been getting crowded in the past decades, people have been looking for farther lands for development.
This rapid urbanization and urban sprawl cause several harms to our planet and the society. Lack of adaptive reuse of existing built assets, on a societal level, has caused disturbance due to dislocation of residents, economic decline and disruption of community life, eventually leading to abandoned and obsolete neighborhoods. Conserves energy: Old buildings represent an investment of energy and labor made at a time when costs were significantly lower. Demolition of these buildings requires new expenditures of energy to generate new building materials and to assemble them on a cleared site. Additionally, modern building systems have high life-cycle costs and operational energy costs associated with them whereas traditional masonry and stone buildings are more climate responsive.
An environmental benefit of reusing built assets is identified to be the retention of the original buildings "embodied energy". According to Schultmann and Sunke, "new buildings have much higher embodied energy than those that are adaptively reused". Reddy and Jagadish support this statement by saying that "the reuse of building materials can provide substantial savings in embodied energy that would otherwise be wasted". Factors affecting adaptive reuse Building owners, architects, developers and other stakeholders undergo an in-depth process of decision making before determining whether a building should be conserved and remodeled for a different use or just demolished for the land it sits on, then develop a new building on that land.
These decisions are governed by the following criteria:  Economic considerations The decision to reuse or demolish built assets is driven by economic considerations such as development costs, project costs, investment returns and market. The economic costs differ from project to project and some professionals go as far as to assert that "new build is always more economical" and "renovation is universally more expensive"[1] due to their own involvement with adaptive reuse projects. Others claim that the return on investment is enhanced when using an older building because of the savings involved. One Canadian developer claims that reusing buildings generally represents a saving of between 10-12%[2] over building new.
In terms of profitability, there are also assertions that adaptive reuse projects often have an uncertainty to their profitably that newer developments lack. When looking for funding to build, these considerations must be addressed. Capital investment  In a survey conducted by Bullen and Love, it was observed that building owners and operators were most concerned about a multitude of financial considerations, while deciding whether to reuse their built assets. These include development and construction costs, marketing and maintenance costs. Most adaptive reuse projects depend on their economic feasibility determined by the building's existing physical configuration and condition. According to Bullen and Love, the adaptive reuse decision making was fundamentally driven by a "desire for short-term profits".
However, most of the survey respondents were rarely concerned about the sustainability and environmental concerns associated with adaptive reuse decision making. Nevertheless, many of these developers were aware of the positive impact that building reuse and sustainability can have on their corporate image. Building owners are concerned with the life expectancy of built assets, their energy and environmental performance and the high operating costs which may appear due to poor mechanical equipment, services, building materials and construction. Developers saw a thorough potential in saving groundwork and excavation costs by using an adaptive reuse model for their property. Additionally, they thought that "in Central Business District locations, built assets are an attractive investment option for reuse projects, as premium prices and rents can be obtained for an office space".
Best rents can be obtained only when these remodeled buildings hold "high-quality finishes" and have high Energy Star rating appliances. Building owners also considered the commercial performance of buildings in terms of "tenant needs, investment returns, maintenance, repair costs, operational costs, productivity levels, employee retention rates, aesthetics of building and its market value". Building stakeholders often marketed their reused built assets centered around "epoch and utility" and "character and ambiance". Some end users were more attracted to modern architecture while others were more into the adaptive reuse style. This varying perception of a building's form, function and style depended on the occupant age group.
Asset condition  Sometimes, built assets cannot be considered suitable for adaptive reuse, simply because of the nature of their built form or the condition that they are in. For example, one cannot make the most out of a highly compartmentalized, single use building such as a prison. Mid 1900s low-rise apartments that have low floor area ratios (FAR) and which may be in some of the cities' prime locations cannot be considered profitable for adaptive reuse. In such scenarios, it would be more profitable for the developers to demolish and replace the existing building with a high-rise that has more space to sell.
Often, when building owners cannot find an obvious use for a building, it is left to degenerate and decay and eventually collapse. This may pose as a threat to the safety of the neighborhood. Decaying buildings may even be subject to vandalism and become spaces for anti-social activities and may have a negative impact on the value of the properties in their vicinity. Bullen and Love's survey respondents thought that "the benefits of reusing their existing facility could include avoiding the disruption of relocation, reducing maintenance and running costs". A reuse project should not compromise on satisfying user needs. The survey respondents suggested that a cost vs benefits analysis is essential to determine the return on investment of an adaptive reuse project.
The most important governing factors of adaptive reuse decision making with respect to asset condition were observed to be the building's structural integrity, its residual service life, its spatial layout, its location and the ease of retrofitting or installing new building components to the existing built form. According to Bullen and Love, the buildings of the 1960s and 1970s in Perth were badly constructed, used ineffective thermal insulation materials and details and have low suitability for adaptive reuse. On the other hand, the built form of the 1980s was deemed to be engineered to specifications and could accommodate an adaptive reuse model.
The survey respondents expressed several concerns and risks that could arise during and after the adaptive reuse of a building which included finding tenants, the threat of building not meeting the demand of the end users, lack of structural stability and structure and material decay during the reconstruction phase of the project. Regulations  In Bullen and Love's survey, many respondents thought that there was not enough support and incentives from the government for carrying out adaptive reuse of built assets. They felt that there is limited flexibility in the building codes, limited plot ratio bonuses and an overall "lack of encouragement" by state and local governments to implement innovative adaptive reuse designs.
Suggested solutions from some survey respondents include establishing a mandate to only lease buildings that have undergone adaptive reuse with a high Energy Star rating. Some of the architects thought that there was a high dependency and credit given to energy and green building rating systems such as the "Green Star Environment Rating System" but not enough credit was given to the improvements carried out during adaptive reuse and its sustainable outcomes such as the recycling of building materials, reduced energy and water consumption and reduced environmental impacts like global warming potential, lake eutrophication potential and ozone layer depletion. One architect thought that "undertaking exemplar adaptive reuse demonstration projects for industry professionals to assess and emulate would display a commitment to sustainability and urban regeneration".
However, this solution has several harmful implications and forcing an adaptive reuse directive on to the industry and its clients was deemed to be heavy handed and could be counterproductive. The existing building codes and regulations for fire safety and building access to disabled make it difficult to work around the adaptive reuse of old constructed buildings. Social considerations  In this civilized world, buildings have become the core of a society. Cities and communities grow organically around important buildings followed by the commercial development of those neighborhoods. These buildings and the development around them soon become the heart of a community upon which people's life depends.
Therefore, regular maintenance and reuse of existing structures can help communities avoid the trauma caused by dilapidation, abandonment and clearance. As these heritage settlements have been getting crowded in the past decades, people have been looking for farther lands for development. This rapid urbanization and urban sprawl cause several harms to our planet and the society. Lack of adaptive reuse of existing built assets, on a societal level, has caused disturbance due to dislocation of residents, economic decline and disruption of community life, eventually leading to abandoned and obsolete neighborhoods. Old buildings are often found in fully developed neighborhoods where public amenities like sewers, water lines, roads, etc.
have already been established. Adaptive reuse means that the stakeholders of the built asset are relieving governments and municipalities off the load of having to supply these public amenities on distant plots. In a survey conducted by researcher Sheila Conejos, several architects, developers and building stakeholders were asked about their opinion on the social implications of adaptive reuse of existing buildings. It was observed that most respondents thought that adaptive reuse is important to the society because old buildings are critical to the image and history of a society. They agreed that historical buildings add to the aesthetics of a townscape and should be preserved and reused.
Environmental considerations  Buildings consume high amounts of energy during their life-cycle. New construction requires new building materials and other resources which possess high embodied energy (throughout their extraction, manufacture, transportation, packaging and assembly phases). Additionally, they also cause high environmental damage such as global warming, eutrophication, ocean acidification, ozone layer depletion, carbon emission which in turn harms human health and quality of life. From this standpoint, there are several environmental benefits associated with building recycling or adaptive reuse. Water efficiency  Water is an important component in building construction. Water is needed at every stage of a building's life, from building material extraction to manufacture, on-site construction processes such as concrete mixing, cleaning, etc., operational phase in the form of plumbing for human use and landscaping and fire safety, and at the end of its life for recycling building materials or disposing them.
Selecting adaptive reuse over brand new construction can help relieve the planet off such water loads. Energy conservation  Just as water is needed in every stage of a building's life, so is energy. This energy is conventionally obtained from non-renewable sources and causes high carbon emission. Minimizing fossil fuel depletion and carbon emission can be huge contributing factors to reducing global warming and mitigating climate change. Choosing to demolish an existing built asset and then constructing a brand-new building in its place can lead to high energy requirement for the demolition, building material waste management, new material procurement, construction and operation.
On the other hand, sustainably retrofitting an existing built asset only requires a fraction of this energy. It is important to keep in mind that many of the old building may not have the best of operational energy use efficiency. Therefore, to achieve a successful adaptive reuse project, the designers must keep the building's energy use intensity at utmost importance. Materials and resources  Building materials are generally procured from the Earth's strata or are end products of processed natural components. These resources are limited. Irresponsible extraction of natural compounds for building material manufacture can deplete these natural compounds from the earth.
Moreover, extraction can cause harm to the natural habitat and biodiversity of the region where materials are extracted. Therefore, a project that uses minimum new building material and uses more of recycled materials is a more sustainable and responsible choice for a building material. Built heritage preservation  A majority of historical buildings provide physical links and the progression of cultural evidence to the past. In a fast-growing urbanizing world, these heritage values viewed as public goods could aid the significance of a town's cultural heritage and unique competitiveness. Heritage preservation charters mandate that when historical buildings with heritage values are being redeveloped, their architectural and heritage character should be maintained and conserved for sustainability.
Accordingly, this mandate on heritage preservation has led to the scheduling of several heritage buildings into district plans, thereby protecting them from unsympathetic alterations or demolition through regulations. Built heritage conservation through adaptive reuse could therefore be used to promote sustainable historical and cultural development of urban areas  Urban regeneration  The reuse of older vacant buildings for other purposes forms a very important aspect of any urban regeneration scheme. The adaptation process implies selecting relevant novel technologies and design concepts that will support the older buildings to adjust successfully to contemporary requirements without destroying the existing urban form. Adopting the adaptive reuse approach for the redevelopment of older vacant buildings provides added benefits to the regeneration of an urban area in a sustainable way, through transforming these buildings into usable and accessible units.
The adaptive reuse strategy would also enable the local authority and owners of older vacant buildings in urban areas to minimize their economic, social and environmental costs, in a quest for a continued urban expansion and development. Adaptive reuse potential  According to Chusid's "urban ore" concept, existing buildings that are fast approaching dilapidation or disuse are a "mine of raw materials for new projects". Shen and Langston built upon this idea and said that "an even more effective solution than raw material recovery is adaptive reuse". They studied that "a huge focus on economic factors alone has led to the destruction of buildings well short of their physical lives".
Shen and Langston developed an integrated model for the assessment of adaptive reuse potential by comparing case studies of one urban and one non-urban setting. The basis of this model lies in that "opportunity rises and falls within the confines of a negative exponential decay function linked to a building’s physical life expectancy". According to their study, a building reaches its maximum potential for adaptive reuse at a point when the building's age and its useful life merge or meet. At this point, the building's adaptive reuse potential is either an upward curve or a downward curve which can determine whether the potential is high, medium or low.
The adaptive reuse potential calculator establishes a "predicted useful life" of a building by considering a series of physical, economic, functional, technological, social, legal and political characteristics. These characteristics are used to derive an "annual obsolescence rate" and "environmental obsolescence". These outcomes are necessary to determine an optimum point at which adaptive reuse intervention should occur. Obsolescence is advanced as a suitable concept to objectively reduce the expected physical life of a building to its expected useful life. A discounting philosophy is adopted, whereby the annual obsolescence rate across all criteria is the "discount rate" that performs this transformation. An algorithm based on a standard decay (negative exponential) curve produces an index of reuse potential (known as the ARP score) and is expressed as a percentage.
This decay curve in buildings can be used to establish an ARP score, which is expressed in percentage. Cities can rank their existing buildings as per their adaptive reuse potential and this data can be used by government authorities at any point in time. An adaptive reuse score of 50% or above is considered high. A low ARP score is anything below 20%. Anything between that range is considered moderate. Shen and Langston devised this concept of ARP as "rising from zero to its maximum score at the point of its useful life, and then falling back to zero as it approaches physical life".
When the "current building age" is identified to be close to or end of its useful life, is the right time for builders to commence redesign. Methodology of adaptive reuse  Buildings have a high impact on the environment, the economy and our society. Adaptive reuse has several benefits to mitigate those high impacts. Adaptive reuse projects are, in many ways, different from conventional new construction projects and must be planned and managed differently. Building condition assessment  Before starting an adaptive reuse project and even considering refurbishment, it is important that the condition of the existing building is thoroughly assessed. A condition assessment primarily inspects a building's structural integrity, roofing, masonry, plaster, wood-work, tiling and the mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems.
The in-depth inspection of buildings can be expensive. Nevertheless, building condition assessment is critical to the success of an adaptive reuse project and must not be avoided at any cost because this expense is insignificant relative to the injury or loss of life that a building failure might cause. One logical reason, as explained by the American Society of Civil Engineers, is that even a very well constructed building could undergo serious deterioration and eventually failure, if proper maintenance is not performed in the operational phase of the building. For example, in the year 1984, the New York City Passenger Ship Terminal went through a thorough inspection and was identified with extreme corrosion in its exterior steel columns (100% of web loss and 40% of flange loss).
This condition posed a threat to the public safety and had to undergo immediate restriction of live load in spite of additional bracing of critical bents. Such inspections conclude with the preparation of a detailed report summarizing the findings of the investigation. The direct inspection of the structural system is required to a certain degree which is decided by the judgement of an experienced civil engineer. Survey of neighborhoods  After identifying the stability and soundness of a building, it is important to survey the neighborhood to find the potential use and function of the adaptive reuse project for that segment of the market or region that the building owners wish to attract.
In many cases, an adaptive reuse project might help stabilize a neighborhood which may be otherwise decaying or be at a threat of vandalism. This upward trend may create lucrative rent opportunities for building owners and dwellers of the neighborhood. This survey can be in the form of a physical inspection of the neighborhood and/or a detailed study of the zoning map of that region. Pedestrian activity, presence of sidewalks, street lights, benches and public parks and the presence of well-occupied shops and buildings can tell us a lot about neighborhoods. After the neighborhood has been established to be stable and safe and free of any infringing decay, the next step is to determine what amenities it has to offer in terms of roadways, public transportation, shopping and eating, hospitals, schools and libraries and so on.
Financial considerations  As discussed previously, adaptive reuse projects have the potential to work in phases or parts. A major advantage of renovating an existing building is that a refurbished portion of the building becomes suitable for occupancy before completion of the whole project. This provides as a huge advantage for private developers as it keeps the cash inflow during while the rest of the project undergoes construction. Keeping in mind the conclusions from structural and architectural survey, neighborhood survey and marketing survey, a budget is prepared. Building owners or developers can approach any of the financing sources such as insurance companies, foundations and funds, savings banks, building loan societies, endowment funds, Real Estate Investment Trusts, etc.
Architect’s contract  In most adaptive reuse projects, it is the architect who is the leader with the imagination of how an abandoned warehouse can become an office building or an abandoned hospital a condominium. Since the architect has a deep involvement in the success of a project, he must perform his work under a clearly defined contract. Under this contract, the architect and the owner are under the obligation of the contract and must abide by it. Progress of design, site visits and evaluation are some of the basic actions that the architect performs under this contract. There are different types of contracts, ranging from a fixed fee contract, percentage of construction cost contract and fee plus expenses contract.
All stakeholders may collectively decide on the most suitable type of contract for the project. Detailed study of structure  Before the architect and engineer begin the final designing for the building, they make a thorough structural, mechanical and architectural survey of the existing building. Foundation and basement  The architect and engineer may look for signs of cracking of masonry wall or the settling of basement floors or upper floors which direct them to a problem in the foundation. These signs can also be detected from window sills and cornices. Appropriate survey instruments such as plumb bobs and spirit levels are recommended for use instead of a naked eye inspection.
If the problem seems too severe, a test boring may reveal the cause of the problem. Additionally, the building code should be examined for fireproofing requirements. Structural system  Analyzing the structural strength requires expertise and is one of the most crucial in terms of occupant safety. On-site inspection along with a study of existing floor plans can help engineers determine the structural stability. In some case, when the building drawings may not be available, engineers may have to scrape of the plaster to reveal the underlying structure. Wooden members of the structural system should be especially checked for rot or termite infestation.
Iron or steel must be checked for corrosion and loose bearings or bolting. Additional future dead and live loads must be kept in mind while designing with the structural strength of the existing building. Floor system  The floor system in old buildings is usually strong enough to satisfy present codes. If not, additional supporting members may be necessary. The floor and ceiling height should be able to accommodate additional stairways, vertical plumbing, electrical and HVAC. In some cases, an elevator may have to be installed. Exterior walls  The building envelope should be examined thoroughly for cracks, watertightness (infiltration or leaks) and mortar joints.
It is important to examine these exterior walls for future fenestration and air conditioning ducts. Mechanical and electrical equipment  Buildings undergoing adaptive reuse often lack modern and energy efficient MEP systems and appliances. Heating: Determining the capacity of the heating plant for the new building use and occupancy. Existing heating systems involving boilers and burners and metal piping could be salvaged for recycling. Ventilation: Office and commercial buildings require ventilation. Toilets and kitchens also need ventilation. The floor height must be able to accommodate fan equipment. If the existing building consists some duct work, it should be tested for obstructions, deterioration and air leakage.
Air conditioning: Air conditioning ducting and equipment can be expensive and demand a lot of ceiling space. These economical implications must be considered for the new use of the building before deciding the installation of an air conditioning system. Plumbing: Old buildings used galvanized iron pipes for plumbing which may be subject to serious deterioration over the years. Proper connection to municipal sewers must be evaluated and fixed if broken. Electrical: While the electrical wiring may still be intact, the panel boards, junction boxes and electrical feeders may not be as per the present day fire codes. Additionally, the switch boards may be outdated and have to be replaced.
The architect and engineers must also determine of additional transformer vaults and feeder lines are necessary. Roof and waterproofing  Older building roofing systems generally comprise the roof, parapets and cornices. Projecting metal cornices are subject to corrosion. Parapets may be subject to cracks and degrading mortar joints. A careful examination of the top-floor ceiling may reveal water leakage. Stairways and exits  The stairway requirement for a building should be derived from present-day building codes for fire and safety. Strategic placement of new staircases and layout for maximum access should be done in order to maximize space utility and minimize the burden on the structural system.
Designing to save energy  Redesigning the existing building for new use must accommodate energy conservation strategies. Some of the most important methods of energy conservation are, reducing heating and cooling loads through building envelopes, maximizing natural ventilation potential, using daylighting and energy efficient lighting fixtures and so on. Building envelope  A building's envelope protects it from the external weather conditions. To prevent the extreme climate of the exterior from causing discomfort to occupants, buildings use mechanical heating and cooling systems. If the building envelope is not designed well, the heating and cooling loads on the mechanical equipment might go high.
Therefore, for maximum energy efficiency, building envelops should be the first layer to block out external weather conditions, then the load on the equipment can be minimized. The U value of walls should not be more than 0.06 when winter design temperatures are less than . This can be achieved by using a combination of exterior wall materials to form a high resistance wall assembly. Windows and doors  The fenestration in an external wall assembly are the biggest wasters of energy. They waste heat by conduction, radiation and infiltration. This can be controlled to an extent by using multiple layered glazing systems and using low-e coatings on the glass.
Additionally, it is important to seal the window and door systems to avoid infiltration. Similarly, in hot and sunny climates, it is important to shade windows to avoid heat gain due to solar radiation. Roof  An exposed roof is the greatest source of heat loss during cold months and heat gains during hot months. Therefore, roof insulation becomes very crucial in extreme climate conditions. Another passive technique is to separate living spaces from roof by adding dead buffer spaces such as attics under the roof. Floor  The only floor that need be considered is the bottom floor. It may be a slab on grade or built over a crawl space.
In these cases, insulation should be considered. If the perimeter of a slab on grade is insulated from the weather, this is all that can be hoped for. Over a cold crawl space, a two-in blanket under the floor will cut the heat loss by at least 50%. A concrete floor slab can be insulated by sprayed-on insulating material. Disassembly sequence planning  Building owners and developers can take the potential advantage of adaptive reuse by taking away components from unused buildings and then repair, reuse or recycle its constituent parts. Disassembly is a form of recovering target products and plays a key role to maximize the efficiency of an adaptive reuse project.
This disassembly planning sequence aims to reduce the environmental impacts caused due to demolition using a "rule-base recursive analysis system" with practical and viable solutions. By location  Americas  Canada As a comparatively young country, adaptive reuse is not the norm in Canada, where redevelopment has typically meant demolition and building anew. Calgary and Edmonton are particularly known for their pro-demolition culture, but they are not unique in this regard. However, since the 1990s, adaptive use has gained traction. The conversion of former railway-centred warehouse districts to residential and commercial uses has occurred in Edmonton, Calgary, Saskatoon, Regina, and Winnipeg. In Toronto, the Distillery District, a neighbourhood in the city's southeast side, was entirely adapted from the old Gooderham & Worts distillery.
Other prominent re-uses include the Candy Factory on Queen Street West and the Toy Factory, in the city's Liberty Village district, both designed by Quadrangle Architects, a firm specializing in adaptive re-use in Toronto and elsewhere. Vancouver's Yaletown, an upscale neighbourhood established in the 1990s, features warehouses and other small-industrial structures and spaces converted into apartments and offices for the gentrification of the area. Vancouver's Granville Island also demonstrates a successful mix of adaptive reuse as well as retention of traditional uses in the same district. Montreal's Griffintown, Old Port, and Lachine Canal areas all feature ex-industrial areas that have been reused or will do so in the future on current plans.
Other noted adaptive reuse projects in the 2010s have included the Laurentian School of Architecture in Sudbury, which is incorporating several historic buildings in the city's downtown core into its new campus, similar to the downtown campus of NSCAD University in Halifax, and Mill Square in Sault Ste. Marie, an ongoing project to convert the derelict St. Mary's Paper mill into a mixed-use cultural and tourism hub. A number of former military bases in Canada, declared surplus in the 1990s, have also proven to be opportune for adaptive reuse. An example is the former CFB Cornwallis in rural Nova Scotia which was largely converted, without demolitions, into a business park.
United States  Ghirardelli Square in San Francisco was the first major adaptive reuse project in the United States, opening in 1964. Urban waterfronts, historically used as points for industrial production and transport, are now selling-points for home buyers and renters. In American city neighborhoods that have seen racial and ethnic demographic changes over the last century, some houses of worship have been converted for other religions, and some others have been converted into residences. The greatest value of the adaptive use movement is characterized by the hundreds of abandoned schools, factories, hotels, warehouses and military posts that have been adapted for use as affordable housing, office buildings, as well as commercial, civic, educational and recreational centers.
A large number of brick mill buildings in the Northeast United States have undergone mill conversion projects. In the United States, especially in the Northeast and Midwest, loft housing is one prominent result of adaptive reuse projects. Formerly-industrial areas such as the Meatpacking District in New York City, Callowhill in Philadelphia and SoMa in San Francisco are being transformed into residential neighborhoods through this process. This transformation is sometimes associated with gentrification. Station Square in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania is an example of a mile-long former Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad terminal and headquarters being converted into a retail, office, hotel, and tourist destination.
The Pratt Street Power Plant in Baltimore was converted to offices, retail, and restaurants. An example of adaptive reuse conversion to office space are The Hilliard Mills. The adaptive reuse of Empire Stores will transform seven abandoned coffee warehouse in Brooklyn Bridge Park in New York City into office, retail, restaurant and a rooftop public park. Other museums adapted from old factories include "MassMOCA", the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art, the Watermill Center in Long Island, New York, and The Dia Art Foundation Museum in upstate New York. In San Diego, California, the historic brick structure of the Western Metal Supply Co. building at 7th Avenue (between K and L Streets) was preserved and incorporated into the design of Petco Park, the new baseball-only ballpark of the San Diego Padres, and can be prominently seen in the left-field corner of that ballpark.
It now houses the team's flagship gift shop, luxury rental suites, a restaurant and rooftop bleachers, and its southeast corner serves as the ballpark's left field foul pole. Chapman University in the city of Orange, California has created student housing by converting the Villa Park Orchards Association Packing House, which was built in 1918 for the Santiago Orange Growers Association. The student housing complex opened in August 2018. The project was built with the collaboration of KTGY Architecture + Planning, Togawa Smith Martin, and AC Martin. Australia  In Australia, there have been a number of adaptive reuse projects as the main cities have turned from industrial areas into areas of high value and business areas.
In Sydney, sites such as the old Sydney Mint have been renovated and adapted into inner-city headquarters for the Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales. The movement of the city from an industrial, working class area into a gentrified area with high house prices has helped a number of adaptive reuse sites to exist within such an area, the old Hyde Park Barracks building has also been transformed from an old jail into a museum which documents and records the history of Australia's first settlers and convicts. The industrial history of Australia has also been an influencing factor in determining the types of buildings and areas which have gone on to become adaptive reuse sites, especially in the realms of private residences and community based buildings.
Some such sites include, Nonda Katsalidis’ Malthouse apartments in Richmond, a conversion of a former grain silo and the South Australian site of the Balhannah Mines which was adapted into a private residence and has received awards from the Housing Industry Association and the Design Institute of Australia. In Adelaide four prominent, heritage listed 19th Century buildings in poor repair were restored, refurbished and given new roles by the South Australian Government during the Rann Government (2002 to 2011). The Torrens Building in Victoria Square, former headquarters of the Registrar-General, was restored and adapted to become the Australian campus for both Carnegie Mellon University and University College London.
The former Adelaide Stock Exchange building was purchased, restored and adapted to become the Science Exchange for the Royal Institution Australia and the Australian Science Media Centre. The Torrens Parade Ground and building were restored for use as a headquarters for veterans' organisations. Nearly $50 million was committed to restore and adapt the large Glenside Psychiatric Hospital and precinct as the new Adelaide Studios of the South Australian Film Corporation opened by Premier Rann in October 2011. And the 62 hectare former Mitsubishi Motors plant is being adapted to become a clean manufacturing centre and education and training hub for Flinders University and TAFE.
Europe  In Europe, the main forms of adaptive reuse have been around former palaces and unused residences of the different European royal families into publicly accessible galleries and museums. Many of the spaces have been restored with period finishes and display different collections of art, and design. In Paris, France, the most famous example of adaptive reuse is the Musée du Louvre, a former palace built in the late 12th century under Philip II and opened to the public as a museum in 1793. Also, in London, England, the Queen's House, a former royal residence built around 1614, has become part of the National Maritime Museum and houses the museum's fine art collection.
The Tate Modern, also in London is another example of adaptive reuse in the European continent, unlike other adaptive reuse galleries in Europe, the Tate Modern takes full advantage of the site of the former Bankside Power Station, which involved the refurbishment of the old, abandoned power station. The wide industrial space has proven to be a worthy backdrop to modern art, with the famous turbine hall hosting artists including Olafur Eliasson, Rachel Whiteread and Ai Weiwei. Other famous adaptive reuse sites in Europe include the Maastricht branch of the Selexyz chain in the Netherlands. This project received 2007 Lensvelt de Architect interior design award for its innovative reuse and is number one on The Guardian'''s worldwide top ten bookstores list.
In Łódź, Poland, the Izrael Poznański mills have been turned into the  Manufaktura mixed-use development, including a mall, 3 museums, multi-cinema and restaurants. Types of adaptive reuse interventions   Historic preservation  Renovation  Facades  Integration  Infrastructure reuse  See also   Architectural conservation  Conservation-restoration of cultural heritage  Facadism  Historic preservation  Mill conversion  World Heritage Sites  How Buildings Learn''  Notes  External links and further reading Rhode Island School of Design –  graduate program on adaptive reuse On Adaptive Reuse A blog, mostly architectural, but it also treats adaptive reuse as an approach to a wide range issues. "Adaptive Re-Use of Brownfields: A Challenge for the Valuation," John A. Kilpatrick Adaptive Reuse Photo Gallery  Adaptive reuse building example and photo gallery (Evanston, Illinois) Pettinari, J.
1980, 'Adaptive Reuse: A Case Study', Journal of Interior Design and Research, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 33–42 Bullen, P., Love, P. 2011, 'Factors influencing the adaptive re-use of buildings', Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 32–46  Category:Building Category:Urban planning Category:Repurposing
Kim Tae-hee (; born 29 March 1980) is a South Korean actress. Considered one of South Korea's most beautiful women, she is best known for her roles in Korean dramas such as Stairway to Heaven (2003), Love Story in Harvard (2004), Iris (2009), My Princess (2011), and Yong-pal (2015). Early life and education Kim Tae-hee was born on 29 March 1980 in Ulsan, South Korea. Her father is Kim Yoo Moon, who established and is chairman of Hankook Union Transportation Company in 1984. She is often involved in various charities to help out underserved youths and broken families in the Ulsan area.
She has an older sister, Kim Hee-won, and a younger brother, Lee Wan; the latter is also an actor and appeared in her television series Stairway to Heaven. She attended Samshin Elementary School, Daehyun Middle School (대현중학교) and then enrolled at Ulsan Girls' High School. In 1999, Kim moved to Seoul to attend college at the prestigious Seoul National University, where she became the president of the SNU Women's Ski Club. In 2005, she graduated from SNU with a bachelor's degree in fashion design. Career  2001–2002: Beginnings In 2000, an advertising executive saw Kim riding the subway, and offered her a modeling job.
Kim appeared in television commercials and print ads, before making her acting debut with a small role in the 2001 melodrama Last Present. In 2002, she starred in the short film Living in New Town and the sitcom Let's Go, followed by Screen and A Problem at My Younger Brother's House in 2003. 2003–2006: Rising popularity and film debut Kim rose to stardom in 2003 via her portrayal of the evil stepsister in the popular SBS TV series Stairway to Heaven. Starting 2004, Kim was cast in leading roles in her succeeding projects, including the supernatural KBS series Forbidden Love and the SBS campus romance Love Story in Harvard.
The latter drew solid viewership ratings nationwide throughout its run with a peak viewer rating of 20 percent and won Kim the Most Popular Actress award in TV category at the Baeksang Arts Awards. Love Story in Harvard was also reportedly well-received by Japanese viewers and contributed to Kim's popularity in the country. Riding the big success of Stairway to Heaven and Love Story in Harvard, Kim became one of the most sought-after faces in the TV commercial industry. She was picked by Korea Broadcast Advertising Corporation as the top advertising model of the year in 2008, earning her title of "CF Queen".
However, Kim expressed her desire to be valued properly as an actor, preferring to succeed based on her acting skills rather than her image. Kim then turned to film, starring in action fantasy epic The Restless (2006), and the romantic comedy Venus and Mars (2007). However, both were unsuccessful at the box office. 2009–2014: Iris and rising overseas popularity  Back on the small screen in 2009, Kim played an NIS profiler in the spy action thriller Iris. It was one of the most expensive Korean dramas ever produced and was a critical and commercial success with an average viewership rating of 30%.
Kim shed tears at the KBS Drama Awards when she won an Excellence Award in a Mid-length Drama; which was her first acting award, excluding newcomer and popularity awards. Kim left her then-agency Namoo Actors in January 2010 to join Lua Entertainment, which was founded by her brother-in-law. That year, she also played a horse jockey who dreams of winning the championship in the sports film Grand Prix. After the success of Iris, she again drew positive reviews in the romantic comedy series My Princess (2011); Kim played an ordinary college student who discovers that she is Korean royalty. Later that year, she starred in her first Japanese television drama Boku to Star no 99 Nichi, where her character is a Korean Wave star who meets an ordinary Japanese bodyguard and he somehow makes her fall head over heels in love with him.
The Fuji TV drama, which aired in Japan from October to December in 2011, raked in 9 to 10 percent of viewers' ratings on average, launching Kim into a household name in Japan. Kim later encountered backlash from some Japanese netizens for allegedly promoting South Korea's claim in the Liancourt Rocks dispute during her 2005 trip to Switzerland as goodwill ambassadors. In 2013, Kim starred in her first historical drama Jang Ok-jung, Living by Love as the infamous royal concubine Hui-bin Jang. This was followed by another period role, as the wife of famed Chinese calligrapher Wang Xizhi in the Chinese television drama Saint Wang Xizhi.
2015–present: Career resurgence Kim returned to Korean television in 2015, playing an heiress who recovers from a coma with the help of a doctor-for-hire, the titular Yong-pal. The show garnered strong ratings and Kim won a Top Excellence Acting award from the Korea Drama Awards. In 2019, Kim returned to television in the family drama series Hi Bye, Mama!. Personal life  In September 2012, Kim started dating South Korean singer-actor Rain. They married on January 19, 2017. On May 23, 2017, Kim's agency, Lua Entertainment, announced that Kim was pregnant with their first child. She gave birth to a daughter on October 25, 2017.
In February 2019, Kim announced she was expecting again. On September 19, 2019, she gave birth to the couple's second daughter. Kim is a practicing Catholic. Filmography  Film  Television series  Music video appearances  Awards and nominations  References  External links   Kim Tae-hee blog at Naver   Kim Tae-hee fan cafe at Daum      Kim Tae-hee Japanese website         Category:South Korean film actresses Category:South Korean television actresses Category:South Korean female models Category:Seoul National University alumni Category:South Korean Roman Catholics Category:People from Busan Category:1980 births Category:Living people Category:South Korean actresses
In quantum mechanics, an excited state of a system (such as an atom, molecule or nucleus) is any quantum state of the system that has a higher energy than the ground state (that is, more energy than the absolute minimum). Excitation is an elevation in energy level above an arbitrary baseline energy state. In physics there is a specific technical definition for energy level which is often associated with an atom being raised to an excited state. The temperature of a group of particles is indicative of the level of excitation (with the notable exception of systems that exhibit negative temperature).
The lifetime of a system in an excited state is usually short: spontaneous or induced emission of a quantum of energy (such as a photon or a phonon) usually occurs shortly after the system is promoted to the excited state, returning the system to a state with lower energy (a less excited state or the ground state). This return to a lower energy level is often loosely described as decay and is the inverse of excitation. Long-lived excited states are often called metastable. Long-lived nuclear isomers and singlet oxygen are two examples of this. Atomic excitation  A simple example of this concept comes by considering the hydrogen atom.
The ground state of the hydrogen atom corresponds to having the atom's single electron in the lowest possible orbit (that is, the spherically symmetric "1s" wave function, which, so far, has demonstrated to have the lowest possible quantum numbers). By giving the atom additional energy (for example, by the absorption of a photon of an appropriate energy), the electron is able to move into an excited state (one with one or more quantum numbers greater than the minimum possible). If the photon has too much energy, the electron will cease to be bound to the atom, and the atom will become ionized.
After excitation the atom may return to the ground state or a lower excited state, by emitting a photon with a characteristic energy. Emission of photons from atoms in various excited states leads to an electromagnetic spectrum showing a series of characteristic emission lines (including, in the case of the hydrogen atom, the Lyman, Balmer, Paschen and Brackett series.) An atom in a high excited state is termed a Rydberg atom. A system of highly excited atoms can form a long-lived condensed excited state e.g. a condensed phase made completely of excited atoms: Rydberg matter. Hydrogen can also be excited by heat or electricity.
Perturbed gas excitation  A collection of molecules forming a gas can be considered in an excited state if one or more molecules are elevated to kinetic energy levels such that the resulting velocity distribution departs from the equilibrium Boltzmann distribution. This phenomenon has been studied in the case of a two-dimensional gas in some detail, analyzing the time taken to relax to equilibrium. Calculation of excited states  Excited states are often calculated using coupled cluster, Møller–Plesset perturbation theory, multi-configurational self-consistent field, configuration interaction, and time-dependent density functional theory. Excited state absorption The excitation of a system (an atom or molecule) from one excited state to a higher energy excited state with the absorption of a photon is called excited state absorption (ESA).
Excited state absorption is possible only when an electron has been already excited from the ground state to a lower excited state. The excited state absorption is usually an undesired effect, but it can be useful in upconversion pumping. Excited state absorption measurements are done using pump-probe techniques such as flash photolysis. However, it is not easy to measure them compared to ground-state absorption and in some cases complete bleaching of the ground state is required to measure excited state absorption. Reaction  A further consequence of excited state formation may be reaction of the atom or molecule in its excited state, as in photochemistry.
See also   Rydberg formula  Stationary state  Repulsive state  References  External links   NASA background information on ground and excited states  Category:Quantum mechanics
Jask (, Balochi: جاشک also Romanized as Jāsk; also Bandar-e Jask (), (Balochi: بندن ءِ جاشک) also Romanized as Bandar-e Jāsk) is a city and capital of Jask County, Hormozgan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 11,133, in 2,406 families. Jask is a port town, about  south of Tehran, situated on the Gulf of Oman. It serves as the capital of Jask County, and is the site of a base of the Iranian Navy which opened on October 28, 2008. The base's position provides the Iranian Navy with the capability to close the Strait of Hormuz in order to block the entry of an "enemy" into the Persian Gulf.
Admiral Habibollah Sayyari remarked on the base's opening that Iran was "creating a new defense front in the region, thinking of a non-regional enemy." The port of Jask is also the proposed end of the Neka-Jask pipeline. The city also has an airport. Port of Jask   The port of Jask is a small port on the Western part of Iran's coast along he Gulf of Oman. However, over the last few years it has seen a steady growth of its export freight flows to Oman, mostly agricultural products, including refrigerated, and construction materials  Major developments for the port of Jask have been announced by Iranian authorities early 2019, i.e.
the construction of a new terminal for oil tankers for a total investment of U$700 millions, to be followed by the construction of a refinery and of a petrochemical plant. These developments are part of a total investment of U$1.8 Billion centered on the construction of a new oil pipeline from Goreh, Bushehr to Jask in order to pump and export oil from Northern Iran,   When these investments are completed in Jask, they will contribute to developing Iran's Southern region economy, like is already the case further East at Chabahar Port, and to facilitate exports through ports which do not require ships to enter the Persian Gulf through the Hormuz Strait.
Climate Jask has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), with very hot summers and little precipitation. Due to winds blowing off the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, the city has experienced some of the highest dew points and heat indices in the world. On July 31, 2015, Jask observed a temperature of  degrees with a dew point of , leading to a heat index of . On July 21, 2012, Jask experienced a temperature of 34°C with 100% relative humidity. References   Category:Populated places in Jask County Category:Cities in Hormozgan Province Category:Port cities and towns in Iran
The 15th parallel south is a circle of latitude that is 15 degrees south of the Earth's equatorial plane. It crosses the Atlantic Ocean, Africa, the Indian Ocean, Australasia, the Pacific Ocean and South America. Around the world Starting at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards, the parallel 15° south passes through:  {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" ! scope="col" width="125" | Co-ordinates ! scope="col" | Country, territory or ocean ! scope="col" | Notes |- | style="background:#b0e0e6;" |  ! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Atlantic Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | |- |  ! scope="row" |  | |- |  ! scope="row" |  | |- |  ! scope="row" |  | |- |  !
scope="row" |  | |- |  ! scope="row" |  | |- | style="background:#b0e0e6;" |  ! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Indian Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Mozambique Channel - passing just north of the Island of Mozambique |- |  ! scope="row" |  | |- | style="background:#b0e0e6;" |  ! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Indian Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | |-valign="top" |  ! scope="row" |  | Western Australia - Passing through the Coronation Islands, Prince Frederick Harbour and Cambridge Gulf Northern Territory |- | style="background:#b0e0e6;" |  ! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Indian Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Gulf of Carpentaria |- |  ! scope="row" |  | Queensland |- | style="background:#b0e0e6;" |  !
scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Pacific Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Coral Sea |- |  ! scope="row" |  | Island of Espiritu Santo - passing through Big Bay |- | style="background:#b0e0e6;" |  ! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Pacific Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Coral Sea |- |  ! scope="row" |  | Island of Maewo |- | style="background:#b0e0e6;" |  ! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Pacific Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Passing just south of Mataiva atoll,  |- |  ! scope="row" |  | Passing through Tikehau and Rangiroa atolls |-valign="top" | style="background:#b0e0e6;" |  ! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Pacific Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Passing just north of Arutua atoll,  Passing just south of the island of Tikei,  Passing just south of Puka-Puka atoll,  |- |  !
scope="row" |  | |- |  ! scope="row" |  | |-valign="top" |  ! scope="row" |  | Mato Grosso Goiás - for about 12 km Mato Grosso - for about 8 km Goiás Minas Gerais Bahia Minas Gerais Bahia |- | style="background:#b0e0e6;" |  ! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Atlantic Ocean | style="background:#b0e0e6;" | |}  See also  14th parallel south  16th parallel south  s15
Spire Healthcare plc is the second largest provider of private healthcare in the United Kingdom. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange. History Spire Healthcare was formed from the sale of Bupa Hospitals to Cinven in 2007, followed by the purchase of Classic Hospitals and Thames Valley Hospital in 2008. It was the subject of an initial public offering in July 2014. Facilities Spire Healthcare operates a network of 38 private hospitals and ten clinics across the UK, as well as the London Fertility Centre. Ian Paterson  Ian Paterson, a breast surgeon who worked at Bupa hospitals in Solihull and Sutton Coldfield, latterly run by Spire Healthcare, was convicted of 17 counts of wounding with intent to cause grievous bodily harm and three counts of unlawful wounding in respect of 10 patients.
350 patients who had been treated privately at Spire clinics are pursuing civil action against him and against the company. According to Thompsons Solicitors, Spire had allowed him to operate well after 2012, when he had been suspended by the General Medical Council. Spire's statement was "What Mr Paterson did in our hospitals, in other private hospitals, and in the NHS absolutely should not have happened, and today justice has been done." He has been jailed for 20 years and £37 million allocated for compensation. Spire initiated litigation in August 2017 against Heart of England NHS Foundation Trust claiming the trust’s failure to warn it of concerns about Paterson’s conduct was negligent and that the company relied on the NHS, as the primary employer, to tell it whether doctors were competent or whether there were patient safety concerns.
Spire and the NHS  The company alleged in 2013 that a block contract agreed between Blackpool Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust and the Clinical Commissioning Groups in Blackpool, and Fylde and Wyre offered a “clear incentive” for GPs to refer patients to the foundation trust and that this was anti-competitive behaviour. The contract provided the trust with a guaranteed income regardless of the number of patients that chose to use its services. Monitor conducted an investigation and decided that there was no evidence to support the claim though they did conclude that Blackpool CCG’s plans did not “go far enough” to ensure patients would be offered choice, or that the right to choice would be “publicised and promoted”.
Its NHS business grew from £262 million in 2015 to £293 million in 2016. 20% is directly commissioned by NHS trusts and 80% comes from patients using the NHS e-Referral Service. Income from medical insurers reduced 1.3% to £429 million. Direct payments by patients increased 9% to £170 million. In 2017 turnover increased 0.6% to £932 million, but NHS-funded income fell 1.9% to £287.8 million. The company's pre-tax profit in 2018 fell by 64% because of lower NHS income and higher costs. Awards In 2008 Spire Healthcare won the Independent Healthcare Award for Best Healthcare Outcomes and followed this in 2009 with the Nursing Practice award for their approach to infection prevention and control.
In 2010, Spire won the Nursing Practice award for the second year in succession, together with the award for Excellence in Risk Management. Spire won the Innovation Award in 2011, before going on to win the Medical Practice award in 2012. References  External links   Official site  Category:Health care companies of the United Kingdom Category:Companies based in the City of London Category:Private providers of NHS services Category:British companies established in 2007 Category:2007 establishments in England
In enzymology, a 24-hydroxycholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction  (24R)-cholest-5-ene-3beta,24-diol + NADPH + H+ + O2  (24R)-cholest-5-ene-3beta,7alpha,24-triol + NADP+ + H2O  The 4 substrates of this enzyme are (24R)-cholest-5-ene-3beta,24-diol, NADPH, H+, and O2, whereas its 3 products are (24R)-cholest-5-ene-3beta,7alpha,24-triol, NADP+, and H2O. This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on paired donors, with O2 as oxidant and incorporation or reduction of oxygen. The oxygen incorporated need not be derived from O2 with NADH or NADPH as one donor, and incorporation of one atom o oxygen into the other donor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is (24R)-cholest-5-ene-3beta,24-diol,NADPH:oxygen oxidoreductase (7alpha-hydroxylating).
Other names in common use include 24-hydroxycholesterol 7alpha-monooxygenase, CYP39A1, and CYP39A1 oxysterol 7alpha-hydroxylase. See also  Steroidogenic enzyme  References  External links     Category:EC 1.14.13 Category:NADPH-dependent enzymes Category:Enzymes of unknown structure
Stakeholder engagement is the process by which an organization involves people who may be affected by the decisions it makes or can influence the implementation of its decisions. They may support or oppose the decisions, be influential in the organization or within the community in which it operates, hold relevant official positions or be affected in the long term. Corporate social responsibility (CSR)  Stakeholder engagement is a key part of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and achieving the triple bottom line. Companies engage their stakeholders in dialogue to find out what social and environmental issues matter most to them and involve stakeholders in the decision-making process.
Stakeholder engagement is used by mature organizations in the private and public, especially when they want to develop understanding and agreement around solutions on complex issues and large projects. An underlying principle of stakeholder engagement is that stakeholders have the chance to influence the decision-making process. A key part of this is multistakeholder governance. This differentiates stakeholder engagement from communications processes that seek to issue a message or influence groups to agree with a decision that is already made. Jeffrey (2009) in "Stakeholder Engagement: A Roadmap to meaningful engagement" describes seven core values for the practices of gaining meaningful participation of which perhaps the three most critical are:  Stakeholders should have a say in decisions about actions that could affect their lives or essential environment for life.
Stakeholder participation includes the promise that stakeholder's contribution will influence the decision. Stakeholder participation seeks input from participants in designing how they participate. The practitioners in stakeholder engagement are often businesses, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), labor organizations, trade and industry organizations, governments, and financial institutions. Frameworks and relevant organizations  Engaging stakeholder is a requirement of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). The GRI is a network-based organization with a sustainability reporting framework that is widely used around the world. The International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) has put forward a framework for sustainability (ISO 26000 - Guidance on social responsibility) that also requires stakeholder engagement.
The Environment Council, a European organization, developed the Principles of Authentic Engagement. These principles are intended to provide a framework for genuine stakeholder engagement. Stakeholder engagement is also linked to Free, Prior, and Informed consent (FPIC). In the oil and gas and in the mining industries, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) requires that organizations seeking financing for large projects obtain approval from project-affected persons (PAP) before the beginning of the project in an open and transparent manner. It also states that PAP can withdraw their support at any time. The practitioners in stakeholder engagement are often businesses, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), labor organizations, trade and industry organizations, governments, and financial institutions.
Components Partnerships, in the context of corporate social responsibility interactions, are people and organizations from some combination of public, business and civil constituencies who engage in common societal aims through combining their resources and competencies, sharing both risks and benefits. Agreeing on the rules of engagement is integral to the process. It is important for everyone to understand each party's role. Buy-in is essential for success in stakeholder engagement. Every party must have a stake in the process and have participating members have decision-making power. Every party must be committed to the process by ensuring action based on the decisions made through the engagement.
No decisions should be already made before commencing stakeholder engagement on the issue. It is integral that the dialogue has legitimacy in influencing the decision. Benefits Stakeholder engagement provides opportunities to further align business practices with societal needs and expectations, helping to drive long-term sustainability and shareholder value. Stakeholder engagement is intended to help the practitioners and their organization, to compete in an increasingly complex and ever-changing business environment, while at the same time bringing about systemic change towards sustainable development. The concept of stakeholder engagement in accounting is very important and strongly correlated with the concept of materiality. The main guidelines on the preparation of non-financial statements (GRI Standards and IIRC <IR> Framework) underline the centrality of stakeholder involvement in this process (materiality analysis).
Stakeholder perceptions  References  External links   Library of Stakeholder Engagement articles on TriplePundit  Future 500  Boreal-is.com  Jambo  AA1000 Stakeholder Engagement Standard (AA1000SES)  Category:Corporate social responsibility
Cosmic Call was the name of two sets of interstellar radio messages that were sent from RT-70 in Yevpatoria, Crimea in 1999 (Cosmic Call 1) and 2003 (Cosmic Call 2) to various nearby stars. The messages were designed with noise-resistant format and characters. The project was funded by Team Encounter, Charlie Chafer (CEO) a Texas-based startup, which went out of business in 2004. Both transmissions were at ~150 kW, 5.01 GHz ( FSK +/-24 kHz). Message structure  Each Cosmic Call 1 session had the following structure.
The Scientific Part (DDM, BM, AM, and ESM) was sent three times (at 100 bit/s), and the Public Part (PP) was sent once (at 2000 bit/s), according to the following arrangement:  DDM → BM → AM → ESM → DDM → BM → AM → ESM → DDM → BM → AM → ESM → PP,  where DDM is the Dutil-Dumas Message, created by Canadian scientists Yvan Dutil and Stéphane Dumas, BM is the Braastad Message, AM is the Arecibo Message, and ESM is the Encounter 2001 Staff Message. Each Cosmic Call 2 session in 2003 had the following structure:  DDM2 → DDM2 → DDM2 → AM → AM → AM → BIG → BIG → BIG → BM → ESM → PP,  where DDM2 is modernized DDM (aka Interstellar Rosetta Stone, ISR), BIG is Bilingual Image Glossary.
All but the PP were transmitted at 400 bit/s  The ISR was 263,906 bits; BM, 88,687 bits, AM, 1,679 bits; BIG was 12 binary images 121,301 bits; ESM 24,899 bits. Total = 500,472 bits for 53 minutes. PP was 220 megabytes and sent at a rate of 100,000 bit/s for 11 hours total. Stars targeted The messages were sent to the following stars:  See also  Arecibo message  Active SETI  Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence  Interstellar messages  References  External links   Self-Decoding Messages  https://web.archive.org/web/20110724223524/http://www.activeseti.org/evpatoria.html Discussion of the Call's "Rosetta Stone" and how it was developed  Report on Cosmic Call  https://web.archive.org/web/20121001045355/http://www3.sympatico.ca/stephane_dumas/CETI/evpatoria.html Evpatoria 2003 discussion with bitmap and image  Category:Search for extraterrestrial intelligence Category:Interstellar messages Category:Time capsules Category:1999 in science Category:2003 in science Category:Technology in society Category:1999 in Ukraine Category:2003 in Ukraine
A whisk is a cooking utensil which can be used to blend ingredients smooth or to incorporate air into a mixture, in a process known as whisking or whipping. Most whisks consist of a long, narrow handle with a series of wire loops joined at the end. The wires are usually metal, but some are plastic for use with nonstick cookware. Whisks are also made from bamboo. Whisks are commonly used to whip egg whites into a firm foam to make meringue, or to whip cream into whipped cream. Whisks have differently-shaped loops depending on their intended functions:  History Bundles of twigs, typically apple, have long been used as whisks; often the wood used would lend a certain fragrance to the dish.
An 18th-century Shaker recipe calls to "Cut a handful of peach twigs which are filled with sap at this season of the year. Clip the ends and bruise them and beat the cake batter with them. This will impart a delicate peach flavor to the cake." The wire whisk was invented sometime before 1841. In the United States, cranked rotary egg beaters became more popular than whisks in the 20th century. Julia Child is credited with re-introducing the wire whisk in her first ever televised appearance, in 1963. Types The most common shape is that of a wide teardrop, termed a balloon whisk.
Balloon whisks are best suited to mixing in bowls, as their curved edges conform to a bowl's concave sides. With longer, narrower wire loops, the French whisk has a more cylindrical profile, suiting it to deep, straight-sided pans. A flat whisk, sometimes referred to as a roux whisk, has the loops arranged in a flat successive pattern. It is useful for working in shallow vessels like skillets (in which a roux is normally prepared). A gravy whisk, sometimes referred to as a spiral whisk, commonly has one main loop with another wire coiled around it. The angle of the whisk head is ideal for mixing gravy, jello, batters and sauces.
Similarly, a twirl whisk or a coil whisk has one single wire that is spiralled into a balloon shape. Designed to remain stationary in a bowl while the user pumps the handle up and down, it circulates liquids readily throughout a bowl. It is not suitable for whisking in the traditional sense, since dragging the whisk through a liquid or batter simply stretches out the coils, but is ideal for beating eggs. Ball whisks have no loops whatsoever. Instead, a group of individual wires comes out of the handle, each tipped with a metal ball. The heavy balls are capable of reaching into the corners of a straight-sided pan.
Since there are no crossing wires, the ball whisk is easier to clean than traditional looped varieties. Manufacturers of ball whisks also purport that their shape allows for better aeration. A cage whisk, sometimes referred to as a ball whisk, is a balloon whisk with a small spherical cage trapped inside of it, which in turn holds a metal ball. Mechanisms  Since the 19th century, various mechanical devices have been designed to make whisking more efficient, under the names "egg beater", "rotary mixer", etc. See also  Mixer (cooking) Pastry blender fly-whisk: for brushing away flies  References  Category:Cooking utensils Category:Bartending equipment
Love Spirals Downwards was an American, California-based band, that incorporated ethereal wave, dream pop, drum and bass and electronica. History Love Spirals Downwards was begun by multi-instrumentalist Ryan Lum and then-girlfriend Suzanne Perry. In 1991, Lum and Perry recorded a demo, which led to a contract with Projekt Records. Over its 8-year history, the band released four full-length albums, a career retrospective and a CD single, selling (by their own account) in excess of 40,000 albums. They were also included on over two dozen various artist compilations, including the Heavenly Voices series released by the German label Hyperium Records. Perry's sister Kristen collaborated with Lum and Perry on two tracks on the 1998 album, Flux.
One of her songs, "Psyche," was used on episode No. 501 of Dawson’s Creek, originally airing on 10 October 2001. This episode was included on the Season 5 DVD set. Jennifer Wilde (then working under her maiden name, Jennifer Ryan Fuller) performed as a guest vocalist on two tracks for Love Spirals Downwards' 1994 second release, Ardor. Her vocals on one of these songs, "Sunset Bell," were reused for a new version of the song four years later on the band's album, Flux. Wilde went on to form her own band, Liquid State, in January 2006 and is currently performing in the band Sword Tongue.
Although the band never officially broke up, in 1999, Lum began releasing music under the shortened moniker Lovespirals, featuring new vocal collaborator Anji Bee. In January 2000, career retrospective CD Temporal was released by Projekt, including new remixes of songs from Flux and promotional materials that seemed to indicate the band was still active. Soon after, Projekt announced that Perry would release an EP under the band name Melodyguild in 2003. The release was pushed back several times before disappearing from the label's website, although Projekt did release a label sampler CD in December 2006 with a Melodyguild song. Idylls and Ardor were reissued in 2007 in remastered editions with extra tracks.
In June 2008, Perry returned with her first body of work in almost a decade, under the Melodyguild moniker. The quartet released the four-track EP Aitu via Projekt Records. Discography  Studio albums  Idylls (1992, Projekt Records) Ardor (1994, Projekt Records) Ever (1996, Projekt Records) Flux (1998, Projekt Records)  Compilation albums  Temporal (2000, Projekt Records)  Compilation appearances  From Across This Gray Land No.3 (1992, Projekt Records)  Hy! From Hypnotic to Hypersonic (1992, Hyperium Records)  50 Years of Sunshine (1993, Silent Records)  Heavenly Voices (1993, Semantic)  Beneath The Icy Floe - A Projekt Sampler (1994, Projekt Records)  Beneath the Icy Floe Vol.
2  (1994, Projekt Records)  Zauber of Music Volume II (1994, Hyperium Records/Projekt Records)  Of These Reminders (1995, Projekt Records)  Beneath the Icy Floe Vol. 3 (1995, Projekt Records)  Romantic Sound Sampler Vol. 2 (1995, Zillo/EFA)  Excelsis (v.1): A Dark Noel (1995, Projekt Records)  Wave Romantics: Dark Ballads & Underground Rock Classics (1996, Facedown/Edel)  Beneath the Icy Floe Vol. 4 (1996, Projekt Records)  Beneath the Icy Floe Vol. 5 (1997, Projekt Records)  Splashed With Many a Speck (1997, Dewdrops Records)  Life Is Too Short for Boring Music Vol. 11 (1997, EFA)  Indie Gestion: AP 12 (1997, Alternative Press)  The Projekt Sampler/Beneath the Icy Floe Vol.
6 (1998, Projekt Records)  Carpe Noctem 1 (1998, Bleeding Edge Media)  Loraine: A KUCI 88.9FM Benefit Compilation (1998, Peach Records)  Precipice Recordings Volume 1 (1998, Precipice Records)  Diva X Machina 3 (2000, COP International)  Heartbeats (2000, Mascara/In-Zoom)  Projekt 100: The Early Years, 1985 to 1995 (2000, Projekt Records)  Darkwave: Music of the Shadows v2 (2000, K-Tel)  Within This Infinite Ocean... (2001, Projekt Records/Borders Books)  Excelsis Box Set (2001, Projekt Records)  A Dark Noel: The Very Best of Excelsis (2002, Projekt Records/Hot Topic)  Projekt: The New Face of Goth (2003, Projekt Records/Hot Topic)  Projekt 200 (2007, Projekt Records)  References  External links  Love Spirals Downwards Official site  Band Page on the  Projekt Records site   Discogs band page  MySpace band page  Category:1991 establishments in California Category:American dark wave musical groups Category:American drum and bass musical groups Category:Drum and bass duos Category:Dream pop musical groups Category:Rock music groups from California Category:Shoegazing musical groups Category:Musical groups from Los Angeles Category:Musical groups established in 1991 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1999 Category:Projekt Records artists
Lorne Hyman Greene  (born Lyon Himan Green; 12 February 1915 – 11 September 1987) was a Canadian actor, radio personality and singer. His notable television roles include Ben Cartwright on the western Bonanza, and Commander Adama in the original science fiction television series Battlestar Galactica and Galactica 1980. He also worked on the Canadian television nature documentary series Lorne Greene's New Wilderness, and in television commercials. Early life and career in Canada  Greene was born Lyon Himan Green in Ottawa, Ontario to Russian Jewish immigrants, Dora (née Grinovsky) and Daniel Green, a shoemaker. He was called "Chaim" by his mother, and his name is shown as "Hyman" on his school report cards.
In a biography of him that was written by his daughter Linda Greene Bennett, she wrote that it was not known when he began using the name Lorne, nor when he added an "e" to Green. Greene was the drama instructor at Camp Arowhon, a summer camp in Algonquin Park, Ontario, Canada, where he developed his talents. Greene began acting while attending Queen's University in Kingston, where he acquired a knack for broadcasting with the Radio Workshop of the university's Drama Guild on the campus radio station CFRC. He gave up on a career in chemical engineering and, upon graduation, found a job as a radio broadcaster for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC).
During World War II Green served as a Flying officer in the Royal Canadian Air Force. He was assigned as the principal newsreader on the CBC National News. The CBC gave him the nickname "The Voice of Canada;" however, his role in delivering distressing war news in sonorous tones with his deep, resonant voice following Canada's entry into World War II in 1939 caused many listeners to call him "The Voice of Doom" instead, particularly since he was delegated the assignment of reading the dreaded list of soldiers killed in the war. During his radio days, Greene invented a stopwatch that ran backwards; this helped radio announcers gauge how much time was left while speaking.
As of the middle of September 2018, it was not known whether any production models of this stopwatch were ever made available in the United States. During his CBC radio career, Greene also narrated documentary films, such as the National Film Board of Canada's Fighting Norway (1943). After that career ended, Greene turned to the audio-visual form and relocated to the United States. Katharine Cornell cast him twice in her Broadway productions. In 1953, he was cast in The Prescott Proposals. In that same year, she cast him in a verse drama by Christopher Fry, The Dark is Light Enough.
Greene likewise began appearing in isolated episodes on live television in the 1950s. In 1953, he was seen in the title role of a one-hour adaptation of Shakespeare's Othello. In 1954 he made his Hollywood debut as Saint Peter in The Silver Chalice and made several more films and appearances on American television. In 1955 he starred in the British Canadian TV series Sailor of Fortune. In 1955 he was Ludwig van Beethoven in an episode of the TV version of You Are There, and also appeared as Marcus Brutus in Julius Caesar at the Stratford Festival. In 1957, Greene played the prosecutor in Peyton Place.
American television  The first of his continuing TV roles was as the patriarch Ben "Pa" Cartwright in Bonanza, the first one-hour western series filmed in colour (1959–1973), making Greene a household name. He garnered the role after his performance as O'Brien in the CBS production of Nineteen Eighty-Four. In the 1960s, Greene capitalized on his image as Benjamin "Pa" Cartwright by recording several albums of country-western/folk songs, which Greene performed in a mixture of spoken word and singing. In 1964, Greene had a #1 single on the music charts with his spoken-word ballad, "Ringo" (which referred to the real-life Old West outlaw Johnny Ringo, not to Ringo Starr of the Beatles), and got a lot of play time from "Saga of the Ponderosa", which detailed the Cartwright founding of the famous ranch.
In 1973, after the cancellation of Bonanza following a 14-year run, Greene joined Ben Murphy in the ABC crime drama, Griff, about a Los Angeles, California, police officer, Wade "Griff" Griffin, who retires to become a private detective. When it failed to gain sufficient ratings and was cancelled after 13 episodes, Greene thereafter hosted the syndicated nature documentary series Last of the Wild from 1974–75. In the 1977 miniseries Roots, he played the first master of Kunta Kinte, John Reynolds. Through the 1970s, Greene was the spokesman for Alpo Beef Chunks dog food commercials, one of the possible origins of the phrase "Eating your own dog food".
In 2007, TV Guide listed Ben Cartwright as the nation's second most popular TV Father (behind Cliff Huxtable). Greene was also known for his role as Commander Adama, another patriarchal figure, in the science fiction television series Battlestar Galactica (1978–1979) and Galactica 1980 (1980). Greene's typecasting as a wise father character continued with the 1981 series Code Red as a fire department chief, whose command includes his children as subordinates. Greene appeared with his former Bonanza co-star Michael Landon on an episode of Highway to Heaven. Greene also appeared with his former Bonanza co-star Pernell Roberts on a two-part episode of Vega$.
He appeared in the HBO mockumentary The Canadian Conspiracy, about the supposed subversion of the United States by Canadian-born media personalities. For nearly a decade, Greene co-hosted the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade on NBC with Betty White. He is also fondly remembered as the founder of Toronto's Academy of Radio Arts (originally called the Lorne Greene School of Broadcasting). Back on Canadian television  In the 1980s Greene devoted his energies to wildlife and environmental issues, including hosting and narrating the CTV's nature series Lorne Greene's New Wilderness, a show that promoted environmental awareness. Personal life  Greene was married twice, first to Rita Hands of Toronto (19381960, divorced).
Some reports list the start of their marriage as 1940. They had two children, twins born in 1945: Charles Greene and Belinda Susan Bennett. His second wife was Nancy Deale (19611987, Greene's death), with whom he had one child, Gillian Dania Greene. In 1993, Gillian married director Sam Raimi, and later named a son, Lorne Raimi, after her father. The Ponderosa II House was built by Greene in 1960 in Mesa, Arizona. It is located at 602 S. Edgewater Drive. It is a replica of the Bonanza set house from the former Ponderosa Ranch in Incline Village, Nevada. It is listed in the Mesa Historic Property Register.
Death Greene died on 11 September 1987, aged 72, from complications from pneumonia, following ulcer surgery, in Santa Monica, California. He was interred at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City. Honours and awards Greene was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on 28 October 1969, "for services to the Performing Arts and to the community." Greene was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by his alma mater, Queen's University, in 1971. He was the 1987 recipient of the Earle Grey Award for Lifetime Achievement at the Canadian Gemini Awards. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1559 N. Vine Street.
In May 2006, Greene became one of the first four entertainers to ever be honoured by Canada Post by being featured on a 51-cent postage stamp. In February 1985, Greene was the Krewe of Bacchus King of Mardi Gras. Greene was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame in 2015. Filmography   Churchill's Island (1941) as Narrator  Warclouds in the Pacific (1941) as Narrator  Inside Fighting China (1941) as Narrator  Flight 6 (1944) as Narrator  Othello (1953) (television) as Othello  The Philip Morris Playhouse (one episode, 1953) as Joe  Omnibus (one episode, 1953) as Ed Bailey  Danger (one episode, 1954) as Stranger  The Silver Chalice (1954) as Saint Peter  Justice (one episode, 1954, "The Desperate One")  You Are There (three episodes, 1954–1955) as Ludwig van Beethoven / Charles Stewart Parnell  Tight Spot (1955) as Benjamin Costain  Climax!
(one episode, 1955) as Dr. Charles Saunders  The Elgin Hour (one episode, 1955) as Vernon Dyall  Studio 57 (one episode, 1955) as Gentry Morton  Alfred Hitchcock Presents (one episode, 1956) as Mr. X  Autumn Leaves (1956) as Mr. Hanson  The Alcoa Hour (one episode, 1956) as Sheriff Gash  Armstrong Circle Theatre (one episode, 1956) as Angelina  The United States Steel Hour (one episode, 1956) as Dallas  Kraft Television Theatre (one episode, 1957) as Colonel Matthews  Playhouse 90 (one episode, 1957) as Lowell Williams  Studio One (five episodes, 1953–1957)  Peyton Place (1957) as Prosecutor  The Hard Man (1957) as Rice Martin  The Gift of Love (1958) as Grant Allan  Suspicion (one episode, 1958) as Monty  The Last of the Fast Guns (1958) as Michael O'Reilly  Shirley Temple's Storybook (one episode, 1958) as King Bertrand  The Buccaneer (1958) as Mercier  The Trap (1959) as Davis  Bonanza (417 episodes, 1959–1973) as Ben Cartwright  The Third Man (one episode, 1959)  The Gale Storm Show (one episode, 1959) as Constable Barnaby  The Hangman (1959) as Marshal Clum Cummings  Mike Hammer (two episodes, 1959) as Carl Kunard, Emmett Gates  Bronco (one episode, 1959) as Capt.
Amos Carr  Wagon Train (one episode, 1959) as Christopher Webb  Cheyenne (two episodes, 1960) as Colonel Bell  The Errand Boy (1961) as Ben Cartwright – Cameo (uncredited)  The Legend of Amaluk: An Arctic Odyssey (1972) as Narrator  Tidal Wave (1973) as Ambassador Warren Richards  Griff (12 episodes, 1973–1974) as Wade Griffin  Earthquake (1974) as Sam Royce  Nevada Smith (1975) as Jonas Cord  The Moneychangers (1976) as George Quartermain  Roots (two episodes, 1977) as John Reynolds  SST: Death Flight (1977) as Marshall Cole  The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries (two episodes, 1977) as Inspector Hans Stavlin  The Trial of Lee Harvey Oswald (1977) as Matthew Arnold Watson  Yabba Dabba Doo!
The Happy World of Hanna-Barbera (1977) as Special Guest  Happy Days (1977) as Special Guest Cameo  The Bastard (1978) as Bishop Francis  Battlestar Galactica (21 episodes, 1978–1979) as Commander Adama  The Love Boat (three episodes, 1979–1982) as Buck Hamilton / Buddy Bowers  Klondike Fever (1980) as Sam Steele  Galactica 1980 (10 episodes, 1980) as Commander Adama  Living Legend: The King of Rock and Roll (1980)  Pink Lady (one episode, 1980)  Vega$ (two episodes, 1980) as Emil Remick  A Time for Miracles (1980) as Bishop John Carroll  Aloha Paradise (one episode, 1981) as Businessman  The Wizard of Oz (1982) as The Wizard (voice)  Code Red (12 episodes, 1981–1982) as Battalion Chief Joe Rorchek  Police Squad!
(one episode, 1982) as Stabbed Man  Heidi's Song (1982) as Grandfather (voice)  The Nutcracker: A Fantasy on Ice (1983) as Himself / Narrator  Highway to Heaven (one episode, 1985) as Fred Fusco  Noah's Ark (1986) as Noah (voice)  Vasectomy: A Delicate Matter (1986) as Theo Marshall  The Alamo: Thirteen Days to Glory (1987) as General Sam Houston (final film role)  Discography  Albums  Singles  See also   Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood  Western (genre)  References  External links Canadian Communications Foundation: Lorne Greene (1915–1987)        Category:20th-century Canadian male actors Category:20th-century Canadian singers Category:1915 births Category:1987 deaths Category:Burials at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery Category:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation people Category:Canadian country singers Category:Canadian expatriate male actors in the United States Category:Canadian male film actors Category:Canadian male television actors Category:Canadian male voice actors Category:Canadian people of Russian-Jewish descent Category:Canadian radio news anchors Category:Canadian radio personalities Category:Deaths from pneumonia Category:Infectious disease deaths in California Category:Jewish Canadian male actors Category:Male actors from Ottawa Category:Musicians from Ottawa Category:Officers of the Order of Canada Category:Queen's University alumni Category:RCA Victor artists
Goneplax rhomboides is a species of crab. It is known by the common name angular crab because of its angular carapace. Although it is also called the square crab, its shell is in fact more trapezoidal than square (or rhomboidal, as its scientific name might suggest). This species is also known as the mud-runner because they are able to run away quickly when threatened. Description Goneplax rhomboides is a relatively small (carapace up to ), distinctive-looking crab that ranges from yellowish-white, to orange, to reddish, to vivid pink in colour. It has a smooth, quadrangular, strongly convex carapace that is much broader than it is long.
It has long, slender pereiopods with margins of propodus and dactylus bristles. It likewise has setae on its antennae and mouthparts. Females have short chelipeds but the chelipeds of males are long, with the merus portion of the claw considerably longer than the length of their carapaces. G. rhomboides has often been confused with G. clevai, a similar species sharing at least part of its range. Its eyes are on the end of long, retractable eyestalks. Distribution and habitat G. rhomboides is found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea from the North Sea to southern Africa and the Indian Ocean coast of South Africa.
Waters off Shetland constitute the northern boundary of its range, and in 2008, marine biologists from the University of Gothenburg discovered one intact in the stomach of a cod caught off the coast of Bohuslän which suggests that G. rhomboides has now moved into Swedish waters. A similar discovery a few weeks later in the same location reinforces this conclusion. This species inhabits muddy habitats similar to those favoured by the Norway lobster and burrows into inshore muddy sand. Its burrows often interconnect in complex patterns with those inhabited by other species of burrowing megafauna such as Callianassa subterranea, Cepola macrophthalma, Lesueurigobius friesii, and Nephrops norvegicus.
These multi-species burrow complexes are very common in some localities. Symbiosis The setae on the antennae, mouthparts and legs of G. rhomboides are home to Triticella flava, a species of Bryozoa ("moss animal"). The short lifespan of these symbiotic moss animals is synchronized so that they produce larvae just before G. rhomboides moults. These larvae then attach to the crab's newly-emerged exoskeleton. References  Category:Goneplacoidea Category:Crustaceans of the Atlantic Ocean Category:Crustaceans described in 1758
Crimes against humanity are certain acts that are purposely committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian or an identifiable part of a civilian population. The first prosecution for crimes against humanity took place at the Nuremberg trials. Crimes against humanity have since been prosecuted by other international courts (for example, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the International Criminal Court) as well as in domestic prosecutions. The law of crimes against humanity has primarily developed through the evolution of customary international law. Crimes against humanity are not codified in an international convention, although there is currently an international effort to establish such a treaty, led by the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative.
Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity can be committed during peace or war. They are not isolated or sporadic events, but are part either of a government policy (although the perpetrators need not identify themselves with this policy) or of a wide practice of atrocities tolerated or condoned by a government or a de facto authority. War crimes, murder, massacres, dehumanization, genocide, ethnic cleansing, deportations, unethical human experimentation, extrajudicial punishments including summary executions, use of weapons of mass destruction, state terrorism or state sponsoring of terrorism, death squads, kidnappings and forced disappearances, use of child soldiers, unjust imprisonment, enslavement, torture, rape, political repression, racial discrimination, religious persecution and other human rights abuses may reach the threshold of crimes against humanity if they are part of a widespread or systematic practice.
History of the term  The term "crimes against humanity" is potentially ambiguous because of the ambiguity of the word "humanity", which can mean humankind (all human beings collectively) or the value of humanness. The history of the term shows that the latter sense is intended. Abolition of the slave trade There were several bilateral treaties in 1814 that foreshadowed the multilateral treaty of Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (1815) that used wording expressing condemnation of the slave trade using moral language. For example, the Treaty of Paris (1814) between Britain and France included the wording "principles of natural justice"; and the British and United States plenipotentiaries stated in the Treaty of Ghent (1814) that the slave trade violated the "principles of humanity and justice".
The multilateral Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815 (Which also formed Section XV of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna of the same year) included in its first sentence the concept of the "principles of humanity and universal morality" as justification for ending a trade that was "odious in its continuance". First use  The term "crimes against humanity" was used by George Washington Williams in a pamphlet published in 1890 to describe the practices of Leopold II of Belgium's administration of the Congo Free State. In treaty law, the term originated in the Second Hague Convention of 1899 preamble and was expanded in the Fourth Hague Convention of 1907 preamble and their respective regulations, which were concerned with the codification of new rules of international humanitarian law.
The preamble of the two Conventions referenced the "laws of humanity" as an expression of underlying inarticulated humanistic values. The term is part of what is known as the Martens Clause. On May 24, 1915, the Allied Powers, Britain, France, and Russia, jointly issued a statement explicitly charging for the first time ever another government of committing "a crime against humanity". An excerpt from this joint statement reads:  At the conclusion of the war, an international war crimes commission recommended the creation of a tribunal to try "violations of the laws of humanity". However, the US representative objected to references to "law of humanity" as being imprecise and insufficiently developed at that time and the concept was not pursued.
Nonetheless, a UN report in 1948 referred to the usage of the term "crimes against humanity" in regard to the Armenian massacres as a precedent to the Nürnberg and Tokyo Charters. On May 15, 1948, the Economic and Social Council presented a 384-pages report prepared by the United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), set up in London (October 1943) to collect and collate information on war crimes and war criminals. The report was in compliance to the request by the UN Secretary-General to make arrangements for "the collection and publication of information concerning human rights arising from trials of war criminals, quislings and traitors, and in particular from the Nürnberg and Tokyo Trials."
The report had been prepared by members of the Legal Staff of the Commission. The report is highly topical in regard to the Armenian Genocide, not only because it uses the 1915 events as a historic example, but also as a precedent to the Articles 6 (c) and 5 (c) of the Nuremberg and Tokyo Charters, and thereby as a precursor to the then newly adopted UN Genocide Convention, differentiating between war crimes and crimes against humanity. By refereeing to the information collected during WWI and put forward by the 1919 Commission of Responsibilities, the report entitled "Information Concerning Human Rights Arising from Trials of War Criminals" used the Armenian case as a vivid example of committed crimes by a state against its own citizens.
The report also noted that while the Paris Peace Treaties with Germany, Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria, did not include any reference to "laws of humanity", instead basing the charges on violations of "laws and customs of war", The Sèvres Peace Treaty with Turkey did so. In addition to the Articles 226–228, concerning customs of war (corresponding to Articles 228–230 of the Treaty of Versailles), the Sèvres Treaty also contained an additional Article 230, obviously in compliance with the Allied ultimatum of May 24, 1915 in regard to committed "crimes against humanity and civilization". Nuremberg trials  After the Second World War, the London Charter of the International Military Tribunal set down the laws and procedures by which the Nuremberg trials were to be conducted.
The drafters of this document were faced with the problem of how to respond to the Holocaust and the grave crimes committed by the Nazi regime. A traditional understanding of war crimes gave no provision for crimes committed by a power on its own citizens. Therefore, Article 6 of the Charter was drafted to include not only traditional war crimes and crimes against peace, but also crimes against humanity, defined as  Under this definition, crimes against humanity could be punished only insofar as they could be connected somehow to war crimes or crimes against peace. The jurisdictional limitation was explained by the American chief representative to the London Conference, Robert H. Jackson, who pointed out that it "has been a general principle from time immemorial that the internal affairs of another government are not ordinarily our business".
Thus, "it is justifiable that we interfere or attempt to bring retribution to individuals or to states only because the concentration camps and the deportations were in pursuance of a common plan or enterprise of making an unjust war". The judgement of the first Nuremberg trial found that "the policy of persecution, repression and murder of civilians" and persecution of Jews within Germany before the outbreak of war in 1939 were not crimes against humanity, because as "revolting and horrible as many of these crimes were, it has not been satisfactorily proved that they were done in execution of, or in connection with," war crimes or crimes against peace.
The subsequent Nuremberg trials were conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 which included a revised definition of crimes against humanity with a wider scope. Tokyo Trial  The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE), also known as the Tokyo Trial, was convened to try the leaders of the Empire of Japan for three types of crimes: "Class A" (crimes against peace), "Class B" (war crimes), and "Class C" (crimes against humanity), committed during the Second World War. The legal basis for the trial was established by the Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (CIMTFE) that was proclaimed on 19 January 1946.
The tribunal convened on May 3, 1946, and was adjourned on November 12, 1948. In the Tokyo Trial, Crimes against Humanity (Class C) was not applied for any suspect. Prosecutions related to the Nanking Massacre were categorised as infringements upon the Laws of War. A panel of eleven judges presided over the IMTFE, one each from victorious Allied powers (United States, Republic of China, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Provisional Government of the French Republic, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, British India, and the Philippines). Types of crimes against humanity The different types of crimes which may constitute crimes against humanity differs between definitions both internationally and on the domestic level.
Isolated inhumane acts of a certain nature committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack may instead constitute grave infringements of human rights, or – depending on the circumstances – war crimes, but are not classified as crimes against humanity. Apartheid  The systematic persecution of one racial group by another, such as occurred during the South African apartheid government, was recognized as a crime against humanity by the United Nations General Assembly in 1976. The Charter of the United Nations (Article 13, 14, 15) makes actions of the General Assembly advisory to the Security Council. In regard to apartheid in particular, the UN General Assembly has not made any findings, nor have apartheid-related trials for crimes against humanity been conducted.
Rape and sexual violence Neither the Nuremberg or Tokyo Charters contained an explicit provision recognizing sexual and gender-based crimes as war crimes or crimes against humanity, although Control Council Law No. 10 recognized rape as a crime against humanity. The statutes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda both included rape as a crime against humanity. The ICC is the first international instrument expressly to include various forms of sexual and gender-based crimes including rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilisation, and other forms of sexual violence as both an underlying act of crimes against humanity and war crime committed in international and/or non-international armed conflicts.
As an example, the events of Khojaly and Khatyn can be shown that the world strongly condemns. International institutions have asked for a ransom to avoid such incidents. There are hundreds of massacres, thousands of prisoners and wounded in these incidents. In 2008, the U.N. Security Council adopted resolution 1820, which noted that "rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide". Legal status of crimes against humanity in international law Unlike genocide and war crimes, which have been widely recognized and prohibited in international criminal law since the establishment of the Nuremberg principles, there has never been a comprehensive convention on crimes against humanity, even though such crimes are continuously perpetrated worldwide in numerous conflicts and crises.
There are eleven international texts defining crimes against humanity, but they all differ slightly as to their definition of that crime and its legal elements. In 2008, the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative was launched by Professor Leila Nadya Sadat at the Whitney R. Harris World Law Institute to address this gap in international law. The Initiative represents the first concerted effort to address the gap that exists in international criminal law by enumerating a comprehensive international convention on crimes against humanity. On July 30, 2013, the United Nations International Law Commission voted to include the topic of crimes against humanity in its long-term program of work.
In July 2014, the Commission moved this topic to its active programme of work based largely on a report submitted by Sean D. Murphy. Professor Sean D. Murphy, the United States’ Member on the United Nations’ International Law Commission, has been named the Special Rapporteur for Crimes Against Humanity. Sean D. Murphy attended the 2008 Experts' Meeting held by the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative prior to this appointment. There is some debate on what the status of crimes against humanity under customary international law is. M. Cherif Bassiouni argues that crimes against humanity are part of jus cogens and as such constitute a non-derogable rule of international law.
United Nations The United Nations has been primarily responsible for the prosecution of crimes against humanity since it was chartered in 1948. After Nuremberg, there was no international court with jurisdiction over crimes against humanity for almost 50 years. Work continued on developing the definition of crimes against humanity at the United Nations, however. In 1947, the International Law Commission was charged by the United Nations General Assembly with the formulation of the principles of international law recognized and reinforced in the Nuremberg Charter and judgment, and with drafting a 'code of offenses against the peace and security of mankind'.
Completed fifty years later in 1996, the Draft Code defined crimes against humanity as various inhumane acts, i.e., "murder, extermination, torture, enslavement, persecution on political, racial, religious or ethnic grounds, institutionalized discrimination, arbitrary deportation or forcible transfer of population, arbitrary imprisonment, rape, enforced prostitution and other inhuman acts committed in a systematic manner or on a large scale and instigated or directed by a Government or by any organization or group." This definition differs from the one used in Nuremberg, where the criminal acts were to have been committed "before or during the war", thus establishing a nexus between crimes against humanity and armed conflict.
A report on the 2008–09 Gaza War by Richard Goldstone accused Palestinian and Israeli forces of possibly committing a crime against humanity. In 2011, Goldstone said that he no longer believed that Israeli forces had targeted civilians or committed a crime against humanity. On 21 March 2013, at its 22nd session, the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission of Inquiry on human rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). The Commission is mandated to investigate the systematic, widespread and grave violations of human rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, with a view to ensuring full accountability, in particular for violations which may amount to crimes against humanity.
The Commission dealt with matters relating to crimes against humanity on the basis of definitions set out by customary international criminal law and in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The 2014 Report by the commission found "the body of testimony and other information it received establishes that crimes against humanity have been committed in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, pursuant to policies established at the highest level of the State... These crimes against humanity entail extermination, murder, enslavement, torture, imprisonment, rape, forced abortions and other sexual violence, persecution on political, religious, racial and gender grounds, the forcible transfer of populations, the enforced disappearance of persons and the inhumane act of knowingly causing prolonged starvation.
The commission further finds that crimes against humanity are ongoing in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea because the policies, institutions and patterns of impunity that lie at their heart remain in place." Additionally, the commission found that crimes against humanity have been committed against starving populations, particularly during the 1990s, and are being committed against persons from other countries who were systematically abducted or denied repatriation, in order to gain labour and other skills for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. Security Council UN Security Council Resolution 1674, adopted by the United Nations Security Council on 28 April 2006, "reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity".
The resolution commits the Council to action to protect civilians in armed conflict. In 2008 the U.N. Security Council adopted resolution 1820, which noted that "rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide". According to the United Nations Security Council resolution 1970 (2011) concerning Libya, any direct or indirect trade of arms to the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, in the form of supply, transfer, or sale should be prevented by the member nations. The arms embargo restricts the supply of arms, weapons, military vehicles, spare parts, technical assistance, finances, along with the provision of armed mercenaries, with origins of a country other than the one providing.
However, the United Nations claimed in its November 2019 report that the United Arab Emirates, Jordan and Turkey are violating the arms embargo imposed on Libya under the 1970 resolution. An airstrike on the migrant detention center in Tripoli in July 2019, believed to have been carried out by the United Arab Emirates, can be amounted as a war crime, as stated by the United Nations. The airstrike was deadlier than the 2011 militarized uprising that overthrew the regime of Muammar Gaddafi. International courts and criminal tribunals After the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials of 1945–1946, the next international tribunal with jurisdiction over crimes against humanity was not established for another five decades.
In response to atrocities committed in the 1990s, multiple ad hoc tribunals were established with jurisdiction over crimes against humanity. The statutes of the International Criminal Court, the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugolavia and for Rwanda each contain different definitions of crimes against humanity. International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia  In 1993, the UN Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), with jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute three international crimes which had taken place in the former Yugoslavia: genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Article 5 of the ICTY Statute states that   This definition of crimes against humanity revived the original ‘Nuremberg’ nexus with armed conflict, connecting crimes against humanity to both international and non-international armed conflict.
It also expanded the list of criminal acts used in Nuremberg to include imprisonment, torture and rape. Cherif Bassiouni has argued that this definition was necessary as the conflict in the former Yugoslavia was considered to be a conflict of both an international and non-international nature. Therefore, this adjusted definition of crimes against humanity was necessary to afford the tribunal jurisdiction over this crime. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda  The UN Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in 1994 following the Rwandan genocide. Under the ICTR Statute, the link between crimes against humanity and an armed conflict of any kind was dropped.
Rather, the requirement was added that the inhumane acts must be part of a "systematic or widespread attack against any civilian population on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds." Unlike the conflict in the former Yugoslavia, the conflict in Rwanda was deemed to be non-international, so crimes against humanity would likely not have been applicable if the nexus to armed conflict had been maintained. Special Court for Sierra Leone  Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)  International Criminal Court  In 2002, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was established in The Hague (Netherlands) and the Rome Statute provides for the ICC to have jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.
The definition of what is a "crime against humanity" for ICC proceedings has significantly broadened from its original legal definition or that used by the UN. Essentially, the Rome Statute employs the same definition of crimes against humanity that the ICTR Statute does, minus the requirement that the attack was carried out ‘on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds’. In addition, the Rome Statute definition offers the most expansive list of specific criminal acts that may constitute crimes against humanity to date. Article 7 of the treaty stated that:  The Rome Statute Explanatory Memorandum states that crimes against humanity  To fall under the Rome Statute, a crime against humanity which is defined in Article 7.1 must be "part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population".
Article 7.2.a states "For the purpose of paragraph 1: "Attack directed against any civilian population means a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against any civilian population, pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such attack." This means that an individual crime on its own, or even a number of such crimes, would not fall under the Rome Statute unless they were the result of a State policy or an organizational policy. This was confirmed by Luis Moreno Ocampo in an open letter publishing his conclusions about allegations of crimes committed during the invasion of Iraq in March 2003 which might fall under the ICC.
In a section entitled "Allegations concerning Genocide and Crimes against Humanity" he states that "the available information provided no reasonable indicator of the required elements for a crime against humanity," i.e. 'a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population'". The ICC can only prosecute crimes against humanity in situations under which it has jurisdiction. The ICC only has jurisdiction over crimes contained in its statute – genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity – which have been committed on the territory of a State party to the Rome Statute, when a non-party State refers a situation within its country to the court or when the United Nation Security Council refers a case to the ICC.
In 2005 the UN referred to the ICC the situation in Darfur. This referral resulted in an indictment of Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes in 2008. When the ICC President reported to the UN regarding its progress handling these crimes against humanity case, Judge Phillipe Kirsch said "The Court does not have the power to arrest these persons. That is the responsibility of States and other actors. Without arrests, there can be no trials. Council of Europe The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 30 April 2002 issued a recommendation to the member states, on the protection of women against violence.
In the section "Additional measures concerning violence in conflict and post-conflict situations", states in paragraph 69 that member states should: "penalize rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity as an intolerable violation of human rights, as crimes against humanity and, when committed in the context of an armed conflict, as war crimes;"  In the Explanatory Memorandum on this recommendation when considering paragraph 69:  The Holodomor has been recognized as a crime against humanity by the European Parliament. 20th century   Sources say the 20th century can be considered the bloodiest period in global history.
Millions of civilian infants, children, adults, and elderly people died in warfare. One civilian perished for every combatant killed. Efforts of the International Committee of the Red Cross, humanitarian laws, and rules of warfare were not able to stop these crimes against humanity. These terminologies were invented since previous vocabulary was not enough to describe these offenses. War criminals did not fear prosecution, apprehension, or imprisonment before World War II. Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill favored the outright execution of war criminals. The United States was more lenient and called for a just trial. The British Government was convinced to institute the Nuremberg Trial which left several legacies.
These are worldwide jurisdiction for severe war crimes are, creation of international war crime tribunals, judicial procedures that documented history of colossal crimes effectively, and success of UN courts in holding impartial trials. The UN pointed out the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) specifically Article 7 (Crimes against Humanity), which defines large-scale acts of violence against a locality's civilian populace. These acts consist of murder; annihilation; enslavement; bondage; forced removal of the population; imprisonment or deprivation of physical liberty that violates international laws; maltreatment; forced prostitution and rape; discrimination and tyranny against certain groups; apartheid (racial discrimination and segregation); and, other inhumane acts.
A publication from Trial International mentioned that crimes against humanity have been collated starting in 1990. These were the 1993 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia, 1994 Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda, and 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The latter contains the latest and most extensive list of detailed crimes against civilians.
See also   Available legal remedies  Charter of the United Nations  Crimes against humanity under communist regimes  Crimes Against Humanity Initiative  Historical revisionism (negationism)  Honor killing  Human rights  Inter-American Commission on Human Rights  Mass Atrocity crimes  Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action  War crimes  References  Further reading   Christopher R. Browning, "The Two Different Ways of Looking at Nazi Murder" (review of Philippe Sands, East West Street:  On the Origins of "Genocide" and "Crimes Against Humanity", Knopf, 425 pp., $32.50; and Christian Gerlach, The Extermination of the European Jews, Cambridge University Press, 508 pp., $29.99 [paper]), The New York Review of Books, vol.
LXIII, no. 18 (November 24, 2016), pp. 56–58. Discusses Hersch Lauterpacht's legal concept of "crimes against humanity", contrasted with Rafael Lemkin's legal concept of "genocide". All genocides are crimes against humanity, but not all crimes against humanity are genocides; genocides require a higher standard of proof, as they entail intent to destroy a particular group. (fr) Jean Albert (dir. ), L'avenir de la justice pénale internationale, Institut Presage, Bruylant, 2018, 383 p. ()  External links   Crimes of War project  Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project  What is a Crime Against Humanity? – an online video  Genocide & Crimes Against Humanity – a learning resource, highlighting the cases of Myanmar, Bosnia, the DRC, and Darfur  Crimes Against Humanity – Bibliographies on the topics of the International Law Commission & International Law Seminar  (UNOG Library)    Category:Human rights abuses Category:International criminal law Category:Torture Category:War crimes Category:Words coined in the 1890s
Not to be confused with 5S (methodology)  Six Sigma (6σ) is a set of techniques and tools for process improvement. It was introduced by American engineer Bill Smith while working at Motorola in 1986. Jack Welch  made it central to his business strategy at General Electric in 1995. A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of all opportunities to produce some feature of a part are statistically expected to be free of defects. Six Sigma strategies seek to improve the quality of the output of a process by identifying and removing the causes of defects and minimizing impact variability in manufacturing and business processes.
It uses a set of quality management methods, mainly empirical, statistical methods, and creates a special infrastructure of people within the organization who are experts in these methods. Each Six Sigma project carried out within an organization follows a defined sequence of steps and has specific value targets, for example: reduce process cycle time, reduce pollution, reduce costs, increase customer satisfaction, and increase profits. The term Six Sigma (capitalized because it was written that way when registered as a Motorola trademark on December 28, 1993) originated from terminology associated with statistical modeling of manufacturing processes. The maturity of a manufacturing process can be described by a sigma rating indicating its yield or the percentage of defect-free products it creates—specifically, to within how many standard deviations of a normal distribution the fraction of defect-free outcomes corresponds.
Motorola set a goal of "six sigma" for all of its manufacturing. Doctrine  Six Sigma doctrine asserts:  Continuous efforts to achieve stable and predictable process results (e.g. by reducing process variation) are of vital importance to business success. Manufacturing and business processes have characteristics that can be defined, measured, analyzed, improved, and controlled. Achieving sustained quality improvement requires commitment from the entire organization, particularly from top-level management. Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality-improvement initiatives include:  A clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns from any Six Sigma project. An increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and support.
A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of verifiable data and statistical methods, rather than assumptions and guesswork. The term "six sigma" comes from statistics and is used in statistical quality control, which evaluates process capability. Originally, it referred to the ability of manufacturing processes to produce a very high proportion of output within specification. Processes that operate with "six sigma quality" over the short term are assumed to produce long-term defect levels below 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO). The 3.4 dpmo is based on a "shift" of ± 1.5 sigma explained by Dr. Mikel J. Harry.
This figure is based on the tolerance in the height of a stack of discs. Six Sigma's implicit goal is to improve all processes, but not to the 3.4 DPMO level necessarily. Organizations need to determine an appropriate sigma level for each of their most important processes and strive to achieve these. As a result of this goal, it is incumbent on management of the organization to prioritize areas of improvement. "Six Sigma" was registered June 11, 1991 as . In 2005 Motorola attributed over US$17 billion in savings to Six Sigma. Other early adopters of Six Sigma include Honeywell and General Electric, where Jack Welch introduced the method.
By the late 1990s, about two-thirds of the Fortune 500 organizations had begun Six Sigma initiatives with the aim of reducing costs and improving quality. In , some practitioners have combined Six Sigma ideas with lean manufacturing to create a methodology named Lean Six Sigma. The Lean Six Sigma methodology views lean manufacturing, which addresses process flow and waste issues, and Six Sigma, with its focus on variation and design, as complementary disciplines aimed at promoting "business and operational excellence". In 2011, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published the first standard "ISO 13053:2011" defining a Six Sigma process.
Other standards have been created mostly by universities or companies that have first-party certification programs for Six Sigma. Difference from lean management  Lean management and Six Sigma are two concepts which share similar methodologies and tools. Both programs are Japanese-influenced, but they are two different programs. Lean management is focused on eliminating waste using a set of proven standardized tools and methodologies that target organizational efficiencies while integrating a performance improvement system utilized by everyone, while Six Sigma's focus is on eliminating defects and reducing variation. Both systems are driven by data, though Six Sigma is much more dependent on accurate data.
Methodologies Six Sigma projects follow two project methodologies inspired by Deming's Plan–Do–Study–Act Cycle. These methodologies, composed of five phases each, bear the acronyms DMAIC and DMADV. DMAIC ("duh-may-ick", ) is used for projects aimed at improving an existing business process. DMADV ("duh-mad-vee", ) is used for projects aimed at creating new product or process designs. DMAIC  The DMAIC project methodology has five phases:  Define the system, the voice of the customer and their requirements, and the project goals, specifically. Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data; calculate the 'as-is' Process Capability. Analyze the data to investigate and verify cause-and-effect relationships.
Determine what the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered. Seek out root cause of the defect under investigation. Improve or optimize the current process based upon data analysis using techniques such as design of experiments, poka yoke or mistake proofing, and standard work to create a new, future state process. Set up pilot runs to establish process capability. Control the future state process to ensure that any deviations from the target are corrected before they result in defects. Implement control systems such as statistical process control, production boards, visual workplaces, and continuously monitor the process.
This process is repeated until the desired quality level is obtained. Some organizations add a Recognize step at the beginning, which is to recognize the right problem to work on, thus yielding an RDMAIC methodology. DMADV or DFSS  The DMADV project methodology, known as DFSS ("Design For Six Sigma"), features five phases:  Define design goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise strategy. Measure and identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality), measure product capabilities, production process capability, and measure risks. Analyze to develop and design alternatives  Design an improved alternative, best suited per analysis in the previous step  Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the production process and hand it over to the process owner(s).
Quality management tools and methods Within the individual phases of a DMAIC or DMADV project, Six Sigma utilizes many established quality-management tools that are also used outside Six Sigma. The following table shows an overview of the main methods used. Implementation roles One key innovation of Six Sigma involves the absolute "professionalizing" of quality management functions. Prior to Six Sigma, quality management in practice was largely relegated to the production floor and to statisticians in a separate quality department. Formal Six Sigma programs adopt a kind of elite ranking terminology (similar to some martial arts systems, like judo) to define a hierarchy (and special career path) that includes all business functions and levels.
Six Sigma identifies several key roles for its successful implementation. Executive Leadership includes the CEO and other members of top management. They are responsible for setting up a vision for Six Sigma implementation. They also empower the other role holders with the freedom and resources to explore new ideas for breakthrough improvements by transcending departmental barriers and overcoming inherent resistance to change. Champions take responsibility for Six Sigma implementation across the organization in an integrated manner. The Executive Leadership draws them from upper management. Champions also act as mentors to Black Belts. Master Black Belts, identified by Champions, act as in-house coaches on Six Sigma.
They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They assist Champions and guide Black Belts and Green Belts. Apart from statistical tasks, they spend their time on ensuring consistent application of Six Sigma across various functions and departments. Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology to specific projects. They also devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They primarily focus on Six Sigma project execution and special leadership with special tasks, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus on identifying projects/functions for Six Sigma. Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along with their other job responsibilities, operating under the guidance of Black Belts.
According to proponents of the system, special training is needed for all of these practitioners to ensure that they follow the methodology and use the data-driven approach correctly. Some organizations use additional belt colours, such as Yellow Belts, for employees that have basic training in Six Sigma tools and generally participate in projects and "White belts" for those locally trained in the concepts but do not participate in the project team. "Orange belts" are also mentioned to be used for special cases. Certification  General Electric and Motorola developed certification programs as part of their Six Sigma implementation, verifying individuals' command of the Six Sigma methods at the relevant skill level (Green Belt, Black Belt etc.).
Following this approach, many organizations in the 1990s started offering Six Sigma certifications to their employees. In 2008 Motorola University later co-developed with Vative and the Lean Six Sigma Society of Professionals a set of comparable certification standards for Lean Certification. Criteria for Green Belt and Black Belt certification vary; some companies simply require participation in a course and a Six Sigma project. There is no standard certification body, and different certification services are offered by various quality associations and other providers against a fee. The American Society for Quality for example requires Black Belt applicants to pass a written exam and to provide a signed affidavit stating that they have completed two projects or one project combined with three years' practical experience in the body of knowledge.
Etymology of "six sigma process" The term "six sigma process" comes from the notion that if one has six standard deviations between the process mean and the nearest specification limit, as shown in the graph, practically no items will fail to meet specifications. This is based on the calculation method employed in process capability studies. Capability studies measure the number of standard deviations between the process mean and the nearest specification limit in sigma units, represented by the Greek letter σ (sigma). As process standard deviation goes up, or the mean of the process moves away from the center of the tolerance, fewer standard deviations will fit between the mean and the nearest specification limit, decreasing the sigma number and increasing the likelihood of items outside specification.
One should also note that calculation of Sigma levels for a process data is independent of the data being normally distributed. In one of the criticisms to Six Sigma, practitioners using this approach spend a lot of time transforming data from non-normal to normal using transformation techniques. It must be said that Sigma levels can be determined for process data that has evidence of non-normality. Role of the 1.5 sigma shift Experience has shown that processes usually do not perform as well in the long term as they do in the short term. As a result, the number of sigmas that will fit between the process mean and the nearest specification limit may well drop over time, compared to an initial short-term study.
To account for this real-life increase in process variation over time, an empirically based 1.5 sigma shift is introduced into the calculation. According to this idea, a process that fits 6 sigma between the process mean and the nearest specification limit in a short-term study will in the long term fit only 4.5 sigma – either because the process mean will move over time, or because the long-term standard deviation of the process will be greater than that observed in the short term, or both. Hence the widely accepted definition of a six sigma process is a process that produces 3.4 defective parts per million opportunities (DPMO).
This is based on the fact that a process that is normally distributed will have 3.4 parts per million outside the limits, when the limits are six sigma from the "original" mean of zero and the process mean is then shifted by 1.5 sigma (and therefore, the six sigma limits are no longer symmetrical about the mean). The former six sigma distribution, when under the effect of the 1.5 sigma shift, is commonly referred to as a 4.5 sigma process. The failure rate of a six sigma distribution with the mean shifted 1.5 sigma is not equivalent to the failure rate of a 4.5 sigma process with the mean centered on zero.
This allows for the fact that special causes may result in a deterioration in process performance over time and is designed to prevent underestimation of the defect levels likely to be encountered in real-life operation. The role of the sigma shift is mainly academic. The purpose of six sigma is to generate organizational performance improvement. It is up to the organization to determine, based on customer expectations, what the appropriate sigma level of a process is. The purpose of the sigma value is as a comparative figure to determine whether a process is improving, deteriorating, stagnant or non-competitive with others in the same business.
Six sigma (3.4 DPMO) is not the goal of all processes. Sigma levels  The table below gives long-term DPMO values corresponding to various short-term sigma levels. These figures assume that the process mean will shift by 1.5 sigma toward the side with the critical specification limit. In other words, they assume that after the initial study determining the short-term sigma level, the long-term Cpk value will turn out to be 0.5 less than the short-term Cpk value. So, now for example, the DPMO figure given for 1 sigma assumes that the long-term process mean will be 0.5 sigma beyond the specification limit (Cpk = –0.17), rather than 1 sigma within it, as it was in the short-term study (Cpk = 0.33).
Note that the defect percentages indicate only defects exceeding the specification limit to which the process mean is nearest. Defects beyond the far specification limit are not included in the percentages.
The formula used here to calculate the DPMO is thus  {| class="wikitable" |- !Sigma level !Sigma (with 1.5σ shift) !DPMO !Percent defective !Percentage yield !Short-term Cpk !Long-term Cpk  |- | 1 | −0.5 | 691,462 | 69% | 31% | 0.33 | −0.17 |-  | 2 | 0.5 | 308,538 | 31% | 69% | 0.67 | 0.17 |-  | 3 | 1.5 | 66,807 | 6.7% | 93.3% | 1.00 | 0.5 |-  | 4 | 2.5 | 6,210 | 0.62% | 99.38% | 1.33 | 0.83 |-  | 5 | 3.5 | 233 | 0.023% | 99.977% | 1.67 | 1.17 |-  | 6 | 4.5 | 3.4 | 0.00034% | 99.99966% | 2.00 | '''1.5 |-  | 7 | 5.5 | 0.019 | 0.0000019% | 99.9999981% | 2.33 | 1.83 |}  Software  Application  Six Sigma mostly finds application in large organizations.
An important factor in the spread of Six Sigma was GE's 1998 announcement of $350 million in savings thanks to Six Sigma, a figure that later grew to more than $1 billion. According to industry consultants like Thomas Pyzdek and John Kullmann, companies with fewer than 500 employees are less suited to Six Sigma implementation or need to adapt the standard approach to make it work for them. Six Sigma however contains a large number of tools and techniques that work well in small to mid-size organizations. The fact that an organization is not big enough to be able to afford black belts does not diminish its abilities to make improvements using this set of tools and techniques.
The infrastructure described as necessary to support Six Sigma is a result of the size of the organization rather than a requirement of Six Sigma itself. Although the scope of Six Sigma differs depending on where it is implemented, it can successfully deliver its benefits to different applications. Manufacturing  After its first application at Motorola in the late 1980s, other internationally recognized firms currently recorded high number of savings after applying Six Sigma. Examples of these are Johnson and Johnson, with $600 million of reported savings, Texas Instruments, which saved over $500 million as well as Telefónica de Espana, which reported €30 million in savings in the first 10 months.
On top of this, other organizations like Sony and Boeing achieved large percentages in waste reduction. Engineering and construction Although companies have considered common quality control and process improvement strategies, there’s still a need for more reasonable and effective methods as all the desired standards and client satisfaction have not always been reached. There is still a need for an essential analysis that can control the factors affecting concrete cracks and slippage between concrete and steel. After conducting a case study on Tinjin Xianyi Construction Technology Co, Ltd., it was found that construction time and construction waste were reduced by 26.2% and 67% accordingly after adopting Six Sigma.
Similarly, Six Sigma implementation was studied at one of the largest engineering and construction companies in the world: Bechtel Corporation, where after an initial investment of $30 million in a Six Sigma program that included identifying and preventing rework and defects, over $200 million were saved. Finance  Six Sigma has played an important role by improving accuracy of allocation of cash to reduce bank charges, automatic payments, improving accuracy of reporting, reducing documentary credits defects, reducing check collection defects, and reducing variation in collector performance. Two of the financial institutions that have reported considerable improvements in their operations are Bank of America and American Express.
By 2004 Bank of America increased customer satisfaction by 10.4% and decreased customer issues by 24% by applying Six Sigma tools in their streamline operations. Similarly, American Express successfully eliminated non-received renewal credit cards and improved their overall processes by applying Six Sigma principles. This strategy is also currently being applied by other financial institutions like GE Capital Corp., JP Morgan Chase, and SunTrust Bank, with customer satisfaction being their main objective. Supply chain In this field, it is important to ensure that products are delivered to clients at the right time while preserving high-quality standards from the beginning to the end of the supply chain.
By changing the schematic diagram for the supply chain, Six Sigma can ensure quality control on products (defect free) and guarantee delivery deadlines, which are the two major issues involved in the supply chain. Healthcare  This is a sector that has been highly matched with this doctrine for many years because of the nature of zero tolerance for mistakes and potential for reducing medical errors involved in healthcare. The goal of Six Sigma in healthcare is broad and includes reducing the inventory of equipment that brings extra costs, altering the process of healthcare delivery in order to make more efficient and refining reimbursements.
A study at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, which recorded an increase in examinations with no additional machines of 45% and reduction in patients' preparation time of 40 minutes; from 45 minutes to 5 minutes in multiple cases. Criticism  Lack of originality Quality expert Joseph M. Juran described Six Sigma as "a basic version of quality improvement", stating that "there is nothing new there. It includes what we used to call facilitators. They've adopted more flamboyant terms, like belts with different colors. I think that concept has merit to set apart, to create specialists who can be very helpful.
Again, that's not a new idea. The American Society for Quality long ago established certificates, such as for reliability engineers." Inadequate for complex manufacturing Quality expert Philip B. Crosby pointed out that the Six Sigma standard does not go far enough—customers deserve defect-free products every time. For example, under the Six Sigma standard, semiconductors which require the flawless etching of millions of tiny circuits onto a single chip are all defective. Role of consultants The use of "Black Belts" as itinerant change agents has fostered an industry of training and certification. Critics have argued there is overselling of Six Sigma by too great a number of consulting firms, many of which claim expertise in Six Sigma when they have only a rudimentary understanding of the tools and techniques involved or the markets or industries in which they are acting.
Potential negative effects A Fortune article stated that "of 58 large companies that have announced Six Sigma programs, 91 percent have trailed the S&P 500 since". The statement was attributed to "an analysis by Charles Holland of consulting firm Qualpro (which espouses a competing quality-improvement process)". The summary of the article is that Six Sigma is effective at what it is intended to do, but that it is "narrowly designed to fix an existing process" and does not help in "coming up with new products or disruptive technologies." Over-reliance on statistical tools  A more direct criticism is the "rigid" nature of Six Sigma with its over-reliance on methods and tools.
In most cases, more attention is paid to reducing variation and searching for any significant factors and less attention is paid to developing robustness in the first place (which can altogether eliminate the need for reducing variation). The extensive reliance on significance testing and use of multiple regression techniques increases the risk of making commonly unknown types of statistical errors or mistakes. A possible consequence of Six Sigma's array of P-value misconceptions is the false belief that the probability of a conclusion being in error can be calculated from the data in a single experiment without reference to external evidence or the plausibility of the underlying mechanism.
One of the most serious but all-too-common misuses of inferential statistics is to take a model that was developed through exploratory model building and subject it to the same sorts of statistical tests that are used to validate a model that was specified in advance. Another comment refers to the often mentioned Transfer Function, which seems to be a flawed theory if looked at in detail. Since significance tests were first popularized many objections have been voiced by prominent and respected statisticians. The volume of criticism and rebuttal has filled books with language seldom used in the scholarly debate of a dry subject.
Much of the first criticism was already published more than 40 years ago (see ). Articles featuring critics have appeared in the November–December 2006 issue of USA Army Logistician regarding Six-Sigma: "The dangers of a single paradigmatic orientation (in this case, that of technical rationality) can blind us to values associated with double-loop learning and the learning organization, organization adaptability, workforce creativity and development, humanizing the workplace, cultural awareness, and strategy making." Nassim Nicholas Taleb considers risk managers little more than "blind users" of statistical tools and methods. He states that statistics is fundamentally incomplete as a field as it cannot predict the risk of rare events—something Six Sigma is specially concerned with.
Furthermore, errors in prediction are likely to occur as a result of ignorance for or distinction between epistemic and other uncertainties. These errors are the biggest in time variant (reliability) related failures. Stifling creativity in research environments According to an article by John Dodge, editor in chief of Design News, use of Six Sigma is inappropriate in a research environment. Dodge states "excessive metrics, steps, measurements and Six Sigma's intense focus on reducing variability water down the discovery process. Under Six Sigma, the free-wheeling nature of brainstorming and the serendipitous side of discovery is stifled." He concludes "there's general agreement that freedom in basic or pure research is preferable while Six Sigma works best in incremental innovation when there's an expressed commercial goal."
A BusinessWeek article says that James McNerney's introduction of Six Sigma at 3M had the effect of stifling creativity and reports its removal from the research function. It cites two Wharton School professors who say that Six Sigma leads to incremental innovation at the expense of blue skies research. This phenomenon is further explored in the book Going Lean, which describes a related approach known as lean dynamics and provides data to show that Ford's "6 Sigma" program did little to change its fortunes.
Lack of systematic documentation  One criticism voiced by Yasar Jarrar and Andy Neely from the Cranfield School of Management's Centre for Business Performance is that while Six Sigma is a powerful approach, it can also unduly dominate an organization's culture; and they add that much of the Six Sigma literature – in a remarkable way (six-sigma claims to be evidence, scientifically based) – lacks academic rigor:  1.5 sigma shift The statistician Donald J. Wheeler has dismissed the 1.5 sigma shift as "goofy" because of its arbitrary nature. Its universal applicability is seen as doubtful. The 1.5 sigma shift has also become contentious because it results in stated "sigma levels" that reflect short-term rather than long-term performance: a process that has long-term defect levels corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance is, by Six Sigma convention, described as a "six sigma process.
"* The accepted Six Sigma scoring system thus cannot be equated to actual normal distribution probabilities for the stated number of standard deviations, and this has been a key bone of contention over how Six Sigma measures are defined. The fact that it is rarely explained that a "6 sigma" process will have long-term defect rates corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance rather than actual 6 sigma performance has led several commentators to express the opinion that Six Sigma is a confidence trick. See also       – a philosophical focus on continuous improvement of processes                References  Further reading         Hahn, G. J., Hill, W. J., Hoerl, R. W. and Zinkgraf, S. A.
(1999) The Impact of Six Sigma Improvement-A Glimpse into the Future of Statistics'', The American Statistician, Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 208–215. Category:1986 introductions Category:Business terms Category:Quality control tools
The Great Famine ( ), or the Great Hunger, was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1849. With the most severely affected areas in the west and south of Ireland, where the Irish language was dominant, the period was contemporaneously known in Irish as , loosely translated as the "hard times" (or literally, "The Bad Life"). The worst year of the period was 1847, known as "Black '47". During the famine, about one million people died and a million more emigrated from Ireland, causing the island's population to fall by between 20% and 25%.
The event is sometimes referred to as the Irish Potato Famine, mostly outside Ireland. The proximate cause of the famine was a natural event, a potato blight, which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, also causing some 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influencing much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848. From 1846, the impact of the blight was exacerbated by the Whig government's economic policy of laissez-faire capitalism. Longer-term causes include the system of absentee landlordism, and single-crop dependence. The famine was a watershed in the history of Ireland, which from 1801 to 1922 was ruled directly by Westminster as part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
The famine and its effects permanently changed the island's demographic, political, and cultural landscape, producing an estimated two million refugees and spurring a century-long population decline. For both the native Irish and those in the resulting diaspora, the famine entered folk memory. The strained relations between many Irish and their government soured further because of the famine, heightening ethnic and sectarian tensions and boosting Irish nationalism and republicanism in Ireland and among Irish emigrants in the United States and elsewhere. The potato blight returned to Europe in 1879, but by that point the Land War, described as one of the largest agrarian movements to take place in 19th-century Europe, had begun in Ireland.
The movement, organized by the Land League, continued the political campaign for the Three Fs, issued in 1850 by the Tenant Right League during the Great Famine. When the potato blight returned in the 1879 famine the League boycotted "notorious landlords" and its members physically blocked evictions of farmers; the consequent reduction in homelessness and house demolition resulted in a drastic reduction in the number of deaths. Causes and contributing factors  Since the Acts of Union in January 1801, Ireland had been part of the United Kingdom. Executive power lay in the hands of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and Chief Secretary for Ireland, who were appointed by the British government.
Ireland sent 105 members of parliament to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, and Irish representative peers elected 28 of their own number to sit for life in the House of Lords. Between 1832 and 1859, 70% of Irish representatives were landowners or the sons of landowners. In the 40 years that followed the union, successive British governments grappled with the problems of governing a country which had, as Benjamin Disraeli put it in 1844, "a starving population, an absentee aristocracy, an alien established Protestant church, and in addition the weakest executive in the world".
One historian calculated that, between 1801 and 1845, there had been 114 commissions and 61 special committees enquiring into the state of Ireland, and that "without exception their findings prophesied disaster; Ireland was on the verge of starvation, her population rapidly increasing, three-quarters of her labourers unemployed, housing conditions appalling and the standard of living unbelievably low". Lectures printed in 1847 by John Hughes, Bishop of New York, are a contemporary exploration into the antecedent causes, particularly the political climate, in which the Irish famine occurred. Landlords and tenants During the 18th century, the "middleman system" for managing landed property was introduced.
Rent collection was left in the hands of the landlords' agents, or middlemen. This assured the landlord of a regular income, and relieved them of direct responsibility, while leaving tenants open to exploitation by the middlemen. Catholics, the bulk of whom lived in conditions of poverty and insecurity despite Catholic emancipation in 1829, made up 80% of the population. At the top of the "social pyramid" was the "ascendancy class", the English and Anglo-Irish families who owned most of the land and held more or less unchecked power over their tenants. Some of their estates were vast; for example, the Earl of Lucan owned more than .
Many of these absentee landlords lived in England. The rent revenue—collected from "impoverished tenants" who were paid minimal wages to raise crops and livestock for export—was mostly sent to England. In 1843, the British Government considered that the land question in Ireland was the root cause of disaffection in the country. They established a Royal Commission, chaired by the Earl of Devon, to enquire into the laws regarding the occupation of land. Daniel O'Connell described this commission as "perfectly one-sided", being composed of landlords, with no tenant representation.
In February 1845, Devon reported: It would be impossible adequately to describe the privations which they [the Irish labourer and his family] habitually and silently endure ... in many districts their only food is the potato, their only beverage water ... their cabins are seldom a protection against the weather ... a bed or a blanket is a rare luxury ... and nearly in all their pig and a manure heap constitute their only property. The Commissioners concluded they could not "forbear expressing our strong sense of the patient endurance which the labouring classes have exhibited under sufferings greater, we believe, than the people of any other country in Europe have to sustain".
The Commission stated that bad relations between landlord and tenant were principally responsible. There was no hereditary loyalty, feudal tie, or mitigating tradition of paternalism as existed in England (Ireland was a conquered country). The Earl of Clare observed of landlords that "confiscation is their common title". According to the historian Cecil Woodham-Smith, landlords regarded the land as a source of income, from which as much as possible was to be extracted. With the Irish "brooding over their discontent in sullen indignation" (in the words of the Earl of Clare), the landlords largely viewed the countryside as a hostile place in which to live.
Some landlords visited their property only once or twice in a lifetime, if ever. The rents from Ireland were generally spent elsewhere; an estimated £6,000,000 was remitted out of Ireland in 1842. The ability of middlemen was measured by the rent income they could contrive to extract from tenants. They were described in evidence before the Commission as "land sharks", "bloodsuckers", and "the most oppressive species of tyrant that ever lent assistance to the destruction of a country". The middlemen leased large tracts of land from the landlords on long leases with fixed rents, which they sublet as they saw fit.
They would split a holding into smaller and smaller parcels so as to increase the amount of rent they could obtain. Tenants could be evicted for reasons such as non-payment of rents (which were high), or a landlord's decision to raise sheep instead of grain crops. A cottier paid his rent by working for the landlord. As any improvement made on a holding by a tenant became the property of the landlord when the lease expired or was terminated, the incentive to make improvements was limited. Most tenants had no security of tenure on the land; as tenants "at will", they could be turned out whenever the landlord chose.
The only exception to this arrangement was in Ulster where, under a practice known as "tenant right", a tenant was compensated for any improvement they made to their holding. According to Woodham-Smith, the commission stated that "the superior prosperity and tranquility of Ulster, compared with the rest of Ireland, were due to tenant right". Landlords in Ireland often used their powers without compunction, and tenants lived in dread of them. Woodham-Smith writes that, in these circumstances, "industry and enterprise were extinguished and a peasantry created which was one of the most destitute in Europe". Tenants, subdivisions, and bankruptcy In 1845, 24% of all Irish tenant farms were of 0.4–2 hectares (1–5 acres) in size, while 40% were of 2–6 hectares (5–15 acres).
Holdings were so small that no crop other than potatoes would suffice to feed a family. Shortly before the famine, the British government reported that poverty was so widespread that one-third of all Irish small holdings could not support the tenant families after rent was paid; the families survived only by earnings as seasonal migrant labour in England and Scotland. Following the famine, reforms were implemented making it illegal to further divide land holdings. The 1841 census showed a population of just over eight million. Two-thirds of those depended on agriculture for their survival, but they rarely received a working wage.
They had to work for their landlords in return for the patch of land they needed to grow enough food for their own families. This was the system which forced Ireland and its peasantry into monoculture, since only the potato could be grown in sufficient quantity. The rights to a plot of land in Ireland could mean the difference between life and death in the early 19th century. Potato dependency  The potato was introduced to Ireland as a garden crop of the gentry. The potato was not popular at first;  however, after an unusual promotion campaign that was supported by landowners and members of royalty, who wanted their tenants to plant and eat the crop, it rose in popularity.
By the late 17th century, it had become widespread as a supplementary rather than a principal food; the main diet was still based on butter, milk, and grain products. By 1800 to 1820, the potato became a staple of the poor, especially in winter. Furthermore, a disproportionate share of the potatoes grown in Ireland were of a single variety, the Irish Lumper. With the expansion of the economy between 1760 and 1815, the potato was increasingly adopted by the people and became a staple food year round for farmers. The widespread dependency on this single crop, and the lack of genetic variability among the potato plants in Ireland and Europe (a monoculture), were two of the reasons why the emergence of Phytophthora infestans had such devastating effects in Ireland and in similar areas of Europe.
Potatoes were essential to the development of the cottier system; they supported an extremely cheap workforce, but at the cost of lower living standards. For the labourer, "a potato wage" shaped the expanding agrarian economy. The potato was also used extensively as a fodder crop for livestock immediately prior to the famine. Approximately 33% of production, amounting to , was normally used in this way. Blight in Ireland  Prior to the arrival in Ireland of the disease Phytophthora infestans, commonly known as "blight", only two main potato plant diseases had been identified. One was called "dry rot" or "taint", and the other was a virus known popularly as "curl".
Phytophthora infestans is an oomycete (a variety of parasitic, non-photosynthetic organisms closely related to brown algae, and not a fungus). In 1851, the Census of Ireland Commissioners recorded 24 failures of the potato crop going back to 1728, of varying severity. General crop failures, through disease or frost, were recorded in 1739, 1740, 1770, 1800, and 1807. In 1821 and 1822, the potato crop failed in Munster and Connaught. In 1830 and 1831, Mayo, Donegal, and Galway suffered likewise. In 1832, 1833, 1834, and 1836, dry rot and curl caused serious losses, and in 1835 the potato failed in Ulster.
Widespread failures throughout Ireland occurred in 1836, 1837, 1839, 1841, and 1844. According to Woodham-Smith, "the unreliability of the potato was an accepted fact in Ireland". How and when the blight Phytophthora infestans arrived in Europe is still uncertain; however, it almost certainly was not present prior to 1842, and probably arrived in 1844. The origin of the pathogen has been traced to the Toluca Valley in Mexico, whence it spread first within North America and then to Europe. The 1845–46 blight was caused by the HERB-1 strain of the blight. In 1844, Irish newspapers carried reports concerning a disease which for two years had attacked the potato crops in America.
In 1843 and 1844, blight largely destroyed the potato crops in the Eastern United States. Ships from Baltimore, Philadelphia, or New York City could have carried diseased potatoes from these areas to European ports. American plant pathologist William C. Paddock posited that the blight was transported via potatoes being carried to feed passengers on clipper ships sailing from America to Ireland. Once introduced in Ireland and Europe, blight spread rapidly. By mid-August 1845, it had reached much of northern and central Europe; Belgium, The Netherlands, northern France, and southern England had all already been affected. On 16 August 1845, The Gardeners' Chronicle and Horticultural Gazette reported "a blight of unusual character" on the Isle of Wight.
A week later, on 23 August, it reported that "A fearful malady has broken out among the potato crop ... In Belgium the fields are said to be completely desolated. There is hardly a sound sample in Covent Garden market ... As for cure for this distemper, there is none." These reports were extensively covered in Irish newspapers. On 11 September, the Freeman's Journal reported on "the appearance of what is called 'cholera' in potatoes in Ireland, especially in the north". On 13 September, The Gardeners' Chronicle announced: "We stop the Press with very great regret to announce that the potato Murrain has unequivocally declared itself in Ireland."
Nevertheless, the British government remained optimistic over the next few weeks, as it received conflicting reports. Only when the crop was lifted (harvested) in October, did the scale of destruction become apparent. Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel wrote to Sir James Graham in mid-October that he found the reports "very alarming", but reminded him that there was, according to Woodham-Smith, "always a tendency to exaggeration in Irish news". Crop loss in 1845 has been estimated at anywhere from one third to as high as one half of cultivated acreage. The Mansion House Committee in Dublin, to which hundreds of letters were directed from all over Ireland, claimed on 19 November 1845 to have ascertained beyond the shadow of doubt that "considerably more than one-third of the entire of the potato crop ... has been already destroyed".
In 1846, three-quarters of the harvest was lost to blight. By December, a third of a million destitute people were employed in public works. According to Cormac Ó Gráda, the first attack of potato blight caused considerable hardship in rural Ireland, from the autumn of 1846, when the first deaths from starvation were recorded. Seed potatoes were scarce in 1847. Few had been sown, so, despite average yields, hunger continued. 1848 yields were only two-thirds of normal. Since over three million Irish people were totally dependent on potatoes for food, hunger and famine were inevitable. Reaction in Ireland  The Corporation of Dublin sent a memorial to the Queen, "praying her" to call Parliament together early (Parliament was at this time prorogued), and to recommend the requisition of some public money for public works, especially railways in Ireland.
The Town Council of Belfast met and made similar suggestions, but neither body asked for charity, according to John Mitchel, one of the leading Repealers. "They demanded that, if Ireland was indeed an Integral part of the realm, the common exchequer of both islands should be used—not to give alms, but to provide employment on public works of general utility ... if Yorkshire and Lancashire had sustained a like calamity in England, there is no doubt such measures as these would have been taken, promptly and liberally", Mitchel declared. In early November 1845, a deputation from the citizens of Dublin, including the Duke of Leinster, Lord Cloncurry, Daniel O'Connell and the Lord Mayor, went to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Heytesbury, to offer suggestions, such as opening the ports to foreign corn, stopping distillation from grain, prohibiting the export of foodstuffs, and providing employment through public works.
Lord Heytesbury urged them not to be alarmed, that they "were premature", that scientists were enquiring into all those matters, and that the Inspectors of Constabulary and Stipendiary Magistrates were charged with making constant reports from their districts; and there was no "immediate pressure on the market". On 8 December 1845, Daniel O'Connell, head of the Repeal Association, proposed several remedies to the pending disaster. One of the first things he suggested was the introduction of "Tenant-Right" as practised in Ulster, giving the landlord a fair rent for his land, but giving the tenant compensation for any money he might have laid out on the land in permanent improvements.
O'Connell noted actions taken by the Belgian legislature during the same season, as they had been hit by blight, too: shutting their ports against the export of provisions, and opening them to imports. He suggested that, if Ireland had a domestic Parliament, the ports would be thrown open and the abundant crops raised in Ireland would be kept for the people of Ireland, as the Dublin parliament had done during the food shortages of the 1780s. O'Connell maintained that only an Irish parliament would provide both food and employment for the people. He said that repeal of the Act of Union was a necessity and Ireland's only hope.
John Mitchel raised the issue of the "Potato Disease" in Ireland as early as 1844 in The Nation, noting how powerful an agent hunger had been in certain revolutions. On 14 February 1846, he wrote about "the wretched way in which the famine was being trifled with", and asked whether the Government still did not have any conception that there might be soon "millions of human beings in Ireland having nothing to eat". Mitchel later wrote one of the first widely circulated tracts on the famine, The Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps), published in 1861. It established the widespread view that British actions during the famine and their treatment of the Irish was a deliberate effort to murder the Irish.
It contained a sentence that has since become famous: "The Almighty, indeed, sent the potato blight, but the English created the Famine." Mitchel was charged with sedition because of his writings, but this charge was dropped. He was convicted by a packed jury under the newly enacted Treason Felony Act and sentenced to 14 years transportation to Bermuda. According to Charles Gavan Duffy, The Nation insisted that the one remedy was that which the rest of Europe had adopted, which even the parliaments of the Pale had adopted in periods of distress. That was to retain in the country the food raised by her people until the people were fed.
Contemporaneously, as found in letters from the period and in particular later oral memory, the name for the event is in , though with the earlier spelling standard of the era, which was Gaelic script, it is found written as in Droċ-Ṡaoġal. In the modern era, this name, while loosely translated as "the hard-time", is always denoted with a capital letter to express its specific historic meaning. The period of the potato blight in Ireland from 1845 to 1851 was full of political confrontation. A more radical Young Ireland group seceded from the Repeal movement in July 1846, and attempted an armed rebellion in 1848.
It was unsuccessful. In 1847, William Smith O'Brien, leader of the Young Ireland party, became one of the founding members of the Irish Confederation to campaign for a Repeal of the Act of Union, and called for the export of grain to be stopped and the ports closed. The following year, he helped organise the short-lived Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 in County Tipperary. Government response  Tory government Historian F. S. L. Lyons characterised the initial response of the British government to the early, less severe phase of the famine as "prompt and relatively successful". Confronted by widespread crop failure in November 1845, the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, purchased £100,000 worth of maize and cornmeal secretly from America with Baring Brothers initially acting as his agents.
The government hoped that they would not "stifle private enterprise" and that their actions would not act as a disincentive to local relief efforts. Due to poor weather conditions, the first shipment did not arrive in Ireland until the beginning of February 1846. The initial shipments were of unground dried kernels, but the few Irish mills in operation were not equipped for milling maize and a long and complicated milling process had to be adopted before the meal could be distributed. In addition, before the cornmeal could be consumed, it had to be "very much" cooked again, or eating it could result in severe bowel complaints.
Due to its yellow colour, and initial unpopularity, it became known as "Peel's brimstone". In October 1845, Peel moved to repeal the Corn Laws—tariffs on grain which kept the price of bread high—but the issue split his party and he had insufficient support from his own colleagues to push the measure through. He resigned the premiership in December, but the opposition was unable to form a government and he was re-appointed. In March, Peel set up a programme of public works in Ireland, but the famine situation worsened during 1846, and the repeal of the Corn Laws in that year did little to help the starving Irish; the measure split the Conservative Party, leading to the fall of Peel's ministry.
On 25 June, the second reading of the government's Irish Coercion Bill was defeated by 73 votes in the House of Commons by a combination of Whigs, Radicals, Irish Repealers, and protectionist Conservatives. Peel was forced to resign as prime minister on 29 June, and the Whig leader, Lord John Russell, became prime minister. Whig government The measures undertaken by Peel's successor, Russell, proved inadequate as the crisis deepened. The new Whig administration, influenced by the doctrine of laissez-faire, believed that the market would provide the food needed. They refused to interfere with the movement of food to England, then halted the previous government's food and relief works, leaving many hundreds of thousands of people without access to work, money, or food.
Russell's ministry introduced a new programme of public works that by the end of December 1846 employed some half million but proved impossible to administer. Charles Trevelyan, who was in charge of the administration of government relief, limited the Government's food aid programme because of a firm belief in laissez-faire. In January 1847, the government abandoned this policy, realising that it had failed, and turned to a mixture of "indoor" and "outdoor" direct relief; the former administered in workhouses through the Irish Poor Laws, the latter through soup kitchens. The costs of the Poor Law fell primarily on the local landlords, some of whom in turn attempted to reduce their liability by evicting their tenants.
In June 1847 the Poor Law Amendment Act was passed which embodied the principle, popular in Britain, that Irish property must support Irish poverty. The landed proprietors in Ireland were held in Britain to have created the conditions that led to the famine. However, it was asserted that the British parliament since the Act of Union of 1800 was partly to blame. This point was raised in The Illustrated London News on 13 February 1847: "There was no law it would not pass at their request, and no abuse it would not defend for them." On 24 March, The Times reported that Britain had permitted in Ireland "a mass of poverty, disaffection, and degradation without a parallel in the world.
It allowed proprietors to suck the very life-blood of that wretched race". The "Gregory clause" of the Poor Law, named after William H. Gregory, M.P., prohibited anyone who held at least  of an acre (0.1 ha) from receiving relief. In practice, this meant that, if a farmer, having sold all his produce to pay rent and taxes, should be reduced, as many thousands of them were, to applying for public outdoor relief, he would not get it until he had first delivered up all his land to the landlord. Of this Law, Mitchel wrote that "it is the able-bodied idler only who is to be fed—if he attempted to till but one rood of ground, he dies".
This simple method of ejectment was called "passing paupers through the workhouse"—a man went in, a pauper came out. These factors combined to drive thousands of people off the land: 90,000 in 1849, and 104,000 in 1850. In 1849 the Encumbered Estates Act allowed landlord estates to be auctioned off upon the petition of creditors. Estates with debts were then auctioned off at low prices. Wealthy British speculators purchased the lands and "took a harsh view" of the tenant farmers who continued renting. The rents were raised and tenants evicted to create large cattle grazing pastures. Between 1849 and 1854, some 50,000 families were evicted.
Irish food exports during Famine  Records show that Irish lands exported food even during the worst years of the Famine. When Ireland had experienced a famine in 1782–83, ports were closed to keep Irish-grown food in Ireland to feed the Irish. Local food prices promptly dropped. Merchants lobbied against the export ban, but government in the 1780s overrode their protests. No such export ban happened in the 1840s. Throughout the entire period of the Famine, Ireland was exporting enormous quantities of food. In the magazine History Ireland (1997, issue 5, pp. 32–36), Christine Kinealy, a Great Hunger scholar, lecturer, and Drew University professor, relates her findings: Almost 4,000 vessels carried food from Ireland to the ports of Bristol, Glasgow, Liverpool, and London during 1847, when 400,000 Irish men, women, and children died of starvation and related diseases.
She also writes that Irish exports of calves, livestock (except pigs), bacon, and ham actually increased during the Famine. This food was shipped from the most famine-stricken parts of Ireland: Ballina, Ballyshannon, Bantry, Dingle, Killala, Kilrush, Limerick, Sligo, Tralee, and Westport. A wide variety of commodities left Ireland during 1847, including peas, beans, onions, rabbits, salmon, oysters, herring, lard, honey, tongues, animal skins, rags, shoes, soap, glue, and seed. One of the most shocking export figures concern butter. Butter was shipped in firkins, each one holding . In the first nine months of 1847,  were exported from Ireland to Bristol, and  were shipped to Liverpool, which correlates with  of butter exported to England from Ireland during nine months of the worst year of the Famine.
The problem in Ireland was not lack of food, which was plentiful, but the price of it, which was beyond the reach of the poor. Writing in 1849, English poet and social reformer Ebenezer Jones wrote that "In the year A.D. 1846, there were exported from Ireland, 3,266,193 quarters of wheat, barley and oats, besides flour, beans, peas, and rye; 186,483 cattle, 6,363 calves, 259,257 sheep, 180,827 swine; (food, that is, in the shape of meat and bread, for about one half of the Irish population), and yet this very year of A.D. 1846 was pre-eminently, owing to a land monopoly, the famine year for the Irish people."
The historian Cecil Woodham-Smith wrote in The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849 that no issue has provoked so much anger and embittered relations between England and Ireland "as the indisputable fact that huge quantities of food were exported from Ireland to England throughout the period when the people of Ireland were dying of starvation". John Ranelagh writes that Ireland remained a net exporter of food throughout most of the five-year famine. However, both Woodham-Smith and Cormac Ó Gráda write that, in addition to the maize imports, four times as much wheat was imported into Ireland at the height of the famine as exported primarily to be used as livestock feed.
Woodham-Smith added that provision via the Poor law union workhouses by the Act of 1838 had to be paid by rates levied on the local property owners, and in areas where the famine was worst the tenants could not pay their rents to enable landlords to fund the rates and therefore the workhouses. Only by selling food, some of which would inevitably be exported, could a "virtuous circle" be created whereby the rents and rates would be paid, and the workhouses funded. Relief through the workhouse system was simply overwhelmed by the enormous scale and duration of the famine. Charity  William Smith O'Brien—speaking on the subject of charity in a speech to the Repeal Association in February 1845—applauded the fact that the universal sentiment on the subject of charity was that they would accept no English charity.
He expressed the view that the resources of Ireland were still abundantly adequate to maintain the population, and that, until those resources had been utterly exhausted, he hoped that there was no one in "Ireland who will so degrade himself as to ask the aid of a subscription from England". Mitchel wrote in his The Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps), on the same subject, that no one from Ireland ever asked for charity during this period, and that it was England who sought charity on Ireland's behalf, and, having received it, was also responsible for administering it. He suggested that it has been carefully inculcated by the British Press "that the moment Ireland fell into distress, she became an abject beggar at England's gate, and that she even craved alms from all mankind".
He affirmed that in Ireland no one ever asked alms or favours of any kind from England or any other nation, but that it was England herself that begged for Ireland. He suggested that it was England that "sent 'round the hat over all the globe, asking a penny for the love of God to relieve the poor Irish", and, constituting herself the agent of all that charity, took all the profit of it. Large sums of money were donated by charities; Calcutta is credited with making the first donation of £14,000. The money was raised by Irish soldiers serving there and Irish people employed by the East India Company.
Pope Pius IX and Russian Tsar Alexander II sent funds and Queen Victoria donated £2,000. According to legend, Sultan Abdülmecid I of the Ottoman Empire originally offered to send £10,000 but was asked either by British diplomats or his own ministers to reduce it to £1,000 to avoid donating more than the Queen. U.S. President James K. Polk donated $50 and in 1847 Congressman Abraham Lincoln donated $10 ($307 in 2019 value). International fundraising activities received donations from locations as diverse as Venezuela, Australia, South Africa, Mexico, Russia and Italy. In addition to the religious, non-religious organisations came to the assistance of famine victims.
The British Relief Association was one such group. Founded on 1 January 1847 by Lionel de Rothschild, Abel Smith, and other prominent bankers and aristocrats, the Association raised money throughout England, America, and Australia; their funding drive was benefited by a "Queen's Letter", a letter from Queen Victoria appealing for money to relieve the distress in Ireland. With this initial letter, the Association raised £171,533. A second, somewhat less successful "Queen's Letter" was issued in late 1847. In total, the Association raised approximately £390,000 for Irish relief. Private initiatives such as the Central Relief Committee of the Society of Friends (Quakers) attempted to fill the gap caused by the end of government relief, and eventually the government reinstated the relief works, although bureaucracy slowed the release of food supplies.
Thousands of dollars were raised in the United States, including $170 ($5,218 in 2019 value) collected from a group of Native American Choctaws in 1847. Judy Allen, editor of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma's newspaper Biskinik, wrote that "It had been just 16 years since the Choctaw people had experienced the Trail of Tears, and they had faced starvation ... It was an amazing gesture." To mark the 150th anniversary, eight Irish people retraced the Trail of Tears, and the donation was publicly commemorated by President Mary Robinson. Contributions by the United States during the famine were highlighted by Senator Henry Clay who said; "No imagination can conceive—no tongue express—no brush paint—the horrors of the scenes which are daily exhibited in Ireland."
He called upon Americans to remind them that the practice of charity was the greatest act of humanity they could do. In total, 118 vessels sailed from the US to Ireland with relief goods valued to the amount of $545,145. Specific states which provided aid include South Carolina and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania was the second most important state for famine relief in the US and the second largest shipping port for aid to Ireland. The state hosted the Philadelphia Irish Famine Relief Committee. Roman Catholics, Methodists, Quakers, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Moravian and Jewish groups put aside their differences in the name of humanity to help out the Irish.
South Carolina rallied around the efforts to help those experiencing the famine. They raised donations of money, food and clothing to help the victims of the famine—Irish immigrants made up 39% of the white population in the southern cities. The states ignored all their racial, religious, and political differences to support the cause for relief. Eviction  Landlords were responsible for paying the rates of every tenant whose yearly rent was £4 or less. Landlords whose land was crowded with poorer tenants were now faced with large bills. Many began clearing the poor tenants from their small plots, and letting the land in larger plots for over £4 which then reduced their debts.
In 1846, there had been some clearances, but the great mass of evictions came in 1847. According to James S. Donnelly, Jr., it is impossible to be sure how many people were evicted during the years of the famine and its immediate aftermath. It was only in 1849 that the police began to keep a count, and they recorded a total of almost 250,000 persons as officially evicted between 1849 and 1854. Donnelly considered this to be an underestimate, and if the figures were to include the number pressured into "voluntary" surrenders during the whole period (1846–1854), the figure would almost certainly exceed half a million persons.
While Helen Litton says there were also thousands of "voluntary" surrenders, she notes also that there was "precious little voluntary about them". In some cases, tenants were persuaded to accept a small sum of money to leave their homes, "cheated into believing the workhouse would take them in". West Clare was one of the worst areas for evictions, where landlords turned thousands of families out and demolished their derisory cabins. Captain Kennedy in April 1848 estimated that 1,000 houses, with an average of six people to each, had been levelled since November. The Mahon family of Strokestown House evicted 3,000 people in 1847, and were still able to dine on lobster soup.
After Clare, the worst area for evictions was County Mayo, accounting for 10% of all evictions between 1849 and 1854. George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan, who owned over , was among the worst evicting landlords. He was quoted as saying that "he would not breed paupers to pay priests". Having turned out in the parish of Ballinrobe over 2,000 tenants alone, he then used the cleared land as grazing farms. In 1848, the Marquis of Sligo owed £1,650 to Westport Union; he was also an evicting landlord, though he claimed to be selective, saying that he was only getting rid of the idle and dishonest.
Altogether, he cleared about 25% of his tenants. In 1847, Bishop of Meath, Thomas Nulty, described his personal recollection of the evictions in a pastoral letter to his clergy:  According to Litton, evictions might have taken place earlier but for fear of the secret societies. However, they were now greatly weakened by the Famine. Revenge still occasionally took place, with seven landlords being shot, six fatally, during the autumn and winter of 1847. Ten other occupiers of land, though without tenants, were also murdered, she says. One such landlord reprisal occurred in West Roscommon. The "notorious" landlord Maj Denis Mahon enforced thousands of his tenants into eviction before the end of 1847, with an estimated 60 percent decline in population in some parishes.
He was shot dead in that year. In East Roscommon, "where conditions were more benign", the estimated decline in population was under 10 percent. Lord Clarendon, alarmed at the number of landlords being shot and that this might mean rebellion, asked for special powers. Lord John Russell was not sympathetic to this appeal. Lord Clarendon believed that the landlords themselves were mostly responsible for the tragedy in the first place, saying that "It is quite true that landlords in England would not like to be shot like hares and partridges ... but neither does any landlord in England turn out fifty persons at once and burn their houses over their heads, giving them no provision for the future."
The Crime and Outrage Act was passed in December 1847 as a compromise, and additional troops were sent to Ireland. The "Gregory clause", described by Donnelly as a "vicious amendment to the Irish poor law", had been a successful Tory amendment to the Whig poor-relief bill which became law in early June 1847, where its potential as an estate-clearing device was widely recognised in parliament, although not in advance. At first, the poor law commissioners and inspectors viewed the clause as a valuable instrument for a more cost-effective administration of public relief, but the drawbacks soon became apparent, even from an administrative perspective.
They would soon view them as little more than murderous from a humanitarian perspective. According to Donnelly, it became obvious that the quarter-acre clause was "indirectly a death-dealing instrument". Emigration  While the famine was responsible for a significant increase in emigration from Ireland, of anywhere from 45% to nearly 85% depending on the year and the county, it was not the sole cause. The beginning of mass emigration from Ireland can be traced to the mid-18th century, when some 250,000 people left Ireland over a period of 50 years to settle in the New World. Irish economist Cormac Ó Gráda estimates that between 1 million and 1.5 million people emigrated during the 30 years between 1815 (when Napoleon was defeated in Waterloo) and 1845 (when the Great Famine began).
However, during the worst of the famine, emigration reached somewhere around 250,000 in one year alone, with western Ireland seeing the most emigrants. Families did not migrate en masse, but younger members of families did, so much so that emigration almost became a rite of passage, as evidenced by the data that show that, unlike similar emigrations throughout world history, women emigrated just as often, just as early, and in the same numbers as men. The emigrants would send remittances (reaching a total of £1,404,000 by 1851) back to family in Ireland, which, in turn, allowed another member of their family to leave.
Emigration during the famine years of 1845–1850 was primarily to England, Scotland, South Wales, North America, and Australia; one city that experienced a particularly strong influx of Irish immigrants was Liverpool, with at least one quarter of the city's population being Irish-born by 1851. Many of those fleeing to the Americas used the well-established McCorkell Line. Of the more than 100,000 Irish that sailed to Canada in 1847, an estimated one out of five died from disease and malnutrition, including over 5,000 at Grosse Isle, Quebec, an island in the Saint Lawrence River used to quarantine ships near Quebec City.
Overcrowded, poorly maintained, and badly provisioned vessels known as coffin ships sailed from small, unregulated harbours in the West of Ireland in contravention of British safety requirements, and mortality rates were high. The 1851 census reported that more than half the inhabitants of Toronto were Irish, and, in 1847 alone, 38,000 Irish flooded a city with fewer than 20,000 citizens. Other Canadian cities such as Quebec City, Montreal, Ottawa, Kingston, Hamilton, and Saint John also received large numbers. By 1871, 55% of Saint John residents were Irish natives or children of Irish-born parents. Unlike the United States, Canada could not close its ports to Irish ships because it was part of the British Empire, so emigrants could obtain cheap passage (evicted tenants received free passage) in returning empty lumber holds.
However, fearing nationalist insurgencies, the British government placed harsh restrictions on Irish immigration to Canada after 1847, resulting in larger influxes to the United States. In America, most Irish became city-dwellers; with little money, many had to settle in the cities that the ships they came on landed in. By 1850, the Irish made up a quarter of the population in Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. In addition, Irish populations became prevalent in some American mining communities. The famine marked the beginning of the depopulation of Ireland in the 19th century. Population had increased by 13–14% in the first three decades of the 19th century; between 1831 and 1841, population grew by 5%.
Application of Thomas Malthus's idea of population expanding geometrically while resources increase arithmetically was popular during the famines of 1817 and 1822. By the 1830s, they were seen as overly simplistic, and Ireland's problems were seen "less as an excess of population than as a lack of capital investment". The population of Ireland was increasing no faster than that of England, which suffered no equivalent catastrophe. By 1854, between 1.5 and 2 million Irish left their country due to evictions, starvation, and harsh living conditions. Death toll  It is not known exactly how many people died during the period of the famine, although it is believed that more died from disease than from starvation.
State registration of births, marriages, or deaths had not yet begun, and records kept by the Roman Catholic Church are incomplete. One possible estimate has been reached by comparing the expected population with the eventual numbers in the 1850s. A census taken in 1841 recorded a population of 8,175,124. A census immediately after the famine in 1851 counted 6,552,385, a drop of over 1.5 million in 10 years. The census commissioners estimated that, at the normal rate of population increase, the population in 1851 should have grown to just over 9 million if the famine had not occurred.
On the in-development Great Irish Famine Online resource, produced by the Geography department of University College Cork, the population of Ireland section states, that together with the census figures being called low, before the famine it reads that "it is now generally believed" that over 8.75 million people populated the island of Ireland prior to it striking. In 1851, the census commissioners collected information on the number who died in each family since 1841, and the cause, season, and year of death. They recorded 21,770 total deaths from starvation in the previous decade, and 400,720 deaths from disease. Listed diseases were fever, diphtheria, dysentery, cholera, smallpox, and influenza, with the first two being the main killers (222,021 and 93,232).
The commissioners acknowledged that their figures were incomplete and that the true number of deaths was probably higher:  The greater the amount of destitution of mortality ... the less will be the amount of recorded deaths derived through any household form;—for not only were whole families swept away by disease ... but whole villages were effaced from off the land. Later historians agree that the 1851 death tables "were flawed and probably under-estimated the level of mortality". The combination of institutional and figures provided by individuals gives "an incomplete and biased count" of fatalities during the famine. Cormac Ó Gráda, referencing the work of W. A. MacArthur, writes that specialists have long known that the Irish death tables were inaccurate.
As a result, Ó Gráda says that the tables undercount the number of deaths, because information was gathered from surviving householders having to look back over the previous 10 years, and death and emigration had cleared away entire families, leaving few or no survivors to answer the census questions. S. H. Cousens' estimate of 800,000 deaths relied heavily on retrospective information contained in the 1851 census and elsewhere, and is now regarded as too low. Modern historian Joseph Lee says "at least 800,000", and R. F. Foster estimates that "at least 775,000 died, mostly through disease, including cholera in the latter stages of the holocaust".
He further notes that "a recent sophisticated computation estimates excess deaths from 1846 to 1851 as between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 ... after a careful critique of this, other statisticians arrive at a figure of 1,000,000". Joel Mokyr's estimates at an aggregated county level range from 1.1 million to 1.5 million deaths between 1846 and 1851. Mokyr produced two sets of data which contained an upper-bound and lower-bound estimate, which showed not much difference in regional patterns. The true figure is likely to lie between the two extremes of half and one and a half million, and the most widely accepted estimate is one million.
Detailed statistics of the population of Ireland since 1841 are available at Irish population analysis. At least a million people are thought to have emigrated as a result of the famine. There were about 1 million long-distance emigrants between 1846 and 1851, mainly to North America. The total given in the 1851 census is 967,908. Short-distance emigrants, mainly to Britain, may have numbered 200,000 or more. Another area of uncertainty lies in the descriptions of disease given by tenants as to the cause of their relatives' deaths. Though the 1851 census has been rightly criticised as underestimating the true extent of mortality, it does provide a framework for the medical history of the Great Famine.
The diseases that badly affected the population fell into two categories: famine-induced diseases and diseases of nutritional deficiency. Of the nutritional deficiency diseases, the most commonly experienced were starvation and marasmus, as well as a condition at the time called dropsy. Dropsy (oedema) was a popular name given for the symptoms of several diseases, one of which, kwashiorkor, is associated with starvation. However, the greatest mortality was not from nutritional deficiency diseases, but from famine-induced ailments. The malnourished are very vulnerable to infections; therefore, these were more severe when they occurred. Measles, diphteria, diarrhoea, tuberculosis, most respiratory infections, whooping cough, many intestinal parasites, and cholera were all strongly conditioned by nutritional status.
Potentially lethal diseases, such as smallpox and influenza, were so virulent that their spread was independent of nutrition. The best example of this phenomenon was fever, which exacted the greatest death toll. In the popular mind, as well as medical opinion, fever and famine were closely related. Social dislocation—the congregation of the hungry at soup kitchens, food depots, and overcrowded work houses—created conditions that were ideal for spreading infectious diseases such as typhus, typhoid, and relapsing fever. Diarrhoeal diseases were the result of poor hygiene, bad sanitation, and dietary changes. The concluding attack on a population incapacitated by famine was delivered by Asiatic cholera, which had visited Ireland briefly in the 1830s.
In the following decade, it spread uncontrollably across Asia, through Europe, and into Britain, finally reaching Ireland in 1849. Some scholars estimate that the population of Ireland was reduced by 20–25%. Aftermath  Ireland's mean age of marriage in 1830 was 23.8 for women and 27.5 for men, where they had once been 21 for women and 25 for men, and those who never married numbered about 10% of the population; in 1840, they had respectively risen to 24.4 and 27.7. In the decades after the Famine, the age of marriage had risen to 28–29 for women and 33 for men, and as many as a third of Irishmen and a quarter of Irishwomen never married, due to low wages and chronic economic problems that discouraged early and universal marriage.
The potato blight would return to Ireland in 1879 though by then the rural cottier tenant farmers and labourers of Ireland had begun the "Land War", described as one of the largest agrarian movements to take place in nineteenth-century Europe. The movement, organized by the Land League, continued the political campaign for the Tenant Right League's 1850 issued Three Fs, that were penned during the Great Famine. By the time the potato blight returned in 1879, The Land League, which was led by Michael Davitt, who was born during the Great Famine and whose family had been evicted when Davitt was only 4-years-old, encouraged the mass boycott of "notorious landlords" with some members also physically blocking evictions.
The policy, however, would soon be suppressed. Despite close to 1000 interned under the 1881 Coercion Act for suspected membership. With the reduction in the rate of homelessness and the increased physical and political networks eroding the landlordism system, the severity of the following shorter famine would be limited. According to the linguist Erick Falc'her-Poyroux, surprisingly, for a country renowned for its rich musical heritage, only a small number of folk songs can be traced back to the demographic and cultural catastrophe brought about by the Great Famine, and he infers from this that the subject was generally avoided for decades among poorer people as it brought back too many sorrowful memories.
Also, large areas of the country became uninhabited and the folk song collectors of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries did not collect the songs they heard in the Irish language, as the language of the peasantry was often regarded as dead, or "not delicate enough for educated ears". Of the songs that have survived probably the best known is Skibbereen. Emigration has been an important sources of inspiration for songs of the Irish during the 20th century. Since the 1970s a number of songs about the famine have been written and recorded, such as "The Fields of Athenry" by Pete St. John, "Famine" by Sinéad O'Connor and "Thousands are Sailing" by the Pogues.
Analysis of the government's role  Contemporary Contemporary opinion was sharply critical of the Russell government's response to and management of the crisis. From the start, there were accusations that the government failed to grasp the magnitude of the disaster. Sir James Graham, who had served as Home Secretary in Sir Robert Peel's late government, wrote to Peel that, in his opinion, "the real extent and magnitude of the Irish difficulty are underestimated by the Government, and cannot be met by measures within the strict rule of economical science". This criticism was not confined to outside critics. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Clarendon, wrote a letter to Russell on 26 April 1849, urging that the government propose additional relief measures: "I don't think there is another legislature in Europe that would disregard such suffering as now exists in the west of Ireland, or coldly persist in a policy of extermination."
Also in 1849, the Chief Poor Law Commissioner, Edward Twisleton, resigned in protest over the Rate-in-Aid Act, which provided additional funds for the Poor Law through a 6p in the pound levy on all rateable properties in Ireland. Twisleton testified that "comparatively trifling sums were required for Britain to spare itself the deep disgrace of permitting its miserable fellow subjects to die of starvation". According to Peter Gray in his book The Irish Famine, the government spent £7 million for relief in Ireland between 1845 and 1850, "representing less than half of one percent of the British gross national product over five years.
Contemporaries noted the sharp contrast with the £20 million compensation given to West Indian slave-owners in the 1830s." Other critics maintained that, even after the government recognised the scope of the crisis, it failed to take sufficient steps to address it. John Mitchel, one of the leaders of the Young Ireland Movement, wrote in 1860:  I have called it an artificial famine: that is to say, it was a famine which desolated a rich and fertile island that produced every year abundance and superabundance to sustain all her people and many more. The English, indeed, call the famine a "dispensation of Providence"; and ascribe it entirely to the blight on potatoes.
But potatoes failed in like manner all over Europe; yet there was no famine save in Ireland. The British account of the matter, then, is first, a fraud; second, a blasphemy. The Almighty, indeed, sent the potato blight, but the English created the famine. Still other critics saw reflected in the government's response its attitude to the so-called "Irish Question". Nassau Senior, an economics professor at Oxford University, wrote that the Famine "would not kill more than one million people, and that would scarcely be enough to do any good". In 1848, Denis Shine Lawlor suggested that Russell was a student of the Elizabethan poet Edmund Spenser, who had calculated "how far English colonisation and English policy might be most effectively carried out by Irish starvation".
Charles Trevelyan, the civil servant with most direct responsibility for the government's handling of the famine, described it in 1848 as "a direct stroke of an all-wise and all-merciful Providence", which laid bare "the deep and inveterate root of social evil"; he affirmed that the Famine was "the sharp but effectual remedy by which the cure is likely to be effected. God grant that the generation to which this opportunity has been offered may rightly perform its part..."  Historical Christine Kinealy has written that "the major tragedy of the Irish Famine of 1845–52 marked a watershed in modern Irish history.
Its occurrence, however, was neither inevitable nor unavoidable." The underlying factors which combined to cause the famine were aggravated by an inadequate government response. As Kinealy notes:  Several writers single out the decision of the government to permit the continued export of food from Ireland as suggestive of the policy-makers' attitudes. Leon Uris suggested that "there was ample food within Ireland", while all the Irish-bred cattle were being shipped off to England. The following exchange appeared in Act IV of George Bernard Shaw's play Man and Superman:  Some also pointed to the structure of the British Empire as a contributing factor.
James Anthony Froude wrote that "England governed Ireland for what she deemed her own interest, making her calculations on the gross balance of her trade ledgers, and leaving moral obligations aside, as if right and wrong had been blotted out of the statute book of the Universe." Dennis Clark, an Irish-American historian and critic of empire, claimed the famine was "the culmination of generations of neglect, misrule and repression. It was an epic of English colonial cruelty and inadequacy. For the landless cabin dwellers it meant emigration or extinction..."  Genocide question  The famine remains a controversial event in Irish history.
Debate and discussion on the British government's response to the failure of the potato crop in Ireland, the exportation of food crops and livestock, the subsequent large-scale starvation, and whether or not this constituted genocide, remains a historically and politically charged issue. In 1996, the U.S. state of New Jersey included the famine in the "Holocaust and Genocide Curriculum" for its secondary schools. The curriculum was pushed by various Irish American political groups and drafted by the librarian James Mullin. Following criticism of the curriculum, the New Jersey Holocaust Commission requested statements from two academics that the Irish famine was genocide, which was eventually provided by law professors Charles E. Rice and Francis A. Boyle, who had not been previously known for studying Irish history.
They concluded that the British government deliberately pursued a race- and ethnicity-based policy aimed at destroying the Irish people and that the policy of mass starvation amounted to genocide per the Hague Convention of 1948. Journalist Peter Duffy writes that "The government's crime, which deserves to blacken its name forever", was rooted "in the effort to regenerate Ireland" through "landlord-engineered replacement of tillage plots with grazing lands" that "took precedence over the obligation to provide food ... for its starving citizens. It is little wonder that the policy looked to many people like genocide."
James S. Donnelly, Jr., a historian at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, wrote in his book, Landlord and Tenant in Nineteenth-century Ireland:  I would draw the following broad conclusion: at a fairly early stage of the Great Famine the government's abject failure to stop or even slow down the clearances (evictions) contributed in a major way to enshrining the idea of English state-sponsored genocide in Irish popular mind. Or perhaps one should say in the Irish mind, for this was a notion that appealed to many educated and discriminating men and women, and not only to the revolutionary minority ... And it is also my contention that while genocide was not in fact committed, what happened during and as a result of the clearances had the look of genocide to a great many Irish.
Cormac Ó Gráda disagreed that the famine was genocide. He argues that "genocide includes murderous intent, and it must be said that not even the most bigoted and racist commentators of the day sought the extermination of the Irish", and also that most people in Whitehall "hoped for better times for Ireland". Additionally, he states that the claim of genocide overlooks "the enormous challenge facing relief agencies, both central and local, public and private". Ó Gráda thinks that a case of neglect is easier to sustain than that of genocide. Edward Lengel claims that views of the Irish as racially inferior, and for this reason significantly responsible for their circumstances, gained purchase in Great Britain during and immediately after the famine, especially through influential publications such as The Medical Times and The Times.
The Great Famine in Ireland has been compared to the Holodomor ("hunger plague") that took place in the Ukraine under Stalin in 1932, which has been the subject of similar controversy and debate. According to Liam Kennedy, "virtually all historians of Ireland" reject the genocide allegations. This in turn has shaped popular understanding which is less receptive to the charges than it used to be. Memorials  The National Famine Commemoration Day is observed annually in Ireland, usually on a Sunday in May. It is also memorialised in many locations throughout Ireland, especially in those regions that suffered the greatest losses, and also in cities overseas such as New York, with large populations descended from Irish immigrants.
These include, at Custom House Quays, Dublin, the thin sculptural figures, by artist Rowan Gillespie, who are portrayed as if walking towards the emigration ships on the Dublin Quayside. There is also a large memorial at the Murrisk Millennium Peace Park at the foot of Croagh Patrick in County Mayo. Kindred Spirits, a large stainless steel sculpture of nine eagle feathers by artist Anex Penetek was erected in 2017 in the Irish town of Midleton, County Cork, to thank the Choctaw people for its financial assistance during the famine. Among the memorials in the US is the Irish Hunger Memorial near a section of the Manhattan waterfront in New York City, where many Irish arrived.
An annual Great Famine walk from Doolough to Louisburgh, County Mayo was inaugurated in 1988, and has been led by such notable personalities as Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa and the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. The walk, organised by Afri, takes place on the first or second Saturday of May, and links the memory of the Great Hunger with a contemporary Human Rights issue. See also  Highland Potato Famine (agrarian crisis in Scotland at the same time)  German Potato Famine of WWI  Anti-British sentiment  Anti-Irish sentiment  Great Famine's effect on the American economy  History of the potato  Irish Famine (1740–41)  List of famines  List of natural disasters in Britain and Ireland  Footnotes  Citations  References  Further reading    .
R. Dudley Edwards and T. Desmond Williams (eds. ), The Great Famine: Studies in Irish history 1845–52  Henry George, Progress and Poverty Chapter 6: "The Truth about Ireland" – George's account of the Irish famine. Robert Kee, Ireland: A History  Mary C. Kelly, Ireland's Great Famine in Irish-American History: Enshrining a Fateful Memory. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014. John Kelly, The Graves are Walking, The Great Famine and the Saga of the Irish People (2012)    Canon John O'Rourke, The Great Irish Famine [1874]. Veritas Publications, 1989. George Poulett Scrope, Letters to Lord John Russell on the Further Measures for the Social Amelioration of Ireland|Letters to Lord John Russell on the Further Measures for the Social Amelioration of Ireland.
James Ridgway, 1847. The "Hungry Forties", an analysis of the Chrononym  External links   Irish National Archives information on the Famine  Hunger on Trial: An Activity on the Irish Potato Famine and Its Meaning for Today A free downloadable lesson for high school social studies classrooms from the Zinn Education Project. Cork Multitext Project article on the Famine, by Donnchadh Ó Corráin  Historical society of Pennsylvania. Primary Sources. The Curtis Family Letters, Irish Immigrant Letters Home. "The Great Irish Famine", BBC In our time podcast, April 2019
The Zip drive is a removable floppy disk storage system  that was introduced by Iomega in late 1994. Considered medium-to-high-capacity at the time of its release, Zip disks were originally launched with capacities of 100 MB, then 250 MB, and then 750 MB. The format became the most popular of the superfloppy products which filled a niche in the late 1990s portable storage market. However, it was never popular enough to replace the -inch floppy disk. The final versions of the disk reached 750 MB. Zip drives fell out of favor for mass portable storage during the early 2000s. The Zip brand later covered internal and external CD writers known as Zip-650 or Zip-CD, which have no relation to the Zip drive.
Overview The Zip drive is a superfloppy disk drive that has all of the -inch floppy drive's convenience, but with much greater capacity options and with performance that is much improved over a standard floppy drive. However, Zip disk housings are much thicker than those of floppy disks. In the Zip drive, the heads fly in a manner similar to a hard disk drive. A linear actuator uses the voice coil actuation technology related to modern hard disk drives. The Zip disk uses smaller media (about the size of a 9 cm (-inch) microfloppy, but more ruggedised, rather than the Compact Disc-sized Bernoulli media), and a simplified drive design that reduced its overall cost.
The original Zip drive has a maximum data transfer rate of about 1.4 megabyte/second (comparable to 8× CD-R; although some connection methods are slower, down to approximately 50 kB/second for maximum-compatibility parallel "nibble" mode) and a seek time of 28 milliseconds on average, compared to a standard 1.44 MB floppy's effective ~16 kB/sec and ~200 ms average seek time. Typical desktop hard disk drives from mid-to-late 1990s revolve at 5,400 rpm and have transfer rates from 3 MB/s to 10 MB/s or more, and average seek times from 20 ms to 14 ms or less. Much like hard drives, and floppies themselves, the capacity stated for Zip discs is purely nominal, not accounting for any formatting or filestructure overheads, and is stated using metric, rather than binary quantifiers.
For example, the typical user file capacity of an MS-DOS formatted Zip100 is actually around 95.4 MiB, or just over 100,000,000 bytes. This is a slightly lower proportion than the 1.39 MiB (1,457,664 bytes) available on a "1.44 MB" -inch floppy diskette (95.4% vs 96.5%), though it is significantly better than the relationship between that useful capacity and the "2 MB" claimed by an unformatted DSHD. Early-generation Zip drives were in direct competition with the SuperDisk or LS-120 drives, which hold 20% more data and can also read standard -inch 1.44 MB diskettes, but they have a lower data-transfer rate due to lower rotational speed.
The rivalry was over before the dawn of the USB era. The Zip drive was Iomega's third generation of products different from Iomega's earlier Bernoulli Boxes in many ways including the absence of the Bernoulli plate of the earlier products.
Interfaces  Zip drives were produced in multiple interfaces including:   IDE True ATA (very early ATA internal Zip drives mostly sold to OEMs; these drives exhibit software compatibility issues because they do not support the ATAPI command set)  ATAPI (all Zip generations)  USB 1.1 (Zip 100 MB and 250 MB generations)  USB 2.0 (Zip 750 MB generation; backwards compatible with USB 1.1 systems)  IEEE 1284 (Parallel Port) with Printer passthrough (Zip 100 MB and 250 MB generations) (See NB 1)  IEEE 1394 (Firewire) (Zip 250 MB and 750 MB generations)  SCSI (Zip 100 MB and 250 MB generations; both internal and external editions; external editions limited to ID 5 and 6)  "Plus" (Zip 100 MB external drive with both SCSI and IEEE 1284 connections; SCSI ID limited to ID 5 and 6).
Parallel port external Zip drives are actually SCSI drives with an integrated Parallel-to-SCSI controller, meaning a true SCSI bus implementation but without the electrical buffering circuits necessary for connecting other external devices. Early Zip 100 drives use an AIC 7110 SCSI controller and later parallel drives (Zip Plus and Zip 250) used what was known as Iomega MatchMaker. The drives are identified by the operating system as "IMG VP0" and "IMG VP1" respectively. Early external SCSI-based Zip drives were packaged with an included SCSI adapter known as Zip Zoom. The Zip Zoom is a relabeled ISA Adaptec SCSI host controller.
Also, originally sold separately was a PCMCIA-to-SCSI adapter for laptop compatibility, also a relabeled Adaptec. Interface availability: {|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: auto;" |- ! rowspan="2" style="width:100px;"|Name !colspan=5|Interface |- ! style="width:60px;"|ATAPI ! style="width:60px;"|SCSI ! style="width:60px;"|LPT ! style="width:60px;"|USB ! style="width:60px;"|FireWire |- |Zip 100 | | | | | |- |Zip 250 | | | | | |- |Zip 750 | | | | | |- |colspan=6 style="text-align:left; font-size: 85%;"|  |}  Driver support:   DOS (requires a minimum of a 80186 or NEC V20/V30 processor)  Microsoft Windows family (Parallel drives not supported on Windows 7 and above)  Some Linux / BSD etc. (not universal)  Oracle Solaris 8, 9, 10, 11   IBM OS/2  Macintosh System 6.x,(See NB 1) 7.1–7.5, and Mac OS 7.6–9.2  Mac OS X  RISC OS Requires !zip drivers.
AmigaOS 3.5 or higher  IRIX 6.4 or higher (SCSI only) NB 1: Requires a driver older than 5.x. Compatibility Higher-capacity Zip disks must be used in a drive with at least the same capacity ability. Higher-capacity drives can read lower-capacity media. The 250 MB drive writes much more slowly to 100 MB disks than the 100 MB drive, and the Iomega software is unable to perform a "long" (thorough) format on a 100 MB disk. (They can be formatted in Windows as normal; the advantage of the Iomega software is that the long format can format the 100MB disks with a slightly higher capacity.
250 MB disks format to the same size either way.) The 750 MB drive has read-only support for 100 MB disks. The retroreflective spot differs between the 100 MB disk and the 250 MB such that if the larger disk is inserted in a smaller-capacity drive, the disk is immediately ejected again without any attempt being made to access the disk. The 750 MB disk has no reflective spot. Sales, problems, and licensing Zip drives initially sold well after their introduction in 1994, owing to their low price and high (for the time) capacity. The drive was initially sold for just under US$200 with one cartridge included, and additional 100 MB cartridges for US$20.
At this time hard disks typically had a capacity of 500 MB and cost around US$200, and so backing up with Zip disks was very economical for home users—some computer suppliers such as Dell, Gateway and Apple Inc.  included internal Zip drives in their machines. Zip drives also made significant inroads in the graphic arts market, as a cheaper alternative to the Syquest cartridge hard disk system. The price of additional cartridges swiftly dropped further over the next few years, as more companies began supplying them. Eventually, the suppliers included Fujifilm, Verbatim, Toshiba and Maxell, Epson and NEC. NEC also produced a licensed 100 MB drive model with its brand name.
Sales of Zip drives and disks declined steadily from 1999 to 2003. Zip disks had a relatively high cost per megabyte compared to the falling costs of then-new CD-R and CD-RW discs. The growth of hard disk drives to multi-gigabyte capacity made backing up with Zip disks less economical. Furthermore, the advent of inexpensive recordable CD and DVD drives for computers, followed by USB flash drives, pushed the Zip drive out of the mainstream market. Nevertheless, during their prime, Zip disks greatly eased the exchange of files that were too big to fit into a standard -inch floppy or an email attachment, and there was no high-speed connection to transfer the file to the recipient.
However, the advantages of magnetic media over optical media and flash memory, in terms of long-term file storage stability and high erase/rewrite cycles, still affords them a niche in the data-storage arena. In September 1998, a class action suit was filed against Iomega over a type of Zip drive failure dubbed the "Click of Death", accusing Iomega of violation of the Delaware Consumer Fraud Act. In 2006, PC World rated the Zip drive as the 15th worst technology product of all time. Nonetheless, in 2007, PC World rated the Zip drive as the 23rd best technology product of all time despite its known problems.
Legacy Zip drives are still used today by retro-computing enthusiasts as a means to transfer large amounts (compared to the retro hardware) of data between modern and older computer systems. The Commodore-Amiga, Atari ST, Apple II, and "old world" Macintosh communities often use drives with the SCSI interface prevalent on those platforms. They have also found a small niche in the music production community, as SCSI-compatible Zip drives can be used with vintage samplers and keyboards of the 1990s. Zip disks are still in use in aviation. For example, Zip disks are used by Jeppesen (a Boeing Company) for navigation database updates and avionics companies such as Universal Avionics supply TAWS, UniLink and Performance databases, which remain available via Zip Disk, for uploading into an FMS (Flight Management System) via SSDTU (Solid State Data Transfer Unit).
"Updates are available for download from Universal Avionics web site or are provided on -inch disks, 100 MB Zip Disks (SCN 603-604 and 703-704) or 512 MB USB Flash drives." ZipCD Iomega also produced a line of internal and external recordable CD drives under the Zip brand in the late 1990s, called the ZipCD 650. It used regular CD-R media and had no format relation to the magnetic Zip drive. The external models were installed in a Zip-drive-style case, and used standard USB 1.1 connections. Iomega used the DirectCD software from Adaptec to allow UDF drive-letter access to CD-R or CD-RW media.
The company released an open standard CD-R drive and CD-RW media under the same ZipCD name  Early models of ZipCD drives were relabeled Philips drives, which were also so unreliable that a class action lawsuit succeeded. Later models were sourced from Plextor. The ZipCD 650 is able to record onto 700 MB CDs but can only burn data up to 650 MB. There is third-party firmware that forces the ZipCD 650 to be able to write data CDs up to 700 MB but makes the drive unstable. See also  Caleb UHD  EZ 135 Drive  Jaz drive  Orb Drive  PocketZip  SyQuest  SuperDisk  Sony HiFD  Bernoulli Box  References  External links    Category:Rotating disc computer storage media Category:Iomega storage devices Category:Floppy disk drives Category:Computer-related introductions in 1994
The General Dynamics/Grumman F-111B is a long-range carrier-based interceptor aircraft that was planned to be a follow-on to the F-4 Phantom II for the United States Navy (USN). The F-111B was developed in the 1960s by General Dynamics in conjunction with Grumman for the U.S. Navy as part of the joint Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) with the United States Air Force (USAF) to produce a common fighter for the services that could perform a variety of missions. It incorporated innovations such as variable-geometry wings, afterburning turbofan engines, and a long-range radar and missile weapons system. Designed in parallel with the F-111 "Aardvark", which was adopted by the Air Force as a strike aircraft, the F-111B suffered development issues and changing Navy requirements for an aircraft with maneuverability for dogfighting.
The F-111B was not ordered into production and the F-111B prototypes were used for testing before being retired. The F-111B would be replaced by the smaller and lighter Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which carried over the engines, AWG-9/Phoenix weapons system, and similar swing-wing configuration. Development  Background  The F-111B was part of the 1960s TFX program. The USAF's Tactical Air Command (TAC) was largely concerned with the fighter-bomber and deep strike/interdiction roles; their version of the aircraft would be a follow-on to the F-105 Thunderchief fighter-bomber. In June 1960, the USAF issued a specification for a long-range interdiction and strike aircraft able to penetrate Soviet air defenses at very low altitudes and very high speeds to deliver tactical nuclear weapons against crucial targets.
Meanwhile, the U.S. Navy sought a long-range, high-endurance interceptor to defend its aircraft carrier battle groups against long-range anti-ship missiles launched from Soviet jet bombers, such as the Tupolev Tu-16, Tupolev Tu-22, and Tupolev Tu-22M, along with submarines. The Navy needed a Fleet Air Defense (FAD) aircraft with a more powerful radar, and longer range missiles than the F-4 Phantom II to intercept both enemy bombers and missiles. Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) The Air Force and Navy requirements appeared to be different. However, on 14 February 1961, the new U.S. Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, formally directed that the services study the development of a single aircraft that would satisfy both requirements.
Early studies indicated the best option was to base the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) on the Air Force requirement and a modified version for the Navy. In June 1961, Secretary McNamara ordered the go ahead on TFX despite Air Force and the Navy efforts to keep their programs separate. The USAF and the Navy could only agree on swing-wing, two seat, twin engine design features. The USAF wanted a tandem seat aircraft for low level penetration, while the Navy wanted a shorter, high altitude interceptor with side by side seating. Also, the USAF wanted the aircraft designed for 7.33 g with Mach 2.5 speed at altitude and Mach 1.2 speed at low level with a length of approximately .
The Navy had less strenuous requirements of 6 g with Mach 2 speed at altitude and high subsonic speed (approx. Mach 0.9) at low level with a length of . The Navy also wanted a  radar dish for long range and a maximum takeoff weight of . So McNamara developed a basic set of requirements for TFX based largely on the Air Force's requirements. He changed to a  dish for compatibility and increased the maximum weight to approximately  for the Air Force version and  for the Navy version. Then on 1 September 1961 he ordered the USAF to develop it.
A request for proposal (RFP) for the TFX was provided to industry in October 1961. In December of that year Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed, McDonnell, North American and Republic submitted their proposals. The proposal evaluation group found all the proposals lacking, but the best should be improved with study contracts. Boeing and General Dynamics were selected to enhance their designs. Three rounds of updates to the proposals were conducted with Boeing being picked by the selection board. Instead Secretary McNamara selected General Dynamics' proposal in November 1962 due to its greater commonality between Air Force and Navy TFX versions. The Boeing aircraft versions shared less than half of the major structural components.
General Dynamics signed the TFX contract in December 1962. A Congressional investigation followed, but did not change the selection. Design phase  The Air Force F-111A and Navy F-111B variants used the same airframe structural components and TF30-P-1 turbofan engines. They featured side by side crew seating in an escape capsule as required by the Navy, versus individual ejection seats. The F-111B's nose was  shorter due to its need to fit on existing carrier elevator decks, and had  longer wingspan to improve on-station endurance time. The Navy version would carry an AN/AWG-9 Pulse-Doppler radar and six AIM-54 Phoenix missiles. The Air Force version would carry the AN/APQ-113 attack radar and the AN/APQ-110 terrain-following radar and air-to-ground ordnance.
Lacking experience with carrier-based fighters, General Dynamics teamed with Grumman for assembly and test of the F-111B aircraft. In addition, Grumman would also build the F-111A's aft fuselage and the landing gear. The first test F-111A was powered by YTF30-P-1 turbofans and used a set of ejection seats, since the escape capsule was not yet available. It first flew on 21 December 1964. The first F-111B was also equipped with ejection seats and first flew on 18 May 1965. To address stall issues in certain parts of the flight regime, the F-111's engine inlet design was modified in 1965–66, ending with the "Triple Plow I" and "Triple Plow II" designs.
The F-111A achieved a speed of Mach 1.3 in February 1965 with an interim intake design. F-111B  The weight goals for both F-111 versions proved to be overly optimistic. Excessive weight plagued the F-111B throughout its development. The prototypes were far over the requirement weight. Design efforts reduced airframe weight but were offset by the addition of the escape capsule. The additional weight made the aircraft underpowered. Lift was improved by changes to the wing control surfaces. A higher thrust version of the engine was planned. During the congressional hearings for the aircraft, Vice Admiral Thomas F. Connolly, then Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Air Warfare, responded to a question from Senator John C. Stennis as to whether a more powerful engine would cure the aircraft's woes, saying, "There isn't enough power in all Christendom to make that airplane what we want!"
With the F-111B program in distress, Grumman began studying improvements and alternatives. In 1966, the Navy awarded Grumman a contract to begin studying advanced fighter designs. Grumman narrowed down these designs to its Model 303 design. With this the F-111B's end appeared near by mid-1967. By May 1968 both Armed Services committees of Congress voted not to fund production and in July 1968 the DoD ordered work stopped on F-111B. A total of seven F-111Bs were delivered by February 1969. Replacement  The F-111B's replacement, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which derived from Grumman's initial Model 303 design, reused the TF30 engines from the F-111B, though the Navy planned on replacing them with an improved engine later.
Although lighter than the F-111B, it was still the largest and heaviest U.S. fighter to takeoff and land from an aircraft carrier. Its size was a consequence of the requirement to carry the large AWG-9 radar and AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, both from the F-111B, while exceeding the F-4's maneuverability. While the F-111B was armed only for the interceptor role, the Tomcat incorporated an internal M61 Vulcan cannon, provisions for Sidewinder and Sparrow air-to air missiles, and provisions for bombs.<ref>Colucci, Frank. "Building the Bombcat." "hobbyfanatics.com, 31 July 2003. Retrieved: 15 November 2010.</ref> While the F-111B did not reach service, land-based F-111 variants were in service with the U.S. Air Force for many years and with the Royal Australian Air Force until 2010.
Design The F-111B was an all-weather interceptor aircraft intended to defend U.S. Navy carrier battle groups against bombers and anti-ship missiles. The F-111 features variable geometry wings, an internal weapons bay and a cockpit with side by side seating. The cockpit is part of an escape crew capsule. The wing sweep varies between 16 degrees and 72.5 degrees (full forward to full sweep). The airframe consisted mostly of aluminum alloys with steel, titanium and other materials also used. The fuselage is a semi-monocoque structure with stiffened panels and honeycomb sandwich panels for skin. The F-111B was powered by two Pratt & Whitney TF30 afterburning turbofan engines and included the AN/AWG-9 radar system for controlling the AIM-54 Phoenix air-to-air missiles.
Poor visibility over the nose made the aircraft more difficult to handle for carrier operations. The F-111 offered a platform with the range, payload, and Mach-2 performance to intercept targets quickly, but with swing wings and turbofan engines, it could also loiter on station for long periods. The F-111B would carry six AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, its main armament. Four of the Phoenix missiles mounted on wing pylons and two in the weapons bay. The missile pylons added significant drag when used. Operational history  Flight testing Flight tests on the F-111B continued at NAS Point Mugu, California and NAWS China Lake, California even after the program had been terminated.
In July 1968, the pre-production F-111B Bureau Number 151974, was used for carrier trials aboard . The evaluation was completed without issue. Hughes continued Phoenix missile system development with four F-111Bs. In all, two F-111Bs were lost in crashes and a third seriously damaged. The F-111B's last flight was with 151792'' from California to New Jersey in mid-1971. The seven F-111Bs flew 1,748 hours over 1,173 flights. Variants F-111B numbers 1 to 3 were initial prototypes; and No. 4 and 5 were prototypes with lightened airframes. No. 6 and 7 had lightened airframes and improved TF30-P-12 engines and were built to near production standard.
These were also approximately  longer due to an added section between the cockpit and radome. The first five aircraft included Triple Plow I intakes. The last two had Triple Plow II intakes. The first three B-models were fitted with ejection seats and the remainder included the escape crew capsule. Operators   United States Navy  Specifications (F-111B pre-production)  For pre-production aircraft #6 & #7:  See also  References  Citations  Bibliography  External links   F-111.net  F-111 page on GlobalSecurity.org  Aviation Enthusiast's List of F-111 Survivors  F-111B page on usscoralsea.net  F-111B F-111B Category:1960s United States fighter aircraft Category:Twinjets Category:High-wing aircraft Category:Variable-sweep-wing aircraft Category:Carrier-based aircraft Category:Cancelled military aircraft projects of the United States Category:Aircraft first flown in 1965
The extraperitoneal space is the portion of the abdomen and pelvis which does not lie within peritoneum. It includes:  Retroperitoneal space, situated posteriorly to the peritoneum  Preperitoneal space, situated anteriorly to the peritoneum  Retropubic space, deep to the pubic bone  Retro-inguinal space, deep to the inguinal ligament  The space in the pelvis is divided into the following components:  prevesical space  perivesical space  perirectal space  References  Category:Abdomen
Vertebral venous plexuses may refer to:  External vertebral venous plexuses  Internal vertebral venous plexuses
The alkaline fuel cell (AFC), also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its British inventor, Francis Thomas Bacon, is one of the most developed fuel cell technologies. NASA has used alkaline fuel cells since the mid-1960s, in Apollo-series missions and on the Space Shuttle. ( Alkaline fuel cells consume hydrogen and pure oxygen producing potable water, heat, and electricity. They are among the most efficient fuel cells, having the potential to reach 70%.) Chemistry The fuel cell produces power through a redox reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. At the anode, hydrogen is oxidized according to the reaction:  producing water and releasing electrons.
The electrons flow through an external circuit and return to the cathode, reducing oxygen in the reaction:  producing hydroxide ions. The net reaction consumes one oxygen molecule and two hydrogen molecules in the production of two water molecules. Electricity and heat are formed as by-products of this reaction. Electrolyte The two electrodes are separated by a porous matrix saturated with an aqueous alkaline solution, such as potassium hydroxide (KOH). Aqueous alkaline solutions do not reject carbon dioxide (CO2) so the fuel cell can become "poisoned" through the conversion of KOH to potassium carbonate (K2CO3). Because of this, alkaline fuel cells typically operate on pure oxygen, or at least purified air and would incorporate a 'scrubber' into the design to clean out as much of the carbon dioxide as is possible.
Because the generation and storage requirements of oxygen make pure-oxygen AFCs expensive, there are few companies engaged in active development of the technology. There is, however, some debate in the research community over whether the poisoning is permanent or reversible. The main mechanisms of poisoning are blocking of the pores in the cathode with K2CO3, which is not reversible, and reduction in the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte, which may be reversible by returning the KOH to its original concentration. An alternate method involves simply replacing the KOH which returns the cell back to its original output. When carbon dioxide reacts with the electrolyte carbonates are formed.
The carbonates could precipitate on the pores of electrodes that eventually block them. It has been found that AFCs operating at higher temperature do not show a reduction in performance, whereas at around room temperature, a significant drop in performance has been shown. The carbonate poisoning at ambient temperature is thought to be a result of the low solubility of K2CO3 around room temperature, which leads to precipitation of K2CO3 that blocks the electrode pores. Also, these precipitants gradually decrease the hydrophobicity of the electrode backing layer leading to structural degradation and electrode flooding. On the other hand, the charge-carrying hydroxide ions in the electrolyte can react with carbon dioxide from organic fuel oxidation (i.e.
methanol, formic acid) or air to form carbonate species. Carbonate formation depletes hydroxide ions from the electrolyte, which reduces electrolyte conductivity and consequently cell performance. As well as these bulk effects, the effect on water management due to a change in vapor pressure and/or a change in electrolyte volume can be detrimental as well . Basic designs Because of this poisoning effect, two main variants of AFCs exist: static electrolyte and flowing electrolyte. Static, or immobilized, electrolyte cells of the type used in the Apollo space craft and the Space Shuttle typically use an asbestos separator saturated in potassium hydroxide.
Water production is controlled by evaporation from the anode, as pictured above, which produces pure water that may be reclaimed for other uses. These fuel cells typically use platinum catalysts to achieve maximum volumetric and specific efficiencies. Flowing electrolyte designs use a more open matrix that allows the electrolyte to flow either between the electrodes (parallel to the electrodes) or through the electrodes in a transverse direction (the ASK-type or EloFlux fuel cell). In parallel-flow electrolyte designs, the water produced is retained in the electrolyte, and old electrolyte may be exchanged for fresh, in a manner analogous to an oil change in a car.
More space is required between electrodes to enable this flow, and this translates into an increase in cell resistance, decreasing power output compared to immobilized electrolyte designs. A further challenge for the technology is how severe the problem of permanent blocking of the cathode is by K2CO3; some published reports have indicated thousands of hours of operation on air. These designs have used both platinum and non-noble metal catalysts, resulting in increased efficiencies and increased cost. The EloFlux design, with its transverse flow of electrolyte, has the advantage of low-cost construction and replaceable electrolyte but so far has only been demonstrated using oxygen.
The electrodes consist of a double layer structure: an active electrocatalyst layer and a hydrophobic layer. The active layer consists of an organic mixture which is ground and then rolled at room temperature to form a crosslinked self-supporting sheet. The hydrophobic structure prevents the electrolyte from leaking into the reactant gas flow channels and ensures diffusion of the gases to the reaction site. The two layers are then pressed onto a conducting metal mesh, and sintering completes the process. Further variations on the alkaline fuel cell include the metal hydride fuel cell and the direct borohydride fuel cell. Advantages over acidic fuel cells Alkaline fuel cells operate between ambient temperature and 90 °C with an electrical efficiency higher than fuel cells with acidic electrolyte, such as proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), solid oxide fuel cells, and phosphoric acid fuel cells.
Because of the alkaline chemistry, oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) kinetics at the cathode are much more facile than in acidic cells,  allowing use of non-noble metals, such as iron, cobalt, or nickel, at the anode (where fuel is oxidized); and cheaper catalysts such as silver or iron phthalocyanines at the cathode, due to the low overpotentials associated with electrochemical reactions at high pH. An alkaline medium also accelerates oxidation of fuels like methanol, making them more attractive. Less pollution results compared to acidic fuel cells. Commercial prospects AFCs are the cheapest of fuel cells to manufacture. The catalyst required for the electrodes can be any of a number of different chemicals that are inexpensive compared to those required for other types of fuel cells.
The commercial prospects for AFCs lie largely with the recently developed bi-polar plate version of this technology, considerably superior in performance to earlier mono-plate versions. The world's first fuel-cell ship, the Hydra, used an AFC system with 5 kW net output. Another recent development is the solid-state alkaline fuel cell, utilizing a solid anion exchange membrane instead of a liquid electrolyte. This resolves the problem of poisoning and allows the development of alkaline fuel cells capable of running on safer hydrogen-rich carriers such as liquid urea solutions or metal amine complexes. See also  Gas diffusion electrode Glossary of fuel cell terms Hydrazine Hydrogen technologies  References  External links Developers  AFC Energy  Independent Power  Gencell Energy  Category:Fuel cells  ja:燃料電池#アルカリ電解質形燃料電池 (AFC)
Rock candy or sugar candy (in British English), also called rock sugar, is a type of confection composed of relatively large sugar crystals. This candy is formed by allowing a supersaturated solution of sugar and water to crystallize onto a surface suitable for crystal nucleation, such as a string, stick, or plain granulated sugar. Heating the water before adding the sugar allows more sugar to dissolve thus producing larger crystals. Crystals form after 6 to 7 days. Food coloring may be added to the mixture to produce colored candy.
Nomenclature Etymologically, "sugar candy" derives from late 13th century English (in reference to "crystallized sugar"), from Old French çucre candi (meaning "sugar candy"), and ultimately from Arabic qandi, from Persian qand ("cane sugar"), probably from Sanskrit khanda ("piece of sugar)",  The sense gradually broadened (especially in the U.S.A.) to mean by the late 19th century "any confection having sugar as its basis". In Britain these are sweets, and "candy" tends to be restricted to sweets made only from boiled sugar and striped in bright colors. The modern American term "rock candy" (referring to brittle large natural sugar crystals) should not be confused with the British term rock (referring to an amorphous and opaque boiled sugar product, initially hard but then chewy at mouth temperature).
Origins Islamic writers in the first half of the 9th century described the production of candy sugar, where crystals were grown through cooling supersaturated sugar solutions. According to the production process, rock sugar is divided into two types: single crystal rock sugar and polycrystalline rock sugar. The former produced in Taiwan during the Japanese occupation period. During the Japanese occupation, rock sugar was one of Taiwan's important export commodities. Polycrystalline rock sugar is made by traditional techniques. In a period of Tang Dynasty (766-779A.D. ), the Zou monk of Suining in Sichuan has invented this method. The related history can be seen in "Tangshuangpu", or "Bencaogangmu".
The biggest difference between the two is the way of crystal growth. Cuisine Rock candy is often dissolved in tea. It is an important part of the tea culture of East Frisia, where a lump of rock sugar is placed at the bottom of the cup. Rock candy consumed with tea is also the most common and popular way of drinking tea in Iran, where it is called nabat; the most popular nabat is saffron. It is a common ingredient in Chinese cooking. In China, it is used to sweeten chrysanthemum tea, as well as Cantonese dessert soups and the liquor baijiu.
Many households have rock candy available to marinate meats, add to stir fry, and to prepare food such as yao shan. In less modern times, rock sugar was a luxury only for the wealthy. Rock candy is also regarded as having medicinal properties, and in some Chinese provinces, it is used as a part of traditional Chinese medicine. In Mexico, it is used during the Day of the Dead to make sugar skulls, often highly decorated. Sugar skulls are given to children so they will not fear death; they are also offered to the dead. In the Friesland province of the Netherlands, bits of rock candy are baked in the luxury white bread Fryske Sûkerbôle.
Rock candy is a common ingredient in Tamil cuisine, particularly in the Sri Lankan city of Jaffna. In the US, rock candy comes in many colors and flavors, and is slightly hard to find, due to it being considered old-fashioned. Misri  Misri (, , ) refers to crystallized sugar lumps, and a type of confectionery mineral, which has its origins in India and Persia, also known as rock sugar elsewhere. It is used in India as a type of candy, or used to sweeten milk or tea. In Hinduism, mishri may be offered to a deity as bhog and distributed as prasad.
The god Krishna is said to be fond of makkhan (butter) and misri. In many devotional songs written in Brajbhoomi in praise of Krishna, the words makkhan and misri are often used in combination. In Northern Karnataka people serve mishri along with water to visitors in the Summer season. Among Indian misri dishes are mishri-mawa (kalakand), mishri-peda, which are more commonly eaten in Northern-Western India, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Orissa, North coastal of Andhra Pradesh and many other states and parts of India. The Ghantewala Halwai of Delhi, who started his career by selling Misari mawa in 1790 is famous for Misarimawa and sells 40 varieties of sweets made from Misari.
Beverages Rock and rye is a term used both for alcoholic liqueurs and cocktails using rye whiskey and rock candy, as well as for non-alcoholic beverages made in imitation thereof, such as the "Rock & Rye" flavor of soda pop made by Faygo. See also Hard candy Jaggery, an early form of sugar  References  Further reading  External links   An educational exercise in crystal and candy making. Category:Candy Category:Crystals Category:Sugar
Gli Indifferenti (The Time of Indifference, also translated as The Indifferent Ones) is a novel by Alberto Moravia, published in 1929. Background After a meeting with friends at which it was agreed that each should produce a novel, the young Moravia began writing the story that would become Gli Indifferenti. Moravia sent the manuscript to the editor of 900, a bilingual (Italian-French) review with which he had previously published some short stories. It was dismissed as a "mist of words". The novel was published with a ₤5,000 contribution from Moravia's father, Carlo Pincherle, as the Milanese publisher Alpes was unwilling to take a risk on an unknown author.
Plot synopsis Gli Indifferenti is a psychological portrayal of the life of a middle-class mother and her two children. The action of the novel takes place largely over two days. Leo, the wealthy lover of Mariagrazia, a middle-class widow, begins an affair with her daughter, Carla. Carla decides that she will sleep with Leo the following day (her twenty-fourth birthday) in order "to begin a new life". Reception The first edition sold out within a number of weeks. An English translation of the novel was published in United States in 1935 under the title The Indifferent Ones. Film versions Time of Indifference (Gli indifferenti)  (1964) A Time of Indifference (Gli indifferenti) (1987; television miniseries), directed by Mauro Bolognini  See also  1929 in literature Lists of books  Category:1929 novels Category:20th-century Italian novels Category:Novels by Alberto Moravia Category:Novels set in Rome
A hub gear, internal-gear hub, or just gear hub is a gear ratio changing system commonly used on bicycles that is implemented with planetary or epicyclic gears. The gears and lubricants are sealed within the shell of the hub gear, in contrast with derailleur gears where the gears and mechanism are exposed to the elements. Changing the gear ratio was traditionally accomplished by a shift lever connected to the hub with a Bowden cable, and twist-grip style shifters have become common. Hub gear systems generally have a long and largely maintenance-free life though some are not suitable for high-stress use in competitions or hilly, off-road conditions.
Many commuter or urban cycles such as European city bikes are now commonly fitted with 7-speed gear-hubs and 8-speed systems are becoming increasingly available. Older or less costly utility bicycles often use 3-speed gear-hubs, such as in bicycle sharing systems. Many folding bicycles use 3-speed gear-hubs. Modern developments with up to 14 gear ratios are available. History Before epicyclic gears were used in bicycle hubs, they were used on tricycles. Patents for epicyclic hubs date from the mid-1880s. The first patent for a compact epicyclic hub gear was granted in 1895 to the American machinist Seward Thomas Johnson of Noblesville, Indiana, U.S.A.
This was a 2-speed but was not commercially successful. In 1896, William Reilly of Salford, England patented a 2-speed hub which went into production in 1898 as 'The Hub'. It was a great success, remaining in production for a decade. It rapidly established the practicality of compact epicyclic hub gears. By 1902, Reilly had designed a 3-speed hub gear. He parted company with the manufacturer of 'The Hub' but had signed away to them the intellectual rights to his future gear designs. To circumvent this problem, the patents for Reilly's 3-speed were obtained in the name of his colleague, James Archer.
Meanwhile, well-known English journalist and inventor Henry Sturmey had also invented a 3-speed hub. In 1903, Frank Bowden, head of the Raleigh Bicycle Company, formed The Three-Speed Gear Syndicate, having obtained the rights to both the Reilly/Archer and Sturmey 3-speeds. Reilly's hub went into production as the first Sturmey Archer 3-speed. In 1902, Mikael Pedersen (who also produced the Dursley Pedersen bicycle) patented a 3-speed hub gear and this was produced in 1903. This was said to be based on the "counter shaft" principle but was arguably an unusual epicyclic gear, in which a second sun was used in place of a ring gear.
In 1904 the Fichtel & Sachs company (Germany, Schweinfurt) produced a hub gear under license to Wanderer, and by 1909, there were 14 different 3-speed hub gears on the British market. By the 1930s, hub gears were used on bicycles all over the world. They were particularly popular in the UK, the Netherlands, the German-speaking countries and Scandinavia. Since the 1970s, they have become much less common in English-speaking countries, but in many parts of northern Europe, where bicycles are regularly used as daily transport rather than merely for sport or leisure, hub gears are still widely used. The cheaper and stronger (but less reliable) derailleur systems, which offer a wider gear range, have now started to appear.
By 1987, Sturmey-Archer made only 3- and 5-speed hubs, and Fichtel & Sachs and Shimano made only 2- and 3-speed hubs. In that year, the first book (apart from service manuals) for some 80 years dealing solely with epicyclic bicycle gears was published. Since then, there has been a slow but steady increase in interest in hub gears, reflected in the wider range of products now available. In 1995, Sachs introduced the Elan, the first hub gear with 12 speeds, and an overall range of 339%. Three years later, Rohloff came out with the Speedhub 500/14, a gear hub with 14 speeds and a range of 526%, comparable to that of a 27 speed derailleur gear system, and also sufficiently robust and lightweight for mountain biking.
In 2007, NuVinci started manufacturing continuously variable transmission ("stepless") ∞-speed hubs for commuter bicycles, with an increasing range of about 380% (2016). As of 2008, Sturmey-Archer makes 3-, 5- and 8-speed hubs, SRAM (successor to Fichtel & Sachs) make 3-, 5-, 7- and 9-speeds and Shimano make 3-, 7- and 8-speeds. In February 2010, Shimano announced the introduction of the Shimano Alfine 700, an 11-speed model. Though most hub gear systems use one rear sprocket, SRAM's Dual Drive system combines an epicyclic hub with a multi-speed rear derailleur system to provide a wide-ranging drivetrain concentrated at the rear wheel. In 2010, Canyon introduced the 1442, a hybrid hub which uses a similar epicyclical/derailleur combination.
Brompton Bicycle have their own design, with a two-speed derailleur coupled to a special three-speed wide-ratio Sturmey-Archer hub, the "BWR" (Brompton Wide Ratio). The system is useful for folding bicycles (where a multiple front chainset could foul the bike's folding mechanism), in recumbent bicycles, and freight bicycles (where small wheels and/or increased weight require a wider range of gears with smaller steps). Hub gears have in the past also been used on motorcycles, although this is now rare. Principle of operation The simplest 3-speed hubs use a single planetary epicyclic gearset. The sun gear (in yellow above) is mounted solidly to the axle and is thus fixed relative to the bicycle frame.
In low gear, the sprocket drives the annulus (in red above) and the planet carrier (in green above) drives the hub, giving a gear reduction. In middle gear, the sprocket drives the hub directly. In high gear, the sprocket drives the planet carrier and the annulus drives the hub, resulting in a gear increase. The hub axle of a hub gear (unlike that of a derailleur system) will carry torque in all gears except direct drive, and so must be securely braced against rotation. While anti-rotation washers between the dropout and axle nut have often proved adequate, wider-ranging modern systems use a reaction arm affixed to the chain stay.
Rear wheels with drum brakes (a feature on some commuter bicycles) require a reaction arm anyway. Most hub gears are operated in a similar manner, with a single twist, trigger or thumb-shifter. An exception is the older style of Sturmey-Archer 5-speed, which used a second shift cable to change between close and wide-range sun gears, effectively giving two 3-speed hubs in one unit. The middle gear in both ranges was direct drive, so there were five distinct gears. They could either be controlled with a special 5-speed shifter which operated both cables, or with a regular 3-speed shifter and a friction shifter.
Advantages  Hub gears are sealed within the hub, which protects them from water, grit, and impacts. Thus hub gears usually require less maintenance and can be more reliable over time than comparable external derailleur gear systems, which may require more adjustments and replacement of parts (front chainrings, rear sprockets, narrow derailleur-chain). Hub gears completely avoid the danger of collision with the spokes and wheel-collapse that derailleur systems can suffer. Hub gears can change gear ratios when the rear wheel is not rotating. This can be useful for commuter cycling with frequent stops and for mountain biking in rough terrain. Hub gears can be simpler to use for inexperienced riders, because there is generally only a single shifter to operate and there are no overlapping gear ratios.
By contrast, modern derailleur systems often have two shifters, and require some forethought to avoid problematic gear combinations. Hub gears can be manufactured to include a coaster brake (though not all hub gears are available with coaster brakes). This is not possible with derailleur systems, because the chain cannot transmit a backwards pull. Hub gears provide a means for shifting gear ratios on drivetrains incompatible with external derailleurs such as belt drives and shaft drives. The single chainline allows for a full chain enclosure chain guard, so the chain can be protected from water and grit, and clothing can be protected from contact with the lubricated chain.
The single chainline does not require the chain to bend or twist. As a result, the chain can be constructed differently, with parallel pins instead of barrel-shaped ones. Line-contact between the bearing surfaces, instead of the point-contact of a derailleur chain, greatly extends the working life of all components. On bicycles with fixed chain-lines, no chain tensioner is required, eliminating a part that could otherwise become damaged in rough terrain- an advantage for off-road cyclists. Where a tensioner is required, a short cage is usually sufficient to take up the chain slack. The single external sprocket means that the wheel can have a hub with more distance between its flanges and be built with no or much less dish, making it laterally stronger than a similar wheel with narrower flange spacing and more dish to accommodate multiple sprockets.
The hub shell of gear hubs is also often of a larger diameter than that of derailleur hubs, meaning the spokes on such wheels may be shorter. Disadvantages  It can be hard or impossible to select another gear whilst pedalling, because a release of pressure is required to enable a change in this case. The rear wheel cannot be completely separated from a bicycle with hub gears without also disconnecting the gear cables, which complicates the process of replacing an inner tube (fixing a flat still can be performed by dismounting the tyre partwise to patch the hole). The hub gear is an integral part of the wheel and it is not possible to change the wheel without also changing the hub gear.
Hub gears are more complex and usually more difficult for the rider to repair, especially at the roadside. Hub gears are typically more expensive than derailleur systems. At commuter/recreational power levels, current hub gears are typically about 2% less efficient than reasonably maintained derailleur gears. Hub gears tend to be heavier than derailleur systems with equivalent gearing characteristics, and the additional weight is concentrated at the back wheel. On rear-suspension bicycles in sporting use this unsprung weight may adversely affect traction and braking. Hub gears are generally incompatible with quick release mechanisms/skewer axles. It is sometimes possible to select no gear when changing gears with a poorly adjusted gear cable, which results in a complete loss of drive.
Hub gears in everyday use  Traditional hub gears are indexed at the shifter, making operation dependent on correct cable tension (and lubrication thereof). In practice, gear-jumping and consequent internal damage are unusual, except in high-mileage units. Modern hub gear-units incorporate the indexing within the unit and are, therefore, unaffected by shifting malfunctions caused in this way. Most Sturmey-Archer and Fichtel & Sachs "Torpedo" systems default to top gear at slack-cable, which could make the bicycle usable for long-distance travel in flat terrain, even if a fault developed in the change mechanism. It is rather like a derailleur system, which can be manually set to a high gear in case of a similar fault.
The very earliest Sturmey-Archer hubs, however, defaulted to low gear. Some modern hub gear systems, e.g., 7-speed Shimano, also default to bottom gear and are thus more dependent on the cable-pull. Hybrid gearing with derailleurs Some systems combine internally geared hubs with external derailleurs. A freewheeling hub with a sprocket suitable for narrow chain can be combined with a double or triple crankset and front derailleur, in order to provide a wider range and closer gear ratio spacing. A chain tensioner or a rear derailleur is needed to take up chain slack, and care is needed not to over-torque the hub by using too small a chainring/sprocket ratio.
Alternatively, some hubs can accept two dished drive sprockets, between which the rider can switch with a rear derailleur. Careful sprocket selection can allow the available gear ratios when using one sprocket to fall half-way between those available when using the second sprocket, providing half-step gearing, as on the Brompton 6-speed folding bicycle. This concept is used and extended in the SRAM Dual Drive system, where a conventional multi-speed cassette is mounted to a 3-speed hub. A similar version of the ever-popular AW hub is manufactured by Sturmey Archer. This system may be useful on bicycles which cannot accept a front derailleur.
The German company Canyon introduced the 1442 in 2010, a hybrid hub which uses a similar epicyclical/derailleur combination. When both front and rear derailleurs are used with a geared hub, the result is a very wide-ranging drivetrain, at the expense of increased weight and complexity. A particular use of the dualdrive systems is on recumbent bicycles where starting off from a standstill, or after braking hard, is very difficult if a high gear is engaged. On an upright bicycle, if a high gear is engaged, the rider may use one leg to gain minimal momentum and stand on the pedals and use his upper body to balance the bike; this is not possible on a 2-wheeled recumbent bicycle.
Here the dualdrive setup allows shifting at a standstill or at low speeds, which is not possible with derailleur gears alone. Advanced hub gears Advanced hub gears offer a higher number of gears by using multiple epicyclic gears driven by each other. Their ratios are chosen to give more evenly spaced gears and a larger total gear range. The operating principle of such units is the same as with less advanced systems, with a trigger or twist shifter with sequential shifting. The 12-speed Sachs Elan was the first hub gear with 10 or more speeds in the market (1995-1999). It was considered heavy and plagued with quality issues, and was discontinued after a few years.
The 14-speed Rohloff Speedhub hub gear, introduced in 1998, has a range exceeding 5 to 1, and is thus comparable in range to 24, 27 and 30-speed derailleur systems (with 3x8, 3x9 and 3x10 cogs front and rear), since the latter have three overlapping ranges often with only about 14 distinct gears. As there is no overlap with the Speedhub, the hub gear has only two shift directions (up and down), compared to front and rear derailleur gears where two shift operators with two shift directions are needed to shift through all gears. The 11-speed Shimano Alfine 700 hub gear, introduced in 2010, has a gear range exceeding 4 to 1, comparable to 20-speed derailleur drive-trains, and internals running in an oil bath, for greater mechanical efficiency.
Gallery  Manufacturers  Bendix: From 1950s to 1970s, produced the two-speed "Kickback" hub Fichtel & Sachs Rohloff Schlumpf Shimano SRAM Sturmey-Archer Kindernay  See also   Bicycle drivetrain systems  Comparison of hub gears  Gear inches  Gearbox bicycle  Outline of cycling  References  External links  Flash Animation of Hub Gear Overview of gear ratios and ranges for existing internal gear hubs by Sheldon Brown Tony Hadland's Bicycle Gear History and Technical pages
There have been several video games based on the 1991 film Hook. A side-scrolling platform game for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and Game Boy was released in the United States in February 1992. Subsequent side-scrolling platform games were released for the Commodore 64 and the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) later in 1992, followed by versions for the Sega CD, Sega Genesis, and Sega's handheld Game Gear console in 1993. An arcade game was also released in 1993. A graphic adventure point-and-click game, developed by Shadow Software and published by Ocean Software, was released for Amiga and Atari ST in 1992.
Gameplay In each version of the game, the player plays as Peter Pan, who must go through Neverland to rescue his children after they are kidnapped by Captain Hook. Each version of the game is set in Neverland, and concludes with a sword fight between Peter Pan and Captain Hook. Arcade version The arcade version is a side-scrolling beat 'em up that supports up to four players. The player chooses to play as either Peter Pan or one of the Lost Boys: Ace, Pockets, Rufio, or Thudbutt. The game is played across six stages. Amiga/Atari ST version The version for Amiga and Atari ST is a graphic adventure point-and-click game.
As Peter Pan, the player must solve puzzles and problems to progress through the game. Each large problem cannot be solved without first solving several smaller problems first. Puzzles are solved by talking to characters and finding useful objects. Five icons are featured at the bottom of the screen, each one representing a different action that the player can take: "look at", "talk to", "pick up", "use", and "give". An inventory window, showing all the items the player has accumulated, is also located at the bottom of the screen. Also located at the bottom of the screen are two separate images, one depicting Captain Hook while the other shows Peter Pan.
The characters' facial expressions change depending on the player's progress. Tinker Bell accompanies Peter Pan to provide hints and clues. The game has three main sections: Pirate Town, an encounter that Peter Pan has with the Lost Boys, and the confrontation with Hook. Sega and SNES versions This version is a side-scrolling platform game. The Sega CD version features identical gameplay to the Genesis and SNES versions. The Game Gear version has eight levels and the Genesis version features 11 levels, while the SNES and Sega CD versions have 12 levels. Each version features various locations that include caves, forests, lagoons, and snowy mountains.
Throughout the game, the player must defend against Hook's pirate henchmen, as well as spiders, snakes, and skeletons. Peter Pan's primary weapon is a dagger. After completing the first level, the player receives the golden sword as a weapon, capable of shooting balls of energy. If the player is attacked, Peter Pan drops the sword and must use the dagger, while the golden sword can sometimes be retrieved in the following level. The player's health meter is measured as leaves. The player begins with two leaves, and loses one each time an enemy attacks. The player can collect additional leaves throughout the game to increase the health meter, for a maximum total of four leaves.
Fruits that are scattered throughout each level can be collected to refill the player's health meter. After collecting pixie dust, Peter Pan has the ability to fly for short periods of time, until the Fly Meter becomes empty. Tinker Bell appears throughout the game to refill the Fly Meter. The game does not include a password feature. The film's musical score was adapted for use in the Sega CD version, which also includes digitized graphical sequences from the film, and voice acting. Additionally, the Sega CD version includes a computer-generated scan of Captain Hook's ship, which is featured during the game's introduction.
Commodore 64/NES/Game Boy version This version is a side-scrolling platform action game, in which Peter Pan can fly and swim. Enemies include Hook's henchmen, as well as ghosts, zombies, and monkeys that throw bananas at the player. A map of each level is provided to the player. The player must collect items in order to proceed to the next level. Instructions are provided to the player before each level, and Tinker Bell appears so she can provide the player with hints. Tinker Bell also has the ability to revive the player if all health is lost. The game includes a two-player option.
The NES and Game Boy versions are nearly identical to each other. The NES version has 16 levels, while the Game Boy version has 27 levels. Development and release The Super Nintendo version was in early development in January 1992. Ocean Software began working on the graphic adventure version in January 1992. For the graphic adventure game, the creative team read the film's script and were required to have the gameplay closely follow the film's story. It was Ocean Software's first graphic adventure game. The NES and Game Boy versions, developed by Ocean Software, were the first versions to be released; they were published by Sony Imagesoft, and were released in February 1992.
The Amiga version had been published in Europe by July 1992. The SNES version, developed by Ukiyotei and published by Sony Imagesoft, had been released in the United States by September 1992. Ocean Software developed and published the Commodore 64 version, also released in 1992. By March 1993, Irem had released its arcade version of the game in the United States. The Sega CD and Genesis versions were developed by Core Design, while the Game Gear version was developed by Spidersoft; each version was published by Sony Imagesoft. The Sega CD version includes voice acting, but not from the film's actors, as licensing their voices was deemed too costly.
In the United States, the Sega CD version was released in March or April 1993, while the Genesis and Game Gear versions were released in July 1993. In Europe, the Genesis version was released in November 1993. By December 1993, the Amiga version had been re-released in Europe by publisher Hit Squad. A Sega Master System port of the Game Gear version was developed, but was never released. Reception  Nintendo Power considered the NES and Game Boy versions to be nearly identical, and criticized them for being "an average running and jumping game with a pretty weak character and sluggish play control.
The movie is good, but the game falls short." N-Force criticized the music of the NES version and wrote that the film "doesn't translate very well to console. You occasionally get one that does the platform adventure game extremely well–but Hook just isn't one of them." Steve Jarratt of Total! praised the graphics of the NES version but wrote that the in-game music "is a bit annoying after a while". Andy Dyer of Total! praised the Game Boy version for its music and graphics, and wrote that it was "much faster to play" than the NES version and "therefore more fun", while noting that it was also harder than the NES version.
GamePro praised the music of the NES version, but wrote that Peter Pan's "limited range of sword swinging motion and lethargic forward movement make gameplay a bit of a drag." GamePro reviewed the Game Boy version and wrote that it had an "enticing musical repertoire and superbly detailed graphics, although they are tiny and a bit eye straining. Overall, this is a fun Game Boy cart". Marc Camron of Electronic Games praised the graphics of the SNES version and wrote, "What makes this game different from most games based on movie licenses is that this game is good!" N-Force praised the graphics and music of the SNES version, but criticized the standard gameplay.
Nintendo Power praised the SNES version for its graphics and considered it better than the NES and Game Boy versions, but noted the occasionally slow response times for the controls. Jason Brookes of Super Play praised the colorful graphics of the SNES version, but criticized its short length and slow-moving gameplay. Mean Machines Sega praised the graphics, music and "well planned" levels of the Sega CD version, and awarded it a 72% rating, but criticized the slow controls. The magazine concluded that the game was "a real waste" of the Sega CD's "enormous potential," stating, "Visually and aurally Hook is tremendous, but underneath there is a very average game bursting to get out."
Camron, who gave the Sega CD version an 89% rating, praised the music, graphics, and gameplay, but criticized the quality of featured footage from the film and the limited amount of voice acting. Sega Visions, reviewing the Sega CD version, noted that the "outstanding quality of the music will give your gaming a lift." Sega Visions wrote, "With the exception of the sound and music, the Genesis version of the Sega CD hit […] is every bit as good as the original." Sega Visions wrote about the Game Gear version: "The translation to Game Gear is superb. From great color to terrific game play and bouncy tunes, Hook Game Gear is a blast."
GamePro wrote that the Genesis version does not have as good graphics or high quality sound as the preceding versions for the SNES and Sega CD, but "it's just as fun to play." Mean Machines Sega praised the graphics and music of the Genesis version, but criticized its difficulty, while calling it, "Sort of reasonably playable, in a way." The magazine concluded, "Another mediocre film becomes a mediocre platform game. Hook isn't terrible, but it's not loaded with fun either." In a retrospective review of the Genesis version, Brett Alan Weiss of AllGame noted that Peter Pan "moves along at a dreadfully slow pace, even when jumping or running in wide open spaces.
He can jump high and far and can even fly and swim, but the slow motion routine gets old almost as soon at begins." He praised the graphics despite occasional glitches, but wished that the game contained hidden items or areas. He concluded, "Hook is a flawed, but fun platformer that will keep your interest at least until you beat it." James Leach of Commodore Format reviewed the Commodore 64 version. Leach praised the sound effects and music, the large levels, and the various gameplay styles, but criticized its main character for looking "a bit pasty." Leach also believed that the game was too easy, and criticized it for "Tons of boring loading" times.
Commodore Format reviewed the game again in 1993, criticizing the game's repetitive gameplay and concluding, "It's got probably the most irritating multiload system in the history of gaming, making you wait while it loads a subscreen, then wait again while it loads the main level." Commodore Force praised the graphics but wrote, "Hook's multiload is possibly one of the worst I've come across", further stating, "It's a shame (and also ironic) that Hook'''s incredible amount of detail is also its downfall: all those admirable extras extend loading time." The magazine concluded, "It's a fun game to play, with lots to do and see, but can you stand the waiting?
Basically, if you hate multiloads, avoid Hook like the plague. "Electronic Games nominated the SNES version for its 1993 Electronic Gaming Awards, in the category of Best Electronic Game Graphics. The magazine stated, "Some of the finest game graphics can be found in Hook," writing that the game had a "unified visual appearance like no other game on the market." Amiga/Atari ST versionAmiga Action praised the graphics and music, but criticized the graphics. Tony Jones of Amiga Mania considered the game to be better than the film, and noted that it had a "much clearer storyline." Rik Haynes of CU Amiga wrote, "Sadly, despite aspiring to the heights achieved by Monkey Island, Hook has none of the finesse of rival productions from Virgin Games or Delphine."
Maff Evans of Amiga Format called the game a "tedious graphic adventure" and criticized its story and characters, writing that they "don't seem to evolve at all, leaving everything seeming rather flat." Evans also criticized the control system for being "far too limited and unwieldy," and wrote, "Occasionally nice graphics, but a bit too cartoon-like for this style of game." Andy Hutchinson of ST Format criticized the Atari ST version, calling it "terribly reminiscent of Monkey Island. However, where that game is hysterical and innovative, Hook is slightly amusing and derivative." Hutchinson concluded, "A polished but ultimately unsatisfying game. Buy Hook only if you're a massive fan of graphic adventures or have pleasant childhood memories of Peter Pan.
Then expect to be disappointed. "Amiga User International praised the music and graphics, but wrote, "The only disappointments are that it is too short by far, and the puzzles are not really very tough. The game is pretty linear and will not let you stray very far off track." Mark Ramshaw of Amiga Power praised the music and sound effects, but criticized the game's puzzle aspect, calling it "occasionally a little predictable, sometimes a bit on the obtuse side, and just a tad too linear." The One Amiga praised the music and graphics, but criticized the short length. Several publications reviewed the game again in December 1993, after it was re-released by Hit Squad.
Cam Winstanley of Amiga Power praised the graphics but criticized the difficulty of the puzzles. Paul Roundell of Amiga Action wrote, "The graphics are colourful, but average, and the interface and interaction, while workable, are certainly no breakthrough, and as always in games of this kind, the humour is dire." CU Amiga praised the music and graphics, but criticized it for occasionally illogical puzzles, as well as confusing text responses given to the player out of order as the result of poor coding. Amiga Format criticized the game's repetitive character interactions. In 1995, Matt Broughton of The One Amiga reviewed the game and wrote that it "offers enough locations and graphical treats to keep most people happy.
The control system breaks no new ground, but why fix something that ain't broke? "Entertainment Weekly'' gave the game a B- and wrote that "Peter Pan tries to rediscover his inner child by hacking his way through the usual assortment of bad guys. One plus: gorgeous green-and-gold backgrounds that are truer to real life than the movie's overstuffed sets."
References  External links  Hook (Amiga/Atari ST/DOS) at MobyGames  Hook (Commodore 64/Game Boy/NES) at MobyGames  Hook (all other versions) at MobyGames  Category:1992 video games Category:Adventure games Category:Amiga games Category:Arcade games Category:Atari ST games Category:Commodore 64 games Category:Core Design games Category:Game Boy games Category:Sega Game Gear games Category:Irem games Category:Nintendo Entertainment System games Category:Ocean Software games Category:Epic/Sony Records games Category:Peter Pan video games Category:Point-and-click adventure games Category:Sega Genesis games Category:Sega CD games Category:Super Nintendo Entertainment System games Category:Ukiyotei games Category:Video games based on films Category:Video games based on adaptations Category:Video games developed in Japan Category:Video games developed in the United Kingdom
The year 1978 in film involved some significant events. Highest-grossing films (U.S.) The top ten 1978 released films by box office gross in the United States and Canada are as follows:  Events  February 1 – Bob Dylan's film Renaldo and Clara, a documentary of the "Rolling Thunder Revue" tour premieres in Los Angeles, California. March 1 – Charlie Chaplin's coffin is stolen from a Swiss cemetery three months after burial. After recovery a few weeks later, the casket is sealed in a concrete vault which is then buried in the same grave. March – Leigh Brackett completes the first draft for The Empire Strikes Back, but dies only two weeks later.
June – Daniel Melnick becomes head of Columbia Pictures after the David Begelman scandal. June 4 – Grease, starring John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John, has its world premiere at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. July 20 - Alan Hirschfield is fired as president and CEO of Columbia Pictures. He is replaced by Francis T. Vincent. August – Production begins on Star Trek: The Motion Picture. September – George Lucas purchases Bulltail Ranch, on Lucas Valley Road, for the development of Skywalker Ranch. October 27 – Halloween is released. November 17 – Star Wars Holiday Special airs on CBS. The special gives fans their first glimpse of Boba Fett, a character from the upcoming sequel.
December – Superman premieres at the Kennedy Centre in Washington, D.C. on December 10 and has a European Royal Charity Premiere at the Empire, Leicester Square in London three days later in the presence of HM Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Andrew.
Awards   Palme d'Or (Cannes Film Festival): The Tree of Wooden Clogs (L'Albero degli zoccoli), directed by Ermanno Olmi, Italy  Golden Bear (Berlin Film Festival): Trout (Las Truchas), directed by José Luis García Sánchez, Spain What Max Said (Las Palabras de Max), directed by Emilio Martínez-Lázaro, Spain  1978 film releases  January–March January 1978 6 January Coma 25 January Renaldo and Clara 29 January A Night Full of Rain February 1978 Remember My Name 2 February The Boys in Company C 3 February The One and Only 4 February Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Mermaid 9 February The Betsy 10 February Blue Collar The Other Side of the Mountain Part 2 15 February Coming Home March 1978 And the Devil is Their Third Accomplice 5 March An Unmarried Woman 10 March Gray Lady Down Return from Witch Mountain The Fury 13 March The Big Sleep 15 March House Calls 17 March  American Hot Wax Casey's Shadow 18 March  Dot and the Kangaroo Straight Time  April–June April 1978 5 April Pretty Baby 9 April Rabbit Test 14 April The Medusa Touch 20 April Dawn of the Dead FM 21 April I Wanna Hold Your Hand 28 April F.I.S.T.
May 1978 Warlords of Atlantis 10 May It Lives Again The End 12 May Nunzio 18 May  The Buddy Holly Story 19 May  Thank God It's Friday 23 May Harper Valley PTA 26 May Big Wednesday High-Ballin' June 1978 2 June Capricorn One 6 June Damien: Omen II 9 June The Cat from Outer Space 10 June The Driver 14 June Go Tell the Spartans 16 June Grease Jaws 2 23 June  The Cheap Detective 28 June Convoy Heaven Can Wait The Wild Geese 29 June Fedora 30 June The Bad News Bears Go to Japan  July–September July 1978 5 July Hot Lead and Cold Feet 14 July Foul Play Hooper The Swarm 19 July Revenge of the Pink Panther International Velvet 21 July Sgt.
Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band 28 July Animal House August 1978 2 August  Eyes of Laura Mars Interiors The Magic of Lassie 3 August Piranha 4 August  China 9, Liberty 37 Corvette Summer 11 August  Who'll Stop the Rain 29 August  A Wedding 30 August Avalanche September 1978 8 September Almost Summer 15 September Up in Smoke 29 September  Somebody Killed Her Husband Death on the Nile  October–December October 1978 5 October The Boys from Brazil Who Is Killing the Great Chefs of Europe?
6 October  The Big Fix Days of Heaven Midnight Express Goin' South 20 October Attack of the Killer Tomatoes 24 October The Wiz 25 October Comes a Horseman Halloween November 1978 1 November  Watership Down 2 November  Caravans 8 November Magic 10 November Paradise Alley 11 November The Wild Geese 15 November The Further Adventures of the Wilderness Family The Lord of the Rings 22 November Movie Movie Same Time, Next Year December 1978 8 December The Brink's Job The Deer Hunter Force 10 from Navarone 15 December Oliver's Story Superman 17 December Uncle Joe Shannon 20 December Every Which Way but Loose King of the Gypsies 22 December California Suite Invasion of the Body Snatchers Moment by Moment 31 December Ice Castles  Notable films released in 1978 U.S.A. unless stated  # The 36th Chamber of Shaolin (Shao Lin san shi liu fang), starring Gordon Liu – (Hong Kong)  A Almost Summer, directed by Martin Davidson, starring Bruno Kirby and Lee Purcell American Boy: A Profile of Steven Prince, directed by Martin Scorsese (documentary) American Hot Wax, a biopic of Alan Freed, starring Tim McIntire, Fran Drescher, Laraine Newman, Jay Leno L'argent des autres (Other People's Money), starring Jean-Louis Trintignant and Catherine Deneuve – (France) The Astral Factor, starring Robert Foxworth and Stefanie Powers Autumn Sonata (Höstsonaten), directed by Ingmar Bergman, starring Ingrid Bergman and Liv Ullmann – (Sweden) Avalanche, starring Rock Hudson, Robert Forster, Mia Farrow  B The Bad News Bears Go to Japan, starring Tony Curtis and Jackie Earle Haley Bandits vs. Samurai Squadron (Kumokiri Nizaemon) – (Japan) Battlestar Galactica (Canada and most European countries only; released in U.S. theatres the following year) The Betsy, starring Laurence Olivier, Robert Duvall, Tommy Lee Jones, Katharine Ross, Kathleen Beller, Lesley-Anne Down The Big Fix, starring Richard Dreyfuss, Susan Anspach, F. Murray Abraham, John Lithgow The Big Sleep, starring Robert Mitchum, Sarah Miles, Oliver Reed, Richard Boone, Candy Clark, Joan Collins, James Stewart – (U.K.) Big Wednesday, directed by John Milius, starring Jan-Michael Vincent, William Katt, Gary Busey Bloodbrothers, starring Richard Gere and Paul Sorvino Blue Collar, directed by Paul Schrader, starring Richard Pryor, Yaphet Kotto, Harvey Keitel Born Again, starring Dean Jones and Anne Francis The Boys from Brazil, directed by Franklin J. Schaffner, starring Gregory Peck, Laurence Olivier, James Mason – (U.K./U.S.)
The Boys in Company C, starring Stan Shaw, Andrew Stevens and Craig Wasson The Brink's Job, directed by William Friedkin, starring Peter Falk, Gena Rowlands, Peter Boyle, Paul Sorvino, Warren Oates The Buddy Holly Story, starring Gary Busey, Don Stroud and Charles Martin Smith Bye Bye Monkey (Rêve de singe / Ciao maschio), starring Gérard Depardieu and Marcello Mastroianni – (France/Italy)  C La Cage aux Folles, directed by Édouard Molinaro, starring Ugo Tognazzi and Michel Serrault – (France/Italy) California Suite, starring Alan Alda, Jane Fonda, Michael Caine, Maggie Smith, Richard Pryor, Bill Cosby, Elaine May, Walter Matthau Capricorn One, directed by Peter Hyams, starring Elliott Gould, James Brolin, O. J. Simpson, Sam Waterston, Hal Holbrook, Brenda Vaccaro Caravans, starring Anthony Quinn, Jennifer O'Neill, Michael Sarrazin Casey's Shadow, starring Walter Matthau, Alexis Smith, Robert Webber The Cat from Outer Space, starring Ken Berry and Sandy Duncan Centennial, TV miniseries, starring Raymond Burr, Richard Chamberlain, Richard Crenna, Andy Griffith, David Janssen, Alex Karras La chambre verte (The Green Room), directed by and starring François Truffaut – (France) The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith, directed by Fred Schepisi – (Australia) The Cheap Detective, starring Peter Falk, Ann-Margret, Marsha Mason, Sid Caesar China 9, Liberty 37 (Amore, piombo e furore), starring Fabio Testi, Jenny Agutter, Warren Oates – (Italy/Spain) The Class of Miss MacMichael, starring Glenda Jackson – (U.K.) Closed Circuit (Circuito chiuso) – (Italy) Coma, directed by Michael Crichton, starring Geneviève Bujold, Michael Douglas, Richard Widmark Comes a Horseman, directed by Alan J. Pakula, starring Jane Fonda, James Caan, Jason Robards Coming Home, directed by Hal Ashby, starring Jane Fonda, Jon Voight, Bruce Dern, Penelope Milford Convoy, directed by Sam Peckinpah, starring Kris Kristofferson, Ali MacGraw and Ernest Borgnine Corvette Summer, starring Mark Hamill Cosi' come sei (aka Stay As You Are) starring Marcello Mastroianni and Nastassja Kinski – (Italy) Crippled Avengers (Can que), directed by Chang Cheh – (Hong Kong)  D The Dain Curse, mini-series for TV, starring James Coburn and Jean Simmons Damien: Omen II, starring William Holden and Lee Grant d'Artagnan and Three Musketeers (d'Artanyan i tri mushketera) – (U.S.S.R.) Dawn of the Dead, directed by George A. Romero – (U.S./Italy) Days of Heaven, directed by Terrence Malick, starring Richard Gere, Sam Shepard, Brooke Adams Death on the Nile, directed by John Guillermin, starring Peter Ustinov, David Niven, Bette Davis, Maggie Smith, Angela Lansbury, Olivia Hussey, Mia Farrow – (U.K.) Deathsport, starring David Carradine Debbie Does Dallas, pornographic comedy The Deer Hunter, directed by Michael Cimino, starring Robert De Niro, John Cazale, John Savage, Christopher Walken, Meryl Streep The Demon (Kichiku) – (Japan) A Different Story, starring Meg Foster, Perry King, Valerie Curtin El diputado (The Deputy) – (Spain) Don, starring Amitabh Bachchan – (India) A Dream of Passion (Kravgi gynaikon), directed by Jules Dassin, starring Melina Mercouri and Ellen Burstyn – (Greece) The Driver, directed by Walter Hill, starring Ryan O'Neal, Bruce Dern, Isabelle Adjani, Ronee Blakley Drunken Master (Jui kuen), starring Jackie Chan – (Hong Kong)  E Ecce bombo, directed by and starring Nanni Moretti – (Italy) Empire of Passion (Ai no Bōrei), directed by Nagisa Oshima – (Japan) The End, directed by and starring Burt Reynolds, with Dom DeLuise, Joanne Woodward, Pat O'Brien, Myrna Loy, Sally Field An Enemy of the People, starring Steve McQueen Enter the Fat Dragon (Fei Lung gwoh gong), starring Sammo Hung – (Hong Kong) Every Which Way but Loose, directed by James Fargo, starring Clint Eastwood, Sondra Locke, Geoffrey Lewis Eyes of Laura Mars, directed by Irvin Kershner, starring Faye Dunaway and Tommy Lee Jones  F F.I.S.T., directed by Norman Jewison, starring Sylvester Stallone, Melinda Dillon, Rod Steiger FM, starring Cleavon Little and Eileen Brennan Fedora, directed by Billy Wilder, starring William Holden and Marthe Keller Fingers, directed by James Toback, starring Harvey Keitel Five Deadly Venoms Force 10 from Navarone, starring Robert Shaw, Edward Fox, Harrison Ford – (U.K.) Foul Play, directed by Colin Higgins, starring Goldie Hawn, Chevy Chase, Dudley Moore and Billy Barty The Fury, directed by Brian De Palma, starring Kirk Douglas, John Cassavetes, Carrie Snodgress, Andrew Stevens, Amy Irving  G Gates of Heaven, a documentary film Germany in Autumn (Deutschland im Herbst) – (West Germany) Get Out Your Handkerchiefs (Preparez vos mouchoirs), directed by Bertrand Blier – (France) Girlfriends, directed by Claudia Weill, starring Melanie Mayron – Sundance Grand Jury Prize winner Go Tell the Spartans, starring Burt Lancaster Gray Lady Down, starring Charlton Heston, David Carradine, Stacy Keach, Ronny Cox, Ned Beatty Grease, directed by Randal Kleiser, starring John Travolta, Olivia Newton-John, Jeff Conaway, Stockard Channing, Sid Caesar, Eve Arden  H Halloween, directed by John Carpenter, starring Jamie Lee Curtis and Donald Pleasence Harper Valley PTA, starring Barbara Eden Heaven Can Wait, directed by Buck Henry and Warren Beatty, starring Beatty, Julie Christie, Charles Grodin, Dyan Cannon, Jack Warden, James Mason The Herd (Sürü) – (Turkey) High-Ballin', starring Peter Fonda, Michael Ironside, Helen Shaver, Jerry Reed Holocaust, TV miniseries, starring Meryl Streep, James Woods, Michael Moriarty, Tovah Feldshuh, Fritz Weaver, Ian Holm Hooper, directed by Hal Needham, starring Burt Reynolds, Sally Field, Jan-Michael Vincent, Robert Klein, Brian Keith Hot Lead and Cold Feet, directed by Robert Butler, starring Jim Dale, Karen Valentine, Don Knotts House Calls, directed by Howard Zieff, starring Walter Matthau, Glenda Jackson, Richard Benjamin, Art Carney A Hunting Accident (Moy laskovyy i nezhnyy zver) – (U.S.S.R.)  I–J I Wanna Hold Your Hand, directed by Robert Zemeckis, starring Nancy Allen, Marc McClure, Bobby Di Cicco Ice Castles, directed by Donald Wrye, starring Lynn-Holly Johnson and Robby Benson In a Year of 13 Moons (In einem Jahr mit 13 Monden), directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder – (West Germany) In Praise of Older Women, starring Tom Berenger, Karen Black, Helen Shaver – (Canada) Interiors, directed by Woody Allen, starring Geraldine Page, Diane Keaton, E. G. Marshall, Mary Beth Hurt, Maureen Stapleton International Velvet, starring Tatum O'Neal, Nanette Newman and Anthony Hopkins Invasion of the Body Snatchers, remake of 1956 movie, directed by Philip Kaufman, starring Donald Sutherland, Brooke Adams, Jeff Goldblum Jaws 2, directed by Jeannot Szwarc, starring Roy Scheider and Lorraine Gary  K–L Killer of Sheep, directed by Charles Burnett King of the Gypsies, starring Eric Roberts, Sterling Hayden, Judd Hirsch, Shelley Winters, Brooke Shields Kondura (The Boon), directed by Shyam Benegal – (India-Bollywood/Telugu) Lady on the Bus (A Dama do Lotação), starring Sônia Braga – (Brazil) The Left-Handed Woman (Die linkshändige Frau) – (West Germany) The Last Waltz, directed by Martin Scorsese, featuring The Band, Van Morrison, Neil Young, Bob Dylan Long Weekend, starring John Hargreaves – (Australia) The Lord of the Rings, animated film by Ralph Bakshi, with voices of William Squire, John Hurt, Anthony Daniels  M Magic, directed by Richard Attenborough, starring Anthony Hopkins, Ann-Margret, Burgess Meredith, Ed Lauter De Mantel der Liefde (The Mantle of Love) – (Netherlands) Mean Dog Blues, starring Gregg Henry, Kay Lenz, Tina Louise and George Kennedy The Medusa Touch, starring Richard Burton, Lino Ventura and Lee Remick – (U.K.) Midnight Express, directed by Alan Parker, starring Brad Davis, Randy Quaid, John Hurt – (U.K./U.S.)
Moment by Moment, directed by Jane Wagner, starring John Travolta and Lily Tomlin Movie Movie, directed by Stanley Donen, starring George C. Scott, Harry Hamlin, Barry Bostwick, Trish Van Devere, Red Buttons, Art Carney Muqaddar Ka Sikandar (Conqueror of Destiny), starring Amitabh Bachchan – (India)  N–O National Lampoon's Animal House, directed by John Landis, starring John Belushi, Tim Matheson, Peter Riegert, Tom Hulce, Karen Allen, John Vernon Newsfront, directed by Phillip Noyce, starring Wendy Hughes and Bryan Brown – (Australia) A Night Full of Rain (Una notte piena di pioggia), directed by Lina Wertmüller, starring Giancarlo Giannini and Candice Bergen – (Italy/U.S.)
The Night the Prowler, directed by Jim Sharman – (Australia) Occupation in 26 Pictures (Okupacija u 26 slika) – (Yugoslavia) Oliver's Story, directed by John Korty, starring Ryan O'Neal and Candice Bergen  The One and Only, directed by Carl Reiner, starring Henry Winkler and Kim Darby Orchestra Rehearsal (Prova d'orchestra), directed by Federico Fellini – (Italy)  P–Q Paradise Alley, directed by and starring Sylvester Stallone, with Armand Assante and Anne Archer Passion Flower Hotel (Leidenschaftliche Blümchen), starring Nastassja Kinski – (West Germany) Perceval le Gallois (Percival the Gaul), directed by Éric Rohmer – (France) Piranha, directed by Joe Dante, starring Bradford Dillman, Heather Menzies, Kevin McCarthy The Place Without Limits (El lugar sin límites) – (Mexico) Pretty Baby, directed by Louis Malle, starring Keith Carradine, Susan Sarandon, Brooke Shields The Prophet, the Gold and the Transylvanians (Profetul, aurul si Ardelenii) – (Romania) Pugachev – (U.S.S.R.)  R Rabbit Test, directed by Joan Rivers, starring Billy Crystal Remember My Name, starring Geraldine Chaplin and Anthony Perkins Renaldo and Clara, directed by and starring Bob Dylan Return from Witch Mountain, starring Bette Davis and Christopher Lee Revenge of the Pink Panther, starring Peter Sellers, Herbert Lom and Dyan Cannon – (U.K./U.S.)
Rhinegold – (West Germany) Ringing Bell (Chirin no Suzu), an anime film – (Japan) Rockers, starring Burning Spear, Gregory Isaacs and Big Youth – (Jamaica)  S The Sailor's Return, starring Tom Bell – (U.K.) Same Time Next Year, starring Alan Alda and Ellen Burstyn The Second Awakening of Christa Klages, directed by Margarethe von Trotta – (West Germany) Sextette, starring Mae West, Timothy Dalton, Dom DeLuise, Ringo Starr, Keith Moon, George Hamilton, Alice Cooper Sgt.
Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, starring Peter Frampton, Steve Martin and the Bee Gees with music by The Beatles Shogun's Samurai (Yagu ichizoku no inbō), starring Sonny Chiba – (Japan) The Shout, directed by Jerzy Skolimowski, starring Alan Bates, John Hurt and Susannah York – (U.K.) The Silent Partner, directed by Daryl Duke, starring Elliott Gould, Christopher Plummer, Susannah York Slow Dancing in the Big City, directed by John G. Avildsen, starring Paul Sorvino The Small One Snake in the Eagle's Shadow (Shé xíng diāo shǒu), starring Jackie Chan – (Hong Kong) Somebody Killed Her Husband, starring Farrah Fawcett and Jeff Bridges Stevie, starring Glenda Jackson and Trevor Howard – (U.K.) Straight Time, directed by Ulu Grosbard, starring Dustin Hoffman, Theresa Russell, Harry Dean Stanton, Gary Busey The Stud, starring Joan Collins – (U.K.) Superman, directed by Richard Donner, starring Christopher Reeve, Marlon Brando, Gene Hackman, Margot Kidder, Valerie Perrine, Ned Beatty, Glenn Ford The Swarm, starring Michael Caine, Katharine Ross, Richard Widmark, Henry Fonda, Fred MacMurray, Olivia de Havilland, Ben Johnson, Lee Grant The Swissmakers (Die Schweizermacher) – (Switzerland)  T Thank God It's Friday, starring Debra Winger, Donna Summer, Jeff Goldblum Three from Prostokvashino (Troye iz Prostokvashino) – (U.S.S.R.) Toplo (Heat) – (Bulgaria) The Tree of Wooden Clogs (L'Albero degli zoccoli), directed by Ermanno Olmi – (Italy) – Palme d'Or winner Trishul, starring Sanjeev Kumar and Amitabh Bachchan – (India) Las truchas (The Trout) – (Spain) – Golden Bear winner Two Solitudes, starring Jean-Pierre Aumont and Stacy Keach – (Canada)  U–V Uncle Joe Shannon, starring Burt Young An Unmarried Woman, directed by Paul Mazursky, starring Jill Clayburgh, Alan Bates, Michael Murphy Up in Smoke, starring Cheech Marin and Tommy Chong Violette Nozière, directed by Claude Chabrol, starring Isabelle Huppert and Stéphane Audran – (France)  W Ward Six (Paviljon VI) – (Yugoslavia) Warriors Two (Zan xian sheng yu zhao qian Hua), starring Bryan Leung and Sammo Hung – (Hong Kong) The Water Babies, directed by Lionel Jeffries, starring James Mason, Bernard Cribbins, Billie Whitelaw – (U.K./Poland) Watership Down, animated film directed by Martin Rosen, with the voices of John Hurt and Richard Briers – (U.K.) A Wedding, directed by Robert Altman, starring Desi Arnaz, Jr., Carol Burnett, Geraldine Chaplin, Lauren Hutton, Paul Dooley, Mia Farrow Who Is Killing the Great Chefs of Europe?, starring George Segal and Jacqueline Bisset – (West Germany/U.S.)
Who'll Stop the Rain, directed by Karel Reisz, starring Nick Nolte and Tuesday Weld The Wild Geese, starring Richard Burton, Roger Moore, Richard Harris – (U.K.) Without Anesthesia (Bez znieczulenia), directed by Andrzej Wajda – (Poland) The Wiz, directed by Sidney Lumet, starring Diana Ross, Michael Jackson, Nipsey Russell Wolf Lake, directed by Burt Kennedy, starring Rod Steiger  XYZ You Are Not Alone (Du er ikke alene) – (Denmark)  Births  January 1 – Christian Tessier, Canadian actor  January 3 – Kimberley Locke, American singer-songwriter and model  January 4 – Marcello Bravo, Austrian pornographic actor  January 5 – Clarine Harp, American voice actress  January 8 – Scott Whyte, American actor  January 9 – A. J. McLean, American musician, singer, dancer, actor, and entertainer  January 10 – Antonio Cupo, Canadian film and television actor  January 15    Eddie Cahill, American actor  Jamie Clayton, actress, model  January 17  Pampita, Argentine model, actress, television personality  Takatoshi Kaneko, Japanese actor  Sodadeth San, French actress  Pater Sparrow, Hungarian actor, filmmaker  Ricky Wilson, English actor, singer  January 20 – Omar Sy, French actor  January 24 – Mark Hildreth, Canadian actor, voice actor  January 27 – Jake Pavelka, American pilot, television personality  January 28 – Stephen Farrelly, Irish actor, professional wrestler  February 7 – Ashton Kutcher, American actor  February 9 – A. J. Buckley, Canadian actor  February 12 – Gethin Jones, Welsh television presenter  February 14 – Danai Gurira, actress, playwright  February 17 – Ashton Holmes, American actor  February 20  Jay Hernandez, American actor  Julia Jentsch, German actress  February 23 – Kris Lemche, Canadian actor  February 24 – Nicole Lyn, Canadian actress  March 1 – Jensen Ackles, American actor  March 2 – Chris Powell, American personal trainer, reality show personality, and author  March 3 – Aarti Mann, Indian-American actress  March 5 – Kimberly McCullough, American actress, dancer, director  March 6 – Rob Diesel, Swedish pornographic actor  March 8 – Nick Zano, American actor  March 17  Patrick Seitz, American voice actor  March 21   Kevin Federline, American rapper, DJ, actor, television personality, professional wrestler, and fashion model  Rani Mukerji, Indian actress  March 23 – Nicholle Tom and David Tom, American actress and actor  April 1 – Anamaria Marinca, Romanian actress  April 2 – Deon Richmond, American actor  April 3 – Matthew Goode, English actor  April 7    Duncan James, English actor, television presenter and singer  Scott McGillivray, Canadian businessman, investor, television host, author, and educator  April 12 – Riley Smith, American actor  April 13 – Kyle Howard, American actor  April 16 – Lara Dutta, Indian actress  April 19   James Franco, American actor Joanna Gaines, American designer, businesswoman, entrepreneur, television personality  April 20  Matt Austin, Canadian actor  Clayne Crawford, American actor  April 23 – Ian Brennan, American writer, actor, producer  April 26    Stana Katic, Canadian-American actress, producer  Pablo Schreiber, Canadian actor  April 28    Nate Richert, American actor, musician  Drew Scott, Canadian actor, realtor, and entrepreneur  Jonathan Scott, Canadian reality television personality, contractor, illusionist, and television and film producer  April 29 – Tyler Labine, Canadian actor  April 30 – Sandra Huller, German actress  May 1 – James Badge Dale, American actor  May 5 – Santiago Cabrera, Venezuelan-born Chilean actor  May 8    Matthew Davis, American actor  Ana Maria Lombo, American musician and television personality  Dionisio Heiderscheid, Argentine model and pornographic actor  Josie Maran, American model, actress, and entrepreneur  May 10 – Kenan Thompson, American actor, comedian  May 11 – Warren Brown, English actor and former professional Thai boxer  May 12  Aaron Abrams, Canadian actor, writer  Malin Åkerman, Swedish-Canadian actress  Jason Biggs, American actor  May 13 – Legrand Wolf, American pornographic actor  May 15  Caroline Dhavernas, Canadian actress  David Krumholtz, American actor  May 16 – Jim Sturgess, English actor  May 18 – Chad Donella, Canadian actor  May 21 – Chris Santos, American actor  May 22 – Ginnifer Goodwin, American actress  May 24 – Bryan Greenberg, American actor  May 25 – Brian Urlacher, former American football linebacker  May 27 – Jordan Ash, American pornographic actor  May 28 – Jake Johnson, actor, comedian  May 29 – Adam Rickitt, English actor, singer and model  May 30 – Cyrus King, American pornographic actor  June 2  Dominic Cooper, English actor  Nikki Cox, American actress  Justin Long, American actor  June 4  Josh McDermitt, American film and television actor and comedian  Robin Lord Taylor, American actor  June 5 – Jeff Schroeder, American television and online talk show host  June 6    Judith Barsi, American child actress (d. 1988)  June 7   Bill Hader, American actor, comedian  Anna Torv, Australian actress  June 8 – Maria Menounos, American actress  June 9 – Michaela Conlin, American actress  June 10  DJ Qualls, American actor  Shane West, American actor  Antonio Biaggi, Puerto Rican pornographic actor  June 11 – Joshua Jackson, Canadian actor  June 13 – Ethan Embry, American actor  June 14   Diablo Cody, Canadian writer  Colby Jansen, pornographic actor  June 16 – Daniel Brühl, German actor June 18 – Tara Platt, American voice actress  June 19    Zoe Saldana, American actress  Leo Giamani, pornographic actor  June 20 – Quinton Jackson, American mixed martial artist, actor and former professional wrestler  June 21 – Erica Durance, Canadian actress  June 27 – Courtney Ford, actress  June 29 –   Luke Kirby, Canadian actor  Nicole Scherzinger, American singer, songwriter, dancer, actress and television personality  July 2 – Owain Yeoman, Welsh actor  July 3 – Ian Anthony Dale, American actor  July 4 – Becki Newton, American actress  July 6 Adam Busch, American actor, film director and singer Tia Mowry and Tamera Mowry, American actresses  July 8 – Rachael Lillis, American voice actress  July 9 – Kyle Davis, American actor  July 10 – Rastislav Tanistrak, Slovak actor, model  July 11   Oddgeir Thune, Norwegian actor  Thomas Stone, Hungarian pornographic actor  July 12  Topher Grace, American actor  Michelle Rodriguez, American actress  July 15 – Greg Sestero, American actor, writer  July 17 – R. J. Williams, American actor, television host, CEO of Young Hollywood  July 18 – Rafael Alencar, Brazilian pornographic actor  July 19 – Vadim Romanov, Russian pornographic actor  July 20   Charlie Korsmo, American former child actor  Anatol Yusef, English stage, film and television actor  July 21  Justin Bartha, American actor  Josh Hartnett, American actor  July 22 – A. J. Cook, Canadian actress  July 24 – Jeff Mauro, American actor, chef  August 2 – Natashia Williams, American actress, model  August 3   Tommy Dewey, American actor, producer, writer  Shanelle Workman, American actress, voice actress, producer and director  August 4 – Mick Cain, American actor  August 8 – Countess Vaughn, American actress  August 10 – Leo Fitzpatrick, American actor  August 16 – Josh Casaubon, American actor  August 18 – Andy Samberg, American actor, comedian  August 20 – Kris Smith, English Australian model, television presenter and rugby league footballer  August 22 – James Corden, English singer, actor, television host  August 23 – Andrew Rannells, American actor, voice actor, singer  August 24 – Beth Riesgraf, American actress  August 25 – Kel Mitchell, American actor, comedian  August 28 – Sam Wills, New Zealand prop comic, busker, clown, and mime  August 30 – Gianpaolo Venuta, Canadian actor  August 31 – Mike Erwin, American actor  September 3 – Nick Wechsler, American actor  September 4 – Wes Bentley, American actor  September 7 – Devon Sawa, Canadian actor  September 12 – Benjamin McKenzie, American actor  September 18 – Billy Eichner, American comedian, actor, writer, and television personality  September 20 – Charlie Weber, American actor  September 22 – Daniella Alonso, American actress and fashion model  September 23 – Anthony Mackie, American actor  September 24   Christopher Nowinski, American author, co-founder and executive director of the Concussion Legacy Foundation; as well as a former professional wrestler with World Wrestling Entertainment Jason Sarcinelli, American actor, stunt man  September 25 – Rossif Sutherland, Canadian actor  September 28 – Lucas Bryant, Canadian actor  September 29 – Nathan West, American actor  October 1 – Katie Aselton, American actress, film director and producer  October 3 – Shannyn Sossamon, American actress  October 9 – Randy Spelling, American actor  October 10 – Trevor Eyster, American actor  October 11 – Trevor Donovan, American actor  October 14 – Usher, American singer, actor  October 15    Devon Gummersall, American actor  Martin Mazza, Spanish pornographic actor  October 16 – Kala Savage, American actress  October 18 – Wesley Jonathan, American actor  October 21  Will Estes, American actor  Michael McMillian, American actor  October 26 –   CM Punk, American mixed martial artist, comic book writer and retired professional wrestler  Anthony Carrino, American contractor, designer, developer and television personality  October 27 – David Walton, American actor  October 28 – Justin Guarini, American singer and actor  October 30 Matthew Morrison, American singer, actor Landon Conrad, American pornographic actor, model  October 31 – Brian Hallisay, American actor  November 1 – Mary Kate Schellhardt, American actress  November 2 – Whit Hertford, American theatre director, writer and actor  November 8 – Keir O'Donnell, Australian-American actor  November 9 – Sisqó, American singer, actor, songwriter  November 10  David Paetkau, Canadian actor  Diplo, American actor, DJ, record producer, rapper, songwriter  November 17  Zoe Bell, New Zealand stuntwoman, actress  Tom Ellis, Welsh actor  Rachel McAdams, Canadian actress  November 18 – Dennis West, American pornographic actor  November 19 – Eric Nenninger, American actor  November 20    Nadine Velazquez, American actress and model  Denis Vega, Spanish pornographic actor  November 21 – Yasmine Al Massri, International actress, dancer, video artist and human rights advocate  November 22 – Karlo Karrera, Dominican pornographic actor  November 23 – Kayvan Novak, British actor, voice actor, and comedian  November 24 – Katherine Heigl, American actress  November 28 – Jodie Resther, Canadian actress  November 29 – Lauren German, actress  November 30 – Gael García Bernal, Mexican film actor, director, and producer  December 1 – Stefan Kapičić, Serbian actor  December 5 – Jean Franko, Venezuelan pornographic actor  December 7  Shiri Appleby, American actress  Kristofer Hivju, Norwegian film actor, producer and writer  December 8 – Ian Somerhalder, American actor  December 9 – Jesse Metcalfe, American actor  December 11 – Dean Van Damme, pornographic actor  December 13 – Cameron Douglas, American actor  December 15 – Will Wikle, American actor and reality television personality  December 16 – Joe Absolom, English actor  December 17 – Douglas Tait, American actor, stuntman, filmmaker  December 18  Josh Dallas, American actor  Katie Holmes, American actress  December 21   Charles Dera, American pornographic actor, dancer, model, martial artist, and former U.S. Marine  Mike Vitar, American actor  December 22 – Mia Tyler, American actress, model, author, visual artist, media personality, socialite, fashion designer, talent manager and music promoter  December 24 – Carlson Twins, American actors, models  December 25 – Jeremy Strong, American film, television, and stage actor  December 27 – Trent Atkins, pornographic actor,  December 28 – John Legend, American composer and actor  December 30 – Tyrese Gibson, American actor, singer, model  December 31 – Johnny Sins, pornographic actor, director, and Internet personality  Notable deaths  Film debuts  Karen Allen – National Lampoon's Animal House  Pedro Almodóvar (director) – Folle...folle...fólleme Tim!
Kevin Bacon – National Lampoon's Animal House  Jake Busey – Straight Time  Cheech & Chong – Up in Smoke  Billy Connolly – Absolution  Billy Crystal – Rabbit Test  Jamie Lee Curtis – Halloween  Eddie Deezen – Laserblast  R. Lee Ermey – The Boys in Company C  Corey Feldman – Born Again  William Forsythe – Long Shot  Harry Hamlin – Movie Movie  Daryl Hannah – The Fury  Mark Harmon – Comes a Horseman  Ed Harris – Coma  Michael Keaton – Rabbit Test  John Malkovich – A Wedding  Laurie Metcalf – A Wedding  Liam Neeson – Pilgrim's Progress  Michael O'Keefe – Gray Lady Down  Annie Potts – Corvette Summer  Christopher Reeve – Gray Lady Down  James Remar – On the Yard  Eric Roberts – King of the Gypsies  Diana Scarwid – Pretty Baby  James Spader – Team-Mates  Mary Steenburgen – Goin' South  Peter Stormare – The Score  Alfre Woodard – Remember My Name  Robert Zemeckis (director) – I Wanna Hold Your Hand  References  Category:Film by year 1978
Sophie Hunger (born Émilie Jeanne-Sophie Welti on 31 March 1983) is a Swiss singer-songwriter, film composer, multi-instrumentalist (guitar, blues harp, piano) and bandleader, living currently in Berlin. Early life  Émilie Jeanne-Sophie Welti was born on 31 March 1983 in Bern, Switzerland. She was a diplomat's daughter and grew up, with two older siblings, in Bern, London, Bonn and Zurich. She graduated high-school in 2002, then subsequently studied German and English. While a child, Hunger took piano lessons for a time. She was familiar with jazz from an early age, since her father used to listen to it. Independently, she had a varying taste in music, as a teenager, she first was into hip-hop and R&B.
Later she listened to rock – then, as a young adult, she discovered country, bluegrass and folk. Career   From 2002 to 2006, Hunger was a guest singer for the project Superterz and appears on the 2006 album Standards released by that group. Starting in 2004, Hunger was the lead singer of the indie rock group Fisher. The band split in 2007. Hunger plays guitar, blues harp, piano and composes most of her songs in , French, , German and . In 2006, in a few days, she home-recorded her solo début album, Sketches on Sea, three tracks of which featured trombonist Michael Flury (ex-Keller’s 10).
The album was initially self-released in 2006, then re-released the following year on . Flury became an impermanent band member and, since before 2007, Hunger has played with multi-instrumentalist Christian Prader (flute, piano, guitar). Her band also includes  and . Former drummers include: ,  and . Former bassists include . On 6 July 2008, Hunger and her band gave a concert in the Miles Davis Hall at the Montreux Jazz Festival, as well as Yael Naim and Camille. In October 2008, Hunger released her first solo studio album, Monday's Ghost,  on Two Gentlemen Records. In July 2009, Hunger and her band closed out day 2 of TEDGlobal.
In June 2010, Sophie Hunger and her band played the John Peel stage at Glastonbury Festival. Sophie Hunger was the first Swiss artist that has ever played there. In July 2010 she played at the 100 Club, London, in October 2010 at The Roundhouse, London. In September 2010, Sophie Hunger and her band played the Plaça del Rei stage at La Mercè in Barcelona. In late 2010, it was announced that Sophie Hunger would release a début record for the North American market as Sophie Hunger: s/t on Manimal Vinyl in April 2011. The CD contained tracks from 1983 and Monday's Ghost.
On 29 June 2011 Sophie Hunger played at International Jazz Festival in Montreal, Canada, opening for Madeleine Peyroux. Also at the Festival, she opened for the Erik Truffaz Quartet the following Monday, 4 July 2011 for two shows — at 6 pm and 10 pm — and received a standing ovation at the later show. She was also featured on two songs that she recorded on Truffaz' latest CD entitled "in between" produced by Two Gentlemen Records in Lausanne, Switzerland. In 2011, her version of Noir Désir's "Le vent nous portera" was featured in the film Café de Flore, directed by Jean-Marc Vallée.
She features on "Song of I", a track from Steven Wilson's To The Bone album.
Discography  Studio albums  Live albums  With the band Fisher, under the name Emilie Welti  2006: Fisher – Fisher (Kuenschtli.ch)  2006: Superterz: Standards  Singles  Soundtrack as Emilie Welti  2008: Der Freund (with Marcel Vaid):  2010: Zimmer 202 as Sophie Hunger  2016: My Life as a Courgette  Filmography as Emilie Welti  2008: Der Freund  2012: Der Kumpel as Sophie Hunger  2012: The Rules of Fire  2016: My Life as a Courgette  References  External links        Sophie Hunger on SoundCloud  Sophie Hunger on BandCamp  Sophie Hunger on YouTube    Sophie Hunger statistics, tagging and previews at Last.FM  Category:1983 births Category:Living people Category:English-language singers from Switzerland Category:Swiss film score composers Category:French-language singers of Switzerland Category:German-language singers of Switzerland Category:People from Bern Category:People from Zürich Category:Swiss female singers Category:Swiss singer-songwriters Category:Swiss jazz musicians Category:Swiss guitarists Category:Multi-instrumentalists Category:Swiss harpists Category:Swiss pianists Category:Swiss women pianists Category:Participants in the Bundesvision Song Contest Category:21st-century Swiss musicians Category:21st-century women artists Category:21st-century women musicians Category:21st-century Swiss singers Category:21st-century women singers Category:21st-century pianists Category:21st-century guitarists
Wallenstein is a medium-weight German-style board game designed by Dirk Henn and published by Queen Games in 2002. Though set during the Thirty Years' War, Wallenstein should not be confused with a complex wargame. Rather, it has the feel of a light strategy game with the familiar Euro elements of area control and resource management mixed in. As such, it has a wide range of appeal that attracts wargamers and non-wargamers alike. Theme  Historical Context  Wallenstein is named for Albrecht von Wallenstein, the most influential commander of the Imperial Army during the Thirty Years' War (1618–48). He won a series of victories, gaining the title of Duke of Mecklenburg.
His goal was a large central European empire dominating Western Europe. His ambitions led to his dismissal in 1630, but he was reinstated to defend the empire against Swedish attack. He recovered Bohemia, but was defeated by Gustav II Adolph at Lutzen, and was again dismissed. Wallenstein's intrigues with the Protestants and his rapidly growing power alarmed the Catholic princes, and he was murdered in his bedroom at Eger by Irish mercenaries. Integration of Theme and Mechanics The game Wallenstein represents two years of the Thirty Years' War. It does not pretend to be a conflict simulation of war. Rather, it is a multiplayer game set in that historical period.
Elements from that era intermix with the game mechanics to create an engaging experience. Wallenstein is represented abstractly in the game by whoever chooses the yellow player. Other important figures of the period are represented by the other colors. The game board is a map of Germany during the Thirty Years' War. Players must raise grain and gold, feed the masses, stave off rebellions, build churches, trade houses, and palaces, and possibly conquer other provinces. Game play and historical setting mesh to create a compelling gaming experience. Gameplay  Turn Phases The game takes place over the course of two years.
Each year is divided into the four seasons: Spring, Summer, Fall, and Winter. During the first three phases, players take actions to build, gather resources, and battle. During the last phase (Winter), players camp and feed their troops and score victory points for buildings. At the end of the second year, players score victory points for buildings again, and the player with the highest total wins. Therefore, there are six phases in the game where players may take actions. There are 10 actions the players may take during these seasons, the order of which is randomly decided at the beginning of each season.
The first five actions are placed on the game board face up, allowing players to plan based on their order. However, the last five actions remain hidden. The first of the hidden actions is revealed after the completion by all players of the first action, and so on until all actions are revealed by the time the fifth action is taken by all players. In this way, the order of the next five actions is always known to the players. Mechanics Turn order is randomly set at the beginning of each season by shuffling then ordering the Leader cards. This order is used throughout the entire season for all actions taken by the players.
At the start of a year, special “season” event cards are randomly chosen from a deck. All players learn the modifiers these cards may have on the game. These four cards are then shuffled and placed face down on the season track. The first three seasons, a card is revealed and its modifiers applied to the game. During the last season (Winter), the modifiers are ignored, but a number on the card reveals the extent of grain shortage for that year. This element allows players a certain level of planning, but an uncertainty of when (or even if) the season event will happen.
Players may only take actions with regions they control, and only one per region. Each player has a player board that shows the available actions. At the beginning of each season, each player secretly plans which action a region will take. Players assign actions to regions by placing the proper region card face down over the appropriate action. Blank region cards allow each player to hide which actions a player has selected to pass on. Actions  Build a Palace, Church, or Trading Firm – Choosing this action for a region allows you to build the appropriate building in the region, providing there is a space.
A region may not have more than one of the same building. The regions have varying numbers of available building spaces…one to three. Once full, no more building action may be made in the region. Produce Gold/Grain – Each region produces a set amount of gold and grain. By choosing one of these actions, the region produces that resource. However, this action also causes unrest in the region, represented by a revolt marker placed on the region. If the region is already in unrest (already has one or more revolt markers), a battle must occur to determine if the player still controls the region.
A battle triggered by this action involves placing 1 Farmer army for each revolt marker into the cube tower along with any Farmer armies currently in the cup of the tower. A successful revolt will cause the player to lose the region, all buildings will be destroyed, and he receives none of the income from the territory. A revolt marker is always placed in the region, even if one already existed. Pressing the same region over and over results in stronger unrest and increases the chances of a successful revolt. Supply Army –  Creation of new armies. There are three different supply actions such that a player may increase armies in three different regions per season.
One of the actions allows an addition of five armies for the cost of three gold. A second allows the addition of three armies for the cost of two gold. The last allows the addition of one army for one gold. This last action additionally allows the player to move as many troops as he wants from one friendly region to an adjacent friendly region. The player may take either or both of these actions. Movement/Battle – The movement action allows a player to move armies from a country they own into a neighboring country. The player is allowed to move any number of armies they wish, with the exception that they must leave at least one army in the originating country.
If the neighboring country does not belong to that player, a battle occurs. Battles  A battle will take place when a player moves armies into a country belonging to another player, into a neutral country, or when a revolt occurs. All battles are determined by the cube tower. The cube tower is a small, cardboard, tube-like structure. At the beginning of any battle, the two combatants gather their armies (cubes) along with all cubes in the bottom tray of the tower. After all cubes have passed through the tower, the cubes of the two combatants are tallied. Each opponent loses a cube for each enemy cube that makes it through the tower.
For example, if four red army cubes and five yellow army cubes ended up in the tray, both players would lose four cubes. The yellow player would win the battle and put the one surviving yellow army cube in the region. The lost army cubes of each combatant are returned to their supply. If one fewer yellow cube had fallen out of the tower, the country would have been devastated, destroying any buildings present and leaving the country uncontrolled by either player. Due to the vagaries of the cube tower, it can be very difficult to predict the outcome of any battle.
Many cubes can be poured into the tower, while only a few may come out. During initial setup, armies from all players are added to the tower as well, so it is also possible that in some battles, more cubes come out than were poured in. Victory Conditions During each Winter phase, players score victory points based on their positions on the board. For every territory and building owned, a player scores 1 point. Then each colored region is considered as a whole. The player with the most Palaces in a region scores 3 points, the player with most Churches in a region scores 2 points and the player with the most Trading Firms in a region scores 1 point.
If there is a tie in any region, the players with the most buildings of a particular type score 1 point fewer. Each colored region is scored in this manner. e.g. If Jack and Kim are scoring the red region and each of them has 2 Palaces in red territories (provided that no other player has more than 1 Palace in that region), they both score 2 points (3 for the most Palaces, minus 1 for the tie). In this manner, tying another player for the most Trading Firms results in zero points. At the end of 2 years the player with the most victory points wins the game.
Strategy  Elements of Luck One of the largest elements of uncertainty in Wallenstein is the cube tower used to decide the outcome of battles. At the beginning of the game, players put some of their army cubes into the tower and some neutral farmer armies as well. With each battle, army cubes from the two combatants (or possibly neutral 'peasant' cubes) are poured in the top of the tower and a random number of cubes fall out, including some or all of those just put in, and possible some left from previous encounters or the initial load. This randomness makes for a good amount of luck, without letting it overpower the game.
This system, though, tends to make sure that most battles tend to be fought when the attacker has superior numbers and can reasonably count on the tower favoring him with its outcome. The event cards that play out each season are another small level of randomness. They are known to all players, but the order in which they appear is random each game, leaving players able to plan ahead for possible outcomes, but also forcing them to choose which outcomes to prepare for. As with most German-style board games, Wallenstein tends to favor player skill and foresight in planning over randomness when deciding the winner for each game.
Strategy As a general rule, Wallenstein is more about developing territories rather than conquering them. However, it can certainly be beneficial to take another player's territory after they have already spent resources to develop it. Because of the reliability of receiving victory points from buildings and the uncertainties of battles due to the cube tower, most players tend to avoid conflict in the first year in order to amass larger armies for the second year. The following more-detailed strategy tips were selected from Innovan's excellent Wallenstein Strategy (V 2004.1.1) document on BoardGameGeek. When picking your starting countries look for high wheat or gold production and pass on 2s and 3s.
When expanding into neutral countries all the high production countries are usually already taken. Look instead to expand into countries with 3 or 2 cities spaces while being defensible from the other players. Basically you’re looking for a safe place to build palaces and churches without worrying about them being stolen away or devastated in the remainder of the game. These are the countries where you’ll be too busy with building actions to use them for gold or wheat actions. Linked countries allow linked actions. The more countries in an area of the map, the more actions you can perform each season in that area.
A single country by itself is not survivable. But two otherwise isolated countries side by side are usually survivable because of the greater number of actions they together have in that area. Buildings built the first year score victory points both year 1 and year 2. So spending one gold each turn building Trade Firms will net you 9 VPs for cost 6 gold by game end, which is the best return in the game. Logistically, particularly because of the “conquered neutral countries get a peasant riot token” rule, it is extremely difficult to get grain and gold from neutral countries taken in year 2.
Any expansion for grain and gold countries should happen in year 1. Year 2 expansion into neutral countries should only be about “Where can I build more buildings safely/Steal that Palace from a neighbor and make 5 points?” In the three harvesting seasons you can usually gather 12 wheat per year and will lose 3-4 wheat from spoilage in the winter, so you would have to limit yourself to 8-9 countries to completely avoid winter revolts. Certainly expanding to 12 countries is guaranteeing heavy winter revolt losses from over expansion. Performing all actions in a season costs 12 gold, yet you’ll usually only raise 6.
Your starting gold divided by six turns is how much in deficit you can go each season. On the other hand, ending the game with unspent gold means actions you could have made but didn’t. Starting with 18 gold I aim to raise six gold each turn and spend nine gold in actions each turn. Churchpeace is the most likely event of all. A common strategy is to place trade buildings in countries with only one city, but try to place churches and palaces in your 2 and 3 city countries. That way when churchpeace happens it’ll protect not just the church but the palace in that country as well.
You have 3 ways to buys armies: 5 for 3gold, 3 for 2 gold, and 1 for 1 gold (plus the optional non-combat move). The one army for one gold should be your least used of the three. Instead buy troops in bulk and use your free moveA and moveB on the next turn to move your troops instead. Troops in the center of the board have many more movement options than troops on the edge of the board. Try to buy troops in countries in the center. Components As included in the 2002 release of Wallenstein by Queen Games.
Board  1 Large game board representing Germany, divided into five regions, each divided into nine smaller territories. 5 Individual player boards (one for each player). Each player board shows the player's color, a chart of all the territories and their attributes, and a central area in which to place cards for each of the ten actions. Cards 45 Land cards representing each different territory. 25 Blank land cards. 5 Leader cards 10 Action cards 25 Event cards  Pieces  28 Palace tokens 26 Church tokens 26 Trading firm tokens 42 Revolt markers 62 Colored wooden cubes for each player, representing armies 20 Green wooden cubes, representing farmers 35 Natural-colored wooden chests, representing 1 gold 20 Orange wooden chests, representing 5 gold  Other 1 Cube tower 1 Plastic sorting container 1 Rulebook 1 Brief history book  Variations  2-Player Variation A two-player variant  created by fans of the game is available at BoardGameGeek.
Shogun  The game was rethemed as Shogun, released by Queen in multi-language international edition in 2006. Awards  Games – Best Advanced Strategy Game Runner-Up 2003 International Gamers Award – Best Strategy Game Nominee (special award) 2003  Availability As of 2005, the Queen Games release of Wallenstein is no longer available. Though this is a German edition, various language translations can be found on BoardGameGeek. Aside from the rules, the game is fairly language independent. Most of the cards contain little or no text, preferring to convey meaning graphically. Being able to pronounce the countries depicted on the board is not essential to gameplay.
Queen Games is also planning to release a multilingual game based on Wallenstein with a new theme. As reported by Gamewire:  It's official - Queen Games will be publishing a game based on the Wallenstein game system to be titled Shogun. The game is designed by Dirk Henn. The game is set in the Sengoku period (approx 1467-1573) which ends with the inception of the well-known Tokugawa Shogunate. The game will be an international edition with language-independent components and a multilingual rules booklet. Here is a small picture of the box cover. The game is to be released in 2006.
Rio Grande Games also lists Wallenstein as a 2006 release. These two releases may or may not be referring to the same game. References  External links  Publishers  Queen Games' Wallenstein page  Rio Grande Games' Wallenstein page  Reviews    A solid review of Wallenstein at gamersalliance.com. An in-depth review of Wallenstein at thedicetower.com. Another solid review of Wallenstein at solicitor.de. A light review of Wallenstein at gamefest.com. A review of Wallenstein at grognard.com. Online Versions  SpielByWeb a play-by-web site including games of Wallenstein. Category:Board games introduced in 2002 Category:Board wargames Category:Queen Games games Category:Dirk Henn games Category:Cultural depictions of Albrecht von Wallenstein
The nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) is the transfer of nuclear spin polarization from one population of spin-active nuclei (e.g. 1H, 13C, 15N etc.) to another via cross-relaxation. A phenomenological definition of the NOE in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) is the change in the integrated intensity (positive or negative) of one NMR resonance that occurs when another is saturated by irradiation with an RF field. The change in resonance intensity of a nucleus is a consequence of the nucleus being close in space to those directly affected by the RF perturbation. The NOE is particularly important in the assignment of NMR resonances, and the elucidation and confirmation of the structures or configurations of organic and biological molecules.
The two-dimensional NOE experiment (NOESY) is an important tool to identify stereochemistry of proteins and other biomolecules in solution, whereas in solid form crystal x-ray diffraction must be used to identify the stereochemistry. History The NOE developed from the theoretical work of American physicist Albert Overhauser who in 1953 proposed that nuclear spin polarization could be enhanced by the microwave irradiation of the conduction electrons in certain metals. The electron-nuclear enhancement predicted by Overhauser was experimentally demonstrated in 7Li metal by T. R. Carver and C. P. Slichter also in 1953. A general theoretical basis and experimental observation of an Overhauser effect involving only nuclear spins in the HF molecule was published by Ionel Solomon in 1955.
Another early experimental observation of the NOE was used by Kaiser in 1963 to show how the NOE may be used to determine the relative signs of scalar coupling constants, and to assign spectral lines in NMR spectra to transitions between energy levels. In this study, the resonance of one population of protons (1H) in an organic molecule was enhanced when a second distinct population of protons in the same organic molecule was saturated by RF irradiation. The application of the NOE was used by Anet and Bourn in 1965 to confirm the assignments of the NMR resonances for β,β-dimethylacrylic acid and dimethyl formamide showed that conformation and configuration information about organic molecules can be obtained.
Bell and Saunders reported direct correlation between NOE enhancements and internuclear distances in 1970   while quantitative measurements of internuclear distances in molecules with three or more spins was reported by Schirmer et al. Richard R. Ernst was awarded the 1991 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing Fourier transform and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy, which was soon adapted to the measurement of the NOE, particularly in large biological molecules. In 2002, Kurt Wuthrich won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution, demonstrating how the 2D NOE method (NOESY) can be used to constrain the three-dimensional structures of large biological macromolecules..
Professor Anil Kumar was the first to apply the two-dimensional Nuclear Overhauser Effect (2D-NOE now known as NOESY) experiment to a biomolecule, which opened the field for the determination of three-dimensional structures of biomolecules in solution by NMR spectroscopy. Relaxation  The NOE and nuclear spin-lattice relaxation are closely related phenomena. For a single spin- nucleus in a magnetic field there are two energy levels that are often labeled α and β, which correspond to the two possible spin quantum states, + and -, respectively. At thermal equilibrium, the population of the two energy levels is determined by the Boltzmann distribution with spin populations given by Pα and Pβ.
If the spin populations are perturbed by an appropriate RF field at the transition energy frequency, the spin populations return to thermal equilibrium by a process called spin-lattice relaxation. The rate of transitions from α to β is proportional to the population of state α, Pα, and is a first order process with rate constant W.  The condition where the spin populations are equalized by continuous RF irradiation (Pα = Pβ) is called saturation and the resonance disappears since transition probabilities depend on the population difference between the energy levels. In the simplest case where the NOE is relevant, the resonances of two spin- nuclei, I and S, are chemically shifted but not J-coupled.
The energy diagram for such a system has four energy levels that depend on the spin-states of I and S corresponding to αα, αβ, βα, and ββ, respectively. The W'''s are the probabilities per unit time that a transition will occur between the four energy levels, or in other terms the rate at which the corresponding spin flips occur. There are two single quantum transitions, W1I, corresponding to αα ➞ αβ and βα ➞ ββ; W1S, corresponding to αα ➞ βα and βα ➞ ββ; a zero quantum transition, W0, corresponding to βα ➞ αβ, and a double quantum transition corresponding to αα ➞ ββ.
While rf irradiation can only induce single-quantum transitions (due to so-called quantum mechanical selection rules) giving rise to observable spectral lines, dipolar relaxation may take place through any of the pathways. The dipolar mechanism is the only common relaxation mechanism that can cause transitions in which more than one spin flips. Specifically, the dipolar relaxation mechanism gives rise to transitions between the αα and ββ states (W2) and between the αβ and the βα states (W0). Expressed in terms of their bulk NMR magnetizations, the experimentally observed steady-state NOE for nucleus I when the resonance of nucleus S is saturated () is defined by the expression:   where  is the magnetization (resonance intensity) of nucleus  at thermal equilibrium.
An analytical expression for the NOE can be obtained by considering all the relaxation pathways and applying the Solomon equations to obtain    where   and . is the total longitudinal dipolar relaxation rate () of spin I due to the presence of spin s,  is referred to as the cross-relaxation rate, and  and  are the magnetogyric ratios characteristic of the  and  nuclei, respectively. Saturation of the degenerate W1S transitions disturbs the equilibrium populations so that Pαα = Pαβ and Pβα = Pββ. The system's relaxation pathways, however, remain active and act to re-establish an equilibrium, except that the W1S transitions are irrelevant because the population differences across these transitions are fixed by the RF irradiation while the population difference between the WI transitions does not change from their equilibrium values.
This means that if only the single quantum transitions were active as relaxation pathways, saturating the  resonance would not affect the intensity of the  resonance. Therefore to observe an NOE on the resonance intensity of I, the contribution of  and  must be important. These pathways, known as cross-relaxation pathways, only make a significant contribution to the spin-lattice relaxation when the relaxation is dominated by dipole-dipole or scalar coupling interactions, but the scalar interaction is rarely important and is assumed to be negligible. In the homonuclear case where , if  is the dominant relaxation pathway, then saturating  increases the intensity of the  resonance and the NOE is positive, whereas if  is the dominant relaxation pathway, saturating  decreases the intensity of the  resonance and the NOE is negative.
Molecular motion Whether the NOE is positive or negative depends sensitively on the degree of rotational molecular motion. The three dipolar relaxation pathways contribute to differing extents to the spin-lattice relaxation depending a number of factors. A key one is that the balance between ω2, ω1 and ω0 depends crucially on molecular rotational correlation time, , the time it takes a molecule to rotate one radian. NMR theory shows that the transition probabilities are related to  and the Larmor precession frequencies, , by the relations:    where  is the distance separating two spin- nuclei. For relaxation to occur, the frequency of molecular tumbling must match the Larmor frequency of the nucleus.
In mobile solvents, molecular tumbling motion is much faster than . The so-called extreme-narrowing limit where ). Under these conditions the double-quantum relaxation ω2 is more effective than ω1 or ω0, because τc and 2ω0 match better than τc and ω1. When ω2 is the dominant relaxation process, a positive NOE results. This expression shows that for the homonuclear case where I = S, most notably for 1H NMR, the maximum NOE that can be observed is 1\2 irrespective of the proximity of the nuclei. In the heteronuclear case where I ≠ S, the maximum NOE is given by 1\2 (γS/γI), which, when observing heteronuclei under conditions of broadband proton decoupling, can produce major sensitivity improvements.
The most important example in organic chemistry is observation of 13C while decoupling 1H, which also saturates the 1J resonances. The value of γS/γI is close to 4, which gives a maximum NOE enhancement of 200% yielding resonances 3 times as strong as they would be without NOE. In many cases, carbon atoms have an attached proton, which causes the relaxation to be dominated by dipolar relaxation and the NOE to be near maximum. For non-protonated carbon atoms the NOE enhancement is small while for carbons that relax by relaxation mechanisms by other than dipole-dipole interactions the NOE enhancement can be significantly reduced.
This is one motivation for using deuteriated solvents (e.g. CDCl3) in 13C NMR. Since deuterium relaxes by the quadrupolar mechanism, there are no cross-relaxation pathways and NOE is non-existent. Another important case is 15N, an example where the value of its magnetogyric ratio is negative. Often 15N resonances are reduced or the NOE may actually null out the resonance when 1H nuclei are decoupled. It is usually advantageous to take such spectra with pulse techniques that involve polarization transfer from protons to the 15N to minimize the negative NOE. Structure elucidation  While the relationship of the steady-state NOE to internuclear distance is complex, depending on relaxation rates and molecular motion, in many instances for small rapidly tumbling molecules in the extreme-narrowing limit, the semiquantitative nature of positive NOE's is useful for many structural applications often in combination with the measurement of J-coupling constants.
For example, NOE enhancements can be used to confirm NMR resonance assignments, distinguish between structural isomers, identify aromatic ring substitution patterns and aliphatic substituent configurations, and determine conformational preferences. Nevertheless, the inter-atomic distances derived from the observed NOE can often help to confirm the three-dimensional structure of a molecule. In this application, the NOE differs from the application of J-coupling in that the NOE occurs through space, not through chemical bonds. Thus, atoms that are in close proximity to each other can give a NOE, whereas spin coupling is observed only when the atoms are connected by 2–3 chemical bonds.
However, the relation ηIS(max)= obscures how the NOE is related to internuclear distances because it applies only for the idealized case where the relaxation is 100% dominated by dipole-dipole interactions between two nuclei I and S. In practice, the value of ρI contains contributions from other competing mechanisms, which serve only to reduce the influence of W0 and W2 by increasing W1. Sometimes, for example, relaxation due to electron-nuclear interactions with dissolved oxygen or paramagnetic metal ion impurities in the solvent can prohibit the observation of weak NOE enhancements. The observed NOE in the presence of other relaxation mechanisms is given by  where ρ⋇ is the additional contribution to the total relaxation rate from relaxation mechanisms not involving cross relaxation.
Using the same idealized two-spin model for dipolar relaxation in the extreme narrowing limit:  It is easy to show  that  Thus, the two-spin steady-state NOE depends on internuclear distance only when there is a contribution from external relaxation. Bell and Saunders showed that following strict assumptions ρ⋇/τc is nearly constant for similar molecules in the extreme narrowing limit. Therefore taking ratio's of steady-state NOE values can give relative values for the internuclear distance r.  While the steady-state experiment is useful in many cases, it can only provide information on relative internuclear distances. On the other hand, the initial rate at which the NOE grows is proportional to rIS−6, which provides other more sophisticated alternatives for obtaining structural information via transient experiments such as 2D-NOESY.
Two-dimensional NMR    The motivations for using two-dimensional NMR for measuring NOE's are similar as for other 2-D methods. The maximum resolution is improved by spreading the affected resonances over two dimensions, therefore more peaks are resolved, larger molecules can be observed and more NOE's can be observed in a single measurement. More importantly, when the molecular motion is in the intermediate or slow motional regimes when the NOE is either zero or negative, the steady-state NOE experiment fails to give results that can be related to internuclear distances. Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy (NOESY) is a 2D NMR spectroscopic method used to identify nuclear spins undergoing cross-relaxation and to measure their cross-relaxation rates.
Since 1H dipole-dipole couplings provide the primary means of cross-relaxation or organic molecules in solution, spins undergoing cross-relaxation are those close to one another in space. Therefore, the cross peaks of a NOESY spectrum indicate which protons are close to each other in space. In this respect, the NOESY experiment differs from the COSY experiment that relies on J-coupling to provide spin-spin correlation, and whose cross peaks indicate which 1H's are close to which other 1H's through the chemical bonds of the molecule. The basic NOESY sequence consists of three 90° pulses. The first pulse creates transverse spin magnetization. The spins precess during the evolution time t1, which is incremented during the course of the 2D experiment.
The second pulse produces longitudinal magnetization equal to the transverse magnetization component orthogonal to the pulse direction. Thus, the idea is to produce an initial condition for the mixing period τm. During the NOE mixing time, magnetization transfer via cross-relaxation can take place. For the basic NOESY experiment, τm is kept constant throughout the 2D experiment, but chosen for the optimum cross-relaxation rate and build-up of the NOE. The third pulse creates transverse magnetization from the remaining longitudinal magnetization. Data acquisition begins immediately following the third pulse and the transverse magnetization is observed as a function of the pulse delay time t2.
The NOESY spectrum is generated by a 2D Fourier transform with respect to t1 and t2. A series of experiments are carried out with increasing mixing times, and the increase in NOE enhancement is followed. The closest protons show the most rapid build-up rates of the NOE. Inter-proton distances can be determined from unambiguously assigned, well-resolved, high signal-to-noise NOESY spectra by analysis of cross peak intensities. These may be obtained by volume integration and can be converted into estimates of interproton distances. The distance between two atoms  and  can be calculated from the cross-peak volumes  and a scaling constant      where  can be determined based on measurements of known fixed distances.
The range of distances can be reported based on known distances and volumes in the spectrum, which gives a mean  and a standard deviation , a measurement of multiple regions in the NOESY spectrum showing no peaks, i.e. noise , and a measurement error . The parameter  is set so that all known distances are within the error bounds. This shows that the lower range of the NOESY volume can be shown     and that the upper bound is     Such fixed distances depend on the system studied. For example, locked nucleic acids have many atoms whose distance varies very little in the sugar, which allows estimation of the glycosidic torsion angles, which allowed NMR to benchmark LNA molecular dynamics predictions.
RNAs, however, have sugars that are much more conformationally flexible, and require wider estimations of low and high bounds. In protein work, NOEs are used to create constraints on intramolecular distances. In this method, each proton pair is considered in isolation and NOESY cross peak intensities are compared with a reference cross peak from a proton pair of fixed distance, such as a geminal methylene proton pair or aromatic ring protons. This simple approach is reasonably insensitive to the effects of spin diffusion or non-uniform correlation times and can usually lead to definition of the global fold of the protein, provided a sufficiently large number of NOEs have been identified.
NOESY cross peaks can be classified as strong, medium or weak and can be translated into upper distance restraints of around 2.5, 3.5 and 5.0 Å, respectively. Such constraints can then be used in molecular mechanics optimizations to provide a picture of the solution state conformation of the protein. Full structure determination relies on a variety of NMR experiments and optimization methods utilizing both chemical shift and NOESY constraints. Experimental methods  Some examples of one and two-dimensional NMR experimental techniques exploiting the NOE include:   NOESY, Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy  HOESY, Heteronuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy  ROESY, Rotational Frame Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy  TRNOE, Transferred Nuclear Overhauser Effect  DPFGSE-NOE, Double Pulsed Field Gradient Spin Echo NOE experiment  NOESY is the determination of the relative orientations of atoms in a molecule, for example a protein or other large biological molecule, producing a three-dimensional structure.
HOESY is NOESY cross-correlation between atoms of different elements. ROESY involves spin-locking the magnetization to prevent it from going to zero, applied for molecules for which regular NOESY is not applicable. TRNOE measures the NOE between two different molecules interacting in the same solution, as in a ligand binding to a protein. In a DPFGSE-NOE experiment, a transient experiment that allows for suppression of strong signals and thus detection of very small NOEs. Examples of nuclear Overhauser effect   The figure (top) displays how Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy can elucidate the structure of a switchable compound. In this example, the proton designated as {H} shows two different sets of NOEs depending on the isomerization state (cis or trans) of the switchable azo groups.
In the trans state proton {H} is far from the phenyl group showing blue coloured NOEs; while the cis'' state holds proton {H} in the vicinity of the phenyl group resulting in the emergence of new NOEs (show in red). Another example (bottom) where application where the NOE is useful to assign resonances and determine configuration is polysaccharides. For instance, complex glucans possess a multitude of overlapping signals, especially in a proton spectrum. Therefore, it is advantageous to utilize 2D NMR experiments including NOESY for the assignment of signals. See, for example, NOE of carbohydrates.
See also   Dynamic nuclear polarization  Magnetization  Nuclear magnetic resonance  Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of proteins  Proton nuclear magnetic resonance  Spin polarization  Two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  References  External links  Hans J. Reich: The Nuclear Overhauser Effect  Eugene E. Kwan: Lecture12: The Nuclear Overhauser Effect  Beat Vögeli: Nuclear Overhauser Effect in NMR Structure and Dynamics Analysis  Williams, Martin and Rovnyak Vol 2: R. R. Gil and A. Navarro-Vázquez: Chapter 1 Application of the Nuclear Overhauser Effect to the Structural Elucidation of Natural Products  James Keeler: 8 Relaxation  YouTube: James Keeler, Lecture 10, Relaxation II. 2013 Cambridge lecture on NOE  Arthur G. Palmer, III: Relaxation and Dynamic Processes  Category:Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy Category:Nuclear magnetic resonance Category:Chemical physics
Gómez is a common Spanish surname. The Portuguese and Old Galician version is Gomes, while the Catalan form is Gomis. The name is sometimes spelled in the United States and Britain without the original Spanish accent. It is derived from the given name Gomes which is a loanword of the Visigothic word guma "man". It is itself related to the Common Germanic word guma (Old English guma "man", Middle English gome)/gomo (High Old German gomo "man", Middle High German gome) related to Latin homo "man".
Notable people with the surname include:  Amaranta Gómez Regalado (born 1977), Mexican anthropologist  Arthur Gómez (born 1984), Gambian footballer  Begoña Gómez Martín (born 1964), Olympic judoka  Bolívar Gómez (born 1977), Ecuadorian footballer  Camilo Gómez (born 1984), Colombian road cyclist  Camilo R. Gomez (born 1960), American physician  Carlos Gómez (born 1985), Dominican baseball   Eleazar Gómez (born 1986) Mexican actor and model  Emmanuel Gómez (born 1990), Gambian footballer  Francis Gómez (born 1968), Venezuelan judoka  Francisco Javier Gómez Noya, Spanish triathlete  George Gomez (born 1955), Cuban-American industrial designer  Ignacio Gómez (born c. 1962), Colombian journalist  Jaime Luis Gomez, better known as Taboo (rapper) (born 1975), American rapper and actor  Joe Gomez (born 1997), English footballer  John Paul Gomez (born 1986): Filipino chess grandmaster  Jorge Gómez (born 1968), Chilean footballer  Joseph Gómez (born 1987), Gambian footballer  Joshua Gomez (born 1975), American actor  Juan Vicente Gómez (1857–1935), ruler of Venezuela in 1908–35  Lefty Gomez (1908–1989), American baseball player  Luis Humberto Gómez Gallo (1962−2013), Colombian industrial engineer  María Cristina Gómez (1938–1989), Salvadoran murder victim  Mariano Gómez (1799–1872), Filipino priest and martyr  Mario Gómez (born 1985), German footballer  Mauro Gómez (born 1984), Dominican baseball player  Máximo Gómez (1836–1905), Dominican soldier in the Cuban War of Independence  Melissa Castrillon Gomez (born 1995), Colombian chess player  Michelle Gomez (born 1966), Scottish actress  Miguel Gómez (photographer) (born 1974), Colombian/American photographer  Oscar Gómez (disambiguation)  Rebecca Marie Gomez (better known for her stage name Becky G) (born 1997), American singer and actress  Richard Gomez (born 1966), Filipino actor and politician  Rick Gomez (born 1972), American actor  Roberto Gomez Bolaños (1929–2014) Mexican screenwriter, actor and comedian  Ron Gomez (born 1934), Louisiana journalist and former state representative  Scott Gomez (born 1979), American hockey player  Selena Gomez (born 1992), American actress and singer  Tamara Gómez Garrido (born 1991), Spanish triathlete  Ulysses Gomez (born 1983), Mexican-American mixed martial arts fighter  Zoraida Gómez (born 1985), Mexican actress, singer and model  See also Gomez (band) British rock/indie band Gomes (Portuguese) Gomis (Catalan)  Francisco Gómez (disambiguation)  References   Category:Spanish-language surnames Category:Patronymic surnames
Martha Elaine Wash (born December 28, 1953) is an American singer-songwriter, actress, and producer. Known for her distinctive and powerful voice, Wash first achieved fame as half of the Two Tons O' Fun, who sang backing for American disco singer Sylvester. After gaining their own record deal, they released three consecutive commercially successful songs which all peaked at number 2 in the dance charts. The duo was renamed The Weather Girls in 1982 after they released the top-selling single "It's Raining Men", which brought them to mainstream pop attention. The Weather Girls released five albums and were heavily featured on Sylvester's albums.
After disbanding in 1988, Wash transitioned to house music as a featured artist on several successful songs. Her success on Billboards Dance chart has earned her the honorific title The Queen of Clubland, with a total of twelve number-one songs on the chart to date. Wash is also noted for sparking legislation in the early 1990s that made vocal credits mandatory on CDs and music videos after she had been denied credit and royalties for many of the songs she recorded, including the platinum-selling song "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)" after she had been labeled "unmarketable" due to her weight.
In December 2016, Billboard magazine ranked her as the 58th most successful dance artist of all-time. Early life At a young age, Wash enrolled in McKinley Elementary. She also attended and graduated from San Francisco Polytechnic High School, where she sang in the school choir. During her time in high school, the school choir traveled and performed throughout Europe for two weeks. Wash also appeared on four albums in the school choir. Shortly after graduating high school, Wash joined a gospel group NOW (News of the World), which also consisted of Izora Rhodes.Martha Wash Cover Story. America's AIDS Magazine. Retrieved on January 28, 2019 Wash also worked as a secretary for UC Hospital.
Career 1976-1988: Two Tons O' Fun and The Weather Girls  In February 1976, Wash auditioned as a backup singer before American singer-songwriter Sylvester and his manager Brent Thomson. Impressed with her vocal performance, Sylvester inquired if she had another large black friend who could sing, after which she introduced him to Izora Rhodes. Although he referred to them simply as "the girls", Wash and Rhodes formed a musical duo called Two Tons O' Fun (sometimes referred to as "The Two Tons"). Two Tons O' Fun debuted as Sylvester's backing vocalists on his self-titled third album Sylvester, released in 1977. The duo sang backup vocals on the album's singles "Down, Down, Down" and "Over and Over", which charted at number eighteen on the Billboard Dance chart.
In an interview with Daily Xtra!, Wash stated that working alongside Sylvester helped her hone her own vocal stylings. In 1978, Sylvester released his fourth album Step II, which also featured The Two Tons' background vocals throughout the album. "Dance (Disco Heat)", the album's lead single which featured The Tons, peaked at number one on Billboard Dance chart and became their first number-one single on that chart. In 1979, Two Tons O' Fun sang background on Sylvester's live album Living Proof. Later that year, the duo secured their own record deal with Fantasy Records. On January 24, 1980, the duo released their debut self-titled album Two Tons of Fun.
The album spawned two top-five dance singles: "Earth Can Be Just Like Heaven" and "I Got the Feeling". Their second album Backatcha was released later that year. The album spawned a single "I Depend On You" that peaked at number seventy-two on the Dance chart. In September 1982, the duo released their single "It's Raining Men". The song became their biggest hit, peaking at number one on the Dance chart and number forty-six on Billboards Hot 100 chart. Following the success of the song, Two Tons o Fun changed their group name to The Weather Girls. On January 22, 1983, they released their third album Success.
The album's titled-track "Success" was released as the second single and peaked at number eighty-nine on the R&B chart. In 1985, The Weather Girls released their fourth album Big Girls Don't Cry. In 1986, she released a song "Breakin' The Ice" on the soundtrack for the Paramount feature film Gung Ho. In 1988, The Weather Girls released their self-titled fourth album The Weather Girls, Wash's final album with the duo. Shortly after the album, The Weather Girls disbanded and Wash took up a solo career and also began working as a session vocalist. She contributed background vocals on Aretha Franklin's single "Freeway of Love" for her album Who's Zoomin' Who?
(1988). 1989-1991: Seduction, Black Box, and C+C Music Factory In 1989, Wash recorded a song "(You're My One and Only) True Love" as a demo, produced by David Cole who would later form the C+C Music Factory. Cole later gave the song to then-upcoming female group Seduction. The song appeared on Seduction's debut album Nothing Matters Without Love, released in September 1989, retaining the use of Wash's lead vocals and added Seduction's background vocals to the song. In addition, she was only credited for her background vocals and Cole remixed and altered Wash's lead vocals of the song to make her voice less recognizable on the song.
"(You're My One and Only) True Love" was released as Seduction's second single in July 1989. The single became an unexpected success when it peaked at number twenty-three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number three on the Dance chart. Wash would eventually file a lawsuit against the producers and A&M Records for unauthorized use of her voice. The case reached an out-of-court settlement in December 1990. In the summer of 1989, Italian house music group Black Box recruited Wash initially as a session singer to demo their upcoming songs. Wash demoed a total of six songs for the group.
Despite being recruited strictly for demoing the songs, Black Box retained the use of Wash vocals on the songs and released them on their debut album Dreamland. In December 1989, Black Box released their second single "I Don't Know Anybody Else". The song, which featured Wash's vocals, became an international hit and peaked in the top-ten positions of many countries. The group followed up with release of another single "Everybody Everybody", also featuring Wash, which became another international success. Despite Wash's contributions to the songs, Black Box never credited Wash for her vocals and instead used French fashion model Katrin Quinol to lip-sync Wash's vocals during music videos, televised performances, and concert performances.
Wash initially became aware of the scandal and sued RCA Records and Black Box for commercial appropriation in September 1990. RCA settled the case out-of-court in December 1990, agreeing to pay Wash a "substantial" financial fee. The company also signed her to an eight-album recording contract and financed her national tour. In addition, many of Black Box's releases that contained Wash's vocals were re-issued with her sleeve credits. Black Box continued releasing singles in 1991 which saw the release of the top-ten international hit "Strike It Up", "Fantasy" and "Open Your Eyes". In November 1990, the C+C Music Factory released their debut single "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)", which featured Wash's uncredited vocals on the chorus.
The song became an international hit, peaking at number one on Billboard'''s Hot 100, and selling over a million copies in the United States. After discovering that the group was using model-turned-singer Zelma Davis in the music video, Wash attempted to negotiate with the producers of the C+C Music Factory for sleeve credits and royalties which ultimately proved unsuccessful. Additionally, the song used an edited compilation of vocal parts that Wash recorded in June 1990 for an unrelated demonstration tape. On December 11, 1991, Wash filed a lawsuit in the Los Angeles Superior Court against C+C Music Factory's Robert Clivilles and David Cole, charging the producers and their record company, Sony Music Entertainment, with fraud, deceptive packaging and commercial appropriation.
The case was eventually settled in 1994 and as a result of the settlement, Sony made an unprecedented request to MTV to add a disclaimer that credited Wash for vocals and Zelma Davis (who lip-synched Wash's vocals in the official music video) for "visualization" to the "Gonna Make You Sweat" music video. 1992-1995: Martha Wash Her self-titled first solo album Martha Wash was released on February 23, 1993. The album peaked at number 169 on the Billboard 200, number 42 on the R&B Albums chart, and number 8 on the Heatseekers Albums chart. The album's lead single, "Carry On", released on October 30, 1992, became Wash's fifth number-one dance single as a solo artist in the US.
The second single "Give It to You" also reached number one on the dance chart. The album's third single "Runaround" reached the top-ten on the Dance chart, but the follow-up single "So Whatcha Gonna Do" failed to the chart. "Now That You're Gone" was also released as a promotional single. In 1994, the C+C Music Factory, who had just reached an agreement with Wash and her lawsuit, asked Wash to join the group and record on their album. On August 9, 1994, the group released their second album Anything Goes!. The album's lead single "Do You Wanna Get Funky" featured a collaboration of Wash, C+C Music Factory, Zelma Davis, and Trilogy.
"Do You Wanna Get Funky" peaked at number forty on the Hot 100 and number one on the Dance chart. Wash also featured another song "Takin' Over" from the album. In the same year, Wash also recorded and released a cover of Jean Knight's "Mr. Big Stuff" for the soundtrack of American sports comedy-drama film D2: The Mighty Ducks. In 1995, Wash embarked on an international tour with the C+C Music Factory. 1996-1999: The Collection In 1997,  American DJ and record producer Todd Terry released his sixth album Ready for a New Day. The album's lead single "Keep on Jumpin'", featuring a collaboration of Terry, Wash, and Jocelyn Brown, was released on June 24, 1996.
The song peaked on at number one on the Dance charts and reached the top-ten on the UK Singles chart.Martha Wash UK Chart History. Official Charts. Retrieved on February 3, 2019 On June 9, 1997, they released a follow-up single "Something Goin' On (In Your Soul)". The song topped the Dance charts and peaked at number five on the UK Singles chart. Additionally, the song was also certified Silver-status in the United Kingdom. In January 1998, Wash released a compilation album The Collection, on Logic Records. The lead single "It's Raining Men...The Sequel", which featured RuPaul, peaked at number twenty-two on the Dance chart.
The album's second single "Catch the Light" became Wash's tenth number-one song on the Dance chart. The album's final single "Come" peaked at number four on the Dance chart. Wash was also featured on Todd Terry's single "Ready for a New Day", which peaked at number twenty on the Dance chart. 2000-2010: Single releases In 2000, Wash released two singles "Listen to the People" and re-recorded version of "It's Raining Men". In 2004, she released a gospel single "You Lift Me Up". Wash performed at the opening ceremony of the OutGames in Montreal in July 2006. She also performed at numerous Human Rights Campaign events in the U.S.
In 2006, Wash appeared as a guest on GSN's I've Got a Secret, and performed "It's Raining Men" for the all-gay panel. DJ Tony Moran's compilation CD The Event featured a single featuring Martha entitled "Keep Your Body Working". It reached No. 1 on Billboards Hot Dance Club Play chart for the week ending December 22, 2007. In 2007, Gay Pimpin' with Jonny McGovern, gay-themed podcast, dedicated an episode to Wash and she obliged them with an extended telephone interview. In March 2008, she performed at the annual Big Gay Day in Brisbane, Australia. She also performed at Chicago Pride Parade in June 2008.
In August 2009, she performed at the opening ceremony of the NAGAAA Gay Softball World Series. 2011-2017: Something Good On October 1, 2012, she appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman, celebrating the 30th anniversary of the release of "It's Raining Men". Wash's second solo album Something Good was released on January 10, 2013, worldwide. The album's lead single "I've Got You", released on April 1, 2011, received positive feedback from critics. In March 2013, she was a special guest for the New York City Gay Men's Chorus during their spring production "Big Gay Sing 6: Club Night Out".
The second single "It's My Time" was released on September 22, 2013. In the same year, Wash also made an appearance in the documentary film "20 Feet from Stardom". In February 2014, Wash featured on the song "Can I Get An Amen?" for RuPaul's album Born Naked. In March 2014, Wash released a remix of the third single "I'm Not Coming Down", which peaked at number two on the Dance chart. In February 2015, Wash and Tony Moran released "Free People," which also reached number one on the Dance Club Songs chart. In 2015, Wash formed a group with disco vocalists Evelyn "Champagne" King and Linda Clifford called First Ladies of Disco.
The group released their debut single "Show Some Love" in March 2015, which peaked at number six on the Dance charts. In December 2015, Wash released a single "N2U", produced by Showtek and Eva Shaw on Spinnin' Records. In November 2017, Wash collaborated with Turkish singer Serhat, releasing a single with multi-versions of his Eurovision 2016 entry I Didn't Know. 2018-present: Love & Conflict In March 2018, Wash began her YouTube web series called "10 Minutes with Martha Wash".Martha Wash TV - YouTube Channel. YouTube. Retrieved on November 12, 2018 In April 2018, Wash released a single "Come into the Light".
The song was featured on the musical film "Wholly Broken" for which Wash plays the role of a woman named "Rose". In September 2018, Wash joined the cast of WaistWatchers: The Musical. In March 2019, First Ladies of Disco (now composed of Wash, Clifford, and Norma Jean Wright) released their second single "Don't Stop Me Now". On August 10, 2019, Wash released a single "Like Fire". The song served as the lead single from her third album Love & Conflict. Love & Conflict was released on January 6, 2020.2X Grammy Nom, Martha Wash, (yes, the same one from “It’s Raining Men”), drops new album, Love & Conflict, Jan 6, 2020.
Presswire. Retrieved on December 17, 2019  Legacy As of 2014, Wash's voice has collectively accumulated a total of fifteen number-one dance singles, placing her among the top singers with the most number-one hits on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart. Her success as one of the leading singers in the genre of house music would garner her honorific title The Queen of Clubland.Martha Wash: The Queen Of Clubland Looks Back. NPR. Retrieved on January 28, 2019 She has also been referred to as The Voice. In Rolling Stone, music critic Jason Newman described Martha Wash as "The Most Famous Unknown Singer of the '90s".
Martha Wash's work has influenced numerous artists although most notably Drag performer and singer RuPaul. RuPaul stated that "She merged a gospel voice into pop and dance music seamlessly. Her voice speaks to both the church and a pop ear and was built to cut through the bass of a dance club. The timbre of her voice is so distinctive and beautiful. A lot of gospel-based singers have come and gone in dance music, but she is the one." RuPaul has also acknowledged that Wash's song "Carry On" comforted him during his mother's passing. Her single with the C+C Music Factory, "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)" was included in the top-ten VH1's "100 Greatest Dance Songs", while "It's Raining Men" ranked at number thirty-five.
On September 14, 2014, Mighty Real: A Fabulous Sylvester Musical, a Broadway musical about Sylvester, debuted in New York City, New York. Wash's likeness was featured in the production and she was portrayed by actress Jacqueline B. Arnold. The City of Washington D.C. declared  Martha Wash Day in the city in 2016. The City of San Francisco, California declared Martha Wash Day in their city. In the City of Miami, Florida, Wash was presented with the key to the city. Business and ventures  Purple Rose Records In 2004, Wash launched her own independent recording label called Purple Rose Records. James Washington, also Wash's manager, is the label's head of A&R.
Intended to be a platform for emerging talent and for artists who may be overlooked by major record labels, Purple Rose Records was established in New York City. The first release on the label was the single "You Lift Me Up" in September 2004, a song by Wash, which peaked in the top five of Billboards Dance Club Songs chart. Something Good, Wash's second album, was the label's first album released in January 2013. The label has continued to distribute all of Wash's official releases to date. Purple Rose also began managing other musical acts. First Ladies of Disco, a female group originally composed of Martha Wash, Linda Clifford, and Evelyn "Champagne" King, released their debut single "Show Some Love" on the label in 2015.
The song peaked in the top-ten on Billboard's Dance chart. The group has since toured throughout the United States of America on the First Ladies of Disco Tour. In July 2016, The Ritchie Family released a single "Ice" on the label. The song was later remixed and released as a maxi-single of six tracks. On March 25, 2019, First Ladies of Disco released their second single "Don't Stop Me Now" on Purple Rose Records. Activism In 1990, Wash won lawsuits against music groups C+C Music Factory and Black Box for failing to provide vocal credits for songs she recorded with them as well as committing fraud by using models to lip-sync her vocals in music videos, stage shows, and televised performances.
The lawsuit was filed under the truth-in-advertising laws. In the same year, bills were introduced in the New Jersey and New York legislatures to require concert promoters to disclose whether pre-recorded material would be used on stage. Wash's activism and legal wranglings on behalf of recording artists also resulted in eventual federal legislation making vocal credit mandatory for all albums and music videos. Wash, who is viewed as a gay icon, has been involved in LGBT rights and she remains an outspoken advocate for the gay community. In open letter addressed to the LGBT community, Wash acknowledged the support she has received back from community.
Wash also stated "It means the world to me when fans tell me they've followed me through the Sylvester years, or they came out to my music, or someone decided not to take their life. These are the people I sing for. So to all you beautiful people out there I say: stand strong, don't give in and carry on." Wash has also been an activist for the fight against HIV/AIDS for more than thirty years after watching close-friend and music mentor Sylvester succumb to the disease. On World AIDS Day in December 2012, she was awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award in San Francisco from the AIDS Emergency Fund for her advocacy and fundraising to provide financial assistance to victims of the disease.Singer Martha Wash Receives Honored For HIV/AIDS Fundraising.
CBS SF Bay Area News. Retrieved on January 28, 2019  Philanthropy Wash is a spokesperson for Quality Services for the Autism Community (QSAC Inc.). The non-profit organization providing comprehensive services to individuals with autism and their families. In 2011, Wash headlined three separate charity concerts for the nonprofit AIDS organization: Fortitude, a President's Day weekend celebration in Fort Lauderdale benefiting amfAR, and two local San Antonio AIDS charities. Wash released a song "Light It Up", included on the 13th Carols for a Cure 2011 charity album to help raise funds benefiting Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS. In 2012, Wash became a supporter of the You Can Play Project.
The non-profit organization is dedicated to ensuring equality, respect, and safety for all athletes without regard to sexual orientation. Personal life Wash has never married and has no children. She resides in Baldwin, New York, on Long Island.
Discography  Albums 1993: Martha Wash2013: Something Good2020: Love & Conflict''  Filmography  Tours  Living Proof Tour (with Sylvester & Two Tons o Fun) (1979)  It's Raining Men Tour (with The Weather Girls) (1983)  Martha Wash World Tour (1992-1993)  C+C Music Factory Tour (with C+C Music Factory and Trilogy) (1995)  First Ladies of Disco Show (with Linda Clifford, Evelyn "Champagne" King, Norma Jean Wright) (2017-2019)  WaistWatchers: The Musical (2018)  See also  Honorific nicknames in popular music  List of artists who reached number one in the United States  List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart  List of artists with the most number ones on the U.S. dance chart  List of number-one dance hits (United States)  References  External links           Category:1953 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:20th-century businesswomen Category:20th-century American singers Category:20th-century American women singers Category:21st-century American actresses Category:21st-century American businesspeople Category:21st-century businesswomen Category:21st-century American singers Category:21st-century American women singers Category:Activists from California Category:African-American actresses Category:African-American artists Category:African-American businesspeople Category:African-American female singers Category:African-American feminists Category:African-American record producers Category:African-American women writers Category:African-American writers Category:American business executives Category:American contemporary R&B singers Category:American dance musicians Category:American disco musicians Category:American female pop singers Category:American pop singers Category:American house musicians Category:American Hi-NRG musicians Category:American music publishers (people) Category:American music video directors Category:American philanthropists Category:American retail chief executives Category:American singer-songwriters Category:American sopranos Category:American soul singers Category:Backing vocalists Category:American women business executives Category:American women in electronic music Category:American women philanthropists Category:American women writers Category:Businesspeople from San Francisco Category:Columbia Records artists Category:LGBT rights activists from the United States Category:Music video codirectors Category:RCA Records artists Category:Singers from San Francisco Category:Songwriters from San Francisco
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome. Recombinant DNA is the general name for a piece of DNA that has been created by combining at least two strands. Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure, and differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure. Recombinant DNA molecules are sometimes called chimeric DNA, because they can be made of material from two different species, like the mythical chimera.
R-DNA technology uses palindromic sequences and leads to the production of sticky and blunt ends. The DNA sequences used in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules can originate from any species. For example, plant DNA may be joined to bacterial DNA, or human DNA may be joined with fungal DNA. In addition, DNA sequences that do not occur anywhere in nature may be created by the chemical synthesis of DNA, and incorporated into recombinant molecules. Using recombinant DNA technology and synthetic DNA, literally any DNA sequence may be created and introduced into any of a very wide range of living organisms.
Proteins that can result from the expression of recombinant DNA within living cells are termed recombinant proteins. When recombinant DNA encoding a protein is introduced into a host organism, the recombinant protein is not necessarily produced. Expression of foreign proteins requires the use of specialized expression vectors and often necessitates significant restructuring by foreign coding sequences. Recombinant DNA differs from genetic recombination in that the former results from artificial methods in the test tube, while the latter is a normal biological process that results in the remixing of existing DNA sequences in essentially all organisms. Creation  Molecular cloning is the laboratory process used to create recombinant DNA.
It is one of two most widely used methods, along with polymerase chain reaction (PCR), used to direct the replication of any specific DNA sequence chosen by the experimentalist. There are two fundamental differences between the methods. One is that molecular cloning involves replication of the DNA within a living cell, while PCR replicates DNA in the test tube, free of living cells. The other difference is that cloning involves cutting and pasting DNA sequences, while PCR amplifies by copying an existing sequence. Formation of recombinant DNA requires a cloning vector, a DNA molecule that replicates within a living cell.
Vectors are generally derived from plasmids or viruses, and represent relatively small segments of DNA that contain necessary genetic signals for replication, as well as additional elements for convenience in inserting foreign DNA, identifying cells that contain recombinant DNA, and, where appropriate, expressing the foreign DNA. The choice of vector for molecular cloning depends on the choice of host organism, the size of the DNA to be cloned, and whether and how the foreign DNA is to be expressed. The DNA segments can be combined by using a variety of methods, such as restriction enzyme/ligase cloning or Gibson assembly.
In standard cloning protocols, the cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves seven steps: (1) Choice of host organism and cloning vector, (2) Preparation of vector DNA, (3) Preparation of DNA to be cloned, (4) Creation of recombinant DNA, (5) Introduction of recombinant DNA into the host organism, (6) Selection of organisms containing recombinant DNA, and (7) Screening for clones with desired DNA inserts and biological properties. These steps are described in some detail in a related article (molecular cloning). Expression  Following transplantation into the host organism, the foreign DNA contained within the recombinant DNA construct may or may not be expressed.
That is, the DNA may simply be replicated without expression, or it may be transcribed and translated and a recombinant protein is produced. Generally speaking, expression of a foreign gene requires restructuring the gene to include sequences that are required for producing an mRNA molecule that can be used by the host's translational apparatus (e.g. promoter, translational initiation signal, and transcriptional terminator). Specific changes to the host organism may be made to improve expression of the ectopic gene. In addition, changes may be needed to the coding sequences as well, to optimize translation, make the protein soluble, direct the recombinant protein to the proper cellular or extracellular location, and stabilize the protein from degradation.
Properties of organisms containing recombinant DNA In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal phenotypes. That is, their appearance, behavior and metabolism are usually unchanged, and the only way to demonstrate the presence of recombinant sequences is to examine the DNA itself, typically using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test. Significant exceptions exist, and are discussed below. If the rDNA sequences encode a gene that is expressed, then the presence of RNA and/or protein products of the recombinant gene can be detected, typically using RT-PCR or western hybridization methods. Gross phenotypic changes are not the norm, unless the recombinant gene has been chosen and modified so as to generate biological activity in the host organism.
Additional phenotypes that are encountered include toxicity to the host organism induced by the recombinant gene product, especially if it is over-expressed or expressed within inappropriate cells or tissues. In some cases, recombinant DNA can have deleterious effects even if it is not expressed. One mechanism by which this happens is insertional inactivation, in which the rDNA becomes inserted into a host cell's gene. In some cases, researchers use this phenomenon to "knock out" genes to determine their biological function and importance. Another mechanism by which rDNA insertion into chromosomal DNA can affect gene expression is by inappropriate activation of previously unexpressed host cell genes.
This can happen, for example, when a recombinant DNA fragment containing an active promoter becomes located next to a previously silent host cell gene, or when a host cell gene that functions to restrain gene expression undergoes insertional inactivation by recombinant DNA. Uses  Recombinant DNA is widely used in biotechnology, medicine and research. Today, recombinant proteins and other products that result from the use of DNA technology are found in essentially every western pharmacy, physician or veterinarian office, medical testing laboratory, and biological research laboratory. In addition, organisms that have been manipulated using recombinant DNA technology, as well as products derived from those organisms, have found their way into many farms, supermarkets, home medicine cabinets, and even pet shops, such as those that sell GloFish and other genetically modified animals.
The most common application of recombinant DNA is in basic research, in which the technology is important to most current work in the biological and biomedical sciences. Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map and sequence genes, and to determine their function. rDNA probes are employed in analyzing gene expression within individual cells, and throughout the tissues of whole organisms. Recombinant proteins are widely used as reagents in laboratory experiments and to generate antibody probes for examining protein synthesis within cells and organisms. Many additional practical applications of recombinant DNA are found in industry, food production, human and veterinary medicine, agriculture, and bioengineering.
Some specific examples are identified below. Recombinant chymosin  Found in rennet, chymosin is an enzyme required to manufacture cheese. It was the first genetically engineered food additive used commercially. Traditionally, processors obtained chymosin from rennet, a preparation derived from the fourth stomach of milk-fed calves. Scientists engineered a non-pathogenic strain (K-12) of E. coli bacteria for large-scale laboratory production of the enzyme. This microbiologically produced recombinant enzyme, identical structurally to the calf derived enzyme, costs less and is produced in abundant quantities. Today about 60% of U.S. hard cheese is made with genetically engineered chymosin. In 1990, FDA granted chymosin "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) status based on data showing that the enzyme was safe.
Recombinant human insulin  Almost completely replaced insulin obtained from animal sources (e.g. pigs and cattle) for the treatment of insulin-dependent diabetes. A variety of different recombinant insulin preparations are in widespread use. Recombinant insulin is synthesized by inserting the human insulin gene into E. coli, or yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) which then produces insulin for human use. Recombinant human growth hormone (HGH, somatotropin)  Administered to patients whose pituitary glands generate insufficient quantities to support normal growth and development. Before recombinant HGH became available, HGH for therapeutic use was obtained from pituitary glands of cadavers. This unsafe practice led to some patients developing Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.
Recombinant HGH eliminated this problem, and is now used therapeutically. It has also been misused as a performance-enhancing drug by athletes and others. DrugBank entry Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII  A blood-clotting protein that is administered to patients with forms of the bleeding disorder hemophilia, who are unable to produce factor VIII in quantities sufficient to support normal blood coagulation. Before the development of recombinant factor VIII, the protein was obtained by processing large quantities of human blood from multiple donors, which carried a very high risk of transmission of blood borne infectious diseases, for example HIV and hepatitis B. DrugBank entry Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine  Hepatitis B infection is controlled through the use of a recombinant hepatitis B vaccine, which contains a form of the hepatitis B virus surface antigen that is produced in yeast cells.
The development of the recombinant subunit vaccine was an important and necessary development because hepatitis B virus, unlike other common viruses such as polio virus, cannot be grown in vitro. Vaccine information from Hepatitis B Foundation Diagnosis of infection with HIV  Each of the three widely used methods for diagnosing HIV infection has been developed using recombinant DNA. The antibody test (ELISA or western blot) uses a recombinant HIV protein to test for the presence of antibodies that the body has produced in response to an HIV infection. The DNA test looks for the presence of HIV genetic material using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).
Development of the RT-PCR test was made possible by the molecular cloning and sequence analysis of HIV genomes. HIV testing page from US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Golden rice  A recombinant variety of rice that has been engineered to express the enzymes responsible for β-carotene biosynthesis. This variety of rice holds substantial promise for reducing the incidence of vitamin A deficiency in the world's population. Golden rice is not currently in use, pending the resolution of regulatory and intellectual property issues. Herbicide-resistant crops  Commercial varieties of important agricultural crops (including soy, maize/corn, sorghum, canola, alfalfa and cotton) have been developed that incorporate a recombinant gene that results in resistance to the herbicide glyphosate (trade name Roundup), and simplifies weed control by glyphosate application.
These crops are in common commercial use in several countries. Insect-resistant crops  Bacillus thuringeiensis is a bacterium that naturally produces a protein (Bt toxin) with insecticidal properties. The bacterium has been applied to crops as an insect-control strategy for many years, and this practice has been widely adopted in agriculture and gardening. Recently, plants have been developed that express a recombinant form of the bacterial protein, which may effectively control some insect predators. Environmental issues associated with the use of these transgenic crops have not been fully resolved. History  The idea of recombinant DNA was first proposed by Peter Lobban, a graduate student of Prof. Dale Kaiser in the Biochemistry Department at Stanford University Medical School.
The first publications describing the successful production and intracellular replication of recombinant DNA appeared in 1972 and 1973, from Stanford and UCSF. In 1980 Paul Berg, a professor in the Biochemistry Department at Stanford and an author on one of the first papers  was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on nucleic acids "with particular regard to recombinant DNA". Werner Arber, Hamilton Smith, and Daniel Nathans shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of restriction endonucleases which enhanced the techniques of rDNA technology. Stanford University applied for a US patent on recombinant DNA in 1974, listing the inventors as Herbert W. Boyer (professor at the University of California, San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (professor at Stanford University); this patent was awarded in 1980.
The first licensed drug generated using recombinant DNA technology was human insulin, developed by Genentech and licensed by Eli Lilly and Company. Controversy  Scientists associated with the initial development of recombinant DNA methods recognized that the potential existed for organisms containing recombinant DNA to have undesirable or dangerous properties. At the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA, these concerns were discussed and a voluntary moratorium on recombinant DNA research was initiated for experiments that were considered particularly risky. This moratorium was widely observed until the National Institutes of Health (USA) developed and issued formal guidelines for rDNA work. Today, recombinant DNA molecules and recombinant proteins are usually not regarded as dangerous.
However, concerns remain about some organisms that express recombinant DNA, particularly when they leave the laboratory and are introduced into the environment or food chain. These concerns are discussed in the articles on genetically modified organisms and genetically modified food controversies. Furthermore, there are concerns about the by-products in biopharmaceutical production, where recombinant DNA result in specific protein products. The major by-product, termed host cell protein, comes from the host expression system and poses a threat to the patient's health and the overall environment. See also  Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA Genetic engineering Genetically modified organism Recombinant virus Vector DNA Biomolecular engineering Recombinant DNA Technology Host cell protein  References  Further reading   The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology.
Touchstone Books, . 2nd edition: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996 paperback: . Micklas, David. 2003. DNA Science: A First Course. Cold Spring Harbor Press: . Rasmussen, Nicolas, Gene Jockeys: Life Science and the rise of Biotech Enterprise, Johns Hopkins University Press, (Baltimore), 2014. . Rosenfeld, Israel. 2010. DNA: A Graphic Guide to the Molecule that Shook the World. Columbia University Press: . Schultz, Mark and Zander Cannon. 2009. The Stuff of Life: A Graphic Guide to Genetics and DNA. Hill and Wang: . Watson, James. 2004. DNA: The Secret of Life. Random House: .
External links   Recombinant DNA fact sheet  (from University of New Hampshire) Plasmids in Yeasts (Fact sheet from San Diego State University) Animation illustrating construction of recombinant DNA and foreign protein production by recombinant bacteria Recombinant DNA research at UCSF and commercial application at Genentech Edited transcript of 1994 interview with Herbert W. Boyer, Living history project. Oral history. Recombinant Protein Purification Principles and Methods Handbook  Category:American inventions Category:Biotechnology Category:Molecular genetics Category:Molecular biology Category:Synthetic biology Category:1972 in biotechnology
Coleen Sterritt (born 1953) is an American sculptor known for abstracted, hybrid works made from a myriad of everyday objects and materials, combined in unexpected ways. Writers root her work in the tradition of post-minimalists Jackie Winsor, Eva Hesse and Nancy Graves, and assemblage artists such as Louise Nevelson, Robert Rauschenberg and Marisa Merz; she is sometimes associated with contemporaries Jessica Stockholder, Nancy Rubins, and Tony Cragg. Sculpture critic Kay Whitney suggests Sterritt's work "expands and reinterprets three of the most important artistic inventions of the 20th Century—collage, abstraction and the readymade"— in play with the traditions of Arte Povera bricolage and Surrealist psychological displacement.
Curator Andi Campognone considers Sterritt one of the most influential post-1970s artists in establishing "the Los Angeles aesthetic" in contemporary sculpture, while others identify her as an inspiration for later West Coast artists creating hand-made, free-standing sculpture counter to trends toward interventions, public art and environmental works. Constance Mallinson writes that Sterritt's work "walks a line between charm and threat, the natural, the industrial and the hand fabricated, rejecting easy associations for complex reads." Los Angeles Times critic David Pagel calls it smart, funky and "subtly rebellious" in its refashioning of discarded material, dumpster finds, and art-historical lineages. Sterritt has exhibited throughout the United States, in Japan, Spain, Kenya and South Africa, and in major shows at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibitions (LACE), Los Angeles Institute of Contemporary Art (LAICA), and Los Angeles Municipal Art Gallery, among many venues.
In 2016, she was named a John Simon Guggenheim Fine Arts Fellowship recipient. Sterritt's work is featured in several public art collections and the books American Women Sculptors: A History of Women Working in Three Dimensions and L.A. Rising: SoCal Artists Before 1980. In 2018, Griffith Moon published the retrospective catalogue, Coleen Sterritt: 1977–2017, in collaboration with the Lancaster Museum of Art and History (MOAH). Sterritt is based in the Los Angeles area. Life and career Sterritt was born in Morris, Illinois in 1953 and grew up in Chicago. Her early influences were her grandmother, Dorothy Button, a well-known local gardener and her uncle, James A. Sterritt, a sculptor and educator, who co-founded the 1960s casting conferences at the University of Kansas that later became the International Sculpture Center.
Sterritt studied at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign (BFA, 1976), where she created sculpture influenced by Jackie Winsor, Eva Hesse, and feminist theory. In 1977, she moved to Los Angeles to attend Otis Art Institute (MFA, 1979), where she studied with Betye Saar and Germano Celant, and was introduced to the work of Arte Povera and the California assemblage artists. In 1979, Sterritt rented a large studio in a deserted Los Angeles industrial building, helping to pioneer a burgeoning downtown art scene. She also worked at the newly opened Al's Bar, a key cultural hub of the time. As a woman sculptor whose work ran counter to the era's dominant, almost exclusively male, Minimalist aesthetic, Sterritt embraced the openness of the Los Angeles scene, which was less burdened by male-dominated history and mainstream orthodoxies, exhibiting at museums, non-profit spaces, and the prominent Ulrike Kantor Gallery.
She was featured in several notable exhibits, including "Six Downtown Sculptors" (LACE, 1979), "Downtown L.A. in Santa Barbara" (1980), "Southern California Artists" (LAICA, 1981, curated by Barbara Haskell), and "Natural Forces in Los Angeles Art" (1990). After losing her studio space in late 1991, Sterritt lived in Ireland for six months and focused solely on drawing through 1993. She spent six months in New Mexico after receiving a Roswell Artist-in-Residence award in 1994; the two experiences significantly influenced the direction of her work. She has since had solo exhibitions at the Riverside Art Museum (2006), the galleries d.e.n. contemporary (2006) and Another Year in LA (2014), MOAH (2016), and several university venues.
Work Like her individual works, which begin with materials or found objects and develop out of intuitive choices and processes and chance, Sterritt's overall body of work has evolved organically. Writers have characterized her art as a search for harmony between opposed formal, physical and psychological properties: organic and geometric, contained and expressive, natural and human-made, stable and unstable, rugged and delicate, independent and interdependent. While her work is nonrepresentational and grounded in formal issues of line, plane, shape, space and form, she subverts that with an improvisational mingling of found, fabricated and natural materials gleaned from studio detritus, recycling bins, and construction dumpsters that smuggle in diverse references and elusive narratives and metaphors.
In visual terms, critics most often note her striking compositions that seem to threaten collapse, "virtuoso acrobatic performance" evoking movement, gesture and awkward equilibrium, and eclectic tactile effects. Early sculpture: 1978–1995 Sterritt first gained notice for tripodal, hut-like structures made of industrial and natural materials, such as yucca stalk legs, upon which she balanced river rocks (e.g., Loose Shorts, 1978). Over the next decade, critics such as Joan Hugo and Peter Frank suggest her formal vocabulary and command of materials grew, her forms evolving to include stick-impaled, tar-covered pyramidal forms, and later, vessel-like biomorphic forms sprouting appendages. They described works such as Noche a Noche (1981) or O.W.W.I.H.
(1984) as "ominous, yet vulnerable," "fascinating and terrifying"—alien plants or creatures, whose assertive physicality (mandible, tooth, thorn, and quill-like forms) evoked both allure and aggression. Several writers trace that ambiguity to seemingly incompatible impulses: a "strangely primal, poetic urge" to infuse her economical formal language with the energy of totemic ritual and mystery, a contemporary, punk-like angst, and an eccentric, postmodern humor. In the later 1980s, Sterritt shifted toward work with smoother surfaces and restrained color, that some writers compare favorably to the work of Martin Puryear or Louise Bourgeois. She also undertook greater compositional challenges and expression of movement, that critic Colin Gardner wrote "synthesized classical balance with rugged, idiosyncratic kinesis," such as Full Quintet (1985), Endear (1987), or Pike: For Earl the Pearl (1988).
Others recognized greater psychological tenderness and a "quasi-humorous pathos" in her ungainly, "lovable ugly ducklings," such as the swan-like Flush (1991), which features two forms in relation to explore issues of sexuality and desire, including separation and union, embrace and entrapment. Sculpture: 1995–Present After a period concentrating on drawing and her time in Roswell, Sterritt returned to Los Angeles in 1995. Influenced in part by her new studio situation, she began using tentative materials—recycled studio detritus (cardboard, carpet, plastics, plywood)—and significantly, pieces of recently dismantled sculptures. Many of the new materials were relatively flat and planar; working intuitively, she engaged in basic assemblage processes: stacking, gathering, folding, arranging, slicing.
Critics suggest the change in methods both expanded her use of space and imparted a new sense of temporality and fragility in the work (e.g., My Original Face, In Two Piles, Now Hanging and Red Stack (Heartbeat) (both 1995), and later, SqueezeBox, a colorful, necklace-like construction from 2002). Sterritt began incorporating found furniture and recognizable objects in her work in the 2000s, subverting the "form follows function" dictum in witty, "towering agglomerations" that suggested plants, animals or hybrids (e.g., Daddy-O, 2006). Her process has been described as resembling a "three-dimensional journal" with each decision and part "unusually transparent," the latter category creating a split mindset in viewers between the integrated sculptures and the disparate, often recognizable, components.
The juxtaposition of mass-produced and natural objects opened her work to unpredictable narratives and metaphors investigating the uneasy balance between nature and the built environment in works like One & Nine & Five & Three (2004–05) or Diagramme de Navigation de Mon Coeur (2005), which was described as a "Tatlinesque tower" whose "organic nervous geometry" seemed a meditation on male/female relationships and the flawed promises of modernist utopianism and consumerist comfort. In recent years, critics have distinguished Sterritt from assemblage artists considered to have a "grunge" aesthetic (e.g., Nancy Rubin or Isa Genzken), noting her increasingly harmonious, poetic, and humorous refinement and a mastery of materials giving her sculpture "the vivacity of an intimate doodle," despite its command of space.
Carole Ann Klonarides observes in later work in her 2016 MOAH exhibition, such as And Then Some (2012) and Over and Over (Flat White) (2013), "a certain precariousness, an unrepeatable act, and a unique timeless moment" she compares to the work of Brancusi. Drawing Throughout her career, Sterritt has considered drawing to be a significant, tangential part of her practice. Her works on paper employ a range of media, including watercolor, charcoal, oil stick, conté, pastel and collage. Like her three-dimensional work, Sterritt's drawings incorporate geometric and organic forms that she treats in a sculptural fashion to explore a similar precarious equilibrium; the work also displays a comparable awareness of materials (for example, paper as a form of wood, which she sometimes collages in bark-like strips).
Critics like Peter Frank suggest the drawings differ from her sculpture in their more delicate handling of abrupt shifts in shape and texture. Sterritt's drawings have been exhibited at the Ruth Chandler Williamson Gallery (1999), Armory Center for the Arts (1995), and Washington Project for the Arts (1983), and in conjunction with sculpture. Teaching Since 1998, Sterritt has been a professor and the faculty coordinator of the sculpture program at Long Beach City College, one of the state's largest community college art departments. She is recognized for developing a sculpture program there that has enabled community college students to transfer to top art schools across the country.
From 1983–1999, Sterritt taught in adjunct and full-time, temporary positions at Claremont Graduate University, Otis College of Art and Design, University of Southern California, and California State University, Fullerton, where she was a Distinguished Visiting Artist. In 1990, Sterritt taught a collaborative course, "Art Majors/Dance Majors," at California State University, Long Beach with Margit Omar and postmodern choreographer Lucinda Childs. Awards and collections Sterritt has been awarded fellowships from the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation (2016), COLA (City of Los Angeles, Sculpture, 2007), J. Paul Getty Trust Fund for the Visual Arts (1996), Art Matters, Inc. (1993) and National Endowment for the Arts (1986), as well as a Roswell Museum Artist-in-Residence Program award (1994).
In 2019, she received the International Sculpture Center's "Outstanding Educator Award." Public art collections holding Sterritt's work include the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Crocker Art Museum, Anderson Museum of Contemporary Art in Roswell, and Scripps College Collection, among many. References  External links Coleen Sterritt official website Coleen Sterritt: 1977–2017, Retrospective catalogue, Griffith Moon, 2018 Deep Dive with Guggenheim Fellow and Alumna Coleen Sterritt, Interview, Otis College of Art and Design Coleen Sterritt, Otis College of Art and Design, Outstanding Alumni Urbanature – Coleen Sterritt and Constance Mallinson, online exhibition and essay at Times Quotidian  Category:American women sculptors Category:Sculptors from California Category:Artists from Los Angeles Category:Otis College of Art and Design alumni Category:University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign alumni Category:People from Morris, Illinois Category:1953 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century American women artists
Jason Francesco Schwartzman (born June 26, 1980) is an American actor, screenwriter, executive producer, and musician. He is known for his frequent collaborations with Wes Anderson, such as Rushmore (1998), The Darjeeling Limited (2007), Fantastic Mr. Fox (2009), Moonrise Kingdom (2012), The Grand Budapest Hotel (2014), and Isle of Dogs (2018). He also starred in other films, such as Slackers (2002),  Spun (2003), I Heart Huckabees (2004), Shopgirl (2005), Marie Antoinette (2006), Funny People (2009),  Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010), Saving Mr. Banks (2013) and Klaus (2019). In addition to his film work, Schwartzman was the star of the HBO series Bored to Death (2009–2011), in which he played a writer who moonlights as an unlicensed private detective by advertising himself on Craigslist.
He currently releases music through his solo project Coconut Records, and was formerly the drummer of rock band Phantom Planet. Early life Schwartzman was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of actress Talia Shire (née Coppola) and the late producer Jack Schwartzman. Schwartzman's brother is actor and musician Robert Schwartzman, and his paternal half-siblings are Stephanie and cinematographer John Schwartzman. Many other members of Schwartzman's family are involved in film and entertainment: he is the nephew of Francis Ford Coppola and Anton Coppola; cousin of Nicolas Cage, Sofia Coppola, Roman Coppola, and Christopher Coppola; and grandson of Italia Coppola (née Pennino) and Carmine Coppola.
His first cousin once removed, his father Jack's first cousin, is novelist and screenwriter Elliott B. Oppenheim. His paternal grandparents were Polish-Jewish immigrants, while his mother is Italian American and Catholic. He attended Windward School in West Los Angeles. Career Acting Schwartzman's acting career began when he was 17 years old, when he starred in Wes Anderson's Rushmore in 1998. Shortly after in 2000, Jason had a guest role in the short-lived series Freaks and Geeks. In 2001, he starred in CQ, a film by his cousin Roman Coppola. In 2002, he starred in the comedy film Slackers, and in 2003 headlined the drama Spun.
In 2004, he starred in I Heart Huckabees, and Shopgirl in 2005. He also appeared in various television shows, such as Cracking Up. In 2006, he starred in Marie Antoinette under the direction of his cousin, Sofia Coppola, in which he appeared as King Louis XVI. Schwartzman made a cameo appearance as Ringo Starr in the biopic spoof Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story. In 2009, he appeared as Mark, a C-list television star, in Funny People. He also voiced the role of Ash Fox in Wes Anderson's animated film, The Fantastic Mr. Fox, which he described as, "the best movie I’ve ever been a part of."
He starred in the HBO show Bored to Death, in which he played a writer who moonlights as a private detective and puts himself up for hire on Craigslist. In 2009, he starred in The Marc Pease Experience. In 2010, he played Gideon Graves in the film Scott Pilgrim vs. The World, the movie adaptation of the comics by Bryan Lee O'Malley. In 2011, Schwartzman made a cameo appearance as Vincent van Gogh in the Beastie Boys short film Fight for Your Right Revisited. In 2013, he made a cameo appearance as himself in an episode of the television show Key & Peele.
In 2014, he played himself in the lead role of the Tim & Eric's Bedtime Stories episode "The Endorsement." Music Prior to acting, Schwartzman was the drummer and a songwriter for the band Phantom Planet. Despite leaving the band, music remains one of his passions. He appeared in the music video for the rock remix of "It's All About the Benjamins" by Puff Daddy, and contributed to Ben Lee's 2005 album Awake Is the New Sleep. In 2007, he created the indie rock solo act Coconut Records. The first album, entitled Nighttiming, was produced by Michael Einziger and features a cover photo from Roman Coppola.
The album was first released on iTunes on March 20, 2007. His second album, Davy, was released on iTunes on January 20, 2009. Schwartzman performed the musical score for Funny People and the theme song for Bored to Death. He has also written tracks for Smallville and Slackers. Schwartzman also played the drums on Phoenix's rendition of The Beach Boys' song "Alone on Christmas Day" in 2015. The song was featured in Bill Murray's Netflix special, A Very Murray Christmas. Personal life Schwartzman married long-time girlfriend Brady Cunningham at their home in the San Fernando Valley on July 11, 2009.
Cunningham is an art and design director and co-owner of TENOVERSIX in Los Angeles. Schwartzman describes himself as "basically a vegan" as he does not eat meat, dairy, or eggs. He narrated a video, What to Eat: The Environmental Impacts of Our Food, for Farm Sanctuary. He has two daughters, born in December 2010  and October 2014. Coconut Records Coconut Records is an indie pop musical solo project by Schwartzman, which began in 2006. The debut album, Nighttiming, was released on Schwartzman's Young Baby Records in 2007. The album had musical contributions by members of Incubus, as well as appearances by actresses Zooey Deschanel and Kirsten Dunst and Schwartzman's brother Robert.
Coconut Records' second release, Davy, was released in January, 2009. Schwartzman's work has also been featured in many films and television programs. In 2009, he composed the theme song to his HBO series Bored to Death, in which he also starred, under his Coconut Records title. That same year, he also contributed to the film score to the film Funny People with composer Michael Andrews. The original soundtrack is downloadable, as well as available in vinyl LP, on Coconut Records' official Cinder Block store. His song, "Microphone" was featured in the 2012 coming of age comedy, LOL.
Discography Studio albums  SinglesMicrophone (2008)Bored to Death (2010) - theme of the HBO show  Other appearances "West Coast" is played in the movie Cloverfield during the party scene "Summer Day" is included on Music from and Inspired by Spider-Man 3"Wires", "I Am Young" and "Nighttiming" are included on Funny People: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (2009) "It's Christmas" is included on the digital-only promotional release The Christmas Gig (2010) released by Target. "West Coast" appears in the end of The O.C episode 10 season 4 "Is This Sound Okay?" appears in James Franco's Palo AltoFilmography Film  Television  Composer  Awards On February 17, 2009, Schwartzman was named one of the "Top 10 Most Stylish Men in America" by GQ'' magazine.
References  External links  Wunderkammer Magazine Retrospective on Schwarzman, 2009 Schwartzman Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos  Schwartzman's Guest DJ Set on KCRW KCRW Guest DJ Set Young Baby Records official site Coconut Records at Rhapsody Coconut Records at Facebook Coconut Records at Myspace  Category:1980 births Category:20th-century American male actors Category:21st-century American male actors Category:21st-century American drummers Category:American film score composers Category:American male film actors Category:American male screenwriters Category:American male television actors Category:American male voice actors Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent Category:American writers of Italian descent Category:Coppola family Category:Indie rock musical groups from California Category:Living people Category:Male actors from Los Angeles Category:Male actors of Italian descent Category:Male film score composers Category:Musicians from Los Angeles Category:Phantom Planet members Category:Screenwriters from California Category:Writers from Los Angeles
Camtasia () (formerly Camtasia Studio) is a software suite, created and published by TechSmith, for creating video tutorials and presentations directly via screencast, or via a direct recording plug-in to Microsoft PowerPoint. The screen area to be recorded can be chosen freely, and audio or other multimedia recordings may be recorded at the same time or added separately from any other source and integrated in the Camtasia component of the product. Both versions of Camtasia started as enhanced screen capture programs and have evolved to integrate screen capture and post-processing tools targeted at the educational and information multimedia development marketplace.
Camtasia consists of two major components:  Camtasia Recorder - a separate tool for capturing screen audio and video  Camtasia editor - the component for which the entire product is named, which is now a multimedia authoring tool with the industry standard "timeline" interface for managing multiple clips in a stacked track form plus enhancements summarized below. Camtasia Recorder  In Camtasia Recorder, the presenter can start and stop recording with a hotkey combination at any time, at which point the recording can be halted and Camtasia Recorder can render the input that has been captured into a CAMREC format. The CAMREC file can be saved to disk or directly imported into the Camtasia component for editing.
Camtasia Recorder allows audio recording while screen-capturing is in progress, so the presenter can capture live narration during a demonstration or presentation. Camtasia also supports dubbing in other audio tracks or voiceover during post-capture editing. Users may also download an add-in for Microsoft Power Point that will allow them to initiate recording of a presentation from within Power Point itself. In Camtasia editor, multimedia objects of various formats can be imported into the clip library and arrange them in time order and stacked tracks using the timeline form of user controls. Overlays of various types may be added, including user-defined settings, such as when and how to display the cursor and pan-and-zoom effects such as the Ken Burns effect.
Camtasia for Windows v8 and Camtasia for Mac v2 offer options to enhance sections of the recorded screen to draw attention via a cursor or drawn-in pointer to highlight section(s) of the screen or to better illustrate the actions of the presenter on the screen. Another feature is the ability to save media clips within the library tab, keeping a user from having to repeatedly import commonly-used media clips/files. Versions  Camtasia Studio v8.0.0 for Windows was released on 19 June 2012, and updated until v8.6.0 of 25 August 2015. Camtasia 9.0.0 was released on 11 October 2016, updated until v9.1.2 of 13 March 2018, with later bugfix versions up to v9.1.5 of 7 May, 2019.
Later versions are named for the year, with Camtasia 2018.0.0 released on 19 June 2018 and updated until 2018.0.8 of 7 May 2019, and Camtasia 2019.0.0 released on 30 April 2019. Post-production   After capturing a presentation in the Camtasia Recorder, the Camtasia component can be used to modify audio and video displayed as tracks by using the timeline control and object library interface with an integrated preview window. The image in the infobox to the right is a screen capture of the timeline interface. In addition, Camtasia allows automatic captions (speech-to-text), voice overlay for the presenter or editor, as well as the ability to add sound effects in many different formats, including music formats into the clip bin and arrange anywhere on the timeline.
Many presenters prefer to wait until they have finished the screen-capture and then record the narration from a script as the application is playing back the recorded capture. They can do so in the Camtasia editor and overlay the original recorded audio. Rendering and deployment  The Camtasia program allows import of various types of multimedia video and audio files including MP4, MP3, WMV, WMA, AVI, WAV and many other formats into the Camtasia proprietary CAMREC format, which is readable by Camtasia. The CAMREC format is a single container for potentially hundreds of multimedia objects including video clips, still images, document screen shots and special effect containers.
Camtasia also allows entire projects under development to be exported as one zip file for portability to other workstations with Camtasia or other video editing software. The created video can be exported to common video formats including MPEG-2, MPEG-4, WMV, AVI, and Adobe Flash. There are preset output formats that can be read by software available on most current mobile devices, desktop, and laptop computers without requiring any Camtasia software or license. Camtasia Player v8.2 is an additional component included in the Microsoft Windows version only, which can be freely shared and supports replay of a variety of video formats on computers running Windows.
Reviews  Camtasia's shortcomings noted in the PC World review of January 17, 2013 and CNET review of June 19, 2012 are as follows:  Rotation of objects is applied via a dialog rather than interactively, though many lower-priced video editors do provide interactive rotation and manipulation of objects such as text and video frames  Recording live from a DV camera is not supported  Still potentially overwhelming for the introductory user, tempered by the tutorial material available. NOTE the V8 release is a complete rewrite so much of the prior tutorial material written for the popular Camtasia v6 and v7 software for Microsoft Windows is not usable with this release.
Audio handling has minimal capabilities and no integration with other packages compared to some competitors in this price range  Lacks any video-clip manipulation or integration with other packages that have such capabilities  PC World noted that "Camtasia has evolved from being the go-to program for software demonstrators to a full-featured education/information video tool" from this 4 1/2 star review. An earlier 2005 review is still relevant, which states that, though "powerful," Camtasia can be "a little overwhelming at the start" to new users, though the learning curve is easily manageable. See also  Comparison of screencasting software   Distance education  Instructional design  Podcast  References  External links    Category:Screencasting software Category:Shareware Category:Windows multimedia software Category:MacOS multimedia software
In September 2011, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) released the National Disaster Recovery Framework (NDRF), which serves as a companion document to the National Response Framework (NRF). The NDRF is a guide to promote effective recovery, particularly for those incidents that are large-scale or catastrophic. Similar to how the NRF is the overarching interagency response coordination structure for both Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act) and non-Stafford Act incidents, the NDRF will provide the overarching inter-agency coordination structure for the recovery phase for Stafford Act incidents, and elements of the framework may also be used for significant non-Stafford Act incidents.
The NDRF defines core recovery principles, roles and responsibilities of recovery coordinators and other stakeholders, a coordinating structure that facilitates communication and collaboration among all stakeholders, guidance for pre- and post-disaster recovery planning, and the overall process by which communities can capitalize on opportunities to rebuild stronger, smarter, and safer. History In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, the United States Government passed federal legislation that mandated the creation of a national-level disaster recovery strategy. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) took the lead in developing the National Disaster Recovery Framework (NDRF), releasing the first edition in September 2011 and the second edition in June 2016.
The NDRF has been updated to include guidance for effective recovery by defining the roles, responsibilities, coordination, and planning among Federal, State, Local, Tribal, and Territorial jurisdictions. FEMA is one of the first government agencies in the world to develop a disaster recovery framework. The NDRF served as key reference document for the World Bank, UNDP, and EU in issuing the Guide to Developing Disaster Recovery Frameworks. The NDRF creates four new concepts:  Federal Disaster Recovery Coordinator (FDRC) As the level of response activities declines and recovery activities accelerate, the Federal Disaster Recovery Coordinator (FDRC) will engage with the Recovery Support Function (RSF) agencies to organize and coordinate Federal recovery assistance.
During this early recovery phase, the FDRC and the RSF coordinators are working closely with Emergency Support Function (ESF) leads to share information about impacts, assistance provided and working relationships at all levels. State or Tribal Disaster Recovery Coordinators (SDRC or TDRC) The role of the LDRMs, SDRCs and TDRCs is to organize, coordinate and advance the recovery at the local, State or Tribal level. The experience and skill sets of these individuals should include a strong basis in community development and good knowledge of the community's demographics. While these positions will often interact with the emergency management community, it is not necessary that these individuals be emergency management professionals.
Their primary role is to manage and coordinate the redevelopment and building of community. In addition, the individuals occupying the positions should be able to represent and speak on behalf of their respective chief executives (e.g., mayor, governor, Tribal leader). The LDRMs and TDRCs serve as the jurisdiction's primary point of contact (POC) with the SDRC. Local Disaster Recovery Managers (LDRM) The NDRF strongly recommends that State governors as well as local government and Tribal leaders prepare as part of their disaster recovery plans to appoint Local Disaster Recovery Managers (LDRMs) and State/Tribal Disaster Recovery Coordinators (SDRCs/TDRCs) to lead disaster recovery activities for the jurisdiction.
The role of the LDRMs, SDRCs and TDRCs is to organize, coordinate and advance the recovery at the local, State or Tribal level. The experience and skill sets of these individuals should include a strong basis in community development and good knowledge of the community's demographics. While these positions will often interact with the emergency management community, it is not necessary that these individuals be emergency management professionals. Their primary role is to manage and coordinate the redevelopment and building of community. In addition, the individuals occupying the positions should be able to represent and speak on behalf of their respective chief executives (e.g., mayor, governor, Tribal leader).
The LDRMs and TDRCs serve as the jurisdiction's primary point of contact (POC) with the SDRC. Recovery Support Functions (RSFs) The RSFs are:   Community Planning and Capacity Building  Economic  Health and Social Services  Housing  Infrastructure Systems  Natural and Cultural Resources  References  External links  National Disaster Recovery Framework  Category:United States Department of Homeland Security Category:Disaster preparedness in the United States Category:Disaster management tools
On 10 June 1944, the village of Oradour-sur-Glane in Haute-Vienne in Nazi-occupied France was destroyed when 642 of its inhabitants, including women and children, were massacred by a German Waffen-SS company. A new village was built nearby after the war, but President Charles de Gaulle ordered the original maintained as a permanent memorial and museum. Background  In February 1944, the SS Division Das Reich was stationed in the Southern French town of Valence-d'Agen, north of Toulouse, waiting to be resupplied with new equipment and fresh troops. Following the Allied Normandy landings in June 1944, the division was ordered north to help stop the Allied advance.
One of its units was the 4th SS Panzer Grenadier Regiment ("Der Führer"). Its staff included regimental commander SS-Standartenführer Sylvester Stadler, SS-Sturmbannführer Adolf Diekmann commanding the 1st Battalion and SS-Sturmbannführer Otto Weidinger, Stadler's designated successor who was with the regiment for familiarisation. Command passed to Weidinger on 14 June. Early on the morning of 10 June 1944, Diekmann informed Weidinger that he had been approached by two members of the Milice, a collaborator paramilitary force of the Vichy Regime. They claimed that a Waffen-SS officer was being held prisoner by the Resistance in Oradour-sur-Vayres, a nearby village. The captured officer was claimed to be SS-Sturmbannführer Helmut Kämpfe, commander of the 2nd SS Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion (also part of the Das Reich division).
He may have been captured by the Maquis du Limousin the day before. Massacre  On 10 June, Diekmann's battalion sealed off Oradour-sur-Glane and ordered everyone within to assemble in the village square to have their identity papers examined. This included six non-residents who happened to be bicycling through the village when the SS unit arrived. The women and children were locked in the church, and the village was looted. The men were led to six barns and sheds, where machine guns were already in place. According to a survivor's account, the SS men then began shooting, aiming for their legs.
When victims were unable to move, the SS men covered them with fuel and set the barns on fire. Only six men managed to escape. One of them was later seen walking down a road and was shot dead. In all, 190 Frenchmen died. The SS men next proceeded to the church and placed an incendiary device beside it. When it was ignited, women and children tried to escape through the doors and windows, only to be met with machine-gun fire. 247 women and 205 children died in the attack. The only survivor was 47-year-old Marguerite Rouffanche. She escaped through a rear sacristy window, followed by a young woman and child.
All three were shot, two of them fatally. Rouffanche crawled to some pea bushes and remained hidden overnight until she was found and rescued the next morning. About twenty villagers had fled Oradour-sur-Glane as soon as the SS unit had appeared. That night, the village was partially razed. Several days later, the survivors were allowed to bury the 642 dead inhabitants of Oradour-sur-Glane who had been killed in just a few hours. Adolf Diekmann said the atrocity was in retaliation for the partisan activity in nearby Tulle and the kidnapping of an SS commander, Helmut Kämpfe. Murphy report  Raymond J. Murphy, a 20-year-old American B-17 navigator shot down over Avord, France in late April 1944, witnessed the aftermath of the massacre.
After being hidden by the French Resistance, Murphy was flown to England on 6 August, and in debriefing filled in a questionnaire on 7 August and made several drafts of a formal report. The version finally submitted on 15 August has a handwritten addendum:  Murphy's report was made public in 2011 after a Freedom of Information Act request by his grandson, an attorney in the United States Department of Justice National Security Division. It is the only account to mention crucifying a baby. Shane Harris concludes the addendum is a true statement by Murphy and that the town, not named in Murphy's report, is very likely Oradour-sur-Glane.
German response  Protests at Diekmann's unilateral action followed, both from Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, General Gleiniger, German commander in Limoges, as well as the Vichy Government. Even SS-Standartenführer Stadler felt Diekmann had far exceeded his orders and began an investigation. However, Diekmann was killed in action shortly afterwards during the Battle of Normandy; many of the third company, which had conducted the massacre, were also killed in action. The investigation was then suspended. Postwar trials  On 12 January 1953, a military tribunal in Bordeaux heard the charges against the surviving 65 of the 200 or so SS men who had been involved.
Only 21 of them were present, as many were in East Germany, which would not permit their extradition. Seven of those charged were German citizens, but 14 were Alsatians, French nationals whose home region had been annexed by Germany in 1940. All but one of the Alsatians claimed to have been forced to join the Waffen-SS. Such forced conscripts from Alsace and Lorraine called themselves the malgré-nous, meaning "against our will". On 11 February, 20 defendants were found guilty. Continuing uproar in Alsace (including demands for autonomy) pressed the French parliament to pass an amnesty law for all the malgré-nous on 19 February.
The convicted Alsatian former SS men were released shortly afterwards, which caused bitter protests in the Limousin region. By 1958, all of the German defendants had also been released. General Heinz Lammerding of the Das Reich division, who had given the orders for retaliation against the Resistance, died in 1971, following a successful entrepreneurial career. At the time of the trial, he lived in Düsseldorf, in the former British occupation zone of West Germany, and the French government never obtained his extradition from West Germany. The last trial of a Waffen-SS member who had been involved took place in 1983.
Former SS-Obersturmführer Heinz Barth was tracked down in East Germany. Barth had participated in the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre as a platoon leader in the "Der Führer" regiment, commanding 45 SS men. He was one of several charged with giving orders to shoot 20 men in a garage. Barth was sentenced to life imprisonment by the First Senate of the City Court of Berlin. He was released from prison in the reunified Germany in 1997 and died in August 2007. On 8 January 2014, Werner Christukat, an 88-year-old former member of the 3rd Company of the 1st Battalion of the "Der Führer" SS regiment was charged, by the state court in Cologne, with 25 charges of murder and hundreds of counts of accessory to murder in connection with the massacre in Oradour-sur-Glane.
The suspect, who was identified only as Werner C., had until 31 March 2014 to respond to the charges. If the case went to trial, it could have possibly been held in a juvenile court because the suspect was only 19 at the time it occurred. According to his attorney, Rainer Pohlen, the suspect acknowledged being at the village but denied being involved in any killings. On 9 December 2014, the court dropped the case, citing a lack of any witness statements or reliable documentary evidence able to disprove the suspect's contention that he was not a part of the massacre.
Memorial  After the war, General Charles de Gaulle decided the village should never be rebuilt, but would remain a memorial to the cruelty of the Nazi occupation. The new village of Oradour-sur-Glane (population 2,375 in 2012), northwest of the site of the massacre, was built after the war. The ruins of the original village remain as a memorial to the dead and to represent similar sites and events. In 1999 French president Jacques Chirac dedicated a memorial museum, the Centre de la mémoire d'Oradour, near the entrance to the Village Martyr ("martyred village"). Its museum includes items recovered from the burned-out buildings: watches stopped at the time their owners were burned alive, glasses melted from the intense heat, and various personal items.
On 6 June 2004, at the commemorative ceremony of the Normandy invasion in Caen, German chancellor Gerhard Schröder pledged that Germany would not forget the Nazi atrocities and specifically mentioned Oradour-sur-Glane. On 4 September 2013, German president Joachim Gauck and French president François Hollande visited the ghost village of Oradour-sur-Glane. A joint news conference broadcast by the two leaders followed their tour of the site. This was the first time a German president had come to the site of one of the biggest World War II massacres on French soil. On 28 April 2017, Emmanuel Macron, independent presidential candidate, visited Oradour-sur-Glane and met with the only remaining survivor of the massacre, Robert Hébras.
In popular culture   Television  The story of Oradour-sur-Glane was featured in the noted 1973–74 British documentary television series The World at War, which was narrated by Laurence Olivier. The first and final episodes (1 and 26, entitled "A New Germany" and "Remember" respectively, show helicopter views of the destroyed village, interspersed with pictures of the victims that appear on their graves. At the end of episode 26, while another aerial shot of the village ruins plus photos of various massacre victims were being shown to the accompaniment of dramatic and moving music, which is taken from the St Nicholas Mass by Haydn, Olivier says: At the village of Oradour-sur-Glane, the day the soldiers came, they killed more than six hundred men, women ... and children.
Remember. The massacre is referenced in the 2010 series World War II in Color in the episode "Overlord", which aired on 7 January 2010. It was also featured in part 2 of Hitler's Death Army, which aired on 27 November 2015, and showed both images from the time along with the ruins as they are today. Film  The 1975 French film Le vieux fusil, is based on these facts. A feature film, Une Vie avec Oradour, was released in September 2011 in France. Literature   In the 1947 Russian novel The Storm by Ilya Ehrenburg, which won the Stalin Prize that year, there is a fictionalized detailed description of the massacre (part vi, chapter a), citing the actual place and the actual SS unit responsible.
The novel was published in English in 1948 by the Foreign Languages Publishing House in Moscow, and in 1949 by Gaer Associates of New York. In The Hanging Garden (1998) by Ian Rankin, Detective Inspector John Rebus investigates a suspected war criminal accused of leading the massacre of the fictional village of Villefranche d'Albarede, based on Oradour-sur-Glane. The poet Gillian Clarke, National Poet for Wales, commemorates the massacre at Oradour-sur-Glane in two poems from her 2009 collection A Recipe for Water, 'Oradour-sur-Glane' and 'Singer'. In 2015, Ethan Mordden published One Day in France, a short novel based on the events of 1944.
Covering a twenty-four-hour period and moving back and forth between Oradour and nearby Limoges, the story fits invented characters into the historical record. Music   "Tiny Hands (Au Revoir)" from Silent Planet on the album The Night God Slept made reference to the massacre. The song incorporated a direct quote from Madame Rouffanche who spoke at the 1953 military tribunal in Bordeaux, France. "Je suis sorti vivant du four crématoire. (I came out alive from the crematory oven;) Je suis le témoin sacré de l'église. (I am the sacred witness from the church.) Je suis une mère qui a tout perdu."
(I am a mother who has lost everything)  Gallery  See also   Belchite, a town in Spain with a similar memorial Distomo massacre, on the same date List of French villages destroyed in World War I Kandanos Koriukivka massacre Katyn massacre Khatyn massacre Lidice, Czechoslovakia Lipa massacre Ležáky, Czechoslovakia  Maquis (World War II) Maquis du Vercors Maillé massacre Michniów massacre Putten raid Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre Sochy massacre Tulle massacre Wola massacre Ivanci massacre  References  Notes  Bibliography Farmer, Sarah. Martyred Village: Commemorating the 1944 Massacre at Oradour-sur-Glane. University of California Press, 2000. Fouché, Jean-Jacques. Massacre At Oradour: France, 1944; Coming To Grips With Terror, Northern Illinois University Press, 2004.
Penaud, Guy. La "Das Reich" 2e SS Panzer Division (Parcours de la division en France, 560 pp), Éditions de La Lauze/Périgueux. Further reading  Hastings, Max (1982) Das Reich: March of the Second SS Panzer Division Through France Henry Holt & Co.   Hastings, Max (1991) Das Reich: Resistance and the March of the Second SS Panzer Division Through France, June 1944 Michael Joseph Ltd. External links   Study of 1944 reprisals at Oradour-sur-Glane (with picture gallery containing lists of casualties)  Oradour-sur-Glane Memorial Center Full list of casualties    Category:1944 crimes Category:1944 in France Category:Collective punishment Category:Former populated places in France Category:French Resistance Category:Ghost towns in France Category:June 1944 events Category:Mass murder in 1944 Category:Massacres in France Category:Murdered French children Category:Nazi war crimes in France Category:Vichy France
Organ transplantation in China has taken place since the 1960s, and is one of the largest organ transplant programmes in the world, peaking at over 13,000 liver and kidney transplants a year in 2004. China is also involved in innovative transplant surgery such as face transplantation including bone. Involuntary organ harvesting is illegal under Chinese law; though, under a 1984 regulation, it became legal to remove organs from executed criminals with the prior consent of the criminal or permission of relatives. Growing concerns about possible ethical abuses arising from coerced consent and corruption led medical groups and human rights organizations, by the 1990s, to condemn the practice.
These concerns resurfaced in 2001, when a Chinese asylum-seeking doctor testified that he had taken part in organ extraction operations. In 2006, allegations emerged that many Falun Gong practitioners had been killed to supply China's organ transplant industry. An initial investigation stated "the source of 41,500 transplants for the six year period 2000 to 2005 is unexplained" and concluded that "there has been and continues today to be large scale organ seizures from unwilling Falun Gong practitioners". In December 2005, China's Deputy Health Minister acknowledged that the practice of removing organs from executed prisoners for transplants was widespread. In 2007, China issued regulations banning the commercial trading of organs, and the Chinese Medical Association agreed that the organs of prisoners should not be used for transplantation, except for members of the immediate family of the deceased.
In 2008, a liver-transplant registry system was established in Shanghai, along with a nationwide proposal to incorporate information on individual driving permits for those wishing to donate their organs. Despite these initiatives, China Daily reported in August 2009 that approximately 65% of transplanted organs still came from death row prisoners. The condemned prisoners have been described as "not a proper source for organ transplants" by Vice-Health Minister Huang Jiefu, and in March 2010, he announced the trial of China's first organ donation program starting after death, jointly run by the Red Cross Society and the Ministry of Health, in 10 pilot regions.
In 2013, Huang Jiefu altered his position on utilizing prisoners' organs, stating that death row prisoners should be allowed to donate organs and should be integrated into the new computer-based organ allocation system. In 2018 and 2019, media investigations and academic analysis into these allegations increased. Background Globally, pioneering experimental studies in the surgical technique of human organ transplantation were made in the early 1900s by the French surgeon Alexis Carrel, and successful transplants starting spreading worldwide after the Second World War. China itself began organ transplantation in the 1960s, which grew to an annual peak of over 13,000 transplants in 2004; and, despite some deaths from infection and hepatitis, the transplant programme has been successful in saving many lives.
Though the number of transplants fell to under 11,000 annually by 2005, China still has one of the largest transplant programmes in the world. China explores innovative surgery, such as the world's first flesh and bone face transplant, performed by Professor Guo Shuzhong. Organ donation, however, has met resistance, and involuntary organ donation is illegal under Chinese law, as it is against Chinese tradition and culture, which attach symbolic life affirming importance to the kidney and heart. China is not alone in encountering donation difficulties; demand outstrips supply in most countries. The world-wide shortage has encouraged some countries—such as India—to trade in human organs.
Reports of organs being removed from executed prisoners in China for sale internationally had been circulating since the mid-1980s, when a 1984 regulation made it legal to harvest organs from convicted criminals with the consent of the family or if the body goes unclaimed. Development of an immunosuppressant drug, cyclosporine A, made transplants a more viable option for patients. Milestones The first living related renal transplant was performed in China in 1972; the first allogeneic bone marrow transplantation was successfully executed in an acute leukaemia patient. The first recorded clinical liver transplant from a living donor in China took place in 1995, seven years after the world's first was performed in São Paulo, Brazil.
Between January 2001 and October 2003, 45 patients received living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) at five different hospitals. In 2002, doctors at Xijing Hospital of the Fourth Military Medical University described three cases of living related liver transplantation. In 2003 a landmark brain-death case involving switched off ventilation came to the attention of the public and made a big impact on medical ethics and legislation. The first successful brain-death organ donation soon followed. From October 2003 to July 2006, 52 LDLT operations were conducted at the West China Hospital, West China Medical Center of Sichuan University. In October 2004, Peking University People's Hospital Liver Transplantation Center executed two cases of living related liver transplantation involving complex blood vessel anatomy.
In 2002, the Chinese media reported surgeon Dr Zheng Wei successfully transplanted a whole ovary at the Zhejiang Medical Science University to a 34-year-old patient, Tang Fangfang, from her sister. In April 2006, the Xijing military hospital in Xian carried out a face transplant operation covering the cheek, upper lip, and nose of Li Guoxing, who was mauled by an Asiatic black bear while protecting his sheep. The first successful penis transplant procedure was performed in September 2006, at a military hospital in Guangzhou. The patient, a 44-year-old male, had sustained the loss of most of his penis in an accident.
The transplanted penis came from a brain-dead 22-year-old male. Although successful, the patient and his wife suffered psychological trauma as a result of the procedure, and had the surgery reversed fifteen days later. Following this, Jean-Michel Dubernard, famous for performing the world's first face transplant, wrote that the case "raises many questions and has some critics". He alluded to a double standard writing, "I cannot imagine what would have been the reactions of the medical profession, ethics specialists, and the media if a European surgical team had performed the same operation." International concerns  Organs sourced from prisoners sentenced to death  Transplantation first began in the early 1970s China, when organs were sourced from executed prisoners.
Although other sources, such as brain-dead donors, had been tried, the lack of legal framework hampered efforts. Dr Klaus Chen said in 2007 that this was still the dominant pool. Concerns that some poorer countries were answering donor shortages by selling organs to richer countries led the World Medical Association (WMA) to condemn the purchase and sale of human organs for transplantation at Brussels in 1985, in 1987 and at Stockholm in 1994. In Madrid in 1987, the World Health Organization (WHO) condemned the practice of extracting organs from executed prisoners due to the difficulty of knowing if they had given consent.
Growing concern led other professional societies and human rights organisations to condemn the practice in the 1990s, and to question the way in which the organs were obtained. The WHO starting drafting an international guideline (WHA44.25) on human organ transplants in 1987 which resulted in the WHO Guiding Principles on Human Organ Transplantation being endorsed in 1991. However, the wording did not allow the international community to draw up any laws preventing China from continuing to trade in human organs. The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations convened a hearing in 1995 on the trade in human body parts in China; receiving evidence from various sources including statements from Amnesty International, the BBC, and Chinese government documents produced by human rights activist Harry Wu.
The World Medical Association, the Korean Medical Association, and the Chinese Medical Association reached an agreement in 1998 that these practices were undesirable and that they would jointly investigate them with a view to stopping them; however, in 2000, the Chinese withdrew their cooperation. Amnesty International claimed to have strong evidence that the police, courts and hospitals were complicit in the organ trade, facilitated by the use of mobile execution chambers, or "death vans". Amnesty speculated that this profitable trade might explain China's refusal to consider abolishing the death penalty, which is used on between 1,770 (official figure) and 8,000 (Amnesty estimates) prisoners annually.
Corpses are typically cremated before relatives or independent witnesses can view them, fuelling suspicions about the fate of internal organs. In June 2001, Wang Guoqi(), a Chinese doctor applying for political asylum, made contact with Harry Wu and his Laogai Research Foundation, who assisted Wang in testifying to the US Congress in writing that he had removed skin and corneas from more than 100 executed prisoners for the transplant market at the Tianjin Paramilitary Police General Brigade Hospital, and that during at least one such operation the prisoner was still breathing. Wang, a 'burns specialist', said that he had also seen other doctors remove vital organs from executed prisoners; and the hospital where he worked sold those organs to foreigners.
Harry Wu said that he had gone to "great lengths" to verify Wang's identity and that both the foundation and congressional staff members found the doctor's statements "highly credible." In December 2005, China's Deputy Health Minister acknowledged that the practice of removing organs from executed prisoners for transplant was widespread – as many as 95% of all organ transplants in China derived from executions, and he promised steps to prevent abuse. In 2006, the WMA demanded that China cease using prisoners as organ donors. According to Time, a transplant brokerage in Japan which organised 30–50 operations annually sourced its organs from executed prisoners in China.
Edward McMillan-Scott, vice president of the European Parliament, said he believed that nearly 400 hospitals in China had been involved in the transplant organ trade, with websites advertising kidney transplants for $60,000. On the eve of a state visit to the United States by President Hu Jintao, the 800-member British Transplantation Society also criticised China's use of death-row prisoners' organs in transplants, on the grounds that as it is impossible to verify that organs are indeed from prisoners who have given consent; the WMA once again condemned the practice on similar grounds. A BBC news report by Rupert Wingfield-Hayes in September 2006 showed negotiations with doctors in No 1 Central Hospital in Tianjin for a liver transplant.
2017 announcement  In February 2017, CGTN quoted former vice health minister Huang Jiefu as saying "From January 1, 2015, organ donation from voluntary civilian organ donors has become the only legitimate source of organ transplantations", and Francis Delmonico interpreting this as a ban on "the use of organs from executed prisoners" in January 2015. Allegations of organ harvesting from Falun Gong practitioners   In 2006, allegations that Falun Gong practitioners had been killed to supply China's organ transplant industry prompted an investigation by former Canadian Secretary of State David Kilgour and human rights lawyer David Matas.
In July 2006, the Kilgour-Matas report questioned "the source of 41,500 transplants for the six year period 2000 to 2005" and thereby inferred that "the government of China and its agencies in numerous parts of the country, in particular hospitals but also detention centres and 'people's courts', since 1999 have put to death a large but unknown number of Falun Gong prisoners of conscience". The authors of the Kilgour-Matas report reached their conclusion via circumstantial evidence and inference from this evidence. It included observations of the extremely short wait times for organs in China compared with other countries, indicating that organs were being procured on demand; the rise in the number of annual organ transplants in China corresponded with the onset of the persecution of Falun Gong.
An updated version of their report was published as a book in 2009. In 2014, investigative journalist Ethan Gutmann published the results of his own investigation. Gutmann conducted extensive interviews around with former detainees in Chinese labor camps and prisons, as well as former security officers and medical professionals with knowledge of China's transplant practices. He reported that organ harvesting from political prisoners likely began in Xinjiang province in the 1990s, and then spread nationwide. Gutmann estimates that some 64,000 Falun Gong prisoners may have been killed for their organs between 2000 and 2008. In December 2006, after not getting assurances from the Chinese government about allegations relating to Chinese prisoners, the two major organ transplant hospitals in Queensland, Australia, stopped transplant training for Chinese surgeons and banned joint research programs into organ transplantation with China.
In July 2006 and April 2007, Chinese officials denied organ harvesting allegations, insisting that China abides by World Health Organization principles that prohibit the sale of human organs without written consent from donors. In May 2008 two United Nations Special Rapporteurs reiterated their previous request for the Chinese authorities to adequately respond to the allegations, and to explain the source of organs which would account for the sudden increase in organ transplants in China since 2000. On 12 September 2012, the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs held a hearing on the topic of organ harvesting from prisoners of conscience in China.
During the hearing, Gutmann described his interviews with former Chinese prisoners, surgeons and nurses with knowledge of organ harvesting practices. In 2012, State Organs: Transplant Abuse in China, edited by David Matas and Dr. Torsten Trey, was published with essays by Dr. Gabriel Danovitch, Professor of Medicine, Arthur Caplan, Professor of Bioethics, Dr. Jacob Lavee, cardiothoracic surgeon, Dr. Ghazali Ahmad, Professor Maria Fiatarone Singh, Dr. Torsten Trey, Gutmann and Matas. Harry Wu, a human rights activist, has questioned the Falun Gong's claims that Falun Gong members are specifically targeted for large-scale organ harvesting. International human rights lawyer David Matas argued Harry Wu's July 2006 article showed his views in his March 21 letter were formed before completing his investigation, so Wu's views were not based on his full investigation.
Further, Harry Wu characterized the volume of organ harvesting Annie described as "technically impossible", but it is technically possible, according to medical expert. A Chinese government panel denied the allegations in August 2016. Huang Jiefu, chairman of the National Organ Donation and Transplantation Committee, noted that there were 10,057 organ transplantation surgeries performed in China in 2015, accounting for 8.5 percent of global total, and 8 percent of drugs used globally, which matches China's national statistics. Michael Millis, professor of Surgery and chief of the Section of Transplantation of the University of Chicago Hospitals, corroborated that China is phasing out the organ transplantation of executed prisoners, and is moving towards a voluntary, donation-based system.
José Nuñez, medical officer in charge of global organ transplantation at the World Health Organization, noted that China is reaching global standards in organ transplantation, and believed that in a few years, China will be leading the field. Allegations of organ harvesting in Xinjiang  Ethan Gutmann, a journalist and China expert, concluded that organ harvesting from prisoners of conscience became prevalent in the northwestern province of Xinjiang during the 1990s, when members of the Uyghur ethnic group were targeted in security crackdowns and “strike hard campaigns.”  By 1999, Gutmann says that organ harvesting in Xinjiang began to decline precipitously, just as overall rates of organ transplantation nationwide were rising.
The same year, the Chinese government launched a nationwide suppression of the Falun Gong spiritual group. Gutmann suggests that the new Falun Gong prisoner population overtook Uyghurs as a major source of organs. Worries about organ harvesting were renewed when China redoubled its attempts to stamp out extremism and separatism by interning a large portion of the population in the Xinjiang re-education camps. There is a significant market for the organs of Muslims. Muslim customers from the Middle East reportedly request Halal organs which must come from another Muslim person. Developments since 2006  In March 2006, the Ministry of Health issued the Interim Provisions on Clinical Application and Management of Human Organ Transplantation, which stipulated that medical centres must meet new requirements for transplant services; the provinces were made responsible for plans for clinical applications.
Establishments performing transplantation were thereby obliged to incorporate considerations for ethics, medical and surgical expertise, and intensive care. In April 2006, the Committee of Clinical Application of Human Organ Transplantation Technologies was created to standardise clinical practice; a national summit on clinical management took place in November 2006 which issued a declaration outlining regulatory steps. Professor Guo Shuzhong conducted a series of face transplant experiments in Xijing hospital, leading in April 2006 to the world's first face transplant that included bone. The donor had been declared brain-dead before the operation. In May 2007 the Regulation on Human Organ Transplantation came into force, banning organ trading and the removal of a person's organs without their prior written consent, and this has been favourably received by the World Health Organization and The Transplantation Society.
To curb illegal transplants, doctors involved in commercial trade of organs will face fines and suspensions; only a few hospitals will be certified to perform organ transplants. As a result of a systematic overhaul, the number of institutions approved for transplants has been reduced from more than 600 in 2007 to 87 as at October 2008; another 77 have received provisional approval from the Ministry of Health. To further combat transplant tourism, the Health Ministry issued a notice in July 2007 in line with the Istanbul Declaration, giving Chinese citizens priority as organ recipients. In October 2007, after several years of discussions with the WHO, the Chinese Medical Association agreed to cease commercial organ collection from condemned prisoners, who would only be able to donate to their immediate relatives.
Other safeguards implemented under the legislation include documentation of consent for organ removal from the donor, and review of all death sentences by the Supreme People's Court. Transplant professionals are not involved until death is declared. A symposium among legal and medical professionals was held in April 2008 to discuss the diagnostic criteria for brain death for donors of transplant organs. A liver-transplant registry system was established in Shanghai, in 2008, which allows the monitoring of the after-care of liver recipients; at the same time a nationwide proposal was announced that would allow people to note on their driving licence that they wish to donate their organs.
Despite these initiatives the China Daily newspaper reported in August 2009 that approximately 65% of transplanted organs still came from death row prisoners, which has been described as "not a proper source for organ transplants" by Vice-Health Minister Huang Jiefu. China's first posthumous organ donation system was jointly launched in March 2010 by the Red Cross and the Ministry of Health. Huang Jiefu announced that the scheme, which will allow people to express their wishes on their driver's licences, would be trialled in 10 pilot regions including the cities of Tianjin, Wuhan and Shenzhen. Funds will be made available for the families of people who voluntarily donate their organs.
Chinese authorities say they hope the pilot program's success will reduce the need to take organs from death row prisoners and stem the tide of black market organs. In 2012 China officials stated they plan to phase out organ harvesting of death-row inmates. In September 2012, the report Organ Harvesting of Religious and Political Dissidents by the Chinese Communist Party presented to the members of a US Congress Subcommittee by Damon Noto, the spokesperson for the organization Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting, opined: "Medical doctors outside China have confirmed that their patients have gone to China and received organs from Falun Gong practitioners".
The Hangzhou resolution was promulgated in front of the 2013 China National Transplantation Congress on 31 October 2013 and was presented on 2 November 2013. The resolution vows for the cessation of the harvesting of organs from executed prisoners. While not all transplantation facilities have adopted the resolution, a campaign to eradicate inmate organ harvesting is underway. Falsified Data   In November 2019, research published in BMC Medical Ethics found that official Chinese organ transplant data "conforms almost precisely to a mathematical formula" - a simple quadratic equation. The paper found that issues with the data "suggests human-directed data manufacture and manipulation" and concluded that "a variety of evidence points to ... systematic falsification and manipulation of official organ transplant datasets in China".
Wait times   China has by far the shortest wait times for organ transplants in the world, and there is evidence that the execution of prisoners for their organs is "timed for the convenience of the waiting recipient." As of 2014 Organ tourists to China report receiving kidney transplants within days of arriving in China. A report produced by David Matas and David Kilgour cites the China International Transplantation Assistant Centre website as saying "it may take only one week to find out the suitable (kidney) donor, the maximum time being one month..." It is possible for international buyers to schedule their surgeries in advance which is not possible in systems which rely on voluntary organ donation.
By way of comparison, the median waiting time for an organ transplantation in Australia is 6 months to 4 years, in Canada, it is 6 years as of 2011. In UK it is 3 years. See also Organ harvesting from Falun Gong practitioners in China Experimentation on prisoners Organ transplantation David Matas Ethan Gutmann  References  External links Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting An Independent Investigation into Allegations of Organ Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China (2007) David Kilgour, David Matas Killed for Organs: China's Secret State Transplant Business (2012) YouTube video, 8 minutes Organ Harvesting in China (2006) YouTube video, 6 minutes Organ Harvesting in China - Between Life and Death (2011) YouTube video, 52 minutes Davids and Goliath (part 1 of 5) (2014) YouTube video, 14 minutes [JAN 24 2016 VIDEO NOT FOUND] Human Harvest: China’s Organ Trafficking, Dateline SBS One.
Broadcast 7 April 2015, Accessed 26 April 2015. Category:Healthcare in China China
Patrick Ewart Garland (10 April 1935 – 19 April 2013) was a British director, writer, and actor. Career Garland was educated at St Mary's College, Southampton, and St Edmund Hall, Oxford. where he studied English and was Literary Editor of Isis, President of the Oxford University Poetry Society and President of the Oxford University Dramatic Society. His poetry had appeared in John Lehmann's The London Magazine and the annual PEN anthology during his teens. He was photographed in Oxford at 23 by Lord Snowdon and later. His maternal grandfather was an artist and editor of Connoisseur Magazine, Herbert Granville Fell.
His appearances as an actor included An Age of Kings, where he played Prince John in Henry IV, Part 2 and Clarence in Richard III, among others. Garland started Poetry International in 1967 with Ted Hughes and Charles Osborne. He was a director and producer for the BBC's Music and Arts Department (1962–1974), and worked on its Monitor series. In 1964, he directed the Monitor film, "Down Cemetery Road", about Philip Larkin, in which John Betjeman also appeared. His work with the BBC arts department also included interviews with Noël Coward (1969), Stevie Smith, and Marcel Marceau. His television film of The Snow Goose (1971) won a Golden Globe for "Best Movie made for TV", and was nominated for both a BAFTA and an Emmy.
Meanwhile, his career in the theatre had begun to develop. In 1967 he created a one-man show based on John Aubrey's Brief Lives with Roy Dotrice (and Michael Williams in a later revival) and the following year directed the original production of Alan Bennett's Forty Years On with John Gielgud as the headmaster of a decaying public school called Albion House. In the mid-1970s, the musical Billy, based on Billy Liar, with Michael Crawford in the lead was performed at Drury Lane, He served as the Artistic Director for the Chichester Festival Theatre twice, 1981–1985 and 1990–1994, where he directed over 20 productions.
He also raised money to build and open the theatre's second auditorium, the Minerva Theatre, Chichester. He was the only director to have had four plays running in the West End of London at the same time. In 1978 Patrick directed Under the Greenwood Tree at Salisbury Playhouse. This production transferred to the Vaudeville Theatre in the Strand London West End in the spring of 1979. In 1980, Garland was responsible for the York Mystery Plays. He directed the revival of My Fair Lady on Broadway in the early 1980s with Rex Harrison (about whom he wrote The Incomparable Rex) and Don Giovanni and in Japan, Handel's opera Ottone.
He also directed Eileen Atkins in his own adaptation of Virginia Woolf's book A Room of One's Own. In 2000, he directed Simon Callow in The Mystery of Charles Dickens by Peter Ackroyd, followed by a tour that culminated in Australia and Broadway (the 2012 revival did not directly involve Garland), and Joan Collins in Full Circle by Alan Melville. He also worked with Alan Bennett again, directing Patricia Routledge in the second Talking Heads and Bennett himself in Telling Tales. He directed the film of Ibsen's A Doll's House (1973) with Claire Bloom, Anthony Hopkins and Ralph Richardson, and his 1971 television film of The Snow Goose won Golden Globe: "Best Movie made for TV" and was nominated for both a BAFTA award and an Emmy.
He directed Fanfare for Elizabeth at Covent Garden on Queen Elizabeth II's 60th Birthday, and in 1986 at Westminster Abbey Celebration of a Broadcaster. of the late Richard Dimbleby. 1989 he directed the Thanksgiving Service in Westminster Abbey for Lord Olivier. In 1998 Garland devised 'A Christmas Glory' for the 300th anniversary of St Paul's Cathedral. He has also devised and presented several performances for the Charleston Festival. Personal life  Garland was married to the actress Alexandra Bastedo from 1980; the wedding took place at Chichester Cathedral. He was awarded Honorary D Litt at the University of Southampton 1994 and an Honorary Fellow of St Edmund Hall, Oxford in 1997.
Memoirs and archive Garland had been working on his memoirs, as well as a book about Corsica, which both remained unfinished at the time of his death. It was announced that his memoirs would be completed by Simon Callow. After Garland's death the British Library acquired his archive. Works  Books  Brief Lives (1967)  A Man Whose Disapproval One Would Least Like to Have. A personal memoir of Lord David Cecil, the Goldsmith Professor of English Literature, printed privately 31pp. c.1988  The Wings of The Morning (1989)  Oswald The Owl (1990)  Angels in The Sussex Air (1995), an anthology of Sussex poets  The Incomparable Rex (1998), a memoir of Rex Harrison.
Republished with an introduction by Simon Callow (2019)  Abstract & Brief Chronicles (2007), a series of essays read by Garland  Poetry  published in:  The London Magazine (1954)   New Poems (1954)  Oxford Poetry, edited by Peter Ferguson and Dennis Keene, Fantasy Press (1957)  Encounter (February 1986)  Encounter (September/October 1987)  Sussex Seams (1996)   Poetry West     Short stories  published in:   Gemini   Light Blue,Dark Blue, published by MacDonald, (1960)  Englanderzählt, edited by Hilde Speil, published by Fischer, Frankfurt (1960)  Transatlantic Review "A Lull", (1970), (1971), (1976)  Introductions and articles   John Clare by Patrick Garland, The London Magazine, Volume 1 No.7. August 1954  15 Poems for William Shakespeare, with an introduction by Patrick Garland, John Lehmann, & William Plomer; Eric Walter White, (editor), published by Stratford-upon-Avon: The Trustees & Guardians of Shakespeare's Birthplace (1964)  'Poets on Poetry' interviews with W.H.
Auden, Seamus Heaney, Douglas Dunn, Patricia Beer, Marvin Cohen, The Listener, 8 November 1973  Ninette de Valois reminisces to Patrick Garland, The Listener, 20 June 1974  Alan Bennett talks to Patrick Garland,  Vogue, July 1986  'An Arundel Tomb' on Philip Larkin's poem, includes: 'An Enormous Yes: a Memoir of the Poet' by Patrick Garland, 1987  These Things also are Spring's, poems by Edward Thomas, selected and with an introduction by Patrick Garland, Folio Society, 1988  David Cecil: A Portrait by His Friends, edited by Hannah Cranborne, The Dovecote Press, 1990  Sussex Seams: A Collection of Travel Writing by Paul Foster, foreword by Garland, Sutton Publishing Ltd, 1996  Chichester and the Arts 1944-2004 - A Celebration edited by Paul Foster, introduction by Garland, University College Chichester, 2004   'Laborious Lobster Nights, Farewell', Charleston Magazine, Issue 22, Autumn/Winter 2000, published by the Charleston Trust  'The Habit of Art' by Alan Bennett, theatre programme article: "The Poet Auden" by Garland,  Royal National Theatre, 2009  articles for The Oldie.
Chichester Festival Theatre productions  1975  An Enemy of the People – with Donald Sinden, directed by Garland  Monsieur Perrichon's Travels – with Rex Harrison, directed by Garland  1977  The Apple Cart – directed by Garland  1978  A Woman of No Importance – directed by Garland  Look After Lulu!
– directed by Garland  1981  The Cherry Orchard – directed by Garland  The Mitford Girls – directed by Garland  Underneath the Arches – by Garland, Brian Glanville and Roy Hudd in association with Chesney Allen – directed by Roger Redfarn  1982  On the Rocks – directed by Jack Emery and Garland  Cavell – directed by Garland  Goodbye, Mr Chips – directed by Garland and Chris Selbie  1983  As You Like It – directed by Garland  1984  Forty Years On – directed by Garland  The Merchant of Venice – directed by Garland  The Philanthropist – directed by Garland  1989   Victory – directed by Garland and Matthew Francis  Tovarich – directed by Garland  1992  King Lear in New York, by Melvyn Bragg – directed by Garland  1993  Pickwick – directed by Garland  1994  Pygmalion – directed by Garland 1998  Chimes at Midnight  – directed by Garland  Minerva Theatre productions at Chichester Festival Theatre 1992  Vita & Virginia – directed by Garland 1993  Elvira '40 – directed by Garland 1996  Beatrix adapted from the writings of Beatrix Potter by Garland and Judy Taylor – directed by Garland (opened at Minerva, then toured to Malvern, Plymouth, Guildford, Richmond, Bath and Windsor); Beatrix was broadcast by BBC Radio 4 on 21 February 1998   Selected other productions  The Tremendous Ghost (1964), devised by Garland and Richard Johnson, directed by Garland, Stratford-upon-Avon  The Rebel (1964), directed by Garland, Aldwych Theatre, Royal Shakespeare Company, with Peter Bowles, William Marlowe, Bryan Pringle, Clive Swift, David Warner.
The Stiffkey Scandals of 1932, directed by Garland, Traverse Theatre (1967) then Queen’s Theatre (1969), with Charles Lewsen, Annie Ross, Peter Bowles, John Gower  Cyrano by Edmond Rostand, adapted and directed by Garland, National Theatre Company, Cambridge Theatre (1970)  Under the Greenwood Tree by Thomas Hardy, adapted by Garland (1970)  Getting On, Brighton and London (1971)  Hedda Gabler, Broadway (1971)  A Doll's House, Broadway (1971)  John Clare, with Edward Woodward, devised and presented by Garland. Live recording at National Portrait Gallery, London released by Argo Records (UK) (1972)  Hair, Israel (1972)  Mad Dog, by Nicholas Salaman with Denholm Elliott and Marianne Faithfull (1973)  Billy, Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London (1974)  Murder in the Cathedral by T.S.
Eliot, Chichester Cathedral  Signed and Sealed, written by Georges Feydeau and Maurice Desvallieres – directed by Garland (1978)  Shut Your Eyes and Think of England with Donald Sinden (1978)  Kipling by Brian Clark with Alec McCowen (1985), theatre and Channel 4 television. Beecham by Caryl Brahms and Ned Sherrin (1980), with Timothy West  Eagle in New Mexico by D. H. Lawrence (1980), with Ian McKellen, Paolo Soleri Theatre, Santa Fe, New Mexico USA  My Fair Lady (1981), Broadway revival with Rex Harrison, directed by Garland; the production won a Tony Award 1980  Canaries Sometimes Sing by Frederick Lonsdale, Albery Theatre (1986–87)  The Secret of Sherlock Holmes by Jeremy Paul, with Edward Hardwicke and Jeremy Brett, Wyndham's Theatre (1988–1989)  Lights Out, created by Garland; performed by Garland, Barbara Leigh-Hunt and Richard Pasco, on the evening of Edward Thomas's birthday in Selborne Church.
A Song in the Night, the story of John Clare, written by Roger Frith, directed by Garland, starring Freddie Jones in a solo portrayal of the poet John Clare, 1986 Edinburgh Fringe, (1989) Lyric Hammersmith and touring. A Room of One's Own by Virginia Woolf adapted by  Garland, with Eileen Atkins (1989)  The Dressmaker by Georges Feydeau, with Ronnie Corbett, Theatre Royal, Bath (1990)  The Tempest with Denis Quilley as Prospero, Regent's Park Open Air Theatre (1996)  Your Faithfull Possum, Alan Bennett reading the letters of T.S.
Eliot to Virginia Woolf, produced and directed by Garland, Charleston Farmhouse  An Enormous Yes, with Alan Bates, from the writing of Philip Larkin, adapted and directed by Garland  Wooing in Absence, performed by Benjamin Whitrow and Natalia Makarova, adapted by Garland from the letters of Lydia Lopokova and John Maynard Keynes, (2000), Charleston Farmhouse, later at Tate Britain  The Mystery of Charles Dickens by Peter Ackroyd, performed by Simon Callow, premiere at Wiltons Music Hall (2000)  The Woman in Black, Old Globe, San Diego and Minetta Lane Theatre, New York (2001)   Christopher Columbus, music by William Walton, words by Louis MacNeice, Brighton Dome, (2002)  Full Circle, tour with Joan Collins, (2004)  An Enormous Yes, with Oliver Ford Davies, Orange Tree Theatre, Richmond, (2006)  Henry Irving and the Victorian Theatre, written by Nicola Lyon, directed by Garland with Roger Braban, Richard Briers, Rowland Davies, Donald Sinden, Penelope Wilton, National Portrait Gallery  Visiting Mr. Green by Jeff Baron with Warren Mitchell, directed by Garland (2007–8)  Brief Lives, written and directed by Garland with Roy Dotrice as John Aubrey (2008)    Dr. Marigold and Mr.
Chops by Charles Dickens, performed by Simon Callow at the Edinburgh Festival, 2008 and at Riverside Studios, 2009 – January 2010; adapted and directed by Garland  Recital with Patricia Routledge of a spiritual anthology (for charity), Sullington, Sussex (2010)   Dr. Marigold and Mr. Chops by Charles Dickens performed by Simon Callow, tour (2011)  A Room of One's Own, Patrick Garland's adaptation, read by Eileen Atkins, National Portrait Gallery (2014)  Selected television and film  1968   - No Man's Land, written and narrated by Patrick Garland, produced by Tristram Powell.
Henry Williamson recalls the first world war, with the war poems of Siegfried Sassoon, BBC television   1969   – An Age of Kings, several parts as actor, BBC Television  1964   – "Down Cemetery Road", film with Philip Larkin and John Betjeman, Monitor (TV)  1965   – Famous Gossips, Alan Badel, Patrick Garland, Alan Bennett  1965   – Beginning to End by Samuel Beckett with Jack MacGowran, BBC  1969   – The Zoo in Winter, with Jonathan Miller, BBC (TV)  1971   – The Stronger (TV) by August Strindberg with Britt Ekland and Marianne Faithfull  1971   – The Snow Goose (TV)   1973   – A Doll's House (cinema film)  1974   – The Cay (TV), with James Earl Jones  1976   – Vicar of this Parish (TV, BBC Wales): John Betjeman on the life of Francis Kilvert  1980   – "Every Night Something Awful"  1980   – "Chaos Supersedes E.N.S.A."
1982   – "Call My Bluff", two episodes, as himself  1984   – "Kipling" with Alec McCowen, Channel 4  1987   – "Laurence Olivier's 80th Birthday Celebrations: What Will Survive of Us is Love" – poetry read by Olivier, directed by Garland  1989   – 'Celebrity interview': Bob Holness in conversation with Patrick Garland, LBC  1990   – A Room of One's Own (TV)  1998   – "Talking Heads 2"; episode "Miss Fozzard Finds Her Feet"  2000   – "Telling Tales" by Alan Bennett: episodes directed by  Garland – 'Our war'; 'An ideal home'; 'A shy butcher'; 'Days out'; 'Eating out'; 'Unsaid prayers'; 'No mean city'  2000   – The Mystery of Charles Dickens (TV)     Television (as writer)  1960   – "The Hard Case" with John Hurt  1961   – "The Younger Generation"  1961   – "Flow Gently Sweet Afton" with John Thaw  1972   – I Spy a Stranger by Jean Rhys, dramatised by Garland  1980   – "Every Night Something Awful""  1980   – "Chaos Supersedes E.N.S.A."
Radio broadcasts of poetry read by Garland included Ted Hughes's 'The Storm', sub-titled 'from Homer, Odyssey, Book V', commissioned by Anthony Thwaite, broadcast on BBC Radio 3, 1960  1973   "The War Between Men and Women", compiled by Garland, readers Judi Dench and Michael Williams  Quote, Unquote, Garland appeared (as himself) in two episodes in 1979 and in two episodes in 1992, BBC Radio 4  References  Further reading  Chichester Festival Theatre at Fifty by Kate Mosse, 2012  External links Walker, Tim (2008). Two old stagers find vigour in Brief Lives, The Spectator, 2 February 2008. Patrick Garland as actor, Theatre Archive, University of Bristol   Patrick Garland as author, Theatre Collection, University of Bristol   Patrick Garland as director, Theatre Archive, University of Bristol  Category:1935 births Category:2013 deaths Category:BBC people Category:British television directors Category:English theatre directors Category:People educated at St Mary's College, Southampton Category:Alumni of St Edmund Hall, Oxford
Pravadoline (WIN 48,098) is an antiinflammatory and analgesic drug with an IC50 of 4.9 μM and a Ki of 2511 nM at CB1, related in structure to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as indometacin. It was developed in the 1980s as a new antiinflammatory and prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor, acting through inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). However, pravadoline was found to exhibit unexpectedly strong analgesic effects, which appeared at doses ten times smaller than the effective anti-inflammatory dose and so could not be explained by its action as a COX inhibitor. These effects were not blocked by opioid antagonists such as naloxone, and it was eventually discovered that pravadoline represented the first compound from a novel class of cannabinoid agonists, the aminoalkylindoles.
Pravadoline was never developed for use as an analgesic, partly due to toxicity concerns (although these were later shown to be a result of the salt form that the drug had been prepared in rather than from the pravadoline itself), however the discovery of cannabinoid activity in this structurally novel family of drugs led to the discovery of several new cannabinoid agonists, including the drug WIN 55,212-2, which is now widely used in scientific research. Animal studies  Administration of pravadoline on rats showed:  Prolonged the response latency induced by tail immersion in hot water at a temperature of 55 °C (minimum effective dose 100 mg/kg s.c.)  Prevented hyperalgesia in rats with brewer's yeast injections during (Randall-Selitto test) (minimum effective dose 1 mg/kg, p.o.)
Prevented the nociceptive response induced by paw flexion in the adjuvant-arthritic rat (ED50 41 mg/kg, p.o.) Prevented the nociceptive response of bradykinin-induced head and forepaw flexion (ED50 78 mg/kg, p.o.) The antinociceptive activity of pravadoline cannot be explained by an opioid mechanism, because pravadoline-induced antinociception was not antagonized by naloxone (1 mg/kg, s.c.) and pravadoline did not bind to the opioid receptors at concentrations up to 10 μM. See also  AM-630 (6-iodopravadoline)  WIN 54,461 (6-bromopravadoline)  WIN 55,212-2  RCS-4 (1-pentyl-3-(4-methoxybenzoyl)indole)  References  Category:Aminoalkylindoles Category:Benzoylindoles Category:Morpholines Category:WIN compounds Category:Phenol ethers
The LC is a leisure centre located in the city centre of Swansea, Wales, UK. Originally Swansea Leisure Centre, it was re-branded as ‘The LC’ when the facility re-opened to the public on 1 March 2008 after a £32-million makeover. The LC's exterior has been revitalised by replacing the old concrete panels with clear glass, translucent glazing, and timber panelling. History Swansea Leisure Centre was built on the location of the former Swansea Victoria railway station, opened by the Queen during her silver jubilee celebrations in 1977. The original centre featured the first wave machine to be installed in a leisure centre in Wales; it became one of Wales' top leisure facilities and a substantial tourist draw, attracting more than 800,000 users annually at its peak.
After its closure in 2003, Swansea Council decided to refurbish the centre, which was reopened - again by the Queen - on 7 March 2008. Features The LC’s waterpark features include water slides, surf simulator, a 30 ft climbing wall, an indoor play area, a multi-purpose sports and exhibition hall (which was an official training facility for the 2012 London Olympics), exercise areas, and a spa and sauna section. Logo The LC logo was designed to be intentionally ambiguous, a wave and some mountains which also signifies a swan (the swans), signifying Swansea and the surrounding area or the surf simulator and climb wall inside the LC, or a swan, representing Swansea.
However, some people think this looks like a number 2; however, this is not the case. See also  Swansea Victoria railway station the former station. References  External links  SurfGSD now offer Indoor surfing lessons on the indoor machine at Swansea's new leisure centre Official LC Swansea website City & County of Swansea: Pictures of the redeveloped Swansea Leisure Centre  Category:Sports venues in Swansea Category:Tourist attractions in Swansea Category:Swimming venues in Wales Category:Water parks in the United Kingdom Category:Buildings and structures in Swansea
In enzymology, an UDP-N-acetylglucosamine—lysosomal-enzyme N-acetylglucosaminephosphotransferase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction  UDP-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine + lysosomal-enzyme D-mannose  UMP + lysosomal-enzyme N-acetyl-D-glucosaminyl-phospho-D-mannose  Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are UDP-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and lysosomal-enzyme D-mannose, whereas its two products are UMP and lysosomal-enzyme N-acetyl-D-glucosaminyl-phospho-D-mannose. This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, specifically those transferring phosphorus-containing groups transferases for other substituted phosphate groups. The systematic name of this enzyme class is UDP-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine:lysosomal-enzyme N-acetylglucosaminephosphotransferase. Other names in common use include UDP-N-acetylglucosamine:lysosomal enzyme N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase, UDP-GlcNAc:glycoprotein N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase, uridine diphosphoacetylglucosamine-lysosomal enzyme precursor acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase, uridine diphosphoacetylglucosamine-glycoprotein acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase, lysosomal enzyme precursor acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase, UDP-acetylglucosamine:lysosomal enzyme N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase, UDP-GlcNAc:lysosomal enzyme N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine:glycoprotein N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase, and UDP-N-acetylglucosamine:glycoprotein N-acetylglucosaminyl-1-phosphotransferase.
References           Category:EC 2.7.8 Category:Enzymes of unknown structure
The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species is a book by Charles Darwin first published in 1877. It is the fifth of his six books devoted solely to the study of plants (excluding The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication). Context These writings contributed to Darwin's pursuit of evidence that would support his theory of natural selection. There were only two more books to follow: The Power of Movement in Plants (1880) and The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (1881). He conducted a wide range of experiments and observations and the results of these form the framework of the book.
He was assisted in this work by his son, Francis Darwin who also wrote a preface for the second edition which was published two years after his father's death in 1882. The book was dedicated to his longtime friend and colleague, Harvard botany professor Asa Gray "as a small tribute of respect and affection". The work Using the four classifications established by Carl Linnaeus (hermaphroditic, monoecious, dioecious, polygamous), Darwin concentrated on two divisions of the hermaphroditic class, namely the cleistogamic and heterostyled. Darwin’s reflections indicate the economy of nature through a process of gradual modification of plants, their structures being modified and degraded for the purpose of the large scale production of seed which is necessary and advantageous for survival.
Darwin states (p. 227): "Cleistogamic flowers ... are admirably fitted to yield a copious supply of seed at a wonderfully small cost to the plant." Francis Darwin indicated that the work on heterostylism had given his father extreme pleasure, especially as it had been one of the most puzzling bits of work he ever carried out. Darwin thought that hardly anyone had seen the full importance of heterostylism. Summary. In 1883, Alfred Russel Wallace wrote a tribute to Darwin (entitled 'The Debt of Science to Darwin’) who had died the year before. One such tribute appeared in 'The Century', an illustrated monthly magazine.
As part of this article he included a summary of Darwin's work relating to this book (p. 428):  "The cowslip (Primula veris) has two kinds of flowers in nearly equal proportions: in the one the stamens are long and the style short, and in the other the reverse, so that in one the stamens are visible at the mouth of the tube of the flower, in the other the stigma occupies the same place, while the stamens are halfway down the tube. The fact had been known to botanists for 70 years, but had been classed as a case of mere variability, and therefore considered to be of no importance.
In 1860 Darwin set to find out what it meant, since, according to his views, a definite variation like this must have a purpose. After a considerable amount of observation and experiment, he found that bees and moths visited the flowers, and that their proboscis become covered with pollen while sucking up the nectar, and further, the pollen of a long stamened plant would most surely be deposited on the stigma of the long styled plants, and vice versa.
Now followed a long series of experiments, in which cowslips were fertilised with either pollen from the same kind or from a different kind of flower, and the invariable result was that the crosses between the two different types of flowers produced more good capsules, and more seed in each capsule; and as these crosses would be most frequently effected by insects, it was clear that this curious arrangement directly served to increase the fertility of this common plant. The same thing was found to occur in the primrose, as well as in flax (Linum perenne), lungworts (Pulmonaria), and a host of other plants, including the American partridge-berry (Mitchella repens).
These are called dimorphic heterostyled plants. Still more extraordinary is the case of the common loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), which has both stamens and styles of three distinct lengths, each flower having two sets of stamens and one style, all of different lengths, and arranged in three different ways:  	A short style, with six medium and six long stamens; 	A medium style, with six short and six long stamens; 	A long style, with six medium and six short stamens. These flowers can be fertilised in eighteen distinct ways, necessitating a vast number of experiments, the result being, as in the case of the cowslip, that flowers fertilised by the pollen from stamens of the same length as the styles, gave on the average a larger number of capsules and a very much larger number of seeds than in any other case.
The exact correspondence in the length of the style of each form with that of one set of stamens in the other form insures that the pollen attached to any part of the body of an insect shall be applied to a style of the same length on another plant, and there is thus a triple chance of the maximum of fertility....There is thus the clearest proof that these complex arrangements have the important end of securing both a more abundant and more vigorous offspring.”  Observations and experiments still continue today to further the understanding of this phenomenon instigated by Darwin in this original and seminal work.
References   Darwin, Charles. 1877. The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species. John Murray, London. Darwin, Francis. [c. 1884]. [Preliminary draft of] 'Reminiscences of My Father's Everyday Life'. CUL-DAR140.3.1—159 Transcribed by Robert Brown (Darwin Online, http://darwin-online.org.uk/). Wallace, Alfred R. 1883. 'The Debt of Science to Darwin' in 'The Century', in Vol XXV; new series volume III – pages 420 – 432  External links    Category:1877 non-fiction books Category:Books by Charles Darwin Category:Biology books Category:Botany books Category:English-language books
Golden Nugget Atlantic City is a hotel, casino, and marina located in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Opened in 1985 as Trump's Castle, it was renamed Trump Marina in 1997. Landry's, Inc. purchased the casino from Trump Entertainment Resorts in February 2011, and the sale was approved in late May. Landry's took control of the property on May 23, 2011. Complex The resort sits on a  property and contains a  casino; 717 guest rooms; seven restaurants; a nightclub; a 462-seat theater; a  recreation deck with a health spa, outdoor heated pool, hot tubs, cabanas, tennis and basketball courts, and jogging track;  of meeting and function space; a nine-story parking garage with direct walk-through into the complex; and the 640-slip Frank Farley Marina (a public facility owned by the New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry and managed by Landry's).
The Sportsbook is a sportsbook at the resort that offers sports betting. The third level is the main area of the property. At its center is a  long reception area from which point every amenity—the casino, ballrooms, restaurants, showroom, or meeting rooms—is within a short walk. Entertainment The resort's 2000-seat ballroom and 462-seat theater have played host to a wide array of entertainers including Prince, Sting, Steve Martin, Ray Charles, Billy Crystal, Air Supply and Aretha Franklin. On Memorial Day weekend in 2013 Haven nightclub opened. Boxing and mixed martial arts matches are held at the casino.
Dining Chart House The Buffet The Deck Bayfront Bar & Restaurant The Poolside Cafe Vic & Anthony's Michael Patrick's Brasserie Grotto Italian Ristorante Lillie's Asian Cuisine Bill's Bar & Burger  History  Trump's Castle (1985–1997) The casino was built by Hilton Hotels, but when the building was nearly complete, that company was denied a gambling license by the State of New Jersey due to alleged ties to organized crime and sold the complex to Donald Trump. It opened in 1985 as Trump's Castle. In 1988, the casino became one of the settings for the game show version of Yahtzee, and in 1990 it was the setting for the game show Trump Card.
Revenues at Trump Castle took a sharp decline in 1990 due to competition from its newly opened sister property, Trump Taj Mahal, as well as broader economic factors such as the Gulf War and the early 1990s recession. A payment to bondholders was made in December 1990 only with the help of a $3.5 million purchase of casino chips by Trump's father, Fred Trump, which was later determined to be an illegal loan, for which the casino paid a fine of $30,000. Unable to make its next payment on $338 million in bonds, the Castle began debt restructuring negotiations in May 1991.
Hilton offered to repurchase the property for $165 million, which Trump rejected. A deal was ultimately reached to give the bondholders 50 percent ownership of the Castle, in exchange for reduced interest rates and forgiveness of $25 million of debt. The plan was filed as a prepackaged bankruptcy in March 1992. Trump reacquired full ownership of the Castle in a refinancing deal in December 1993. He then sold the property in September 1996 to his new publicly traded casino company, Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts, for $130 million in stock plus $355 million in assumed debt. Trump then began negotiations to sell a 50 percent stake in the property to the Rank Organization for $325 million and convert it into a Hard Rock Hotel and Casino.
Discussions fizzled in December 1996, and Trump said he would look for a new theme, saying he "never liked the castle theme." Trump next announced an agreement to sell a 51 percent stake in the Castle to Colony Capital for $125 million, which would be used to construct a new hotel tower and re-theme the property as Trump Marina. The sale and expansion were canceled, however, in March 1997. Trump Marina (1997–2011) The Castle was renamed Trump Marina in June 1997. Trump Entertainment Resorts agreed in May 2008 to sell Trump Marina for $316 million to New York-based Coastal Development, who planned to rebrand the property as a Margaritaville casino in partnership with singer Jimmy Buffett.
Despite a later price reduction to $270 million, Coastal was unable to find financing, and the agreement was terminated in June 2009. Negotiations continued while Atlantic City casino values plunged, with Coastal offering $75 million for the property in February 2010, but no deal was reached. Bondholders who had taken over Trump Entertainment Resorts after its 2009 bankruptcy remained eager to sell Trump Marina and focus on the company's two other casinos. Golden Nugget (2011–present)  Landry's purchased the property for $38 million, taking control on May 23, 2011, and renamed it the Golden Nugget Atlantic City. Landry's then spent $150 million on renovations that were completed in spring 2012, opening new restaurants and clubs and a new outdoor pool and modernizing the resort; the marina was also renovated.
On December 16, 2013, the Golden Nugget launched a real-money online casino site. Despite its late entrance into the market relative to competitors, by 2017 the online site had grown substantially, becoming the first New Jersey online casino to offer 400 games and earning more revenues than any other New Jersey online casino each month since December 2016. The growth of Golden Nugget's online venture continued through 2018. The site consistently leads the market in revenues, and in March became the first U.S. legal online gambling site to offer 500 unique games. Radio transmitter The roof of the Golden Nugget currently houses the transmitter tower and broadcast facilities of WWFP 90.5 FM which is licensed to Brigantine, New Jersey and is owned by the Calvary Chapel of Marlton.
The station broadcasts a Christian music format. Formerly WWFP was used as a relay of Liberty University's WVRL in Elizabeth City, North Carolina. See also Gambling in New Jersey Golden Nugget Las Vegas Golden Nugget Laughlin Golden Nugget Lake Charles List of tallest buildings in Atlantic City  References  External links  Official Site  Category:Skyscraper hotels in Atlantic City, New Jersey Category:Casinos in Atlantic City, New Jersey Category:Boxing venues in Atlantic City, New Jersey Category:Mixed martial arts venues in New Jersey Category:Resorts in New Jersey Category:Hotels established in 1985 Category:1985 establishments in New Jersey Category:Casino hotels
A space sunshade or sunshield is a parasol that diverts or otherwise reduces some of a star's radiation, preventing them from hitting a spacecraft or planet and thereby reducing its insolation, which results in reduced heating. Light can be diverted by different methods. First proposed in 1989, the original space sunshade concept involves putting a large occulting disc, or technology of equivalent purpose at the L1 gravitation point (Lagrangian point) between the Earth and Sun. A sunshade is of particular interest as a climate engineering method for mitigating global warming through solar radiation management. Heightened interest in such projects reflects the concern that internationally negotiated reductions in carbon emissions may be insufficient to stem climate change.
Sunshades could also be used to produce space solar power, acting as solar power satellites. Proposed shade designs include a single-piece shade and a shade made by a great number of small objects. Most such proposals contemplate a blocking element at the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrangian point. In 1989, James Early proposed a space-based sun-shade to divert sunlight at the planetary level. His design involved making a large glass (2,000 km) occulter from lunar material and placing at the L1 point. Issues included the large amount of material needed to make the disc and also the energy to launch it to its orbit.
Designs for planetary sunshade  Cloud of small spacecraft  One proposed sunshade would be composed of 16 trillion small disks at the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrangian point, 1.5 million kilometers above Earth. Each disk is proposed to have a 0.6-meter diameter and a thickness of about 5 micrometers. The mass of each disk would be about a gram, adding up to a total of almost 20 million tonnes. Such a group of small sunshades that blocks 2% of the sunlight, deflecting it off into space, would be enough to halt global warming, giving us ample time to cut our emissions back on Earth.
The individual autonomous flyers building up the cloud of sunshades are proposed not to reflect the sunlight but rather to be transparent lenses, deflecting the light slightly so it does not hit Earth. This minimizes the effect of solar radiation pressure on the units, requiring less effort to hold them in place at the L1 point. An optical prototype has been constructed by Roger Angel with funding from NIAC. The remaining solar pressure and the fact that the L1 point is one of unstable equilibrium, easily disturbed by the wobble of the Earth due to gravitational effects from the Moon, requires the small autonomous flyers to be capable of maneuvering themselves to hold position.
A suggested solution is to place mirrors capable of rotation on the surface of the flyers. By using the solar radiation pressure on the mirrors as solar sails and tilting them in the right direction, the flyer will be capable of altering its speed and direction to keep in position. Such a group of sunshades would need to occupy an area of about 3.8 million square kilometers if placed at the L1 point. The deployment of the flyers is an issue that requires reusable rockets. With 100t LEO booster a single launch per day would allow to release the required number of sails within 20 years.
Even so, it would still take years to launch enough of the disks into orbit to have any effect. This means a long lead time. Roger Angel of the University of Arizona  presented the idea for a sunshade at the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in April 2006 and won a NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts grant for further research in July 2006. Creating this sunshade in space was estimated to cost in excess of US$130 billion over 20 years with an estimated lifetime of 50-100 years. Thus leading Professor Angel to conclude that "[t]he sunshade is no substitute for developing renewable energy, the only permanent solution.
A similar massive level of technological innovation and financial investment could ensure that. But if the planet gets into an abrupt climate crisis that can only be fixed by cooling, it would be good to be ready with some shading solutions that have been worked out." One Fresnel lens  Several authors have proposed dispersing light before it reaches the Earth by putting a very large lens in space, perhaps at the L1 point between the Earth and the Sun. This plan was proposed in 1989 by J. T. Early. In 2004, physicist and science fiction author Gregory Benford calculated that a concave rotating Fresnel lens 1000 kilometres across, yet only a few millimeters thick, floating in space at the  point, would reduce the solar energy reaching the Earth by approximately 0.5% to 1%.
The cost of such a lens has been disputed. At a science fiction convention in 2004, Benford estimated that it would cost about US$10 billion up front, and another $10 billion in supportive cost during its lifespan. One diffraction grating A similar approach involves placing a very large diffraction grating (thin wire mesh) in space, perhaps at the L1 point between the Earth and the Sun. A proposal for a 3,000 ton diffraction mesh was made in 1997 by Edward Teller, Lowell Wood, and Roderick Hyde, although in 2002 these same authors argued for blocking solar radiation in the stratosphere rather than in orbit given then-current space launch technologies.
Spacecraft sunshades The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) infrared telescope has a layered sunshade to keep the telescope cold. For spacecraft approaching the Sun, the sunshade is usually called a heatshield. Notable spacecraft [designs] with heatshields include:  Parker Solar Probe (was Solar Probe Plus), launched 2018 (carbon, carbon-foam, carbon sandwich heatshield)  Solar Orbiter, may launch 2020  Messenger, orbits Mercury, has a ceramic cloth sunshade  BepiColombo, to orbit Mercury, with Optical Solar Reflectors (acting as a sunshade) on the Planetary Orbiter component. See also  References  External links Optimal Sunshade Configurations for Space-Based Geoengineering near the Sun-Earth L1 Point  Category:Climate change mitigation Category:Terraforming Category:Climate engineering
Postal codes in Croatia are 5 digit numeric. There are 20 two digit zones defined. Zagreb City and Zagreb County have one, each other first level administrative country subdivision, i.e. one of the counties of Croatia, has its own range. From the 10 possible 1 digit ranges only 5 are assigned:   1 Zagreb region,  2 Southern Croatia,  3 Eastern Croatia,  4 Central Croatia except Zagreb region,  5 Western Croatia. In the range 1xxxx only one two digit range namely 10xxx is assigned, the maximum of subranges exists is in the 4xxxx range with 7 ranges. Three cities have a postal code with 4 zeros: 10000 Zagreb, 20000 Dubrovnik,  40000 Čakovec.
Old system  After independence, Croatia went on to use the 5 digit numeric postal codes once assigned to the Socialist Republic of Croatia (within SFR Yugoslavia). The system had assigned the ranges 4xxxx and 5xxxx to the republic. See also   List of postal codes in Croatia  ISO 3166-2:HR  NUTS of Croatia  Telephone numbers in Croatia  External links   https://web.archive.org/web/20070207042037/http://www.posta.hr/main.aspx?id=148&trazi=1&vrsta=2  https://web.archive.org/web/20110720064604/http://www.t-com.hr/privatni/telefon/pozivi/pozivni/medumjesni.asp telephone prefix map  Croatia Category:Communications in Croatia
Flying ointment is a hallucinogenic ointment said to have been used by witches in the practice of European witchcraft from at least as early as the Early Modern period, when detailed recipes for such preparations were first recorded. Name The ointment is known by a wide variety of names, including witches' flying ointment, green ointment, magic salve, or lycanthropic ointment. In German it was Hexensalbe (witch salve) or Flugsalbe (flying salve). Latin names included unguentum sabbati (sabbath unguent), unguentum pharelis, unguentum populi (poplar unguent) or unguenta somnifera (sleeping unguent). Composition  Francis Bacon (attributed as "Lord Verulam") listed the ingredients of the witches ointment as "the fat of children digged out of their graves, of juices of smallage, wolfe-bane, and cinque foil, mingled with the meal of fine wheat."
Typical poisonous ingredients included belladonna, henbane bell, jimson weed, black henbane, mandrake, hemlock, and/or wolfsbane, most of which contain atropine, hyoscyamine, and/or scopolamine. Scopolamine can cause psychotropic effects when absorbed transdermally. These tropane alkaloids are also officially classified as deliriants in regards to their psychoactive effects. Extreme toxicity of active ingredients  With the exception of Potentilla reptans, the plants most frequently recorded as ingredients in Early Modern recipes for flying ointments are extremely toxic and have caused numerous fatalities when eaten, whether by confusion with edible species or in cases of criminal poisoning or suicide. The effects of transdermal absorption of complex mixtures of the active constituents of such potentially lethal plants have not been adequately studied.
Some investigators in modern times who have sought to recreate for their own use the 'flying ointment' of times past have lost their lives in the attempt. With historian, occultist and theosophist Carl Kiesewetter of Meiningen, author of Geschichte des Neueren Occultismus 1892 and Die Geheimwissenschaften, eine Kulturgeschichte der Esoterik 1895 being one such casualty. Bodily flight versus flight in spirit  It has been a subject of discussion between clergymen as to whether witches were able physically to fly to the Sabbath on their brooms with help of the ointment, or whether such 'flight' was explicable in other ways: a delusion created by the Devil in the minds of the witches; the souls of the witches leaving their bodies to fly in spirit to the Sabbath; or a hallucinatory 'trip' facilitated by the entheogenic effects of potent drugs absorbed through the skin.
An early proponent of the last explanation was Renaissance scholar and scientist Giambattista della Porta, who not only interviewed users of the flying ointment, but witnessed its effects upon such users at first hand, comparing the deathlike trances he observed in his subjects with their subsequent accounts of the bacchanalian revelry they had 'enjoyed'. Body in coma and riding on beasts  Dominican churchman Bartolommeo Spina (1465? / 1475? -1546) of Pisa gives two accounts of the power of the flying ointment in his Tractatus de strigibus sive maleficis ('Treatise on witches or evildoers') of 1525. The first concerns an incident in the life of his acquaintance Augustus de Turre of Bergamo, a physician.
While studying medicine in Pavia as a young man, Augustus returned late one night to his lodgings (without a key) to find no one awake to let him in. Climbing up to a balcony, he was able to enter through a window, and at once sought out the maidservant, who should have been awake to admit him. On checking her room, however, he found her lying unconscious - beyond rousing - on the floor. The following morning he tried to question her on the matter, but she would only reply that she had been 'on a journey'. Bartolommeo's second account is more suggestive and points toward another element in the witches' 'flights'.
It concerns a certain notary of Lugano who, unable to find his wife one morning, searched for her all over their estate and finally discovered her lying deeply unconscious, naked and filthy with her vagina exposed, in a corner of the pigsty. The notary 'immediately understood that she was a witch' (!) and at first wanted to kill her on the spot, but, thinking better of such rashness, waited until she recovered from her stupor, in order to question her. Terrified by his wrath, the poor woman fell to her knees and confessed that during the night she had 'been on a journey'.
Light is cast on the tale of the notary's wife by two accounts widely separated in time but revealing a persistent theme in European Witchcraft. The first is that of Regino of Prüm whose De synodalibus causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis libri duo (circa 906 C.E.) speaks of women who 'seduced...by demons...insist that they ride at night on certain beasts [italics not original] together with Diana, goddess of the pagans, and a great multitude of women; that they cover great distances in the silence of the deepest night...' (See also Canon Episcopi). The second account dates from some 800 years later, coming from Norway in the early 18th century and is the testimony, at the age of thirteen, of one Siri Jørgensdatter.
Siri claimed that when she was seven her grandmother had taken her to the witches' sabbath on the mountain meadow Blockula ('blue-hill') : her grandmother led her to a pigsty, where she smeared a sow with some ointment which she took from a horn, whereupon grandmother and granddaughter mounted the animal and, after a short ride through the air, arrived at a building on the Sabbath mountain. Alleged sexual element in application   Some sources have claimed that such an ointment would best be absorbed through mucous membranes, and that the traditional image of a female witch astride a broomstick implies the application of flying ointment to the vulva.
The passage from the trial for witchcraft in Ireland of Hiberno-Norman noblewoman Alice Kyteler in 1324 quoted above is, while not explicit, certainly open to interpretations both drug-related and sexual. It is also a very early account of such practices, pre-dating by some centuries witch trials in the early modern period. The testimony of Dame Kyteler's maidservant, Petronilla de Meath, while somewhat compromised by having been extracted under torture, contains references not only to her mistress's abilities in the preparation of 'magical' medicines, but also her sexual behaviour, including at least one instance of (alleged) intercourse with a demon.
According to the inquisition ('in which were five knights and numerous nobles') set in motion by Richard de Ledrede, Bishop of Ossory, there was in the city of Kilkenny a band of heretical sorcerers, at the head of whom was Dame Alice Kyteler and against whom no fewer than seven charges relating to witchcraft were laid. The fifth charge is of particular interest in the context of the 'greased staffe' mentioned above :  Deducting from the above ingredients of purely symbolic significance relating to death and heresy, one is left with the cooking, in a fatty mixture, of 'unspecified herbs' and 'horrible worms' to produce, among other preparations, 'unguents' and 'ointments' - one of which was the 'staffe-greasing' ointment later found in the 'pipe' discovered in Dame Alice's closet.
It is unfortunate that the identities of the herbs and 'worms' involved went unrecorded. Those of the 'unspecified herbs' may well be guessed at in the light of information regarding later flying ointment recipes, but the 'horrible worms' remain more cryptic : it is unclear whether actual worms or insect larvae are intended. If the latter, such larvae might themselves have been poisonous and intoxicating, from having fed on alkaloidal plants. Comparison of Alice Kyteler's 'staffe' and Siri Jørgensdatter's sow - both greased with a mysterious ointment, suggest the innate conservatism of European Witchcraft and the persistence of a body of women's knowledge related to sexuality and the use of a potent and complex drug.
Possible opiate component  One possible key to how individuals dealt with the toxicity of the nightshades usually said to be part of flying ointments is through the supposed antidotal reaction some of the solanaceous alkaloids have with the alkaloids of Papaver somniferum (opium poppy). This is discussed by Alexander Kuklin in his brief book, How Do Witches Fly? (DNA Press, 1999). This antagonism was claimed to exist by the movement of Eclectic medicine.
For instance, King's American Dispensatory states in the entry on belladonna: "Belladonna and opium appear to exert antagonistic influences, especially as regards their action on the brain, the spinal cord, and heart; they have consequently been recommended and employed as antidotes to each other in cases of poisoning" going on to make the extravagant claim that "this matter is now positively and satisfactorily settled; hence in all cases of poisoning by belladonna the great remedy is morphine, and its use may be guided by the degree of pupillary contraction it occasions." The use of opiates in the treatment of belladonna poisoning is, however, strongly contraindicated in modern medical practice [see below].
The synergy between belladonna and poppy alkaloids was made use of in the so-called "twilight sleep" that was provided for women during childbirth beginning in the Edwardian era. Twilight sleep was a mixture of scopolamine, a belladonna alkaloid, and morphine, a Papaver alkaloid, that was injected and which furnished a combination of painkilling and amnesia for a woman in labor. A version is still manufactured for use as the injectable compound Omnopon. There is no definite indication of the proportions of solanaceous herbs vs. poppy used in flying ointments, and most historical recipes for flying ointment do not include poppy.
Furthermore, a reputable publication by the former UK Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries (now DEFRA) states specifically that, in cases of poisoning by Atropa belladonna - far from being antidotes - 'Preparations containing morphine or opiates should be avoided as they have a synergic action with atropine'; an appropriate antidote being, by contrast, the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine salicylate. Sources citing ointments   The use by witches of flying ointments was first described, according to known sources, by Johannes Hartlieb in 1456. It was also described by the Spanish theologian Alfonso Tostado (d. 1455) in Super Genesis Commentaria (printed in Venice, 1507), whose commentary tended to accredit the thesis of the reality of the Witches' Sabbath.
In 1477 Antone Rose confessed that the devil gave her a stick 18 inches in length on which she would rub an ointment and with the words "go, in the name of the Devil, go" would fly to the "synagogue" (an alternative name for Sabbath in early witchcraft). In popular culture  Drama There is, in the work of the playwright Francisco de Rojas Zorilla (1607-1648) of Toledo, an exchange concerning the flying ointment, the (following) passage occurring in the play Lo que quería el Marqués de Villena ('What the Marquis of Villena wanted'). Literature and film In Nathaniel Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown", Goody Cloyse, after meeting the Devil, says "I was all anointed with the juice of smallage, and cinquefoil, and wolf's bane" to which the Devil replies "[m]ingled with fine wheat and the fat of a new-born babe".
In Mikhail Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita, Margarita, after agreeing to act as hostess at Dr Woland's ball, uses the ointment to become a witch and fly to the estate where the event is being held. In Clayton Rawson's Death from a Top Hat, two recipes by Johann Weyer, a 16th-century demonologist, are given in a footnote:  1-Water hemlock, sweet flag, cinquefoil, bat's blood, deadly nightshade and oil. 2-Baby's fat, juice of cowbane, aconite, cinquefoil, deadly nightshade and soot. In the movie serial Warlock, the villain kills an unbaptised boy to get this "Flying Ointment". In Jodi Picoult's Salem Falls, a group of four girls practicing witchcraft ingest a flying ointment made of belladonna.
In the book Calling on Dragons (Book three of the Enchanted Forest Chronicles), the witch Morwen uses a flying potion on a straw basket and a broomstick, not on herself. In E. L. Konigsburg's Jennifer, Hecate, Macbeth, William McKinley, and Me, Elizabeth, two characters try to make a flying ointment. In the 2015 horror film The Witch, a witch kills an infant child and makes flying ointment out of his corpse. In the 2016 movie, The Love Witch, the main character applies a flying ointment to her body. In the 2019 movie, Portrait of a Lady on Fire, the two main characters apply a flying ointment to their armpits.
In the 2020 movie, Gretel and Hansel, directed by Oz Perkins, the witch, caressing a precious jar filled with ointment, applies it to herself, and then initiates Gretel into witchcraft by inducing her to do the same. Music  The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band song '11 Moustachioed Daughters' - a track on the Album The Doughnut in Granny's Greenhouse - is a darkly comic and surprisingly detailed evocation of the traditional Witches' Sabbath, featuring the flying-ointment-related lines :   The Swedish symphonic metal band Therion has a song called Unguentum Sabbati (Ointment of the Sabbat) on the album Sitra Ahra.
Gallery  See also  Besom  Cunning folk  Hedgewitch  References  External links   Flying Potions and Getting to the Sabbat  Belladonna in flying ointments  Ritual of the Raven  If Witches No Longer Fly: Today's Pagans and the Solanaceous Plants  King's American Dispensatory on Belladonna  FLYING OINTMENTS: Their Ingredients and Their Use  Witches' Ointment: Information from the Gale Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology  Category:Witchcraft Category:Hallucinations Category:Poisons
Boki (; Boki language: Bokyi) is a Local Government Area in the Cross River State of Nigeria. It was created on 28 August 1991, and its capital is Boje. The region has a contiguous border with the Republic of Cameroon and is known internationally as a commercial centre for agricultural commodities such as cocoa, coffee, timber, and palm products. Etymology The origin of its name comes from the native tribe (Boki people) with the same that resides in the area. The term originates from the word Bokyi, which is the name of the tribe in the Boki language although it is also referred to as Nki.
Geography  Boki is a landlocked Local Government Area of Nigeria (LGA) bounded by the Republic of Cameroon to the east as well as five other Cross River State LGA's: Obudu and Obanliku in the north, Ikom and Ogoja in the West, and Etung to the south. The region is considered to have some of the most rugged terrain in Nigeria, for it is almost completely covered by the Cross River Rainforest (one of the last remaining in the country) and the Afi mountain range (60% of which is inaccessible to vehicles throughout the year). The area is also prone to mudslides due to frequent high levels of rainfall.
In July 2014, mudslides swept away bridges which isolated many communities including the region's capitol, Boje. The district has many settlements including:  Abo Ebam Abo Emeh Abo Ogbagante  Abo Mkpang Abo Obiso Abo Buanabe Ashishie Bamba Bokalum Okwabang Butatong Okwangwo Okwah Ubong Iso-Bendeghe Bashua Bashu Bansan-Osokom Bunyia Bankpo Bekpo Bitiah Kanyang 1 & 2 Njawa Katchuan Kakwagom-Irruan Kakubok Nkanyia  Esekwe Okubuchi Ndimechang Kabiesu Nsadop  Okundi Iman Bateriko Beebo Bumaji Ominda Orimekpang Wula Mgbaeshuo Olum Dadi Danare 1, 2 & 3 Biajua Buanchor Boje Ntamante Kakwagom Oku-Bushuyu Njua-Bano Borum Irruan Nkim Osokom Nfom  In 2001, six autonomous communities in the Local Government Area protested the State's refusal to create a separate Boki North council and threatened to join neighboring Cameroon.
Boki local government area is the agricultural hub of Cross River State and one of the largest local government area in the state surrounded with rain forest. This make the region a viable territory for investment in agriculture. Culture and customs  The Boki people give the region different traditions and customs that are unique to the district. Traditional dress for men consists of loincloths and a white long-sleeved shirt with a broad hat. Some men also carry a walking stick. Women usually wear wrappers or a blouse, and head scarf. Major events include the Boki New Yam Festival, Alobe festival in Irruan and Etcen in Borum & Cassava Festivals.
Music and dance are common in Boki culture and are played during festivals as well as social occasions. Common instruments include: the Obam, Mgbe, Ndugho, Etcheh, Atam, Obon, Bekarim, Awaribo, Obashi and Enya-Atu. Other traditions include inter-village cultural dance, festivals, age-grade meetings, burial ceremonies and communal farming. Boki is notorious for its practice of male and female circumcision, as well as forced marriages. In July 2000, female genital mutilation was made illegal by the government of Cross River State in an attempt to stop violence and abuse against women. The penalty for such actions is a fine of up to 10,000 naira (US$62) or a prison sentence up three years.
Boki is also known for its traditional African markets and many towns have their own market days, such as in Okundi, Ntamarte, Kakwagom, Wula and Katchuan. Ecology  The vast wildlife habitats within the thickly forested vegetation and unique topology of Boki continue to interest environmental activist as well as conservationist groups. The Okwango Division of the Cross River Park, set up by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), was established in Boki. It provides visitors an opportunity to witness wildlife in its natural habitat. Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary  The Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary was created in May 2000 and is managed by the Cross River State Forestry Commission.
The protection and research of the wildlife sanctuary are sponsored by a partnership between the government and four NGOs: Pandrillus, Wildlife Conservation Society, Nigerian Conservation Foundation and Fauna & Flora International. Afi's gorillas belong to the most endangered subspecies of the Cross River gorilla. Generations of hunting Afi’s gorillas, chimpanzees, drills and other endangered species have left them wary of humans, and years of protection may be required before they are more easily seen again. Day hikes or multi-day treks into the sanctuary can be arranged by the Drill Ranch. Guided hikes are available for additional fees, which the Drill Ranch collects on behalf of the Forestry Commission.
Afi Mountain is listed as an ‘Important Bird Area’ for Nigeria, and the migratory swallow-roost at Boje is one of the largest in Africa. Bird-watchers are welcome, but mist-netting is not permitted except by special arrangement with the state wildlife authorities. Communal wars and political unrest  Over the years, Boki has had communal wars, most recently in 2010 in a farmland tussle between the Nsadop and Boje communities. The war claimed an estimated 230 million naira in property damage, about 400 human lives were lost, and approximately 6,000 people were affected by the war. The government took over the rebuilding processes of the village, building hundreds of two-bedroom flats as compensation for the burnt or demolished houses of over 6,000 victims.
Damaged fence walls are still being reconstructed and homes are still undergoing repairs, including destroyed and looted furniture and fittings using relief funds. Notable people   Matthew Tawo Mbu, politician and diplomat  See also  Boki people Boki language Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary  References  Category:Local Government Areas in Cross River State Category:Cross River State Category:Populated places in Cross River State Category:Territorial disputes of Cameroon Category:Territorial disputes of Nigeria Category:Cameroon–Nigeria border
Linear gingival erythema (LGE) is a periodontal disorder diagnosed based on distinct clinical characteristics. It was originally thought that LGE was directly associated with HIV, and it was thus called HIV-associated gingivitis (HIV-G). Later research confirmed that LGE also occurs in HIV negative immunocompromised patients, and it was thus renamed. Presentation LGE is limited to the soft tissue of the periodontium, appearing as a red line 2–3 mm in width adjacent to the free gingival margin. Unlike conventional periodontal disease, though, LGE is not significantly associated with increased levels of dental plaque. The prevalence of LGE remains unclear and there is no known treatment.
References  Category:Periodontal disorders
Anthony Perkins (April 4, 1932 – September 12, 1992) was an American actor, director and singer. He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his second film, Friendly Persuasion (1956), but is best remembered for playing Norman Bates in Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960) and its three sequels. His other films include Fear Strikes Out (1957), The Matchmaker (1958), On the Beach (1959), Tall Story (1960), The Trial (1962), Phaedra (1962), Five Miles to Midnight (1962), Pretty Poison (1968), Murder on the Orient Express (1974), Mahogany (1975), The Black Hole (1979), North Sea Hijack (1980) and Crimes of Passion (1984).
Early life Perkins was born in New York City, son of stage and film actor Osgood Perkins and his wife, Janet Esselstyn (née Rane). His paternal great-grandfather was wood engraver Andrew Varick Stout Anthony. He was five when his father died. Perkins was a descendant of a Mayflower passenger, John Howland. He attended Brooks School, Browne & Nichols School, Columbia University and Rollins College, having moved to Boston in 1942. Career  Perkins made his film debut in The Actress (1953). The film was a commercial disappointment. Perkins was first really noticed when he replaced John Kerr on Broadway in the lead of Tea and Sympathy in 1954.
This renewed Hollywood interest in him. Stardom Perkins gained notice for his second film, Friendly Persuasion (1956), directed by William Wyler, in which he played the son of the lead role, played by Gary Cooper. The film was a hit and Perkins received the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actor and an Academy Award nomination. Subsequently, Perkins starred as troubled former Boston Red Sox baseball player Jimmy Piersall in the 1957 biopic Fear Strikes Out (1957) and in the two Westerns The Lonely Man (1957) (with Jack Palance) and The Tin Star (1957) (with Henry Fonda).
He released three pop music albums and several singles in 1957 and 1958 on Epic and RCA Victor under the name Tony Perkins. His single "Moon-Light Swim" was a moderate hit in the United States, peaking at number 24 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1957. He showcased his musical talents in The Matchmaker (1958) with Shirley Booth and Shirley MacLaine. A life member of the Actors Studio, Perkins also acted in theater. In 1958, he was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for his performance in Look Homeward, Angel (1957–59) on Broadway. He played the role of Eugene Gant.
In film, he appeared in This Angry Age (1958) for Columbia and Desire Under the Elms (1958) for Paramount, with Sophia Loren. He was more happily cast in The Matchmaker (1958). Perkins was Audrey Hepburn's love interest in Green Mansions (1959), one of Hepburn's few flops. He was a doomed lover in On the Beach (1959) and played a college basketball champion in Tall Story (1960), best remembered for being Jane Fonda's film debut. On Broadway, he starred in the Frank Loesser musical Greenwillow (1960), for which he was nominated for another Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.
Psycho Perkins in youth had a boyish, earnest quality, reminiscent of the young James Stewart, which Alfred Hitchcock exploited and subverted when the actor starred as Norman Bates in the film Psycho (1960). The film was a critical and commercial success, and gained Perkins international fame for his performance as the homicidal owner of the Bates Motel. Perkins' performance gained him the Best Actor Award from the International Board of Motion Picture Reviewers. The role and its multiple sequels affected the remainder of his career. Europe Perkins appeared in the film Goodbye Again (1961) with Ingrid Bergman, which was shot in Paris.
His performance won him the Best Actor Award at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival. The film was a notable success in France but not the US. He appeared in a short-lived Broadway play Harold (1962) then Perkins featured in a sequence of films shot in Europe: Phaedra (1962), shot in Greece with Melina Mercouri and directed by Jules Dassin; Five Miles to Midnight (1962) with Sophia Loren; Orson Welles' version of The Trial (1962, from the Kafka novel); Le glaive et la balance (1963), shot in France; Une ravissante idiote (1964) with Brigitte Bardot. He made a film in Mexico, The Fool Killer (1965), then returned to France to make a cameo in Is Paris Burning?
(1966). Return to the U.S. For American television, he appeared in Evening Primrose (1966). He then went to Broadway to appear in a play by Neil Simon, The Star-Spangled Girl (1966–67). Perkins starred in another French film, The Champagne Murders (1967) for Claude Chabrol, then made his first Hollywood movie since Psycho, Pretty Poison (1968) with Tuesday Weld. The film was not a box office success but has become a notable cult favorite. Supporting actor Perkins moved into supporting roles in Hollywood-feature films, playing Chaplain Tappman in Catch-22 (1970) and appearing in WUSA (1970). Off-Broadway, he appeared in and directed Steambath (1970).
He had the lead in a TV movie, How Awful About Allan (1970) and supported Charles Bronson in the French movie, Someone Behind the Door (1971). He starred in Chabrol's Ten Days' Wonder (1971). Perkins was reunited with Weld when he supported her in Play It as It Lays (1972). He was also in The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean (1972). Perkins co-wrote, with composer/lyricist Stephen Sondheim, the screenplay for the film The Last of Sheila (1973), for which they received a 1974 Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for Best Motion Picture Screenplay. Perkins was one of the many stars featured in Murder on the Orient Express (1974).
He co-starred with Beau Bridges in Lovin' Molly (also 1974). He enjoyed success on Broadway in Peter Shaffer's 1974 play Equus (where he was a replacement in the leading role originally played by Anthony Hopkins). Off-Broadway he directed The Wager (1974). Perkins supported Diana Ross in Mahogany (1975) and hosted television's Saturday Night Live in 1976. He co-starred with Geraldine Chaplin in Remember My Name (1978) and had some good roles on TV, playing Mary Tyler Moore's husband in First, You Cry (1978) and as Javert in Les Misérables (1978). He was featured in Walt Disney's The Black Hole, in 1979.
He had another Broadway success with Bernard Slade's 1979 play Romantic Comedy, which ran for 396 performances. Perkins was a villain in North Sea Hijack (1980) and one of many names in Winter Kills (1980). He also starred in the 1980 Canadian film Deadly Companion (also known as Double Negative). Last roles  Perkins reprised the role of Norman Bates in Psycho'''s three sequels. The first, Psycho II (1983), was a box-office success twenty-three years after the original film. He went to Australia to appear in For the Term of His Natural Life (1983). After The Glory Boys (1984) for British television, Perkins made Crimes of Passion (1984) for Ken Russell.
He then starred in and directed Psycho III (1986), for which he was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actor. Perkins had supporting roles in Napoleon and Josephine: A Love Story (1987), and Destroyer (1988). He directed but did not appear in Lucky Stiff (1988). Perkins starred in some additional horror films, Edge of Sanity (1989), Daughter of Darkness (1990), and I'm Dangerous Tonight (1990). He played Norman Bates again in the made-for-cable film Psycho IV: The Beginning (1990), over which he had much creative control, although he was turned down for director. Perkins has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, an honor he received for his influential and exceptional contributions to the motion–picture industry.
It is located at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles. In 1991, Perkins was honored with the Donostia Lifetime Achievement Award at the San Sebastián International Film Festival. Although he was suffering from AIDS, he appeared in six television productions between 1990 and 1992, including Daughter of Darkness (1990) and hosting a 12-episode horror anthology series titled Chillers (1990). He made his final appearance in In the Deep Woods (1992) with Rosanna Arquette. He had agreed to provide the voice for the role of the dentist, Dr. Wolfe, in The Simpsons episode "Last Exit to Springfield" but died before the part could be recorded.
In the end, the character was voiced by Simpsons regular Hank Azaria. Perkins was portrayed by British actor James D'Arcy in the 2012 biographical drama Hitchcock, which starred Anthony Hopkins as Alfred Hitchcock and Helen Mirren as Alma Reville. Personal life Perkins was an extremely shy person, especially in the company of women. According to the posthumous biography Split Image by Charles Winecoff, he had exclusively same-sex relationships until his late 30s, including with actor Tab Hunter; artist Christopher Makos; dancer Rudolf Nureyev; composer/lyricist Stephen Sondheim; and dancer-choreographer Grover Dale. Perkins has been described as one of the two great men in the life of French songwriter .
Perkins reportedly had his first heterosexual experience at age 39 with actress Victoria Principal  on location filming The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean in 1971. He met photographer Berinthia "Berry" Berenson, the younger sister of actress and model Marisa Berenson, at a party in New York City in 1972. They married when he was aged 41 and she was 25, on August 9, 1973 and had two sons: actor Oz Perkins (b. February 2, 1974), and musician Elvis Perkins (b. February 9, 1976). Perkins and Berenson remained married until his death. In 2001, on the day before the ninth anniversary of his death, she died at age 53 in the September 11 attacks aboard American Airlines Flight 11.
She was returning to her California home following a holiday on Cape Cod. Death Diagnosed with HIV during the filming of Psycho IV: The Beginning, Perkins died at his Los Angeles home on September 12, 1992, from AIDS-related pneumonia at age 60. His urn, inscribed "Don't Fence Me In", is in an altar by a bench on the terrace of his former home in the Hollywood Hills. Filmography  Television  Stage  Discography  References  Further reading  Bergan, Ronald: Anthony Perkins: A Haunted Life. London: Little, Brown and Company, 1995; . Hilton, Johan: Monster i garderoben: En bok om Anthony Perkins och tiden som skapade Norm Bates.
Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, 2015; . Capua, Michelangelo "Anthony Perkins. Prigioniero della Paura."
Torino, Lindau, 2003;   External links             Psycho star Anthony Perkins on playing Norman Bates  Anthony Perkins interviewed by Mike Wallace on The Mike Wallace Interview'' March 22, 1958  Category:1932 births Category:1992 deaths Category:20th-century American male actors Category:AIDS-related deaths in California Category:American male film actors Category:American male singers Category:American male stage actors Category:American people of English descent Category:Bisexual male actors Category:Brooks School alumni Category:Buckingham Browne & Nichols School alumni Category:Columbia University alumni Category:Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners Category:David di Donatello winners Category:Bisexual writers Category:Deaths from pneumonia Category:Edgar Award winners Category:Epic Records artists Category:Film directors from New York City Category:LGBT directors Category:LGBT entertainers from the United States Category:LGBT people from New York (state) Category:Male actors from Boston Category:Male actors from New York City Category:New Star of the Year (Actor) Golden Globe winners Category:People from Wellfleet, Massachusetts Category:RCA Victor artists Category:Rollins College alumni Category:Theatre World Award winners Category:Traditional pop music singers Category:Film directors from Massachusetts Category:20th-century American singers Category:20th-century male singers
A debunker is a person or organization to expose or discredit claims believed to be false, exaggerated, or pretentious. The term is often associated with skeptical investigation of controversial topics such as UFOs, claimed paranormal phenomena, cryptids, conspiracy theories, alternative medicine, religion, or exploratory or fringe areas of scientific or pseudoscientific research. According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, to "debunk" is defined as: "to expose the sham or falseness of." If debunkers are not careful, their communications may backfire – increasing an audience's long-term belief in myths. Backfire effects can occur if a message spends too much time on the negative case, if it is too complex, or if the message is threatening.
Etymology The American Heritage Dictionary traces the passage of the words "bunk" (noun), "debunk" (verb) and "debunker" (noun) into American English in 1923 as a belated outgrowth of "bunkum", of which the first recorded use was in 1828, apparently related to a poorly received "speech for Buncombe County, North Carolina" given by North Carolina representative Felix Walker during the 16th United States Congress (1819–1821). The term "debunk" originated in a 1923 novel Bunk, by American journalist and popular historian William Woodward (1874–1950), who used it to mean to "take the bunk out of things". The term "debunkery" is not limited to arguments about scientific validity; it is also used in a more general sense at attempts to discredit any opposing point of view, such as that of a political opponent.
Notable debunkers Stephen Barrett founded Quackwatch and writes on medical quackery. Brian Dunning produces the podcast Skeptoid. Stanton Friedman has debunked both supposed UFO cases and debunking attempts on other UFO cases. Martin Gardner was a mathematics and science writer who extensively debunked parapsychology in his magazine articles and books. Susan Gerbic is the founder and leader of Guerrilla Skepticism on Wikipedia which has the mission of improving the skeptical content of Wikipedia. She has focused her skeptical activism at debunking famous "psychics" such as Sylvia Brown, Chip Coffey and Tyler Henry. Harry Houdini debunked spiritualists. Ray Hyman is a psychologist who is known for debunking some parapsychological studies.
Philip Klass was a pioneer in the field of skeptical investigation of UFOs. Alan Melikdjanian (Captain Disillusion) is a debunker of viral videos and hoaxes on the internet, usually deconstructing them and explaining the post production techniques and software used to create the illusions. Donald Menzel was Philip Klass' predecessor in debunking UFOs. Joe Nickell writes regularly for the Skeptical Inquirer. Penn & Teller are an entertainment team who often demystify magic tricks and illusions. They have also debunked many other aspects of popular belief on their show, Penn & Teller: Bullshit!. Dorothy Dietrich a professional magician and Houdini expert and  historian.
Has been put in charge of Houdini's grave site, and is the founder of The Houdini Museum in Scranton, Pennsylvania. Phil Plait is an astronomer and science writer whose speciality is fighting pseudoscience related to space and astronomy. He established Badastronomy.com to counter public misconceptions about astronomy and space science, providing critical analysis of pseudoscientific theories related to these subjects. Basava Premanand, founder of Indian CSICOP and the Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations, has exposed various Indian "god-men" (fakirs, sadhus, swamis, gurus, faith healers) and was known for being the most fierce critic of Sathya Sai Baba and his frauds.
James Randi has exposed faith healers, "psychics" and others claiming to have paranormal powers. Carl Sagan was a noted astronomer who debunked purported close encounters such as the Betty and Barney Hill abduction, and pseudoscience such as Immanuel Velikovsky's Worlds in Collision. Michael Shermer, executive director and founder of the non-profit organization The Skeptics Society, and editor-in-chief of the group's magazine, Skeptic. Britt Marie Hermes is a prominent debunker of naturopathy having once practised as a naturopath. Benjamin Radford is an American writer, investigator, and skeptic who has authored, coauthored or contributed to over twenty books and written over a thousand articles and columns debunking topics such as urban legends, unexplained mysteries and the paranormal.
Notable organizations  Committee for Skeptical Inquiry  The Skeptics Society  The MythBusters, a program on the Discovery Channel. Two former special effects technicians, Jamie Hyneman and Adam Savage, test the validity of urban legends. The National Institute of Standards and Technology debunked the World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories. Popular Mechanics has released several publications also debunking 9/11 conspiracy theories, in particular those mentioned in Loose Change. Snopes debunks or validates urban legends. Quackwatch  James Randi Educational Foundation  American Council on Science and Health  Backfire effects  Australian Professorial Fellow Stephan Lewandowsky and John Cook, Climate Communication Fellow for the Global Change Institute at the University of Queensland (and author at SkepticalScience.com) co-wrote Debunking Handbook, in which they warn that debunking efforts may backfire.
Backfire effects occur when science communicators accidentally reinforce false beliefs by trying to correct them, a phenomenon known as belief perseverance. Cook and Lewandowsky offer possible solutions to the backfire effects as described in different psychological studies. They recommend spending little or no time describing misconceptions because people cannot help but remember ideas that they have heard before. They write "Your goal is to increase people's familiarity with the facts." They recommend providing fewer and clearer arguments, considering that more people recall a message when it is simpler and easier to read. "Less is more" is especially important because scientific truths can get overwhelmingly detailed; pictures, graphs, and memorable tag lines all help keep things simple.
The authors write that debunkers should try to build up people's egos in some way before confronting false beliefs because it is difficult to consider ideas that threaten one's worldviews (i.e., threatening ideas cause cognitive dissonance). It is also advisable to avoid words with negative connotations. The authors describe studies which have shown that people abhor incomplete explanations – they write "In the absence of a better explanation, [people] opt for the wrong explanation". It is important to fill in conceptual gaps, and to explain the cause of the misconception in the first place. The authors believe these techniques can reduce the odds of a "backfire" – that an attempt to debunk bad science will increase the audience's belief in misconceptions.
See also The True Believer List of scientific skeptics  References  Category:Skeptics Category:Conspiracy theories Category:Pseudoscience
The Lohner 10.15, also known as Schichtpreis Eindecker Type 1914, Lohner A 23, Gnome-Etrich and by its c/n AD 489 (AD 498? ), was a monoplane racing aircraft designed and built in late 1913 for the 1914 Schichtpreis race. Requisitioned at the start of World War One by the Luftschifferabteilung (LA), the sole 10.15 remained active as a trainer until at least November 1917. Design and development Construction of the 10.15 began in October 1913 as the last Lohner aircraft built as a Taube with the distinctive wing plan-form and warping wing roll control. Construction of the 10.15 was conventional with fabric-covered wooden structure and shoulder-mounted wings wire-braced to king-posts above and below the fuselage.
The undercarriage consisted of  a sprung wooden tail-skid and sprung main-wheels on a split axle attached to the fuselage and king-posts. Power was supplied by an  Gnome Lambda 7-cylinder rotary engine. Operational history AD 489 did not compete in the 1914 Scichtpreis race as the pilot, Viktor Wittmann elected to fly the Pfeilflieger AD 553 (Lohner 10.16) which was also entered in his name. The aircraft was also entered in to the Third International Flugmeeting in June 1914 (competition number 23), but did not garner any prizes. After being requisitioned at the start of World War One by the Luftschifferabteilung (LA), the sole 10.15 remained active as a trainer until at least November 1917, serving with Flek 1, 6 and 8.
Units using this aircraft  Luftschifferabteilung Kaiserliche und Königliche Luftfahrtruppen  Specifications (10.15)  References  Category:Lohner aircraft Category:Shoulder-wing aircraft Category:Rotary-engined aircraft
Following the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991, Slovenia and Croatia became independent countries. As the border between the countries had not been determined in detail prior to independence, several parts of the border were disputed, both on land and at the sea, namely in the Gulf of Piran. According to the Croatian Bureau of Statistics, the two countries share about  of border. According to the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, the border spans . The border runs in the direction from the southwest to the northeast. The countries have attempted to resolve the dispute, most notably with the Drnovšek–Račan agreement in 2001 that was ratified by Slovenia but not by Croatia.
Because of the disputed border, Slovenia blocked Croatia's EU accession talks until the agreement was reached by both countries and the EU to settle the dispute by a binding arbitration. On 29 June 2017, the Permanent Court of Arbitration issued a binding ruling on the border, ruling on the disputed parts of land border, drawing the border in the Gulf of Piran, and ruling that Slovenia should have direct access to international waters in the north Adriatic Sea using a corridor crossing Croatian waters. It also ruled on several other disputed border areas. The ruling was hailed by Slovenia but Croatia said it would not implement it.
Croatia stated that they withdrew from the process in 2015, citing the discovered talks between the Slovenian government representative and the member of the arbitration court as a breach of the arbitration rules. Slovenia implemented the ruling on 29 December 2017 with a continued opposition from Croatia. Origins of Gulf of Piran issues  Following World War II, the area from north of Trieste to the Mirna River in the south was part of the Free Territory of Trieste. In 1954, the Territory was dissolved; the area was provisionally divided between Italy and Yugoslavia, and the division made final by the Treaty of Osimo in 1975.
In the first draft delimitation proposal following both countries' 1991 declarations of independence, Slovenia proposed establishing the border in the Gulf of Piran's center. However, Slovenia changed the draft the following year (declaring its sovereignty over the entire Gulf on 5 June 1992). Since then Slovenia has continued to insist on this position. The name "Bay of Savudrija" () was originally used for only part of the bay. In 2000 it came into use for the whole bay by local Croatian fishermen and was quickly adopted (first by Croatian journalists, then local authorities, and finally at the state level), leading to its appearance in official maps.
Such actions were contrary to established practices with long-standing geographical names, and are seen by Slovene authorities as an attempt to imply historical connections with the bay. Another name, "Bay of Dragonja" (), was introduced in Croatia but failed to gain widespread use. Sea dispute  Croatia claims that the boundary should be an equal distance from each shore. The claim is based on the first sentence of Article 15 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea:  Slovenian claims are based on the same article. However, it favours the second sentence, which stipulates that historical claims or other unusual circumstances supersede the equidistance rule.
The Law of the Sea also states that international waters begin  from the country's shore – while the nearest international waters are  away from Slovenia's shore. The Convention states that a coastal state has an exclusive right to manage all natural resources in a band up to  from its shore (an 'exclusive economic zone'). When Slovenia notified the UN Secretariat in 1995 of its succession to Yugoslavia's ratification of the Convention (continuing the agreement), it included a note saying that this system of exclusive economic zones has become part of international law and asserted its rights as a geographically disadvantaged state.
The convention makes it clear that any decision to declare an exclusive economic zone should be made in co-operation with all interested parties; Croatian sources claim that Slovenia's self-description as a geographically disadvantaged state amounts to an admission that it is a country without access to international waters. Slovenia also claims the right to access international waters; Slovenia bases this claim on the country's free access to international waters while part of Yugoslavia. Due to the statements of Croatian negotiators, Slovenian politicians have also presented the concern that without a territorial connection to international waters, Croatia could limit "harmless passage" to its ports (contrary to international agreements and practice); this would complicate Slovenia's sovereignty at sea and could cause economic damage.
Because of these concerns, Slovenia has invoked the principle of equity for unfortunate geographic conditions. According to Slovenia, Savudrija was associated with Piran (which had an Italian majority at that time) for centuries, and claims that Slovenian police controlled the entire gulf between 1954 and 1991. If this claim prevails, Slovenia could request certain bay parts on the median line's Croatian side. Croatia disputes historical Slovenian control. The Croatian side asserts that the corridor in the Croatian waters would be useless for traffic, since traffic regulations in the Gulf of Trieste allow only incoming traffic on the Croatian side of the border, while outgoing traffic must go through Italian waters.
The Slovenian response is that Slovenia's access to international waters is not an exclusively practical or commercial issue; it is rather the logical consequence of that Slovenia is said to be an internationally recognized maritime country with granted access to international seas. The latter assertion has been repeatedly disputed by the Croatian side. Croatia wants to solve this dispute only by certain articles of international law, while the Slovenian side insists on consideration of the principle "ex aequo et bono". The disputed points between the countries include whether or not the legal principle "ex aequo et bono" is a part of international law.
Article 38(2) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice provides that the court may decide cases ex aequo et bono only if the parties agree. In 1984, the ICJ decided a case between the U.S. and Canada using "equitable criteria". According to the Wikileaks cables published in 2011, the maritime border dispute was influenced by Slovenia considering itself a maritime nation and Croatia feeling inferior to its neighbours. Land dispute along the Dragonja river  Along with the maritime dispute, the two countries also have a land border dispute in the Gulf area along the Dragonja river.
As in other disputed border areas, the dispute stems from differing demarcation principles: while the border between two republics was often drawn based on (sometimes loose) political agreements or along natural landforms, cadastral records from villages along the border continued to refer to the land which ended up controlled by the other republic. In the delta of Dragonja, Slovenia claims that the border is south of the river (thus including all the land that is registered in the cadastral municipality of Sečovlje), while Croatia claims that the border is on the river itself (St. Odoric's canal). The Croatian side rejects Slovenian arguments for cadastral borders on just this part of the mutual border (where such are in favour of Slovenia), saying that if the cadastral principle was consistently implemented, Slovenia would lose much more territory elsewhere than it could receive in the Gulf of Piran.
Another source of conflict in this area has been the border crossing at Plovanija, due to a checkpoint unilaterally established by Croatia on territory that has been claimed by both sides. Despite stating that the border crossing checkpoint is only a temporary solution, Croatia has included this checkpoint as indisputable in its international documents. Consequently, the territories with a Slovenian population south of that border checkpoint are considered to be under Croatian occupation by many Slovenian politicians and legal experts. Both countries claim to have exercised since 1954 the most administrative jurisdiction over the contested area on the left bank of the river.
The strip's inhabitants were granted Slovenian citizenship in 1991 and the Slovenian judiciary considers the area an integral part of Slovenia. Among the Slovenian citizens residing in the area on the left bank of the Dragonja river is Joško Joras, whose refusal to recognize any Croatian jurisdiction after the two countries' independence has led since the early 1990s to numerous conflicts between Slovenia and Croatia. Joras claims he is on Slovenian territory occupied by Croatia; this has garnered much local public, but not much international, attention. According to some Croatian experts, the border between the countries should be a few miles north from the current Dragonja river course, on what they regard as the original river course.
The current river flow is actually a man-made canal, known as the Canal of St. Odoric. They point out a 1944 meeting organized by the Partisan Scientific Institute, led by the Slovenian historian Fran Zwitter, at which Slovenian and Croatian officials agreed on the Dragonja river as the border between the Socialist Republics of Croatia and Slovenia. However, neither the Slovenian nor the Croatian parliament ever ratified the agreement, nor was it ever internationally recognized. Moreover, according to some Slovenian legal experts such as Pavel Zupančič, the last internationally recognized border between the two countries was on the river Mirna (south of the Dragonja).
However, the proposed Dragonja border has also been referenced many times and even partially implemented. The Croatian argument is, accordingly, based exclusively on the Dragonja border proposal which Slovenia has never officially recognized. According to the Croatian view, the current main flow of the Dragonja (the Canal of St. Odoric) was man made; according to Dr. Ekl, while international law allows changes of river-defined borders when rivers are changed by nature, it does not allow man-made river changes to alter borders. However, this is not the Croatian government's official position. The analogous Slovenian argument claims that Piran has historically included the cadastral municipalities of Savudrija and Kaštel, which constitute the northern part of Savudrija Cape.
The division of prewar Piran is therefore considered legally void, since any changes of borders should be (according to the former Yugoslav constitution) accepted by either the (no longer extant) federal parliament or the former Yugoslav republics' parliaments. Also support for the Slovenian claim to the Savudrija Cape comes from the area's ethnic structure, including Kaštel and Savudrija. In 1880 Kaštel, for instance, 99.31% of the population spoke Slovene. In 1910, the percent of Slovene-speaking inhabitants fell to 29.08%, the rest of population being predominantly Italian-speaking (65.22%), with only 5.70% Croatian-speaking. Similarly, in Savudrija, in 1910, the percent of Slovene-speaking population was 14.01%, while the majority was Italian speaking (78.77%).
Thus, in 1910 Slovene were the largest non-Italian minority population in Kaštel and Savudrija. On that basis, some claim that the border between the countries should be changed and established at the southern border of the cadastral municipalities of Kaštel and Savudrija, at the Savudrija Cape's middle; since Croatia claims these municipalities, the border should not be further south than this. This position has been supported by a few notable Slovenian politicians, such as Marjan Podobnik and his political/party colleagues. Another Slovenian view advocating border changes was proposed by the first President of the Slovenian Parliament, the legal expert France Bučar.
The Istrian peninsula was historically included in the Austro-Hungarian Empire's Austrian part, as was the territory of modern Slovenia; the majority of modern Croatian territory was included in the Hungarian part. Bučar asserted that the present Istrian peninsular division is thus legally unfounded and irrelevant, since this division has never been based on what he considers proper legal acts and especially not on the will of Istria's native population. Therefore, Bučar proposed that the border in Istria should be determined by referendums carried out in any territory both countries wish to claim. This proposal is, according to Bučar, based upon the legal principle of self-determination, the same principle on which both countries' 1991 Declarations of Independence were based.
Such a border determination process was employed in the Carinthian Plebiscite to determine the Slovenian–Austrian border. Land dispute on Sveta Gera/Trdinov vrh  Sveta Gera (), the Žumberak/Gorjanci mountain range's highest peak, was disputed in the 1990s, but  the issue is dormant. The summit is claimed by both Croatia and Slovenia and is recorded in the Croatian land registry. An old Yugoslav People's Army barracks building stands there that is used as an outpost by the Slovenian Army. Control over the military complex is another part of the dispute. Diplomacy has kept this dispute from escalating. In March 1999, Milan Kučan (president of Slovenia at the time) characterized the barracks building's use by either the Slovenian or the Croatian Army as controversial and "at least uncivilized".
In 2004, he argued on Croatian TV that it would be better to open a mountain lodge there. Border demarcation along the Mura river  Međimurje, the northernmost county of Croatia, borders Prekmurje, the easternmost region of Slovenia. The Mura river has divided Prekmurje from Međimurje for many centuries. The two regions became part of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1526: the former was part of the Kingdom of Hungary, while the latter was disputed between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Croatia. The two regions became part Slovenia and Croatia, respectively, in 1945. An unsolved question has been the March 1947 massacre of civilians by UDBA in the village of Štrigova, claimed by Slovenes to be ethnic cleansing by Croats to make the village Croatian.
The border between SR Slovenia and SR Croatia became the international border after the two countries became independent, pursuant to the decisions of the Badinter Committee. In the border area, the river Mura meanders, occasionally floods, and has over time naturally modified its course. The border, however, has customarily remained as previously determined; thus, the border today does not strictly follow the present-day river's course. Slovenia has proposed that the border follow the present-day river, but Croatia has rejected this. Diplomacy has kept this dispute from escalating. Since 2008, local farmers – (such as from the northern Međimurje towns of Štrigova, Sveti Martin na Muri, Mursko Središće and Podturen) – have to reach their properties (fields, meadows or woods) on the river's other side by crossing the strict Schengen border checkpoints.
Attempts at dispute resolution  Drnovšek–Račan agreement  On 20 July 2001, the prime ministers of Slovenia and Croatia, Janez Drnovšek and Ivica Račan, made the Drnovšek–Račan agreement, which defined the entire border between the countries, including the maritime border. According to this agreement, Croatia would get approximately one third of the gulf and a maritime border with Italy, while Slovenia would get a corridor to international waters. This solution included a Croatian "maritime exclave" between Italian and Slovenian waters. However, there are interpretations that such a solution breaks the Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone, which prohibits sovereignty over parts of the sea unconnected to land.
Article 4 states, "... the sea areas lying within the lines must be sufficiently closely linked to the land domain to be subject to the regime of internal waters," and "... baselines may not be applied by a State in such a manner as to cut off from the high seas the territorial sea of another State." In the Drnovšek–Račan agreement, the border strip on the Dragonja's left bank was recognized as part of Croatia. The Parliament of Slovenia ratified this agreement. The Croatian parliament, however, never voted on the agreement's ratification, criticizing Račan for unilaterally simply giving all the disputed area to Slovenia, and insisting that the border dispute should be settled in the International Tribunal of Justice at the Hague.
Bled agreement In 2007, the prime ministers Sanader and Janša achieved an unbinding agreement in principle to solve the border problem using the International Court of Justice in the Hague. According to the Slovenian proposal, both sides could dispute any part of the border and ask for it to be redrawn in court. Analogously to the Drnovšek–Račan agreement and Croatian politicians, the Bled agreement did not receive much support from most Slovenian politicians. Croatia, however, has kept insisting on the Bled agreement. Slovenia never officially informed Croatia of abandoning the agreement; a Slovene–Croatian working group continued to work for a year and a half on the matter.
EU accession blockade  EU blockade background Zmago Jelinčič, leader of the right-wing Slovene National Party (SNS), has reportedly stated that Slovenia should block Croatia's EU accession until the matter is resolved. Former Slovenian Foreign Minister Dimitrij Rupel and Minister of Finance Dušan Mramor stated in 2003 that they would stop supporting Croatian efforts to join the EU, together with Romania and Bulgaria. These two countries joined the EU while Croatia's negotiations were stalled by the EU's accusations that it was unwilling to apprehend Ante Gotovina on its territory and deliver him to the Hague on war crimes charges; Gotovina was actually located and captured in Spain.
However, former Slovenian president Janez Drnovšek stated that Slovenia should act in the "European spirit" and carefully respond to any problems with Croatia. On 23 September 2004 Slovenia threatened to veto Croatia's EU accession after Croatian border police detained 12 Slovenes, among them Janez Podobnik (leader of the opposition Slovenian People's Party (SPP)), after they refused to show their identification at the Sečovlje crossing point. The activists stated they were visiting Joras, who lives on the narrow strip of disputed land and claims it to be a part of Slovenia. After an emergency meeting, Slovenia's then Prime Minister Anton Rop declared that Croatia was not fit to join the EU.
Marjan Podobnik, head of the "Institute 25 June" () (an organization that "preserves the national heritage") and the president of the Slovenian National Alliance in the SPP, published a new map in May 2007 in which the borders of Slovenia go deeply into current Croatian territory and the whole Piran Bay belongs to Slovenia. Podobnik, also known for his suggestions to hold a referendum in Slovenia on whether Croatia should enter the EU, stated for Globus magazine that "the map is logical because on the day of 25 June 1991 Slovenia had possession over the whole Piran Bay and unlimited access to international waters".
Croatia's president Stipe Mesić stated: "Our friends in Slovenia can draw whatever maps they want, as part of Slovenia they can even encompass Helsinki and Reykjavík, that's of no interest to me". In August 2007, the Croatian proposal for solving the disputed border issues before the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in Hamburg was rejected by Slovenia's Minister of Foreign Affairs Dimitrij Rupel. Croatia has also suggested arbitration on other disputes with Slovenia, such as a dispute over penalties for an electricity cutoff for Croatia from a jointly-managed nuclear power plant. Before December 2008, Slovenia had rejected claims that it was responsible for blocking Croatia's EU accession, stating that the process's slowness was "because [Zagreb] has difficulties meeting the standards of the organization it wants to join".
Description of the blockade Croatia included in documents presented in its process of negotiation for joining the EU their border proposal, without clearly demarcating the disputed status of parts of the borderline; this was perceived by Slovenia as prejudicing the ultimate borderline outcome. Therefore, Slovenia blocked Croatia's negotiation chapters for its EU membership that included the controversial documents. Slovenia's Prime Minister Borut Pahor stated at the time that documents – notably maps – that Croatia had provided as part of its candidacy for accession could prejudice a resolution of the two countries' long-running border dispute. The blockade was strongly criticized by Croatian officials.
Politicians from both states accused each other of trying to steal a part of their territory. Croatia suggested a border arbitration by a third party, while the Slovenian government suggested that the dispute be resolved through a special Croatian–Slovene commission. In December 2008, Croatian prime minister Ivo Sanader and Montenegrin prime minister Milo Đukanović agreed that their own border dispute regarding Boka Kotorska would be settled in the International Court of Justice in the Hague, with both countries respecting the arbitration decision. The same was proposed to the Slovenian government, but Pahor refused. In September 2009, after Jadranka Kosor became Croatia's Prime Minister, she reached an agreement  with Pahor, who subsequently announced an end to the 10-month blockade.
Blockade of negotiations in December 2008  Although previously Slovenia had sporadically slowed down the opening of new chapters between Croatia and the EU due to the border dispute, the new Prime Minister Borut Pahor immediately announced a total blockade when he came to power, accusing Croatia of prejudging the border in its border descriptions in the negotiation chapter with the EU. France, then the head of the EU presidency, moved to prevent a possible blockade. On 21 November 2008, Pahor gave a speech declaring that for the "last 14 days we have been in lively contact with the French EU presidency and are thankful for taking into consideration of our objections, so that the issue can be resolved on the adequate way".
Pahor stated that Slovenia supports Croatia joining the EU, but that he expects understanding from the EU for Slovenia's reservations due to the unresolved border issue. The Croatian government responded that it just gave maps to the EU for the negotiation process, which simply show the border based on the 1991 former Yugoslav republics' borders. Pahor stated that he will "study the French suggestion for a compromise, but only under the condition that the documents which were prepared by Croatia for the accession negotiations don't prejudge the state border and that both the European Commission and the Council of EU understand that stance".
Croatia's EU accession was thus set back by the following (7 December 2008) meeting of the 27 EU ministers of foreign affairs in Brussels. The ministers did not confirm the suggestion by the European Commission (EC) that Croatia's EU accession negotiations end by 2009; this was because of Slovenia's threat of a veto if the border dispute with Croatia was not resolved. As a consequence, the ministers did not record a conclusion date for the EU–Croatia negotiations. Croatia had initially hoped to join by 2010 or 2011. Italian foreign minister Pasquale Ferrara stated that "Member states, understandingly, do not want another border row inside the EU", concluding that one revolving around Cyprus is already enough.
Following a discussion with the EC, Pahor said, "Zagreb should accept the negotiation plan for the border dispute which was suggested by Slovenia to France". Pahor initially gave hints that Ljubljana was ready to find a solution at the negotiating table. "If Croatia does not open 10 chapters in December, it is obvious that it will not be able to close and conclude the negotiations by the end of 2009", said analyst Željko Trkanjec. Disputed documents On 19 December 2008 Slovenian Minister of foreign affairs Samuel Žbogar revealed to the Slovene public the documents from 7 chapters that Croatia was negotiating with the EU, and which were the main reason for the Slovenian negotiation blockade.
According to Žbogar, these were documents from the chapters Agriculture, Food safety, Veterinary & Phytosanitary Policy, Taxation, Infrastructure, Regional politics and structural instruments, Justice, Freedom and Security as well as Environment. In the chapter on agriculture, the disputed settlements on the left side of the Dragonja river (Škrile, Bužin, Škudelini, and Veli Mlin) were stated as part of Croatia. In food safety, the disputed point was the Croatian epicontinental area in the Adriatic sea. In the chapter on taxation, the border crossing Plovanija is explicitly stated, regarding the temporary border control point at Sečovlje; in 1994, the prime minister Nikica Valentić had explicitly and in writing stated that this control point does not prejudge the border.
In infrastructure, maps were enclosed that show the proposed sea border. In the area of regional policymaking, the stumbling point was the intervention plan in case of sea pollution, which mentions the ZERP, and maps were enclosed which show the proposed sea border. In the chapter on justice, maps were enclosed that show the border crossings, mentioning Plovanija and cadastral parcels from the cadastre which was created after 25 June 1991. In the chapter on the Environment, the ZERP was mentioned and maps were enclosed that show the proposed sea border. Minister Žbogar told the reporters that Slovenia must "protect its national interests" and that "Slovenia does not enjoy this position".
He added that for any arbitration Slovenia would not use documents that were created after 25 June 1991 and the Conference at Brijuni. On 23 June 2009, Slovenia blocked the closing of another chapter in Croatia's EU accession negotiations, Statistics, leaving Zagreb with a total of 13 blocked chapters. The explanation was that the statistics chapter contained maps with Croatia's borders pre-drawn against Slovenia's wishes. On 24 July 2009, Slovenia officially blocked the closing of the policy chapter Freedom of Movement for Workers in Croatia's EU accession talks, explaining similarly to before that in that chapter, too, Croatia had submitted documents "prejudging the Croatian-Slovene border"; this raised the number of blocked chapters to 14.
Slovenia was the only EU member country that withheld its consent for the closing of the Freedom of Movement for Workers chapter. Slovene officials said the reason for such a decision was that in its documents submitted to the European Commission, Croatia referred to the Act on the Office of Notary Public, which in turn referred to the Act on Towns and Municipalities and its list of towns and municipalities in Croatia, including four border villages in Istria that Slovenia disputes. A source in the Swedish EU Presidency said that despite the blockade, Croatia was continuing with reforms within the accession process; this was taken note of at the enlargement task force meeting.
French proposal for solving the blockade  The French proffered a simple document that would finish the dispute, namely a signed declaration of both sides that neither is prejudging the border. The Committee of Permanent Representatives  discussed over 3 days the Slovene-proposed amendments on the French proposal for unblocking the negotiation process; its chairman, French ambassador at the EU Pierre Sellal, stated that he is "in touch with the Slovene colleague in order to find a fair solution". All other member states were for the French proposal; only Slovenia was for the Slovene amendments. Sellal also said "One needs to understand that the negotiations of Croatia's EU accession cannot have the goal to resolve bilateral issues between Croatia and Slovenia.
I respect the Slovenian opinion, but I will try during the accession negotiations to prevent a possible predisposition of the border. These negotiations are neutral towards the bilateral and local relationships between Slovenia and Croatia". French Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner expressed his surprise at Slovenia's move to block Croatia just due to the dispute over a "few kilometres of coast". The Slovene correspondent to Večer from Brussels, Darja Kocbek, expressed her concern on the Razgledi portal that "Croatian lobbyists may be more successful than Slovenian lobbyists". Sarkozy used the upcoming second vote of Ireland for the Treaty of Lisbon 2009 to insert a protocol for the accession of Croatia into the EU.
Sarkozy told journalists: "To give a legal value to the engagements made to Ireland by the 26 other member states, we have committed that at the time of the next EU enlargement – whether that will be in 2010 or in 2011, when probably Croatia will join us... we will use that to add a protocol (on Ireland) to Croatia’s accession treaty.” The announcement confirmed that the Balkan country with an EU candidate status since 2004 and in EU accession talks since 2005 could effectively become the bloc’s 28th member state by 2011 at the latest". Pahor stated that unless all his terms are met, there would be no new momentum in the negotiation process.
Pahor told Sanader that he no longer had anything to discuss with him one to one and nothing more to say than he had already said in front of the media. On 19 December 2008 Slovenia officially blocked the opening of new chapters between the EU and Croatia. Slovenia remained the only EU member state that insisted on the blockade; the other 26 states approved the continuation of accession negotiation between Croatia and the EU. Pahor's government was criticized from outside; Hannes Swoboda declared that the EU should tell Ljubljana that "it doesn't go that way". Some questioned if Pahor's blockade was actually a red herring trying to gain concessions from both the EU and Croatia.
Commercial TV station POP TV conducted an internet poll in which 10,000 Slovenian viewers participated; 84% of them believe their government's blockade decision was "completely justified". The same station quoted Minister Žbogar who said that the maps displayed by Croatia were a "problem" to Slovenia and that they must not be used in arbitration. "If Croatia says that she won't give away her territory for the EU, the same goes for us", he said. Croatian president (at the time) Stipe Mesić said "This is not our problem any more, this is now Brussels' problem" in reaction to the blockade. He also said it was a mistake that would harm economic and other relations between Croatia and Slovenia.
"The blockade of 10 chapters, 8 for opening and 2 for closing, is a move without precedent in the history of the negotiations of European Union", said Croatia's then Prime Minister Ivo Sanader. "If it doesn't rethink its stance and change its decision of the blockade of Croatian negotiations, the Slovenian government will show exclusiveness, which is in discrepancy with the basic principles of solidarity, community, supranationalism and good neighbor relations on which the EU and the whole Europe are based", added Sanader in a special news conference summoned after the intent of Slovenia to put a blockade. A couple of anonymous groups on Croatian websites urged the Croatian public to boycott all Slovene products, even though Sanader urged the people not do so.
Bernd Posselt, the German representative at the European parliament, condemned on 18 December 2008 the Slovenian government's act of blockade, calling it "Anti-European aggression". Posselt, a representative of the Bavarian CSU Party in the European parliament, also called it an act of "ransom": "The Slovene socialist government is abusing its right for a veto. Because of a marginal bilateral dispute, Slovenia is blackmailing the middle European candidate country Croatia, excellently prepared for an EU accession, even though the deeply pro-European Croatian government expressed its readiness to let all the unresolved problems get resolved at the international arbitration a long time ago", he said.
He also added he feels "disappointed and double-crossed by Borut Pahor's administration, who previously promised a balanced and constructive relationship with Zagreb". The European Commission regretted Slovenia's decision to block Croatia. Crisztina Nagy, a commission spokeswoman, said "The commission has consistently maintained the view that the border issue is a bilateral issue that should not be brought to the table of the accession negotiations." Slovenia's threat to block Croatia's NATO accession  In January 2009, some Slovenian politicians started threatening to also block Croatia's accession into NATO. Slovene Prime Minister Borut Pahor stated his regret on 29 January of the move by the opposition Slovenian Democratic Party (SDS), which threatened to boycott the assembly that was supposed to decide about the ratification of accession protocols into NATO of the future member states Croatia and Albania; as a result, the assembly had to be postponed.
However, the Slovenian parliament ultimately ratified Croatia's NATO accession. An unforeseen complication arose when the small, extra-parliamentary Party of Slovenian Nation (SSN) and the Institute 25 June gathered over 5,000 signatures; according to the Slovenian Constitution, this gave it time until March 2009 to gather an additional 40,000 signatures to mandate a referendum on Croatia joining NATO. NATO then expressed concern about such a complication. Controversy erupted over claims that Andrej Šiško, a SSN member convicted for an attempted murder and sentenced to 22 months in prison, was released for a day in Rogoza to attend the negotiations of the highest body of his Party with Pahor about preventing a referendum.
The Večernji list columnist Milan Jajčinović wrote in response "Slovenia's Prime Minister Borut Pahor, it seems, got scared of the created madness he himself contributed to. And he is not the only Slovenian politician whose (ill) considered statements participated in creating intolerance towards Croatia...Problems with Croatia have already for years been exaggerated or even made up, and then such constructions are used to madden the masses... The tactic is always the same: at first a politician finds a grouch against Croatia, then the media publish it, the public gets upset and agitated, hysteria breaks out, and then those same politicians show up again, because 'the public opinion demands it'".
The referendum attempt was not successful (less than 2,500 more signatures were gathered), allowing Croatia to become a full NATO member in April 2009, although the process's constitutionality was questioned. Croatia's NATO membership prompted discussions about Pahor's wishing Croatia to join NATO but blocking it from joining the EU. EU proposal for mediation in the border dispute On 22 January 2009, the European Commission announced that it was ready to create a three-member committee to mediate in the border row. According to reports, Finland's Nobel prize winner Martti Ahtisaari and the French legal expert Robert Badinter were supposed to be members.
The report came out just a day after Olli Rehn visited politicians in Ljubljana and Zagreb. At first, Ivo Sanader rejected meeting with Pahor without European Commission participation, but he then decided to compromise and agreed. After numerous complications around the meeting's location and time, the meeting was held on 24 February 2009 in Macelj, but nothing significant was achieved. Subsequently, the Slovenian government blocked the Statistics accession negotiation chapter, totalling 13 blocked chapters in Croatia's EU membership talks. A second meeting was planned on 28 April 2009 in Croatia, but it was cancelled by the Slovenian side. On 17 April, Mesić re-stated his puzzlement regarding Pahor's blocking the accession talks instead of resolving the issue at the International Court of Justice: "I don't understand, why is Slovenia so afraid of International Law?
That's the only enigma I can't comprehend". In June 2009, Croatia accepted Rehn's proposal for an arbitration commission, but Slovenia rejected it and proposed four amendments. Out of four amendments proposed by Slovenia, Rehn accepted just one, for the three 'ad hoc' arbitrage judges to be selected by the two parties in dispute from a proposed list instead of the ICJ's president. However, Croatia refused this amendment after reviewing the list proposed, which mainly had 'legal experts' and not renowned judges, and decided for the original proposal, which Ljubljana rejected. At the same time, the Slovenian delegation also opposed this as it failed to guarantee a successful outcome.
Sanader proposed that the two parliaments ratify a statement that none of the documents presupposes the border, and should Slovenia not accept this, that European Commission lawyers should examine the documents to determine whether it is true. If Ljubljana should reject both proposals, "it is up to the EU to decide how the accession talks with Croatia should end and whether the article 7 of the EU contract should be activated", which implies revoking voting rights of a member country that is persistently violating EU principles. Sanader added that Pahor "should ask Berlusconi for some sea". On 1 July 2009, Croatia's prime minister Ivo Sanader unexpectedly resigned.
He held a brief news conference before announcing his decision. Jadranka Kosor succeeded him. Kosor–Pahor meetings and the end of the blockade  On 31 July 2009, the second meeting between the Croatian–Slovenian governments was held, this time in Croatia at the Trakošćan castle. The meeting between the newly appointed Croatian Prime Minister Jadranka Kosor and her Slovenian counterpart Borut Pahor was reportedly constructive and respectful. "We have found the road to take...I am very satisfied we [have] started to agree on issues in the interest of both countries", Kosor stated. Pahor argued it is likely that the border dispute's solution and EU access for Croatia will be accomplished this year.
One solution could be an area of shared sovereignty (possibly involving joint governance structures) over the Savudrija Cove, also known as the Piran Bay. On 11 September 2009, Kosor and Pahor met in Ljubljana, and agreed on the final details of an agreement to end the blockade. After Kosor sent a letter from Ljubljana to the EU presidency announcing Croatia does not wish to prejudge the border and that border dispute negotiations will take place under EU supervision, Pahor said that Slovenia's blockade will soon be lifted. Pahor said his government would immediately propose to the Slovenian parliament that "Slovenia removes restraints for Croatia's EU negotiating process".
For her part, Croatia's prime minister said she had faxed a letter to the Swedish EU presidency saying they had "reached an agreement on the continuation of talks with the EU and continuation of the border talks... No document can be prejudicial to the final border solution", she added. Pahor claimed it was a "victory for both countries". Delo editorialized that this Slovenian/Croatian agreement was a "return to common sense". The Slovene People's Party (SLS) announced that it would start collecting signatures of support for a referendum on the arbitration agreement between Slovenia and Croatia that is to determine the manner in which the final border between the two countries is to be set down.
Kosor and Pahor met again on 26 October 2009 in Zagreb and worked out the final proposal of an arbitration agreement. On 2 November 2009 the Croatian Parliament gave its consent to the Arbitration Agreement with Slovenia. The Arbitration Agreement between Croatia and Slovenia was signed in Stockholm on 4 November 2009, by both countries' prime ministers, Jadranka Kosor and Borut Pahor, and the EU President, Fredrik Reinfeldt. Despite the agreement, the Slovenian government did not lift the blockade of three chapters – on the environment, on fisheries, and on foreign security and defence policy. Samuel Žbogar, Slovenia's foreign minister, declared in December 2009 that his government had "reservations" about the three chapters' substance.
However, a Slovenian referendum was held on 6 June 2010 on approving an agreement to bring the border dispute with Croatia before an international arbitration tribunal. The agreement was supported by 51.48% of voters and opposed by 48.52%, allowing arbitration to resolve the border dispute. Arbitration tribunal On 25 May 2011 Croatia and Slovenia submitted their arbitration agreement to the UN, a necessary step before the arbitration process could begin. The treaty specifies that the arbitration process will happen after UN registration and Croatia's signing of its accession into the European Union. "It has been decided that an ad-hoc arbitral tribunal will be used to resolve the outstanding disputes.
It is now believed that with the submission of the agreement to the UN that the arbitration tribunal could begin within a year, but is expected to take at least three years to reach a decision that will be binding upon each country." Slovenian breach of agreement and Croatian withdrawal   On 22 July 2015, a major international scandal occurred during arbitration procedure when the Croatian daily newspaper Večernji list published transcripts and audio recordings showing that a Slovenian judge on the arbitration panel, Jernej Sekolec, had been in collusion with Simona Drenik, a representative from the Slovenian government. Sekolec, a member of the arbitration panel, allegedly put pressure on other arbitration panel members, Gilbert Guillaume (France), Bruno Simma (Germany) and Vaughan Lowe (UK), to rule in Slovenia's favor, and helped Slovenia by revealing secret communications, which was strictly forbidden by arbitration rules.
In addition, Croatian Foreign Minister Vesna Pusić stated on 29 July 2015, during the meeting with foreign ambassadors to Croatia, that Sekolec inserted additional documents into the case files after the arbitration had already started which was also against the arbitration rules. A Permanent Court of Arbitration internal investigation, however, concluded that no leak of information had occurred. On 23 July, Sekolec resigned and Simona Drenik offered her resignation. On 24 July 2015, the Croatian government called for a meeting of the Sabor to discuss exiting  arbitration over the reported breaches in the arbitration tribunal. Three days later Prime Minister Zoran Milanović announced the withdrawal of Croatia from arbitration after a meeting with the leaders of parliamentary groups.
On 28 July 2015 Slovenia appointed Ronny Abraham, president of the International Court of Justice as their choice on arbitration panel. On 29 July 2015, the Croatian Parliament unanimously decided to cancel arbitration due to the allegations of significant breaches of arbitration rules by Slovenia as allowed by the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. On 5 August 2015, after eight days in service, Ronny Abraham resigned. The president of the tribunal appointed Rolf Einar Fife of Norway and Nicolas Michel of Switzerland as new arbitrators for Slovenia and Croatia, respectively, on 25 September, to replenish the tribunal's open seats and to proceed with its work.
On 2 December 2015, the arbitral tribunal deciding on the border between Slovenia and Croatia asked both countries for additional submissions concerning Croatia's decision to unilaterally withdraw from arbitration and scheduled a hearing on 17 March 2016. On 1 July 2016, the arbitral tribunal decided that Slovenia did violate the agreement, but not in a way that would prevent the tribunal from completing the task and stated that arbitration shall continue. Verdict  On 29 June 2017, the Arbitration Tribunal announced its decision in the border dispute. The ruling was hailed by Slovenia but Croatia announced that it will not accept it because it left the trial in 2015.
Mura River region In respect of the Mura River region, the Tribunal determined that generally, the international boundary follows the aligned cadastral limits. Regarding the hamlet of Brezovec-del/Murišće, the Tribunal determined that the boundary between Croatia and Slovenia runs to the south-east of the settlement. In the areas of Novakovec, Ferketinec, and Podturen in Croatia and Pince in Slovenia, the boundary continues to follow the limits of the cadastres of Croatia and Slovenia as they stood before the purported modifications in 1956. Regarding Mursko Središće and Peklenica, the Tribunal determined that the boundary is in the middle of the Mura River as recorded in the agreed 1956 Minutes on the Determination of the Borders of the Cadastral District of Peklenica.
Central Region The boundary in the Razkrižje area follows the aligned cadastral limits, as well as in the case of Santavec River and Zelena River areas. Along the Drava River, the Tribunal determined that the boundary follows the aligned cadastral limits, which run along a series of historic boundary stones recorded in a 1904 protocol. The boundaries in the  Slovenian region of Macelj and the Croatian region of Haloze are set out in Slovenia's cadastre. Along the disputed areas along the Sotla River, the Tribunal determined tha the boundary generally follows the cadastral limits where aligned, two disputed areas follow the Croatia's cadastral register.
Along the Sava and Bregana Rivers, the border follows the aligned cadastral limits. In the Gorjanci/Žumberak area, where cadastral boundaries on Slovenian and Croatian cadastral maps coincide, they are the borders of the disputed areas. In one location where the cadasters did not coincide, the Slovenian cadaster prevailed over an 1898 Croatian cadastral map. The settlement of Drage lies in Slovenia. The Tribunal declared that in the Trdinov Vrh/Sveta Gera area, the border follows the cadastral limits. The barracks are on Croatian territory; however, the Tribunal "observes that it has no jurisdiction to address Croatia’s request for a declaration as to the presence of Slovenian civilian and military personnel in that area".
Along the Kamenica River, the border follows Croatia's claim. Along Čabranka River, the border follows the cadastral limits. The same holds for the area near Črneča Vas. The boundary near the hamlets of Draga and Novi Kot in Slovenia and Prezid in Croatia was demarcated in 1913. Istria Region The area referred to as the "Tomšič plots" is located in Slovenia. The area near Gomance forms part of Slovenia's territory. In the case of areas near Klana and Zabiče on the one hand and Lisac and Sušak on the other hand, the border follows the cadastral map from 1878. The area of Kućibreg/Topolovec is divided according to the Croatian claim.
The Tribunal has decided that land border in Istria follows the Dragonja river and ends in the middle of the Channel of St. Odorik. Bay of Piran and junction regime The Tribunal has decided and that maritime border should be a straight line that connects the land border at the mouth of the Dragonja River to the point at the end of the gulf, which is three times closer to Croatia then to the Slovenian side, therefore awarding Slovenia 3/4 of the gulf. In addition, the Tribunal ruled that Slovenia has a right for junction through the Croatian territorial water which, according to the Tribunal, should be 2.5 nautical miles wide and would be connected to the border.
International reactions   - Austrian President Alexander Van der Bellen said during his visit to Slovenia in May 2017, that he believed that Slovenia and Croatia should accept the verdict. In July 2017, during official visits of Croatian and Slovene Presidents in Salzburg, he stated that countries should accept the verdict as a crucial step in finding a permanent solution to the border dispute, that his country would stay neutral in the matter and has offered help in resolving dispute. Austrian Foreign Minister Karin Kneissl supported Slovenian position about implementation of Final Award after meeting with Foreign Minister Erjavec on 20 March 2018.
- Prime Ministers Xavier Bettel, Mark Rutte and Charles Michel issued a joint statement in which they supported the verdict and called on "both parties to adhere to an arbitrary decision-making structure." European Union - On 4 July 2017, European Commission issued an official statement in which it expressed its support for the arbitration procedure and final award, adding that Slovenia and Croatia should accept and implement it. Vice-President of the European Commission Frans Timmermans stated that both Croatia and Slovenia should respect the verdict, adding that EC will help in verdict's implementation but that EC would not order implementation since it's a bilateral issue which is not within the scope of the EU.
In the Minutes of the Meeting from 4 July 2017 EC once more said that Slovenia did act in violation of Arbitration Agreement, however, PCA stated in the Partial Award, that the violation was not of such nature, that it would influence the Final Award of the tribunal and that the judge involved in the violation of the agreement was replaced by another judge. Vice-President Timmermans said that EC unequivocally supported the process. The Legal Service of the EC stated during the meeting that the EU has a jurisdiction in respect of this matter and that it is obligation of the EU and Member States to implement public international law (Final Award by the PCA).
High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Federica Mogherini stressed the importance of respecting international treaties. Manfred Weber, leader of the European People's Party Group, said that "Croatia and Slovenia should continue the dialogue about the border dispute", while Guy Verhofstadt, leader of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group, called on implementation of the verdict. In January 2020, following Slovenia's action against Croatia before the European Court of Justice, the Court ruled that it had no jurisdiction to rule on the dispute and merely urged both sides to resolve their differences. The decision was final and there was no appeal.
- French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Development didn't issue an official statement on the matter, but wrote on its web site in a section in which it responds to journalists' questions that France "hopes that territorial controversy will soon be resolved in a constructive spirit, a spirit of reconciliation and dialogue, that would be in favor of the European Union and regional stability of the Western Balkans". During 2017 Bled Strategic Forum, French Minister for European Affairs Nathalie Loiseau expressed her support for the "principle of respect for international law and decisions of international courts". - German Embassy in Croatia issued a statement in which it praised International Arbitration Tribunal as a "valuable instrument of international law" and has called on implementation of the verdict, adding that "member states of the European union must make a good example for others."
German Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel stated, during the press conference in Berlin in June 2017, that Germany "calls upon both countries to accept the verdict and implement it". According to the Slovenian Prime Minister Miro Cerar, German Chancellor Angela Merkel confirmed to him during their meeting at a 2017 Western Balkans Summit that her government  believes that verdict should be implemented. - Prime Minister Paolo Gentiloni stated during the state visit to Slovenia that Italy supported the position of the European Commission. - Russian Minister of Communications and Mass Media Nikolay Nikiforov stated during his visit to Slovenia that the verdict should be implemented, but that Slovenia shouldn't interrupt bilateral dialogue on resolving other opened disputes between the countries.
- United States embassy in Croatia confirmed to the Večernji List that the official stance  of the United States is that "two countries, both EU members and allies in NATO, need to resolve this bilateral issue" and that they "encourage both countries to agree on the best path to its solution". Potential OECD accession blockade  On 6 September 2017, Slovenia informed the Deputy Permanent Representatives of EU Member States that it could not support membership in the OECD "if a particular country does not meet the membership criteria (especially the rule of law, respecting the international law and international courts)", referring to Croatia's rejection of the arbitration verdict, although Slovenian Prime Minister Miro Cerar later added that the warning wasn't meant just for Croatia, but for any other country.
Croatian Foreign Ministry pointed out that Slovenia's position was against the stance of the European Commission which since 2007 advocates ascension of all EU member states to the OECD. Implementation of the arbitration and further development On September 14, 2017, Croatian Prime Minister Andrej Plenković held consultations with representatives of all Croatian parliamentary parties on the border dispute on which they concluded that they still supported decision of the Croatian Parliament on Croatia's withdrawal from the arbitration process, and that it's necessary to continue the dialogue with the Slovenian government. Croatian daily newspaper Jutarnji list published an article in which it revealed that the Prime Minister Plenković was planning to suggest defining a neutral common fishing zone in the middle of the Bay which would be used both by Croatian and Slovenian fishermen under the same conditions.
This solution is similar to the idea of the academician Davorin Rudolf who proposed that the Bay should be governed as condominium which means that it wouldn't be divided nor would it be extraterritorial, but that both Croatia and Slovenia would have sovereignty over it simultaneously. Slovenian Prime Minister Miro Cerar expressed satisfaction with the "reconciliatory tones of the Croatian Prime Minister" and stressed that bilateral talks should focus on "how to jointly enforce the tribunal's verdict", adding that his government would consider new suggestions referring to the condominium proposition, but that his stance is that the verdict should still be implemented.
According to the map of the neutral common fishing zone given to the president of Croatian fishermen's association Mare Croaticum Daniele Kolec by the fisheries administration at the Croatian Ministry of Agriculture, the border on the sea, between Croatia and Slovenia is drawn according to the arbitration verdict. Two Prime Ministers arranged an official meeting on September 29, 2017 but the Slovenian Prime Minister has canceled meeting because of Prime Minister Plenković's statement on arbitration at the UN. Namely, Prime Minister Plenković stated in his speech before the UN General Assembly that Croatia had to come out of "a compromised arbitration" on the border dispute with Slovenia and warned that such "Slovenian disrespect of international law" would discourage other states from settling disputes with the help of a third party, adding that "Croatia is the one that adheres to the principles international law".
On 19 December 2017, Slovenian Prime Minister Miro Cerar met with Croatian Prime Minister Andrej Plenković in Zagreb. After the several-hour-long meeting, the prime ministers confirmed their previous standpoints, with Cerar stating that Croatia "works against civilization standards and good neighborly relations," and Plenković replying that arbitration ruling was "non-existent" and that 29 December would be a "day as any other". On 29 December 2017, Slovenia started implementing arbitration ruling but only on sea while Croatia continued to oppose it. Several Croatian fishermen normally sailed at 4–5 a.m. and returned to the ports around 8 a.m. According to one fisherman, Slovenian police approached his boat and told him to leave the "Slovenian sea", but Croatian police arrived and parked between them, and after he finished fishing, escorted him to the port.
Another stated that "Slovenian police officers always come to us if we work, they monitor us, say that we are in their waters, warn us, but they do not touch us, and our police is always next to us." Slovenian Foreign Ministry sent two diplomatic notes on the implementation of arbitration ruling to Croatia. In the first, it called Croatia for a dialogue on the implementation of the arbitration ruling, and in the second expressed protest against "the violation of the borderline at sea". In response, Croatian Foreign Ministry called on Slovenia to "refrain from the unilateral implementation of measures aimed at attempting to change the situation in the field" and on "a constructive dialogue on resolutions of border disputes".
In March 2018 Slovenia submitted a letter of complaint against Croatia to the European Commission. After the Commission refused to get involved, declaring neutrality, Slovenia brought an action against Croatia before the European Court of Justice in July 2018 asking the court to establish whether Croatia had breached articles of the EU treaty on respect for the rule of law and cooperation between member states. Slovenia also accused Croatia of violating the Common Fisheries Policy by sending police escorts to guard its fishing boats in contested waters, and preventing Slovenian inspectors from boarding the vessels. In January 2020 the Court of Justice said it had no jurisdiction to rule on the dispute and merely urged both sides to resolve their differences.
The decision is final and there is no appeal. See also  Croatia–Slovenia relations  Croatia–Serbia border dispute  References  External links       Orthophoto and Topographic maps of the area, centered at Joras's house, from the Geodesic Institute of Slovenia     Border disputes *Disputes Slovenia Croatia Category:Politics of Slovenia Category:Politics of Croatia Category:Enlargement of the European Union Category:Blockades Category:Nationalism Category:2000s in Croatia Category:2000s in Slovenia Category:21st century in international relations Category:2000s in the European Union Category:2010s in the European Union Category:2010s in Slovenia Category:2010s in Croatia
Echinopsis schickendantzii is a cactus found in Northwestern Argentina in provinces of Salta and Tucumán at elevations of 1600 to 3200 meters. Description Echinopsis schickendantzii grows shrubby, occasionally solitary, but usually branches out from the base and forms clumps. The cylindrical to elongated, shiny light green shoots are 15 to 25 centimeters long and have diameters of up to 6 centimeters. There are 14 to 18 low and somewhat sharp ribs that are notched. The areoles on it are very close together and occasionally even touch. The yellowish thorns originating from the areoles are flexible and up to 1 centimeter long.
Four central spines are formed. Occasionally the number increases with age. There are nine marginal spines. The hypanthium is tubular to funnel-shaped, white, unscented flowers appear near the top of the shoot and open at night. They are 20 to 22 inches long. The flower tube is densely hairy black. The spherical, dark green fruits are sweet and tear open. They have a length of up to 6 centimeters and a diameter of 5 centimeters. Systematics The plant was First description by Frédéric Albert Constantin Weber was published in 1896. The epithet schickendantzii honors the German chemist Friedrich Schickendantz (1837–1896), who immigrated to Argentina in 1861.
References  External links      schickendantzii Category:Cacti of South America Category:Flora of Argentina
The World Health Report (WHR) is a series of annual reports produced by the World Health Organization (WHO). First published in 1995, the World Health Report is WHO's leading publication. The reports were published every year from 1995 to 2008, and again in 2010 and 2013. The reports are available in multiple languages, an include an expert assessment of a specific global health topic, relating to all countries that are Member States of the organization. The main purpose of the WHR is to provide policymakers, donor agencies, international organizations and others with the information they need to help them make appropriate health policy and funding decisions.
However, the report is also accessible to a wider audience, such as universities, journalists and the public at large. It is expected that anyone, with a professional or personal interest in international health issues, will be able to read and take use of it. List of themes by year  Each WHR addresses a different theme. The following is a list of reports and themes.
2013: Research for universal health coverage  2010: Health systems financing: The path to universal coverage 2008: Primary health care: Now more than ever 2007: A safer future: global public health security in the 21st century 2006: Working together for health 2005: Make every mother and child count 2004: Changing history 2003: Shaping the future  2002: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life 2001: Mental health: new understanding, new hope 2000: Health systems: improving performance 1999: Making a difference 1998: Life in the 21st century: a vision for all 1997: Conquering suffering, enriching humanity 1996: Fighting disease, fostering development 1995: Bridging the gaps  WHR 2013: Research for universal health coverage   The World Health Report 2013 focuses on the importance of research in advancing progress towards universal health care coverage – in other words, full access to high-quality services for prevention, treatment and financial risk protection.
The report advocates for increased international and national investment in research aimed specifically at improving coverage of health services within and between countries. Examples of required research include medical research, or investigating the causes of ill-health and the interventions needed to improve health and wellbeing, as well as health services research, focusing on how to expand service coverage and reduce inequities in coverage. Previous reports  2010: Health Systems Financing  The World Health Report 2010 focused on the topic of universal health care coverage, and how countries can modify their financing systems to move towards this goal. The report provided an action agenda for countries at all stages of development, and proposed ways that the international community can better support efforts in low-income countries to achieve universal coverage and improve population health outcomes.
2008: Primary health care The theme of the World Health Report 2008 was the renewal of primary health care, and the need for health systems to respond better and faster to the health care challenges of a changing world. 2007: Global public health security  The main concern of the World Health Report 2007 was how the world is at increasing risk of disease outbreaks, epidemics, industrial accidents, natural disasters and other health emergencies which can rapidly become threats to global public health security. The report described how the new International Health Regulations help countries to work together to identify risks and act to contain and control them.
2006: Working together for health  The World Health Report 2006 (WHR2006) highlighted the estimated shortage of almost 4.3 million doctors, nurses, midwives, and other health human resources worldwide, calling the situation a "global health workforce crisis". The report laid out a ten-year action plan for building national health workforces through better training, recruitment and management processes. 2005: Make every mother and child count The World Health Report 2005 focused on the fact that almost 11 million children under five years of age die annually from causes that are largely preventable, and another half a million women die in pregnancy, childbirth or soon after.
The report said that reducing this toll in line with the Millennium Development Goals would depend largely on every mother and every child having the right to access to health care from pregnancy through childbirth, the neonatal period and childhood. 2004: Changing history  The topic of the World Health Report 2004 was the global HIV/AIDS pandemic. 2003: Shaping the future The World health report 2003 examined the global health situation and some of the major threats to health. The report advocated that major improvements in health for all were within reach, and that progress depended on collaboration among governments, international institutions, the private sector and civil society to build stronger health systems.
2002: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life The World health report 2002 described the amount of disease, disability and death in the world that could be attributed to a selected number of the most important risks to human health. It projected how much this burden could lowered in the next 20 years if the same risk factors were reduced. 2001: Mental health The largely neglected area of mental health was the core focus of the World health report 2001. 2000: Health systems: improving performance The World Health Report 2000 introduced a conceptual framework and measurement approach to examine and compare aspects of health systems around the world, and better understand the complex factors that explain how health systems perform.<ref>[http://www.who.int/whr/2000/en/index.html World Health Organization: The world health report 2000 - Health systems: improving performance.
"]</ref> The report provided an assessment of the performance of national health systems for all countries. See also  World Health DayWorld report on disabilityBulletin of the World Health OrganizationEastern Mediterranean Health JournalHuman Resources for Health journal U-ReportPan American Journal of Public HealthWHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health''  References  External links Official World Health Organization page on the World Health Report  Category:World Health Organization Category:Global health Category:United Nations documents Category:Publications established in 1995 Category:Irregular journals
Rajahmundry Rural mandal, officially known as Rajamahendravaram Rural mandal, is one of the 59 mandals in East Godavari district of the state of Andhra Pradesh, India. The mandal is bounded by Seethanagaram mandal, Korukonda mandal, Rajanagaram mandal, Kadiam mandal and Atreyapuram mandal. Demographics    census, the mandal had a population of 166,973. The total population constitute, 82,544 males and 84,429 females —a sex ratio of 1023 females per 1000 males. 17,423 children are in the age group of 0–6 years, of which 8,809 are boys and 8,614 are girls —a ratio of 978 per 1000. The average literacy rate stands at 76.49% with 114,391 literates.
Governance   Rajahmundry (rural) mandal is a part of "Greater Rajamahendravaram Municipal Corporation (GRMC)". References  Category:Mandals in East Godavari district
Ray Metcalfe (born August 29, 1950) is a politician and political activist in Alaska. Metcalfe has served in the Alaska House of Representatives as a Republican, and later ran unsuccessfully for the United States Senate as a Democrat. Personal life Ray Metcalfe was born on the Crow Indian Reservation in Montana, where he lived until he left home at the age of 15. He spent the next few years hitchhiking around the country, attending high schools in multiple cities and states until graduating from Billings Senior High School in Billings, Montana in 1969. He then hitchhiked to Alaska, arriving June 5, 1969 with a bedroll, a backpack and $52.00 in his pocket.
His life in Alaska alternated between Alaska's oil fields and college, studying business and history until he opened Metcalfe Real Estate Company in 1976, which he operates to this day. Political career Metcalfe was twice elected to the Alaska House of Representatives as a Republican. He formed the Republican Moderate Party of Alaska in 1986, to oppose the religious right who he felt had invaded and taken over the Republican Party. Shortly after Metcalfe formed the RMP, the leaders of the Republican Party sued him for forming a group using the term "Republican" without their permission. Metcalfe won in Superior Court and the Republican Party did not appeal.
The Superior Court declared Metcalfe to be a "Public Litigant," "litigating in the public interest in defense of free speech for all." Consequently, under Alaska's court rules, the new leaders of the Republican Party were ordered to pay all Metcalfe's attorney fees. In 2006, Metcalfe ran as a Democrat for the sole U.S. House seat from Alaska, coming in second to Diane Benson by receiving 34% of the vote in the Democratic primary. In 2008 the Republican Moderate Party was dissolved and the Citizens For Ethical Government Inc., a non profit political watchdog group, was created. Metcalfe again declared he was running as a Democrat, this time for the US Senate seat held by Ted Stevens, but he lost in the 2008 Democratic primary.
In 2016, Metcalfe lost his bid to become regional Co-Chair of the Anchorage branch of the Alaska Democratic Party to Joshua Spring by a two to one margin. In the August 16, 2016 primary, Metcalfe won the Democratic nomination to oppose Republican U.S. Senator Lisa Murkowski. On November 8, 2016 he placed fourth in the general election behind Murkowski (44%), Libertarian Joe Miller (30%), and Independent Margaret Stock (14%). Metcalfe received 11% of the vote.
See also  United States Senate election in Alaska, 2008 United States Senate election in Alaska, 2016  References  External links  Ray Metcalfe for US Senate 2016 on Facebook  Citizens for Ethical Government Inc. official website    Follow the Money — Ray Metcalf  2002 2000 House campaign contributions  1998 Governor/Lieutenant Governor campaign contributions  Ray Metcalfe at 100 Years of Alaska's Legislature  Category:1950 births Category:20th-century American politicians Category:21st-century American politicians Category:Alaska Democrats Category:Alaska Republicans Category:American real estate businesspeople Category:Businesspeople from Anchorage, Alaska Category:Candidates in the 2006 United States elections Category:Candidates in the 2008 United States elections Category:Candidates in the 2016 United States elections Category:Living people Category:Members of the Alaska House of Representatives Category:Politicians from Anchorage, Alaska Category:Politicians from Billings, Montana Category:Republican Moderate Party of Alaska politicians Category:State political party chairs of Alaska
A liver shot or liver punch is a punch, kick, or knee strike to the right side of the ribcage that damages the liver. Blunt force to the liver can be excruciatingly painful, and an especially effective shot will incapacitate a person at once. Thus, in combat sports, liver shots often result in technical knockouts (TKOs). A liver punch is usually made with the left hand, or the left hook in infighting, or the regular short body hook, in a short and quick manner. The drive is usually made under and to the front of the ninth and tenth ribs upward to the base of the shoulder blade toward the spine.
The punch shocks the liver, the largest gland organ, and a center of blood circulation, and causes the victim to lose focus and drive, and can cause a breathless feeling in the victim. It is usually delivered when feinting an opponent to lead with his right, which leaves the body exposed; the attacker then steps in and delivers a short, stiff uppercut, over the liver, which will likely leave the average man incapacitated. Most of the time, however, a liver punch is unintentional. It begins as a left hook to the body, but as the defending boxer puts his elbow down and begins to roll with the punch, the back is exposed.
Thus, the attacking boxer is frequently offered either the arm or the back of the ribs, the latter of which he will usually take instead. Front kicks and spinning back kicks, which are commonly associated with karate and taekwondo, can also target the liver to great effect. Examples   Notable examples of liver shots in combat sport include:   Bas Rutten repeatedly knocked down Jason DeLucia with liver punches during their 1996 Pancrase fight, rupturing DeLucia's liver and earning a TKO victory. Micky Ward knocked down Arturo Gatti with a liver punch in May 2002. Mirko Filipović knocked down Heath Herring with his signature left roundhouse kick to the liver in June 2003.
Bernard Hopkins knocked Oscar De La Hoya out with a liver shot in 2004. Amir Khan knocked Marcos Maidana down in the first round of their fight with a liver shot in 2010. Alistair Overeem knocked down Brock Lesnar with a liver kick at UFC 141, December 2011. Gennady Golovkin knocked Matthew Macklin out with a liver shot in June 2013. Daniel Geale sent Darren Barker to the canvas in the sixth round of their fight with a liver shot in 2013. Ronda Rousey knocked Sara McMann down with a knee to the liver at UFC 170, February 2014. Lyoto Machida knocked down C.B.
Dollaway with a liver kick in December 2014. Canelo Alvarez knocked out Liam Smith following a devastating left hook to the liver in round 9. September 2016. Anderson Silva rocked Daniel Cormier with a left kick to the liver late in the final third round at UFC 200, July 2016. Jake Ellenberger knocked Matt Brown down with a left kick to the liver at UFC 201, July 2016. Olivier Aubin-Mercier knocked  Evan Dunham down with a knee to the liver at UFC 225, April 2018. Vasyl Lomachenko tko'd Jorge Linares in the 10th round to win the WBA Lightweight title, and become the fastest man in history to become a three division champion, on May 12, 2018.
Poliana Botelho knocked Syuri Kondo down with a left kick to the liver at UFC Fight Night: Maia vs. Usman, May 2018. Ben Saunders knocked Jake Ellenberger down with a short knee to the liver at UFC Fight Night 131: Rivera vs. Moraes, June 2018. Jose Aldo knocked Jeremy Stephens down with a left punch to the liver at UFC_on_Fox:_Alvarez_vs._Poirier_2, July 2018. Canelo Alvarez defeated Rocky Fielding by TKO after repeatedly downing Fielding with liver shots, December 2018. Michal Oleksiejczuk knocked Gian Villante out with a left punch to the liver at UFC Fight Night: Błachowicz vs. Santos, February 2019.
Stipe Miocic used repeated liver shots in the 4th round of his second fight against Daniel Cormier. The liver shots weakened Cormier and allowed Miocic to setup the final flurry of punches which resulted in a TKO and Miocic regaining the Heavyweight title at UFC 241, August 2019. References  Category:Terminology used in multiple sports Category:Boxing terminology Category:Kickboxing terminology Category:Martial arts terminology Category:Strikes (martial arts)
1700 Pacific is a skyscraper located at 1700 Pacific Avenue in the City Center District of Dallas, Texas. The building rises 655 feet (132 meters) and contains 49 floors of office space. It is currently the seventh tallest building in the city and was the second tallest in the city when it was completed in 1983, trailing only Renaissance Tower. The land on which 1700 Pacific sits was once two triangular blocks separated by Live Oak Street. In 1977 one of the triangular blocks was purchased by Dallas Transit Board for a major transit interchange on a proposed underground transit system  The architect for the Tower was WZMH Architects.
Berkeley First City L.P. first owned the building while Jones Lang LaSalle leased the building. Now, the current owner is Olymbec, who also manages the leasing. Olymbec is responsible for renovations throughout the building in 2016. In 2008 Jones Lang LaSalle announced that a  fitness center named "Elevation" would move into 1700 Pacific. See also   List of tallest buildings in Dallas  References  External links  1700 Pacific official website    1700 Pacific at Skyscraper Center  Category:Skyscraper office buildings in Dallas Category:Office buildings completed in 1983 Category:WZMH Architects buildings
Leicester City Football Club is an English professional football club based in Leicester in the East Midlands, The club competes in the Premier League, England's top division of football league system and The team plays it's home matches at the King Power Stadium. The club was founded in 1884 as Leicester Fosse F.C., playing on a field near Fosse Road. They moved to Filbert Street in 1891, were elected to the Football League in 1894 and adopted the name Leicester City in 1919. They moved to the nearby Walkers Stadium in 2002, which was renamed the King Power Stadium in 2011.
Leicester won the 2015–16 Premier League, their first top-level football championship. They are one of only six clubs to have won the Premier League since its inception in 1992. A number of newspapers described Leicester's title win as the greatest sporting shock ever; multiple bookmakers had never paid out at such long odds for any sport. As a result, the team was dubbed "The Unbelievables", a spin-off harking back to Arsenal's undefeated team "The Invincibles". The club's previous highest finish was second place in the top flight, in 1928–29, then known as the First Division. Throughout their history, Leicester have spent all but one season in the top two divisions of English football.
They hold a joint-highest seven second-tier titles (six Second Division and one Championship). The club have been FA Cup finalists four times, won the League Cup three times, and competed in four European campaigns. History  Founding and early years (1884–1949) Formed in 1884 by a group of old boys of Wyggeston School as "Leicester Fosse", the club joined The Football Association (FA) in 1890. Before moving to Filbert Street in 1891, the club played at five different grounds, including Victoria Park south-east of the city centre and the Belgrave Road Cycle and Cricket Ground. The club also joined the Midland League in 1891, and were elected to Division Two of the Football League in 1894 after finishing second.
Leicester's first ever Football League game was a 4–3 defeat at Grimsby Town, with a first League win the following week, against Rotherham United at Filbert Street. The same season also saw the club's largest win to date, a 13–0 victory over Notts Olympic in an FA Cup qualifying game. In 1907–08 the club finished as Second Division runners-up, gaining promotion to the First Division, the highest level of English football. However, the club were relegated after a single season which included the club's record defeat, a 12–0 loss against Nottingham Forest. In 1919, when League football resumed after World War I, Leicester Fosse ceased trading due to financial difficulties of which little is known.
The club was reformed as "Leicester City Football Club", particularly appropriate as the borough of Leicester had recently been given city status. Following the name change, the club enjoyed moderate success in the 1920s; under the management of Peter Hodge, who left in May 1926 to be replaced two months later by Willie Orr, and with record goalscorer Arthur Chandler in the side, they won the Division Two title in 1924–25 and recorded their second-highest league finish in 1928–29 as runners-up by a single point to Sheffield Wednesday. However the 1930s saw a downturn in fortunes, with the club relegated in 1934–35 and, after promotion in 1936–37, another relegation in 1938–39 would see them finish the decade in Division Two.
Post-World War II (1949–2000) City reached the FA Cup final for the first time in their history in 1949, losing 3–1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers. The club, however, was celebrating a week later when a draw on the last day of the season ensured survival in Division Two. Leicester won the Division Two championship in 1954, with the help of Arthur Rowley, one of the club's most prolific strikers. Although they were relegated from Division One the next season, under Dave Halliday they returned in 1957, with Rowley scoring a club record 44 goals in one season. Leicester remained in Division One until 1969, their longest period ever in the top flight.
Under the management of Matt Gillies and his assistant Bert Johnson, Leicester reached the FA Cup final on another two occasions, but lost in both 1961 and 1963. As they lost to double winners Tottenham Hotspur in 1961, they were England's representatives in the 1961–62 European Cup Winners' Cup. In the 1962–63 season, the club led the First Division during the winter, thanks to a sensational run of form on icy and frozen pitches the club became nicknamed the "Ice Kings" eventually placed fourth, the club's best post-war finish. Gillies guided Leicester to their first piece of silverware in 1964, when Leicester beat Stoke City 4–3 on aggregate to win the League Cup for the first time.
Leicester also reached the League Cup final the following year, but lost 3–2 on aggregate to Chelsea. Gillies and Johnson received praise for their version of the "whirl" and the "switch" system, a system that had previously been used by the Austrian and Hungarian national teams. After a bad start to the season, Matt Gillies resigned in November 1968. His successor, Frank O'Farrell was unable to prevent relegation, but the club reached the FA Cup final in 1969 for the last time to date, losing to Manchester City 1–0. In 1971, Leicester were promoted back to Division One, and won the Charity Shield for the only time.
Unusually, due to double winners Arsenal's commitments in European competition, Division Two winners Leicester were invited to play FA Cup runners-up Liverpool, beating them 1–0 thanks to a goal by Steve Whitworth. Jimmy Bloomfield was appointed for the new season, and his team remained in the First Division for his tenure. No period since Bloomfield has seen the club remain in the top division for so long. Leicester reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1973–74. Frank McLintock, a noted player for seven years for Leicester in a successful period from the late Fifties to the mid Sixties, succeeded Jimmy Bloomfield in 1977.
City were relegated at the end of the 1977–78 season and McLintock resigned. Jock Wallace resumed the tradition of successful Scottish managers (after Peter Hodge and Matt Gillies) by steering Leicester to the Division Two championship in 1980. Unfortunately, Wallace was unable to keep Leicester in Division One, but they reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1982. Under Wallace, one of City's most famous home-grown players, Gary Lineker, emerged into the first team squad. Leicester's next manager was Gordon Milne, who achieved promotion in 1983. Lineker helped Leicester maintain their place in the First Division but was sold to Everton in 1985 and two years later Leicester were relegated, having failed to find a suitable replacement to partner Alan Smith, who was sold to Arsenal after Leicester went down.
Milne left in 1986 and was replaced in 1987 by David Pleat, who was sacked in January 1991 with Leicester in danger of relegation to the Third Division. Gordon Lee was put in charge of the club until the end of the season. Leicester won their final game of the season, which guided them clear of relegation to the third tier of the football league. Brian Little took over in 1991 and by the end of the 1991–92 season Leicester had reached the playoff final for a place in the new FA Premier League, but lost to Blackburn Rovers and a penalty from former Leicester striker Mike Newell.
The club also reached the playoff final the following year, losing 4–3 to Swindon Town, having come back from 3–0 down. In 1993–94 City were promoted from the playoffs, beating Derby County 2–1 in the final. Little quit as Leicester manager the following November to take charge at Aston Villa, and his successor Mark McGhee was unable to save Leicester from finishing second from bottom in the 1994–95 season. McGhee left the club unexpectedly in December 1995 while Leicester were top of the First Division to take charge of Wolverhampton Wanderers. McGhee was replaced by Martin O'Neill. Under O'Neill, Leicester qualified for the 1996 Football League play-offs and beat Crystal Palace 2–1 in the final through a 120th minute Steve Claridge goal to gain promotion to the FA Premier League.
Following promotion, Leicester established themselves in the Premier League with four successive top ten finishes. O'Neill ended Leicester's 33-year wait for a major trophy, winning the League Cup twice, in 1997 and 2000, and Leicester were runners-up in 1999. Thus, the club qualified for the UEFA Cup in 1997–98 and 2000–01, the club's first European competition since 1961. In June 2000, O'Neill left Leicester City to take over as manager of Celtic. Decline in the early 21st century (2000–2008)  O'Neill was replaced by former England under-21 coach Peter Taylor. During this time, one of Leicester's European appearances ended in a 3–1 defeat to Red Star Belgrade on 28 September 2000 in the UEFA Cup.
Leicester began well under Taylor's management, topping the Premier League for two weeks in the autumn and remaining in contention for a European place for most of the campaign, before a late season collapse dragged them down to a 13th-place finish. Taylor was sacked after a poor start to the 2001–02 season, and his successor Dave Bassett lasted just six months before being succeeded by his assistant Micky Adams, the change of management being announced just before relegation was confirmed. Leicester won just five league matches all season. Leicester moved into the new 32,314-seat Walkers Stadium at the start of the 2002–03 season, ending 111 years at Filbert Street.
Walkers, the Leicestershire-based crisp manufacturers, acquired the naming rights for a ten-year period. In October 2002, the club went into administration with debts of £30 million. Some of the reasons were the loss of TV money (ITV Digital, itself in administration, had promised money to First Division clubs for TV rights), the large wage bill, lower than expected fees for players transferred to other clubs and the £37 million cost of the new stadium. Adams was banned from the transfer market for most of the season, even after the club was rescued with a takeover by a consortium led by Gary Lineker.
Adams guided Leicester to the runners-up spot in Division One and automatic promotion back to the Premier League with more than 90 points. However, Leicester lasted only one season in the top flight and were relegated to the newly labelled Championship, previously known as Division One. When Adams resigned as manager in October 2004, Craig Levein was appointed boss. This would prove to be an unsuccessful period and after 15 months in charge, Levein was sacked, having failed to get the Foxes anywhere near the promotion places. Assistant manager Rob Kelly took over as caretaker manager, and after winning three out of four matches, was appointed to see out the rest of the season.
Kelly steered Leicester to safety and in April 2006 was given the manager's job on a permanent basis. In October 2006, ex-Portsmouth chairman Milan Mandarić was quoted as saying he was interested in buying the club, reportedly at a price of around £6 million, with the current playing squad valued at roughly £4.2 million. The takeover was formally announced on 13 February 2007. On 11 April 2007, Rob Kelly was sacked as manager and Nigel Worthington appointed as caretaker manager until the end of the season. Worthington saved the club from relegation, but was not offered the job on a permanent basis.
On 25 May 2007, the club announced former Milton Keynes Dons manager Martin Allen as their new manager with a three-year contract. Allen's relationship with Mandarić became tense and after only four matches, Allen left by mutual consent on 29 August 2007. On 13 September 2007, Mandarić announced Gary Megson as the new manager of the club, citing Megson's "wealth of experience" as a deciding factor in the appointment. However, Megson left on 24 October 2007 after only six weeks in charge, following an approach made for his services by Bolton Wanderers. Mandarić placed Frank Burrows and Gerry Taggart in the shared position as caretaker managers until a professional manager was appointed.
On 22 November, Ian Holloway was appointed manager, and he became the first Leicester manager in over 50 years to win his first league match in charge, beating Bristol City 2–0. However, this success did not last, and Leicester were relegated from the Championship at the end of the 2007–08 season. Holloway left by mutual consent after less than a season at the club, being replaced by Nigel Pearson. Third tier to Premier League and takeover (2008–2015) The 2008–09 campaign was Leicester's first season outside the top two levels of English football, but they hit this nadir only seven years before becoming the 2015–16 Premier League champions – the fastest seven-year rise to the top of the English football league system apart from Ipswich Town in 1962.
Following relegation to the third tier the previous season, Leicester returned to the Championship at the first attempt in 2008–09, finishing as champions of League One after a 2–0 win at Southend United, with two matches in hand. The 2009–10 season saw Leicester's revival under manager Nigel Pearson continue, as the club finished fifth and reached the Championship play-offs in their first season back in the second tier. Though coming from 2–0 down on aggregate, away to Cardiff City, to briefly lead 3–2, they eventually lost to a penalty shoot-out in the play-off semi-final. At the end of the season, Pearson left Leicester to become the manager of Hull City, claiming he felt the club seemed reluctant to keep him, and that Paulo Sousa had been the club's guest at both play-off games, hinting at a possible replacement.
On 7 July 2010, Sousa was confirmed as Pearson's replacement. In August 2010, following agreement on a three-year shirt sponsorship deal with duty-free retailers the King Power Group, Mandarić sold the club to Thai-led consortium Asian Football Investments (AFI), fronted by King Power Group's Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha. Mandarić, an investor in AFI, was retained as club chairman. On 1 October 2010, after a poor start that saw Leicester bottom of the Championship with only one win out of the first nine league matches, Paulo Sousa was sacked by the club with immediate effect. Two days later, Sven-Göran Eriksson, who had been approached by the club after the 6–1 loss to then bottom-of-the-table Portsmouth two weeks earlier, was appointed as his replacement, signing a two-year contract with the club.
On 10 February 2011, Vichai Raksriaksorn, part of the Thai-based Asia Football Investments consortium, was appointed new chairman of the club after Mandarić left in November to take over Sheffield Wednesday. Leicester were viewed as one of the favourites for promotion in the 2011–12 season, but on 24 October 2011, following an inconsistent start with the Foxes winning just 5 out of their first 13 matches, Eriksson left the club by mutual consent. Three weeks later, Nigel Pearson returned to the club as Eriksson's successor. Pearson would go on to lead the Foxes to a sixth-place finish in the 2012–13 season, ensuring Leicester were in the Championship play-offs.
However, Leicester lost the playoff semi-final 3–2 on aggregate to Watford after Anthony Knockaert missed a late penalty and Troy Deeney scored right at the end after a swift counterattack from a Manuel Almunia double save. In 2014, Leicester's march up the league system hit a breakthrough. Their 2–1 home win over Sheffield Wednesday, combined with losses by Queens Park Rangers and Derby County, allowed Leicester City to clinch promotion to the Premier League after a ten-year absence. Later that month, a win at Bolton saw Leicester become the champions of the 2013–14 Championship, the seventh time they had been champions of England's second tier.
Leicester started their first season in the Premier League since 2004 with a good run of results in their first five league matches, starting with a 2–2 draw on the opening day against Everton. The Foxes then claimed their first Premier League win since May 2004, with a 0–1 win at Stoke City. On 21 September 2014, Leicester went on to produce one of the greatest comebacks in Premier League history to beat Manchester United 5–3 at the King Power Stadium after coming back from 3–1 down with 30 minutes left to score four goals. They also made Premier League history by becoming the first team to beat Manchester United from a two-goal deficit since the league's launch in 1992.
During the 2014–15 season, a dismal run of form saw the team slip to the bottom of the league table with only 19 points from 29 matches. By 3 April 2015, they were seven points adrift from safety. This could have brought a sudden end to Leicester's seven-year rise, but seven wins from their final nine league matches meant the Foxes finished the season in 14th place with 41 points. They finished the season with a 5–1 thrashing of relegated Queens Park Rangers. Their upturn in results was described as one of the Premier League's greatest ever escapes from relegation.
They also became only the third team in Premier League history to survive after being bottom at Christmas (the other two being West Bromwich Albion in 2005 and Sunderland in 2014), and no team with fewer than 20 points from 29 matches had previously stayed up. Premier League champions (2015–16)  On 30 June 2015, Pearson was sacked, with the club stating, "The working relationship between Nigel and the Board is no longer viable." The sacking was linked to a number of public relations issues involving Pearson throughout the season, with the final straw involving his son James' role in a "racist sex tape" made by three Leicester reserve players in Thailand during a post-season goodwill tour.
Leicester reacted by appointing former Chelsea manager Claudio Ranieri as their new manager for the new 2015–16 Premier League season. Despite an initially sceptical reaction to Ranieri's appointment, the club made an exceptional start to the season. Striker Jamie Vardy scored 13 goals over 11 consecutive matches from August to November, breaking Ruud van Nistelrooy's Premier League record of scoring in 10 consecutive matches. On 19 December, Leicester defeated Everton 3–2 at Goodison Park to top the Premier League on Christmas Day, having been bottom exactly 12 months earlier. A 2–0 victory at Sunderland on 10 April, coupled with Tottenham Hotspur's 3–0 win over Manchester United, ensured Leicester's qualification for the UEFA Champions League for the first time in their history.
Leicester won the Premier League on 2 May 2016 after Tottenham threw away a 2–0 lead against Chelsea, drawing 2–2 at the "Battle of Stamford Bridge". This completed the fastest seven-year rise to the title except for Ipswich Town in 1962, and Leicester faced a far more unequal top tier than Ipswich did back then. Bookmakers thought Leicester's victory was so unlikely that Ladbrokes and William Hill offered odds of 5,000–1 for it at the start of the season. Neither bookmaker had ever paid out such long odds, and the trophy resulted in the largest payout in British sporting history with total winnings of £25 million.
The scale of the surprise attracted global attention for the club and the city of Leicester. The Economist declared it would be "pored over for management lessons". Several commentators have viewed it as an inspiration to other clubs and fundamentally transforming the expectations similar sized clubs face in English football. Leicester became known for their counterattacking style of play, "incredible pace in the areas it is most essential" and defensive solidarity. Former boss Nigel Pearson was credited by several pundits and fans as having laid the foundations for Leicester's title winning season. Players were often praised for their work ethic and togetherness which was apparent throughout the squad.
Reacting to City winning the Premier League, Executive chairman Richard Scudamore said:   A film has been planned of the story, centred on Jamie Vardy. Established Premier League side (2016–present) Leicester, while performing well in the Champions League, struggled domestically during 2016–17, spending much of the first few months in the bottom half of the table. In December 2016, Ranieri was awarded coach of the year and Leicester team of the year at the BBC Sports Personality of the Year. However, on 23 February 2017, Ranieri was sacked due to the club's continuing poor form, resulting in them being only one point above the relegation zone.
The sacking was met with significant upset and anger from the media, with Gary Lineker called the sacking "very sad" and "inexplicable", while Manchester United manager José Mourinho blamed it on "selfish players". Rumours began emerging some days later that players had been meeting with the owners to discuss Ranieri's sacking without Ranieri knowing, which sparked widespread outrage over social media, but these were never proven. Craig Shakespeare took over as caretaker manager, and in his first match in charge, Leicester won 3–1 against fifth-placed Liverpool, with Vardy scoring a brace. In his second match as caretaker, Shakespeare led Leicester to another 3–1 victory, over Hull City.
Following two impressive results and initiating "the type of positive response that we hoped change would bring", the club's owners then decided Shakespeare would become the club's manager until the end of the season. The 2016–17 campaign was also the first season in 15 years that Leicester qualified for European football. Leicester were placed in Group G of the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League, alongside Porto, Copenhagen and Club Brugge. In their inaugural Champions League campaign, they went undefeated in their first five matches to progress to the knockout stages as group winners. The Foxes then faced La Liga club Sevilla in the round of 16 and defeated the Spanish side 2–0 on the night, and 3–2 on aggregate to advance to the quarter-finals.
There they faced Atlético Madrid, and drew 1–1 in the second leg, but lost 1–2 on aggregate after losing 1–0 in the first leg. This put an end to Leicester's 2016–17 European campaign, and they finished as Champions League quarter-finalists. Despite the loss, Leicester remained unbeaten at home in the 2016–17 Champions League. Shakespeare, having impressed during his caretaker spell, was appointed full-time on a three-year contract. However, following a poor start to the season he was sacked in October 2017 after four months officially in charge, with Leicester in 18th place in the table. He was replaced with former Southampton boss Claude Puel on 25 October 2017.
By Christmas, Leicester were in 8th position in the Premier League and went on to finish one place lower in 9th at the end of the season. Despite rumours that Puel would leave, he remained at the club for the next season and performed well. However, the team suffered a poor run of games in 2019 which saw Leicester suffer 4 successive home defeats, and following a 4–1 home defeat to Crystal Palace, Puel was sacked on 24 February 2019 with the club in 12th place. Two days later on 26 February 2019, former Liverpool manager Brendan Rodgers was appointed as his replacement.
They finished the season again in 9th place. On 25 October 2019, Leicester recorded a 9-0 away win at Southampton in the Premier League. Ayoze Perez and Jamie Vardy both scored hat tricks as the game became the joint largest win in Premier League history and the largest away win in English top flight history. Helicopter crash   Club owner Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha's helicopter crashed outside the King Power Stadium, shortly after taking off from the pitch on 27 October 2018, killing Srivaddhanaprabha and all four other people on board. Crest and colours  The club's home colours of royal blue shirts, white shorts, and either white or royal blue socks have been used for the team's kits throughout most of its history.
The first sponsorship logo to appear on a Leicester shirt was that of Ind Coope in 1983. British snack food manufacturer Walkers Crisps held a long association with the club, sponsoring them from 1987 to 2001. "The Foxes" is the most common nickname for the club. An image of a fox was first incorporated into the club crest in 1948, as Leicestershire is known for foxes and fox hunting. This is the origin of the nickname "The Foxes". The club mascot is a character called "Filbert Fox". There are also secondary characters "Vickie Vixen" and "Cousin Dennis." Since 1992, the club's badge has featured a fox's head overlaid onto a Cinquefoil; the Cinquefoil is similar to the one used on the coat of arms of Leicester.
In the 2009–10 season, the club's 125th anniversary year, the home kit featured no sponsor and a new central crest with "125 Years" written beneath it. In 1941, the club adopted the playing of the Post Horn Galop prior to home matches. It was played over the PA system as the teams came out of the tunnel at all home games. The club since replaced it with a modern version, which is now played as teams emerge for the second half. For the first half, the post horn has been played live on pitch by Paul Hing since 2009. "Foxes Never Quit" is the club's motto, which is placed above the tunnel entrance as the teams head out onto the pitch.
On 8 July 2016, the club launched their new third away kit for the 2016–17 Premier League season. It featured in their 2016–17 UEFA Champions League campaign, and was also in use for Leicester's debut match in the competition. The design took inspiration from the 1983–84 kit, boasting a clean white design with thin blue pinstripes on the shirt and a textured form stripe design across both the shirt and shorts. Kit manufacturers and sponsors  Since 2018, Leicester City's kit is manufactured by Adidas. Previous manufacturers have included Bukta (1962–64, 1990–92), Admiral (1976–79, 1983–88), Umbro (1979–83), Scoreline (1988–90), Fox Leisure (1992–2000), Le Coq Sportif (2000–05), JJB (2005–07), Jako (2007–09), Joma (2009–10), Burrda (2010–12), and Puma (2012–18).
The main shirt sponsor is King Power, a company also owned by the club's owners. The first sponsorship logo to appear on a Leicester shirt was that of Ind Coope in 1983. British snack food manufacturer Walkers Crisps held a long association with the club, sponsoring them from 1987 to 2001. Other sponsors have included John Bull (1986–87), LG (2001–03), Alliance & Leicester (2003–07), Topps Tiles (2007–09), Jessops (2009–10), and Loros (2009–10). Siam Commercial Bank became their first sleeve sponsor. The deal was valid for the 2017–18 season. For the 2018–19 season, the sleeve sponsor is Bia Saigon. Home stadium  In their early years, Leicester played at numerous grounds, but have only played at two since they joined the Football League.
When first starting out they played on a field by the Fosse Road, hence the original name Leicester Fosse. They moved from there to Victoria Park, and subsequently to Belgrave Road. Upon turning professional the club moved to Mill Lane. After eviction from Mill Lane the club played at the County Cricket ground while seeking a new ground. The club secured the use of an area of ground by Filbert Street, and moved there in 1891. Some improvements by noted football architect Archibald Leitch occurred in the Edwardian era, and in 1927 a new two tier stand was built, named the Double Decker, a name it would keep till the ground's closure in 2002.
The ground wasn't developed any further, apart from compulsory seating being added, till 1993 when work began on the new Carling Stand. The stand was impressive while the rest of the ground was untouched since at least the 1920s; this led manager Martin O'Neill to say he used to "lead new signings out backwards" so they only saw the Carling Stand. The club moved away from Filbert Street in 2002 to a new 32,500 all-seater stadium. The stadium was originally named The Walkers Stadium in a deal with food manufacturers Walkers, whose brand logo can still be found in some areas around the outside of the stadium.
The first match hosted at Walkers was a 1–1 friendly draw against Athletic Bilbao, with Bilbao's Tiko being the first scorer at the stadium and Jordan Stewart being the first Leicester player to score. The first competitive match was a 2–0 victory against Watford. The stadium has since hosted an England international against Serbia and Montenegro, which finished 2–1 to England, as well as internationals between Brazil and Jamaica, and Jamaica and Ghana. The stadium has been used to host the Heineken Cup European Rugby semi-finals for the Leicester Tigers rugby club, itself based within a mile of the King Power Stadium.
On 19 August 2010, it emerged that the new owners King Power wanted to rename the stadium The King Power Stadium, and had plans to increase the capacity to 42,000 should Leicester secure promotion. On 7 July 2011, Leicester City confirmed the Walkers Stadium would now be known as the King Power Stadium. In 2015, vice-chairman Aiyawatt Srivaddhanaprabha stated plans were in place to increase the capacity of the stadium to around 42,000. Relocation to a bigger stadium has also been considered. In April 2018, it was announced that initial planning for the expansion and development of the King Power Stadium is underway.
The King Power Stadium has also honoured past greats of the club, by naming suites and lounges inside the stadium after the club's former players Gordon Banks, Adam Black, Arthur Chandler, Gary Lineker, Arthur Rowley, Sep Smith, Keith Weller and former manager Jimmy Bloomfield. Rivalries  Most Leicester fans consider Nottingham Forest to be their main rivals, with Derby County as secondary rivals. An East Midlands derby is any match involving two of these three clubs. Leicester also have a fierce rivalry with Coventry City, 24 miles away. The game between the two clubs has become known as the M69 derby, named after the M69 motorway which connects the two cities together.
European record  Notes Goals by Leicester are listed first. PR: Preliminary round 1R: First round GS: Group stage R16: Round of 16 QF: Quarter-final  Honours  Domestic  League  First Division / Premier League (first tier)  Champions (1): 2015–16  Runners-up (1): 1928–29  Second Division / Football League Championship (second tier)  Champions (7): 1924–25, 1936–37, 1953–54, 1956–57, 1970–71, 1979–80, 2013–14  Runners-up (2): 1907–08, 2002–03  Play-off winners (2): 1993–94, 1995–96  Football League One (third tier)  Champions (1): 2008–09  Cup  Football League Cup  Winners (3): 1963–64, 1996–97, 1999–2000  Runners-up (2): 1964–65, 1998–99  FA Charity Shield / FA Community Shield  Winners (1): 1971  Runners-up (1): 2016  FA Cup  Runners-up (4): 1948–49, 1960–61, 1962–63, 1968–69  Regional competitions  War League South  Champions (1): 1942  Wartime Midland Cup  Winners (1): 1941  Managerial history  Up until Peter Hodge was hired after World War I, the club had no official manager.
A nominal role of secretary/manager was employed, though the board and the selection committee took control of most team affairs. It was Hodge who instated a system at the club for the manager having complete control over player and staff recruitment, team selection and tactics. Though Hodge was originally also titled "secretary/manager" he has retrospectively been named as the club's first official "manager". Leicester have had a total of nine permanent secretary/managers and 36 permanent managers (not including caretakers). Nigel Pearson and Peter Hodge have both had two separate spells in charge of the club. Dave Bassett also had a second spell as caretaker manager after his spell as permanent manager.
Records and statistics  Graham Cross holds the record for the most Leicester appearances, with the defender playing 599 games between 1960–1976, although Adam Black holds the record for the most appearances in the league with 528 between 1920–1935. Striker Arthur Chandler is currently the club's all-time record goal scorer, netting 273 in his 12 years at the club; he also found the net in 8 consecutive matches in the 1924–25 season. The most goals managed in a single season for the club is 44 by Arthur Rowley, in the 1956–57 season. The fastest goal in the club's history was scored by Matty Fryatt, when he netted after just nine seconds against Preston North End in April 2006.
Jamie Vardy broke the Premier League record for scoring 13 goals in 11 consecutive league games, in the 2015–16 Premier League season. Vardy is also the ninth player to score 20 top-flight goals in a season, following Arthur Chandler, Ernie Hine, Arthur Rowley, Jimmy Walsh, Ken Keyworth, Jackie Sinclair, Frank Worthington and Gary Lineker. Vardy's goal at Sunderland on 10 April 2016 saw him become the first player since Gary Lineker in 1984–85 to score 20 top flight goals for the club, having already become Leicester's highest Premier League scorer in a single season. The record transfer fee paid by Leicester for a player was around £40 million for Monaco midfielder Youri Tielemans.
The highest transfer fee received for a Leicester player was approximately £80 million from Manchester United for Harry Maguire; at the time of the transfer this was the eleventh highest ever fee, the highest ever move between two English teams and the highest ever for a defender. The club's record attendance is 47,298 against Tottenham Hotspur at Filbert Street, in a fifth round FA Cup clash in 1928. The highest league record at their current home, the King Power Stadium, was 32,242 for a competitive match against Sunderland on 8 August 2015. The highest ever attendance for a non-competitive football match of 32,188, was seen at a pre-season friendly against Spanish giants Real Madrid on 30 July 2011.
Leicester's highest ever league finish is first in the Premier League in 2015–16. Their lowest ever league finish was first in League One in 2008–09. Leicester are joint equal with Manchester City for having won the most English second tier titles (7). The club has reached four FA Cup finals, yet lost them all. This is the record for the most FA Cup final appearances without winning the trophy. Leicester's longest ever unbeaten run in the league was between 1 November 2008 and 7 March 2009, to which they remained unbeaten for 23 games on their way to the League One title.
(This was their only ever season in the third tier of English football). Their longest run of consecutive victories in the league is nine, which they achieved between 21 December 2013 and 1 February 2014 (in the Championship). In the 2015–16 season, Leicester won what The Daily Telegraph described as "one of the most astonishing league titles of all-time" and achieved many new historical, club records. They had the fewest away defeats in any top flight season, as they were defeated only twice on their travels. They also recorded the fewest losses in any of the club's Premier League seasons, losing just three matches throughout their entire campaign.
The club produced another record for the most consecutive wins in the top flight, each coming against Watford, Newcastle United, Crystal Palace, Southampton and Sunderland. Coincidentally, they kept a record of five-straight clean sheets all set against each of the same five opponents. The King Power Stadium home crowd in 2015–16 saw their team beaten just once in the Premier League all season. Leicester made their UEFA Champions League debut in the 2016–17 season, their fourth appearance in European football. The club became the third English team to win on their Champions League debut, after Manchester United in 1994 and Newcastle United in 1997.
They are also the first English team to win away on their Champions League debut, and win all three of their opening games in the competition. They are the first team in Champions League history to keep clean sheets in each of their opening four games in the competition. Between September 2015 and November 2016, the club went 20 league games unbeaten at home. The stint was ended by West Bromwich Albion on 6 November 2016 in a 1–2 defeat. In March 2017, the club became the 50th team to reach the Champions League quarter-finals. On 25 October 2019, Leicester City set the record for the highest margin of away victory in the English top tier, defeating Southampton 9–0 at St Mary's Stadium.
In doing so they also tied the record for the highest margin of victory in Premier League history, equalling Manchester United's 9–0 home victory over Ipswich Town in 1995. League history  Since their election to the Football League in 1894, Leicester have spent much of their history within the top two tiers of English football. Leicester have played outside the top two tiers only once in their history to date; during the 2008–09 season they played in League One, the third tier of English football, after relegation from the Championship the season prior. However, they made a swift return to the second tier, as they were promoted as champions in the 2008–09 season.
The club have never played lower than England's third tier. L1 = Level 1 of the football league system; L2 = Level 2 of the football league system; L3 = Level 3 of the football league system. Seasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system: 51  Seasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system: 62  Seasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system: 1 (up to and including 2018–19)  Players  Current first-team squad  Out on loan  Under-23s and Academy  Former players  Club staff Player statistics  Captains  Player of the Year Leicester City's Player of the Year award is voted for by the club's supporters at the end of every season.
English Hall of Fame members  The following have played for Leicester and have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame:   Gordon Banks 2002 (Inaugural Inductee)   Peter Shilton 2002 (Inaugural Inductee)   Gary Lineker 2003   Don Revie 2004 (Inducted as a manager)   Frank McLintock 2009  Football League 100 Legends  The Football League 100 Legends is a list of "100 legendary football players" produced by The Football League in 1998, to celebrate the 100th season of League football. It also included Premier League players, and the following former Leicester City players were included:   Arthur Rowley   Gordon Banks   Frank McLintock   Peter Shilton   Gary Lineker  World Cup players  The following players have been selected by their country in the World Cup Finals, while playing for Leicester.
John Anderson (1954)   Willie Cunningham (1958)   Ken Leek (1958)   Gordon Banks (1966) – Won the 1966 World Cup while at Leicester   John O'Neill (1982, 1986)   Paul Ramsey (1986)   Gary McAllister (1990)   David Kelly (1990)   Matt Elliott (1998)   Kasey Keller (1998)   Muzzy Izzet (2002)   Riyad Mahrez (2014)   Kasper Schmeichel (2018)   Harry Maguire (2018)   Jamie Vardy (2018)   Shinji Okazaki (2018)   Wilfred Ndidi (2018)    Kelechi Iheanacho (2018)   Ahmed Musa (2018)   Adrien Silva (2018)   Ricardo Pereira (2018)   Yohan Benalouane (2018)  International honours  The following players have been selected by their country while being playing for Leicester City (including players both on loan at and away from the club).
The number of caps won whilst at the club are given, along with the date of the first cap being won while with Leicester City. Players listed in bold are current Leicester City players.
Alfred Watkins (2 Caps, 19 March 1898)   Richard Jones (1 Cap, 19 March 1898)   Mick Cochrane (1 Cap, 23 February 1901)   Horace Bailey (5 Caps, 16 March 1908)   Andy Aitken (3 Caps, 2 April 1910)   Douglas McWhirter (4 Caps, 21 March 1913)   Ronald Brebner (3 Caps, 15 November 1913)   John Paterson (1 Cap, 10 April 1920)   Mick O'Brien (3 Caps, 4 March 1922)   John Duncan (1 Cap, 31 October 1925)   Sid Bishop (4 Caps, 2 April 1927)   Reg Osborne (1 Cap, 28 November 1927)   Leonard Barry (5 Caps, 17 May 1928)   Ernest Hine (6 Caps, 22 October 1928)   Hugh Adcock (5 Caps, 9 May 1929)   David Jones (7 Caps, 4 November 1933)   Thomas Mills (1 Cap, 29 September 1934)   Septimus Smith (1 Cap, 19 October 1935)   William Maldwyn Griffiths (11 Caps, 16 April 1947)   Tommy Godwin (5 Caps, 9 October 1949)   Arthur Lever (1 Cap, 18 October 1952)   John Anderson (1 Cap, 25 May 1954)   Willie Cunningham (24 Caps, 3 November 1954)   Kenneth Leek (16 Caps, 20 October 1960)   Gordon Banks (35 Caps, 6 April 1963)   David Gibson (7 Caps, 4 May 1963)   Frank McLintock (3 Caps, 4 May 1963)   Derek Dougan (8 Caps, 2 October 1965)   Peter Rodrigues (16 Caps, 30 March 1966)   Jackie Sinclair (1 Cap, 18 June 1966)   Peter Shilton (20 Caps, 25 November 1970)   Keith Weller (4 Caps, 11 May 1974)   Frank Worthington (8 Caps, 15 May 1974)   Stephen Whitworth (7 Caps, 12 March 1975)   Joe Waters (1 Cap, 13 October 1976)   John O'Neill (39 Caps, 26 March 1980)   Gerry Daly (1 Cap, 22 September 1982)   Paul Ramsey (14 Caps, 21 September 1983)   Gary Lineker (7 Caps, 26 May 1984)   Ian Wilson (2 Caps, 23 May 1987)   Jari Rantanen (10 Caps, 9 September 1987)   Robert James (2 Caps, 9 September 1987)   James Quinn (4 Caps, 14 September 1988)   David Kelly (7 Caps, 25 April 1990)   Gary McAllister (3 Caps, 25 April 1990)   Brian Carey (1 Cap, 23 March 1994)   Iwan Roberts (3 Caps, 20 April 1994)   Colin Hill (16 Caps, 29 March 1995)   Željko Kalac (2 Caps, 25 February 1996)   Neil Lennon (29 Caps, 27 March 1996)   Kasey Keller (21 Caps, 3 November 1996)   Pontus Kåmark (17 Caps, 30 April 1997)   Robert Savage (20 Caps, 20 August 1997)   Matt Elliott (18 Caps, 12 November 1997)   Theodoros Zagorakis (18 Caps, 17 February 1998)   Arnar Gunnlaugsson (3 Caps, 10 March 1999)   Emile Heskey (5 Caps, 28 April 1999)   Frank Sinclair (17 Caps, 26 May 1999)   Stephen Guppy (1 Cap, 10 October 1999)   Gerald Taggart (6 Caps, 26 April 2000)   Mustafa Izzet (8 Caps, 15 June 2000)   Callum Davidson (5 Caps, 2 September 2000)   Matthew Jones (8 Caps, 24 March 2001)   Trevor Benjamin (2 Caps (1 won while on loan to Gillingham), 20 November 2002)   Keith Gillespie (9 Caps, 6 September 2003)   Paul Dickov (5 Caps, 6 September 2003)   Nikolaos Dabizas (6 Caps, 18 February 2004)   Benjamin Thatcher (3 Caps, 31 March 2001)   Danny Coyne (3 Caps, 31 March 2001)   Peter Canero (1 Cap, 28 April 2004)   Ian Walker (1 Cap, 5 June 2004)   Jóhannes Guðjónsson (6 Caps, 18 August 2004)   Lars Hirschfeld (1 Cap, 26 March 2005)   Alan Maybury (1 Cap, 29 March 2005)   Daniele Tiatto (1 Cap, 9 May 2005)   Robert Douglas (1 Cap, 17 August 2005)   Iain Hume (7 Caps, 16 November 2005)   Mohammed Sylla (3 Caps, 7 January 2006)   Elvis Hammond (1 Cap, 1 March 2006)   Patrick Kisnorbo (3 Caps, 14 November 2006)   Hossein Kaebi (2 Caps, 15 July 2007)   Márton Fülöp (7 Caps (won while on loan from Sunderland), 22 August 2007)   Radostin Kishishev (4 Caps (2 won while on loan at Leeds United), 22 August 2007)   Gareth McAuley (4 Caps, 17 October 2007)   Aleksander Tunchev (5 Caps, 6 September 2008)   Andy King (50 Caps (3 won while on loan at Swansea City), 29 May 2009)   Ryan McGivern (3 Caps (won while on loan from Manchester City), 14 October 2009)   Yuki Abe (4 Caps), 8 October 2010)   Greg Cunningham (1 Cap (won while on loan from Manchester City), 17 November 2010)   Jeffrey Bruma (1 Cap (won while on loan from Chelsea), 7 June 2011)   Sean St Ledger (19 Caps (3 won while on loan at Millwall), 10 August 2011)   Gelson Fernandes (4 Caps (won while on loan from AS Saint-Étienne), 6 September 2011)   John Paintsil (8 Caps, 5 November 2011)   Souleymane Bamba (8 Caps, 12 November 2011)   Jeffrey Schlupp (15 Caps, 15 November 2011)   Kasper Schmeichel (53 Caps, 6 February 2013)   Christopher Wood (9 Caps (1 won while on loan at Ipswich Town), 22 March 2013)   Jermaine Beckford (5 Caps (won while on loan at Huddersfield Town), 22 March 2013)   Wes Morgan (30 Caps, 7 September 2013)   Simonas Stankevičius (10 Caps, 18 November 2013)   Márkó Futács (3 Caps (won while on loan at Diósgyőr-Vasgyári Testgyakorlók Köre), 5 March 2014)   Riyad Mahrez (39 Caps, 31 May 2014)   Harrison Panayiotou (12 Caps (5 won while on loan at Raith Rovers), 8 October 2014)   Alie Sesay (3 Caps, 11 October 2014)   Andrej Kramarić (10 Caps (5 won while on loan at TSG 1899 Hoffenheim), 28 March 2015)   Jamie Vardy (26 Caps, 7 June 2015)   Shinji Okazaki (26 Caps, 3 September 2015)   Christian Fuchs (11 Caps, 5 September 2015)   Gökhan İnler (5 Caps, 8 September 2015)   Tom Lawrence (6 Caps (2 won while on loan at Blackburn Rovers, 2 at Cardiff City and 2 at Ipswich Town), 13 October 2015)   Daniel Amartey (18 Caps, 24 March 2016)   N'Golo Kanté (8 Caps, 25 March 2016)   Danny Drinkwater (3 Caps, 29 March 2016)   Ahmed Musa (17 Caps (8 won while on loan at PFC CSKA Moscow), 3 September 2016)   Bartosz Kapustka (3 Caps, 4 September 2016)   Islam Slimani (26 Caps (3 won while on loan at Newcastle United, 2 at Fenerbahçe S.K.
and 5 at AS Monaco FC), 4 September 2016)   Faiq Jefri Bolkiah (6 Caps, 15 October 2016)   Wilfred Ndidi (30 Caps, 23 March 2017)   Kelechi Iheanacho (14 Caps, 1 September 2017)   Aleksandar Dragović (8 Caps (won while on loan from Bayer 04 Leverkusen), 2 September 2017)   Harry Maguire (20 Caps, 8 October 2017)   Admiral Muskwe (4 Caps, 8 November 2017)   Yohan Benalouane (5 Caps, 23 March 2018)   Adrien Silva (6 Caps, 26 March 2018)   George Thomas (3 Caps (2 won while on loan at Scunthorpe United), 29 May 2018)   Ricardo Pereira (3 Caps, 30 June 2018)   Çağlar Söyüncü (12 Caps, 7 September 2018)   Jonathan Evans (14 Caps, 8 September 2018)   Rachid Ghezzal (3 Caps, 8 September 2018)   Benjamin Chilwell (11 Caps, 11 September 2018)   Daniel Ward (3 Caps, 20 November 2018)   Youri Tielemans (9 Caps (4 won while on loan from AS Monaco FC), 21 March 2019)   Filip Benković (1 Cap (won while on loan at Celtic), 11 June 2019)   Dennis Praet (3 Caps, 6 September 2019)   James Maddison (1 Cap, 14 November 2018)  Players with over 300 appearances for Leicester Includes competitive appearances only.
Current players in bold. Graham Cross 599   Adam Black 557   Hugh Adcock 460   Mark Wallington 460   Steve Walsh 450   Arthur Chandler 419   John Sjoberg 413   Mal Griffiths 409   Steve Whitworth 400   Andy King 379   Sep Smith 373   Mike Stringfellow 370   Kasper Schmeichel 368   Richie Norman 365   Gordon Banks 356   John O'Neill 345   Dave Gibson 339   Peter Shilton 339   Colin Appleton 333   Dennis Rofe 324   Paul Ramsey 322   Arthur Rowley 321   Arthur Lochhead 320   Muzzy Izzet 319   Ian Wilson 318   Derek Hines 317   Wes Morgan 310   Lenny Glover 305   Jamie Vardy 300  Players with 50 or more goals for Leicester Includes competitive appearances only.
Current players in bold. Arthur Chandler 273   Arthur Rowley 265   Ernie Hine 156   Jamie Vardy 126   Derek Hines 117   Arthur Lochhead 114   Gary Lineker 103   Mike Stringfellow 97   Johnny Duncan 95   Jimmy Walsh 91   Jack Lee 84   Alan Smith 84   Frank Worthington 78   Mal Griffiths 76   Ken Keyworth 76   Danny Liddle 71   Arthur Maw 64   Matty Fryatt 62   Andy King 62   Steve Walsh 62   Steve Lynex 60   David Nugent 59   Fred Shinton 58   Jack Bowers 56   Dave Gibson 53   Jackie Sinclair 53   Hugh Adcock 52   George Dewis 51   Gary McAllister 51  Personnel honours and awards  Ballon d'Or nominees The following players have been nominated for the Ballon d'Or while playing for Leicester; the award is also referred to as the World or European Footballer of the Year.
Gordon Banks (1966)   Jamie Vardy (2016)   Riyad Mahrez (2016)  PFA Player of the Year The following players have been named the PFA Player of the Year whilst playing for Leicester:  2016 –  Riyad Mahrez  FWA Footballer of the Year The following players have been named the FWA Footballer of the Year whilst playing for Leicester:  2016 –  Jamie Vardy  English Golden Boot The following players have won the English Golden Boot for being the country's top goalscorer, while at Leicester (Note: This applies only to players playing in the top tier of English football):   Gary Lineker (1984–85) (joint winner)  English Second Division Golden Boot The following players have won the golden boot for being the top goalscorer in the second tier of English football while at Leicester:   David Skea (1894–95)   Arthur Chandler (1924–25)   Jack Bowers (1936–37)   Arthur Rowley (1952–53), (1956–57)   Willie Gardiner (1955–56)   Gary Lineker (1982–83)  Football League Awards Player of the Year The following players have been named the best player in their division in the Football League Awards while at Leicester:   Matty Fryatt (League One, 2009)  LMA Manager of the Year The following managers have been named the LMA Manager of the Year or won their division award while at Leicester:   Nigel Pearson (Championship, 2014)   Claudio Ranieri (Overall, 2016; Premier League, 2016)  The Best FIFA Men's Player The following players have been shortlisted for The Best FIFA Men's Player award, while playing for Leicester:   Jamie Vardy (2016)   Riyad Mahrez (2016)  The Best FIFA Men's Coach The following managers have been shortlisted and won, The Best FIFA Men's Coach award while managing Leicester:   Claudio Ranieri (2016)  The Best FIFA Goalkeeper The following goalkeepers have been shortlisted for The Best FIFA Goalkeeper award, while playing for Leicester:   Kasper Schmeichel (2018)  BBC Sports Personality Coach of the Year Award   Claudio Ranieri (2016)  BBC Sports Personality Team of the Year Award   Leicester City (2016)  ESPN Team of the Year   Leicester City (2016)  Laureus World Sports Award   Leicester City (2017)  FIFA FIFPro World11 nominees The following players have been shortlisted for the FIFA FIFPro World11, while playing for Leicester:   Jamie Vardy (2016)  PFA Team of the Year The following players have been named in the PFA Team of the Year while at Leicester:  1979 – Second Division –  Mark Wallington  1982 – Second Division –  Mark Wallington  1989 – Second Division –  Gary McAllister  1990 – Second Division –  Gary McAllister  1996 – First Division –  Garry Parker,  Steve Claridge  2003 – First Division –  Muzzy Izzet,  Paul Dickov  2009 – League One –  Jack Hobbs,  Matt Oakley,  Matty Fryatt  2011 – Championship –  Kyle Naughton,  Andy King  2013 – Championship –  Kasper Schmeichel,  Wes Morgan  2014 – Championship –  Kasper Schmeichel,  Wes Morgan,  Danny Drinkwater  2016 – Premier League –  Wes Morgan,  N'Golo Kanté,  Riyad Mahrez,  Jamie Vardy  References  Further reading   Dave Smith and Paul Taylor, Of Fossils and Foxes: The Official Definitive History of Leicester City Football Club (2001) ()  Dave Smith and Paul Taylor, The Foxes Alphabet: Complete Who's Who of Leicester City Football Club (1995) ()  Leicester City FC, The Official History of Leicester City Football Club DVD (2003) (Out of print)  John Hutchinson, From Shed to Stadium: Illustrated history of LCFC.
(2014)   John Hutchinson, Neil Plumb, Rob O'Donnell, Leicester City Classic Shirts 1949–2016'' (2015)  External links       BBC Leicester – In pictures: 125 years of Leicester City  Leicester News    Category:Football clubs in England Category:Premier League clubs Category:Former English Football League clubs Category:Sport in Leicester Category:Association football clubs established in 1884 Category:EFL Cup winners Category:Midland Football League (1889) Category:EFL Championship clubs Category:1884 establishments in England Category:Football clubs in Leicestershire Category:Laureus World Sports Awards winners Category:Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom
"Senza una donna" () is a song written and performed by Zucchero from his album Blue's (1987). Originally recorded in Italian, in 1991 it was re-recorded in English with Paul Young. The English lyrics were contributed by Frank Musker. The song was then released as a single under the title "Senza una donna (Without a Woman)" which reached #4 in the UK Single Chart and #2 in the German Singles Chart and the French Singles Chart. It also topped the charts of Norway and Sweden. It has sold more than 3,000,000 copies worldwide. It was released along with a music video for the solo version by Zucchero and a music video was also released for the duet version with Paul Young.
Track listings  CD single  "Senza una donna (Without a Woman)" (7 inch) — 4:26  "Dunes of Mercy" by Zucchero — 5:38   CD maxi  "Senza una donna (Without a Woman)"  "Madre dolcissima" by Zucchero  "Dunes of Mercy" by Zucchero   7" single  "Senza una donna (Without a Woman)"  "Madre dolcissima" by Zucchero  Charts and sales  Peak positions  Year-end charts  Decade-end charts  Certifications {| class="wikitable sortable" !Country !Certification !Date !Sales certified |- |France |align="center"|Gold |align="center"|1991 |align="center"|346,000 |- |Sweden |align="center"|Gold |align="center"|24 July 1991 |align="center"|30,000 |- |Norway  |align="center"|Gold |align="center"|1991 |align="center"|30,000 |- |Italy |align="center"|Gold |align="center"|1991 |align="center"|30,000 |- |Belgium |align="center"|Gold |align="center"|1991 |align="center"|30,000 |-  References   Category:1987 songs Category:1991 singles Category:Number-one singles in Belgium Category:European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles Category:Number-one singles in Italy Category:Number-one singles in Norway Category:Number-one singles in Sweden Category:Paul Young songs Category:Vocal duets Category:Zucchero Fornaciari songs Category:Songs written by Zucchero Fornaciari Category:Pop ballads Category:Songs written by Frank Musker
Grass sickness, alternatively termed equine dysautonomia, is a rare but predominantly fatal illness in horses. Grass sickness may affect all types of horse, pony and donkey, and has affected some well known horses including the thoroughbred stallions Dubai Millennium, Moorestyle and Mister Baileys. Clinical signs Grass sickness is a polyneuropathy affecting the central, peripheral and enteric nervous systems. The majority of visible clinical signs are related to paralysis within the digestive tract although nerve damage occurs throughout the body. There are three forms of grass sickness:  acute grass sickness (AGS) - horses display signs of colic and require euthanasia or die within 48 hours  subacute grass sickness (SAGS) - horses display clinical signs similar to AGS but with less severity and may survive up to 7 days  chronic grass sickness (CGS) - horses present with severe and rapid weight loss and a selected portion of these cases may survive.
Clinical signs common to all subsets include: depression, anorexia, colic (moderate with AGS/SAGS and mild with CGS), excess salivation, constipation, nasogastric fluid secretion, patchy sweating, muscle tremors and eyelid drooping. Cause The cause remains unknown, but the toxin produced from the bacterium Clostridium botulinum type C may be involved. Clostridium botulinum is a soil-borne bacterium, which may be better known for producing clinical signs of botulism. It may cause grass sickness when the spores of C. botulinum type C are ingested and produce their toxin locally within the intestine. Risk factors The main risk factor for grass sickness, as the name may suggest, is grass.
The disease is almost always seen in grazing animals, although there are isolated reports of the condition occurring in stabled horses. Grass sickness is most frequently seen in young horses aged between two and seven, and is particularly prevalent during April, May and June, and later in the autumn, after a spurt of grass growth. Other risk factors which may increase the likelihood of a horse developing grass sickness include: soil disturbance, worming with ivermectin based dewormers, movement to new pasture, stress, and grazing on a field which has previously produced a case of grass sickness. Diagnosis Diagnosis of grass sickness in the live animal requires a thorough clinical examination including a rectal examination.
Definitive diagnosis can only be made at surgery (where biopsies of the gut are taken) or at post-mortem (where samples from the nerves are taken). Differential diagnoses for grass sickness are varied and include any other cause of colic and weight loss, tying-up, laminitis, botulism, choke and dental problems. Treatment There is no treatment for grass sickness. A proportion of CGS cases survive following periods of intensive nursing. Overall, the mortality rate of equine grass sickness is over 95%. History The first cases of grass sickness were recorded in eastern Scotland in 1909. References  Category:Horse diseases
Niclosamide, sold under the brand name Niclocide among others, is a medication used to treat tapeworm infestations. This includes diphyllobothriasis, hymenolepiasis, and taeniasis. It is not effective against other worms such as pinworms or roundworms. It is taken by mouth. Side effects include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and itchiness. It may be used during pregnancy and appears to be safe for the baby. Niclosamide is in the anthelmintic family of medications. It works by blocking the uptake of sugar by the worm. Niclosamide was discovered in 1958. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system.
The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 0.24 USD for a course of treatment. It is not commercially available in the United States. It is effective in a number of other animals. Side effects  Side effects include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, constipation, and itchiness. Rarely, dizziness, skin rash, drowsiness, perianal itching, or an unpleasant taste occur. For some of these reasons, praziquantel is a preferable and equally effective treatment for tapeworm infestation. Mechanism of action  Niclosamide inhibits glucose uptake, oxidative phosphorylation, and anaerobic metabolism in the tapeworm. Other applications Niclosamide's metabolic effects are relevant to wide ranges of organisms, and accordingly it has been applied as a control measure to organisms other than tapeworms.
For example, it is an active ingredient in some formulations such as Bayluscide for killing lamprey larvae, as a molluscide, and as a general purpose piscicide in aquaculture. Niclosamide has a short half-life in water in field conditions; this makes it valuable in ridding commercial fish ponds of unwanted fish; it loses its activity soon enough to permit re-stocking within a few days of eradicating the previous population. Researchers have found that niclosamide is effective in killing invasive zebra mussels in cool waters. Research Niclosamide is being studied in a number of types of cancer. Niclosamide along with oxyclozanide, another anti-tapeworm drug, was found in a 2015 study to display "strong in vivo and in vitro activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)".
References  External links             Category:Anthelmintics Category:Chloroarenes Category:Nitrobenzenes Category:Salicylanilides Category:World Health Organization essential medicines Category:RTT Category:Pesticides
Büren is a municipality in the district of Paderborn, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Geography Büren is situated on the rivers Alme and Afte (the rivers meet each other), approx. 20 km south-west of Paderborn and approx. 30 km south-east of Lippstadt. Neighbouring municipalities  Brilon  Geseke  Rüthen  Salzkotten  Bad Wünnenberg  Division of the town After the local government reforms of 1975 Büren consists of the following districts:  Transportation Train connections to the outside world are laid off. International relations  Büren, Westphalia is twinned with:   Kortemark (Belgium) –- since 1981   Charenton-le-Pont (France) -- since 1989   Mittersill (Austria) -- since 1995   Ignalina (Lithuania) -– since 2003  Culture and notable places The village of Wewelsburg is the home of the Wewelsburg Renaissance castle, which was a focus of SS mythology during the Nazism era.
The castle now hosts the museum of the district of Paderborn with the permanent exhibition "Wewelsburg 1933–1945. Place of cult and terror of the SS". Sons and daughters of the city   Michael Henke (born 1957), soccer player and coach  Moritz von Büren (1604-1661), Reichskammergericht President and Jesuit, founder of the Jesuit Kolleg  The holy Meinolf (around 795-857), founder of the convent Böddeken Adelaide II of Büren, abbess of Gernrode (r.1207-1220)  References  External links  Official site   Category:Paderborn (district) Category:Province of Westphalia
In number theory, the sum of the first  cubes is the square of the th triangular number. That is,  The same equation may be written more compactly using the mathematical notation for summation:  This identity is sometimes called Nicomachus's theorem, after Nicomachus of Gerasa (c. 60 – c. 120 CE). History Nicomachus, at the end of Chapter 20 of his Introduction to Arithmetic, pointed out that if one writes a list of the odd numbers, the first is the cube of 1, the sum of the next two is the cube of 2, the sum of the next three is the cube of 3, and so on.
He does not go further than this, but from this it follows that the sum of the first  cubes equals the sum of the first  odd numbers, that is, the odd numbers from 1 to . The average of these numbers is obviously , and there are  of them, so their sum is   Many early mathematicians have studied and provided proofs of Nicomachus's theorem. claims that "every student of number theory surely must have marveled at this miraculous fact". finds references to the identity not only in the works of Nicomachus in what is now Jordan in the first century CE, but also in those of Aryabhata in India in the fifth century, and in those of Al-Karaji circa 1000 in Persia.
mentions several additional early mathematical works on this formula, by Al-Qabisi (tenth century Arabia), Gersonides (circa 1300 France), and Nilakantha Somayaji (circa 1500 India); he reproduces Nilakantha's visual proof. Numeric values;  geometric and probabilistic interpretation The sequence of squared triangular numbers is   ... . These numbers can be viewed as figurate numbers, a four-dimensional hyperpyramidal generalization of the triangular numbers and square pyramidal numbers. As  observes, these numbers also count the number of rectangles with horizontal and vertical sides formed in an  grid. For instance, the points of a  grid (or a square made up of three smaller squares on a side) can form 36 different rectangles.
The number of squares in a square grid is similarly counted by the square pyramidal numbers. The identity also admits a natural probabilistic interpretation as follows. Let  be four integer numbers independently and uniformly chosen at random between  and . Then, the probability that  be the largest of the four numbers is equal to the probability that both  is at least as large as  and  is at least as large as , that is, . These probabilities are respectively the left and right sides of the Nichomacus identity, normalized to make probabilities by dividing both sides by . Proofs  gives a particularly simple derivation, by expanding each cube in the sum into a set of consecutive odd numbers.
He begins by giving the identity   That identity is related to triangular numbers  in the following way:  and thus the summands forming  start off just after those forming all previous values  up to . Applying this property, along with another well-known identity:  we obtain the following derivation:   obtains another proof by summing the numbers in a square multiplication table in two different ways. The sum of the th row is  times a triangular number, from which it follows that the sum of all the rows is the square of a triangular number. Alternatively, one can decompose the table into a sequence of nested gnomons, each consisting of the products in which the larger of the two terms is some fixed value.
The sum within each gmonon is a cube, so the sum of the whole table is a sum of cubes. In the more recent mathematical literature,  provides a proof using summation by parts. uses the rectangle-counting interpretation of these numbers to form a geometric proof of the identity (see also ); he observes that it may also be proved easily (but uninformatively) by induction, and states that  provides "an interesting old Arabic proof". provides a purely visual proof,  provide two additional proofs, and  gives seven geometric proofs. Generalizations A similar result to Nicomachus's theorem holds for all power sums, namely that odd power sums (sums of odd powers) are a polynomial in triangular numbers.
These are called Faulhaber polynomials, of which the sum of cubes is the simplest and most elegant example. However, in no other case is one power sum a square of another . studies more general conditions under which the sum of a consecutive sequence of cubes forms a square. and  study polynomial analogues of the square triangular number formula, in which series of polynomials add to the square of another polynomial. References   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External links  A visual proof of Nicomachus's theorem  Category:Elementary mathematics Category:Number theory Category:Integer sequences Category:Mathematical identities Category:Articles containing proofs
Two (stylized ) was an English industrial metal band, formed by former Judas Priest lead singer Rob Halford as a side project, after the break-up of his first post-Judas Priest band, Fight. Band history Halford and guitarist John Lowery aka John 5 formed the band in 1996, and were signed to Trent Reznor's Nothing Records label. Reznor produced their sole output, Voyeurs, which sold poorly. Halford disbanded the group two years later. In 2007, Halford expressed interest in releasing the early demos from Voyeurs, which he has described as "tougher and edgier" compared to the final album. Discography  Studio albums  Singles  Videography Halford hired porn director Chi Chi Larue to direct the video for the first single, "I Am a Pig".
This video featured grainy S&M scenes of the band and various porn stars, including a few brief glimpses of Janine Lindemulder, in a sex dungeon. It also incorporates some of the album's artwork into the concept. It was not widely shown because of its content, but was not banned. References  External links NY Rock interview with Rob Halford  Category:Musical groups established in 1997 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1998 Category:Nothing Records artists Category:English heavy metal musical groups Category:British industrial music groups Category:Musical quintets
The DeepSouthCon (DSC) is an annual science fiction convention, which is hosted in different cities in the Southern United States. Site selection is by vote of the membership of a given DSC, for the convention to be held 2 years in the future. DSC is often, but not always, held in conjunction with an existing annual convention so the time of year varies. Many regular attendees of DeepSouthCon are also members of the Southern Fandom Confederation, but there is no direct relationship between the two organizations. Awards  DSC issues two principal awards: the Phoenix, which is awarded to a science fiction professional editor, author, or artist with connections to the South, and the Rebel, which is awarded to a like-placed fan.
The Phoenix and Rebel awards are considered lifetime achievement awards for a professional or fan who has done the most for southern fandom. The 2013 DeepSouthCon, JordanCon in Atlanta, Georgia, awarded the Phoenix to Robert Jordan (posthumously), and the Rebel to Regina Kirby and Mike Lee Rogers. Jordan's award was accepted by his wife, Harriet McDougal. The 2014 DeepSouthCon, Contrails in Bristol, Virginia, awarded the Phoenix to Steve Jackson, and the Rebel to Judy Bemis. The 2015 DeepSouthCon, CONtraflow V in New Orleans, Louisiana, awarded the Phoenix to Diana Rowland and (posthumously) Robert Asprin with the Rebel awarded to Michael Scott and Frank Schiavo.
A Rubble award to the person who has done the most to southern fandom in the past year is also awarded at the DeepSouthCon, usually good-naturedly. The Rubble is not an officially-sponsored convention award. Locations  Early The first DeepSouthCon was held in 1963 in Huntsville, Alabama, and had a total attendance of five people. In 1965, attendance had grown to 19 people and the very first Rebel Award was presented to co-chair Al Andrews. In 1970, at the Agacon DSC in Atlanta, Georgia, the first Phoenix Award was presented to Richard C. Meredith, and the convention broke the 100 mark in attendance with 130 members.
The largest DeepSouthCon was ConCarolinas 2010 in Charlotte, North Carolina, with a total attendance over 1,300 people. Recent Recent DeepSouthCons include DSC51, held in April 2013 in conjunction with JordanCon V in Atlanta, Georgia, with special guests Michael Whelan and Seanan McGuire and DSC52 held as a stand-alone event named Contrails in Bristol, Virginia, in May 2014 with Guest of Honor Gordon Van Gelder and Fan Guests of Honor Pat Molloy, Grace Molloy, and Naomi Fisher. Attendance at DSC52 was reported as "60 people and 1 dog". DSC53 was held in conjunction with CONtraflow V in New Orleans, Louisiana, on October 2–4, 2015.
Upcoming DSC54 will be held in conjunction with JordanCon 8 in Atlanta, Georgia, on April 22-24, 2016. This replaces a previously announced stand-alone Atlanta-based DSC known as "ABC DSC" that suffered financial and other issues and collapsed in Summer 2015. The announced guests of honor are author Catherine Asaro and artist John Picacio. DSC 55 will be held in conjunction with ConGregate in High Point, North Carolina, in July 2017. The winning bid won over a bid for Concave XXXVIII in Bowling Green, Kentucky.
Guests Over the years, guests and award winners of the DeepSouthCon have included Sam Moskowitz, Poul Anderson, Hal Clement, Philip José Farmer, L. Sprague de Camp, Jack Williamson, R.A. Lafferty, Stephen King, Marion Zimmer Bradley, Robert Bloch, Gregory Benford, Orson Scott Card, Forrest J. Ackerman, Mercedes Lackey, Lois McMaster Bujold, Mike Resnick, Larry Elmore, Harry Turtledove, James P. Hogan, Steve Jackson, George Alec Effinger, Barbara Hambly, Vincent Di Fate, John Ringo, David Drake, Jerry Pournelle, Albin Johnson, Brad W. Foster, Selina Rosen, and dozens more. References  External links DeepSouthCon history DeepSouthCon 52 - 2014 - Bristol, Virginia DeepSouthCon 53 - 2015 - New Orleans, Louisiana Complete list of DeepSouthCons (1963-Present)  Category:Science fiction conventions in the United States Category:Recurring events established in 1963
In physical anthropology, forensic anthropology and archaeogenetics, Australo-Melanesians (also Australasian, Australomelanesoid or Australoid) form a group of populations indigenous to Southeast Asia and Oceania as well as parts of South Asia. The group includes Papuans, Aboriginal Australians, Melanesians (mainly from Fiji, New Caledonia and Vanuatu) and the populations grouped as "Negrito" (the Andamanese, the Semang and Batek peoples, the Maniq people, the Aeta people, the Ati people, and certain other ethnic groups in the Philippines). The Vedda people in Sri Lanka and a number of dark-skinned tribal populations in the interior of the Indian subcontinent (some Dravidian-speaking groups and Austroasiatic-speaking peoples, like the Munda people) are also suggested by some to belong to the mixed Australo-Melanesian group, but there are controversies about this inclusion.
The term Australoid belongs to a set of terms introduced by 19th-century anthropologists attempting to categorize human races. Some claim such terms are associated with outdated notions of racial types, and so are now potentially offensive. Terminological history  The term "Australoid" was coined in ethnology in the mid 19th century, describing tribes or populations "of the type of native Australians". In physical anthropology, Australoid is used for morphological features characteristic of Aboriginal Australians by  Daniel John Cunningham in his Text-book of Anatomy (1902). An Australioid (sic, with an additional -i-) racial group was first proposed by Thomas Huxley in an essay On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind (1870), in which he divided humanity into four principal groups (Xanthochroic, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australioid).
Huxley's original model included the native inhabitants of South Asia under the Australoid category. Huxley further classified  the Melanochroi (Peoples of the Mediterranean race) as a mixture of the Xanthochroi (northern Europeans) and Australioids. Huxley (1870) described   Australioids as   dolichocephalic; their hair as usually silky, black and wavy or curly, with large, heavy jaws and prognathism, with skin the color of chocolate and irises which are dark brown or black. The term "Proto-Australoid" was used by Roland Burrage Dixon in his Racial History of Man (1923). In a 1962 publication, Australoid was described as one of the five major human races alongside Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Congoid and Capoid.
In The Origin of Races (1962), Carleton Coon attempted to refine such scientific racism by introducing a system of five races with separate origins. Based on such evidence as claiming Australoids had the largest, megadont teeth, this group was assessed by Coon as being the most archaic and therefore the most primitive and backward. Coon's methods and conclusions were later discredited and show either a "poor understanding of human cultural history and evolution or his use of ethnology for a racialist agenda." Bellwood (1985) uses the terms  "Australoid", "Australomelanesoid" and "Australo-Melanesians" to describe the genetic heritage of "the Southern Mongoloid populations of Indonesia and Malaysia".
Since the 1980s, anthropological terms in "-oid" have come to be avoided in some disciplines, especially in the United States, where the term Australo-Melanesian is now preferred. In other areas, specifically in anthropological literature in India, the term Australoid continues to be preferred. Controversies  Inclusion  The Vedda people in Sri Lanka and a number of dark-skinned tribal populations in the interior of the Indian subcontinent (some Dravidian-speaking groups and some Austroasiatic-speaking groups, such as the Munda people, Bonda, Khonda Dora, and Ho) are also suggested by some to belong to the Australoid group, but there are controversies about this inclusion.
Research involving cranial morphology, made by Indian anthropologists, however, suggests that the South Asian Indian populations have different cranial characteristics from Australoid groups. This difference has possibly been strengthened in recent times due to intermarriage with peoples of different origins. A genetic study in 1985 suggested connections between tribal peoples of Southern India and Sri Lanka and Negrito populations of the Philippines and Malaysia. Genetic studies have also found evidence of shared ancestry between Andaman Islanders and a genetic component found in peoples of the Indian subcontinent. Distribution     Besides the Papuans, Australian Aboriginals, Melanesians, and Negritos, the "Australoid" category is often taken to include various tribes of India.
The inclusion of Indian tribes in the group is not well-defined, and is closely related to the question of the original peopling of India, and the possible shared ancestry between Indian, Andamanese, and Sahulian populations of the Upper Paleolithic. The suggested  Australoid ancestry of the original South Asian populations  has long remained an open question. It was embraced by Indian anthropologists as emphasizing the deep antiquity of Indian prehistory. Australoid hunter-gatherer and fisherman tribes of the interior of India were identified with the Nishada Kingdom described in the Mahabharata. Panchanan Mitra (1923) following Vincenzo Giuffrida-Ruggeri (1913) recognizes a Pre-Dravidian Australo-Veddaic stratum in India.
Alternatively, the Dravidians themselves have been claimed as originally of Australoid stock, a view held by  Biraja Sankar Guha among others. South Indian tribes specifically described as having Australoid affinities include the Oraon, Munda, Santal, Bhil, Gondi, the Kadars of Kerala, the Kurumba and Irula of the Nilgiris, the Paniyans of Malabar, the Uralis, Kannikars, Mithuvan   and Chenchus.. But other Indian anthropologists of the post-colonial period, such as   S. P. Sharma (1971) and  D. N. Majumdar (1946, 1965), have gone as far as claiming Australoid ancestry, to a greater or lesser extent, for almost all the castes and tribes of India.
According to a large craniometric study (Raghavan and Bulbeck et al. 2013) the native populations of South Asia have distinct craniometric and anthropologic ancestry. Both southern and northern groups are most similar to each other and have generally closer affinities to various "Caucasoid" groups. The study further showed that the native South Asians (including the Vedda) form a distinct group and are not aligned to the "Australoid" group. However, Raghavan and Bulbeck et al., while noting the differences of South Asian from Andamanese and Australoid crania, also explain that this is not in conflict with genetic evidence (found by Reich et al.
in 2009) showing a common ancestry and genetic affinity between ancient South Asian hunter gatherers and the native Andamanese (a group sometimes considered to be related to Australoids), stating: "The distinctiveness of Andamanese and southern Indian crania need not challenge the finding by Reich et al. for an “Ancestral South Indian” ancestry shared by southern Indians and Andamanese" and that "some populations are craniometrically specialised while others are not...What the present analysis adds is that southern Indians also have specialised craniometrics. Andamanese on the other hand have unspecialised craniometrics...Therefore, southern Indians' craniometric distinctiveness from Andamanese should be interpreted as a result of their craniometric specialisation rather than as evidence against a shared, ancient ancestry with Andamanese."
Individuals with Australo-Melanesian/Australoid phenotypes existed possibly also in East Asia (in and toward the south of East Asia) at least since Middle Paleolithic, such as Liujiang but were largely displaced by migrations of Mongoloid rice farmers since Neolithic, who may have spread from Siberia or Central China to Southeastern Asia during Mesolithic and Neolithic and after adopting farming to the rest of Southeast Asia and Oceania. Physical features In physical anthropology, the Australo-Melanesian group is characterized primarily by its characteristic dental morphology. In Java, "Australo-Melanesian dentitions" are found in fossils until the mid-Holocene (c. 5,000 years ago), but are replaced by modern "Southern Mongoloid dentitions" (Sundadonty) in the Neolithic, suggesting the displacement and assimilation of the aboriginal Australo-Melanesian population by the Austronesian expansion.
Genetics  Numerous studies of archaeogenetics  performed during 2009–2016 have suggested that Eurasian populations can be  derived from an early division   of the   non-African lineage into an eastern and a western clade lineage before around 40,000 years ago. It has been argued, however, that this model of a primary split between  eastern and western Eurasians is invalid for Oceania and Southeast Asia. The so-called "southern-route hypothesis" derives an Australasian lineage, comprising Australians, New Guineans, and possibly Southeast Asian Negritos, from  an early out-of-Africa dispersal, forming an ancestral lineage which split off the other non-African lineages prior to the Eastern Eurasian vs. Western Eurasian split.
A number of 2016 studies have presented a refined model of Australasian ancestry.Reviewing the evidence, Lipson and Reich (2017) present as best-fitting model a derivation of the Australasian clade from the Eastern Eurasian clade at an early time, with substantial Denisovan admixture (of the order of 4%) before the Australasian clade split into the Australian and the New Guinean lineages. More recently, Matsumura et al. 2019 found contradicting evidence. According to his study, Australo-Melanesians formed from independent lineages, not related to Eastern Eurasians, and supports a “two-layer” origin for Southeast Asia and Oceania. Pugach et al. (2013) find an ancestral association between Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans and the Mamanwa Negritos, with an estimated divergence time of at least 35,000 years, in support of the "southern migration route" scenario.
In addition, the study finds evidence of gene flow between India and Australia at a later time, an estimated 141 generations ago (i.e. roughly 3,000 to 4,000 years ago), suggesting a possible late migration wave to Australia. For Australo-Melanesian populations within Austronesia (the Negritos, Papuans, and Orang Asli), they underwent fairly extensive population admixture with the incoming Austronesian migrants. A 2006 CFSL research article which assessed "3522 individuals belonging to 54 (23 belonging to the Austroasiatic, 18 to Dravidian, 7 to Tibeto-Burman and 24 to Indo-European linguistic groups) endogamous Indian populations, representing all major ethnic, linguistic and geographic groups" for genetic variations to support such classifications found no conclusive evidence.
It further summed that "the absence of genetic markers to support the general clustering of population groups based on ethnic, linguistic, geographic or socio-cultural affiliations" undermines the broad groupings based on such affiliations that exist in population genetic studies and forensic databases. The term "Australioid race" was introduced by Thomas Huxley in 1870 to refer to certain peoples indigenous to South and Southeast Asia and Oceania. Terms associated with outdated notions of racial types, such as those ending in "-oid" have come to be seen as potentially offensive and related to scientific racism. Possible early presence in the Americas   A speculative theory of Walter Neves in the 1990s proposes that an early Australoid population may have been the earliest occupants of the New World.
The theory was based on an analysis of the Luzia Woman fossil found in  Brazil, and found tentative academic support. If this hypothesis is correct, it would mean that some Australoid groups continued the Great Coastal Migration beyond Southeast Asia, along the continental shelf north in East Asia and across the Bering land bridge, reaching the Americas by about 50,000 years ago. Australasian genetic evidence in Native Americans  In 2015, two major studies of the DNA of living and ancient people detect in modern Native Americans a trace of DNA related to that of native people from Australia and Melanesia.
Australasian admixture in some living Native Americans, including those of the Aleutian Islands and the Surui people of Amazonian Brazil. Evidence of Australasian admixture in Amazonian populations was found  by Skoglund and Reich (2016). Walter Neves and Mark Hubbe argue that these people descended from an early wave of migration that was separate from the one that gave rise to today's Native Americans, and drew on a different source population in Asia. Australasian morphology in Native Americans  Christy Turner states that "cranial analyses of some South American crania have suggested that there might have been some early migration of "Australoids."
However, Turner argues that cranial morphology suggests sinodonty, a dental pattern seen in people from eastern and northern Asia in the Native American populations she has studied. One of the earliest skulls discovered in the Americas by archaeologists is an Upper Paleolithic specimen named the Luzia Woman in 1974 by archaeologist Annette Laming-Emperaire. Anthropologists variously described Luzia's features as resembling those of Negroids, Indigenous Australians, Melanesians and the Negritos of Southeast Asia. Walter Neves, an anthropologist at the University of São Paulo, suggested that Luzia's features most strongly resembled those of Australian Aboriginal peoples. Richard Neave of Manchester University, who undertook a forensic facial reconstruction of Luzia, described it as negroid.
According to Walter Neves a Brazilian anthropologist, archaeologist and biologist from the University of São Paulo ( Luzia's Paleo-Indian predecessors lived in South East Asia for tens of thousands of years, after migrating from Africa, and began arriving in the New World, as early as 15,000 years ago. Some anthropologists have hypothesized that Paleo-Indians migrated along the coast of East Asia and Beringia in small watercraft, before or during the LGM. Neves' conclusions have been challenged researchers who argued that the cranio-facial variability could just be due to genetic drift and other factors affecting cranio-facial plasticity in Native Americans. In November 2018, scientists of the University of São Paulo and Harvard University released a study that contradicts the alleged Australo-Melanesian origin of Luzia.
The results showed that Luzia was entirely Amerindian, genetically. It was published in the journal Cell article (November 8, 2018), a paper in the journal Science from an affiliated team also reported new findings on fossil DNA from the first migrants to the Americas. Using DNA sequencing, the results showed that Lagoa Santa remains from a site nearby to the Luzia remains carry DNA regarded as Native American. Two of the Lagoa Santa individuals carry the same mtDNA haplogroup (D4h3a) also carried by older 12,000+ remains Anzick-1 found in Montana and three of the Lagoa Santa individuals harbor the same Y chromosome haplogroup Q-M848 as found in the Spirit Cave genome of Nevada.
The bust of Luzia displaying Australo-Melanesian/African features was created in 1999. André Strauss of the Max Planck Institute, one of the authors of the Journal Science article remarked  "However, skull shape isn't a reliable marker of ancestrality or geographic origin. Genetics is the best basis for this type of inference," Strauss explained. "The genetic results of the new study show categorically that there was no significant connection between the Lagoa Santa people and groups from Africa or Australia. So the hypothesis that Luzia's people derived from a migratory wave prior to the ancestors of today's Amerindians has been disproved. On the contrary, the DNA shows that Luzia's people were entirely Amerindian."
See also Austronesian peoples Melanesians Negrito Andamanese Aboriginal Australians Papuans  References  Category:Indigenous peoples of Oceania Category:Indigenous peoples of Southeast Asia Category:Indigenous peoples of South Asia Category:Historical definitions of race Category:Biological anthropology
The Time Machine is a 2002 American science fiction film loosely adapted from the 1895 novel of the same name by H. G. Wells and the screenplay of the 1960 film of the same name by David Duncan. Arnold Leibovit served as executive producer and Simon Wells, the great-grandson of the original author, served as director. The film stars Guy Pearce, Orlando Jones, Samantha Mumba, Mark Addy, and Jeremy Irons, and includes a cameo by Alan Young, who also appeared in the 1960 film adaptation. The film is set in New York City instead of London, and contains new story elements not present in the original novel nor the 1960 film adaptation, including a romantic backstory, a new scenario about how civilization was destroyed, and several new characters such as an artificially intelligent hologram and a Morlock leader.
It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Makeup (John M. Elliot Jr. and Barbara Lorenz) at the 75th Academy Awards, but lost to Frida. Plot  In 1899, Dr. Alexander Hartdegen is an inventor teaching at Columbia University in New York City. Unlike his friend David Philby, Alexander would rather do pure research than work in the world of business. After a mugger kills his fiancée, Emma, he devotes himself to building a time machine that will allow him to travel back in time to save her. When he completes the machine in 1903, he travels back to 1899 and prevents her murder, only to see her killed again when a horseless carriage frightens the horses of a horse-drawn vehicle.
Alexander realizes that any attempt to save Emma will result in her death through other circumstances. Distraught, Alexander travels to 2030 to discover whether science has been able to solve his question of how to change the past. At the New York Public Library, a holographic sentient librarian called Vox 114 insists that time travel to the past is impossible and is the realm of fictional authors such as Isaac Asimov and H.G. Wells. Alexander looks up himself and learns that he was reported missing in 1903 and dismissed as a crackpot. Alexander travels to 2037, when the accidental destruction of the Moon by the lunar colonists' demolition team has begun rendering the Earth virtually uninhabitable.
While restarting the time machine, he is knocked unconscious and travels to the year 802,701 before reawakening. When Alexander comes to, he learns that Earth has now healed and the human race has reverted to a primitive lifestyle. Some survivors, called "Eloi", live on the sides of cliffs of what was once Manhattan. Alexander is nursed back to health by a woman named Mara, one of the few Eloi who speak English. He observes the broken moon and suggests that maybe his teachings led to this future. One night, Alexander and Mara's young brother Kalen dream of a frightening, jagged-toothed face and a creature calling their name.
Alexander informs Mara of the dream, and she tells him they all have that dream and notices that his watch is missing. The next day, the Eloi are attacked and Mara is dragged underground by ape-like monsters called "Morlocks" that hunt the Eloi for food. In order to rescue her, Kalen leads Alexander to Vox 114, which is still functional after 800,671 years. After learning from Vox how to find the Morlocks, Alexander enters their underground lair through an opening that resembles the face in his nightmare. He is captured and thrown into an area where Mara sits in a cage.
Alexander meets the Über-Morlock, who explains that Morlocks are the descendants of the humans who went underground after the Moon broke apart, while the Eloi are descended from those who remained on the surface. The Über-Morlocks are a caste of telepaths who rule the other Morlocks. The Über-Morlock explains that Alexander cannot alter Emma's fate, because her death is what drove him to build the time machine in the first place: saving her would be a virtual impossibility due to temporal paradox. He then reveals that the Morlocks have brought the time machine underground, and tells Alexander to return home after he gives Alexander his watch and the answer of why can't he change the past.
Alexander gets into the machine, but pulls the Über-Morlock in with him, carrying them into the future as they fight. The Über-Morlock dies by rapidly aging when Alexander pushes him outside of the machine's temporal bubble. Alexander arrives at the year 635,427,810, revealing a harsh, rust-colored sky over a wasteland of Morlock caves. Accepting that he cannot save Emma, Alexander travels back to rescue Mara. After freeing her, he starts the time machine and jams its gears with his watch, creating a violent distortion in time. Pursued by the Morlocks, Alexander and Mara escape to the surface as the time distortion explodes, killing the Morlocks and destroying their caves along with the time machine.
Alexander begins a new life with Mara and the Eloi, while Vox 114 becomes a teacher to the Eloi children. Back in 1903, Philby and Alexander's housekeeper Mrs. Watchit are in his laboratory discussing his absence. Philby tells Mrs. Watchit he is glad that Alexander has gone to a place where he can find peace, then tells her that he would like to hire her as a housekeeper, which she accepts until Alexander returns. Mrs. Watchit bids Alexander farewell and Philby leaves, looking toward the laboratory affectionately, then throws his bowler hat away in tribute to Alexander's distaste for conformity.
Cast  Guy Pearce as Dr. Alexander Hartdegen, associate professor of applied mechanics and engineering at Columbia University. In the novel, the time traveler's name isn't given. Samantha Mumba as Mara, a young Eloi woman who befriends Alexander and eventually becomes his love interest. Orlando Jones as Vox 114, a holographic artificial intelligence librarian at the New York Public Library in the future, who befriends Alexander. Mark Addy as David Philby, Alexander's good friend and conservative colleague. Jeremy Irons as The Über-Morlock, the leader of the Morlocks and a member of the telepathic-ruling caste of the Morlock world. Sienna Guillory as Emma, Alexander's fiancé.
Phyllida Law as Mrs. Watchit, Alexander's housekeeper in New York. Alan Young as Flower store worker  Omero Mumba as Kalen, Mara's young brother. Yancey Arias as Toren  Laura Kirk as Flower seller  Josh Stamberg as Motorist  Myndy Crist as Jogger  Connie Ray as field trip teacher  Peter Karika as The Trainer   John W. Momrow as Fifth Avenue carriage driver  Max Baker as Mugger who kills Emma  Jeffrey M. Meyer as Central Park carriage driver  Raymond Hoffman as Central Park ice skater  Richard Cetrone cameos as a Hunter Morlock. Doug Jones cameos as a Spy Morlock. Production The film was a co-production of DreamWorks and Warner Bros. in association with Arnold Leibovit Entertainment who obtained the rights to the George Pal original Time Machine 1960 and collectively negotiated the deal that made it possible for both Warner Bros and DreamWorks to make the film.
Special effects The Morlocks were depicted using actors in costumes wearing animatronic masks created by Stan Winston Studio. For scenes in which they run on all fours faster than humanly possible, Industrial Light & Magic created CGI versions of the creatures. Many of the time traveling scenes were entirely computer generated, including a 33-second shot in the workshop where the time machine is located. The camera pulls out, traveling through New York City and then into space, past the ISS, and ends with a space plane landing at the Moon to reveal Earth's future lunar colonies. Plants and buildings are shown springing up and then being replaced by new growth in a constant cycle.
In later shots, the effects team used an erosion algorithm to digitally simulate the Earth's landscape changing through the centuries. For some of the lighting effects used for the digital time bubble around the time machine, ILM developed an extended-range color format, which they named rgbe (red, green, blue, and an exponent channel) (See Paul E. Debevec and Jitendra Malik, "Recovering High Dynamic Range Radiance Maps from Photographs, Siggraph Proceedings, 1997). The film's original release date was December 2001, but it was moved to March 2002 because a scene was removed from the Moon destruction sequence showing pieces of the Moon crashing into buildings in New York because it looked too similar visually to the September 11 attacks.
Soundtrack A full score was written by Klaus Badelt, with the recognizable theme being the track "I Don't Belong Here", which was later used in the 2008 Discovery Channel Mini series When We Left Earth. In 2002, the film's soundtrack won the World Soundtrack Award for Discovery of the Year. Critical reception The film holds a 29% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 150 reviews with an average rating of 4.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads "This Machine has all the razzle-dazzles of modern special effects, but the movie takes a turn for the worst when it switches from a story about lost love to a confusing action-thriller".
William Arnold of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, who was somewhat positive about the film, wrote that it lost some of the simplicity and charm of the 1960 George Pal film by adding characters such as Jeremy Irons' "über-morlock". He praised actor Guy Pearce's "more eccentric" time traveler and his transition from an awkward intellectual to a man of action. Victoria Alexander of Filmsinreview.com wrote that "The Time Machine is a loopy love story with good special effects but a storyline that's logically incomprehensible," noting some "plot holes" having to deal with Hartdegen and his machine's cause-and-effect relationship with the outcome of the future.
Jay Carr of the Boston Globe wrote: "The truth is that Wells wasn't that penetrating a writer when it came to probing character or the human heart. His speculations and gimmicks were what propelled his books. The film, given the chance to deepen its source, instead falls back on its gadgets." Some critics praised the special effects, declaring the film visually impressive and colorful, while others thought the effects were poor. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times scorned the film, and found the Morlock animation cartoonish and unrealistic, because of their manner of leaping and running. Ebert notes the contrast in terms of the social/racial representation of the attractive Eloi between the two films... between the "dusky sun people" of this version and the Nordic race in the George Pal film.
Aside from its vision of the future, the film's recreation of New York at the turn of the century won it some praise. Bruce Westbrook of the Houston Chronicle writes "The far future may be awesome to consider, but from period detail to matters of the heart, this film is most transporting when it stays put in the past."
References  External links                 Category:2002 films Category:2002 science fiction films Category:2000s science fiction action films Category:2000s science fiction adventure films Category:American films Category:American science fiction action films Category:American science fiction adventure films Category:American alternate history films Category:American film remakes Category:English-language films Category:The Time Machine Category:Apocalyptic films Category:DreamWorks Pictures films Category:Dystopian films Category:Fictional-language films Category:Films about time travel Category:Films based on works by H. G. Wells Category:Films directed by Simon Wells Category:Films postponed due to the September 11 attacks Category:Films set in 1899 Category:Films set in 1903 Category:Films set in 2030 Category:Films set in 2037 Category:Films set in the future Category:Films set in New York City Category:Films shot in California Category:Films shot in Los Angeles Category:Films shot in New York (state) Category:Holography in films Category:Impact event films Category:Moon in film Category:Warner Bros. films Category:Post-apocalyptic films Category:Films with screenplays by John Logan Category:Films scored by Klaus Badelt
Dr. P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri (29 July 1890 – 20 May 1978) was a Sanskrit scholar, who also acquired mastery over Tamil language and literature. He was the first to translate Tolkāppiyam into English. Education Subrahmanya Sastri did his S.S.L.C. at National High School, F.A. at St. Joseph's College and B.A. Mathematics at SPG (later Bishop Heber's) College – all in Tiruchirappalli. He started his professional career as a Mathematics assistant at the Central High School (now Srinivasa Rao Higher Secondary School), Thiruvaiyaru, and National High School, Tiruchi. He studied Sanskrit under Nilakanta Sastri, a specialist in grammar and philosophy.
He also learnt Nyaya (logic) and Alankara Sastra (Poetics and Literary Criticism) from Prof. S. Kuppuswami Sastri of the Madras Presidency College and Mimamsa (Linguistics) from Chinnaswami Sastri of the Benares Hindu University. A graduate in M.A. (Sanskrit), Subrahmanya Sastri also passed L.T. through Teachers’ Training College at Saidapet, Chennai. While teaching Sanskrit, Subrahmanya Sastri had to teach Tamil also. This paved the way for his in-depth study in both Sanskrit and Tamil, specifically grammar. Prof. Kuppuswami Sastri also taught him the Comparative Philology of Indo Aryan languages. All these inspired Subrahmanya Sastri to take up a systematic study of Tamil literature and grammar.
First Ph.D in Tamil Subrahmanya Sastri submitted his Ph.D. thesis, ‘History of Grammatical Theories in Tamil and their relation to grammatical literature in Sanskrit’ in 1930 at the Madras University. His was the first Ph.D. degree in Tamil awarded by the University of Madras. This was subsequently published by the Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, Chennai  Career Subrahmanya Sastri was appointed Professor of Oriental Studies at SPG College, Tiruchi, by Fr. Gardiner in 1917 and served his alma mater till 1926. He then became the Asst. Editor, Tamil Lexicon, University of Madras, in which capacity he served till 1932 and editor of the Lexicon for a month.
He was principal, Rajah's College, Thiruvaiyaru, (1932-1942) and Head of the Department of Sanskrit at the Annamalai University (1942–47). During his tenure at Annamalai University Subrahmanya Sastri revived the defunct Sanskrit Honours course. His class lectures in Sanskrit or English used to be interspersed with parallels from Tamil literature. It is because of this, Mr. Thomas T. Burrow, a Sanskrit scholar from England (later Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the Oxford University and the joint author of the epoch making Dravidian Etymological Dictionary), took keen interest in attending his Sanskrit classes at Annamalai University. Research Subrahmanya Sastri worked on the Tolkappiyam, which he later translated into English.
The translation of ‘Ezhuthu’ and ‘Poruladhikaram’ were published by the Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, while the ‘Solladhikaram part’ was published by Annamalai University. Subrahmanya Sastri's text on Tolkappiyam in Roman transliteration and English translation received encomiums from linguists across the world. Literary works During his tenure at Annamalai University, Subrahmanya Sastri published two volumes of lectures on Patanjali's Mahabhashya, the Thonivilakku, a Tamil translation of Dhvanyaloka (a Sanskrit rhetorical text), History of Sanskrit literature and Sanskrit Language (2 books) in Tamil and Historical Tamil Reader in English. On his retirement, he returned to Thiruvaiyaru and completed the translation of the Mahabhashya into English (in 14 volumes running to about 4,000 pages) on the advice of the Mahaperiyava of Kanchi.
He finished his translation in 1953. The Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute has published all the 14 Vols. of Prof. P.S.S.Sastri. Under each sutra just before taking up the bhashya, Subrahmanya Sastri had pointed out the topics that would be dealt with in the great commentary. Then giving the original in the Devanagari script, he translated each passage of the text. With a view to elucidating the obscure points, he often added notes mostly based on Kaiyata's Pradipa and Nagesabhatta's Udyota. Footnotes are also given offering further explanation and showing variance in readings. The index of words is a welcome addition.
Awards and felicitations Subrahmanya Sastri was a recipient of several titles. Vidyaratna (Benares)  Vidyanidhi (Kerala)  Vidyabhushana (Karnataka)  Mahamahimopadhyaya (Allahabad) and  Vani-Triveni-Prayaga from the Periyava of Kanchi Mutt. In the fifth title, the Mahaswami implied that Sanskrit and Tamil represented the rivers Ganga and Yamuna and English represented Antarvahini Saraswathi since his proficiency in English was hidden in his works. Personality Subrahmanya Sastri was a voracious reader, versatile writer and an erudite scholar. Apart from his mastery over Sanskrit, Tamil and English, he also studied German, French, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. Subrahmanya Sastri, who was known for his simplicity, taught Tirukkural to a manual scavenger during his retired life at Tiruvaiyaru.
Subrahmanya Sastri was extremely kind to his students that sometimes he would pay their course and examination fee. He had studied the Rg, Yajur and Sama Vedas and taught them to many students. He had also published about 40 books besides his contribution of research articles in journals. Death Subrahmanya Sastri died on 20 May 1978 at Tiruvaiyaru. An Endowment has been created in his name in 1997 at the Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute and every year lecture is being arranged under this Endowment. References  Category:1890 births Category:1978 deaths Category:University of Madras alumni Category:Tamil-language writers Category:Annamalai University faculty Category:Indian Sanskrit scholars Category:People from Tiruchirappalli district Category:Indian Tamil people Category:Tamil scholars Category:Scholars from Tamil Nadu Category:Translators from Tamil Category:20th-century Indian translators
"Blood Sugar" is a song by Australian drum and bass band, Pendulum, released as a single on 18 June 2007 in the United Kingdom. It was the band's final single with the Breakbeat Kaos label, and was released on 12-inch vinyl. Both tracks were later added to the 2007 reissue of the group's debut album, Hold Your Colour, due to their popularity. "Axle Grinder" contains samples from the United States TV show, The Twilight Zone. Chart performance  "Blood Sugar" / "Axle Grinder" entered the UK Singles Chart on week 25, 2007. It peaked at number 62 before dropping out a week later.
Remixes and other versions  On 13 April 2018, the second release from the group's compilation album, The Reworks, was revealed to be a Knife Party remix of "Blood Sugar." As of 14 April 2018, the release has garnered mixed reception from listeners on YouTube, with many individuals speculating that the release was a joke, rather than a serious release. Track listing 12-inch vinyl single  A. "Blood Sugar" – 5:17 AA. "Axle Grinder" – 4:09  References  Category:2007 singles Category:Songs written by Rob Swire Category:Pendulum (drum and bass band) songs
Transcendental Meditation (TM) refers to  a specific form of silent, mantra meditation and less commonly to the organizations that constitute the Transcendental Meditation movement. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi created and introduced the TM technique and TM movement in India in the mid-1950s. The Maharishi taught thousands of people during a series of world tours from 1958 to 1965, expressing his teachings in spiritual and religious terms. TM became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s, as the Maharishi shifted to a more technical presentation, and his meditation technique was practiced by celebrities. At this time, he began training TM teachers and created specialized organizations to present TM to specific segments of the population such as business people and students.
By the early 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of people; the worldwide TM organization had grown to include educational programs, health products, and related services. The TM technique involves the use of a silently-used sound called a mantra, and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day. It is taught by certified teachers through a standard course of instruction, which costs a fee that varies by country. According to the Transcendental Meditation movement, it is a non-religious method for relaxation, stress reduction, and self-development. The technique has been seen as both religious and non-religious; sociologists, scholars, and a New Jersey judge and court are among those who have expressed views on it being religious or non-religious.
The United States Court of Appeals upheld the federal ruling that TM was essentially "religious in nature" and therefore could not be taught in public schools. TM is one of the most widely practiced and researched meditation techniques. It is not possible to say whether it has any effect on health as the research, as of 2007, is of poor quality. Other reviews have found no effect on weight, alcohol misuse, or pain compared to controls. History  The Transcendental Meditation program and the Transcendental Meditation movement originated with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, founder of the organization, and continue beyond his death in 2008.
In 1955, "the Maharishi began publicly teaching a traditional meditation technique" learned from his master Brahmananda Saraswati that he called Transcendental Deep Meditation and later renamed Transcendental Meditation. The Maharishi initiated thousands of people, then developed a TM teacher training program as a way to accelerate the rate of bringing the technique to more people. He also inaugurated a series of world tours which promoted Transcendental Meditation. These factors, coupled with endorsements by celebrities who practiced TM and claims that scientific research had validated the technique, helped to popularize TM in the 1960s and 1970s. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of individuals and the Maharishi was overseeing a large multinational movement.
Despite organizational changes and the addition of advanced meditative techniques in the 1970s, the Transcendental Meditation technique has remained relatively unchanged. Among the first organizations to promote TM were the Spiritual Regeneration Movement and the International Meditation Society. In modern times, the movement has grown to encompass schools and universities that teach the practice, and includes many associated programs based on the Maharishi's interpretation of the Vedic traditions. In the U.S., non-profit organizations included the Students International Meditation Society, AFSCI, World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, Global Country of World Peace and Maharishi Foundation. The successor to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and leader of the Global Country of World Peace, is Tony Nader.
Technique  The meditation practice involves the use of a silently-used mantra for 15–20 minutes twice per day while sitting with the eyes closed. It is reported to be one of the most widely practiced, and among the most widely researched, meditation techniques, with hundreds of published research studies. The technique is made available worldwide by certified TM teachers in a seven-step course, and fees vary from country to country. Beginning in 1965, the Transcendental Meditation technique has been incorporated into selected schools, universities, corporations, and prison programs in the US, Latin America, Europe, and India. In 1977 a US district court ruled that a curriculum in TM and the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) being taught in some New Jersey schools was religious in nature and in violation of the First Amendment of the United States Constitution.
The technique has since been included in a number of educational and social programs around the world. The Transcendental Meditation technique has been described as both religious and non-religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism, and as a non-religious practice for self-development. The public presentation of the TM technique over its 50-year history has been praised for its high visibility in the mass media and effective global propagation, and criticized for using celebrity and scientific endorsements as a marketing tool. Also, advanced courses supplement the TM technique and include an advanced meditation program called the TM-Sidhi program.
Movement  The Transcendental Meditation movement consists of the programs and organizations connected with the Transcendental Meditation technique and founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Transcendental Meditation was first taught in the 1950s in India and has continued since the Maharishi's death in  2008. The organization was estimated to have 900,000 participants worldwide in 1977, a million by the 1980s, and 5 million in more recent years, including some notable practitioners. Programs include the Transcendental Meditation technique, an advanced meditation practice called the TM-Sidhi program ("Yogic Flying"), an alternative health care program called Maharishi Ayurveda, and a system of building and architecture called Maharishi Sthapatya Ved.
The TM movement's past and present media endeavors include a publishing company (MUM Press), a television station (KSCI), a radio station (KHOE), and a satellite television channel (Maharishi Channel). During its 50-year history, its products and services have been offered through a variety of organizations, which are primarily nonprofit and educational. These include the Spiritual Regeneration Movement, the International Meditation Society, World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education  Development Corporation, the Global Country of World Peace, and the David Lynch Foundation. The TM movement also operates a worldwide network of Transcendental Meditation teaching centers, schools, universities, health centers, herbal supplements, solar panel, and home financing companies, plus several TM-centered communities.
The global organization is reported to have an estimated net worth of USD 3.5 billion. The TM movement has been characterized in a variety of ways and has been called a spiritual movement, a new religious movement, a millenarian movement, a world affirming movement, a new social movement, a guru-centered movement, a personal growth movement, a religion, and a cult. Additional sources contend that TM and its movement are not a cult. Participants in TM programs are not required to adopt a belief system; it is practiced by atheists, agnostics and people from a variety of religious affiliations. The organization has also been criticized as well as praised for its public presentation and marketing techniques throughout its 50-year history.
Health effects It is not possible to say whether meditation has any effect on health, as the research is of poor quality, and is marred by a high risk for bias due to the connection of researchers to the TM organization and by the selection of subjects with a favorable opinion of TM. Most independent systematic reviews have not found health benefits for TM exceeding those produced by other relaxation techniques or health education. A 2013 statement from the American Heart Association said that TM could be considered as a treatment for hypertension, although other interventions such as exercise and device-guided breathing were more effective and better supported by clinical evidence.
A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis funded by the U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality found no evidence that mantra meditation programs such as TM were effective in reducing psychological stress or improving well-being. A 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis found that TM may effectively reduce blood pressure compared to control groups, although the underlying studies may have been biased and further studies with better designs are needed to confirm these results. A 2014 Cochrane review found that it was impossible to draw any conclusions about whether TM is effective in preventing cardiovascular disease, as the scientific literature on TM was limited and at "serious risk of bias".
The first studies of the health effects of Transcendental Meditation appeared in the early 1970s. By 2004 the US government had given more than $20 million to Maharishi University of Management to study the effect of meditation on health. Maharishi Effect In the 1960s, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi described a paranormal effect claiming a significant number of individuals (1% of the people in a given area) practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique (TM) could have an effect on the local environment. This hypothetical influence was later termed the Maharishi Effect. With the introduction of the TM-Sidhi program in 1976, the Maharishi proposed that the square root of one percent of the population practicing the TM-Sidhi program, together at the same time and in the same place, would increase "life-supporting trends".
This was referred to as the "Extended Maharishi Effect". Evidence, which TM practitioners argue supports the existence of the effect, has been criticized as lacking a causal basis,  being derived from cherry-picked data, and being based on the credulity of believers. Controversy The organization has been the subject of controversies, and labelled a cult by several parliamentary inquiries or anti-cult movements in the world. Some also say that TM and its movement are not a cult. The TM movement has been characterized in a variety of ways and has been called a spiritual movement, a new religious movement, a millenarian movement, a world affirming movement, a new social movement, a guru-centered movement, a personal growth movement, a religion.
Participants in TM programs are not required to adopt a belief system; it is practiced by atheists, agnostics and people from a variety of religious affiliations. References  Further reading  Alexander, Charles and O'Connel, David F. (1995) Routledge Self Recovery: Treating Addictions Using Transcendental Meditation and Maharishi Ayur-Veda   Bloomfield, Harold H., Cain, Michael Peter, Jaffe, Dennis T. (1975)  TM: Discovering Inner Energy and Overcoming Stress     Deans, Ashley (2005) MUM Press,  A Record of Excellence,   Denniston, Denise, The TM Book, Fairfield Press 1986   Forem, Jack (2012) Hay House UK Ltd,  Transcendental Meditation: The Essential Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi   Geoff Gilpin, The Maharishi Effect: A Personal Journey Through the Movement That Transformed American Spirituality, Tarcher-Penguin 2006, * Pollack, A.
A., Weber, M. A., Case, D.  Jefferson, William (1976) Pocket Books, The Story Of The Maharishi,   Kropinski v. World Plan Executive Council, 853 F, 2d 948, 956 (D.C. Cir, 1988)  Marcus, Jay (1991) MIU press, Success From Within: Discovering the Inner State That Creates Personal Fulfillment and Business Success    Oates, Robert and Swanson, Gerald (1989) MIU Press, Enlightened Management: Building High-performance People ASIN: B001L8DBY2    Roth, Robert (1994) Primus, Transcendental Meditation   Skolnick, Andrew "Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Guru's Marketing Scheme Promises the World Eternal 'Perfect Health'! ", JAMA 1991;266:1741–1750,2 October 1991. Yogi, Maharishi Mahesh (1968) (Bantam Books) Transcendental Meditation: Serenity Without Drugs    Yogi, Maharishi Mahesh  (1967) Penguin, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary .
External links    Category:Meditation Category:Parapsychology Category:Self religions Category:Hindu new religious movements Category:1955 introductions Category:Yoga schools
In the U.S. state of Nevada, U.S. Route 93 (US 93) is a major United States Highway traversing the eastern edge of the state. The highway connects the Las Vegas area to the Great Basin National Park, and provides further connections to Ely and Wells. US 93 also provides the majority of the most direct connection from the major metropolitan areas of Las Vegas and Phoenix (via Boulder City, Kingman and Wickenburg with a final link to Phoenix via US 60) to the Boise, Idaho Metropolitan Area with a final connection to Boise via Interstate 84 from Twin Falls, Idaho.
Route description  U.S. Route 93 in Nevada is known as the Great Basin Highway from Interstate 15 in North Las Vegas to Interstate 80 in Wells. It begins at the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge in Boulder City. The highway overlaps U.S. Route 95 from State Route 173 in Boulder City to Interstate 15 in downtown Las Vegas. It runs to the Las Vegas Valley passing through the cities of Henderson, Las Vegas and North Las Vegas. US 93 merges with Interstate 15 at the Spaghetti Bowl interchange and overlaps I-15 for approximately 21 miles. After overlapping I-15, US 93 heads northwest towards Alamo.
Near Crystal Springs, US 93 curves right while intersecting State Routes 318 and 375. US 93 continues east to mountainous terrain to the town of Caliente. The highway turns left to go north to Pioche. 80 miles later, the highway turns left at an intersection with U.S. Routes 6 and 50. From State Route 318 to the US Routes 6 and 50 intersection, the highway is a Nevada Scenic Byway. Near Ely, the three U.S. routes separate. US 6 turns left before the intersection US 50 and 93 separate, heading southwest. US 50 and 93 separate, with route 50 heading northwest towards Austin, Nevada and route 93 heading northeast.
At Lages Station, US 93 turns left, while US 93 Alternate continues straight. In Wells, US 93 intersects Interstate 80. The highway continues into Idaho after passing through Jackpot. History  Establishment U.S. Route 93 was not one of the original U.S. highways proposed in the 1925 Bureau of Public Roads plan. However, the revised numbering plan approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) on November 11, 1926 established US 93 from the Canada–US border near Eureka, Montana south through Montana and Idaho to a southern terminus at Wells, Nevada. The establishment of the highway was reflected on Nevada's 1927 official highway map.
The Nevada section was approximately , commissioned along what was then the northern portion of State Route 13. AASHO, at its June 8, 1931 meeting, approved a southerly extension of US 93 south to Glendale, Nevada. By 1932, the Nevada Department of Highways had marked the continuation of the highway using the routing of several preexisting state highways as follows: From Wells, US 93 continued southeast along the remainder of SR 13 to its terminus at Lages Station. At Lages Station, the highway turned south, overlapping the southern portion of State Route 24 to Magnuson's Ranch. At Magnuson's Ranch, US 93 followed State Route 2 south for  to Ely.
The highway was then routed concurrently along the entirety of the nearly  State Route 7, running southeast from Ely through Connor's Pass, south through Pioche to Caliente, west to Crystal Springs and then southeast through Alamo and Moapa before terminating at U.S. Route 91/State Route 6 in Glendale. At the request of the Arizona State Highway Department, the AASHO route numbering committee approved another extension of US 93 in 1935. This shifted the southern terminus south to Kingman, Arizona by way of Las Vegas. However, Nevada officials may not have signed the extension of US 93 right away, since it was not shown on state-published maps until 1939.
The highway was again extended along existing highways: From Glendale, US 93 followed US 91/SR 6 southwest  to Las Vegas. In downtown Las Vegas, the route turned southeast and ran concurrent with U.S. Route 466/State Route 5 for  southeast to the town of Alunite (near the present-day Railroad Pass). At Alunite, US 93 and US 466 turned to follow State Route 26 east for  into Boulder City. In Boulder City, the combined US Routes dropped SR 26 and gained State Route 42 for the final  journey towards Boulder Dam and into Arizona. The new routing put the Nevada mileage of U.S. Route 93 at approximately .
The entire highway within Nevada was paved by 1939. Route changes After US 93 was extended to Arizona in the 1930s, the route remained unchanged for many years. A  concurrency with U.S. Route 95 between Las Vegas and Alunite was added in 1940, when that highway was extended through southern Nevada along State Route 5. The first major shift of US 93 occurred in 1967, when a new highway connection was completed between US 91 (now I-15) and a point  northwest of Glendale. The new alignment was oriented more north–south, shortening the distance between the Las Vegas area and Caliente by .
The old section of US 93 northwest of Glendale paralleling the Muddy River remained as State Route 7, and was renumbered in 1976 to State Route 168. In 1982, a "truck bypass" along the upper reaches of Hemenway Wash, to skirt the central portion of Boulder City and allow a straighter, more steady climb for commercial vehicles, was nearing completion. But by the time this new route opened, it had been signed as mainline US 93, with the old, winding route of US 93 on the Nevada Highway (original SR 26) through town being changed to SR 500. This state highway designation was later dropped and that roadway is now maintained by Boulder City as "Nevada Way".
The western end of this 1982 bypass was also later realigned from Colorado Street south to intersect directly at Buchanan Boulevard (in place of a wye intersection with Nevada Way a block to the east at Joshua Street), by using a small portion of abandoned railroad right-of-way. A shopping center now sits where the original truck bypass alignment once ran. US 93 was realigned again on October 19, 2010, when the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge over the Black Canyon of the Colorado River opened to vehicular traffic. With that, the highway no longer passes over Hoover Dam, and the state-maintained portion of the replaced route was renamed as Hoover Dam Access Road (SR 172).
In 2011, US 93 from Buchanan Boulevard to the Nevada terminus of the Hoover Dam Bypass was expanded to four through lanes with dedicated turn lanes at major intersections to better handle increased traffic loads from the Hoover Dam Bypass until its long-planned companion freeway around Boulder City was completed in 2018. On August 9, 2018, US 93 was rerouted onto the Boulder City Bypass around the historic town. The most recent previous alignment (1982–2018) through the heart of Boulder City and along Hemenway Wash has now been re-signed as U.S. Route 93 Business. Major intersections  Note: Mileposts in Nevada reset at county lines; the start and end mileposts for each county are given in the county column.
Special routes  U.S. Route 93 Alternate  U.S. Route 93 Business  See also  References  External links    U.S. Route 93 in Nevada @ AARoads  093 Category:Transportation in Clark County, Nevada Category:Transportation in Lincoln County, Nevada Category:Transportation in Elko County, Nevada Category:Transportation in White Pine County, Nevada 93  Nevada
Acyloins or α-hydroxy ketones are a class of organic compounds which all possess a hydroxy group adjacent to a ketone group. The named acyloin is derived from the fact that they are formally derived from reductive coupling of carboxylic acyl groups. Synthesis  Classic organic reactions exist for the synthesis of acyloins. The acyloin condensation is a reductive coupling of esters  The benzoin condensation is condensation reaction between aldehydes catalyzed by a nucleophile  Oxidation of carbonyls is possible with molecular oxygen but not selective  Better alternative is oxidation of corresponding silyl enol ethers with mCPBA in the Rubottom oxidation  MoOPH oxidation of carbonyls is a system with molybdenum peroxide, pyridine and hexamethylphosphoramide.
Enolate oxidation by sulfonyloxaziridines  Enolates can be oxidized by sulfonyloxaziridines. The enolate reacts by nucleophilic displacement at the electron deficient oxygen of the oxaziridine ring. This reaction type is extended to asymmetric synthesis by the use of chiral oxaziridines derived from camphor (camphorsulfonyl oxaziridine). Each isomer gives exclusive access to one of the two possible enantiomers. This modification is applied in the Holton taxol total synthesis. In the enolate oxidation of the cyclopentaenone below with either camphor enantiomer, the trans isomer is obtained because access for the hydroxyl group in the cis position is limited. The use of the standard oxaziridine did not result in an acyloin.
Reactions   Reduction of acyloins give diols. Oxidation of acyloins give diones. α-hydroxy ketones give positive Tollens' and  Fehling's test. Some acyloins rearrange with positions swapped under the influence of base in the Lobry–de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation  A similar reaction is the so-called Voigt amination where an acyloin reacts with a primary amine and phosphorus pentoxide to an α-keto amine:   Indole synthesis, compare Bischler–Möhlau  See also   Glycolaldehyde, a related molecule equivalent to an acyloin with both R groups as hydrogen (and thus an aldehyde not a ketone)  References   Category:Functional groups Category:Hydroxyketones
In law and philosophy, voluntariness is a choice being made of a person's free will, as opposed to being made as the result of coercion or duress. Philosophies such as libertarianism and voluntaryism, as well as many legal systems, hold that a contract must be voluntarily agreed to by a party in order to be binding on that party. The social contract rests on the concept of the voluntary consent of the governed. The Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure provide that "Before accepting a plea of guilty or nolo contendere, the court must address the defendant personally in open court and determine that the plea is voluntary and did not result from force, threats, or promises (other than promises in a plea agreement)."
The actual voluntariness is suspect, in that it is common for prosecutors to threaten to seek more prison time unless the defendant agrees to plead guilty. For this reason, common law courts historically took a negative view of guilty pleas. References  Category:Free will
In mathematics, a hyperbolic space is a homogeneous space that has a constant negative curvature, where in this case the curvature is the sectional curvature. It is hyperbolic geometry in more than 2 dimensions, and is distinguished from Euclidean spaces with zero curvature that define the Euclidean geometry, and elliptic geometry that have a constant positive curvature. When embedded to a Euclidean space (of a higher dimension), every point of a hyperbolic space is a saddle point. Another distinctive property is the amount of space covered by the n-ball in hyperbolic n-space: it increases exponentially with respect to the radius of the ball for large radii, rather than polynomially.
Formal definition Hyperbolic n-space, denoted Hn, is the maximally symmetric, simply connected, n-dimensional Riemannian manifold with a constant negative sectional curvature. Hyperbolic space is a space exhibiting hyperbolic geometry. It is the negative-curvature analogue of the n-sphere. Although hyperbolic space Hn is diffeomorphic to Rn, its negative-curvature metric gives it very different geometric properties. Hyperbolic 2-space, H2, is also called the hyperbolic plane. Models of hyperbolic space Hyperbolic space, developed independently by Nikolai Lobachevsky and János Bolyai, is a geometrical space analogous to Euclidean space, but such that Euclid's parallel postulate is no longer assumed to hold.
Instead, the parallel postulate is replaced by the following alternative (in two dimensions):  Given any line L and point P not on L, there are at least two distinct lines passing through P which do not intersect L. It is then a theorem that there are infinitely many such lines through P. This axiom still does not uniquely characterize the hyperbolic plane up to isometry; there is an extra constant, the curvature ,  which must be specified. However, it does uniquely characterize it up to homothety, meaning up to bijections which only change the notion of distance by an overall constant.
By choosing an appropriate length scale, one can thus assume, without loss of generality, that . Models of hyperbolic spaces that can be embedded in a flat (e.g. Euclidean) spaces may be constructed. In particular, the existence of model spaces implies that the parallel postulate is logically independent of the other axioms of Euclidean geometry. There are several important models of hyperbolic space: the Klein model, the hyperboloid model, the Poincaré ball model and the Poincaré half space model. These all model the same geometry in the sense that any two of them can be related by a transformation that preserves all the geometrical properties of the space, including isometry (though not with respect to the metric of a Euclidean embedding).
The hyperboloid model  The hyperboloid model realizes hyperbolic space as a hyperboloid in Rn+1 = {(x0,...,xn)|xi∈R, i=0,1,...,n}. The hyperboloid is the locus Hn of points whose coordinates satisfy  In this model a line (or geodesic) is the curve formed by the intersection of Hn with a plane through the origin in Rn+1. The hyperboloid model is closely related to the geometry of Minkowski space. The quadratic form  which defines the hyperboloid, polarizes to give the bilinear form  The space Rn+1, equipped with the bilinear form B, is an (n+1)-dimensional Minkowski space Rn,1. One can associate a distance on the hyperboloid model by defining the distance between two points x and y on Hn to be  This function satisfies the axioms of a metric space.
It is preserved by the action of the Lorentz group on Rn,1. Hence the Lorentz group acts as a transformation group preserving isometry on Hn. The Klein model  An alternative model of hyperbolic geometry is on a certain domain in projective space. The Minkowski quadratic form Q defines a subset  given as the locus of points for which  in the homogeneous coordinates x. The domain Un is the Klein model of hyperbolic space. The lines of this model are the open line segments of the ambient projective space which lie in Un. The distance between two points x and y in Un is defined by  This is well-defined on projective space, since the ratio under the inverse hyperbolic cosine is homogeneous of degree 0.
This model is related to the hyperboloid model as follows. Each point  corresponds to a line Lx through the origin in Rn+1, by the definition of projective space. This line intersects the hyperboloid Hn in a unique point. Conversely, through any point on Hn, there passes a unique line through the origin (which is a point in the projective space). This correspondence defines a bijection between Un and Hn. It is an isometry, since evaluating  along  reproduces the definition of the distance given for the hyperboloid model. The Poincaré ball model   A closely related pair of models of hyperbolic geometry are the Poincaré ball and Poincaré half-space models.
The ball model comes from a stereographic projection of the hyperboloid in Rn+1 onto the hyperplane {x0 = 0}. In detail, let S be the point in Rn,1  with coordinates (−1,0,0,...,0): the South pole for the stereographic projection. For each point P on the hyperboloid Hn, let P∗ be the unique point of intersection of the line SP with the plane {x0 = 0}. This establishes a bijective mapping of Hn into the unit ball  in the plane {x0 = 0}. The geodesics in this model are semicircles that are perpendicular to the boundary sphere of Bn. Isometries of the ball are generated by spherical inversion in hyperspheres perpendicular to the boundary.
The Poincaré half-space model   The half-space model results from applying inversion in a circle with centre a boundary point of the Poincaré ball model Bn above and a radius of twice the radius. This sends circles to circles and lines, and is moreover a conformal transformation. Consequently, the geodesics of the half-space model are lines and circles perpendicular to the boundary hyperplane. Hyperbolic manifolds  Every complete, connected, simply connected manifold of constant negative curvature −1 is isometric to the real hyperbolic space Hn. As a result, the universal cover of any closed manifold M of constant negative curvature −1, which is to say, a hyperbolic manifold, is  Hn.
Thus, every such M can be written as Hn/Γ where Γ is a torsion-free discrete group of isometries on Hn. That is, Γ is a lattice in SO+(n,1). Riemann surfaces  Two-dimensional hyperbolic surfaces can also be understood according to the language of Riemann surfaces. According to the uniformization theorem, every Riemann surface is either elliptic, parabolic or hyperbolic. Most hyperbolic surfaces have a non-trivial fundamental group π1=Γ; the groups that arise this way are known as Fuchsian groups. The quotient space H²/Γ of the upper half-plane modulo the fundamental group is known as the Fuchsian model of the hyperbolic surface.
The Poincaré half plane is also hyperbolic, but is simply connected and noncompact. It is the universal cover of the other hyperbolic surfaces. The analogous construction for three-dimensional hyperbolic surfaces is the Kleinian model. See also  Mostow rigidity theorem  Hyperbolic manifold  Hyperbolic 3-manifold  Murakami–Yano formula  Pseudosphere  Dini's surface  References  , (2012) Notes on hyperbolic geometry, in: Strasbourg Master class on Geometry, pp. 1–182,  IRMA Lectures in Mathematics and Theoretical Physics,  Vol. 18,  Zürich: European Mathematical Society (EMS), 461 pages, SBN , DOI 10.4171/105. Ratcliffe, John G., Foundations of hyperbolic manifolds, New York, Berlin. Springer-Verlag, 1994. Reynolds, William F. (1993) "Hyperbolic Geometry on a Hyperboloid", American Mathematical Monthly 100:442–455.
Wolf, Joseph A. Spaces of constant curvature, 1967. See page 67. Hyperbolic Voronoi diagrams made easy, Frank Nielsen  Category:Homogeneous spaces Category:Hyperbolic geometry Category:Topological spaces
Tulì is a Filipino rite of male circumcision. It has a long historical tradition and is considered an obligatory rite of passage for males; boys who have not undergone the ritual are labelled supót and face ridicule from their peers. Circumcision is not considered a religious rite as some four-fifths of Filipinos profess Roman Catholicism, which does not require it. Rather, circumcision is a social norm rooted in tradition that is followed by society at large. Most boys usually undergo the procedure not shortly after birth but prior to reaching puberty or before high school (around ages 10–14). There exists two common ways of undergoing tuli: either the traditional way by a local village circumciser (known in Tagalog as having it done "de-pukpok") or having it done by medical practitioners in a hospital or clinical setting.
Background Circumcision in the Philippines, as practiced today, is not a religious rite. Circumcision is also not practiced by a majority of Christians worldwide. The practice appears to be traceable as being pre-Hispanic period in nature. A common theory posits that the prevalence of the practise is due to the influence of Islam, which was prevalent in parts of the archipelago at least 200 years before the arrival of Christianity in the 16th century. Antonio de Morga, a Spanish lawyer and high-ranking colonial official in the Philippines during the 17th century, noted in his 1609 book Sucesos de las islas Filipinas:  To which the prolific Filipino writer and nationalist Jose Rizal added in his 1890 annotated version of Moraga's work: "This custom [circumcision] has not fallen into disuse among the Filipinos, even among the Catholics."
In a 1903 article "Circumcision and Flagellation among the Filipinos" published in the Journal of the Association of Military Surgeons, Lieutenant Charles Norton Barney, of the medical department of the U. S. Army, noted that circumcision was "a very ancient custom among the Philippine indios, and so generalized that at least seventy or eighty per cent of males in the Tagál country have undergone the operation." He also noted that those who were uncircumcised and reached the age of puberty were taunted as "supút" by children of both sexes. Contemporary practice More affluent parents opt to have their children circumcised as neonates in hospital, but the majority prefer that their sons undergo the tradition at around 8–12 years of age.
Boys of the same age group would either go to government-sponsored missions, hospitals, or to a local circumciser. Boys normally undergo the procedure during the summer break before the start of classes as to allow time for healing. The most commonly-done procedure is in actuality not a circumcision but a dorsal slit, where no foreskin is actually removed. When the foreskin is removed, it is commonly known locally as a "German cut" in reference to the introduction of the modern surgical technique by the founder of plastic and reconstructive surgery, Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach.. The Philippines Department of Health meanwhile sponsors an annual Operation Tuli project to circumcise boys; others assist and provide the service for free.
The traditional circumcision makes use of a curved piece of wood which is anchored into the ground. The protruding part of this apparatus is pointed at its end: the foreskin of the boy being circumcised is drawn over this protruding part. The circumciser rests his knife lengthwise across the boy's foreskin and then a quick blow is made with a stick, slicing the upper foreskin into two and exposing the glans. Prior to and while the procedure is being performed, the boy is told to chew guava leaves. The masticated guava leaves are applied onto the wound as a poultice and is bandaged.
The boy is then to wash off in the cold waters of a nearby river. While this procedure is commonly known as a circumcision, it is more accurately described as a superincision as no foreskin is removed during the procedure. Newly circumcised boys usually wear housedresses or loose skirts to help in the healing. The swelling that might occur during this period is termed pangángamatis (literally, "becoming like a tomato", kamatis) owing to the reddish appearance of the penis.
According to the United Nations World Health Organisation: "In the Philippines, where circumcision is almost universal and typically occurs at age 10–14 years, a survey of boys found strong evidence of social determinants, with two thirds of boys choosing to be circumcised simply “to avoid being uncircumcised”, and 41% stating that it was “part of the tradition”  The rite has been the subject of the award-winning 2005 film Tuli by Auraeus Solito. References  Category:Philippine culture Category:Circumcision
Nicola van der Kaay (born 10 February 1996) is a New Zealand triathlete who represented her country at the 2018 Commonwealth Games on the Gold Coast. She won a bronze medal in the mixed relay with teammates Andrea Hewitt, Tayler Reid, and Ryan Sissons, and was the best-placed New Zealander in the women's triathlon, finishing seventh. References  Category:1996 births Category:Living people Category:New Zealand female triathletes Category:Triathletes at the 2018 Commonwealth Games Category:Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for New Zealand Category:Commonwealth Games medallists in triathlon Category:Sportspeople from Rotorua
Generation Iron 2 is a 2017 documentary film and sequel to Generation Iron. The film follows the next generation of bodybuilders as the industry opens up to viral internet stars as well as younger bodybuilders pushing the limits of how massive the human physique can become. The film features Kai Greene, Calum Von Moger, Rich Piana, and Flex Wheeler, among other athletes. Generation Iron 2 was released in limited theatrical, DVD, and Video On Demand on May 12, 2017. Cast    Kai Greene  Calum von Moger  Rich Piana  Iris Kyle  Flex Wheeler  Mamdouh Elssbiay  Hidetada Yamagishi  Brandon Curry  Dana Linn Bailey  Synopsis   Generation Iron 2 is the sequel to the 2013 documentary film Generation Iron.
The follow up film, directed by Vlad Yudin, follows the top five bodybuilding and fitness mega-stars on the journey to build the ultimate physique. Exploring the world of social media and internet, the film depicts how the rules have changed as to what makes a successful "mass monster" bodybuilder. A new generation, new bodybuilders, new world, and new people carve their own path to physique perfection. References   Category:2017 films Category:Documentary films about bodybuilding Category:American sequel films Category:American films Category:American documentary films
Biting is a common behavior involving the opening and closing of the jaw. This behavior is found in reptiles, mammals, fish and amphibians. Arthropods can also bite. Biting can be a physical action in result of an attack, but it is also a normal activity or response in an animal as it eats, carries objects, softens and prepares food for its young, removes ectoparasites from its body surface, removes plant seeds attached to its fur or hair, scratching itself, and grooming other animals. Animal bites often result in serious infections and some times even death. Dog bites are commonplace, with human children the most commonly bitten by dogs and the face being the most commonly bitten target.
The muscle fibers in the jaw are responsible for the opening and closing of the mouth. They initially allow the organism to open their jaw, then contract to bring the teeth together, resulting in the action of a bite. This behaviour can have many implications and is exhibited by many different types of organisms, typically dangerous species such as spiders, snakes, and sharks. Biting is one of the main functions in an organism's life, providing the ability to forage, eat, build, play, protect and much more. Types of teeth  The types of teeth that organisms use to bite varies throughout the animal kingdom.
Different types of teeth are seen in herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores as they are adapted over many years to better fit their diets. Carnivores possess canine, carnassial, and molar teeth, while herbivores are equipped with incisor teeth and wide-back molars. In general, tooth shape has traditionally been used to predict dieting habits. Carnivores have long, extremely sharp teeth for both gripping prey and cutting meat into chunks. They lack flat chewing teeth because they swallow food in chunks. An example of this is shown by the broad, serrated teeth of great white sharks which prey on large marine animals. On the other hand, herbivores have rows of wide, flat teeth to bite and chew grass and other plants.
Cows spend up to eleven hours a day biting off grass and grinding it with their molars. Omnivores consume both meat and plants, so they possess a mixture of flat teeth and sharp teeth. Carrying mechanism Biting can serve as a carrying mechanism for species such as beavers and ants, the raw power of their species-specific teeth allow them to carry large objects. In beavers specifically, they have a large tooth adapted for gnawing wood. Their jaw muscles are tuned to power through big trees and carry them back to their dam. In ant behavior, ants use their powerful jaws to lift material back to the colony.
They can carry several thousand times their weight due to their bite and adapted to use this to forage for their colonies. Fire ants use their strong bite to get a grip on prey, and inject a toxin via its abdomen, then carry back to its territory. Dangerous bites Some organisms have dangerous bites that produce toxin or venom. Many snakes carry a neurotoxic venom from one of the three major groups of toxins: postsynaptically active neurotoxins, presynaptically active neurotoxins, and myotoxic agents. Spiders venom polypeptides target specific ion channels. This excites components of the peripheral, somatic, and autonomic nervous systems, causing hyperactivity of the channels and neurotransmitter release within the peripheral nervous system.
Spider bites or, arachnidism, are mainly a form of predation, but also means of protection. When trapped or accidentally tampered with by humans, spiders retaliate with biting. The recluse spider and widow species have neurotoxins or necrotic agents that paralyze prey. There are several creatures with non-lethal bites that may cause discomfort, disease, or pain. Mosquito bites may cause sores that may last a few days; in some areas, they can spread diseases, such as West Nile fever via their bite. Similarly, tick bites spread diseases endemic to their location. Most famously, Lyme disease can be spread by ticks, but ticks also serve as vectors for Colorado Tick Fever, African Tick Bite Fever, Tick-borne Encephalitis and the like.
In humans  Biting is also an age appropriate behavior and reaction for human children 30 months and younger. Conversely, children above this age are expected to have verbal skills to explain their needs and dislikes, as biting is not seen as age appropriate. Biting may be prevented by methods including redirection, change in the environment and responding to biting by talking about appropriate ways to express anger and frustration. School-age children, those older than 30 months, who habitually bite may require professional intervention. Some discussion of human biting appears in The Kinsey Report on Sexual Behavior in the Human Female.
Criminally, Forensic Dentistry is involved in bite-mark analysis. Because bite-marks change significantly over time, investigators must call for an expert as soon as possible. Bites are then analyzed to determine whether the biter was human, self-inflicted or not, and whether DNA was left behind from the biter. All measurements must be extremely precise, as small errors in measurement can lead to large errors in legal judgment. See also   Chewing  References  External links    Category:Ethology
Girl 27 is a 2007 documentary film by writer/director David Stenn about the 1937 rape of dancer and sometime movie extra Patricia Douglas (1917–2003) at an M-G-M exhibitors' convention, the front-page news stories that followed, and the studio's subsequent cover-up of the crime. Also covered in the film are a similar assault on singer Eloise Spann and her subsequent suicide, and the better-known scandal involving actress Loretta Young and her "adopted" daughter Judy Lewis, the product of her affair with Clark Gable during the production of The Call of the Wild. David Stenn uses first-person interviews and vintage film footage and music to explore the political power of movie studios in 1930s Hollywood, as well as public attitudes toward sexual assault that discouraged victims from coming forward.
The filmmaker's dogged pursuit of Douglas and their resulting friendship is a consistent theme throughout. Production Stenn, who first came across the story while researching his 1993 biography of Jean Harlow, Bombshell, spent a decade in pursuit of the facts relating to the Douglas case – which led to his discovery that Douglas herself was still alive. He located her and persuaded her to tell her story, which he first detailed in a 2003 Vanity Fair article, "It Happened One Night ... at MGM." In an interview at the time of the film's release, Stenn elaborated on the degree of his personal investment in the project:  You name it, I did it wrong.
I used my own money, which is the first no-no of all time, I did everything myself, like legal clearances, our crew was tiny, and I just didn't really know what I was doing. It was based on complete inexperience. I broke a cardinal rule by using my own money, but that turned out to be very liberating because I had complete control. But also I was blowing my savings and thinking, "Is anyone ever going to see this?" There was all that stuff, waking up in the middle of the night in a cold sweat, sitting in the car, crying, thinking, "There's just too much here, I don't know if we're going to get it done."
But we did. The film was picked up for distribution by Red Envelope Entertainment (Netflix), then Magnolia Pictures after its premiere in competition at the Sundance Film Festival. It has also been selected for inclusion in the film collections of the Museum of Modern Art and the Library of Congress. Renewed attention and re-evaluation The revelations regarding sexual misconduct by certain powerful men in the entertainment industry that received widespread media coverage beginning in late 2017 brought renewed attention to Girl 27, which earned fresh recognition for the documentary evidence it provides of the perennial existence of this systemic problem.
In a New York Times op-ed piece in January 2018, Stenn made the point that "Injustice can thrive only in silence, and finally the story of Patricia Douglas and others like her now resonates in Hollywood and beyond." Actresses Rose McGowan and Jessica Chastain, both prominent figures in the #MeToo movement, have commented favorably about Girl 27 on Twitter, with Chastain stating that the film "should be required viewing for anyone in the film industry." References  External links    Girl 27 official website  Category:American documentary films Category:American films Category:2000s documentary films Category:2007 films Category:Documentary films about violence against women Category:Documentary films about Hollywood Category:Documentary films about dance Category:English-language films Category:Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Category:Rape in the United States Category:Sexual abuse cover-ups
A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction is a 1977 book on architecture, urban design, and community livability. It was authored by Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein of the Center for Environmental Structure of Berkeley, California, with writing credits also to Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King and Shlomo Angel. Decades after its publication, it is still one of the best-selling books on architecture. The book creates a new language, what the authors call a pattern language derived from timeless entities called patterns. As they write on page xxxv of the introduction, "All 253 patterns together form a language." Patterns describe a problem and then offer a solution.
In doing so the authors intend to give ordinary people, not only professionals, a way to work with their neighbors to improve a town or neighborhood, design a house for themselves or work with colleagues to design an office, workshop, or public building such as a school. Structure  Written in the 1970s at the University of California, Berkeley, A Pattern Language is structured as a network, where each pattern may have a statement referenced to another pattern by placing that pattern's number in brackets, for example: (12) means go to the Community of 7,000 pattern. In this way, it is structured as a hypertext.
It includes 253 patterns, such as Community of 7000 (Pattern 12) given a treatment over several pages; page 71 states: "Individuals have no effective voice in any community of more than 5,000–10,000 persons." It is written as a set of problems and documented solutions. According to Alexander & team, the work originated from an observation   The book uses words to describe patterns, supported by drawings, photographs, and charts. It describes exact methods for constructing practical, safe, and attractive designs at every scale, from entire regions, through cities, neighborhoods, gardens, buildings, rooms, built-in furniture, and fixtures down to the level of doorknobs.
The patterns are regarded by the authors not as infallible, but as hypotheses:   Some patterns focus on materials, noting some ancient systems, such as concrete, during adaption by modern technology, may become one of the best future materials:  Other patterns focus on life experiences such as the Street Cafe (Pattern 88):  Grouping these patterns, the authors say, they form a kind of language, each pattern forming a word or thought of a true language rather than a prescriptive way to design or solve a problem. As the authors write on p xiii, "Each solution is stated in such a way, it gives the essential field of relationships needed to solve the problem, but in a very general and abstract way—so you can solve the problem, in your way, by adapting it to your preferences, and the local conditions at the place you are making it."
A notable value is the architectural system consists only of timeless patterns tested in the real world, then reviewed by multiple architects for beauty and practicality. The patterns include provision for future modification and repair, in keeping with the principle the most-satisfying living spaces are those which, like the lives of their occupants, tend to change and evolve over time. The book values human rights such as freedom, and it shows how architecture can enhance or reduce an individual's sense of freedom  Reception  This book's method was adopted by the University of Oregon, as described in The Oregon Experiment, and remains the official planning instrument.
It is adopted, in part, by some government agents   as a building code. Alexander's conception of patterns, and pattern languages, were major factors in the creation of Ward Cunningham's WikiWikiWeb, the first wiki, intended as an archive and discussion web application for the Portland Pattern Repository. The idea of a pattern language appears to apply to many complex engineering tasks, and is applied to some of them. It is especially-influential in software engineering using design patterns to document collective-knowledge in the field. In that field, it was a major-inspiration to Richard P. Gabriel before he wrote Patterns of Software.
Other titles in the series  The eight books in the Center for Environmental Structure Series are:  The Timeless Way of Building (volume 1)  A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (volume 2)  The Oregon Experiment (volume 3)  The Production of Houses (volume 4)  The Linz Café (volume 5)  A New Theory of Urban Design (volume 6)  A Foreshadowing of 21st Century Art (volume 7)  The Mary Rose Museum (volume 8)  References  Further reading  Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein (1974). 'A Collection of Patterns which Generate Multi-Service Centres' in Declan and Margrit Kennedy (eds. ): The Inner City. Architects Year Book 14, Elek, London.
. Alexander, C. (1979). The Timeless Way of Building. USA: Oxford University Press. . Grabow, Stephen: Christopher Alexander: The Search for a New Paradigm in Architecture, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London and Boston, 1983. Schuler, D. (2008). Liberating Voices: A Pattern Language for Communication Revolution. USA: MIT Press. . Leitner, Helmut (2015): Pattern Theory: Introduction and Perspectives on the Tracks of Christopher Alexander. . External links   Pattern Language - Official web site of Christopher Alexander. Category:1977 non-fiction books Category:Architecture books Category:Vernacular architecture Category:Architectural theory Category:Books about urbanism
Institutes of Eminence (IoE) is a recognition scheme for higher education institutes in India, set by the University Grants Commission in 2017. The plan encompasses twenty institutions, 16 of which have already been declared Institutes of Eminence . Recognized institutes are granted more autonomy, both administratively (e.g. setting fees) and academically, and will enjoy better collaboration opportunities with global universities. Public institutions are granted up to ; no funding is awarded to private institutions. Incentives of the scheme  The regulatory infrastructure for the Institutes of Eminence (IoE) plan was provided by the University Grants Commission (UGC) through the UGC (Declaration of Government Institutions as Institutions of Eminence) Guidelines, 2017 for public institutions and UGC (Institutions of Eminence Deemed to be Universities) Regulations, 2017 for private deemed to be university institutions.
According to these, both categories of institutions are granted more autonomy, both administratively (e.g. setting fees) and academically, and both will enjoy better collaboration opportunities with global universities. Public institutions are also granted up to  but no funding is awarded to private institutions. History  The IoE scheme was first announced in the presentation of the 2016 Union budget of India on 29 February 2016 by the Finance Minister of India, Arun Jaitley. The purpose of the plan was stated as "... to empower Higher Educational Institutions to help them become world class teaching and research institutions". The plan will include twenty institutes, ten private and ten public.
The UGC set the guidelines and regulations for IoE in 2017 and set up an Empowered Expert Committee (EEC) which was tasked with the selection of the institutes and later with monitoring them. The EEC considered 114 applications, 74 from public institutes and 40 from private ones, including institutes which are yet to be established, and in May 2018 shortlisted eight public institutes and three private ones. However, on the principle of giving equal weight to both categories of institutions, only six institutes were recommended by the UGC in July 2018, three from each category, a move which has drawn some criticism.
More criticism was drawn to the fact that one of the private institutes recommended, Jio Institute, which was sponsored by Reliance Foundation, does not yet exist. The recommendation of the UGC was accepted by the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD). In December 2018, the EEC recommended 19 more institutes, completing a list of 15 institutes from each category, allowing for five institutes in each category in a reserve list. These institutes were ranked by the UGC based on QS World University Rankings, in which National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) was used as a tie-breaker for private universities. The resulting 14 institutes, seven in each category, were recommended by the UGC for IoE status in August 2019.
This included two public institutes, Anna University and Jadavpur University, which will be considered for IoE status only if the respective state universities will comment to finance half of the investment. For private institutes, since not enough institutes were ranked, one vacant position was granted in the "greenfield" category, which gives the institute three years to operationalise the institution, after which the EEC will consider giving them the IoE status. This move again drew some controversy. In September 2019, the MHRD awarded IoE status to an additional five public institutes, four existing private institutes, and another private institute in the greenfield category.
Two private universities, Shiv Nadar University and O. P. Jindal Global University, require state legislation to end the existing private university status, in order to be declared IoE Deemed Universities. List of institutes   , the ten public institutes selected are:  The ten private institutes are:  See also  Institutes of National Importance, another recognition scheme for higher education in India List of universities in India  References  External links   Institutes of Eminence Secretariat  Category:Education in India
A Different Flesh is a collection of alternate history short stories by American writer Harry Turtledove set in a world in which Homo erectus and various megafauna survived in the Americas instead of Native Americans or any other human cultures. Turtledove was inspired to write the story by a Stephen Jay Gould article that speculated as to how humanity’s distant cousin, Australopithecus, would be treated if that species had survived. Plot introduction The stories give a brief glimpse in this altered American history ranging from 1610 to 1988. The Western Hemisphere is inhabited by Homo erectus rather than Homo sapiens, as well as megafauna long extinct in the known world.
Consequently, the colonization of the New World by Europe has been a far more difficult process. As time goes by, various characters debate the nature of the "sims" (as erectus is known) and their role in human history. Included with the short stories are quotations from The Story of the Federated Commonwealths. These snippets from an imaginary textbook providing the reader information about what happens during the time between the different stories. Plot summary  Vilest Beast 1610: At the colony of Jamestown, Virginia, Edward Maria Wingfield must rescue his infant daughter from the tribe of wild sims who kidnapped her.
The opening passages reveal that Captain John Smith was killed and eaten by sims in 1607. And So To Bed 1661: The story is made up of a series of entries in Samuel Pepys' diary. Pepys owns two sims (which can easily be trained in household chores) and contemplates the origin of the species. By watching these sims, as well as observing various other animals found in North America, Pepys develops the theory of evolution. Only one of the diary's entries in the story has a corresponding entry in the real diary Pepys kept. Around the Salt Lick 1691: Thomas Kenton, a scout from Virginia and descendant of Edward Wingfield, and his faithful sim companion Charles, explore the interior of North America.
Kenton is after the teeth of the spearfang cats that populate the area. He is captured by a group of wild sims, and must hope that Charles will rescue him. The story structure is reminiscent of James Fenimore Cooper. The Iron Elephant 1782: The first steam-driven train is invented by Richard Trevithick in Boston, Plymouth Commonwealth. A race is held in a commonwealth bordering the New Nile starting in Springfield and ending in Cairo, with one of the hairy elephant-pulled trains they threaten to replace. Notes: 1) The story has some parallels to the legend of John Henry. 2) In this story it is learned that England's American colonies broke off into a new nation - the Federated Commonwealths of America - in 1738, and westward expansion began much sooner than in our history, due to the lack of indigenous humans in the regions to be colonized.
3) The character Trevithick is American rather than British, and appears to be 20 years older than his historic age, so he is probably not the historical figure but an analog. In Turtledove works, it is common for historical figures to have fictitious offspring (as with Edward Wingfield's daughter and her own great-grandson Thomas Kenton above) as a result of the butterfly effect. Though the Heavens Fall 1804: A house-slave named Jeremiah goes on trial for running away, and his attorney presents the argument that, with the existence of sims, there is no need for human beings to enslave other human beings.
They are successful, and the court's decision leads to the emancipation of all human slaves. There are echoes of the historical Dred Scott Decision. Note: More about the FCA is learned in this story. The government is based very closely on the Roman Republic. Although the historic USA used that example as a template, the FCA has gone even further, for example by having two chief executives who can veto each other, and a Senate whose members serve for life. Trapping Run 1812: Henry Quick, a trapper in the Rocky Mountains, is wounded by a bear and is nursed back to health by sims.
While there, he ends up impregnating one of the sims, resulting in a Sim-Human hybrid. His time among the sims makes him far more sympathetic to them. Freedom 1988: A group of sim's rights activists, including a great-great-granddaughter of Henry Quick, protesting experimentation on sims, "rescue" Matt, a sim infected with HIV, from a medical lab but fail to take enough HIV inhibitor, which is medicine that suppresses the effects of HIV and AIDS. Eventually, this forces the activists to return Matt to the researchers. Major themes The stories explore what makes someone "human". As time passes humans' view of sims generally shifts from seeing them as beasts into seeing them being close to humans and deserving of some rights.
Without anthropomorphizing the sims, Turtledove makes clear that although they cannot become humans and enjoy all the freedoms that humans have, they still deserve to be treated with respect and dignity. When asked whether the point of divergence of A Different Flesh being set before human history makes the novel a proper alternate history or some sort of "alternative natural history",  Turtledove responded: "They seem like alternate history to me, but I haven't really spent a whole lot of time worrying about how to classify them, I'm afraid." Literary significance and reception Steven H Silver gave a positive review of the novel and commented that Turtledove left a lot of room open for further stories in the series, but still feels that Turtledove's writing style has changed to the point where future stories would appear out of place.
Science fiction author Orson Scott Card also gave a good review for the novel complimenting Turtledove especially on Freedom for the use of a sim's point of view without "sentimentalizing and anthropomorphizing until the true differences between species are erased." One criticism of the novel was made by a reviewer who thought that there was an assumption that the course of history would have gone pretty much as it did with Native Americans here, and felt that this underestimates the impact of Native Americans on our history. Publication history Vilest Beast, And So to Bed, Around the Salt Lick, The Iron Elephant, and Though the Heavens Fall were all originally published in Analog Science Fiction and Fact.
Freedom was originally published in Asimov's Science Fiction while Trapping Run was written exclusively for the hardcover edition. Originally published by Congdon & Weed in 1988, it was first published in paperback by Worldwide the following year. In 1994, Baen reprinted the book. References  External links  Category:1988 short story collections Category:Alternate history short stories Category:Alternate history anthologies Category:Short story collections by Harry Turtledove Category:Science fiction short story collections Category:Prehistoric people in popular culture Category:Richard Trevithick Category:Fiction set in the 1610s Category:Fiction set in the 1660s Category:Fiction set in the 1690s Category:Fiction set in 1782 Category:Fiction set in 1804 Category:Fiction set in 1805 Category:Fiction set in 1812 Category:Fiction set in 1988
A 3D video game (three-dimensional video game) may refer to:  a video game featuring 3D game graphics, which are computed in three directional dimensions a stereoscopic video game with a stereoscopic depth effect  See also   List of stereoscopic video games  List of 3D PlayStation 3 games  List of games with Nvidia 3D Vision support  List of Nintendo 3DS games
Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate or PtdIns(4,5)P2, also known simply as PIP2 or PI(4,5)P2, is a minor phospholipid component of cell membranes. PtdIns(4,5)P2 is enriched at the plasma membrane where it is a substrate for a number of important signaling proteins. PIP2 is formed primarily by the type I phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinases from PI(4)P. In metazoans, PIP2 can also be formed by type II phosphatidylinositol 5-phosphate 4-kinases from PI(5)P.  The fatty acids of PIP2 are variable in different species and tissues, but the most common fatty acids are stearic in position 1 and arachidonic in 2. Signaling Pathways  PIP2 is a part of many cellular signaling pathways notably PIP2 cycle, PI3K signalling and PI5P metabolism.
Recently it has been found in  the nucleus with unknown function. Functions  Cytoskeleton dynamics near membranes  PIP2 regulates the organization, polymerization, and branching of filamentous actin (F-actin) via direct binding to F-actin regulatory proteins. Endocytosis and exocytosis  The first evidence that indicated phosphoinositides(PIs) (especially PI(4,5)P2) are important during the exocytosis process was in 1990. Emberhard et al. found that the application of PI-specific phospholipase C into digitonin-permeablized chromaffin cells decreased PI levels, and inhibited calcium-triggered exocytosis. This exocytosis inhibition was preferential for an ATP-dependent stage, indicating PI function was required for secretion. Later studies identified associated proteins necessary during this stage, such as phosphatidylinositol transfer protein , and phosphoinositol-4-monophosphatase 5 kinase type Iγ (PIPKγ) ,  which mediates PI(4,5)P2 restoration in permeable cell incubation in an ATP-dependent way.
In these later studies, PI(4,5)P2 specific antibodies strongly inhibited exocytosis, thus providing direct evidence that PI(4,5)P2 plays a pivotal role during the LDCV (Large dense core vesicle) exocytosis process. Through the use of PI-specific kinase/phosphatase identification and PI antibody/drug/blocker discovery, the role of PI (especially PI(4,5)P2) in secretion regulation was extensively investigated. Studies utilizing PHPLCδ1 domain over-expression (acting as PI(4,5)P2 buffer or blocker) , PIPKIγ knockout in chromaffin cell  and in central nerve system  , PIPKIγ knockdown in beta cell lines , and over-expression of membrane-tethered inositol 5-phosphatase domain of synaptojanin 1 , all suggested vesicle (synaptic vesicle and LDCV) secretion were severely impaired after PI(4,5)P2 depletion or blockage.
Moreover, some studies showed an impaired/reduced RRP of those vesicles, though the docked vesicle number were not altered after PI(4,5)P2 depletion, indicating a defect at a pre-fusion stage (priming stage). Follow-up studies indicated that PI(4,5)P2 interactions with CAPS, Munc13 and synaptotagmin1 are likely to play a role in this PI(4,5)P2 dependent priming defect. IP3/DAG pathway PIP2 functions as an intermediate in the [IP3/DAG pathway], which is initiated by ligands binding to G protein-coupled receptors activating the Gq alpha subunit. PtdIns(4,5)P2 is a substrate for hydrolysis by phospholipase C (PLC), a membrane-bound enzyme activated through protein receptors such as α1 adrenergic receptors.
PIP2 regulates the function of many membrane proteins and ion channels, such as the M-channel. The products of the PLC catalyzation of PIP2 are inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3; IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG), both of which function as second messengers. In this cascade, DAG remains on the cell membrane and activates the signal cascade by activating protein kinase C (PKC). PKC in turn activates other cytosolic proteins by phosphorylating them. The effect of PKC could be reversed by phosphatases. IP3 enters the cytoplasm and activates IP3 receptors on the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which opens calcium channels on the smooth ER, allowing mobilization of calcium ions through specific Ca2+ channels into the cytosol.
Calcium participates in the cascade by activating other proteins. Docking phospholipids  Class I PI 3-kinases phosphorylate PtdIns(4,5)P2 forming phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PtdIns(3,4,5)P3) and PtdIns(4,5)P2 can be converted from PtdIns4P. PtdIns4P, PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 and PtdIns(4,5)P2 not only act as substrates for enzymes but also serve as docking phospholipids that bind specific domains that promote the recruitment of proteins to the plasma membrane and subsequent activation of signaling cascades. Examples of proteins activated by PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 are AKT, PDPK1, Btk1. One mechanism for direct effect of PtdIns(4,5)P2 is opening of Na+ channels as a minor function in growth hormone release by growth hormone-releasing hormone. Potassium channels Inwardly rectifying potassium channels have been shown to require docking of PIP2 for channel activity.
G protein-coupled receptors  PtdIns(4,5)P2 has been shown to stabilize the active states of Class A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) via direct binding, and enhance their selectivity toward certain G proteins. G protein-coupled receptor kinases  PIP2 has been shown to recruit G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) to the membrane by binding to the large lobe of GRK2. This stabilizes GRK2 and also orients it in a way that allows for more efficient phosphorylation of the beta adrenergic receptor, a type of GPCR. Regulation PIP2 is regulated by many different components. One emerging hypothesis is that PIP2 concentration is maintained locally.
Some of the factors involved in PIP2 regulation are:   Lipid kinases, Lipid Phosphatase  Lipid Transfer Proteins  Growth Factors, Small GTPases  Cell Attachment  Cell-Cell Interaction  Change in cell volume  Cell differentiation state  Cell stress  References  Category:Phospholipids
The Antarctic oscillation (AAO, to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere. It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode (SAM). It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability. In its positive phase, the westerly wind belt that drives the Antarctic Circumpolar Current intensifies and contracts towards Antarctica, while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator. Winds associated with the Southern Annular Mode cause oceanic upwelling of warm circumpolar deep water along the Antarctic continental shelf, which has been linked to ice shelf basal melt, representing a possible wind-driven mechanism that could destabilize large portions of the Antarctic Ice Sheet.
In 2014, Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode. This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years, and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion.
See also  Anticyclone  Arctic oscillation  John Michael Wallace  North Atlantic oscillation  Pacific decadal oscillation  References  External links   http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/gjma/sam.html Observation-based SAM index from 1957–present  http://hurricane.ncdc.noaa.gov/pls/paleox/f?p=519:1:0::::P1_STUDY_ID:16197 1000-year Southern Annular Mode reconstruction  Monthly Southern Hemisphere Annular Mode (SAM) Index or Antarctic Oscillation (AAO) Index 1850 - 2013  Daily Southern Hemisphere Annular Mode (SAM) Index or Antarctic Oscillation (AAO) Index 1948 - 2013  http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/daily_ao_index/aao/aao.loading.shtml  https://web.archive.org/web/20081216220433/http://stratus.astr.ucl.ac.be/textbook//pdf/Chapter_5.pdf (chapter 5.2.3) Animation of Southern Annular Mode in Victoria, Australia  The Southern Annular Mode  Introduction to climate dynamics and climate modelling, Université catholique de Louvain  Category:Climate Category:Climate of Antarctica Category:Climate patterns Category:Environment of Antarctica
An image sensor or imager is a sensor that detects and conveys information used to make an image. It does so by converting the variable attenuation of light waves (as they pass through or reflect off objects) into signals, small bursts of current that convey the information. The waves can be light or other electromagnetic radiation. Image sensors are used in electronic imaging devices of both analog and digital types, which include digital cameras, camera modules, camera phones, optical mouse devices, medical imaging equipment, night vision equipment such as thermal imaging devices, radar, sonar, and others. As technology changes, electronic and digital imaging tends to replace chemical and analog imaging.
The two main types of electronic image sensors are the charge-coupled device (CCD) and the active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor). Both CCD and CMOS sensors are based on metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology, with CCDs based on MOS capacitors and CMOS sensors based on MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor) amplifiers. Analog sensors for invisible radiation tend to involve vacuum tubes of various kinds. Digital sensors include flat-panel detectors. CCD vs. CMOS sensors  The two main types of digital image sensors are the charge-coupled device (CCD) and the active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor), fabricated in complementary MOS (CMOS) or N-type MOS (NMOS or Live MOS) technologies.
Both CCD and CMOS sensors are based on MOS technology, with MOS capacitors being the building blocks of a CCD, and MOSFET amplifiers being the building blocks of a CMOS sensor. Cameras integrated in small consumer products generally use CMOS sensors, which are usually cheaper and have lower power consumption in battery powered devices than CCDs. CCD sensors are used for high end broadcast quality video cameras, and (C)MOS sensors dominate in still photography and consumer goods where overall cost is a major concern. Both types of sensor accomplish the same task of capturing light and converting it into electrical signals.
Each cell of a CCD image sensor is an analog device. When light strikes the chip it is held as a small electrical charge in each photo sensor. The charges in the line of pixels nearest to the (one or more) output amplifiers are amplified and output, then each line of pixels shifts its charges one line closer to the amplifier(s), filling the empty line closest to the amplifiers(s). This process is then repeated until all the lines of pixels have had their charge amplified and output. A CMOS image sensor has an amplifier for each pixel compared to the few amplifiers of a CCD.
This results in less area for the capture of photons than a CCD, but this problem has been overcome by using microlenses in front of each photodiode, which focus light into the photodiode that would have otherwise hit the amplifier and not been detected. Some CMOS imaging sensors also use Back-side illumination to increase the number of photons that hit the photodiode. CMOS sensors can potentially be implemented with fewer components, use less power, and/or provide faster readout than CCD sensors. They are also less vulnerable to static electricity discharges. Another design, a hybrid CCD/CMOS architecture (sold under the name "sCMOS") consists of CMOS readout integrated circuits (ROICs) that are bump bonded to a CCD imaging substrate – a technology that was developed for infrared staring arrays and has been adapted to silicon-based detector technology.
Another approach is to utilize the very fine dimensions available in modern CMOS technology to implement a CCD like structure entirely in CMOS technology: such structures can be achieved by separating individual poly-silicon gates by a very small gap; though still a product of research hybrid sensors can potentially harness the benefits of both CCD and CMOS imagers. Performance  There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of an image sensor, including dynamic range, signal-to-noise ratio, and low-light sensitivity. For sensors of comparable types, the signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range improve as the size increases. Exposure-time control  Exposure time of image sensors is generally controlled by either a conventional mechanical shutter, as in film cameras, or by an electronic shutter.
Electronic shuttering can be "global", in which case the entire image sensor area's accumulation of photoelectrons starts and stops simultaneously, or "rolling" in which case the exposure interval of each row immediate precedes that row's readout, in a process that "rolls" across the image frame (typically from top to bottom in landscape format). Global electronic shuttering is less common, as it requires "storage" circuits to hold charge from the end of the exposure interval until the readout process gets there, typically a few milliseconds later. Color separation  There are several main types of color image sensors, differing by the type of color-separation mechanism:  Bayer-filter sensor, low-cost and most common, using a color filter array that passes red, green, and blue light to selected pixel sensors.
Each individual sensor element is made sensitive to red, green, or blue by means of a color gel made of chemical dyes patterned over the elements. The most common filter matrix, the Bayer pattern, uses two green pixels for each red and blue. This results in less resolution for red and blue colors. The missing color samples may interpolated using a demosaicing algorithm, or ignored altogether by lossy compression. In order to improve color information, techniques like color co-site sampling use a piezo mechanism to shift the color sensor in pixel steps. Foveon X3 sensor, using an array of layered pixel sensors, separating light via the inherent wavelength-dependent absorption property of silicon, such that every location senses all three color channels.
This method is similar to how color film for photography works. 3CCD, using three discrete image sensors, with the color separation done by a dichroic prism. The dichroic elements provide a sharper color separation, thus improving color quality. Because each sensor is equally sensitive within its passband, and at full resolution, 3-CCD sensors produce better color quality and better low light performance. 3-CCD sensors produce a full 4:4:4 signal, which is preferred in television broadcasting, video editing and chroma key visual effects. Specialty sensors  Special sensors are used in various applications such as thermography, creation of multi-spectral images, video laryngoscopes, gamma cameras, sensor arrays for x-rays, and other highly sensitive arrays for astronomy.
While in general digital cameras use a flat sensor, Sony prototyped a curved sensor in 2014 to reduce/eliminate Petzval field curvature that occurs with a flat sensor. Use of a curved sensor allows a shorter and smaller diameter of the lens with reduced elements and components with greater aperture and reduced light fall-off at the edge of the photo. History  Early analog sensors for visible light were video camera tubes. They date back to the 1930s, and several types were developed up until the 1980s. By the early 1990s, they had been replaced by modern solid-state image sensors. The basis for modern solid-state image sensors is MOS technology, which originates from the invention of the MOSFET by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.
Later research on MOS technology led to the development of solid-state semiconductor image sensors, including the charge-coupled device (CCD) and later the active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor). The passive-pixel sensor (PPS) was the precursor to the active-pixel sensor (APS). A PPS consists of passive pixels which are read out without amplification, with each pixel consisting of a photodiode and a MOSFET switch. It is a type of photodiode array, with pixels containing a p-n junction, integrated capacitor, and MOSFETs as selection transistors. A photodiode array was proposed by G. Weckler in 1968. This was the basis for the PPS. These early photodiode arrays were complex and impractical, requiring selection transistors to be fabricated within each pixel, along with on-chip multiplexer circuits.
The noise of photodiode arrays was also a limitation to performance, as the photodiode readout bus capacitance resulted in increased noise level. Correlated double sampling (CDS) could also not be used with a photodiode array without external memory. Charge-coupled device  The charge-coupled device (CCD) was invented by Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs in 1969. While researching MOS technology, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straighforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next.
The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first digital video cameras for television broadcasting. Early CCD sensors suffered from shutter lag. This was largely resolved with the invention of the pinned photodiode (PPD). It was invented by Nobukazu Teranishi, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at NEC in 1980. It was a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency and low dark current. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD devices, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video cameras and then digital still cameras. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then CMOS sensors.
Active-pixel sensor  The NMOS active-pixel sensor (APS) was invented by Olympus in Japan during the mid-1980s. This was enabled by advances in MOS semiconductor device fabrication, with MOSFET scaling reaching smaller micron and then sub-micron levels. The first NMOS APS was fabricated by Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985. The CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) was later developed by Eric Fossum's team at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 1993. By 2007, sales of CMOS sensors had surpassed CCD sensors. Other image sensors  The first commercial digital camera, the Cromemco Cyclops in 1975, used a 32×32 MOS image sensor.
It was a modified MOS dynamic RAM (DRAM) memory chip. MOS image sensors are widely used in optical mouse technology. The first optical mouse, invented by Richard F. Lyon at Xerox in 1980, used a 5µm NMOS integrated circuit sensor chip. Since the first commercial optical mouse, the IntelliMouse introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors. In February 2018, researchers at Dartmouth College announced a new image sensing technology that the researchers call QIS, for Quanta Image Sensor. Instead of pixels, QIS chips have what the researchers call "jots." Each jot can detect a single particle of light, called a photon.
See also  List of sensors used in digital cameras  Contact image sensor (CIS)  Video camera tube  Semiconductor detector  Fill factor  Full-frame digital SLR  Image sensor format, the sizes and shapes of common image sensors  Color filter array, mosaic of tiny color filters over color image sensors  Sensitometry, the scientific study of light-sensitive materials  History of television, the development of electronic imaging technology since the 1880s  List of large sensor interchangeable-lens video cameras  Oversampled binary image sensor  Computer vision  References  External links  Digital Camera Sensor Performance Summary by Roger Clark    Category:Digital photography Category:MOSFETs
E. V .V. Cinema is an Indian film production house founded by E. V. V. Satyanarayana. Filmography  References  External links    Category:Film production companies based in Hyderabad, India Category:Entertainment companies of India
ADAMs (short for a disintegrin and metalloproteinase) are a family of single-pass transmembrane and secreted metalloendopeptidases. All ADAMs are characterized by a particular domain organization featuring a pro-domain, a metalloprotease, a disintegrin, a cysteine-rich, an epidermal-growth factor like and a transmembrane domain, as well as a C-terminal cytoplasmic tail. Nonetheless, not all human ADAMs have a functional protease domain, which indicates that their biological function mainly depends on protein–protein interactions. Those ADAMs which are active proteases are classified as sheddases because they cut off or shed extracellular portions of transmembrane proteins. For example, ADAM10 can cut off part of the HER2 receptor, thereby activating it.
ADAMs are categorized under the  enzyme group, and in the MEROPS peptidase family M12B. The terms adamalysin and MDC family (metalloproteinase-like, disintegrin-like, cysteine rich) have been used to refer to this family historically. ADAM family members  Medicine Therapeutic ADAM inhibitors might potentiate anti-cancer therapy. See also  ADAMTS (A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs) family  Ectodomain shedding  References  External links    http://www.healthvalue.net/sheddase.html  Category:Protein families Category:Single-pass transmembrane proteins Category:Peptidase Category:EC 3.4.24
Robocopy, or "Robust File Copy", is a command-line directory and/or file replication command for Microsoft Windows. Robocopy functionally replaces Xcopy, with more options. First released as part of the Windows NT 4.0 Resource Kit, it has been a standard feature of Windows since Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008. The command is robocopy. Features Robocopy is noted for capabilities above and beyond the built-in Windows copy and xcopy commands, including the following, some requiring appropriate command-line options: Ability to tolerate network interruptions and resume copy (incomplete files are marked with a date stamp of 1970-01-01 and contain a recovery record so Robocopy knows where to continue from).
Ability to skip NTFS junction points which can cause copying failures because of infinite loops (/XJ) Ability to copy file data and attributes correctly, and to preserve original timestamps, as well as NTFS ACLs, owner information, and audit information using the /COPYALL or /COPY: command line switches. Beginning with the XP026 version, the ability to copy folder (or directory) date and timestamps (/DCOPY:T), even with the ability to update folder timestamps (copied from existing folders) on folders already created from previous versions (that did not copy the folder date and timestamps). Ability to assert the Windows NT "backup right" (/B) so an administrator may copy an entire directory, including files denied readability to the administrator.
Persistence by default, with a programmable number of automatic retries if a file cannot be copied. A "mirror" mode, which keeps trees synchronised by also deleting files in the destination that are not present in the source. Ability to skip files already in the destination folder with identical size and timestamp. A continuously updated command-line progress indicator. Ability to copy paths exceeding 259 characters — up to a theoretical limit of about 32,000 characters — without errors. Multithreaded copying introduced with Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2. Return code on program termination for batch file usage. Examples of use Here are some examples of usage.
If more than one option is specified, they must be separated by spaces. Copy directory contents of  to  (including file data, attributes and timestamps), recursively with empty directories (/E):  Robocopy C:\Directory_A C:\Directory_B /E   Copy directory recursively (/E), copy all file information (/COPYALL, equivalent to /COPY:DATSOU, D=Data, A=Attributes, T=Timestamps, S=Security=NTFS ACLs, O=Owner info, U=Auditing info), do not retry locked files (/R:0) (the number of retries on failed copies default value is 1 million), preserve original directories' Timestamps (/DCOPY:T - requires version XP026 or later):  Robocopy C:\A C:\B /COPYALL /E /R:0 /DCOPY:T   Mirror A to B, destroying any files in B that are not present in A (/MIR), copy files in resume mode (/Z) in case network connection is lost:  Robocopy C:\A \\backupserver\B /MIR /Z  If directory names have non-standard characters, such as spaces, they can be put in double quotes (as usual in command-line commands).
For the full reference, see the Microsoft TechNet Robocopy page. Syntactic focus on copying folders Robocopy syntax is markedly different from its predecessors (copy and xcopy), in that it accepts only folder names, without trailing backslash, as its source and destination arguments. File names and wildcard characters (such as * and ?) are not valid as source or destination arguments; files may be selected or excluded using the optional "file" filtering argument (which supports wildcards) along with various other options. For example, to copy two files from folder  c:\bar to c:\baz,  the following syntax is used:   robocopy c:\bar c:\baz file1.txt file2.db And to copy all PDF files from c:\bar to c:\baz:   robocopy c:\bar c:\baz *.pdf  The files named are copied only from the folder selected for copying; fully qualified path names are not supported.
Output Robocopy outputs to the screen, or optionally to a log file, all the directories it encounters, in alphabetical order. Each directory is preceded by the number of files in that directory that fulfill the criteria for being copied. If the directory does not yet exist in the target, it is marked "New Dir". But if the directory is empty and the /E option is not used, or it contains no files meeting the criteria, a new directory will not be created. If the /NFL (no file names in log) option is not used, the files being copied will be listed after the name of the directory they are in.
At the end of the output is a table giving numbers of directories, files, and bytes. For each of these, the table gives the total number found in the source, the number "copied" (but this includes directories marked "New Dir" even if they are not copied), the number "skipped" (because they already exist in the target), and the number of "mismatches", "FAILED", and "extras". "Failed" can mean that there was an I/O error that prevented a file being copied, or that access was denied. There is also a row of time taken (in which the time spent on failed files seems to be in the wrong column).
Bandwidth throttling Robocopy's "inter-packet gap" (IPG) option allows some control over the network bandwidth used in a session. In theory, the following formula expresses the delay (D, in milliseconds) required to simulate a desired bandwidth (BD, in kilobits per second), over a network link with an available bandwidth of BA kbps:  In practice however, some experimentation is usually required to find a suitable delay, due to factors such as the nature and volume of other traffic on the network. The methodology employed by the IPG option may not offer the same level of control provided by some other bandwidth throttling technologies, such as BITS (which is used by Windows Update and BranchCache).
Limitations   Robocopy does not copy open files. Any process may open files for exclusive read access by withholding the FILE_SHARE_READ flag during opening. Even Robocopy's Backup mode will not touch those files. (Backup mode instead runs Robocopy as a "Backup Operator". This allows Robocopy to override permissions settings, specifically, NTFS ACLs). Normally Volume Shadow Copy Service is used for such situations, but Robocopy does not use it. Consequently, Robocopy is not suitable for backing up live operating system volumes. However,a separate utility such as ShadowSpawn (Free, Open Sourced, and MIT Licensed) or GSCopyPro ($30 - $50) or DiskShadow.exe (included with Windows Server 2008), can be used beforehand to create a shadow copy of a given volume, which Robocopy can then back up.
Robocopy versions on systems older than Windows Vista do not mirror properly. They ignore changed security attributes of previously mirrored files. When specifying the /MT[:n] option to enable multithreaded copying, the /NP option to disable reporting of the progress percentage for files is ignored. By default the MT switch provides 8 threads. The n is the number of threads you specify if you do not want to use the default. GUI Although Robocopy itself is a command-line tool, Microsoft TechNet provides a GUI front-end called Robocopy GUI. It was developed by Derk Benisch, a systems engineer with the MSN Search group at Microsoft, and required .NET Framework 2.0.
It includes a copy of Robocopy version XP026. There are other non-Microsoft GUIs for Robocopy:  "WinRoboCopy" revision 1.3.5953.40896 released on Apr 19, 2016. "Easy RoboCopy" latest version 1.0.15 released in January 8, 2018. A program by SH-Soft, also called "Robocopy GUI" v1.0.0.24 (October 8, 2005). Cinchoo EazyCopy v1.0.0.4  Ken Tamaru of Microsoft has developed a copying program similar to Robocopy, called RichCopy, which is available on Microsoft TechNet. While it is not based on Robocopy, it offers similar features, and it does not require .NET Framework. Versions Several versions of Robocopy do not report the version number when executing robocopy /?
on the command line. However, their version is stored inside the executable itself and can be queried with PowerShell for example (gcm robocopy | fl *) or inside Windows Explorer by right-clicking on Robocopy.exe, selecting Properties, then clicking on the Details tab. See also  List of file copying software  Command line  List of DOS commands  rsync  GUI  GS RichCopy 360  SyncToy  Ultracopier  References  External links   Official sources Robocopy download (Version XP010) as part of Windows Server 2003 Resource Kit Tools. Includes 35-page documentation "robocopy.doc". Robocopy short documentation on Microsoft TechNet Library Robocopy GUI download (Version 3.1.2.0) on Microsoft TechNet Magazine  Other ROBOCOPY.exe (XP Resource Kit/Standard Vista command)  Category:File copy utilities
For tetramethylsilane, which is also abbreviated as TMS, see tetramethylsilane. A trimethylsilyl group (abbreviated TMS) is a functional group in organic chemistry. This group consists of three methyl groups bonded to a silicon atom [−Si(CH3)3], which is in turn bonded to the rest of a molecule. This structural group is characterized by chemical inertness and a large molecular volume, which makes it useful in a number of applications. A trimethylsilyl group bonded to a methyl group forms tetramethylsilane, which is abbreviated as TMS as well. Compounds with trimethylsilyl groups are not normally found in nature. Chemists sometimes use a trimethylsilylating reagent to derivatize rather non-volatile compounds such as certain alcohols, phenols, or carboxylic acids by substituting a trimethylsilyl group for a hydrogen in the hydroxyl groups on the compounds.
This way trimethylsiloxy groups [−O-Si(CH3)3] are formed on the molecule. A couple of examples of trimethylsilylating agents include trimethylsilyl chloride and bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide. Trimethylsilyl groups on a molecule have a tendency to make it more volatile, often making the compounds more amenable to analysis by gas chromatography or mass spectrometry. An example of such trimethylsilylation is mentioned in the Brassicasterol article. Such derivatizations are often done on a small scale in special vials. When attached to certain functional groups in a reactant molecule, trimethylsilyl groups may also be used as temporary protecting groups during chemical synthesis or some other chemical reactions.
In chromatography, derivitization of accessible silanol groups in a bonded stationary phase with trimethylsilyl groups is referred to as endcapping. In an NMR spectrum, signals from atoms in trimethylsilyl groups in compounds will commonly have chemical shifts close to the tetramethylsilane reference peak at 0 ppm. Also compounds, such as high temperature silicone "stopcock" grease, which have polysiloxanes (often called silicones) in them will commonly show peaks from their methyl groups (attached to the silicon atoms) having NMR chemical shifts close to the tetramethylsilane standard peak, such as at 0.07 ppm in CDCl3. Otherwise very reactive molecules can be isolated when enveloped by bulky trimethylsilyl groups.
This effect can be observed in tetrahedranes. Super silyl groups  Related to trimethylsilyl groups are so-called super silyl groups of which there exist two varieties: A silicon group connected to three trimethylsilyl groups makes a tri(trimethylsilyl)silyl group (TTMSS or TMS3Si) and a silicon group connected to three tert-butyl groups. The TTMSS group was proposed in 1993 by Hans Bock. With a van der Waals volume of up to 7 cubic angstrom it surpasses the related TIPS group (around 2) and one potential application is its use as a temporary substituent promoting asymmetric induction for example in this diastereoselective one-pot reaction involving two sequential Mukaiyama aldol reactions:  TTMSS can also stand for tris(trimethylsilyl)silane, which is comparable as a chemical reagent to tributyltin hydride without the associated toxicity concern of organotin and tributyltin compounds.
The reagent is employed in radical reductions, hydrosilylation and consecutive radical reactions  Alcohol protection   In organic synthesis, TMS group is used as a protecting group for alcohols. Most common protection methods    Trimethylsilyl chloride (TMSCl) or trimethylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate (TMSOTf) and base (i.e. pyridine, triethylamine, or 2,6-lutidine) in dichloromethane  TMSCl and lithium sulfide (Li2S) in acetonitrile  Most common deprotection methods   TMS groups are susceptible to cleavage upon treatment with HF-based reagents  Tetrabutylammonium fluoride (Bu4NF) in THF  Fluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6)  Treatment with HCl in THF/water solution  See also  Trimethylsilanol  Trimethylsilyl chloride  Tetramethylsilane  References  External links  Identification of Silylation Artifacts in Derivatization Reactions for Gas Chromatography  Category:Silicon chemistry Category:Trimethylsilyl compounds
William Sampson Jr. (September 27, 1933 – June 3, 1987) was a Native American painter, actor, and rodeo performer. He is best known for his performance as the apparent deaf and mute Native American Chief Bromden in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and as Crazy Horse in the 1977 western The White Buffalo, as well as his roles as Taylor in Poltergeist II: The Other Side and Ten Bears in 1976's The Outlaw Josey Wales. Life and career  William "Will" Sampson Jr., also known by his childhood nickname, "Sonny," a Muscogee Creek man, was born in Okmulgee County, Oklahoma to William "Wiley" Sampson Sr. (August 13, 1904 – May 27, 2001) and Mabel Sampson (née Lewis, 1899–?).
Sampson is the father of Samsoche "Sam" and Lumhe "Micco" Sampson of the Sampson Brothers Duo, actor Tim Sampson, and Destiny Sampson. They are known for their traditional fancy and grass dances, and often perform with Frank Waln, a notable Lakota hip-hop artist. On July 6, 2019, Sampson's son, Timothy "Tim" Sampson died. Rodeo performer  Sampson competed in rodeos (his specialty being bronco busting), for about twenty years. He was on the rodeo circuit when producers Saul Zaentz and Michael Douglas—of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest—were looking for a large Native American to play the role of Chief Bromden.
Sampson stood an imposing 6'7" (2.01 m) tall. Rodeo announcer Mel Lambert mentioned Sampson to them, and after lengthy efforts to find him, they hired him on the strength of an interview. He had never acted before. Actor  Sampson's most notable roles were as "Chief Bromden" in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, and as "Taylor the Medicine Man" in the horror film Poltergeist II. He had a recurring role on the TV series Vega$, as Harlon Twoleaf, and starred in the movies Fish Hawk, The Outlaw Josey Wales, and Orca. Sampson appeared in the production of Black Elk Speaks with the American Indian Theater Company in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where David Carradine and other Native American actors (such as Wes Studi and Randolph Mantooth) have appeared in stage productions.
He also played in The White Buffalo with Charles Bronson. Artist  Sampson was an artist. His large painting depicting the Ribbon Dance of the Muscogee (Creek) is in the collection of the Creek Council House Museum in Okmulgee, Oklahoma. His artwork has been shown at the Gilcrease Museum and the Philbrook Museum of Art. In 1983 he founded and served on the board of directors of the American Indian Registry for the Performing Arts. Death  Sampson suffered from scleroderma, a chronic degenerative condition that affected his heart, lungs, and skin. During his lengthy illness, his weight fell from  to , causing complications related to malnutrition.
After undergoing a heart and lung transplant at Houston Methodist Hospital in Houston, Texas, he died on June 3, 1987, of post-operative kidney failure. Sampson was 53 years old. Sampson was interred at Graves Creek Cemetery in Hitchita, Oklahoma. Legacy  Will Sampson Road, in Okmulgee County (east of Highway 75 near Preston, Oklahoma), is named after him. Filmography  Awards and nominations   Genie Award 1980: Nominated, "Best Performance by a Foreign Actor" – Fish Hawk  Notes  Bibliography   Escobar Zoe. Beyond the Cuckoo's Nest: the Art and Life of William Sonny Sampson... Seattle: Girl Dog Publ., 2009. (Ill.)  External links   Will Sampson interviews Will Sampson: Documentary Ensures Actor is Remembered.
The Aboriginal Multi-Media Society (AMMSA)  Category:1933 births Category:1987 deaths Category:People from Okmulgee, Oklahoma Category:American male film actors Category:American male television actors Category:Native American male actors Category:Native American painters Category:Male actors from Oklahoma Category:Muscogee people Category:Deaths from kidney failure Category:Artists from Oklahoma Category:20th-century American male actors
The Bessel ellipsoid (or Bessel 1841) is an important reference ellipsoid of geodesy. It is currently used by several countries for their national geodetic surveys, but will be replaced in the next decades by modern ellipsoids of satellite geodesy. The Bessel ellipsoid was derived in 1841 by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, based on several meridian arcs and other data of continental geodetic networks of Europe, Russia and the British Survey of India. It is based on 10 meridional arcs and 38 precise measurements of the astro—geographic latitude and longitude (see also astro geodesy). The dimensions of the ellipsoid axes were defined by logarithms in keeping with former calculation methods.
The Bessel and GPS ellipsoids   The Bessel ellipsoid fits especially well to the geoid curvature of Europe and Eurasia. Therefore it is optimal for National survey networks in these regions, despite of the fact that its axes are about 700 m shorter than that of the mean Earth ellipsoid derived by satellites. Below there are the two axes a, b and the flattening ƒ = (a − b)/a. For comparison, the data of the modern World Geodetic System WGS84 are shown, which is mainly used for modern surveys and the GPS system.
Bessel ellipsoid 1841 (defined by log a and ƒ):  a = 6,377,397.155 m  ''ƒ = 1 / 299.1528153513233 (0.003342 773154 ± 0.000005)  b = 6,356,078.963 m.  Earth ellipsoid WGS84 (defined directly by a and ƒ):  a = 6,378,137.0 m  ƒ = 1 / 298.257223563     b'' = 6,356,752.30 m.  Usage  The ellipsoid data published by Bessel (1841) were then the best and most modern data mapping the Earth's figure. They were used by almost all national surveys. Some surveys in Asia switched to the Clarke ellipsoid of 1880. After the arrival of the geophysical reduction techniques many projects used other examples such as the Hayford ellipsoid of 1910 which was adopted in 1924 by the International Association of Geodesy (IAG) as the International ellipsoid 1924.
All of them are influenced by geophysical effects like vertical deflection, mean continental density, rock density and the distribution of network data. Every reference ellipsoid deviates from the worldwide data (e.g. of satellite geodesy) in the same way as the pioneering work of Bessel. In 1950 about 50% of the European triangulation networks and about 20% of other continents networks were based on the Bessel ellipsoid. In the following decades the American states switched mainly to the Hayford ellipsoid 1908 ("internat. Ell. 1924") which was also used for the European unification project ED50 sponsored by the United States after World War II.
The Soviet Union forced its satellite states in Eastern Europe to use the Krasovsky ellipsoid of about 1940. As of 2010 the Bessel ellipsoid is the geodetic system for Germany, for Austria and the Czech Republic. It is also used partly in the successor states of Yugoslavia and some Asian countries: Sumatra and Borneo, Belitung, Okinawa (Japan). In Africa it is the geodetic system for Eritrea and Namibia. See also   Geodesy  WGS 72  WGS 84  Gauss–Krüger coordinate system  Helmert transformation  Hayford ellipsoid  External links   Conversion of Longitude and Latitude degrees into UTM coordinates  Category:Geodesy
The kidnapping of Jayme Closs occurred on October 15, 2018, when Jake Thomas Patterson abducted 13-year-old Jayme Lynn Closs from her family's home in Barron, Wisconsin, around 12:53 a.m, after forcing his way inside and fatally shooting her parents. Patterson took Closs to a house  away in rural Gordon, Wisconsin, and held her in captivity for 88 days until she escaped on January 10, 2019. Patterson was taken into custody shortly thereafter and told police he kidnapped Closs and killed her parents. He pleaded guilty to two counts of first-degree intentional homicide and one count of kidnapping. On May 24, 2019, Patterson was sentenced to two consecutive life sentences in prison without the possibility of parole plus an additional 40 years.
Kidnapping  Jayme Lynn Closs was the only child of James and Denise Closs of Barron, Wisconsin. On October 5, 2018, Jake Patterson drove to the Closs home to kidnap Jayme Closs, but was deterred by activity in the home and afraid he would leave witnesses. He made a second attempt two days later, but was again afraid to leave witnesses. On October 15, he made a third visit, this time armed with a shotgun. Shortly before 12:53 a.m. Central Time (05:53 UTC), Patterson parked his car at the end of the driveway. Wearing a black coat and ski mask, he approached the front door of the home carrying the shotgun.
James Closs, 56, shone a light on Patterson through a glass portion of the front door and asked him to show him his badge. Patterson said, "Open the fucking door." Patterson fired once, fatally shooting Closs. Forcing his way into the house, Patterson checked every room in the house because he wanted "no witnesses left behind." He found the bathroom door locked and began shooting it down. Inside the bathroom were Denise Closs, 46, and Jayme. Denise was comforting Jayme, who was crying loudly. At 12:53 a.m., Denise Closs made a 911 call. While Denise Closs did not speak, the operator heard a disturbance and yelling before the phone call was disconnected.
When the dispatcher called the number back, they reached the voicemail of Denise Closs. Patterson bound Jayme's wrists and ankles using duct tape, then fatally shot Denise Closs. He dragged Jayme outside, almost slipping on blood, placed her in the trunk of his car and drove away. The police arrived four minutes after the 911 call. Patterson later told investigators that he pulled over 20 seconds down the road from the house while deputies sped by with emergency lights and sirens on. Neighbors said they heard two gunshots, but dismissed them since hunting was common around their homes. After arriving at his cabin, Patterson made Closs change into a different pair of pajamas, then forced her under his mattress and sealed off all exits before going to sleep.
Search operations   Volunteers searched on the sides of US Route 8 near the home and spent October 23 searching for Closs. By October 26, a USD $50,000 reward had been announced for information leading to her recovery. Investigators received more than 2,000 tips and reviewed most of them. The police had no suspects during the time Closs was held captive for 88 days at a house owned by Patterson’s father on South Eau Claire Acres Circle in Gordon, Wisconsin. Closs later told police that Patterson would force her to hide under his bed to conceal her presence when his family members came to visit him.
When Patterson left from time to time, he barricaded Closs under the bed with tote bags, laundry bins and weights stacked around it and told her that he would know if she tried to move them while he was gone. On Saturdays, she was forced under Patterson's twin bed when his family visited. Patterson beat Closs on one occasion because he thought she had moved out from under the bed. During the Christmas celebration Patterson held, Patterson threatened to kill Closs if she moved. Jake also had sexual fantasies about Jayme, but never acted on them because of guilt of killing Jayme’s parents.
Escape  Patterson believed that Closs was too afraid of him to make any escape attempts, stating that he “never put special locks on doors because she wouldn’t escape.” They also slept on the same bed. Patterson would rarely let Closs out of the cabin, only for brief walks on the lawn after checking for bystanders. On the afternoon of January 10, 2019, Patterson told Closs he was leaving for a couple of hours and put her under his bed before boxing her inside with his belongings, per his usual routine. After he departed, Closs pushed out the objects around the bed far enough for her to escape and ran from the house wearing a light shirt, leggings and a pair of Patterson's sneakers.
Closs came across a local woman, Jeanne Nutter, walking her dog. Nutter recognized Closs from news reports and immediately took her to a neighbor's house. After police were called, Closs told them "Jake Patterson" had killed her parents, taken her and kept her prisoner just a few houses away from her current location in the neighborhood. The neighbors described Closs as calm, quiet, dazed and surprised that they recognized her from news coverage. The police arrived around 4:45 p.m. and decided to remove Closs from the area for her safety. The description Closs provided of Patterson and his vehicle enabled deputies to spot his car just minutes afterward when Patterson drove by the house.
After a deputy stopped him, Patterson exited his vehicle and said, "I did it." Closs was admitted to a hospital under guard. The next morning, she was released to the custody of her aunt, Jennifer Smith. Hormel, the parent company of the Jennie-O store where Closs's parents had been employed, announced on January 24 that $25,000 of the reward money would be given to Closs for rescuing herself. Perpetrator   Patterson confessed to police that he had kidnapped Closs and killed her parents. He had no previous criminal history in Wisconsin. He was charged with two counts of first-degree intentional homicide, one count of kidnapping and one count of armed burglary on January 14, with bail set at $5 million cash.
On March 27, he pleaded guilty to two counts of intentional first-degree homicide and one count of kidnapping. The judge agreed to dismiss the armed burglary count. On May 24, Patterson was sentenced to the maximum of two consecutive life sentences in prison without the possibility of parole for the murders plus an additional 40 years for the kidnapping. Douglas County authorities did not pursue charges against Patterson related to Closs's 88 days in captivity because they did not want to bring Closs in for questioning and believed there was sufficient evidence to pursue a life sentence without parole without needing additional charges.
Police did not believe Patterson had any social media contact with Closs or her family and relatives of Closs did not recognize Patterson's name. Patterson told authorities he saw Closs getting off a school bus outside the family residence in September while he was driving home from work and that he "knew that she was the girl he wanted to take". While in jail in March, Patterson wrote a letter in response to questions sent to him by a reporter from a television station in Minneapolis. He apologized for his crimes and stated they were committed "mostly on impulse", contrasting with reports from the police that he had taken various measures in preparation for the crime.
He added that his intention from the beginning was to plead guilty in order to spare Closs and her family the trauma of the case going to trial. Later that month, a television reporter in Minneapolis received a cell phone call from Patterson in which he briefly answered questions sent to him in a letter. Regarding the time Closs spent in captivity, Patterson said, "We were just like watching TV, playing board games, talking about stuff. We cooked a lot, everything we made was homemade, you know". At Patterson's arraignment, his father told a reporter he had a note of apology he was trying to get to Closs.
Patterson's grandfather stated, "Something went terribly wrong, nobody had any clues ... We are absolutely heartbroken. It's wrenching to deal with. He was shy and quiet, he backed off from crowds, but a nice boy, polite. Computer games were more of a priority than social interaction." Patterson's parents divorced in 2007. He graduated from Northwood High School in nearby Minong, Wisconsin in 2015. He enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps, but was discharged after one month at MCRD San Diego. On June 20, he registered officially as a sex offender. In July, he was transferred from the Dodge Correctional Institution to an out-of-state prison in New Mexico.
See also  List of kidnappings List of solved missing persons cases  References  External links   State of Wisconsin –VS- Jake Patterson, Criminal Complaint (12 pages), filed January 14, 2019  Category:2010s missing person cases Category:2018 in Wisconsin Category:2018 murders in the United States Category:Barron County, Wisconsin Category:Child abduction in the United States Category:Crimes in Wisconsin Category:Deaths by firearm in Wisconsin Category:Douglas County, Wisconsin Category:Formerly missing people Category:Kidnapped American children Category:Living people Category:Missing person cases in Wisconsin Category:Murder in Wisconsin Category:October 2018 crimes in the United States Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Mattress Firm Inc. is an American mattress store chain founded on July 4, 1986. The headquarters of the company is located in Houston, Texas. Business Before their bankruptcy in 2018, the company operated over 3,600 locations in 48 U.S. states. Mattress Firm has been owned by Steinhoff Holdings since 2016. On October 5, 2018, Mattress Firm filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. The company planned to break 700 lease contracts by closing 200 unprofitable stores as soon as possible and was considering closing the other 500 stores out of the more than 3,300 it operated at that time. In November 2018, Mattress Firm emerged from Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
In 2019, Mattress Firm appointed John Eck as CEO. In March 2020, Mattress Firm was one of several retailers to announce they would not pay some or all of their rent in April. Acquisitions  Mattress Pro  In 2007, Mattress Firm acquired the mattress retailer Mattress Pro, which operated locations in the Southern United States (Texas & Nevada)  Sleep Train The retail bedding manufacturer The Sleep Train Inc operated primarily in California. It was founded by Dale Carlsen in June 1985. The company is based in Rocklin, California. In June 2000, Sleep Train sold 24 of its stores (mainly in Seattle and Portland), or about 30 percent of its business, to Fenway Partners, a New York private-investment firm which had acquired Sleep Country USA, a competing chain established in 1991, three months earlier.
At the time, Sleep Train had 44 stores (of which 18 were in Washington) and Sleep Country USA 28. In 2002, Sleep Train Inc. announced plans to purchase 54 of Mattress Discounters' stores in California during that company's bankruptcy—which would more than double Sleep Train's size. In 2003, Fenway Partners sold Sleep Country USA to the Atlanta-based Simmons Company, and in August 2006, Sleep Train Inc. purchased the then-55-store mattress chain from Simmons. In September 2011, Sleep Train acquired Christian's Mattress Xpress, converting three stores into new Sleep Train stores in Visalia, Fresno and Fowler, California. The following month, October 2011, Sleep Train purchased Mattress Outlet, a 14-store company with 13 stores in eastern Washington and one in Idaho, and America's Mattress, a seven-store company in western Washington.
In October 2012, Sleep Train acquired Sleep City, an 8-store chain in Eastern Washington and Idaho. In April 2014, Sleep Train acquired America's Mattress in Hawaii. The acquisition included nine local America's Mattress stores: five stores on Oahu, two stores on the Big Island in Kona and Hilo, and one each on the islands of Maui and Kauai. On September 4, 2014, Mattress Firm Inc. announced it would buy The Sleep Train Inc. for $425 million. In February and March 2017, the Sleep Train stores were renamed as Mattress Firm outlets. Sleep Country USA Sleep Country USA was a Pacific Northwest bedding retailer founded in 1991.
It had more than 80 mattress stores in Oregon, Washington and Idaho. The company headquarters were in Kent, Washington. Sunny Kobe Cook and Robert Cook founded Sleep Country USA in 1991 as a specialty sleep store chain. It started with 8 stores and approximately 25 employees in Washington. In March 2000, New York-based Fenway Partners Inc. acquired Sleep Country from Robert Cook and Sunny Kobe Cook. In 2003, Fenway Partners sold Sleep Country USA to the Atlanta-based Simmons Company. In August 2006, The Sleep Train, Inc. purchased the then-55-store Sleep Country USA Pacific Northwest chain from Simmons for $55m. The chain continued to operate as Sleep Country USA.
Sleep Country Canada, an unaffiliated company, uses the same jingle. In July 2015, the Kent, Washington-based Sleep Country USA company announced that it would begin rebranding all of its stores with the Sleep Train name, the California-based company that is now owned by Mattress Firm. Work to change the signage at stores was expected to continue into the fall of 2015, at least. Mattress Barn Mattress Barn was a chain of mattress stores located only in Florida. On August 29, 2016, it was announced that Mattress Firm would acquire all of the remaining Mattress Barn locations. In September 2016, all of the remaining stores converted into Mattress Firm.
Sleepy's   In 2015, Mattress Firm announced its plans to buy out its competitor Sleepy's for $780 million. With this purchase, Mattress Firm would come to have over 3,500 stores. Mattress Firm continues to use the Sleepy's name for their own brand of mattresses. Sleep America  Sleep America was an Arizona bedding retailer founded in 1997 by Debbie and Leonard Gaby. By the time of Mattress Firm's acquisition of the company, they had about 30 stores. They were based in Phoenix, Arizona. On January 6, 2015, Mattress Firm acquired Sleep America for $12.5 million. Over the next 4 months, all of the Sleep America stores closed and were converted into Mattress Firm stores.
Few locations became clearance centers for Mattress Firm. References  External links     Category:1986 establishments in the United States Category:Companies based in Houston Category:Companies formerly listed on NASDAQ Category:Mattress retailers of the United States Category:American companies established in 1986 Category:Retail companies established in 1986 Category:Companies based in Kent, Washington Category:American subsidiaries of foreign companies Category:2016 mergers and acquisitions Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2018
Stray Bullets may refer to:   Stray Bullets (comics), American independent comic book series  "Stray Bullets", eleventh song on Agent 51's 2000 album Just Keep Runnin'  "Stray Bullets", sixth episode of the American Western television series Paradise (1988–91)  Stray Bullets (film), a 2016 American thriller film  See also  Stray bullet  Stray Bullet (disambiguation)
Contemporary R&B (also known as simply R&B) is a music genre that combines elements of rhythm and blues, pop, soul, funk, hip hop and electronic music. The genre features a distinctive record production style, drum machine-backed rhythms, pitch corrected vocals, and a smooth, lush style of vocal arrangement. Electronic influences are becoming an increasing trend and the use of hip hop or dance-inspired beats are typical, although the roughness and grit inherent in hip hop may be reduced and smoothed out. Contemporary R&B vocalists are often known for their use of melisma, popularized by vocalists such as Michael Jackson, R. Kelly, Craig David, Stevie Wonder, Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey.
As of late, contemporary R&B rhythms are being combined with elements of hip-hop and pop music. History Contemporary R&B originated at the end of the disco era in the late-1970s, when Michael Jackson and Quincy Jones added more electronic elements to the sound of the time to create a smoother dancefloor-friendly sound. The first result was "Off the Wall" (1979), which—according to Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic—"was a visionary album, that found a way to break disco wide open into a new world where the beat was undeniable, but not the primary focus" and "was part of a colorful tapestry of lush ballads and strings, smooth soul and pop, soft rock, and alluring funk".
Richard J. Ripani wrote that Janet Jackson's "Control" (1986) was "important to the development of R&B for a number of reasons", as she and her producers, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, "crafted a new sound that fuses the rhythmic elements of funk and disco, along with heavy doses of synthesizers, percussion, sound effects, and a rap music sensibility." Ripani wrote that "the success of "Control" led to the incorporation of stylistic traits of rap over the next few years, and Janet Jackson was to continue to be one of the leaders in that development." That same year, Teddy Riley began producing R&B recordings that included hip hop influences.
This combination of R&B style and hip hop rhythms was termed "new jack swing" and was applied to artists such as Michael Jackson, Bobby Brown, Keith Sweat, Al B. Sure!, Guy, Jodeci, and Bell Biv DeVoe. 1990s  In contrast to the works of Boyz II Men, Babyface and similar artists, other R&B artists and groups from this same period began adding even more of a hip-hop sound to their work, like the innovative group Jodeci. The synthesizer-heavy rhythm tracks of new jack swing were replaced by grittier East Coast hip hop-inspired backing tracks, resulting in a genre labeled "hip hop soul" by Mary J. Blige and producer Sean Combs who also had mentored group Jodeci in the beginning and helped them with their unique look.
The style became less popular by the end of the 1990s, but later experienced a resurgence. In 1990, Mariah Carey released "Vision of Love" as her debut single. It was immensely popular peaking at number 1 in many worldwide charts including the Billboard Hot 100, and it propelled Mariah's career. The song is usually said to have popularized the use of melisma and brought it into mainstream R&B. During the mid-1990s, Whitney Houston's "The Bodyguard: Original Soundtrack Album" sold over 40 million copies worldwide becoming the best-selling soundtrack of all time. Janet Jackson's self-titled fifth studio album "janet." (1993), which came after her historic multimillion-dollar contract with Virgin Records, sold over twenty million copies worldwide.
Boyz II Men and Mariah Carey recorded several " Billboard" Hot 100 No. 1 hits, including "One Sweet Day", a collaboration between both acts, which became the longest-running No. 1 hit in Hot 100 history. Carey also released a remix of her 1995 single "Fantasy", with Ol' Dirty Bastard as a feature, a collaboration format that was unheard of at this point. Carey, Boyz II Men and TLC released albums in 1994 and 1995—"Daydream", "II" and "CrazySexyCool". In the late 1990s, neo soul, which added 1970s soul influences to the hip hop soul blend, arose, led by artists such as D'Angelo, Erykah Badu, Lauryn Hill and Maxwell.
Hill and Missy Elliott further blurred the line between R&B and hip hop by recording both styles. Beginning in 1995, the Grammy Awards enacted the Grammy Award for Best R&B Album, with "II" by Boyz II Men becoming the first recipient. The award was later received by TLC for "CrazySexyCool" in 1996, Tony Rich for "Words" in 1997, Erykah Badu for "Baduizm" in 1998 and Lauryn Hill for "The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill" in 1999. At the end of 1999, "Billboard" magazine ranked Mariah Carey and Janet Jackson as the first and second most successful artists of the 1990s. Simultaneously, in the second half of the 1990s, The Neptunes and Timbaland set influential precedence on contemporary R&B and hip hop music.
R&B acts such as Michael Jackson, Whitney Houston, Janet Jackson, Mariah Carey, Usher and Toni Braxton are some of the best-selling music artists of all time. 2000s  Following periods of fluctuating success, urban music attained commercial dominance during the early 2000s, which featured massive crossover success on the "Billboard" charts by R&B and hip hop artists. In 2001, Alicia Keys released "Fallin'" as her debut single. It peaking at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, Mainstream Top 40 and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts. It won three Grammy Awards in 2002, including Song of the Year, Best R&B Song, and Best Female R&B Vocal Performance.
It was also nominated for Record of the Year. Beyoncé's solo studio debut album Dangerously in Love (2003) has sold over 5 million copies in the United States and earned five Grammy Awards. Usher's "Confessions" (2004) sold 1.1 million copies in its first week and over 8 million copies in 2004, since then it has been certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and, as of 2016, has sold over 10 million copies in the US and over 20 million copies worldwide. "Confessions" had four consecutive "Billboard" Hot 100 number one singles—"Yeah! ", "Burn", "Confessions Part II" and "My Boo".
It won won three Grammy Awards in 2005, including Best Contemporary R&B Album, Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for "My Boo" and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Yeah!" In 2004, all 12 songs that topped "Billboard" Hot 100 were African-American recording artists and accounted for 80% of the number-one R&B hits that year. Along with Usher's streak of singles, Top 40 radio and both pop and R&B charts were topped by Outkast's "Hey Ya! ", Snoop Dogg's "Drop It Like It's Hot", Terror Squad's "Lean Back" and Ciara's "Goodies". Chris Molanphy of The Village Voice later remarked that "by the early 2000s, urban music "was" pop music."
Between 2005 and 2009 Raymond, Knowles and Keys released albums—"B'Day", "Here I Stand", "I Am... Sasha Fierce" and "The Element of Freedom". Mariah Carey's "The Emancipation of Mimi" (2005) debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and earned ten Grammy Award nominations. Second single "We Belong Together" topped the Hot 100 charts for 14 weeks, and was later hailed "song of the decade" and won a Grammy Award for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance in 2006. The mid-2000s came with the emergence of new R&B acts Ashanti, Trey Songz, Omarion, Ciara, Christina Milian, Mario, Keyshia Cole and Akon. Ashanti's eponymous debut album topped both US "Billboard" 200 and Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums charts.
It earned her three Grammy nominations winning one for the Best Contemporary R&B Album. R&B newcomer Chris Brown released his self-titled album in 2005 which debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. His debut single "Run It!" peaked on the "Billboard" Hot 100, Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and the US Radio Songs. During this time also came the emergence of R&B songwriters. Bryan-Michael Cox co-wrote Usher's "Burn" and "Confessions Part II" (2005), Mariah Carey's "Shake It Off" and "Don't Forget About Us" (2006), and Chris Brown's "Say Goodbye" (2006). Keri Hilson would co-write songs Mary J. Blige's "Take Me as I Am" (2006), Omarion's "Ice Box" (2006), and Ciara's "Like a Boy" (2006).
Rico Love co-wrote Usher's "Throwback" (2005), Keri Hilson's "Energy" (2008), Pleasure P's "Boyfriend #2" (2008). The-Dream wrote Rihanna's "Umbrella" (2007), J. Holiday's "Bed" and Usher's "Moving Mountains" and "Trading Places" (2008). Ne-Yo wrote Mario's "Let Me Love You", Rihanna's "Take a Bow" and "Unfaithful", and Beyoncé's "Irreplaceable" (2008). According to Billboard, the most commercially successful R&B acts of the decade were Usher,  Alicia Keys, Beyoncé, Mariah Carey, Rihanna, Chris Brown and Ne-Yo. 2010s   Continuing from the 1990s and early 2000s, R&B, like many other genres, drew influences from the technical innovations of the time and began to incorporate more electronic and machine-made sounds and instruments.
The use of effects such as Auto-Tune and new computerized synths have given R&B a more futuristic feel while still attempting to incorporate many of the genre's common themes such as love and relationships. The evolutions of the genre's production and instrumentation have spurred the successes of performers such as Alicia Keys, Beyoncé, SZA, Rihanna, Bruno Mars, Kehlani, Ariana Grande, Usher, John Legend, Frank Ocean, Pharrell Williams, Chris Brown, Jennifer Lopez, The Weeknd, Ne-Yo, Khalid, and Ella Mai. Early 2010s artists such as Kelly Rowland, Ne-Yo, Usher, and Chris Brown began embracing new electronic influences while still keeping R&B's original feel.
Kelly Rowland"s "Commander", Usher's "OMG", "DJ Got Us Fallin' in Love", "Scream" and "Climax", Chris Brown's "Yeah 3x", "Turn Up the Music" and "Don't Wake Me Up" are all EDM-oriented. As this electronic element continues to grow apparent throughout the genre, contemporary artists like are gaining popularity outside of R&B and continue to collaborate with non-R&B artists. Singers Miguel, John Legend, Jeremih, Eric Bellinger, and Chris Brown are popular in mainstream hip hop for many collaborations with rappers such as Wale, Rick Ross, YG, and J.Cole. Today's R&B is far more diverse and incorporates more sonic elements than before, as it expands its appeal and commercial viability.
Trap music's influence maintained a strong presence on the music charts with R&B singer Beyoncé's songs "Drunk in Love", "Flawless" and "7/11", Bryson Tiller's debut studio album, "Trapsoul," and Mary J. Blige's "Thick of It"..  Latin R&B is gaining ground since the wave of artists began mixing trap with that sound in the middle of this decade. Spanish-language singles by Alex Rose, Rauw Alejandro and Paloma Mami, which borrow shrewdly from R&B, are captivating a global audience. In Latin America, the genre became popular with Alex Rose's "Toda", Dalex's "Pa Mi" and "Cuaderno", and most notably Sech's "Otro Trago". See also  Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs List of R&B musicians  References  Further reading  Category:1980s in music Category:1990s in music Category:2000s in music Category:2010s in music Category:African-American music   Category:Rhythm and blues music genres
The Copart 200 was a race in the NASCAR Gander Outdoors Truck Series which took place at the Milwaukee Mile. Past winners  2002 & 2004: Race extended due to a green–white–checker finish. 2009: Race postponed from Friday to Saturday due to rain. Multiple winners (drivers)  Multiple winners (teams)  Manufacturer wins  Category:Former NASCAR races   Category:Recurring sporting events established in 1995 Category:Recurring sporting events disestablished in 2009 Category:1995 establishments in Wisconsin Category:2009 disestablishments in Wisconsin
The Technical Research Centre for Dependency Care and Autonomous Living (CETpD) is an applied research and technology transfer centre created for the Universitat Politèncica de Catalunya and the Fundació Hospital Comarcal Sant Antoni Abat on behalf of the Consorci de Servei a les Persones de Vilanova i la Geltrú, with the aim of covering the demand for research and development in the field of Gerontechnology, Ambient Intelligence, Assistive Robotics and User Experience Technologies. The CETpD carried out important applied research work and innovation on socially relevant developments, especially on technologies and systems designed to enhance independent living of elderly and disabled people.
Areas  Ambient Intelligence  Ambient Intelligence (AmI) implies an environment of distributed computing systems, unobstrusive and often invisible, with user friendly interfaces capable of learning and adapting to the particular needs of the users. CETpD AmI projects are included in the assistance field mainly for housing and health application. We are looking for technological solutions that have the potential to include everyone, that are affordable and build trust and confidence directed to improve the quality of life of any person specially elders and disabled. Assistive Robotics  The priority lines of work are three:  To develop new architectures of control and forms of signal processing which the robots allow to capture knowledge and being cognitive through the human-machine interaction.
To research in the more suitable forms of interaction, so they are motivating and satisfying for the user. To develop in an effective way robotic systems that are capable of supplying with personalised individual assistance to people with dependence (permanent, rehabilitation or convalescence). Therefore, the research implies areas like HRI, control and systems of computational learning in complex, changing and uncertain environments, integrating processes of perception, representation and interaction with people. Usability  The purpose of the user experience field, usability, is to provide relevant information about users expectations, capabilities and preferences, in order to ensure that products and services would meet end users -and other stakeholders- functional and affective needs.
All the CETpD projects incorporates user's experience feedback in the process of contextual product and services development. Balance, Gaits and Falls  Gait alterations, balance alterations and falls are major causes of disability in the elderly population. Such pathologies seriously impair elders' quality of life; furthermore, their consequences have high economic and social impact. Therefore, clinical and epedimiological studies on these pathologies are conducted at the CETpD in order to gain insight into their causes and to find novel therapeutics. Gerontechnology  A major objective in geriatrics is to maintain elderly persons' independence to carry out their daily life activities and to interact with their environment.
In this regard, technology may be an essential tool to facilitate elderly persons' autonomy. At the CETpD, they develop technology aimed to their environment, as well as remote diagnosis devices designed for early detection of health alterations in frail persons or persons living alone. References  External links  CETpD web site  CETpD youtube channel  UPC web site  Fundació Hospital Comarcal Sant Antoni Abat web site  Category:Software engineering organizations Category:Computer science education Category:Gerontology organizations Category:Robotics organizations
Pump is a brand of bottled spring water available in Australia and New Zealand. It is owned and manufactured by Coca-Cola Amatil. Products Pump is available in a number of bottle sizes, including 600ml and 1.5 litre. It is also available in a number of flavours, such as Berry, Lemon, Lime and Mango. Each variant comes equipped with a 'pop top' lid. See also   Mount Franklin Water  References  External links      Category:Bottled water brands Category:Food and drink companies established in 1981 Category:1981 establishments in Australia Category:Australian drinks
Flour Mills of Nigeria (FMN) is a diversified Nigerian agribusiness company, it was founded in 1960 by George S. Coumantaros. FMN employs over 12,000 people. FMN was founded by George S. Coumantaros in 1960 as a private limited company and in 1978 became a public company, with its shares listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange. The chairman of FMN since 2014, and its former CEO is the founder's son, John Coumantaros. Flour Mills today, is a holding company with a vertically integrated business model. The flagship brand of the company is Golden Penny Flour. History Flour Mills started operations in 1962, the first wheat mill plant in Nigeria, it was built at a cost of £2.5m financed by Greek and American capital through Southern Star Shipping company.
Initial annual production was 120,000 tonnes. The company's Apapa complex has bulk unloading and storage capabilities with a mill to process North American wheat blends. In 1964, the company expanded its offering with the establishment of a polypropylene manufacturing plant that traded under the business name Nigerian Bag Manufacturing Company Limited. The initial facility also processed wheat offals to be exported. By 1971, the annual capacity of its wheat mill was 300,000 tonnes. In 1975, the company bought minority equity interest in Northern Nigeria Flours Mills, Kano and later acquired interest in Niger Mills of Calabar. In the late 1970s, the company was listed on the Nigerian Stock exchange.
In 1990, another polypropylene manufacturing business was established in 1997 in Northern Nigeria trading under the business name Northern Bag Manufacturing Company, two years later Golden Shipping Company was established. In 1997, an extension of business offerings led to the founding of a fertilizer marketing business, expansion continued with the introduction of a cement partnership UNICEM in 2002, port management trading under the name Apapa Bulk Terminal in 2004, Golden Transport in 2008 and Premier Feeds in 2010. In August 2015, a holding company, Excelsior Shipping was established to manage the affairs of some of its subsidiaries. Apapa Bulk Terminal operates Terminal A and B at Apapa Port.
The company operated a bulk cement bagging operation at Apapa trading Burham Cement, following compliance with government regulations to promote local cement manufacturing that operation was discontinued at the firm went into a partnership with Orascom to establish a cement facility at Mfanmosing, Cross River State. Subsidiaries  References  External links  Category:Companies based in Lagos Category:Food and drink companies of Nigeria Category:Food and drink companies established in 1960 Category:1960 establishments in Nigeria
Exophiala phaeomuriformis is thermophilic fungus belonging to the genus Exophiala and the family Herpotrichiellaceae. it is a member of the group of fungi known as black yeasts, and is typically found in hot and humid locations, such as saunas, bathrooms, and dishwashers. This species can cause skin infections and is typically classified as a Biosafety Risk Group 2 agent. History Exophiala phaeomuriformis is a member of the genus Exophiala, described in 1952 based on E. jeanselmei. Thirty species of Exophiala are currently recognized amongst which Exophiala (Wangiella) dermatitidis is the most common. When studying samples of E. dermatitidis, Takashi Matsumoto and colleagues observed strains with a granular colonial form and distinctive microscopic morphology.
Based on the resemblance of these strains to the genus Sarcinomyces, they proposed the new name, S. phaeomuriformis. This taxon was transferred to the genus Exophiala by Tiago Matos and co-workers in 2003 because of its yeast-like morphology (rather than the meristematic form characteristic to members of the genus Sarcinomyces), and its closer DNA homology to the genus Exophiala. Exophiala phaeomuriformis is a dematiceous (darkly pigmented) fungus and member of the group of fungi known as the black yeasts. Black yeasts are an unrelated category of fungi that share yeast-like morphology and possess darkly melanized cell walls. Although their DNA sequences are distinctive, E. phaeomuriformis and E. dermatitidis are so closely related that the two cannot be reliably differentiated morphologically or physiologically.
Antigenic cross-reactivity suggests that E. phaeomuriformis may have originated as multicellular variant of E. dematitidis. Growth and morphology Like many other black yeasts, Exophiala phaeomuriformis is known only by its asexual form and no sexual form has been found. It is a thermophilic fungus preferring temperatures between  but growing at any temperature between . Exophilala phaeomuriformis is more sensitive than other black yeasts to salt, incapable of growth at concentrations of sodium chloride exceeding 17%. Like other members of the genus Exophiala, it is able to tolerate a wide range of pH (2.5–12.5). Colonies of E. phaeomuriformis are hyaline, mycoid, and smooth when young but become black, dry, crumbly, raised, and mulberry-like in texture with age.
Some strains fail to undergo this morphological switch and remain yeast-like in age. By contrast, many strains of E. dermatitidis become mycelial with age. Hyphal growth has not been observed in E. phaeomuriformis. Instead, colonies develop from loosely packed, single, and rounded budding yeast cells that are either scattered or aggregated in groups. Vegetative cells can either by unicellular or muriform (septate in all planes) or become divided by transverse septa only. Yeast cells are thick-walled and spherical or near-spherical in shape. Budding cells can have broad bases, occur in chains, and be multilateral, budding in different directions. Physiology  Like other member of the genus Exophiala, E. phaeomuriformis is saprotrophic, obtaining its energy exclusively from non-living organic materials.
When inoculated on a suitable growth medium under optimal conditions, the growth of E. phaeomuriformis is initiated in roughly 3 days; however, when subject to competition, the cells may remain in a stationary state for many weeks prior to the development of visible growth. Similar to E. dematitidis, E. phaeomuriformis is unable to assimilate nitrate, nitrite and melibiose; however it differs in it that some strains are unable to metabolize D-gluconate, D-glucuronate, D-galacturonate and glucono-δ-lactone. Habitat and ecology  Exophiala phaeomuriformis has a proclivity for environments rich in mono- and polyaromatic compounds, such as hydrocarbons, where it uses these compounds as sources of energy.
The species is plurivorous, occurring on a wide range of materials from contaminated soils and toluene rich environments to wild berries and animal feces. It is also found in environments containing the preservative creosote, such as railroad ties where it is an important agent of biodeterioration. In indoor environments, E. phaeomuriformis occurs in warm and moist environments such as toilets, saunas, or dishwashers. This species is found world-wide. Human disease  Exophiala phaeomuriformis is a rare causative agent of phaeohyphomycosis in cutaneous, subcutaneous and deep tissues, and is responsible for 6.4% of infections caused by black yeasts. Infection usually occurs following skin abrasion or penetrating injuries.
Exophiala phaeomuriformis can also cause corneal infection following eye exposure to contaminated water. People with cystic fibrosis (CF) are considered abnormally susceptible to Exophiala infections, including E. phaeomuriformis. It has been suggested that differences in the microbiota profiles of CF patients may be responsible for this predisposition. Treatment of E. phaeomuriformis involves a combination of surgical debridement and antifungal therapy. A range of antifungal agents including caspofungin, voriconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, and amphotericin B are active against this species. Due to its pathogenic potential, E. phaeomuriformis is regarded as a Biosafety Risk Group 2 agent in the laboratory. External links  References  Category:Ascomycota Category:Fungi described in 1986
In boolean logic, logical nor or joint denial is a truth-functional operator which produces a result that is the negation of logical or. That is, a sentence of the form (p NOR q) is true precisely when neither p nor q is true—i.e. when both of p and q are false. In grammar, nor is a coordinating conjunction. The NOR operator is also known as Peirce's arrow—Charles Sanders Peirce introduced the symbol ↓ for it, and demonstrated that the logical NOR is completely expressible: by combining uses of the logical NOR it is possible to express any logical operation on two variables.
Thus, as with its dual, the NAND operator (a.k.a. the Sheffer stroke—symbolized as either ↑, | or /), NOR can be used by itself, without any other logical operator, to constitute a logical formal system (making NOR functionally complete). It is also known as Quine's dagger (his symbol was †), the  (from Ancient Greek , , "cutting both ways") by Peirce, or neither-nor. Other ways of notating  include, P NOR Q, and "Xpq" (in Bocheński notation). It is logically equivalent to , where the symbol  signifies OR and  signifies the negation. The computer used in the spacecraft that first carried humans to the moon, the Apollo Guidance Computer, was constructed entirely using NOR gates with three inputs.
Definition  The NOR operation is a logical operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of true if and only if both operands are false. In other words, it produces a value of false if and only if at least one operand is true. Truth table The truth table of  (also written as P NOR Q) is as follows:  Logical Equivalences  The logical NOR  is the negation of the disjunction:  Properties Logical NOR does not possess any of the five qualities (truth-preserving, false-preserving, linear, monotonic, self-dual) required to be absent from at least one member of a set of functionally complete operators.
Thus, the set containing only NOR suffices as a complete set. Other Boolean Operations in terms of the Logical NOR  NOR has the interesting feature that all other logical operators can be expressed by interlaced NOR operations. The logical NAND operator also has this ability. Expressed in terms of NOR , the usual operators of propositional logic are:  See also   Bitwise NOR  Boolean algebra  Boolean domain  Boolean function   Functional completeness  NOR gate  Propositional logic  Sole sufficient operator  References  External links  NOR  de:Peirce-Funktion it:Algebra di Boole#NOR
Bench press world records are the international records in bench press across the years, regardless of weight class or governing organization, for bench pressing on the back without using a bridge technique. The advent of bench press shirts, which support the lifter's shoulders and provide upward force, have increased  records significantly since 1985 (for example, when the shirted record was 437.72 kg (965 lb), the unshirted record was 323.41 kg (713 lb)). As of 2020, the world record bench press without any equipment was set by American Julius Maddox at . The women bench press record (single lift, equipped with shirt) belongs to Sandra Lönn from Sweden, who lifted 235.0 kg (517 lb) and the women bench press record (equipped with shirt) belongs to Hugdal Hildeborg from Norway, who lifted 227.0 kg (499.4 lb) (IPF standards).
Prior to IPF Formation  Foundation  of the  International Powerlifting Federation  With the foundation of the  IPF (International Powerlifting Federation), the  Federation began keeping "official" powerlifting world records as the international governing body for the sport of powerlifting. Previous records which hadn't been set within the newly established rules, were reset (For example, elbow bandages had been allowed prior to the formation of the IPF, but were later outlawed). These are the official bench press records after the IPF-reset until they surpass the previously set mark of 306 kg (675 lb) by  Jim Williams. Equipped (with bench shirt)   * note: Anthony Clark performed a controversial 800-pound bench press at the Arnold Classic in 1997, 2 years before Tim Isaac.
This lift was, however, later turned down. Unequipped (without bench shirt) For the bench press to be considered raw, no bench shirts are allowed; however, wrist wraps, singlets and belts are allowed. Elbow bandages had been allowed prior to the formation of the IPF, but were later outlawed. IPC Powerlifting International Paralympic Committee regulates unequipped paralympic powerlifting competition without wrist wraps or belt. See also  List of Olympic records in weightlifting  List of world records in Olympic weightlifting  Paralympic bench press world records  List of junior world records in Olympic weightlifting  List of youth world records in Olympic weightlifting  NFL Scouting Combine Bench press records  Squat world records  Deadlift world records  World record progression women's weightlifting  World record progression women's weightlifting (1998–2018)  World record progression men's weightlifting  World record progression men's weightlifting (1998–2018)  References  Category:Powerlifting Bench press
BAG family molecular chaperone regulator 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BAG3 gene. BAG3 is involved in chaperone-assisted selective autophagy. Function   BAG proteins compete with Hip-1 for binding to the Hsc70/Hsp70 ATPase domain and promote substrate release. All the BAG proteins have an approximately 45-amino acid BAG domain near the C terminus but differ markedly in their N-terminal regions. The protein encoded by this gene contains a WW domain in the N-terminal region and a BAG domain in the C-terminal region. The BAG domains of BAG1, BAG2, and BAG3 interact specifically with the Hsc70 ATPase domain in vitro and in mammalian cells.
All 3 proteins bind with high affinity to the ATPase domain of Hsc70 and inhibit its chaperone activity in a Hip-repressible manner. Clinical significance   BAG gene has been implicated in age related neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's. It has been demonstrated that BAG1 and BAG 3 regulate the proteasomal and lysosomal protein elimination pathways, respectively. It has also been shown to be a cause of familial dilated cardiomyopathy. That BAG3 mutations are responsible for familial dilated cardiomyopathy is confirmed by another study describing 6 new molecular variants (2 missense and 4 premature Stops ). Moreover, the same publication reported that BAG3 polymorphisms are also associated with sporadic forms of the disease together with HSPB7 locus.
In muscle cells, BAG3 cooperates with the molecular chaperones Hsc70 and HspB8 to induce the degradation of mechanically damaged cytoskeleton components in lysosomes. This process is called chaperone-assisted selective autophagy and is essential for maintaining muscle activity in flies, mice and men. BAG3 is able to stimulate the expression of cytoskeleton proteins in response to mechanical tension by activating the transcription regulators YAP1 and WWTR1. BAG3 balances protein synthesis and protein degradation under mechanical stress. Interactions   PLCG1 has been shown to interact with:   FGFR1,   CD117,   CD31,   Cbl gene  CISH  Epidermal growth factor receptor,   Eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 alpha 1,   FLT1,   GAB1,   GIT1,   Grb2,   HER2/neu,   IRS2,   ITK,   KHDRBS1,   Linker of activated T cells,   Lymphocyte cytosolic protein 2,   PDGFRA,   PLD2,   RHOA,   SOS1,  TUB,   TrkA,   TrkB,   VAV1,  and  Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein.
References  Further reading  External links    GeneReviews/NIH/NCBI/UW entry on Myofibrillar Myopathy      Category:Ageing Category:Aging-related genes Category:Aging-related proteins Category:Co-chaperones
Mnemiopsis leidyi, the warty comb jelly or sea walnut, is a species of tentaculate ctenophore (comb jelly). It is native to western Atlantic coastal waters, but has become established as an invasive species in European and western Asian regions. Three species have been named in the genus Mnemiopsis, but they are now believed to be different ecological forms of a single species M. leidyi by most zoologists. Description and ecology Mnemiopsis have a lobed body that is oval-shaped and transparent, with four rows of ciliated combs that run along the body vertically and glow blue-green when disturbed. They have several feeding tentacles.
Unlike cnidarians, Mnemiopsis doesn't sting. Their body contains 97% water. They are small organisms, having a maximum body length of roughly  and a diameter of . It is euryoecious, tolerating a wide range of salinity (2 to 38 psu), temperature (), and water quality. Mnemiopsis is a carnivore that consumes zooplankton including crustaceans, other comb jellies, and eggs and larvae of fish; it is sometimes known to eat smaller individuals of its own kind. It also has several other predators. Many are vertebrates, including species of birds and fish. Some predators include other members of gelatinous zooplankton such as Beroe ctenophores and various Scyphozoa (jellyfish).
This comb jelly has the capacity for self-fertilization, as they are hermaphroditic. They have gonads that contain the ovary and spermatophore bunches in their gastrodermis. This animal carries 150 eggs along each meridional canal. Eggs and sperm are released into the water column where external fertilization takes place. The spawning commences at late evening or at 1:00 or 2:00 a.m. The spawning eggs develop a thick outer layer within 1 minute after touching the seawater. As many as 10,000 eggs can be produced from large specimens in areas with good prey abundance. Egg production can start when the animals reach about 15 mm in length.
Egg production increases with ctenophore size, and it is unclear when senescence occurs. It has a transient anus, which means that its anus appears only when it needs to defecate and disappears after the act. There is no permanent connection between the gut and the rear of the body. Instead, as waste accumulates, part of the gut starts to balloon out until it touches the outer layer, or epidermis. The gut then fuses with the epidermis, forming an anal opening. Once excretion is complete, the process is reversed and the anus vanishes. The animals defecate at regular intervals: once an hour in the 5-centimetre-long adults, and once every 10 minutes or so in the larvae.
The species moves so slowly that it is referred to as "sea walnut". As an invasive species  1980s – Black Sea Mnemiopsis leidyi was introduced in the Black Sea in the 1980s, where only one species of comb jelly, the small sea gooseberry Pleurobrachia pileus occurred until then. The most likely cause of its introduction is accidentally by merchant ships' ballast water. The first Black Sea record was in 1982. By 1989, the Black Sea population had reached the highest level, with some 400 specimens per m³ of water (>10 animals/cubic foot) in optimal conditions. Afterwards, due to depletion of foodstocks resulting in lower carrying capacity, the population dropped somewhat.
In the Black Sea, M. leidyi eats eggs and larvae of pelagic fish. It caused a dramatic drop in fish populations, notably the commercially important anchovy Engraulis encrasicholus (known locally as hamsi, hamsiya, hamsa, etc. ), by competing for the same food sources and eating the young and eggs. Biological control was tried with Beroe ovata, another comb jelly, with some degree of success; it appears as if a fairly stable predator-prey dynamic has been reached. 1999 – Caspian Sea In 1999 the species was introduced in the Caspian Sea via the Unified Deep Water System of European Russia. The establishment of this population let to a 60% reduction in the number of sprat, which in turn led to a reduction in the population of sturgeon and seals.
2006 – North and Baltic Seas Since then, the species has apparently spread throughout the Mediterranean basin and the northwestern Atlantic. In 2006, it was first recorded in the North Sea, and since October 17, 2006 in the western Baltic Sea, namely the Kiel Fjord and The Belts. Up to 100 animals per cubic metre were counted in the Baltic, whereas the population density in the North Sea was at a much lower 4 animals/m³ at most. One year later, the Baltic population of M. leidyi was found to have spread east to the Gotland Basin and the Bay of Puck.
The impact of the species on the already heavily stressed Baltic ecosystem is unknown. The species overwinters in the deep waters where the temperature does not drop below ; the fact that the Baltic is heavily stratified, with the waters above and below the halocline mixing little, is believed to aid its survival. Apart from the widespread P. pileus, three comb jelly species occasionally drift into the Baltic from the North Sea but do not seem to be present as a stable population of significant size: Bolinopsis infundibulum, Beroe cucumis and Beroe gracilis. The second species might potentially be used for biological control.
The route of dispersal of M. leidyi to the North Sea/Baltic region is unknown. It might have occurred naturally by drifting individuals, or with ballast water of ships, either from its natural range or from the Black Sea, via the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic. At least technically possible given the species' euryhaline habits is an alternative route of dispersal through continental Europe, being carried with ballast water in ships travelling from the Black Sea to the Rhine Estuary via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. The latter route is known to be the point of entry into continental Europe for numerous invasive freshwater neozoons from the Ponto-Caspian region, such as the zebra mussel, the quagga mussel, the amphipods Dikerogammarus villosus and Chelicorophium curvispinum, and the polychaete Hypania invalida.
Genomics Both the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of Mnemiopsis leidyi have been sequenced, providing insight into the evolutionary position of Ctenophora (comb jellies). In the original 2013 paper reporting the nuclear genome sequence, phylogenetic analysis of the presence and absence of genes, introns, and amino acid alignments suggested that the comb jelly is the sister lineage to the rest of all animals. However, a 2015 study applied different methodologies and found support for Porifera as the sister group to all other animals, and confirmed findings from the original study that amino acid alignments gave mixed support for this hypothesis. The position of Ctenophora and Porifera is currently being actively  debated.
Its mitochondrion shows several interesting features. It is 10 kilobases in length making it the smallest animal mitochondrial DNA sequence known to date. It has lost at least 25 genes, including MT-ATP6 and all the tRNA genes. The atp6 gene has been relocated to the nuclear genome and has acquired introns and a mitochondrial targeting presequence. All tRNA genes have been genuinely lost along with nuclear-encoded mitochondrial aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. The mitochondrial rRNA molecules possess little similarity with their homologs in other organisms and have highly reduced secondary structures. The genome of Mnemiopsis leidyi appears to lack recognizable microRNAs, as well as the nuclear proteins Drosha and Pasha, which are critical to canonical microRNA biogenesis.
It is the only animal thus far reported to be missing Drosha. MicroRNAs play a vital role in the regulation of gene expression in all non-ctenophore animals investigated thus far except for Trichoplax adhaerens, the only known member of the phylum Placozoa. References  External links  Mnemiopsis Genome Project Portal at the National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH Research group Limnology at Ghent University, Belgium Ctenophores from the São Sebastião Channel     Category:Monotypic ctenophore genera Category:Bolinopsidae Category:Fauna of the Atlantic Ocean Category:Taxa named by Louis Agassiz
The Renault 8 (Renault R8 until 1964) and Renault 10 are two rear-engined, rear-wheel drive small family cars produced by the French manufacturer Renault in the 1960s and early 1970s. The 8 was launched in 1962, and the 10, a more upmarket version of the 8, was launched in 1965. The Renault 8 ceased production and sales in France in 1973. By then the Renault 10 had already been replaced, two years earlier, by the front wheel drive Renault 12. They were produced in Bulgaria until 1970 (see Bulgarrenault), and an adapted version of the Renault 8 continued to be produced in Spain until 1976.
In Romania, a version of the 8 was produced under license between 1968 and 1972 as the Dacia 1100. In total 37,546 Dacia 1100s were built. Renault 8  Launch The R8 (model R1130) was released in June 1962 and was based on the Renault Dauphine with which it shared its basic architecture and its  wheelbase. The style, closely following that of the first prototype produced, at unusually short notice, by Philippe Charbonneaux, was fashionably boxy; however, while the Renault 8 was actually  narrower than the Dauphine, the manufacturer was able to install thick cushioned front seats that were actually each  wider, at , than those fitted in the Dauphine.
The R8's engine followed the pioneering example of the recently introduced Renault 4 by incorporating a sealed for life cooling system. A distinctive innovation on the French produced cars was the fitting of four-wheel disc brakes, a first for a saloon car of this size. However, when in 1965 Renault's Spanish affiliate introduced their own version of the Renault 8 for the (then tariff-shielded) Spanish market, it came with drum brakes. The 8 was powered by an all new 956 cc Cléon-Fonte engine developing . Automatic transmission For 1963 (initially only in France), Renault offered an automatic transmission of unique design, developed and produced by Jaeger.
It was first shown at the September 1962 Paris Motor Show. Although it was described as a form of automatic transmission at the time, in retrospect it was more realistically a form of automatic clutch, inspired by the German Saxomat device which appeared as an option on several mainstream German cars in the 1950s and 60s. The clutch in the system was replaced by a powder ferromagnetic coupler, developed from a Smiths design. The transmission itself was a three-speed mechanical unit similar to that of the Dauphine, but from the beginning with synchromesh on all gears in this version. The system used a dash-mounted push button control panel where the driver could select forward or reverse and a governor that sensed vehicle speed and throttle position.
A "relay case" containing electromagnetic switches received signals from the governor and push buttons and then controlled a coupler, a decelerator to close the throttle during gear changes, and a solenoid to select operation of the reverse-first or second-third shift rail, using a reversible electric motor to engage the gears. The system was thus entirely electromechanical, without hydraulics, pneumatics or electronics. Benefits included comparable fuel economy to the manual transmission version, and easy adaptability to the car. Drawbacks included performance loss (with only three available gears) and a somewhat jerky operation during gear changes. The transmission was also used in the Dauphine and the Caravelle.
Engine upgrades A more powerful model, the 8 Major (model R1132), was released in 1964, featuring an 1108 cc engine developing . A still more powerful version, the 8 model R1134 Gordini, was also released that year, with a tuned engine of the same capacity but developing . The extra power was obtained by a cross-flow head and twin dual-choke 40mm side-draft Solex carburetors. A four-speed close ratio manual transmission, dual rear shock absorbers and uprated springs were fitted. The R1134 Gordini was originally available only in blue, with two stick-on white stripes. It was also distinguishable from the 8 Major by the bigger 200mm headlamp units.
In 1965, the Renault 10 Major, a more luxurious version of the 8 with different front and rear styling, was released, replacing the 8 Major. Facelift In 1967, the R8 Gordini (model R1135) received a facelift including two additional headlights (in effect Cibie Oscar driving lights), and its engine upgraded to a 1255cc unit rated at . The R1134 Gordini cross-flow head design was retained, and twin dual-choke 40mm Weber side-draft carburetors. Both the 8 and the 10 were heavily revised for 1969. Some of the 10's features being incorporated in the 8, resulting in a new 8 Major which replaced the basic model.
The changes also saw the addition of the 8S, a sportier model with a 1108cc engine rated at . 8S model also had the same twin headlights as the R1135 Gordini – the middle ones were for high beam only. The car was delivered with black "RENAULT 8S" tapes, intended for the rear wings but their fixing was left to the customer. Also, the Romanian sport version was named Dacia 1100 S.  European Rally victories The car has won the Tour de Corse, Rally Poland, Rallye Açores, Rali Vinho da Madeira, Boucles de Spa and Rajdowe Samochodowe Mistrzostwa Polski. Gallery Renault 8  Renault 10  In September 1965 the Renault 10 Major (branded in some markets as the Renault 1100) was launched, replacing the Renault 8 Major.
This was a lengthened version of the Renault 8 with an increased front overhang and a much enlarged front luggage compartment, its capacity increased from 240 to 315 litres. The dimensions of the central passenger cabin were unchanged, however. The 1,108 cc engine, which for some markets had already appeared in top of the range versions of the Renault 8, came from the Renault Caravelle. In the French market the Renault 10 found itself struggling to compete with the successful Peugeot 204 introduced in the same year. In the United States the Renault 10 was offered as "The Renault for people who swore they would never buy another one."
Early R10 had round headlights, but just two years after launch the 10 itself was facelifted, rectangular headlights now further differentiating it from the Renault 8. Alongside the Renault 10, less powerful versions of the Renault 8 continued in production at the Flins plant with the existing shorter body. A larger unit, the 1289 cc engine from the new Renault 12, was fitted to the Renault 10 for the Motor Show in October 1970, giving birth to the Renault 10-1300. Although the engine mounted at the back of the Renault 10-1300 was in most respects identical to that fitted at the front of the Renault 12, the unit in the older car was effectively detuned, with a lowered compression ratio and a listed maximum output of  SAE ( DIN) whereas the unit in the Renault 12 was advertised as providing  SAE ( DIN).
In effect this placed Renault in the bizarre position of offering two competing models in the same market category, but the older rear engined design came with a listed price 1,000 francs (approximately 10%) lower and a top speed of 135 km/h (84 mph) as against 145 km/h (90 mph) for the entry level Renault 12. The 1108cc version of the engine was also offered for 1970, but now only when combined with the Jaeger "button operated" semi-automatic transmission which had been offered in earlier versions of the car since 1963. French production of the Renault 10 ceased at the end of summer 1971, by which time the model had been selling for a year in parallel with the commercially more successful Renault 12.
Final production Although production of the Renault 10 ended in 1971, the 8 was still sold in France as late as 1973. FASA-Renault, the company's Spanish arm, continued to produce models 8 and 8TS (similar to the French-built 8S) until 1976 for the Spanish market, and components for the 8S and 8TS assembled in Mexico. Outside Europe  Alconi  Through their South African subsidiary, Renault Africa Ltd, a special performance version of the 1108cc '8' (model 1132) and '10' (model 1190) was assembled at their East London assembly plant. It sold in that country only as a Renault Alconi, a combination the names of the developers, John Conchie and Eric 'Puddles' Adler, who traded as "Alconi Developments".
Engine upgrades resulted in 68 bhp (net) and a performance close to that of the R8 Gordini '1100' and midway between the standard Renault 8 and the 1255cc Gordini. (various S.A 'Car' Magazine roadtests)  It was sold new through their dealer network in South Africa and covered by their factory warranty. The local concept was intended to increase vehicle sales to a racing mad South African public by taking advantage of their race-track successes in local "Sprint" and "Endurance" races. Production About 400–500 vehicles seem to have been sold. As well, many hundreds of performance kits to upgrade the standard vehicles were sold over their parts counters.
Performance  These Alconis produced 68 bhp (net), offered 0–60 mph in 11.9sec, top speed of 97 mph, (according to "Car" magazine road test) and sold for about 10% over the standard car. South African Motorsport Renault (Africa) managed good sales penetration increases amongst the madly motor sport minded South African public with their active racing and rallying participation and sponsorship program, offering a multitude of Gordini and Alconi race components. During the years 1963–69 when the R8 model was sold, they won seven overall 1st Saloon car to finish trophies in the annual Kyalami International 9-hour Endurance Races (3 x 4th overall, 1 x 5th overall, 3 x 9th overall).
The competition included many international purpose built sports cars (Ferraris, Jaguars, Porsches, Cobras). Also three overall wins in the annual International Total Lourenco Marques Rallies. Motorsport Achievements in South Africa Between the years 1963 and 1969, South African motor sport sponsorship by Renault (Africa) Ltd and private driver enthusiasm resulted in class and endurance race and rally domination (including frequent wins) by the R8 and Gordini R8, which enhanced market penetration and popularity of the vehicles The car also won the Rallye Côte d'Ivoire and Rallye du Maroc. Motorsport Achievements in Australia Bob Watson won the 1970 Australian Rally Championship and was runner-up in the 1971 Australian Rally Championship driving an R8 Gordini.
R8s also competed in the 1966 Australian Touring Car Championship, 1979 Australian Rallycross Championship, 1973 Hardie-Ferodo 1000 and 1965 International 6 Hour Touring Car Race. In 1963 the Renault 8 was awarded Wheels Magazine Australia's Car of the Year Award. See also Alfa Romeo Tipo 103 – An influential prototype car constructed in 1960, approximately two years before the June 1962 launch of the Renault 8, and with similar styling.
References  External links   Team RedBackRacing in Australia Pages: Renault 8 Gordini and Renault Sport Spider  Réné's Renault Pages: Renault 8 and 10  El Rincón del Renault 8  Renault 10: Reconstrucción de un Clásico Desconocido  External links (South Africa)  Renault 10 en Colombia The Renault Alconi story (South African) "Car" magazine 1967 road tests the 'new' Renault 10 Alconi "Cars in Action" Magazine, August 2010: ...Renaults answer was to team up and produce the highly successful Alconi...the South African homologated Alconi was winning some races outright... "Shell" bulletin on the contents of the R8 Alconi kit, with fitting instructions Photographs of Renault 8 & 10s, Alconis and Gordinis "Cars in Action" Magazine, August 2010: History of Saloon Car Racing in South Africa "Cars in Action" Magazine, December 2010: Alconi, the supercharged sensation Renault classic cars discussion forum Renault Alconi Collector cars for sale & wanted in South Africa  8 Category:Rear-engined vehicles Category:Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Category:Compact cars Category:Sports sedans Category:Sedans Category:Cars introduced in 1962 Category:Touring cars Category:Rally cars
The Beagle Husky (originally, the Auster D.5 and initially designated the Auster J/1Y) was a three-seat British light aircraft built in the 1960s which originated from a Portuguese Air Force requirement for a liaison/training aircraft, a development of the Auster Alpha. It first flew as an Auster design in January 1960, but that company was taken over by Beagle Aircraft in September that year. It was initially available with a 160 hp Lycoming O-320 engine as the Auster D5/160. Twenty-two D5/160 were built for Portugal by Auster Aircraft at their Rearsby, Leicestershire, factory, in addition to a single D5/180 (the first such aircraft, with a 180 hp Lycoming O-360 engine).
141 sets of components for D5/160s were built by Auster and shipped to Portugal from Rearsby for assembly by the Oficinas Gerais de Material Aeronautico OGMA under licence, and 5 modification kits to bring a D5/160 to D5/180 standard were also sent. The exact number of aircraft completed by OGMA is a point of contention but it is probable that 138 D.5 aircraft were completed with one kit becoming a test airframe and two kits remaining as a source of spares. The Portuguese Air Museum preserves two; one in flying condition. A further three Auster D5/160 were sold to the Congo.
Subsequently, Beagle developed the D5/160 as the "Beagle D5/180 Husky" with a 180 hp Lycoming O-360 engine, the first being G-ASBV first flown in 1962. Only 15 Huskys were made before production was discontinued in 1967. Since each aircraft was made to order to each customer's specification and there was no standard design of a Beagle Husky, production was accordingly uneconomic.. It was estimated that the cost of each Husky was £6,045, which was £1,747 more than the UK market price. The last Husky, OE-DEW (c/n 3691), was the last of approximately 3868 aeroplanes in the Auster line to be produced by Auster/Beagle; this aircraft is now back in the UK, registered G-AXBF and is still airworthy (2018).
Later a few more airframes of a variety of Auster models were completed from spare fuselages or converted privately. The designation "A.113" was only a design number and was not used in promotional material or in aircraft registrations with the Civil Aviation Authority where the term 'D5/180' was preferred. Additionally, the name Husky was only given to this version and not to the D5/160. Operators  Burma Air Force  Portuguese Air Force  Royal Thai Police Thai Border Patrol Police - One aircraft only. Royal Air Force – One Beagle Husky (XW635) was won by Sir Billy Butlin in a raffle and presented to the RAF's Air Training Corps in 1969.
It flew with No. 5 Air Experience Flight, flying air cadets from Cambridge Airport until it was retired in 1989 and sold to a civilian user. Specifications (D.5/160)  See also  References  Bibliography         Husky Category:Single-engined tractor aircraft Category:1960s British civil utility aircraft Category:Auster aircraft Category:High-wing aircraft Category:Glider tugs Category:Aircraft first flown in 1960
A hate crime (also known as a bias-motivated crime or bias crime) is a prejudice-motivated crime which occurs when a perpetrator targets a victim because of their membership (or perceived membership) of a certain social group or race. Examples of such groups can include, and are almost exclusively limited to: sex, ethnicity, disability, language, nationality, physical appearance, religion, gender identity or sexual orientation. Non-criminal actions that are motivated by these reasons are often called "bias incidents". "Hate crime" generally refers to criminal acts which are seen to have been motivated by bias against one or more of the social groups listed above, or by bias against their derivatives.
Incidents may involve physical assault, damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or insults, mate crime or offensive graffiti or letters (hate mail). A hate crime law is a law intended to deter bias-motivated violence. Hate crime laws are distinct from laws against hate speech: hate crime laws enhance the penalties associated with conduct which is already criminal under other laws, while hate speech laws criminalize a category of speech. Hate speech laws exist in many countries. In the United States, hate speech laws have been upheld by both the Supreme Court and lower courts, especially in the case of 'fighting' words and other violent speech, but are thought by some to be in conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech.
Hate crimes are only regulated through threats of injury or death. History The term "hate crime" came into common usage in the United States during the 1980s, but it is often used retrospectively in order to describe events which occurred prior to that era. From the Roman persecution of Christians to the Nazi slaughter of Jews, hate crimes were committed by individuals as well as governments long before the term was commonly used. A major part of defining crimes as hate crimes is determining that they have been committed against members of historically oppressed groups. As Europeans began to colonize the world from the 16th century onwards, indigenous peoples in the colonized areas, such as Native Americans increasingly became the targets of bias-motivated intimidation and violence.
During the past two centuries, typical examples of hate crimes in the U.S. include lynchings of African Americans, largely in the South, and lynchings of Mexicans and Chinese in the West; cross burnings in order to intimidate black activists or drive black families out of predominantly white neighborhoods both during and after Reconstruction; assaults on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people; the painting of swastikas on Jewish synagogues; and xenophobic responses to a variety of minority ethnic groups. The verb "to lynch" is attributed to the actions of Charles Lynch, an 18th-century Virginia Quaker. Lynch, other militia officers, and justices of the peace rounded up Tory sympathizers who were given a summary trial at an informal court; sentences which were handed down included whipping, property seizure, coerced pledges of allegiance, and conscription into the military.
Originally, the term referred to the extrajudicial organized but unauthorized punishment of criminals. It later evolved to describe executions which were committed outside "ordinary justice." It is highly associated with white suppression of African Americans in the South, and periods of weak or nonexistent police authority, as in certain frontier areas of the Old West. Psychological effects Hate crimes can have significant and wide-ranging psychological consequences, not only for their direct victims but for others as well. A 1999 U.S. study of lesbian and gay victims of violent hate crimes documented that they experienced higher levels of psychological distress, including symptoms of depression and anxiety, than lesbian and gay victims of comparable crimes which were not motivated by antigay bias.<ref name="Herek et al.
(1999)"></ref> A manual issued by the Attorney-General of the Province of Ontario in Canada lists the following consequences:   Impact on the individual victim psychological and affective disturbances; repercussions on the victim's identity and self-esteem; both reinforced by a specific hate crime's degree of violence, which is usually stronger than that of a common crime. Effect on the targeted group generalized terror in the group to which the victim belongs, inspiring feelings of vulnerability among its other members, who could be the next hate crime victims. Effect on other vulnerable groups ominous effects on minority groups or on groups that identify themselves with the targeted group, especially when the referred hate is based on an ideology or a doctrine that preaches simultaneously against several groups.
Effect on the community as a whole divisions and factionalism arising in response to hate crimes are particularly damaging to multicultural societies. Hate crime victims can also develop depression and psychological trauma.<ref name="Cox et al. (2012)"></ref>  A review of European and American research indicates that terrorist bombings cause Islamophobia and hate crimes to flare up but, in calmer times, they subside again, although to a relatively high level. Terrorist's most persuasive message is that of fear and fear, a primary and strong emotion, increases risk estimates and has distortive effects on the perception of ordinary Muslims. Widespread Islamophobic prejudice seems to contribute to anti-Muslim hate crimes, but indirectly: terrorist attacks and intensified Islamophobic prejudice serve as a window of opportunity for extremist groups and networks.
Motivation  The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation conducted a study into the motives for hate crimes and found four motives:  Thrill-seeking - perpetrators engage in hate crimes for excitement and drama. There is often no greater purpose behind the crimes, with victims being vulnerable because they have an ethnic, religious, sexual or gender background that differs from their attackers. While the actual animosity present in such a crime can be quite low, thrill-seeking crimes were determined to often be dangerous, with 70% of thrill-seeking hate crimes studied involving physical attacks. Defensive - perpetrators engage in hate crimes out of a belief they are protecting their communities.
These are often triggered by a certain background event. Perpetrators believe society supports their actions but is too afraid to act and thus they believe they have communal assent in their actions. Retaliatory - perpetrators engage in hate crimes out of a desire for revenge. This can be in response to personal slights, other hate crimes or terrorism. The "avengers" target members of a group whom they believe committed the original crime, even if the victims had nothing to do with it. These kinds of hate crimes are a common occurrence after terrorist attacks. Mission offenders - perpetrators engage in hate crimes out of ideological reasons.
They consider themselves to be crusaders, often for a religious or racial cause. They will often write complex explanations for their views and target symbolically important sites while trying to maximize damage. They believe that there is no other way to accomplish their goals, which they consider to be justification for excessive violence against innocents. This kind of hate crime often overlaps with terrorism and was considered by the FBI to be both the rarest and deadliest form of hate crime. The categories of hate crimes can often overlap and it can be unclear which category a particular offence should fit in to.
Laws Hate crime laws generally fall into one of several categories:  laws defining specific bias-motivated acts as distinct crimes;  criminal penalty-enhancement laws;  laws creating a distinct civil cause of action for hate crimes; and  laws requiring administrative agencies to collect hate crime statistics. Sometimes (as in Bosnia and Herzegovina), the laws focus on war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity with the prohibition against discriminatory action limited to public officials. Eurasia  European Union Since 2002, with an amendment to the Convention on Cybercrime, the European Union mandates individual states to punish as a crime hate speech done through the internet.
Andorra Discriminatory acts constituting harassment or infringement of a person's dignity on the basis of origin, citizenship, race, religion, or gender (Penal Code Article 313). Courts have cited bias-based motivation in delivering sentences, but there is no explicit penalty enhancement provision in the Criminal Code. The government does not track hate crime statistics, although they are relatively rare. Armenia Armenia has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes with ethnic, racial, or religious motives (Criminal Code Article 63). Austria Austria has a penalty-enhancement statute for reasons like repeating a crime, being especially cruel, using others' helpless states, playing a leading role in a crime, or committing a crime with racist, xenophobic or especially reprehensible motivation (Penal Code section 33(5)).
Azerbaijan Azerbaijan has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes motivated by racial, national, or religious hatred (Criminal Code Article 61). Murder and infliction of serious bodily injury motivated by racial, religious, national, or ethnic intolerance are distinct crimes (Article 111). Belarus Belarus has a penalty-enhancement statute for crimes motivated by racial, national, and religious hatred and discord. Belgium Belgium's Act of 25 February 2003 ("aimed at combating discrimination and modifying the Act of 15 February 1993 which establishes the Centre for Equal Opportunities and the Fight against Racism") establishes a penalty-enhancement for crimes involving discrimination on the basis of gender, supposed race, color, descent, national or ethnic origin, sexual orientation, civil status, birth, fortune, age, religious or philosophical beliefs, current or future state of health and handicap or physical features.
The Act also "provides for a civil remedy to address discrimination." The Act, along with the Act of 20 January 2003 ("on strengthening legislation against racism"), requires the Centre to collect and publish statistical data on racism and discriminatory crimes. Bosnia and Herzegovina The Criminal Code of Bosnia and Herzegovina (enacted 2003) "contains provisions prohibiting discrimination by public officials on grounds, inter alia, of race, skin colour, national or ethnic background, religion and language and prohibiting the restriction by public officials of the language rights of the citizens in their relations with the authorities (Article 145/1 and 145/2)." Bulgaria Bulgarian criminal law prohibits certain crimes motivated by racism and xenophobia, but a 1999 report by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance found that it does not appear that those provisions "have ever resulted in convictions before the courts in Bulgaria."
Croatia The Croatian Penal Code explicitly defines hate crime in article 89 as "any crime committed out of hatred for someone's race, skin color, sex, sexual orientation, language, religion, political or other belief, national or social background, asset, birth, education, social condition, age, health condition or other attribute". On 1 January 2013, a new Penal Code was introduced with the recognition of a hate crime based on "race, skin color, religion, national or ethnic background, sexual orientation or gender identity". Czech Republic The Czech legislation finds its constitutional basis in the principles of equality and non-discrimination contained in the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms.
From there, we can trace two basic lines of protection against hate-motivated incidents: one passes through criminal law, the other through civil law. The current Czech criminal legislation has implications both for decisions about guilt (affecting the decision whether to find a defendant guilty or not guilty) and decisions concerning sentencing (affecting the extent of the punishment imposed). It has three levels, to wit:  a circumstance determining whether an act is a crime – hate motivation is included in the basic constituent elements. If hate motivation is not proven, a conviction for a hate crime is not possible. a circumstance determining the imposition of a higher penalty – hate motivation is included in the qualified constituent elements for some types of crimes (murder, bodily harm).
If hate motivation is not proven, the penalty is imposed according to the scale specified for the basic constituent elements of the crime. general aggravating circumstance – the court is obligated to take the hate motivation into account as a general aggravating circumstance and determines the amount of penalty to impose. Nevertheless, it is not possible to add together a general aggravating circumstance and a circumstance determining the imposition of a higher penalty. (see Annex for details) Current criminal legislation does not provide for special penalties for acts that target another by reason of his sexual orientation, age or health status.
Only the constituent elements of the criminal offence of Incitement to hatred towards a group of persons or to the curtailment of their rights and freedoms and general aggravating circumstances include attacking a so-called different group of people. Such a group of people can then, of course, be also defined by sexual orientation, age or health status. A certain disparity has thus been created between, on the one hand, those groups of people who are victimized by reason of their skin color, faith, nationality, ethnicity or political persuasion and enjoy increased protection, and, on the other hand, those groups that are victimized by reason of their sexual orientation, age or health status and are not granted increased protection.
This gap in protection against attacks motivated by the victim's sexual orientation, age or health status cannot be successfully bridged by interpretation. Interpretation by analogy is inadmissible in criminal law, sanctionable motivations being exhaustively enumerated. Denmark Although Danish law does not include explicit hate crime provisions, "section 80(1) of the Criminal Code instructs courts to take into account the gravity of the offence and the offender's motive when meting out penalty, and therefore to attach importance to the racist motive of crimes in determining sentence." In recent years judges have used this provision to increase sentences on the basis of racist motives.
Since 1992, the Danish Civil Security Service (PET) has released statistics on crimes with apparent racist motivation. Estonia Under section 151 of the Criminal Code of Estonia of 6 June 2001, which entered into force on 1 September 2002, with amendments and supplements and as amended by the Law of 8 December 2011, "activities which publicly incite to hatred, violence or discrimination on the basis of nationality, race, colour, sex, language, origin, religion, sexual orientation, political opinion, or financial or social status, if this results in danger to the life, health or property of a person, are punishable by a fine of up to 300 fine units or by detention".
Finland Finnish Criminal Code 515/2003 (enacted January 31, 2003) makes "committing a crime against a person, because of his national, racial, ethnical or equivalent group" an aggravating circumstance in sentencing. In addition, ethnic agitation () is criminalized and carries a fine or a prison sentence of not more than two years. The prosecution need not prove that an actual danger to an ethnic group is caused but only that malicious message is conveyed. A more aggravated hate crime, warmongering (), carries a prison sentence of one to ten years. However, in case of warmongering, the prosecution must prove an overt act that evidently increases the risk that Finland is involved in a war or becomes a target for a military operation.
The act in question may consist of  illegal violence directed against a foreign country or its citizens,  systematic dissemination of false information on Finnish foreign policy or defense  public influence on the public opinion towards a pro-war viewpoint or  public suggestion that a foreign country or Finland should engage in an aggressive act. Nepal  France In 2003, France enacted penalty-enhancement hate crime laws for crimes motivated by bias against the victim's actual or perceived ethnicity, nation, race, religion, or sexual orientation. The penalties for murder were raised from 30 years (for non-hate crimes) to life imprisonment (for hate crimes), and the penalties for violent attacks leading to permanent disability were raised from 10 years (for non-hate crimes) to 15 years (for hate crimes).
Georgia "There is no general provision in Georgian law for racist motivation to be considered an aggravating circumstance in prosecutions of ordinary offenses. Certain crimes involving racist motivation are, however, defined as specific offenses in the Georgian Criminal Code of 1999, including murder motivated by racial, religious, national or ethnic intolerance (article 109); infliction of serious injuries motivated by racial, religious, national or ethnic intolerance (article 117); and torture motivated by racial, religious, national or ethnic intolerance (article 126). ECRI reported no knowledge of cases in which this law has been enforced. There is no systematic monitoring or data collection on discrimination in Georgia."
Germany The German Criminal Code does not have hate crime legislation, instead, it criminalizes hate speech under a number of different laws, including Volksverhetzung. In the German legal framework motivation is not taken into account while identifying the element of the offence. However, within the sentencing procedure the judge can define certain principles for determining punishment. In section 46 of the German Criminal Code it is stated that "the motives and aims of the perpetrator; the state of mind reflected in the act and the willfulness involved in its commission." can be taken into consideration when determining the punishment; under this statute, hate and bias have been taken into consideration in sentencing in past cases.
Hate crimes are not specifically tracked by German police, but have been studied separately: a recently published EU "Report on Racism" finds that racially motivated attacks are frequent in Germany, identifying 18,142 incidences for 2006, of which 17,597 were motivated by right wing ideologies, both about a 14% year-by-year increase. Relative to the size of the population, this represents an eightfold higher rate of hate crimes than reported in the US during the same period. Awareness of hate crimes and right-wing extremism in Germany remains low.
Greece Article Law 927/1979 "Section 1,1 penalises incitement to discrimination, hatred or violence towards individuals or groups because of their racial, national or religious origin, through public written or oral expressions; Section 1,2 prohibits the establishment of, and membership in, organisations which organise propaganda and activities aimed at racial discrimination; Section 2 punishes public expression of offensive ideas; Section 3 penalises the act of refusing, in the exercise of one’s occupation, to sell a commodity or to supply a service on racial grounds." Public prosecutors may press charges even if the victim does not file a complaint. However, as of 2003, no convictions had been attained under the law.
Hungary Violent action, cruelty, and coercion by threat made on the basis of the victim's actual or perceived national, ethnic, religious status or membership in a particular social group are punishable under article 174/B of the Hungarian Criminal Code. This article was added to the Code in 1996. Iceland Section 233a of the Icelandic Penal Code states "Anyone who in a ridiculing, slanderous, insulting, threatening or any other manner publicly abuses a person or a group of people on the basis of their nationality, skin colour, race, religion or sexual orientation, shall be fined or jailed for up to two years."
India  India does not have any specific laws governing hate crimes in general other than hate speech which is covered under the Indian Penal Code. Ireland "The Prohibition of Incitement to Hatred Act 1989" makes it an offense to incite hatred against any group of persons on account of their race, color, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, ethnic or national origins, or membership of the Traveller community, an indigenous minority group." Ireland does not systematically collect hate crime data. Italy Italian criminal law, at Section 3 of Law No. 205/1993, the so-called Legge Mancino (Mancino law), contains a penalty-enhancement provision for all crimes motivated by racial, sex/gender, ethnic, national, or religious bias.
Kazakhstan In Kazakhstan, there are constitutional provisions prohibiting propaganda promoting racial or ethnic superiority. Kyrgyzstan In Kyrgyzstan, "the Constitution of the State party prohibits any kind of discrimination on grounds of origin, sex, race, nationality, language, faith, political or religious convictions or any other personal or social trait or circumstance, and that the prohibition against racial discrimination is also included in other legislation, such as the Civil, Penal and Labour Codes." Article 299 of the Criminal Code defines incitement to national, racist, or religious hatred as a specific offense. This article has been used in political trials of suspected members of the banned organization Hizb-ut-Tahrir.
Russia Article 29 of Constitution of the Russian Federation bans incitement to riot for the sake of stirring societal, racial, ethnic, and religious hatred as well as the promotion of the superiority of the same. Article 282 of the Criminal code further includes protections against incitement of hatred (including gender) via various means of communication, instilling criminal penalties including fines and imprisonment. Spain Article 22(4) of the Spanish Penal Code includes a penalty-enhancement provision for crimes motivated by bias against the victim's ideology, beliefs, religion, ethnicity, race, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, illness or disability. On May 14, 2019, the Spanish Attorney General distributed a circular instructing on the interpretation of hate crime law.
This new interpretation includes nazis as a collective that can be protected under this law. Sweden Article 29 of the Swedish Penal Code includes a penalty-enhancement provision for crimes motivated by bias against the victim's race, color, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, or "other similar circumstance" of the victim. Ukraine  I. "Constitution of Ukraine" :  The most important law of the Ukraine country : the "Constitution of Ukraine" guarantees protection against Hate crime :  "Constitution of Ukraine"  :  Article 10: "In Ukraine, free development, use and protection of Russian and other languages of ethnic minorities of Ukraine are guaranteed". Article 11: "The State shall promote the development of the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious identity of all indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities of Ukraine".
Article 24 :"There can be no privileges or restrictions on the grounds of race, color of the skin, political, religious or other beliefs, sex, ethnic or social origin, property status, place of residence, language or other grounds". II. "CRIMINAL CODEX OF UKRAINE" :  In Ukraine, all criminal punishments for crimes committed under the law are required to be registered in only one law, it is the only one: "CRIMINAL CODEX OF UKRAINE"  The crimes committed because of hatred, are Hate crimes and thus, they reinforce the punishment in many articles of the criminal law. There are also separate articles on punishment for a Hate crime.
"CRIMINAL CODEX OF UKRAINE"  :  Article 161: "Violations of equality of citizens depending on their race, ethnicity, religious beliefs, disability and other grounds  1.
Intentional acts aimed at incitement to ethnic, racial or religious hatred and violence, to demean the ethnic honor and dignity, or to repulse citizens' feelings due to their religious beliefs, as well as direct or indirect restriction of rights or the establishment of direct or indirect privileges of citizens on the grounds of race, color, political, religious or other beliefs, sex, disability, ethnic or social origin, property status, place of residence, language or other grounds"(Maximum criminal sentence of up to 8 years in prison)  Article 300 : "Importation, manufacture or distribution of literature and other media promoting a cult of violence and cruelty, racial, ethnic or religious intolerance and discrimination" (Maximum criminal sentence of up to 5 years in prison)  United Kingdom For England, Wales, and Scotland, the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 makes hateful behaviour towards a victim based on the victim's membership (or presumed membership) in a racial group or a religious group an aggravation in sentencing for specified crimes.
The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 (c. 24) amended sections of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998. For Northern Ireland, Public Order (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (S.I. 1987/463 (N.I. 7)) serves the same purpose. A "racial group" is a group of persons defined by reference to race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origins. A "religious group" is a group of persons defined by reference to religious belief or lack of religious belief. The specified crimes are assault, criminal damage, offences under the Public Order Act 1986, and offences under the Protection from Harassment Act 1997.
Sections 145 and 146 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 require a court to consider whether a crime which is not specified by the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 is racially or religiously aggravated, and to consider whether the following circumstances were pertinent to the crime: (a) that, at the time of committing the offence, or immediately before or after doing so, the offender demonstrated towards the victim of the offence hostility based on— (i) the sexual orientation (or presumed sexual orientation) of the victim, or (ii) a disability (or presumed disability) of the victim, or (b) that the offence is motivated (wholly or partly)— (i) by hostility towards persons who are of a particular sexual orientation, or (ii) by hostility towards persons who have a disability or a particular disability.
The Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) reported in 2013 that there are an average of 278,000 hate crimes a year with 40% being reported according to a victims survey, although police records only identified around 43,000 hate crimes a year. It was widely reported that police recorded a 57% increase in hate crime complaints in the four days following the UK's European Union membership referendum, however a press release from the National Police Chief's Council stated that "this should not be read as a national increase in hate crime of 57 percent". In 2013, Greater Manchester Police began recording attacks on goths, punks and other alternative culture groups as hate crimes.
On December 4, 2013 Essex Police launched the ‘Stop the Hate’ initiative as part of a concerted effort to find new ways to tackle hate crime in Essex. The launch was marked by a conference in Chelmsford, hosted by Chief Constable Stephen Kavanagh, which brought together 220 delegates from a range of partner organizations involved in the field. The theme of the conference was ‘Report it to Sort it’ and the emphasis was on encouraging people to tell police if they have been a victim of hate crime, whether it be based on race, religion, sexual orientation, transgender identity or disability.
Crown Prosecution Service guidance issued on 21 August 2017 stated that online hate crimes should be treated as seriously as offences in person. Perhaps the most high-profile hate crime in modern Britain occurred in Eltham, London, on 24 April 1993, when 18-year-old black student Stephen Lawrence was stabbed to death in an attack by a gang of white youths. Two white teenagers were later charged with the murder, and at least three other suspects were mentioned in the national media, but the charges against them were dropped within three months after the Crown Prosecution Service concluded that there was insufficient evidence to prosecute.
However, a change in the law a decade later allowed a suspect to be charged with a crime twice if new evidence emerged after the original charges were dropped or a "not guilty" verdict was delivered in court. Gary Dobson, who had been charged with the murder in the initial 1993 investigation, was found guilty of Stephen Lawrence's murder in January 2012 and sentenced to life imprisonment, as was David Norris, who had not been charged in 1993. A third suspect, Luke Knight, had been charged in 1993 but was not charged when the case came to court nearly 20 years later.
Scotland Under Scottish Common law the courts can take any aggravating factor into account when sentencing someone found guilty of an offence. There is legislation dealing with the offences of incitement of racial hatred, racially aggravated harassment, prejudice relating to religious beliefs, disability, sexual orientation, and transgender identity. A Scottish Executive working group examined the issue of hate crime and ways of combating crime motivated by social prejudice, reporting in 2004. Its main recommendations were not implemented, but in their manifestos for the 2007 Scottish Parliament election several political parties included commitments to legislate in this area, including the Scottish National Party who now form the Scottish Government.
The Offences (Aggravation by Prejudice) (Scotland) Bill was introduced on 19 May 2008 by Patrick Harvie MSP,  having been prepared with support from the Scottish Government, and was passed unanimously by the parliament on 3 June 2009. Eurasian countries with no hate crime laws  Albania, Cyprus, San Marino, Slovenia and Turkey have no hate crime laws. North America  Canada "In Canada the legal definition of a hate crime can be found in sections 318 and 319 of the Criminal Code". In 1996 the federal government amended a section of the Criminal Code that pertains to sentencing. Specifically, section 718.2.
The section states (with regard to the hate crime):  A court that imposes a sentence shall also take into consideration the following principles:(a) a sentence should be increased or reduced to account for any relevant aggravating or mitigating circumstances relating to the offence or the offender, and, without limiting the generality of the foregoing,(i) evidence that the offence was motivated by bias, prejudice or hate based on race, national or ethnic origin, language, colour, religion, sex, age, mental or physical disability, sexual orientation, or any other similar factor, . . . shall be deemed to be aggravating circumstances. ''A vast majority (84 per cent) of hate crime perpetrators were "male, with an average age of just under 30.
Less than 10 of those accused had criminal records, and less than 5 per cent had previous hate crime involvement (ibid O’Grady 2010 page 163.)." "Only 4 percent of hate crimes were linked to an organized or extremist group (Silver et al., 2004)." As of 2004, Jewish people were the largest ethnic group targeted by hate crimes, followed by Black people, Muslims, South Asians, and homosexuals (Silver et al., 2004). During the Nazi regime, anti-Semitism was a cause of hate-related violence in Canada. For example, on August 16, 1933 there was a baseball game in Toronto and one team was made up of mostly Jewish players.
At the end of the game, a group of Nazi sympathizers unfolded a Swastika flag and shouted ‘Heil Hitler’. That event erupted into a brawl that had Jews and Italians against Anglo Canadians and the brawl went on for hours. The first time someone was charged with hate speech over the internet occurred on 27 March 1996. "A Winnipeg teenager was arrested by the police for sending an email to a local political activist that contained the message ‘Death to homosexuals’ it's prescribed in the Bible! Better watch out next Gay Pride Week.’ (Nairne, 1996)." United States  Hate crime laws have a long history in the United States.
The first hate crime laws were passed after the American Civil War, beginning with the Civil Rights Act of 1871, in order to combat the growing number of racially motivated crimes which were being committed by the Reconstruction era Ku Klux Klan. The modern era of hate-crime legislation began in 1968 with the passage of federal statute, 18 U.S. 245, part of the Civil Rights Act which made it illegal to "by force or by threat of force, injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone who is engaged in six specified protected activities, by reason of their race, color, religion, or national origin."
However, "The prosecution of such crimes must be certified by the U.S. attorney general.". The first state hate-crime statute, California's Section 190.2, was passed in 1978 and it provided penalty enhancements in cases when murders were motivated by prejudice against four "protected status" categories: race, religion, color, and national origin. Washington included ancestry in a statute which was passed in 1981. Alaska included creed and sex in 1982 and later disability, sexual orientation, and ethnicity. In the 1990s some state laws began to include age, marital status, membership in the armed forces, and membership in civil rights organizations. Criminal acts which could be considered hate crimes in various states included aggravated assault, assault and battery, vandalism, rape, threats and intimidation, arson, trespassing, stalking, and various "lesser" acts until in 1987 California state legislation included all crimes as possible hate crimes.
Defined in the 1999 National Crime Victim Survey, "A hate crime is a criminal offence. In the United States, federal prosecution is possible for hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's race, religion, or nation origin when engaging in a federally protected activity." In 2009, the Matthew Shepard Act added actual or perceived gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, and disability to the federal definition, and dropped the prerequisite that the victim be engaging in a federally protected activity. Forty-five states and the District of Columbia have statutes criminalizing various types of hate crimes. Thirty-one states and the District of Columbia have statutes creating a civil cause of action in addition to the criminal penalty for similar acts.
Twenty-seven states and the District of Columbia have statutes requiring the state to collect hate crime statistics. According to the FBI Hate Crime Statistics report for 2006, hate crimes increased nearly 8% nationwide, with a total of 7,722 incidents and 9,080 offences reported by participating law enforcement agencies. Of the 5,449 crimes against persons, 46% were classified as intimidation and 32% as simple assaults. 81% of the 3,593 crimes against property were acts of vandalism or destruction. However, according to the FBI Hate Crime Statistics for 2007, the number of hate crimes decreased to 7,624 incidents reported by participating law enforcement agencies.
These incidents included 9 murders and 2 rapes(out of the almost 17,000 murders and 90,000 forcible rapes committed in the U.S. in 2007). Attorney General Eric Holder said in June 2009 that recent killings show the need for a tougher U.S. hate crimes law to stop "violence masquerading as political activism". In 2009, the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Education Fund published a report revealing that 33% of hate crime offenders were under the age of 18, while 29% were between the ages of 18 and 24. The 2011 hate crime statistics show 46.9% were motivated by race and 20.8% by sexual orientation.
In 2015, the Hate Crimes Statistics report identified 5,818 single-bias incidents involving 6,837 offenses, 7,121 victims, and 5,475 known offenders  In 2017, the FBI released new data showing a 17% increase in hate crimes between 2016 and 2017. Prosecutions of hate crimes have been difficult in the United States. Recently, state governments have attempted to re-investigate and re-try past hate crimes. One notable example was Mississippi's decision in 1990 to retry Byron De La Beckwith for the murder of Medgar Evers, a prominent figure in the NAACP. This was the first time in U.S. history that an unresolved civil rights case was re-opened.
De La Beckwith, a member of the Ku Klux Klan, was tried for the murder on two previous occasions, resulting in hung juries. A mixed race jury found Beckwith guilty of murder. He was sentenced to life in prison in 1994. According to a November 2016 report issued by the FBI hate crime statistics are on the rise in the United States. The number of hate crimes increased from 5,850 in 2015, to 6,121 hate crime incidents in 2016, an increase of 4.6 percent. Khalid Jabara-Heather Heyer National Opposition to Hate, Assault, and Threats to Equality Act(NO HATE), which was first introduced in 2017, was reintroduced in June 2019 as a response to anti-LGBTQ, anti-Muslim and anti-Semitic attacks to improve hate crime reporting and expand support for victims.
The bill will fund state hate crime hotlines, support expansion of reporting and training programs in law enforcement agencies. Victims in the United States One of the largest waves of hate crimes in the United States took place during the civil rights movement in the 1960s. Both violence and threats of violence were common against African Americans, and hundreds of lives were lost due to such acts. Members of this social class faced violence from groups such as the Ku Klux Klan as well as violence from individuals who were committed to maintaining segregation. At the time, civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. and their supporters fought hard for the right of African Americans to vote as well as for equality in their everyday lives.
African Americans have been the target of hate crimes since the Civil War, and the humiliation of this social class was also desired by many Anti-black individuals. Other frequently reported bias motivations were bias against a religion, bias against a particular sexual orientation, and bias against a particular ethnicity/national origin. At times, these bias motivations overlapped, because violence can be both anti-gay and anti-black, for example. Analysts have compared groups in terms of the per capita rate of hate crimes committed against them, to allow for differing populations. Overall, the total number of hate crimes committed since the first hate crime bill was passed in 1997 is 86,582.
David Ray Hate Crimes Prevention Act  Contentious Case:  On 29 January 2019, Chicago police announced that they were investigating a suspected racist and homophobic attack on actor Jussie Smollett. However, on 20 February 2019, Jessie Smollett had been "classified as a suspect in a criminal investigation by #ChicagoPolice for filling a false police report (Class 4 felony). This charges he faced were cleared on the 26th of March however after spurring much debate about the validity and impact of alleged attack. Notably, "Chicago Police and the city's mayor stand by their case against Jussie Smollet." Among the groups currently mentioned in the Hate Crimes Statistics Act, the largest number of hate crimes are committed against African Americans.
During the Civil Rights Movement, some of the most notorious hate crimes included the 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., the 1964 murders of Charles Moore and Henry Dee, the 1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, the 1955 murder of Emmett Till, as well as the burning of crosses, churches, Jewish synagogues and other places of worship of minority religions. Such acts began to take place more frequently after the racial integration of many schools and public facilities. High-profile murders targeting victims based on their sexual orientation have prompted the passage of hate crimes legislation, notably the cases of Sean W. Kennedy and Matthew Shepard.
Kennedy's murder was mentioned by Senator Gordon Smith in a speech on the floor of the US Senate while he advocated such legislation. The Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act was signed into law in 2009. It included sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, the disabled, and military personnel and their family members.https://www.justice.gov/crt/hate-crime-laws This is the first all-inclusive bill ever passed in the United States, taking 45 years to complete. Gender-based crimes may also be considered hate crimes. This view would designate rape and domestic violence, as well as non-interpersonal violence against women such as the École Polytechnique massacre in Quebec, as hate crimes.
In May 2018, ProPublica reviewed police reports for 58 cases of purported anti-heterosexual hate crimes. ProPublica found that about half of the cases were anti-LGBT hate crimes that had been miscategorized, and that the rest were motivated by hate towards Jews, blacks or women or that there was no element of a hate crime at all. ProPublica found not a single case of a hate crime spurred by anti-heterosexual bias. South America  Brazil In Brazil, hate crime laws focus on racism, racial injury, and other special bias-motivated crimes such as, for example, murder by death squads and genocide on the grounds of nationality, ethnicity, race or religion.
Murder by death squads and genocide are legally classified as "hideous crimes" (crimes hediondos in Portuguese). The crimes of racism and racial injury, although similar, are enforced slightly differently. Article 140, 3rd paragraph, of the Penal Code establishes a harsher penalty, from a minimum of 1 year to a maximum of 3 years, for injuries motivated by "elements referring to race, color, ethnicity, religion, origin, or the condition of being an aged or disabled person". On the other side, Law 7716/1989 covers "crimes resulting from discrimination or prejudice on the grounds of race, color, ethnicity, religion, or national origin". In addition, the Brazilian Constitution defines as a "fundamental goal of the Republic" (Article 3rd, clause IV) "to promote the well-being of all, with no prejudice as to origin, race, sex, color, age, and any other forms of discrimination".
Chile In 2012, the Anti-discrimination law amended the Criminal Code adding a new aggravating circumstance of criminal responsibility, as follows: "Committing or participating in a crime motivated by ideology, political opinion, religion or beliefs of the victim; nation, race, ethnic or social group; sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, age, affiliation, personal appearance or suffering from illness or disability." Middle East  Israel is the only country in the Middle East that has hate crime laws. Hate crime, as passed by the Israeli Knesset (Parliament), is defined as crime for reason of race, religion, gender and sexual orientation. Support for and opposition to hate crime laws  Support  Justifications for harsher punishments for hate crimes focus on the notion that hate crimes cause greater individual and societal harm.
It is said that, when the core of a person's identity is attacked, the degradation and dehumanization is especially severe, and additional emotional and physiological problems are likely to result. Society then, in turn, can suffer from the disempowerment of a group of people. Furthermore, it is asserted that the chances for retaliatory crimes are greater when a hate crime has been committed. The riots in Los Angeles, California that followed the beating of Rodney King, a Black motorist, by a group of White police officers are cited as support for this argument. The beating of white truck driver Reginald Denny by black rioters during the same riot is also an example that supports this argument.
In Wisconsin v. Mitchell, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously found that penalty-enhancement hate crime statutes do not conflict with free speech rights, because they do not punish an individual for exercising freedom of expression; rather, they allow courts to consider motive when sentencing a criminal for conduct which is not protected by the First Amendment. Whilst in the case of Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire the court defined "fighting words" as "those which by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of the peace." Opposition The U.S. Supreme Court unanimously found the St. Paul Bias-Motivated Crime Ordinance amounted to viewpoint-based discrimination in conflict with rights of free speech, because it selectively criminalized bias-motivated speech or symbolic speech for disfavored topics while permitting such speech for other topics.
Many critics further assert that it conflicts with an even more fundamental right: free thought. The claim is that hate-crime legislation effectively makes certain ideas or beliefs, including religious ones, illegal, in other words, thought crimes.Sources: Heidi Hurd argues that hate crimes criminalize certain dispositions yet do not show why hate is a morally worse disposition for a crime than one motivated by jealousy, greed, sadism or vengeance or why hatred and bias are uniquely responsive to criminal sanction compared to other motivations. Hurd argues that whether or not a disposition is worse than another is case sensitive and thus it is difficult to argue that some motivations are categorically worse than others.
In their book Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics, James B. Jacobs and Kimberly Potter criticize hate crime legislation for exacerbating conflicts between groups. They assert that by defining crimes as being committed by one group against another, rather than as being committed by individuals against their society, the labeling of crimes as "hate crimes" causes groups to feel persecuted by one another, and that this impression of persecution can incite a backlash and thus lead to an actual increase in crime. Jacobs and Potter also argued that hate crime legislation can end up only covering the victimization of some groups rather than all, which is a form of discrimination itself and that attempts to remedy this by making all identifiable groups covered by hate crime protection thus make hate crimes co-terminus with generic criminal law.
The authors also suggest that arguments which attempt to portray hate crimes as worse than normal crimes because they spread fear in a community are unsatisfactory, as normal criminal acts can also spread fear yet only hate crimes are singled out. Indeed, it has been argued that victims have varied reactions to hate crimes, so it is not necessarily true that hate crimes are regarded as more harmful than other crimes. Heidi Hurd argues that hate crime represents an effort by the state to encourage a certain moral character in its citizen and thus represents the view that the instillation of virtue and the elimination of vice are legitimate state goals, which she argues is a contradiction of the principles of liberalism.
Hurd also argues that increasing punishment for an offence because the perpetrator was motivated by hate compared to some other motivation means that the justice systems is treating the same crime differently, even though treating like cases alike is a cornerstone of criminal justice. Some have argued hate crime laws bring the law into disrepute and further divide society, as groups apply to have their critics silenced. American forensic psychologist Karen Franklin said that the term hate crime'' is somewhat misleading since it assumes there is a hateful motivation which is not present in many occasions; in her view, laws to punish people who commit hate crimes may not be the best remedy for preventing them because the threat of future punishment does not usually deter such criminal acts.
Some on the political left have been critical of hate crime laws for expanding the criminal justice system and dealing with violence against minority groups through punitive measures. See also  Bashing (pejorative)  Communal violence  Disability hate crime  Documenting Hate  Fighting Discrimination  Hate group  Mass racial violence in the United States  Racial hoax  Racism in the United States  Thoughtcrime  Violence against LGBT people  References  External links    Hate crimes information, by Dr. Gregory Herek  Alexander Verkhovsky Criminal Law on Hate Crime, Incitement to Hatred and Hate Speech in OSCE Participating States – The Hague: SOVA Center, 2016 - 136 pages. Hate Crime Survey, annual Human Rights First report on the prevalence of hate crimes in the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe region.
Hate Crime Statistics, annual FBI/U.S. Department of Justice report on the prevalence of hate crimes in the United States. Required by the Hate Crime Statistics Act. A Policymaker's Guide to Hate Crimes, a publication by the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, part of the U.S. Department of Justice. Many parts of this article have been adapted from this document. Tolerance.org, a web project sponsored by the Southern Poverty Law Center  Peabody, Michael "Thought & Crime," Liberty Magazine, March/April 2008, review of recently proposed hate crime legislation and criminal intent issues. "Hate Crime." Oxford Bibliographies Online: Criminology. OSCE Hate Crime Reporting website    Category:Abuse Category:LGBT rights by issue Category:Discrimination Category:Racism Category:Aggression
The Assam Police is the law enforcement agency for the state of Assam in India. A regular police force was initiated in Assam by the British after the Treaty of Yandaboo to maintain the law and order. It functions under the Department of Home Affairs, Assam. The Headquarters of Assam police is situated at Ulubari in the Capital city Guwahati  Organizational structure  Assam Police comes under direct control of Department of Home Affairs, Government of Assam. The Assam Police is headed by Director General of Police ,the current DGP of Assam Police is Bhaskar Jyoti Mahanta, IPS  Assam Police forces are organized into Police Ranges, headed by an Inspector General of Police (IG) or Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) who control several Police Districts.
The Police District is the fulcrum of state police activity and each Police District of the state is headed by a Superintendent of Police (SP). In many states an SP is assisted by one or more additional SPs and DSPs. Generally a Police district is same as a revenue district of a state. The Police District is divided into Police Sub-Divisions and will be under the command of a Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP) or Subdivision Police Officer (SDPO). The Police Sub-Division is made up of one or more Police Circles, and is under the command of an Inspector of Police, often referred to as the Circle Inspector (CI).
Under the Police Circles are the police stations, generally under the control of a Sub-Inspector (SI). Assam state police force also maintains its own Reserve Armed police force,Special Armed Police and Armed Police) which is responsible for emergencies and crowd control issues. They are generally activated only on orders from the Rank of DIG and higher-level authorities. The armed constabulary do not usually come into contact with the general public unless they are assigned to VIP duty, Insurgency operation, Riot control or to maintain law and order during fairs, festivals, athletic events, elections, and natural disasters. They may also be sent to quell outbreaks of student or labour unrest, organised crime, and communal riots; to maintain key guard posts; and to participate in anti-terrorist operations.
Depending on the type of assignment, the Armed Police force may carry only lathis or lethal weapons. Assam Police also have an Elite Commando Group known as Black Panther equipped with Latest weapons and technology for Anti-Terrorist Operations & VVIP protection. Branches  With the growth and development of the police administration in the post-colonial era, a number of new branches were established to meet the increasing demands of law and order and also of a peculiar situation obtained in the state, such as the large-scale infiltration of the foreign nationals from across the border causing a serious imbalance in the demographic structure of the state and threatening national security.
Some of these branches are:   Bureau of Investigation (Economic Offenses)  Special Branch  Criminal Investigation Dept. (C.I.D)  Assam Police Border Organization  Assam Police Radio Organization  Assam River Police Organization  Directorate of Forensic Science. Assam  Village Defense Organization. Fire & Emergency Services, Assam  Assam Police Highway Patrol Unit, (to be Introduced)   The Assam Police has grown from strength to strength during the last two decade. In 1980 it had a force of 40,290 and at the end of the 20th century its numerical strength stands at 60,721. Battalion and Reserved Forces   Battalion  Assam Police Battalion personnels are engaged in the onerous task of helping the district police in maintaining Law and Order, besides guarding the vital installations round the clock, including Counter Insurgency, Riot control .
They are also engaged in other static security duties. 1st APBN Headquartered at Sibsagar. 2nd APBN Headquartered at Makum Tinisukia. 3rd APBN Headquartered at Jorhat. 4th APBN Headquartered at Guwahati. 5th APBN Headquartered at NC Hills. 6th APBN Headquartered at Cachar. 7th APBN Headquartered at Kokrajhar. 8th APBN Headquartered at Bongaigaon. 9th APBN Headquartered at Nagaon. 10th APBN Headquartered at Guwahati. 11th APBN Headquartered at Dergaon. 12th APBN Headquartered at Sonitpur. 13th APBN Headquartered at North Lakhimpur. 14th APBN Headquartered at Nalbari  IRBN  The raising of CPMF can only meet the regular and increasing demand of the state. It was decided to augment the strengths of the state governments.
It is in this context that I.R. Battalions were raised in Assam with the assistance of the central government. The central government however reserves the first right to call on these battalions as and when required for deployment outside the state. The personnel of the battalion are engaged in both operational as well as law and order duties. 15th AP IRBN headquartered at Karimganj 16th AP IRBN headquartered at Morigaon 19th AP IRBN headquartered at Dibrugarh 20th AP IRBN headquartered at Dhubri 21st AP IRBN headquartered at Hailakandi 22nd AP IRBN headquartered at Dhemaji 23rd AP IRBN headquartered at Karbi Anglong 24th AP IRBN headquartered at Baksa  Task Force  APTF Battalion of Assam Police Task Force was raised as a speciality peace keeping force to tackle the instances of communal and group violence.
The personnel of this force were posted in vulnerable areas and minority pockets, so that any sign of communal disharmony could be quickly countered and prevented from flaring up into a major communal violence. This force has functioned effectively as an emergency task force. 1st APTF headquartered at Goalpara  2nd APTF headquartered at Nagaon  3rd APTF headquartered at Darrang  4th APTF headquartered at Barpeta  ONGC Battalion  25th AP (ONGC) IRBN with temporary Headquartered at Sibsagar for the security of ONGC drilling fields, Employees and ONGC related pickets. Medals & Awards  Officers of Assam Police got many awards and medals for their Outstanding & meritorious Service.
Many officers and men of ASSAM POLICE,laid down their lives in the fight against EXTREMISM since 1986. List of receivers for 2011 President's Police Medal for Gallantry:  Constable Nirmal Chandra Deka. (Posthumously)  Police Medal for gallantry on republic day 2017. Pranab Kumar Gogoi Circle Inspector. Utpal Borah.Sub-Inspector  Anurag Agarwal.SP  Prakash Sonowal.SDPO  Imdad Ali.SDPO  Mahananda Gauria.Constable  Ghanakanta Malakar.Constable  Hemkanta Boro.Constable  Ratneshwar Kalita.Constable  Bapan Roy  Equipment and Vehicles   All the equipment for the Assam Police are manufactured indigenously by the Indian Ordnance Factories , Ministry of Defence, Government of India. Lee–Enfield .303 (Phased out)  1A SLR Rifle  1B1INSAS Rifle. (Present Standard Issue)  Sterling submachine gun.
AKM (For Special Operations) Indian. AK-47 Bulgarian. Heckler & Koch MP5  Bren light machine gun. PK Machine Gun (Limited Quantity). Pistol Auto 9mm 1A (Standard Service Weapon for Officers )  Glock 17 (Special Security only)  Revolver. (Officer's Service weapon. Being phased out)  Vehicles    Toyota Innova  Mahindra Scorpio  Tata Safari (VIP Protection & Convoy)  HM Ambassador (Being phased Out)  Vehicles Used for General Duty purpose. Mahindra Bolero  Maruti Gypsy . Tata Sumo . Tata 407 Trucks . Buses for transportation of troops. Bajaj Pulsar Bikes. (Patrolling)  Royal Enfield  Maruti Omni. (For Guwahati City traffic only)  Mahindra Commander Jeep. (Phased out)  Tata Spacio.
Mahindra Legend  Mahindra Invader  Mahindra Thar  Vajra by VRDE for Riot control  Varun by VRDE for Riot control  Chevrolet Tavera Traffic Interceptor vehicle  Controversies  There are many allegations and court cases of police brutality, custodial death, human rights violations, fake encounter killing, extortion, filing fake cases to harass the general public, corruption filed against the Assam Police.Because of the corrupt politicians the police have always complained not being able to function properly. Different organizations and their open extortion are known to the public and the police also have been alleged to have a fair share on those. Another main acquisition of Assam police in the present is that they are the friends of thieves, kidnappers and murderers rather than the public and it is said that the police has a better share in those crime money.
Corruption of the organization is at peak with people fearing to go to the police against a crime as they need to pay money to file an FIR or take actions. References   Category:Government of Assam Category:State law enforcement agencies of India
Son Ye-jin (born Son Eon-jin on January 11, 1982) is a South Korean actress. She rose to fame in romance-themed films and television series such as The Classic (2003), Summer Scent (2003), A Moment to Remember (2004), and April Snow (2005). She has won acting recognition for her versatility in diverse genres, notably in Alone in Love (2006), My Wife Got Married (2008), The Pirates (2014) and the 2016 films The Truth Beneath and The Last Princess. She is also known for her lead roles in romance dramas such as Something in the Rain (2018) and Crash Landing on You (2019–2020).
Career  2000–2005: Beginnings and pan-Asia stardom Son Ye-jin first appeared in a supporting role in Park Ki-hyung's film Secret Tears in 2000, and then went on to take the leading role in television dramas such as Delicious Proposal, Sun-hee and Jin-hee,  and Great Ambition. Her first high-profile role in cinema was in Im Kwon-taek's Chi-hwa-seon, which screened at Cannes and took home a Best Director award in 2002. The biggest success of her early career was in the subsequent films Lovers' Concerto and The Classic. Both were solid mid-level hits in Korea, and The Classic in particular — being a work of My Sassy Girl director Kwak Jae-yong — received wide exposure in countries such as Hong Kong and China, and launched Son into pan-Asia stardom.
Son further solidified her status as a Hallyu (Korean Wave) star in 2003 by taking the lead in TV drama Summer Scent, the third installment of season-themed tetralogy Endless Love drama series directed by Yoon Seok-ho. Her next two films also proved to be huge hits in Asia: A Moment to Remember, based on a famous Japanese series, set box office records in Japan and sold over two million tickets in Korea, while April Snow in which she co-starred with superstar Bae Yong-joon was also a hit in Japan and China. Son, who adorned a pure and innocent image in her films The Classic and A Moment to Remember, was given the title of the "Nation's First Love" in Korea.
2006–2015: Film roles in diverse genres Son then cast off her nice girl image in her next projects. She took on the roles of a con artist in The Art of Seduction, an ambitious reporter in Spotlight, a femme fatale in Open City, and a divorcée in the critically acclaimed series Alone in Love. In 2008, her portrayal of a polyandrous woman in My Wife Got Married bagged her Best Actress honors from the prestigious Blue Dragon Film Awards and other local award-giving bodies. After filming the dark mystery White Night, Son wanted to do a more fun project, so she chose the romantic comedy series Personal Taste, followed by the horror-romantic comedy film Spellbound.
In 2012, Son starred in her first blockbuster The Tower, a remake of the 1974 Hollywood disaster film The Towering Inferno. She returned to television in 2013 in the revenge drama Shark (also known as Don't Look Back: The Legend of Orpheus), then headlined Blood and Ties, a thriller about a daughter who suspects that her father was involved in a kidnap-murder case. Son reunited with Shark costar Kim Nam-gil in the 2014 period adventure film The Pirates, which received mixed reviews but was a commercial hit and won Son the Best Actress award at the Grand Bell Awards. Son next starred in the black comedy Bad Guys Always Die opposite Taiwanese actor Chen Bolin, a Chinese-Korean co-production that was filmed on Jeju Island.
2016–present: Critical acclaim In 2016, Son reunited with My Wife Got Married co-star Kim Joo-hyuk in The Truth Beneath, a political thriller; where she received acclaim for her performance. She won Best Actress at the 25th Buil Film Awards and 17th Busan Film Critics Awards for her performance. She then played Princess Deokhye in the biopic The Last Princess, helmed by April Snow director Hur Jin-ho. The film drew positive reviews by critics and went on to become a box office hit, grossing US$40.35 million worldwide. Son was praised by critics for her "outstanding" performance in her portrayal of "the unfathomable depths of the emotional ups and downs of Deokhye"; winning multiple accolades for her performance.
In 2018, Son starred alongside So Ji-sub in the romance film Be with You, based on the Japanese novel of the same name. The same year, Son returned to the small screen after five years with JTBC's romance drama Something in the Rain. The series was a commercial hit and Son received rave reviews for her performance. Son also starred in crime thriller The Negotiation, alongside Hyun Bin, playing a professional negotiator working to save hostages. In 2019, Son reunited with Hyun Bin in the hit romance drama Crash Landing on You as a rich heiress who falls in love with a North Korean commission officer.
The drama was a huge success and is the third-highest-rated Korean drama in cable television history. Filmography  Film  Television series  Awards and nominations  References  External links        Category:1982 births Category:Living people Category:People from Daegu Category:21st-century South Korean actresses Category:Seoul Institute of the Arts alumni Category:South Korean film actresses Category:South Korean television actresses
The 2016 NHL Entry Draft was the 54th NHL Entry Draft. The draft was held on June 24–25, 2016 at the First Niagara Center in Buffalo, New York. The first three selections were Auston Matthews going to the Toronto Maple Leafs, Patrik Laine going to the Winnipeg Jets, and Pierre-Luc Dubois going to the Columbus Blue Jackets. Eligibility Ice hockey players born between January 1, 1996, and September 15, 1998, were eligible for selection in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft. Additionally, un-drafted, non-North American players born in 1995 were eligible for the draft; and those players who were drafted in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft, but not signed by an NHL team and who were born after June 30, 1996, were also eligible to re-enter the draft.
Draft lottery Since the 2012–13 NHL season all fourteen teams not qualifying for the Stanley Cup playoffs have a "weighted" chance at winning the first overall selection. Beginning with the 2014–15 NHL season the NHL changed the  weighting system that was used in previous years. Under the new system the odds of winning the draft lottery for the four lowest finishing teams in the league decreased, while the odds for the other non-playoff teams increased. Starting with this draft the first three picks overall will be awarded by lottery. The odds of winning the second and third draws increased on a proportional basis depending on which team won the previous draw.
The Toronto Maple Leafs, Winnipeg Jets and Columbus Blue Jackets won the draft lotteries that took place on April 30, 2016, giving them the first, second and third picks overall. Toronto retained the top pick, while Winnipeg and Columbus moved up from the sixth and fourth spots, respectively. In the process, the Edmonton Oilers and Vancouver Canucks were each knocked down two places from second and third to fourth and fifth overall, respectively, while the Calgary Flames dropped from fifth to sixth overall. Top prospects Source: NHL Central Scouting final (April 12, 2016) ranking. Selections by round The order of the 2016 Entry Draft is listed below.
Round one  Notes   The New Jersey Devils' first-round pick went to the Ottawa Senators as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent a first-round pick and the Islanders' third-round pick both in 2016 (12th and 80th overall) to New Jersey in exchange for this pick. The Ottawa Senators' first-round pick went to the New Jersey Devils as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent a first-round pick (11th overall) to Ottawa in exchange for the Islanders' third-round pick in 2016 (80th overall) and this pick. The Detroit Red Wings' first-round pick went to the Arizona Coyotes as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent Joe Vitale, the Rangers' first-round pick and a compensatory second-round pick both in 2016 (20th and 53rd overall) to Detroit in exchange for the cap hit of Pavel Datsyuk and this pick.
The Philadelphia Flyers' first-round pick went to the Winnipeg Jets as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent Chicago's first-round pick and a second-round pick both in 2016 (22nd and 36th overall) to Philadelphia in exchange for a third-round pick in 2016 (79th overall) and this pick. The New York Rangers' first-round pick went to the Detroit Red Wings as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent Pavel Datsyuk and a first-round pick in 2016 (16th overall) to Arizona in exchange for Joe Vitale, a compensatory second-round pick in 2016 (53rd overall) and this pick.
Arizona previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 1, 2015 that sent Keith Yandle, Chris Summers and a fourth-round pick in 2016 to New York in exchange for John Moore, Anthony Duclair, Tampa Bay's second-round pick in 2015 and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – Arizona will receive a first-round pick in 2016 if New York qualifies for the 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs – was converted on April 4, 2016. The Los Angeles Kings' first-round pick went to the Carolina Hurricanes as the result of a trade on February 25, 2015 that sent Andrej Sekera to Los Angeles in exchange for Roland McKeown and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade).
The condition – Carolina will receive a first-round pick in 2016 if Los Angeles fails to qualify for the 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs – was converted on April 9, 2015. The Chicago Blackhawks' first-round pick went to the Philadelphia Flyers as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent a first and third-round pick both in 2016 (18th and 79th overall) to Winnipeg in exchange for a second-round pick in 2016 (36th overall) and this pick. Winnipeg previously acquired this pick from Chicago as the result of a trade on February 25, 2016 that sent Andrew Ladd, Jay Harrison and Matt Fraser to Chicago in exchange for Marko Dano, a conditional third-round pick in 2018 and this pick.
The Washington Capitals' first-round pick went to the St. Louis Blues as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent a first-round pick and Washington's third-round pick both in 2016 (28th and 87th overall) to Washington in exchange for this pick. The St. Louis Blues' first-round pick went to the Washington Capitals as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent a first-round pick in 2016 (26th overall) to St. Louis in exchange for Washington's third-round pick in 2016 (87th overall) and this pick. The San Jose Sharks' first-round pick went to the Boston Bruins as the result of a trade on June 30, 2015 that sent Martin Jones to San Jose in exchange for Sean Kuraly and this pick.
The Pittsburgh Penguins' first-round pick went to the Anaheim Ducks as the result of a trade on June 20, 2016 that sent Frederik Andersen to Toronto in exchange for a second-round pick in 2017 and this pick. Toronto previously acquired this pick from Pittsburgh as the result of a trade on July 1, 2015 that sent Phil Kessel, Tyler Biggs, Tim Erixon and a conditional second-round pick in 2016 to Pittsburgh in exchange for Nick Spaling, Kasperi Kapanen, Scott Harrington, New Jersey's third-round pick in 2016 and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – Toronto will receive a first-round pick in 2016 if Pittsburgh qualifies for the 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs – was converted on April 2, 2016.
Round two  Notes   The Vancouver Canucks' second-round pick went to the Buffalo Sabres as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent Mark Pysyk, a second-round pick and St. Louis' third-round pick both in 2016 (38th and 89th overall) to Florida in exchange for Dmitry Kulikov and this pick. Florida previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on May 25, 2016 that sent Erik Gudbranson and the Islanders fifth-round pick in 2016 to Vancouver in exchange for Jared McCann, a fourth-round pick in 2016 and this pick. The Calgary Flames' second-round pick went to the St. Louis Blues as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent Brian Elliott to Calgary in exchange for a conditional third-round pick in 2018 and this pick.
The Winnipeg Jets' second-round pick went to the Philadelphia Flyers as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent a first and third-round pick both in 2016 (18th and 79th overall) to Winnipeg in exchange for Chicago's first-round pick in 2016 (22nd overall) and this pick. The Arizona Coyotes' second-round pick went to the Tampa Bay Lightning as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent Anthony DeAngelo to Arizona in exchange for this pick. The Buffalo Sabres' second-round pick went to the Florida Panthers as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent Dmitri Kulikov and Vancouver's second-round pick in 2016 (33rd overall) to Buffalo in exchange for Mark Pysyk, St. Louis' third-round pick in 2016 (89th overall) and this pick.
The Montreal Canadiens' second-round pick went to the Chicago Blackhawks as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent Andrew Shaw to Montreal in exchange for Minnesota's second-round pick in 2016 (45th overall) and this pick. The Colorado Avalanche's second-round pick was re-acquired as the result of a trade on June 27, 2015 that sent Buffalo's second-round pick in 2015 to San Jose in exchange for a second-round pick in 2015, Colorado's sixth-round pick in 2017 and this pick. San Jose previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on July 1, 2014 that sent Brad Stuart to Colorado in exchange for a sixth-round pick in 2017 and this pick.
The Boston Bruins' second-round pick went to the Tampa Bay Lightning as the result of a trade on March 2, 2015 that sent Brett Connolly to Boston in exchange for a second-round pick in 2015 and this pick. The Minnesota Wild's second-round pick went to the Chicago Blackhawks as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent Andrew Shaw to Montreal in exchange for a second-round pick in 2016 (39th overall) and this pick. Montreal previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on July 1, 2014 that sent Josh Gorges to Buffalo in exchange for this pick.
Buffalo previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 5, 2014 that sent Matt Moulson and Cody McCormick to Minnesota in exchange for Torrey Mitchell, Winnipeg's second-round pick in 2014 and this pick. The New York Islanders' second-round pick went to the Boston Bruins as the result of a trade on October 4, 2014 that sent Johnny Boychuk to New York in exchange for Philadelphia's second-round pick in 2015, a conditional third-round pick in 2015 and this pick. The New York Rangers' second-round pick went the Chicago Blackhawks as the result of a trade on June 15, 2016 that sent Teuvo Teravainen and Bryan Bickell to Carolina in exchange for Chicago's third-round pick in 2017 and this pick.
Carolina previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 28, 2016 that sent Eric Staal to New York in exchange for Aleksi Saarela, a second-round pick in 2017 and this pick. The Chicago Blackhawks' second-round pick went to the Philadelphia Flyers as the result of a trade on February 27, 2015 that sent Kimmo Timonen to Chicago in exchange for a second-round pick in 2015 and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – Philadelphia will receive a second-round pick in 2016 if Chicago advances to the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals with Timonen playing in at least 50% of the Blackhawks' playoff games – was converted on May 30, 2015.
The Arizona Coyotes' compensatory second-round pick (53rd overall) went to the Detroit Red Wings as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent Pavel Datsyuk and a first-round pick in 2016 (16th overall) to Arizona in exchange for Joe Vitale, the Rangers' first-round pick in 2016 (20th overall) and this pick. Arizona previously received this pick as compensation for not signing 2014 first-round draft pick Conner Bleackley, whom they acquired in an earlier trade with Colorado. The Florida Panthers' second-round pick went to the Calgary Flames as the result of a trade on February 27, 2016 that sent Jiri Hudler to Florida in exchange for a fourth-round pick in 2018 and this pick.
The Anaheim Ducks' second-round pick went to the Pittsburgh Penguins as the result of a trade on July 28, 2015 that sent Brandon Sutter and a conditional third-round pick in 2016 to Vancouver in exchange for Nick Bonino, Adam Clendening and this pick. Vancouver previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 30, 2015 that sent Kevin Bieksa to Anaheim in exchange for this pick. The Dallas Stars' second-round pick went the Calgary Flames as the result of a trade on February 29, 2016 that sent Kris Russell to Dallas in exchange for Jyrki Jokipakka, Brett Pollock and this pick (being conditional at thime of the trade).
The condition – Calgary will receive a second-round pick in 2016 if Dallas fails to qualify for the 2016 Western Conference Final – was converted on May 11, 2016. The Washington Capitals' second-round pick went to the Toronto Maple Leafs as the result of a trade on February 28, 2016 that sent Daniel Winnik and Anaheim's fifth-round pick in 2016 to Washington in exchange for Brooks Laich, Connor Carrick and this pick. The Pittsburgh Penguins' second-round pick was re-acquired as the result of a trade on trade on July 1, 2015 that sent Nick Spaling, Kasperi Kapanen, Scott Harrington, New Jersey's third-round pick in 2016 and a conditional first-round pick in 2016 to Toronto in exchange for Phil Kessel, Tyler Biggs, Tim Erixon and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade).
The condition – Pittsburgh will re-acquire their own second-round pick in 2016 if the Penguins qualify for the 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs – was converted on April 2, 2016 when the Penguins clinched a playoff spot. Toronto previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 25, 2015 in a trade that sent Daniel Winnik to Pittsburgh in exchange for Zach Sill, a fourth-round pick in 2015 and this pick. Round three  Notes   The Vancouver Canucks' third-round pick was re-acquired as the result of a trade on July 28, 2015 that sent Nick Bonino, Adam Clendening and Anaheim's second-round pick in 2016 to Pittsburgh in exchange for Brandon Sutter and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade).
The condition – Vancouver will receive the earlier of New York or Vancouver's third-round pick in 2016 – was converted on March 25, 2016 when the Canucks were eliminated from playoff contention ensuring that they would finish behind the Islanders in the overall league standings. Pittsburgh previously acquired this pick as compensation for Buffalo hiring Dan Bylsma as their head coach on May 28, 2015. Buffalo previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 2, 2015 that sent Michal Neuvirth to the New York Islanders in exchange for Chad Johnson and this pick. The Islanders previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on November 25, 2014 that sent Andrey Pedan to Vancouver in exchange for Alexandre Mallet and this pick.
The Winnipeg Jets' third round pick went to the Carolina Hurricanes as the result of a trade on February 25, 2015 that sent Jiri Tlusty to Winnipeg in exchange for a conditional sixth-round pick in 2015 and this pick. The New Jersey Devils' third-round pick went to the Toronto Maple Leafs as the result of a trade on July 1, 2015 that sent Phil Kessel, Tyler Biggs, Tim Erixon and a conditional second-round pick in 2016 to Pittsburgh in exchange for Nick Spaling, Kasperi Kapanen, Scott Harrington, a conditional first-round pick in 2016 and this pick. Pittsburgh previously acquired this pick as compensation for New Jersey hiring John Hynes as their head coach on June 2, 2015.
The Ottawa Senators' third-round pick went to the New Jersey Devils as the result of a trade on June 27, 2015 that sent a second-round pick in 2015 to Ottawa in exchange for Dallas' second-round pick in 2015 and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – New Jersey will receive a fourth-round pick in 2015 or a third-round pick in 2016 at their choice – was converted when New Jersey did not take the 109th pick in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft. The Boston Bruins' third-round pick went to the Carolina Hurricanes as the result of a trade on February 29, 2016 that sent John-Michael Liles to Boston in exchange for Anthony Camara, a fifth-round pick in 2017 and this pick.
The Minnesota Wild's third-round pick went to the Nashville Predators as the result of a trade on June 20, 2016 that sent Jimmy Vesey to Buffalo in exchange for this pick. Buffalo previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 29, 2016 that sent Jamie McGinn to Anaheim in exchange for this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – Buffalo will receive a third-round pick in 2016 if Anaheim does not qualify for the 2016 Western Conference Final – was converted on April 27, 2016 when Anaheim was eliminated from the 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs.
Anaheim previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 26, 2015 that sent Kyle Palmieri to New Jersey in exchange for Florida's second-round pick in 2015 and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – Anaheim will receive the higher of either Florida or Minnesota's third-round pick in 2016. – was converted on April 24, 2016 when Minnesota was eliminated from the 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs ensuring that the Wild's pick would be higher than Florida's. New Jersey previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 26, 2015 that sent Jaromir Jagr to Florida in exchange for a second-round pick in 2015 and this pick.
Florida previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 24, 2015 that sent Sean Bergenheim and a seventh-round pick in 2016 to Minnesota in exchange for this pick. The Detroit Red Wings' third-round pick went to the Pittsburgh Penguins as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent Beau Bennett to New Jersey in exchange for this pick. New Jersey previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 2, 2015 that sent Marek Zidlicky to Detroit in exchange for a conditional fifth-round pick in 2015 and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade).
The condition – New Jersey will receive a third-round pick in 2016 if Detroit does not advance to the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals – was converted on April 29, 2015 when Detroit was eliminated from the 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs. The Philadelphia Flyers' third-round pick went to the Winnipeg Jets as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent Chicago's first-round pick and a second-round pick both in 2016 (22nd and 36th overall) to Philadelphia in exchange for a first-round pick in 2016 (18th overall) and this pick. The New York Islanders' third-round pick went to the New Jersey Devils as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent a first-round pick in 2016 (11th overall) to Ottawa in exchange for a first-round pick in 2016 (12th overall) and this pick.
Ottawa previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 29, 2016 that sent Shane Prince and a seventh-round pick in 2016 to New York in exchange for this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – Ottawa will receive the lower of New York or Vancouver's third-round pick in 2016 – was converted on March 25, 2016 when the Canucks were eliminated from playoff contention ensuring that they would finish behind the Islanders in the overall league standings. The Los Angeles Kings' third-round pick went to the Philadelphia Flyers as the result of a trade on January 6, 2016 that sent Vincent Lecavalier and Luke Schenn to Los Angeles in exchange for Jordan Weal and this pick.
The Florida Panthers' third-round pick went to the Edmonton Oilers as the result of a trade on February 27, 2016 that sent Teddy Purcell to Florida in exchange for this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – Edmonton will receive the lower of Minnesota or Florida's third-round pick in 2016 – was converted on April 24, 2016 when Minnesota was eliminated from the 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs ensuring that the Florida's pick would be lower than Minnesota's. The Dallas Stars' third-round pick went to the Buffalo Sabres as the result of a trade on February 11, 2015 that sent Jhonas Enroth to Dallas in exchange for Anders Lindback and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade).
The condition – Buffalo will receive a third-round pick in 2016 if Enroth wins fewer than four playoff games for the Stars in 2015 – was converted on April 6, 2015 when the Stars were eliminated from playoff contention. The Washington Capitals' third-round pick was re-acquired as the result of a trade on June 24, 2016 that sent a first-round pick in 2016 (26th overall) to St. Louis in exchange for a first-round pick in 2016 (28th overall) and this pick. St. Louis previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on July 2, 2015 that sent T.J. Oshie to Washington in exchange for Troy Brouwer, Pheonix Copley and this pick.
The St. Louis Blues' third-round pick went to the Florida Panthers as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent Dmitri Kulikov and Vancouver's second-round pick in 2016 (33rd overall) to Buffalo in exchange for Mark Pysyk, a second-round pick in 2016 (38th overall) and this pick. Buffalo previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 28, 2014 that sent Ryan Miller, Steve Ott and conditional second and third-round picks in 2014 to St. Louis in exchange for Jaroslav Halak, Chris Stewart, William Carrier, a first-round pick in 2015 and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade).
The condition – Buffalo will receive a third-round pick in 2016 if Miller does not re-sign with St. Louis for the 2014–15 NHL season – was converted on July 1, 2014 when Miller signed with Vancouver. The San Jose Sharks' third-round pick went to the Dallas Stars as the result of a trade on November 21, 2014 that sent Brenden Dillon to San Jose in exchange for Jason Demers and this pick. The Pittsburgh Penguins' third-round pick went to the Edmonton Oilers as the result of a trade on February 27, 2016 that sent Justin Schultz to Pittsburgh in exchange for this pick.
Round four  Notes   The Edmonton Oilers' fourth-round pick went to the Anaheim Ducks as the result of a trade on February 29, 2016 that sent Patrick Maroon to Edmonton in exchange for Martin Gernat and this pick. The Vancouver Canucks' fourth-round pick went to the Florida Panthers as the result of a trade on May 25, 2016 that sent Erik Gudbranson and the Islanders fifth-round pick in 2016 to Vancouver in exchange for Jared McCann, a second-round pick in 2016 and this pick. The Columbus Blue Jackets' fourth-round pick went to the New York Islanders as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent a fourth-round pick in 2016 (110th overall) and a sixth-round pick in 2017 to Chicago in exchange for this pick.
Chicago previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 30, 2015 that sent Brandon Saad, Michael Paliotta and Alex Broadhurst to Columbus in exchange for Artem Anisimov, Jeremy Morin, Corey Tropp, Marko Dano and this pick. The Arizona Coyotes' fourth-round pick went to the New York Rangers as the result of a trade on March 1, 2015 that sent John Moore, Anthony Duclair, Tampa Bay's second-round pick in 2015 and a conditional first-round pick in 2016 to Arizona in exchange for Keith Yandle, Chris Summers and this pick. The Colorado Avalanche's fourth-round pick went to the Toronto Maple Leafs as the result of a trade on February 21, 2016 that sent Shawn Matthias to Colorado in exchange for Colin Smith and this pick.
The Boston Bruins' fourth-round pick went to the New Jersey Devils as the result of a trade on February 29, 2016 that sent Lee Stempniak to Boston in exchange for a second-round pick in 2017 and this pick. The New York Islanders' fourth-round pick went to Chicago Blackhawks as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent Columbus' fourth-round pick in 2016 (95th overall) to New York in exchange for a sixth-round pick in 2017 and this pick. The New York Rangers' fourth-round pick went to the San Jose Sharks as the result of a trade on March 1, 2015 that sent James Sheppard to New York in exchange for this pick.
The San Jose Sharks' fourth-round pick went to the New York Islanders as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent a fourth-round pick in 2017 to Philadelphia in exchange for this pick. Philadelphia previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 27, 2015 that sent Nicklas Grossmann and Chris Pronger to Arizona in exchange for Sam Gagner and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – Philadelphia will receive a fourth-round pick in 2016 if Arizona acquires another fourth-round pick in 2016, at Arizona's choice – was converted on June 25, 2016.
Arizona previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 20, 2016 that sent Maxim Letunov and a sixth-round pick in 2017 to San Jose in exchange for Detroit's third-round pick in 2017 and this pick. Round five  Notes   The Vancouver Canucks' fifth-round pick went to the Montreal Canadiens as the result of a trade on July 1, 2015 that sent Brandon Prust to Vancouver in exchange for Zack Kassian and this pick. The Columbus Blue Jackets' fifth-round pick went to the St. Louis Blues as the result of a trade on November 15, 2014 that sent Jordan Leopold to Columbus in exchange for this pick.
The Arizona Coyotes' fifth-round pick went to the Dallas Stars as the result of a trade on June 16, 2016 that sent Alex Goligoski to Arizona in exchange for this pick. The Montreal Canadiens' fifth-round pick went to the Buffalo Sabres as the result of a trade on March 2, 2015 that sent Brian Flynn to Montreal in exchange for this pick. The Minnesota Wild's fifth-round pick went to the Boston Bruins as the result of a trade on June 27, 2015 that sent a fifth-round pick in 2015 to Minnesota in exchange for this pick. The New York Islanders' fifth-round pick went to the Vancouver Canucks  as the result of a trade on May 25, 2016 that sent Jared McCann, a second and fourth-round pick both in 2016 to Florida in exchange for Erik Gudbranson and this pick.
Florida previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 27, 2015 that sent Montreal's fifth-round pick in 2015 to New York in exchange for this pick. The Florida Panthers' fifth-round pick went to the St. Louis Blues as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent a fifth-round pick in 2017 to Chicago in exchange for this pick. Chicago previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 2, 2014 that sent Brandon Pirri to Florida in exchange for a third-round pick in 2014 and this pick. The Anaheim Ducks' fifth-round pick went to the Washington Capitals as the result of a trade on February 28, 2016 that sent Brooks Laich, Connor Carrick and a second-round pick in 2016 to Toronto in exchange for Daniel Winnik and this pick.
Toronto previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 2, 2015 that sent Korbinian Holzer to Anaheim in exchange for Eric Brewer and this pick. The St. Louis Blues' fifth-round pick went to the Edmonton Oilers as the result of a trade on February 27, 2016 that sent Anders Nilsson to St. Louis in exchange for Niklas Lundstrom and this pick. Round six  Notes   The Boston Bruins' sixth-round pick was re-acquired as the result of a trade on June 25, 2015, that sent Carl Soderberg to Colorado in exchange for this pick. Colorado previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 2, 2015, that sent Max Talbot and Paul Carey to Boston in exchange for Jordan Caron and this pick.
The Minnesota Wild's sixth-round pick went to the Calgary Flames as the result of a trade on February 29, 2016, that sent David Jones to Minnesota in exchange for Niklas Backstrom and this pick. The Los Angeles Kings' sixth-round pick went to the Philadelphia Flyers as the result of a trade on June 27, 2015, that sent Columbus' fourth-round pick in 2015 to Los Angeles in exchange for a fourth-round pick in 2015 and this pick. The Florida Panthers' sixth-round pick went to the New York Rangers as the result of a trade on June 20, 2016, that sent Keith Yandle to Florida in exchange for a conditional fourth-round pick in 2017 and this pick.
The Anaheim Ducks' sixth-round pick went the Florida Panthers as the result of a trade on February 29, 2016, that sent Brandon Pirri to Anaheim in exchange for this pick. The St. Louis Blues' sixth-round pick went to the Toronto Maple Leafs as the result of a trade  March 2, 2015, that sent Olli Jokinen to St. Louis in exchange for Joakim Lindstrom and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – Toronto will receive a sixth-round pick in 2016 if St. Louis fails to make it to the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals – was converted on April 26, 2015.
Round seven  Notes   The Winnipeg Jets' seventh-round pick went to the Montreal Canadiens as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent a seventh-round pick in 2017 to Winnipeg in exchange for this pick. The Montreal Canadiens' seventh-round pick went to the Buffalo Sabres as the result of a trade on March 2, 2015 that sent Torrey Mitchell to Montreal in exchange for Jack Nevins and this pick. The Ottawa Senators' seventh-round pick went the New York Islanders as the result of a trade on February 29, 2016 that sent a conditional third-round pick in 2016 to Ottawa in exchange for Shane Prince and this pick.
The Carolina Hurricanes' seventh-round pick went to the Vancouver Canucks as the result of a trade on June 27, 2015 that sent Eddie Lack to Carolina in exchange for a third-round pick in 2015 and this pick. The Boston Bruins' seventh-round pick went to the Florida Panthers as the result of a trade on June 25, 2016 that sent a seventh-round pick in 2017 to Boston in exchange for this pick. The Florida Panthers' seventh-round pick went to the Minnesota Wild as the result of a trade on February 24, 2015 that sent a third-round pick in 2016 to Florida in exchange for Sean Bergenheim and this pick.
The Dallas Stars' seventh-round pick went to the Tampa Bay Lightning as the result of a trade on June 27, 2015 that sent Anaheim's seventh-round pick in 2015 to Edmonton in exchange for this pick. Edmonton previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on July 5, 2013 that sent Shawn Horcoff to Dallas in exchange for Philip Larsen and this pick. The Pittsburgh Penguins' seventh-round pick went to the St. Louis Blues as the result of a trade on March 2, 2015 that sent Ian Cole to Pittsburgh in exchange for Robert Bortuzzo and this pick.
Draftees based on nationality  North American Draftees by State/Province  Draftees based on league  Draftees based on junior/college team Minimum three selections  See also  2013–14 NHL transactions  2014–15 NHL transactions  2015–16 NHL transactions  2016–17 NHL transactions  2015–16 NHL season  List of first overall NHL draft picks  List of NHL players  References  External links 2016 NHL Entry Draft player stats at The Internet Hockey Database  NHL Entry Draft Category:National Hockey League Entry Draft Entry Draft Category:2016 in sports in New York (state) Category:Sports in Buffalo, New York
Calcein, also known as fluorexon, fluorescein complex, is a fluorescent dye with excitation and emission wavelengths of 495/515 nm, respectively, and has the appearance of orange crystals. Calcein self-quenches at concentrations above 70mM and is commonly used as an indicator of lipid vesicle leakage. It is also used traditionally as a complexometric indicator for titration of calcium ions with EDTA, and for fluorometric determination of calcium. Applications  The non-fluorescent acetomethoxy derivate of calcein (calcein AM, AM = acetoxymethyl) is used in biology as it can be transported through the cellular membrane into live cells, which makes it useful for testing of cell viability and for short-term labeling of cells.
Alternatively, Fura-2 , Furaptra , Indo-1 and aequorin may be used. An acetomethoxy group obscures the part of the molecule that chelates Ca2+, Mg2+, Zn2+ and other ions. After transport into the cells, intracellular esterases remove the acetomethoxy group, the molecule gets trapped inside and gives out strong green fluorescence. As dead cells lack active esterases, only live cells are labeled and counted by flow cytometry. Calcein is now rarely used as a Ca2+ or Mg2+ indicator because its fluorescence is directly sensitive to these ions only at strongly alkaline pH, and thus it is not particularly useful for measuring Ca2+ or Mg2+ in cells.
Fluorescence of calcein is quenched strongly by Co2+, Ni2+ and Cu2+ and appreciably by Fe3+ and Mn2+ at physiological pH. This fluorescence quenching response can be exploited for detecting the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) and for measuring cell volume changes. Calcein is commonly used for cell tracing and in studies of endocytosis, cell migration, and gap junctions. The acetoxymethyl ester of calcein is also used to detect drug interactions with multidrug resistance proteins (ABC transporters ATP-binding cassette transporter genes) in intact cells as it is an excellent substrate of the multidrug resistance transporter 1 (MDR1) P-glycoprotein and the Multidrug Resistance-Associated Protein (MRP1).
The calcein AM assay can be used as a model for drug-drug interactions, for screening transporter substrates and/or inhibitors; and also to determine in vitro drug resistance of cells, including samples from patients. Calcein is also used for marking freshly hatched fish and for labeling of bones in live animals. References  Category:Lactones Category:Amines Category:Fluorone dyes Category:Complexometric indicators Category:Acetic acids Category:Spiro compounds
16S rRNA (uracil1498-N3)-methyltransferase (, DUF558 protein, YggJ, RsmE, m3U1498 specific methyltransferase) is an enzyme with systematic name S-adenosyl-L-methionine:16S rRNA (uracil1498-N3)-methyltransferase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction   S-adenosyl-L-methionine + uracil1498 in 16S rRNA  S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine + N3-methyluracil1498 in 16S rRNA  The enzyme specifically methylates uracil1498 at N3 in 16S rRNA. References  External links   Category:EC 2.1.1
The JS 7.62mm () is a bolt-action sniper rifle issued in small numbers to the People's Liberation Army, People's Armed Police and to Public Security Police forces. It's developed under the Jianshe Industries (Group) Corporation. History  The JS 7.62mm sniper rifle was designed in early 2003 due to the need for a dedicated sniper rifle that could place precision shots within an 800-meter range, using the 7.62mm round. The 7.62 JS sniper rifle variant project was designed simultaneously with the 12.7 JS anti-material sniper rifle. In the Beijing International Exhibition on Police Equipment held on May 2005, the exhibition showed the JS 7.62 sniper rifle after undergoing 8 months with field trails Feedback showed that the sniper rifle system allowed the 7.62mm round to penetrate a residential wall greater than 6mm, and showed high tolerance level with no malfunction throughout the 8 month field test.
Zouyi Hong was appointed to be the leading designer of the JS 7.62 sniper rifle. Design details  The JS 7.62mm Sniper Rifle uses the Russian 7.62×54mmR round,  which is also used in the People's Liberation Army designated marksmen rifles Type 79 and Type 85. The JS 7.62 has a conventional design, holding a 5-round detachable box magazine forward to the hand grip. It uses a pistol grip design with safety selector located on the right, beside the bolt handle. Mostly made of high strength light aluminum alloy, it weighs at 5.5 kg without loaded magazine. Similar to most modern era sniper rifles, it utilizes a new triangular muzzle break design reducing recoil.
An adjustable rubber cheek rest that allows elevation for user preference, and quick detachable scope mounting system on top of the barrel allowing x3 to x9 telescopic day and night sights. A Picatinny rail is mounted on the upper receiver, allowing the user to switch to any day/night telescope sight. Emphasizing on accuracy, attention was paid to the smooth trigger pull, making the trigger pull shorter, lighter and smoother to increase accuracy. During several tests, it was found that the JS 7.62 shoots more accurately than the QBU-88. Users  : In small numbers. Under Black Eagle Battalion. References  Category:Sniper rifles of the People's Republic of China Category:Bolt-action rifles Category:7.62×54mmR rifles
Dark Age is a 1987 Australian horror adventure film directed by Arch Nicholson, produced by Antony I. Ginnane and starring John Jarratt. Plot Steve Harris (John Jarratt) is a ranger who has been assigned to deal with a massive saltwater crocodile that's been attacking and killing people in Queensland. He finds himself at odds with the local Aborigines, who believe the crocodile should be preserved since it contains the spirit of their past. Steve must develop a plan to respect the wishes of the Aborigines and also protect the residents threatened by the crocodile.
Cast John Jarratt as Steve Harris Nikki Coghill as Cathy Pope Max Phipps as John Besser Burnam Burnam as Oondabund David Gulpilil as Adjaral Ray Meagher as Rex Garret Jeff Ashby as Mac Wilson Paul Bertram as Jackson  Production The film was part of a two-picture deal between executive producer Antony I. Ginnane and Hollywood studio RKO which also included The Lighthorsemen. Shooting took place five weeks in Cairns and one week in Alice Springs, starting 22 April 1986. The plot shares many similarities to Jaws and contains homage shots such as the shot involving a shooting star. Release The movie was never seen in Australia theatrically and took a long time to be seen on DVD.
Reception Dennis Schwartz of Ozus' World Movie Reviews gave a positive review, calling the film "well-produced and acted, and an intelligent environmental adventure film results." Quentin Tarantino spoke enthusiastically of the film in the documentary Not Quite Hollywood: The Wild, Untold Story of Ozploitation!, commenting "You could re-release Dark Age in 2,000 screenings and people would go see it." In 2009, Tarantino hosted a screening for it in Sydney. Filmink later said "The phenomenal box office success of Jaws meant producers inevitably looked towards Australia’s deadly fauna as a source of inspiration... In hindsight, it’s actually weird that more films about killer animals weren’t made in the 10BA era."
See also  List of killer crocodile films  References  External links    Dark Age at Oz Movies  Category:1987 films Category:1987 horror films Category:Australian films Category:Films set in Queensland Category:Films shot in Queensland Category:Films shot in the Northern Territory Category:Films about crocodilians Category:Australian adventure films Category:Australian horror films
Roth's spots, also known as Litten spots or the Litten sign, are non-specific red spots with white or pale centres, seen on the retina and although traditionally associated with infective endocarditis, can occur in a number of other conditions including hypertension, diabetes, collagen vascular disease, extreme hypoxia, leukemia and HIV. Red and white retinal spots were first observed in 1872 by Swiss physician Moritz Roth, and named "Roth spots' six years later by Moritz Litten. They are typically observed via fundoscopy (using an ophthalmoscope to view inside the eye) or slit lamp exam. The original retinal spots identified in 1872 were attributed to nerve-fibres that had burst.
Present-day analysis shows that they can be composed of coagulated fibrin including platelets, focal ischaemia, inflammatory infiltrate, infectious organisms, or neoplastic cells. Cause Roth's spots occur in conditions that predispose to endothelial damage of retinal capillaries, that is when there is dysfunction and disruption of the endothelium of retinal capillaries. Looking through the microscope reveals lesions with white centers made mainly of fibrin, depicting a fibrin-platelet plug at the site of vessel damage. Associated conditions Conditions associated with Roth's spots include:'' Infective endocarditis Anaemia/thrombocytopenia Collagen vascular disease Leukemia Hypertensive retinopathy Diabetic retinopathy Pre-eclampsia Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Extreme hypoxia Shaken-baby syndrome and also: Candida albicans infection vascular diseases kala azar  Prevalence Roth's spots occur in only 5% of people with infective endocarditis.
Litten, however reported a figure of 80%. See also Osler's nodes Janeway lesion Splinter haemorrhage  References  External links  Image from the New England Journal of Medicine: Endocarditis  Image from the New England Journal of Medicine: CML  Category:Diseases of the eye and adnexa Category:Symptoms and signs: Cardiac
Saving Silverman is a 2001 American comedy film directed by Dennis Dugan and starring Jason Biggs, Steve Zahn, Jack Black and Amanda Peet. Neil Diamond has a cameo role playing himself. In the film, Darren Silverman's longtime friends try to save him from marrying his controlling new girlfriend, whose behavior threatens the friends, their band, and Darren's chance at happiness with his lifelong true love. The movie was remade in Telugu language as Thotti Gang in 2002 and Hindi language as De Taali in 2008. Plot Darren Silverman, Wayne LeFessier, and J.D. McNugent, best friends since fifth grade and Neil Diamond fans throughout, form a Neil Diamond tribute band called "Diamonds in the Rough".
Darren meets a beautiful but domineering psychologist who is showing signs of being emotionally abusive, Judith Fessbeggler, through a chance encounter in a local bar after a band gig. Six weeks into their relationship, Darren asks Judith if whether they could finally have sex, but Judith refuses in the belief that premarital sex is wrong; rather, she suggests non-penetrative sex as alternative, during which Darren gets nothing but a sore jaw. Judith isolates Darren from his friends, demands that Darren quit the band, receive humiliating medical procedures, and attend relationship counseling under her care. Wayne and J.D. decide to save Darren from her by attempting to bribe her, arm wrestle her, and shock her with faked photographs of Darren cheating, all to no avail.
The friends, undaunted, try to reunite Darren with his "one and only", Sandy Perkus, when she returns to Seattle to take her final vows as a nun. When Darren and Judith announce their engagement, Wayne and J.D. kidnap Judith. However, Judith eventually discovers the identity of her captors, and the duo are convinced they cannot let her go. When they visit Coach Norton in jail (who accidentally killed a referee in a fit of rage) his advice is that they should just kill her. The pair attempt to shoot Judith, but end up deciding against it. Sandy's feelings for Darren are reawakened, but the pair's attempted date is ruined by Darren's preoccupation with Judith.
Sandy, disheartened, returns to the convent, but Darren snaps out of it and runs the 30 miles there to win her back. Chained to an engine block in Wayne's garage, Judith helps J.D. realize he is gay. She knocks him unconscious to steal his keys and escape, only to be tranquilized with a dart gun by Wayne. Returned to the garage, Judith seduces Wayne into releasing one of her hands, so she escapes again. She runs to Darren's house in time to see him kiss Sandy, but shames him into confessing his engagement to Judith. Sandy, disheartened, returns to the convent again.
Darren has Wayne and J.D. arrested. After escaping from jail with the help of Coach Norton, J.D. and Wayne rush to the convent on the brink of Sandy's final vows as a nun. They convince her that Darren still loves her. They then kidnap Neil Diamond to help Darren and Sandy reunite. At the wedding, Neil stalls the proceedings with the song "Hello Again" while Darren and Sandy reunite, Wayne and Judith (the latter being furious that her wedding is ruined) beat each other up (as love play) and J.D. arrives holding Coach in his arms, who coincidentally reveals to J.D.
that he too is gay. The couples then wed on stage at Neil Diamond's concert; Darren to Sandy, Wayne to Judith, and J.D. to Coach. Cast  Jason Biggs as Darren Silverman  Steve Zahn as Wayne Lefessier  Jack Black as J.D. McNugent  Amanda Peet as Judith Fessbeggler  Amanda Detmer as Sandy Perkus  R. Lee Ermey as Coach Norton  Neil Diamond as himself  Kyle Gass as Bar guy  Christopher Logan as Vageet  Production This film falls within a cross-genre film type from the late 1990s and early 2000s in which grooms are saved, or nearly saved, from distasteful marriage. Cast member Jason Biggs said the film is based on "a universal problem" of girlfriends who control who their partners are friends with.
Saving Silverman was filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia at a cost of US$22 million. Neil Diamond said humorously that "I was dragged into this project kicking and screaming." He wrote and composed a new song, "I Believe in Happy Endings", for the film. Reception The film has a score of 18% (an average rating of 3.4 out of 10 based on 100 reviews) on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. Its critical consensus states, "Dragged down by a plot lacking any sense of logic and obnoxious, unsympathetic characters, this comedy is more crude and mean-spirited than funny" Metacritic gives it an average score of 22% based on 29 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".
The film opened at No. 3 at the North American box office making US$7.4million in its opening weekend. The film grossed a domestic total of $19,402,030 and $26,086,706 worldwide from a $22 million budget. It opened behind The Wedding Planner and Hannibal, which opened at the top spot. Home media Saving Silverman was released in two versions on home video - the PG-13 version that had been released in theaters, and the original R rated cut. The differences between the two versions are mostly dialogue changes and small additions to certain scenes, although two new scenes do appear, with some other scenes in the movie swapped around to compensate for the longer run time.
Saving Silverman was one of the first Columbia Pictures films to be released under the Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment label. References  External links       Category:2001 films Category:2000s black comedy films Category:2000s buddy comedy films Category:2000s LGBT-related films Category:American black comedy films Category:American buddy comedy films Category:American films Category:American LGBT-related films Category:Columbia Pictures films Category:English-language films Category:Films set in Seattle Category:Films set in Washington (state) Category:Films shot in Vancouver Category:Films directed by Dennis Dugan Category:LGBT-related comedy films Category:Village Roadshow Pictures films Category:Original Film films
Blocking may refer to:  Science, technology, and mathematics  Computing and telecommunications Blacklist (computing) Blocking (computing), holding up a task until an event occurs Blocking probability, for calls in a telecommunications system Head-of-line blocking, in some network switching fabrics Internet blocking; see Block (Internet)  Psychology Thought blocking, a type of thought disorder Blocking effect, in psychology Mental block, a type of suppression or repression  Other uses in science Blocking (linguistics), where the existence of a competing form blocks the application of a morphological process Blocking (statistics), in the design of experiments, the arranging of experimental units in groups (blocks) which are similar to one another Atmospheric blocking, a phenomenon in meteorology of large scale stationary pressure cells Blocking, in the western blot technique, a process to prevent unwanted binding of antibodies to a membrane  Other technologies Blocking (construction), horizontal boards placed between wall studs to facilitate hardware attachment  Sport Blocking (American football), the legal interference with another player's motion Blocking (martial arts), a defensive technique in martial arts  Theatre and film Blocking (stage), the movement and positioning of actors on a stage, or within a frame in film Blocking (animation), a technique in which key poses establish timing and placement of items in a scene  Other uses Blocking (textile arts), the process of stretching a knitted garment into shape while wet or using steam Blocking (transport), the process of dividing a transit schedule into parts that can be operated by a single vehicle Blocking troops - military barrier troops positioned to forestall unauthorised retreats  See also Block (disambiguation) Non-blocking (disambiguation)
Non-cognitivism is the meta-ethical view that ethical sentences do not express propositions (i.e., statements) and thus cannot be true or false (they are not truth-apt). A noncognitivist denies the cognitivist claim that "moral judgments are capable of being objectively true, because they describe some feature of the world". If moral statements cannot be true, and if one cannot know something that is not true, noncognitivism implies that moral knowledge is impossible. Non-cognitivism entails that non-cognitive attitudes underlie moral discourse and this discourse therefore consists of non-declarative speech acts, although accepting that its surface features may consistently and efficiently work as if moral discourse were cognitive.
The point of interpreting moral claims as non-declarative speech acts is to explain what moral claims mean if they are neither true nor false (as philosophies such as logical positivism entail). Utterances like "Boo to killing!" and "Don't kill" are not candidates for truth or falsity, but have non-cognitive meaning. Varieties Emotivism, associated with A. J. Ayer, the Vienna Circle and C. L. Stevenson, suggests that ethical sentences are primarily emotional expressions of one's own attitudes and  are intended to influence the actions of the listener. Under this view, "Killing is wrong" is translated as "Killing, boo!" or "I disapprove of killing."
A close cousin of emotivism, developed by R. M. Hare, is called universal prescriptivism. Prescriptivists interpret ethical statements as being universal imperatives, prescribing behavior for all to follow. According to prescriptivism,  phrases like "Thou shalt not murder!" or "Do not steal!" are the clearest expressions of morality, while reformulations like "Killing is wrong" tend to obscure the meaning of moral sentences. Other forms of non-cognitivism include Simon Blackburn's quasi-realism and Allan Gibbard's norm-expressivism. Arguments in favour  Arguments for prescriptivism focus on the function of normative statements. Prescriptivists argue that factual statements and prescriptions are totally different, because of different expectations of change in cases of a clash between word and world.
In a descriptive sentence, if one premises that "red is a number" then according to the rules of English grammar said statement would be false. Since said premise describes the objects "red" and "number", anyone with an adequate understanding of English would notice the falseness of such description and the falseness of said statement. However, if the norm "thou shalt not kill!" is uttered, and this premise is negated (by the fact of a person being murdered), the speaker is not to change his sentence upon observation of this into "kill other people! ", but is to reiterate the moral outrage of the act of killing.
Adjusting statements based upon objective reality and adjusting reality based upon statements are contrary uses of language; that is to say, descriptive statements are a different kind of sentence to normative statements. If truth is understood according to correspondence theory, the question of the truth or falsity of sentences not contingent upon external phenomena cannot be tested (see tautologies). Some cognitivists argue that some expressions like "courageous" have both a factual as well as a normative component which cannot be distinguished by analysis. Prescriptivists argue that according to context, either the factual or the normative component of the meaning is dominant.
The sentence "Hero A behaved courageously" is wrong, if A ran away in the face of danger. But the sentence "Be brave and fight for the glory of your country!" has no truth value and cannot be falsified by someone who doesn't join the army. Prescriptivism is also supported by the actual way of speaking. Many moral statements are de facto uttered as recommendations or commands, e.g. when parents or teachers forbid children to do wrong actions. The most famous moral ideas are prescriptions: the Ten Commandments, the command of charity, the categorical imperative, and the Golden Rule command to do or not to do something rather than state that something is or is not the case.
Prescriptivism can fit the theist idea of morality as obedience towards god. It is however different from the cognitivist supernaturalism which interprets morality as subjective will of god, while prescriptivism claims that moral rules are universal and can be found by reason alone without reference to a god. According to Hare, prescriptivists cannot argue that amoralists are logically wrong or contradictive. Everyone can choose to follow moral commands or not. This is the human condition according to the Christian reinterpretation of the Choice of Heracles. According to prescriptivism, morality is not about knowledge (of moral facts), but about character (to choose to do the right thing).
Actors cannot externalize their responsibility and freedom of will towards some moral truth in the world, virtuous people don't need to wait for some cognition to choose what's right. Prescriptivism is also supported by imperative logic, in which there are no truth values for imperatives, and by the idea of the naturalistic fallacy: even if someone could prove the existence of an ethical property and express it in a factual statement, he could never derive any command from this statement, so the search for ethical properties is pointless. As with other anti-realist meta-ethical theories, non-cognitivism is largely supported by the argument from queerness: ethical properties, if they existed, would be different from any other thing in the universe, since they have no observable effect on the world.
People generally have a negative attitude towards murder, which presumably keeps most of us from murdering. But does the actual wrongness of murder play an independent role? Is there any evidence that there is a property of wrongness that some types of acts have? Some people might think that the strong feelings we have when we see or consider a murder provide evidence of murder's wrongness. But it is not difficult to explain these feelings without saying that wrongness was their cause. Thus there is no way of discerning which, if any, ethical properties exist; by Occam's razor, the simplest assumption is that none do.
The non-cognitivist then asserts that, since a proposition about an ethical property would have no referent, ethical statements must be something else. Arguments for emotivism focus on what normative statements express when uttered by a speaker. A person who says that killing is wrong certainly expresses her disapproval of killing. Emotivists claim that this is all she does, that the statement "killing is wrong" is not a truth-apt declaration, and that the burden of evidence is on the cognitivists who want to show that in addition to expressing disapproval, the claim "killing is wrong" is also true. Emotivists ask whether there really is evidence that killing is wrong.
We have evidence that Jupiter has a magnetic field and that birds are oviparous, but as yet, we do not seem to have found evidence of moral properties, such as "goodness". Emotivists ask why, without such evidence, we should think there is such a property. Ethical intuitionists think the evidence comes not from science or reason but from our own feelings: good deeds make us feel a certain way and bad deeds make us feel very differently. But is this enough to show that there are genuinely good and bad deeds? Emotivists think not, claiming that we do not need to postulate the existence of moral "badness" or "wrongness" to explain why considering certain deeds makes us feel disapproval; that all we really observe when we introspect are feelings of disapproval.
Thus the emotivist asks why not adopt the simple explanation and say that this is all there is, rather than insist that some intrinsic "badness" (of murder, for example) must be causing feelings when a simpler explanation is available. Arguments against  One argument against non-cognitivism is that it ignores the external causes of emotional and prescriptive reactions. If someone says, "John is a good person," something about John must have inspired that reaction. If John gives to the poor, takes care of his sick grandmother, and is friendly to others, and these are what inspire the speaker to think well of him, it is plausible to say, "John is a good person because he gives to the poor, takes care of his sick grandmother, and is friendly to others."
If, in turn, the speaker responds positively to the idea of giving to the poor, then some aspect of that idea must have inspired a positive response; one could argue that that aspect is also the basis of its goodness. Another argument is the "embedding problem." Consider the following sentences:  Eating meat is not wrong. Is eating meat wrong? I think that eating meat is wrong. Mike doesn't think that eating meat is wrong. I once thought that eating meat was wrong. She does not realize that eating meat is wrong. Attempts to translate these sentences in an emotivist framework seem to fail (e.g.
"She does not realize, 'Boo on eating meat!'"). Prescriptivist translations fare only slightly better ("She does not realize that she is not to eat meat"). Even the act of forming such a construction indicates some sort of cognition in the process. According to some non-cognitivist points of view, these sentences simply assume the false premise that ethical statements are either true or false. They might be literally translated as:  "Eating meat is wrong" is a false statement. Is "eating meat is wrong" a true statement? I think that "eating meat is wrong" is a true statement. Mike doesn't think that "eating meat is wrong" is a true statement.
I once thought that "eating meat is wrong" was a true statement. She does not realize that "eating meat is wrong" is a true statement. These translations, however, seem divorced from the way people actually use language. A non-cognitivist would have to disagree with someone saying, "'Eating meat is wrong' is a false statement" (since "Eating meat is wrong" is not truth-apt at all), but may be tempted to agree with a person saying, "Eating meat is not wrong." One might more constructively interpret these statements to describe the underlying emotional statement that they express, i.e. : I disapprove/do not disapprove of eating meat, I used to, he doesn't, I do and she doesn't, etc.
; however, this interpretation is closer to ethical subjectivism than to non-cognitivism proper. A similar argument against non-cognitivism is that of ethical argument. A common argument might be, "If killing an innocent human is always wrong, and all fetuses are innocent humans, then killing a fetus is always wrong." Most people would consider such an utterance to represent an analytic proposition which is true a priori. However, if ethical statements do not represent cognitions, it seems odd to use them as premises in an argument, and even odder to assume they follow the same rules of syllogism as true propositions.
However, R.M. Hare, proponent of universal prescriptivism, has argued that the rules of logic are independent of grammatical mood, and thus the same logical relations may hold between imperatives as hold between indicatives. Many objections to non-cognitivism based on the linguistic characteristics of what purport to be moral judgments were originally raised by Peter Glassen in "The Cognitivity of Moral Judgments", published in Mind in January 1959, and in Glassen's follow-up article in the January 1963 issue of the same journal. See also Amoralism Expressivism Theological noncognitivism Moral realism Moral skepticism Rudolf Carnap Richard Rorty  References  External links   Moral Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry by Mark van Roojen.
rsrevision.com's pages on Metaethics Emotivism, Intuitionism and Prescriptivism with explanations, criticisms, and links. Category:Meta-ethics Category:Ethical theories Category:Theories of language  de:Metaethik#Nonkognitivismus
Leucine rich repeat containing 57, also known as LRRC57, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the LRRC57 gene. Function The exact function of LRRC57 is not known. It is a member of the leucine-rich repeat family of proteins, which are known to be involved in protein-protein interactions. Protein sequence As is customary for leucine-rich repeat proteins, the sequence is shown below with the repeats starting on their own lines. The beginning of each repeat is a β-strand, which forms a β-sheet along the concave side of the protein. The convex side of the protein is formed by the latter half of each repeat, and may consist of a variety of structures, including α-helices, 310 helices, β-turns, and even short β-strands.
Note that the 5' and 3' UTR both are rich in leucines, suggesting that they may be degenerate repeats (the overall protein is 19.7% leucine and 7.5% asparagine, both very rich). The following layout of the LRRC57 amino acid sequence makes it easy to discern the LxxLxLxxNxxL consensus sequence of LRRs.
1  M G N S A L R A H V E T A Q K T G V F Q L K D R G L T E F P A D L Q K L T S N   39   40  L R T I D L S N N K I E S L P P L L I G K F T L                                 63   64  L K S L S L N N N K L T V L P D E I C N L K K                                   86   87  L E T L S L N N N H L R E L P S T F G Q L S A                                  109  110  L K T L S L S G N Q L G A L P P Q L C S L R H                                  132  133  L D V M D L S K N Q I R S I P D S V G E L Q                                    154  155  V I E L N L N Q N Q I S Q I S V K I S C C P R                                  177  178  L K I L R L E E N C L E L S M L P Q S I L S D                                  200  201  S Q I C L L A V E G N L F E I K K L R E L E G Y D K Y M E R F T A T K K K F A  239       L x x L x L x x N x L x x L x x x x x x L x  Homology   LRRC57 is exceedingly well conserved, as shown by the following multiple sequence alignment, prepared using ClustalX2.
The cyan and yellow highlights call out regions of high conservation and the repeats. The following table provides a few details on orthologs of the human version of LRRC57. To save space, not all of these orthologs are included in the above multiple sequence alignment. These orthologs were gathered from BLAT. and BLAST searches  Gene neighborhood   The LRRC57 gene has interesting relationships to its neighbors – HAUS2 upstream and SNAP23 downstream, as shown below for human. Shown below is the neighborhood for the mouse ortholog. Note that the neighbors are the same, which is true for most vertebrates. Note the close proximity between LRRC57 and HAUS2/CEP27 (the same gene by different names).
In humans, the exons are 50bp apart, whereas in mouse, they overlap, as shown in the closeup, below. This close relationship may partially explain the high conservation of LRRC57, as it would require a mutation to be stable in both genes at the same time. The relationship to the downstream neighbor, SNAP23 is also interesting. Quoting from the AceView entry: "373 bp of this gene are antisense to spliced gene SNAP23, raising the possibility of regulated alternate expression". Taking the reverse complement of the LRRC57 cDNA and aligning it with the SNAP23 cDNA does show high similarity, as shown in this partial alignment:  Predicted post-translational modifications   The tools on the ExPASy Proteomics site predict the following post-translational modifications:  The predicted modifications for Homo sapiens are shown on the following conceptual translation.
The cyan highlights are predicted phosphorylation sites and the yellow highlights are as labeled. The red boxes show predictions that are conserved across all four organisms. The sites for all four organisms are highlighted on the following multiple sequence alignment. Note that the phosphorylation at S201 and the sulfation at Y224 are the only well conserved predictions across all four organisms. Structure  The structure of LRRC57 is not known. However, a protein BLAST search against the protein databank returns a similar protein (), with an E-value of 3E−14. It is also a leucine rich repeat containing seven repeats of the same length as LRRC57, described as Eptatretus burgeri (inshore hagfish) variable lymphocyte receptors A29.
References  Category:LRR proteins
Central pattern generators (CPGs) are biological neural circuits that produce rhythmic outputs in the absence of rhythmic input. They are the source of the tightly-coupled patterns of neural activity that drive rhythmic and stereotyped motor behaviors like walking, swimming, flying, ejaculating, urinating, defecating, breathing, or chewing. The ability to function without input from higher brain areas still requires modulatory inputs, and their outputs are not fixed. Flexibility in response to sensory input is a fundamental quality of CPG-driven behavior. To be classified as a rhythmic generator, a CPG requires:  "two or more processes that interact such that each process sequentially increases and decreases, and   that, as a result of this interaction, the system repeatedly returns to its starting condition."
CPGs have been found in practically all vertebrate species investigated, including human. Anatomy and physiology  Localization Various molecular, genetic and imaging studies have been conducted as for the localization of the CPGs. The results have shown that the networks responsible for locomotion are distributed throughout the lower thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. Rhythmic movements of the tongue, that participate in swallowing, mastication and respiration, are driven by hypoglossal nuclei, which receive inputs from the dorsal medullary reticular column (DMRC) and the nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS). The hypoglossal nucleus receives rhythmic excitatory inputs also from brainstem respiratory neurons within the pre-Boetzinger complex, which appears to play an important role in the origin of respiration rhythmogenesis.
Anatomy Although anatomical details of CPGs are specifically known in only a few cases, they have been shown to originate from the spinal cords of various vertebrates and to depend on relatively small and autonomous neural networks (rather than the entire nervous system) to generate rhythmic patterns. Many studies have been done to determine the neural substrate of locomotor CPGs in mammals. Neural rhythmicity can arise in two ways: "through interactions among neurons (network-based rhythmicity) or through interactions among currents in individual neurons (endogenous oscillator neurons)". A key to understanding rhythm generation is the concept of a half-center oscillator (HCO).
A half-center oscillator consists of two neurons that have no rhythmogenic ability individually, but produce rhythmic outputs when reciprocally coupled. Half-center oscillators can function in a variety of ways. First, the two neurons may not necessarily fire in antiphase and can fire in any relative phasing, even synchrony, depending on the synaptic release. Second, half-centers can also function in an "escape" mode or a "release" mode. Escape and release refer to the way the off-neuron turns on: by escape or release from inhibition. Half-center oscillators can also be altered by intrinsic and network properties and can have dramatically different functionality based on variations in synaptic properties.
The classical view of CPGs, as specific networks of neurons dedicated to this function alone, has been challenged by numerous data obtained mostly on the central nervous system of invertebrates. In addition to be classical dedicated networks, most of the CPGs seem in fact to be either reorganizing or distributed circuits, and a single neural circuit can combine features typical of each of these architectures. The observation in invertebrates of pattern generators temporarily formed before the production of motor activity strengthens the assumption. CPG circuits appear thus to have a flexible character. Neuromodulation Organisms must adapt their behavior to meet the needs of their internal and external environments.
Central pattern generators, as part of the neural circuitry of an organism, can be modulated to adapt to the organism's needs and surroundings. Three roles of neuromodulation have been found for CPG circuits: Modulation in CPG as part of normal activity Modulation changes the functional configuration of CPGs to produce different motor outputs Modulation alters CPG neuron complement by switching neurons between networks and fusing formerly separate networks into larger entities  Modulation in CPG as part of normal activity For example, the Tritonia diomedea swimming CPG can produce reflexive withdrawal in response to weak sensory input, escape swimming in response to strong sensory input and crawling after escape swimming has ceased.
The dorsal swim interneurons (DSIs) of the swim CPGs not only cause the rhythmic escape swimming, but also connect to cilia-activating efferent neurons. Experimental evidence confirms that both behaviors are mediated by the DSIs. "Given the extreme differences between these behaviors—-rhythmic versus tonic, muscular versus ciliary, and brief versus prolonged—these findings reveal a striking versatility for a small multifunctional network." "Part of this flexibility is caused by the release of serotonin from the DSIs, which causes cerebral cell 2 (C2) to release more transmitter and strengthen its network synapses. Application of serotonergic antagonists prevents the network from producing the swimming pattern, and hence this intranetwork modulation appears essential for network oscillation."
Modulation changes the functional configuration of CPGs to produce different motor outputs Data from experiments by Harris-Warrick in 1991 and Hooper and Marder in 1987 suggest that the functional target of modulation is the entire CPG network. These phenomena were first observed through experiments with the neuromodulator in the lobster cardiac ganglion (Sullivan and Miller 1984). The effect of proctolin could not be understood by looking only at the neurons it directly affected. "Instead, neurons that are not directly affected both alter the response of the directly affected neurons and help to transmit the changes in the activity of these neurons throughout the network," allowing the entire network to change in consistent and synchronized way.
Harris-Warrick and colleagues have conducted many studies over the years of the effects of neuromodulators on CPG neural networks. For example, a 1998 study showed the distributed nature of neuromodulation and that neuromodulators can reconfigure a motor network to allow a family of related movements. Specifically, dopamine was shown to affect both individual neurons, and synapses between neurons. Dopamine strengthens some synapses and weakens others by acting pre- and post-synaptically throughout the crustacean stomatogastric ganglion. These responses, as well as other effects of dopamine, can be opposite in sign in different locations, showing that the sum of the effects is the overall network effect and can cause the CPG to produce related families of different motor outputs.
Modulation alters CPG neuron complement by switching neurons between networks and fusing formerly separate networks into larger entities. A single neuronal network, such as a central pattern generator, can be modulated moment-to-moment to produce several different physical actions depending on the needs of the animal. These were first coined "polymorphic networks" by Getting and Dekin in 1985. An example of one such polymorphic central pattern generator is a multifunctional network of the mollusk Tritonia diomedea. As described by Hooper, weak sensory input to the swimming CPG produces reflexive withdrawal, while strong input produces swimming. The dorsal swim interneurons (DSIs) of the circuit release serotonin to convert to "swim mode," while application of serotonergic antagonists prevents the swim pattern.
Additionally, the same single interneuronal network has been found to produce not only "rhythmic, muscle-based escape swimming," but also "nonrhythmic, cilia-mediated crawling." Evidence also suggests that although the CPG controls related but separate functions, neuromodulation of one function can occur without affecting the other. For example, the swim mode can be sensitized by serotonin without affecting the crawl mode. Thus, the CPG circuit can control many separate functions with the appropriate neuromodulation. Feedback mechanism Although the theory of central pattern generation calls for basic rhythmicity and patterning to be centrally generated, CPGs can respond to sensory feedback to alter the patterning in behaviorally appropriate ways.
Alteration of the pattern is difficult because feedback received during only one phase may require changed movement in the other parts of the patterned cycle to preserve certain coordination relationships. For example, walking with a pebble in the right shoe alters the entire gait, even though the stimulus is only present while standing on the right foot. Even during the time when the left foot is down and the sensory feedback is inactive, action is taken to prolong the right leg swing and extend the time on the left foot, leading to limping. This effect could be due to widespread and long-lasting effects of the sensory feedback on the CPG or due to short-term effects on a few neurons that in turn modulate nearby neurons and spread the feedback through the entire CPG in that way.
Some degree of modulation is required to allow one CPG to assume multiple states in response to feedback. Additionally, the effect of the sensory input varies depending on the phase of the pattern in which it occurs. For example, during walking, resistance to the top of the swinging foot (e.g., by a horizontal stick) causes the foot to be lifted higher to move over the stick. However, the same input to the standing foot cannot cause the foot to lift or the person would collapse. Thus, depending on the phase, the same sensory input can cause the foot to be lifted higher or held more firmly to the ground.
"This change in motor response as a function of motor pattern phase is called reflex reversal, and has been observed in invertebrates (DiCaprio and Clarac, 1981) and vertebrates (Forssberg et al., 1977). How this process occurs is poorly understood, but again two possibilities exist. One is that sensory input is appropriately routed to different CPG neurons as a function of motor pattern phase. The other is that the input reaches the same neurons at all phases, but that, as a consequence of the way in which the network transforms the input, network response varies appropriately as a function of motor pattern phase."
A recent study by Gottschall and Nichols studied the hindlimb of a decerebrate cat during walking (a CPG controlled function) in response to changes in head pitch. This study describes the differences in gait and body position of cats walking uphill, downhill and on level surfaces. Proprioceptive (Golgi tendon organs and muscle spindles) and exteroreceptive (optic, vestibular and cutaneous) receptors work alone or in combination to adjust the CPG to sensory feedback. The study explored the effects of neck proprioceptors (giving information about the relative location of the head and body) and vestibular receptors (giving information about the orientation of the head relative to gravity).
Decerebrate cats were made to walk on a level surface with their heads level, tilted up or tilted down. Comparing the decerebrate cats to normal cats showed similar EMG patterns during level walking and EMG patterns that reflected downhill walking with the head titled up and uphill walking with the head tilted down. This study proved that neck proprioceptors and vestibular receptors contribute sensory feedback that alters the gait of the animal. This information may be useful for treatment of gait disorders. Functions Central pattern generators can serve many functions in vertebrate animals. CPGs can play roles in movement, breathing, rhythm generation and other oscillatory functions.
The sections below focus on specific examples of locomotion and rhythm generation, two key functions of CPGs. Locomotion As early as 1911, it was recognized, by the experiments of Thomas Graham Brown, that the basic pattern of stepping can be produced by the spinal cord without the need of descending commands from the cortex. The first modern evidence of the central pattern generator was produced by isolating the locust nervous system and showing that it could produce a rhythmic output in isolation resembling that of the locust in flight. This was discovered by Wilson in 1961. Since that time, evidence has arisen for the presence of central pattern generators in vertebrate animals, starting with work on the cat in the 1960s by Elzbieta Jankowska in Gothenburg, who provided the first evidence for a spinal cord CPG.
This section addresses the role of the central pattern generator in locomotion for the lamprey and humans. The lamprey has been used as a model for vertebrate CPGs because, while its nervous system has a vertebrate organization, it shares many positive characteristics with invertebrates. When removed from the lamprey, the intact spinal cord can survive for days in vitro. It also has very few neurons and can be easily stimulated to produce a fictive swimming motion indicative of a central pattern generator. As early as 1983, Ayers, Carpenter, Currie and Kinch proposed that there was a CPG responsible for most undulating movements in the lamprey including swimming forward and backward, burrowing in the mud and crawling on a solid surface, that although not surprisingly did not match the activity in the intact animal, nevertheless provided the basic locomotor output.
The different movements have been found to be altered by neuromodulators, including serotonin in a study by Harris-Warrick and Cohen in 1985 and tachykinin in a study by Parker et al. in 1998. The lamprey model of CPG for locomotion has been important to the study of CPGs. Although Sten Grillner claims that the locomotor network is characterised, a claim that has seemingly been uncritically accepted by the spinal cord locomotor network field, there are in fact many missing details and Grillner cannot provide the evidence he uses to support his claims (Parker 2006). A general scheme of the lamprey CPG is now being used in the creation of artificial CPGs.
For example, Ijspeert and Kodjabachian used Ekeberg's model for the lamprey to create artificial CPGs and simulate swimming movements in a lamprey-like substrate using controllers based on a SGOCE encoding. Essentially, these are the first steps toward the use of CPGs to code for locomotion in robots. The vertebrate model of CPG has been also developed with both Hodgkin-Huxley formalism, its variants  and control system approaches. For example, Yakovenko and colleagues have developed a simple mathematical model that describes basic principles proposed by T.G. Brown with integrate-to-threshold units organized with mutually inhibitory connections. This model is sufficient to describe complex properties of behavior, such as different regimes of the extensor- and flexor-dominant locomotion observed during electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR), MLR-induced fictive locomotion.
Connections between the CPGs controlling each limb control interlimb coordination and hence the gaits in quadrupedal and possibly also bipedal animals. Left right coordination is mediated by commissural and fore-hind as well as diagonal coordination is mediated by long-projecting propiospinal interneurons. The balance of the left-right alternation (mediated genetically identified V0d and V0v neuron classes) to left-synchronization promoting commissural interneurons (potentially mediated V3 neurons) determines whether walk and trot (alternating gaits) or gallop and bound (synchronous gaits) are expressed. This balance changes with increasing speed, potentially because of modulation by supraspinal drive from the MLR and mediated by the reticular formation, and causes speed dependent gait transitions characteristic for quadrupedal animals.
The walk to trot transition potentially occurs because of the stronger decrease of extension than flexion phase durations with increasing locomotor speed and could be mediated by descending diagonal inhibition through V0d long propriospinal neurons, which leads to progressively increasing overlap between the diagonal limbs up until diagonal synchronization (trot). Commissural and long propriospinal neurons are a likely target of supraspinal and somatosensory afferent inputs to adjust interlimb coordination and gait to different environmental and behavioral conditions. Central pattern generators also contribute to locomotion in humans. In 1994, Calancie, et al. described the "first well-defined example of a central rhythm generator for stepping in the adult human."
The subject was a 37-year-old male who suffered an injury to the cervical spinal cord 17 years prior. After initial total paralysis below the neck, the subject eventually regained some movement of the arms and fingers and limited movement in the lower limbs. He had not recovered sufficiently to support his own weight. After 17 years, the subject found that when lying supine and extending his hips, his lower extremities underwent step-like movements for as long as he remained lying down. "The movements (i) involved alternating flexion and extension of his hips, knees, and ankles; (ii) were smooth and rhythmic; (iii) were forceful enough that the subject soon became uncomfortable due to excessive muscle 'tightness' and an elevated body temperature; and (iv) could not be stopped by voluntary effort."
After extensive study of the subject, the experimenters concluded that "these data represent the clearest evidence to date that such a [CPG] network does exist in man." Four years later, in 1998, Dimitrijevic, et al. showed that the human lumbar pattern generating networks can be activated by drive to large-diameter sensory afferents of the posterior roots. When tonic electrical stimulation is applied to these fibers in motor complete spinal cord injured individuals (i.e., individuals in whom the spinal cord is functionally isolated from the brain) rhythmic, locomotor-like movement of the lower limbs can be elicited. These measurements were performed in supine position, thus minimizing peripheral feedback.
Subsequent studies showed that these lumbar locomotor centers can form a large variety of rhythmic movements by combining and distributing stereotypical patterns to the numerous lower limb muscles. A CPG-activating drug treatment called Spinalon, active centrally upon oral administration, has also been shown to partially reactivate spinal locomotor neurons in complete or motor-complete spinal cord-injured patients. Indeed, a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study in forty-five volunteers with chronic AIS A/B injuries (between 3 months and 30 years post-trauma) lying in the supine position for safety reasons, revealed that Spinalon below maximum tolerated dose (MTD was 500/125/50 mg/kg L-DOPA/carbidopa/buspirone) was well tolerated.
Preliminary evidence of efficacy was also found using videotape and electromyographic recordings since doses below MTD could acutely induce rhythmic locomotor-like leg movements in groups with Spinalon, but not in those with placebo (cornstarch). Neuromechanical control of locomotion in mammals If step cycle durations and muscle activations were fixed, it wouldn't be possible to change body velocity and adapt to varying terrain. It has been suggested that the mammalian locomotor CPG comprises a “timer” (possibly in the form of coupled oscillators) which generates step cycles of varying durations, and a “pattern formation layer,” which selects and grades the activation of motor pools.
Increasing the neural drive from the midbrain locomotor region (MLR) to the spinal CPG increases the step cycle frequency (the cadence). Swing and stance phase durations co-vary in a fairly fixed relationship, with stance phases changing more than swing phases. Sensory input from the limbs may truncate or extend individual phase durations in a process akin to finite state control (in which "if-then” rules determine when state transitions occur). For example, if a limb that is swinging forward reaches the end of swing in less time than the current CPG-generated flexor phase duration, sensory input would cause the CPG timer to terminate swing and start the stance phase.
Furthermore, as body velocity increases, the pattern formation layer would increase muscle activation nonlinearly to provide increased load-bearing and thrust forces. It has been posited that in well-predicted movements, CPG-generated phase durations and muscle forces closely match those required by the evolving biomechanical events, minimizing the sensory corrections required. The term ‘‘neuromechanical tuning’’ has been coined to describe this process   Fig. 1 provides a simplified schematic that summarizes these proposed mechanisms. A command specifying desired body velocity descends from higher centers to the MLR, which drives the spinal locomotor CPG. The CPG timer produces the appropriate cadence and phase durations and the pattern formation layer modulates the motoneuronal outputs.
The activated muscles resist stretch through their own intrinsic biomechanical properties, providing a rapid form of length and velocity feedback control. Reflexes mediated by Golgi tendon organ and other afferents provide additional load compensation, but the main role of sensory input may be to adjust or override the CPG at stance-swing-stance transitions. As described in Neuromodulation, the human locomotive CPG is very adaptable and can respond to sensory input. It receives input from the brainstem as well as from the environment to keep the network regulated. Newer studies have not only confirmed the presence of the CPG for human locomotion, but also confirmed its robustness and adaptability.
For example, Choi and Bastian showed that the networks responsible for human walking are adaptable on short and long timescales. They showed adaptation to different gait patterns and different walking contexts. Also, they showed that different motor patterns can adapt independently. Adults could even walk on treadmills going in a different direction for each leg. This study showed that independent networks control forward and backward walking and that networks controlling each leg can adapt independently and be trained to walk independently. Thus, humans also possess a central pattern generator for locomotion that is capable not only of rhythmic pattern generation but also remarkable adaptation and usefulness in a wide variety of situations.
Respiration  A three-phase model is the classical view of the respiratory CPG. The phases of the respiratory CPG are characterized by the rhythmic activity of: (1) the phrenic nerve during inspiration; (2) recurrent laryngeal nerve branches that innervate the thyroarytenoid muscle during the last stage of expiration; (3) the internal intercostal nerve branches that innervate the triangularis sterni muscle during the second stage of expiration. The rhythmicity of these nerves is classically viewed as originating from a single rhythm generator. In this model, phasing is produced by reciprocal synaptic inhibition between groups of sequentially active interneurons. Nevertheless, an alternative model has been proposed reinforced by certain experimental data.
According to this model, respiratory rhythm is generated by two coupled anatomically distinct rhythm generators, one in the pre-Boetzinger complex and the other in the retrotrapezoid nucleus / parafacial respiratory group. Further survey provided evidence to the hypothesis that one of the networks is responsible for inspiration rhythm and the other for expiration rhythm. Therefore, inspiration and expiration are distinct functions and one does not induce the other, as is the common belief, but one of two dominates the behavior by generating a faster rhythm. Swallowing Swallowing involves the coordinated contraction of more than 25 pairs of muscles in the oropharynx, larynx and esophagus, which are active during an oropharyngeal phase, followed by the primary esophageal peristalsis.
Swallowing depends on a CPG located in the medulla oblongata, which involves several brain stem motor nuclei and two main groups of interneurons: a dorsal swallowing group (DSG) in the nucleus tractus solitarii and a ventral swallowing group (VSG) located in the ventrolateral medulla above the nucleus ambiguus. Neurons in the DSG are responsible for the generation of the swallowing pattern, while those in the VSG distribute the commands to the various motoneuronal pools. As in other CPGs, the functioning of the central network can be modulated by peripheral and central inputs, so that the swallowing pattern is adapted to the size of the bolus.
Within this network, central inhibitory connections play a major role, producing a rostrocaudal inhibition that parallels the rostrocaudal anatomy of the swallowing tract. Thus, when the neurons controlling the proximal parts of the tract are active, those that command more distal parts are inhibited. Apart from the type of connection between the neurons, intrinsic properties of the neurons, especially those of NTS neurons, probably also contribute to the shaping and timing of the swallowing pattern. The swallowing CPG is a flexible CPG. This means that at least some of the swallowing neurons may be multifunctional neurons and belong to pools of neurons that are common to several CPGs.
One such CPG is the respiratory one, which has been observed interacting with the swallowing CPG. Rhythm generators Central pattern generators can also play a role in rhythm generation for other functions in vertebrates. For example, the rat vibrissa system uses an unconventional CPG for whisking movements. "Like other CPGs, the whisking generator can operate without cortical input or sensory feedback. However, unlike other CPGs, vibrissa motoneurons actively participate in rhythmogenesis by converting tonic serotonergic inputs into the patterned motor output responsible for movement of the vibrissae." Breathing is another non-locomotive function of central pattern generators. For example, larval amphibians accomplish gas exchange largely through rhythmic ventilation of the gills.
A study showed that lung ventilation in the tadpole brainstem may be driven by a pacemaker-like mechanism, whereas the respiratory CPG adapts in the adult bullfrog as it matures. Thus, CPGs hold a broad range of functions in the vertebrate animal and are widely adaptable and variable with age, environment and behavior. Mechanism of rhythmic generators: post-inhibitory rebound  Rhythmicity in CPG's can also result from time-dependent cellular properties such as adaptation, delayed excitation, and post-inhibitory rebound (PIR). PIR is an intrinsic property that elicits rhythmic electrical activity by depolarizing the membrane once hyperpolarizing stimulus is gone. "It can be produced by several mechanisms including hyperpolarization-activated cation current (Ih) or deinactivation of depolarization-activated inward currents"  Once inhibition has ceased, this period of PIR can be explained as the time with increased neuronal excitability.
It is the property of many CNS neurons that sometimes results in action potential "bursts" following immediately after inhibitory synaptic input. "Because of this, it has been suggested that PIR may contribute to the maintenance of oscillatory activity in neural networks that are characterized by mutual inhibitory connections, like those involved in locomotor behaviors. In addition, PIR is often included as an element in computational models of neural networks that involve mutual inhibition"  For example, the "PIR in crayfish stretch receptor neurons is caused by recovery from adaptation during the course of inhibitory hyperpolarization. One feature of that system is that PIR only occurs if the hyperpolarization is imposed on a background of excitation, caused in this case by stretch.
They also found that PIR can be elicited in the stretch receptor by hyperpolarizing current pulses. This was an important finding because it showed that PIR is an intrinsic property of the postsynaptic neuron, related to the membrane potential change associated with inhibition but independent of transmitter receptors or presynaptic properties. The latter conclusion has stood the test of time, marking PIR as a robust property of CNS neurons in a wide variety of contexts." This cellular property can most easily be seen in the Lamprey neural circuit. The swimming movement is produced by alternating neural activity between the left and right side of the body, causing it to bend back and forth while creating oscillating movements.
While the Lamprey is bent to the left, there is reciprocal inhibition on the right side causing it to relax due to hyperpolarization. Immediately after this hyperopolarizing stimulus, the interneurons use post-inhibitory rebound to initiate activity in the right side. Depolarization of the membrane causes it to contract while reciprocal inhibition is now applied to the left side. Functions in invertebrates As described earlier, CPGs can also function in a variety of ways in invertebrate animals. In the mollusc Tritonia, a CPG modulates reflexive withdrawal, escape swimming and crawling. CPGs are also used in flight in locusts and for respiration systems in other insects.
Central pattern generators play a broad role in all animals and show amazing variability and adaptability in almost all cases. Other theories The classical view of movement control prior to works of Brown attributed the function of muscle pattern generation largely to sensory feedback mechanisms. In this light, the pattern generator can be considered as an intrinsic spinal processor that corrects imperfect sensory feedback and adapts central input to this optimized peripheral input. References  External links    How Do Central Pattern Generators Work? @ www.bio.brandeis.edu  Hooper's Review of Central Pattern Generators(PDF)            Category:Neurophysiology Category:Neural coding Category:Cybernetics Category:Neuroethology concepts Category:Motor control
Eggs, Beans and Crumpets is a collection of short stories by P. G. Wodehouse, first published in the United Kingdom on April 26, 1940 by Herbert Jenkins, London, then with a slightly different content in the United States on May 10, 1940 by Doubleday, Doran, New York. Most of the stories feature regular characters: Drones Club member Bingo Little, Mr Mulliner, Ukridge and, in the US edition, Freddie Widgeon and the Oldest Member. The US edition of the book also included "Ukridge and the Home from Home", "The Come-back of Battling Billson", and "The Level Business Head" (three more Ukridge stories), which in the UK had already been included in Lord Emsworth and Others (1937).
It also included three more Drones Club stories: "Trouble Down at Tudsleigh", which was in the UK version of Young Men in Spats (1936), "Bramley Is So Bracing", which would appear to UK readers in Nothing Serious (1950), and "Scratch Man", which would not appear in the UK until A Few Quick Ones (1959). Missing from the US edition were "Romance at Droitgate Spa" and "All's Well with Bingo", which had been included in The Crime Wave at Blandings (1937). Contents  "All's Well with Bingo"   US: Saturday Evening Post, January 30, 1937  UK: Strand, April 1937  Plot  At the Drones Club, an Egg (a nondescript member of the club) complains to a Crumpet and a Bean about Bingo Little singing with joy.
The Crumpet tells the following story, explaining that Bingo is happy because he narrowly escaped getting into trouble with his wife Rosie. Rosie asks Bingo to go to Monte Carlo to take notes she can use in her next novel. Bingo wants to gamble there, but Rosie, the household breadwinner, does not want him to gamble. Instead of giving him money, she has his travel bills sent to her so he is not tempted. Disappointed, Bingo goes to Monte Carlo, and discovers that the wealthy Drone Oofy Prosser is nearby. He gives Oofy lunch, and Oofy is grateful, though he refuses to lend Bingo money.
Instead, he gives Bingo a tip to bet on the horse Spotted Dog. Bingo bets ten pounds on credit. The horse loses, and Bingo now owes ten pounds to a bookmaker who threatens that a nasty accident will befall Bingo if he does not pay. Rosie's friend Dora Spurgeon returns Rosie's brooch, a birthday gift from Bingo that Dora had borrowed, to Bingo. He pawns it for five pounds and bets it, intending to use his supposedly unbeatable system (doubling his bet when he wins), yet he loses repeatedly. Playing roulette, he puts his last one hundred francs on Black.
Up comes Zero, and his money is swept away by the croupier. Dejected, Bingo is suddenly greeted by Rosie, who was able to come because her luncheon was postponed. She expects to get her brooch back soon, which worries Bingo. Bingo notices a pile of chips on Black worth no less than three thousand, two hundred francs, or about forty pounds. He had forgotten that when Zero comes up, even-odds bets are put "in prison", or kept on to await the result of the next spin. Distracted by Rosie, he had not taken out his winnings after Black turned up, so it all stayed on Black.
Black came up seven more times. Bingo cannot take out his winnings, or else Rosie will see he has been gambling. He tries to make a face at the croupier to signal that he wants his money pushed aside, but the croupier misinterprets him and lets it all ride (meaning Bingo's money will continue to be bet double-or-nothing on Black). Though Bingo is nervous, Black keeps coming up. Some of his winnings are finally pushed aside when his stake reaches the limit for even-odds bets. Rosie leaves at last, and Bingo happily claims forty-eight thousand francs. He buys back Rosie's brooch and goes to her.
Rosie confesses that she was tempted to gamble and lost two hundred pounds in ten minutes. She is concerned this will upset Bingo. Bingo assures her that he understands, though he claims not to experience such impulses himself. "Bingo and the Peke Crisis"   US: Saturday Evening Post, May 29, 1937  UK: Strand, June 1937  Plot At the Drones Club, a Bean is upset that Bingo Little tried to give him a Peke which bit the Bean in the leg. A Crumpet tells the Bean that Bingo is more to be pitied than censured, and recounts the following story. Bingo's wife Rosie, the household breadwinner, disapproves of Bingo's gambling habit and keeps him on a tight budget.
Bingo wants to bet on a horse but has no capital. Rosie has asked Mr. Purkiss, the proprietor of a children's magazine called Wee Tots, to consider hiring Bingo as editor. Pleased at the prospect of having a salary, Bingo happily agrees to meet Purkiss at Charing Cross. Rosie leaves town, trusting Bingo to look after her six Pekes. She gives Bingo ten pounds to pay a bill for a dog harness. Bingo uses the money to bet on the horse, then meets with Purkiss. A man to whom Bingo owes money walks by, so Bingo flees. The horse loses, Purkiss tells Bingo he will not be hired in a letter (which Bingo tears up), and worst of all, one of Rosie's Pekes is missing.
Seeing a butler walking a Peke, Bingo decides to steal the dog to replace the lost one, and follows the pair to a house. He hides until none other than Mr. Purkiss walks outside with the Peke. Bitter about Purkiss's letter, Bingo's ethical qualms about stealing the dog vanish. He sneaks the Peke away using cheese as bait. Later, Bingo's butler Bagshaw tells him one of the Pekes is out having its portrait painted. Bingo now has one too many dogs, but he cannot remember how to return to Purkiss's house, nor can he remember Purkiss's name, and therefore cannot look up his address.
Bingo tries to give the Peke to the Bean, but the dog bites the Bean on his leg. (Bingo has agreed to pay for medical expenses.) Bagshaw helps Bingo remember the name of the grocer who sold Bingo cheese, and Bingo finds Purkiss's house from there. Bingo quietly returns the Peke, but it follows him back home. Bagshaw informs Bingo that Purkiss paid a visit. Fearing Purkiss knows all, Bingo decides to ask for mercy. He visits Purkiss formally. Purkiss surprisingly confesses to stealing Bingo's dog; Purkiss, who had been looking after his wife's Peke, let the dog outside without a leash, and the dog vanished.
Purkiss visited Bingo's house hoping to buy one of Rosie's dogs, but one of the dogs jumped on his leg. It looked just like the one he lost, so he took the dog. Bingo agrees to let Purkiss keep the dog in exchange for becoming editor. Bingo also asks for a small advance to pay Rosie's bill. "The Editor Regrets"   US: Saturday Evening Post, July 1, 1939  UK: Strand, September 1939  Plot Members of the Drones Club try to sell articles to Bingo Little, editor of the children's magazine Wee Tots, but Bingo rejects them. A Crumpet believes that Bingo enjoys rejecting their articles because he is drunk with power, and that this will get Bingo into trouble.
The Crumpet remarks that this nearly happened not long ago, and recounts the following story. Bella Mae Jobson, an American author of children's books, comes to London. Purkiss, Bingo's boss, wants her to contribute to Wee Tots and asks her to see his editor, Bingo. Bingo is not informed about this, and when told by telephone that Jobson has arrived, he feels too important to see someone without an appointment, and refuses to see her. Bingo later tells Purkiss that he sent her away. Purkiss angrily explains Jobson's importance. He then insults and fires Bingo. Bingo does not look forward to telling this to his wife Rosie, who secured him the job, and goes to a party to distract himself.
He meets the beautiful Bella Mae Jobson there. Hoping to ingratiate himself with her to impress Purkiss and get his job back, Bingo treats her to meals and gives her gifts, including a signed photograph of himself. She invites him to a lunch party at her hotel suite. Rosie returns from a trip early, and has been invited to Jobson's lunch party, complicating matters. Bingo has not told Jobson he is married and foresees embarrassment if this is discovered, so he writes a telegram to Jobson saying that he cannot attend. He decides to steal the signed photograph to keep Rosie from seeing it.
After bribing the maid to access Jobson's suite while she is out walking her dog, Bingo takes the photograph, but is met by Purkiss, who also bribes the maid to enter. Purkiss tries to talk to him but Bingo hurries out. Outside, he sees Rosie. She is on her way to comfort Mrs. Purkiss, who lost her dog. Rosie asks Bingo to tell Jobson that she and Mrs. Purkiss cannot make it to the party. Bingo readily consents, and Rosie leaves. Purkiss asks Bingo for help. To curry Jobson's favour, Purkiss took his wife's Pekingese and gave the dog to Jobson, so he does not want his wife to go to the party and see her dog there.
He asks Bingo to prevent his wife from coming to the party. Bingo agrees in exchange for being reinstated as editor. "Sonny Boy"   US: Saturday Evening Post, September 2, 1939  UK: Strand, December 1939  Plot Bingo Little treats his baby, Algernon Aubrey Little, to milk at the Drones Club. A Crumpet tells a Bean, Egg and Pieface the following story about Bingo, his wife, the novelist Rosie M. Banks, and their baby. Like Bingo at the same age, his baby is ugly and resembles a gargoyle. Bingo, an avid gambler always on the lookout for omens, takes this as a sign to bet on a horse named Gargoyle, but the horse loses and Bingo is down ten pounds, leaving him no money for luxuries.
To make up the loss, he decides to get money from Oofy Prosser. Oofy is in love, but nonetheless in no mood to lend money. Bingo horns his way into dinner with Oofy and the girl. Oofy resents Bingo's presence and refuses to give him money. Rosie sends Bingo ten pounds to start a bank account for their baby Algy. Bingo walks Algy in a baby carriage in Wimbledon Common. Bingo's bookmaker, Charlie Pikelet, is also walking an ugly baby with a baby carriage. Each man believes his baby is uglier, and Pikelet proposes a wager. Bingo bets ten pounds that Algy is the ugliest baby in Wimbledon, using Algy's ten pounds in the belief that Algy would not object.
Pikelet asks a passing policeman to judge the babies. The policeman says that his own baby at home is even uglier, but declares Arabella the winner. Bingo loses the ten pounds. Rosie calls Bingo and says she will be returning from her trip with her mother the next day. She asks Bingo to correct the galley proofs for her Christmas story and send them to her publisher. The story, "Tiny Fingers", concerns a hard-hearted godfather who disapproves of his goddaughter marrying a young artist, but is moved when their child sits on his knee and writes them a cheque. Bingo, remembering Oofy Prosser is Algy's godfather, is inspired by the story and goes to Oofy's flat with Algy.
Oofy's valet, Corker, tells Bingo that Oofy is asleep after a late night. Bingo leaves Algy there and goes to greet Rosie and her mother at Paddington. Upon returning, Bingo finds Oofy alarmed by the baby. Oofy says that Bingo, by ruining his dinner with the girl, saved him from marriage and babies, and thanks Bingo by giving him fifty pounds. "Anselm Gets His Chance"   UK: Strand, July 1937  US: Saturday Evening Post, July 3, 1937  Plot Mr Mulliner remarks that vicars in rural England always preach the sermons on summer evenings, when the congregation is particularly receptive, preventing their curates from having the opportunity.
He tells the following story about his cousin Rupert's younger son, Anselm, curate of the parish of Rising Mattock in Hampshire. Anselm is engaged to Myrtle Jellaby, niece of Sir Leopold Jellaby, OBE. Their engagement is secret from Sir Leopold because Anselm only has his modest stipend to marry on. One day, Anselm unexpectedly inherits a stamp album from his late godfather. The album is insured for five thousand pounds. Myrtle warns Anselm to keep the album safe from Joe Beamish, a local man who used to be a burglar. Anselm shows the stamps to Sir Leopold, who collects stamps, hoping to sell it to him for five thousand pounds.
Sir Leopold examines the collection and says they are not valuable. He offers ten pounds for the lot and tells him to think it over. Disappointed, Anselm leaves and returns to Myrtle. She suggests they let Joe Beamish know where the stamps are, then collect the insurance money after he steals them. Anselm thinks this plan is unethical, so Myrtle secretly carries it out on her own. She visits Joe and, pretending to be concerned about the security of the stamps, describes the album and where it is kept in the vicarage. At night in the vicarage, Anselm is awoken by sounds.
His vicar, the Rev. Sidney Gooch, has a black eye after being punched by a burglar who stole the stamp album. Gooch cannot give sermons the next day because of his black eye, so Anselm will finally get a chance to preach a summer evening sermon. Anselm has been saving a special sermon on Brotherly Love, and preaches it the following evening. It is extremely moving and well received. Later, Anselm tells Myrtle that he is concerned it would be unethical to send a claim to the insurance company when they know the stamp album is nearly worthless. Myrtle convinces him to send in the claim anyway.
Joe appears and thanks Anselm for his touching sermon. He was so moved that he has come to return the stamp album he stole. Anselm tries to let Joe keep the album, but Joe insists that it belongs to Anselm. He withdraws, leaving Anselm and Myrtle to discuss their predicament. They hear someone sobbing. It is Sir Leopold, who was also deeply moved by Anselm's sermon. Sir Leopold asks for a pen and ink so he can write Anselm a cheque for ten thousand pounds for his stamp collection. He had recognized that the collection was worth five thousand pounds before but had lied, and now wants to pay Anselm ten thousand for it after hearing his sermon.
He is also approving when they tell him of their engagement. Myrtle decides to drive to London immediately and deposit the cheque at the bank, in case Sir Leopold changes his mind. "Romance at Droitgate Spa"   US: Saturday Evening Post, February 20, 1937  UK: Strand, August 1937  Plot Frederick "Freddie" Fitch-Fitch goes to Droitgate Spa to ask his uncle and trustee, Major-General Sir Aylmer Bastable, to release his capital, so that he can marry Annabel Purvis. Sir Aylmer is in a bad mood because at Droitgate, he is not treated the way he has come to expect because of his aristocratic background and distinguished military record.
He merely has a touch of gout, and only those with more serious maladies enjoy high social standing at the spa. Sir Aylmer is also annoyed because his nurse left. Freddie tells him he wants to marry a magician's assistant, but Sir Aylmer won't hear of it. Freddie comes up with a plan: Annabel will become his uncle's new nurse and gain his favour, so when Freddie comes down and appears to fall in love with her, he will consent to Freddie marrying her. Annabel, who has experience nursing her Uncle Joe, agrees to the plan. In three weeks, she ingratiates herself with Sir Aylmer.
Freddie comes and Sir Aylmer says Freddie ought to be in love with a girl like Annabel, since she is a good nurse and her late father was a colonel. Just ten minutes later, Freddie says she has accepted his proposal of marriage. Sir Aylmer is surprised but congratulates Freddie nonetheless. Freddie returns to London to get the papers for Sir Aylmer to sign to release his capital. A magician named Mortimer Rackstraw, known as The Great Boloni, comes to see Freddie at his club. Mortimer, while mechanically doing magic tricks out of anxiety, tells Freddie he was engaged to his assistant Annabel, but she ended their engagement to marry Freddie.
Mortimer warns he will take revenge on Freddie for stealing the girl he loved. Freddie gets a telegram from Annabel telling him to return to Droitgate Spa at once, though he has to put up with a talkative, unfashionable man on the train. At Droitgate, Annabel tells him that Mortimer has come. She locked him in the cellar, but he will be able to escape soon. He intends to introduce Sir Aylmer to Annabel's unsophisticated Uncle Joe, so that Sir Aylmer will not allow Freddie to marry Annabel. Annabel's uncle Joe is the man Freddie met on the train. Freddie rushes to the Pump Room to have Sir Aylmer sign his legal papers before Mortimer can reach him.
However, Sir Aylmer is busy listening to a band playing. The music ends, but then Sir Aylmer is distracted by the distinguished, snobbish Lord Rumbelow. Lord Rumbelow has a complicated case of telangiectasis and acts superior towards the minor gout patient Sir Aylmer. Mortimer arrives, despite Annabel's attempts to stop him, and tells Sir Aylmer that he must not allow his nephew to marry Annabel. Her late father had actually been a colonel in the Salvation Army, after being a Silver Ring bookmaker. Further, Mortimer introduces Uncle Joe, but Sir Aylmer is actually proud to meet him, since Joseph Boffin is famous for his ailments.
Lord Rumbelow and his peers are also delighted to meet Joe. They congratulate Sir Aylmer on his nephew marrying the great Joseph Boffin's niece, and invite Sir Aylmer into their exclusive social club. Sir Aylmer signs Freddie's papers, and Freddie embraces Annabel. Mortimer, who has been absently doing magic tricks in the background, finally gives up and strides off. "A Bit of Luck for Mabel"   US: Saturday Evening Post, December 26, 1925  UK: Strand, January 1926  Plot Ukridge and his pal Jimmy Corcoran are taking a break in the country, and one night Ukridge decides to tell the story of Mabel and the top hat.
Ukridge had met Mabel at a dinner party at his Aunt Julia's house, and had fallen for her hard; she was the daughter of a wealthy colonial type who was busy out in Singapore, and Ukridge began frequenting their house. He has a rival for Mabel's love, who is a Baronet, which worries Ukridge somewhat, but he is given confidence by his dress, which, as he is at the time staying with his aunt, is rather dapper, top hat, spats and all. Ascot is approaching, and Ukridge agrees to attend with Mabel and her family. Aunt Julia discovers that Ukridge has pawned a clock from the spare room, to pay for gifts for Mabel, and kicks him out once more; Ukridge takes lodgings, but one day his hat is blown off and crushed in the street.
Needing one for Ascot, he approaches George Tupper for a loan, but Tupper, annoyed at Ukridge for touching him twice in a week, proposes to find Ukridge a job, and fixes up a meeting with a friend of his who is after a secretary. Ukridge agrees, but on the way out picks up Tupper's topper. The day of the races arrives, and Ukridge gives his coat and hat to his landlady to clean up ready for the big event. She holds them to ransom, refusing to return them unless he pays the back-rent he owes. Desperate for apparel to attend the meet, he has a visitor, who he takes to be Tupper's friend come to interview him for the job; he tricks the man out of his coat and hat, which fit like a charm, and heads off to Ascot.
Arriving, he meets Tupper, who tells him the friend had to cancel their appointment and had left for Paris the previous evening. Ukridge is bemused, until Mabel asks where her father is - he had, apparently, returned early from Singapore, and had been sent to collect Ukridge and bring him along to Ascot. Having thus embarrassed himself in front of her father, Ukridge gives Mabel up, and hears she later married the Bart. Ukridge suggests a weighty, moving title for the tale, something about fate and destiny, but Corky has something more fitting in mind. "Buttercup Day"   US: Saturday Evening Post, November 21, 1925  UK: Strand, December 1925  Plot Ukridge, impoverished as ever, complains to his friend Corky of his lack of funds, and also of the way charity collectors take a heavy toll on what money he does get hold of.
His Aunt Julia is holding a fete in the grounds of her house while she is away, and he asks Corky to help him guard the place from the revelers. Arriving at the Heath House, Corky is made to buy a paper flower from a pretty girl who informs him it is "Buttercup Day". Inside, Ukridge tells him it is all a plan of his - he has hired the girl, going in halves with her for the money she collects. Corky is shocked, but Ukridge explains that at no point is any real charity mentioned. With the money, suitably increased by some astute gambling, he plans to found a cat ranch in America.
A stuttering curate enters, and complains about the Buttercup girl; Corky is heading off to warn her when he runs into Aunt Julia, returned early. He tries to shake her off, and returns to Ukridge, who he finds sleeping soundly; he meets Aunt Julia again, and a detective from Scotland Yard tells them that a dangerous crook is at the fete, a burglar known for his stuttering. He asks where Julia keeps her jewelry, and rushes off to check on it. Julia and Corky find they are locked in. Their shouts eventually bring Ukridge, who releases them, and it emerges that Ukridge had been drugged by the curate, while the butler had been locked in the cellar at gunpoint by the fake detective.
Aunt Julia's jewels and collection of precious snuff boxes are missing. Ukridge is once again thrown out of his aunt's house, and is distraught to learn that his friend the Buttercup girl, having met a stuttering curate at the fete, had let him talk her into donating all her ill-gotten money to his church fund. "Ukridge and the Old Stepper"   UK: Strand, June 1928  US: Liberty, June 9, 1928  Plot Ukridge and his friend Corky, the latter angry that Ukridge has stolen his best new suit, run into the titular Old Stepper in the street one day, and Corky is astounded to see Ukridge blank the fellow, despite his friendly greeting and offer of a free lunch.
Ukridge explains how the chill fell on their relationship...  Ukridge is sent by his Aunt Julia to her cottage in the country, mainly because her neighbour there is a successful man in the jute trade, and she hopes he may give Ukridge a job. Ukridge is sceptical, until he sees the man's daughter over his hedge and falls in love with her. Later, a stranger calls at the house, and introduces himself as Ukridge's "Uncle Percy" - having married Ukridge's stepmother's stepsister (hence the nickname "The Old Stepper") - freshly arrived from Australia. Ukridge takes him in, and is delighted to find him a generous fellow, filling the house with comfortable furniture and providing a summer house for the garden.
The girl next door's birthday approaches, and Ukridge is in need of funds and ideas for her gift, until the Old Stepper suggests a sundial, which Ukridge agrees is a romantic thought. The man then goes and provides one, perfect for the job. With Ukridge well in the good books of his neighbours, he finally gets them to agree to come to tea one day, and his houseguest promises to fill the place with roses. The girl and her father arrive, and all is going swimmingly until a stranger calls at the house, claims that the furniture was paid for with a bad cheque, and begins to repossess it.
Ukridge has just managed to calm his guests when another stranger, the girl's uncle and Ukridge's neighbour on the other side, appears. He has returned home to find his sundial at his brother's house, his roses all removed to Ukridge's parlour and his summer house in Ukridge's garden. The guests all leave in disgust. When the Old Stepper comes home, Ukridge berates him for his thieving ways. The old man tries to defend himself, claiming he has always "scrounged" things that were not in use, but ever since Ukridge has not trusted him, and has avoided him where possible, even at the cost of turning down a free meal.
Background Wodehouse explained the inspiration for the short story "All's Well with Bingo" in a letter written on 12 August 1947 to a fan asking about the inspiration for his writing. Wodehouse responded that when planning a story, he usually decided on which character to incorporate first and then determined the plot, but one exception to this rule was "All's Well with Bingo", a story based on an experience of his own. As Wodehouse wrote in his letter: I was in the Casino at Le Touquet one night, wandering about and occasionally risking a small sum at one of the tables, and zero came up when I was backing Black, and at the same moment I happened to get into conversation with someone, and it was only some time later that I observed a pile of counters on Black and realized that they were mine.
My gratification at scooping in the stuff was heightened by the immediate realization that I had got the core of a story. Wodehouse also explained in the letter that he eventually chose Bingo Little and Mrs. Little for the story, and later incorporated the threatening bookmaker to make winning the money more important for Bingo. In the 1920s, Wodehouse visited the real English spa towns Harrogate and later Droitwich. He used background information from these visits when writing several short stories, most notably the short story "Romance at Droitgate Spa". Publication history  In the Strand (UK), Gilbert Wilkinson illustrated "All's Well with Bingo", "Bingo and the Peke Crisis", "The Editor Regrets", "Sonny Boy", "Anselm Gets His Chance", and "Romance at Droitgate Spa".
Reginald Cleaver illustrated "A Bit of Luck for Mabel", "Buttercup Day", and "Ukridge and the Old Stepper". In the Saturday Evening Post (US), May Wilson Preston illustrated "Bingo and the Peke Crisis", "Anselm Gets His Chance", and "Buttercup Day", James Williamson illustrated "The Editor Regrets" and "Sonny Boy", Earl Blossom illustrated "All's Well with Bingo", James Schucker illustrated "Romance at Droitgate Spa", and Henry Raleigh illustrated "A Bit of Luck for Mabel". "Ukridge and the Old Stepper" was illustrated by C. A. Voight in Liberty. "A Bit of Luck for Mabel" was reprinted, with Raleigh's illustrations, in the Post in March 1977.
"All's Well with Bingo" was included in the US edition of The Week-End Wodehouse, published in 1939. "All's Well with Bingo" and the Ukridge stories "A Bit of Luck for Mabel", "Buttercup Day", and "Ukridge and the Old Stepper" were featured in the 1960 collection The Most of P. G. Wodehouse. "All's Well with Bingo" and the other Drones Club stories were included in the 1982 collection Tales from the Drones Club. The Ukridge stories in Eggs, Beans and Crumpets were included in The World of Ukridge, published in 1975 by Barrie & Jenkins. The Best of Wodehouse, a 1949 collection of short stories, featured "Sonny Boy".
The 1951 anthology The Best of Modern Humor, edited by P. G. Wodehouse and Scott Meredith, included "Sonny Boy", which was the only story by Wodehouse included in the anthology. The story was the only Wodehouse story included in the 1967 anthology A Carnival of Modern Humour, also edited by P. G. Wodehouse and Scott Meredith. "Anselm Gets His Chance" was included in The World of Mr. Mulliner (1972). "Anselm Gets His Chance" and "Romance at Droitgate Spa" were collected in Vintage Wodehouse (1978). "Anselm Gets His Chance" and "Buttercup Day" were included in The World of Wodehouse Clergy (1984).
"Romance at Droitgate Spa" was translated into Swedish by Vilgot Hammarling and published in the Swedish magazine Vårt Hem in July 1937. The Swedish translation was also included in the Wodehouse short story collection Bland lorder och drönare, published in 2011. An introduction with Mr Mulliner was added to the version of "Romance at Droitgate Spa" in the US collection The Crime Wave at Blandings. This version of the story was not included in any other collection, including the 1972 Mulliner omnibus The World of Mulliner. During World War II, while imprisoned in an internment camp in the town of Tost as a British civilian arrested in German-occupied France, Wodehouse contributed an abridged story based on "All's Well with Bingo" to the internee's newspaper, the Tost Times.
As a light-hearted story, it was meant to make his fellow internees laugh. The story appeared in an edition of the Tost Times dated 1 June 1941. Adaptations  "Buttercup Day" was adapted into an episode of the television series The World of Wodehouse in 1968. "The Editor Regrets", "Anselm Gets His Chance", and "Romance at Droitgate Spa" were adapted as episodes of the television series Wodehouse Playhouse (1974–1978). See also  List of short stories by P. G. Wodehouse, categorised by series  References and sources References  Sources  External links  The Russian Wodehouse Society's page, with a list of characters in each story  Fantastic Fiction's page, with details of published editions, photos of book covers and links to used copies.
Category:Short story collections by P. G. Wodehouse Category:1940 short story collections Category:Herbert Jenkins books
Epitestosterone, or isotestosterone, also known as 17α-testosterone or as androst-4-en-17α-ol-3-one, is an endogenous steroid and an epimer of the androgen sex hormone testosterone. It is a weak competitive antagonist of the androgen receptor (AR) and a potent 5α-reductase inhibitor. Structurally, epitestosterone differs from testosterone only in the configuration at the hydroxy-bearing carbon, C17. Epitestosterone is believed to form in a similar way to testosterone; a 1993 study found that around 50% of epitestosterone production in human males can be ascribed to the testis, although the exact pathway of its formation is still the subject of research. It has been shown to accumulate in mammary cyst fluid and in the prostate.
Epitestosterone levels are typically highest in young males; however, by adulthood, most healthy males exhibit a testosterone to epitestosterone ratio (T/E ratio) of about 1:1. Society and culture  Detection of athletic doping It has been shown that exogenous administration of testosterone does not affect levels of epitestosterone in the body. As a result, tests to determine the ratio of testosterone to epitestosterone in urine are used to find athletes who are doping. A study of Australian athletes found that the mean T/E ratio in the study was 1.15:1. Another study found that the max T/E ratio for the 95th percentile of athletes was 3.71:1, and the max T/E ratio for the 99th percentile was 5.25:1.
Epitestosterone has not been shown to enhance athletic performance, although administration of epistestosterone can be used to mask a high level of testosterone if the standard T/E ratio test is used. As such, epitestosterone is banned by many sporting authorities as a masking agent for testosterone. Notable cases A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the 1980 Moscow Olympics, certainly not a gold medal winner...who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games".
A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. In 1996 the US athlete Mary Decker failed a T/E test with a T/E ratio of greater than 6, the limit in force at the time.
She took the case to arbitration, arguing that birth control pills can cause false positives for the test, but the arbitration panel ruled against her. On September 20, 2007 Floyd Landis was stripped of his title as winner of the Tour de France, and was subjected to a two-year ban from professional racing after a second test showing an elevated T/E ratio. Landis won the 17th stage of the tour; however, tests taken immediately after the stage victory showed a T/E ratio of 11:1, more than double the 4:1 imposed limit (recently lowered from prior limits of 8:1 and 6:1).
On August 1, 2006, media reports said that synthetic testosterone had been detected in the A sample, using the carbon isotope ratio test CIR. The presence of synthetic testosterone means that some of the testosterone in Landis's body came from an external source and was not naturally produced by his own system. These results conflict with Landis's public speculation that it was a natural occurrence. Landis originally denied the charges, but in 2010 Landis admitted to doping during much of his career, but continued to adamantly deny taking testosterone that would have led to the positive test in the 2006 Tour de France.
See also  17α-Estradiol (epiestradiol)  References  External links  Landis has T/E ratio twice the tour limit        Clenbuterol – An In-Depth Look  Category:5α-Reductase inhibitors Category:Androstanes Category:Steroidal antiandrogens Category:World Anti-Doping Agency prohibited substances
A ten-year man was a category of mature student at the University of Cambridge. Under the University's statutes of 1570, a man over twenty-four could proceed to a BD degree ten years after matriculation without first gaining a BA degree or a MA degree. The device was not used much until the second decade of the nineteenth century. It was abolished in the mid-nineteenth-century university reforms, after criticism that it had become a route to a Cambridge degree which required no formal test of ability, ruling out enrolling as a ten-year man after 1858, although those enrolled by then remained members of the university, and ten-year men did not become extinct until 1900.
The ten-year route to a degree was significantly used by men who had already been ordained as clergy, and wanted to increase their status by taking a degree; likewise, it found use by laymen who aspired to be ordained but who were not (usually for financial reasons) able to take a degree in the regular way. Although the ten-year BD was criticised for its lack of appropriate oversight and inadequate means of assessment, it should not be assumed that all those who enrolled for it were men of low academic abilities: most were merely from backgrounds too poor to allow them to go to university at the usual age.
Scholars among them include Thomas Hartwell Horne, Cornelius Bayley, Joseph Bosworth, John Hellins and William Scoresby. References  Category:Terminology of the University of Cambridge Category:1570 establishments in England Category:19th-century disestablishments in England
Atoxoplasma is a genus of parasitic alveolates in the phylum Apicomplexa. The species in this genus infect birds. They are spread by the orofaecal route. History  This genus was created by Garnham in 1950. The history of this genus has been plagued with confusion. Before 1909 the species in this genus were confused with those of the genus Haemoproteus. Between 1909 and 1937 they were considered to be species of the genus Toxoplasma. It was because of this historical confusion with Toxoplasma that Garnham chose the name Atoxoplasma for this genus. Garnham defined this genus to be those parasites that infect the monocytes of birds, are strictly host specific, have a granular cytoplasm and a large nucleus.
His choice of type species Atoxoplasma avium was later shown to be a junior synonym of Atoxplasma paddae. Lainson in 1958 published a study suggesting that these species were transmitted by ticks and that this genus was a synonym of Lankesterella - a genus of species that infects frogs. The genus later became regarded as a junior synonym of the genus Isospora for those species that infect birds. Definition  The species in this genus develop asexually in both the blood and intestinal cells and form oocysts that are passed unsporulated in the feces, sporulate on the ground which then infect new hosts.
The oocysts are tetrasporozoic, diplosporocystic and possess Stieda bodies in their sporocysts. Life cycle  The encysted sporozoites are ingested. The sporozoites decyst and invade the intestinal wall and from there reach the liver and other tissues including the blood cells where they replicate asexually. Within the intestine they undergo sexual reproduction, undergo gametogony and fertilization. The zygotes undergo division and form cysts which are passed out with the stool. Host records  Canary (Serinus canarius) Israeli sparrow (Passer domesticus biblicus)  References  Category:Apicomplexa genera
Daniel Browning Smith, also known as The Rubberboy (born May 8, 1979), is an American contortionist, actor, television host, comedian, sports entertainer, and stuntman, who holds the title of the most flexible person in history, owning a total of seven Guinness World Records. Smith owes his flexibility to the genetic condition hypermobile Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. Early life Smith was born and raised in Meridian, Mississippi, United States. He has one sister and one brother. He was inspired by contortionists since the age of four, giving him the dream of becoming the world's best one. At this time, Daniel began to jump off the top bunk bed and land in a straddle split, much to the amazement of his family.
Later, in his teen years, he began street performing with this technique to attract people's attention. When Smith turned 18, he joined the Bindlestiff Family Cirkus before beginning contortion training under Master Lu Yi at the San Francisco School of Circus Arts. Ehlers–Danlos syndrome  The remarkable flexibility that Smith possesses is due to a genetic condition known as hypermobile Ehlers–Danlos syndrome or hEDS, one of thirteen types of Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. Those affected by this condition often have extremely mobile joints which are vulnerable to dislocation and skin which is easily bruised. While many people with hEDS have severe muscle and bone pain alongside a range of autonomic nervous system and endocrine problems, Smith experiences only moderate pain.
Television  CSI: NY as Lukas Neiman Carnivale as Rubber Boy CSI: Crime Scene Investigation as Sqweegel Monk as Danny Chasen Stan Lee's Superhumans as Host  Filmography 2005 Kiss Kiss Bang Bang as Rubber Boy 2008 You Don't Mess with the Zohan as Real Estate Agent 2012 Foodfight! as Cheasel T. Weasel  References  External links  Daniel Browning Smith at TV Guide Daniel Browning Smith at TV.com  Category:Living people Category:Contortion Category:21st-century American male actors Category:American male television actors Category:People from Meridian, Mississippi Category:1979 births
Frank Burton Walsh (October 18, 1895, Oxbow, Saskatchewan – November 27, 1978, Baltimore, Maryland) was a Canadian-American ophthalmologist known for his work in neuro-ophthalmology. For the main duration of his career, Walsh worked as a neuro-ophthalmologist at the Wilmer Eye Institute of Johns Hopkins Hospital. Walsh is most well known for his textbook Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology, which contains a compilation of Walsh's case reports and the conclusions he drew from them. Originally published in 1947, the textbook has many updated versions and is still a premier text in the field of neuro-ophthalmology. Walsh is considered by many to be the father of neuro-ophthalmology due to his contributions to the field.
Personal life and education  Frank Burton Walsh was born in Oxbow, Saskatchewan, Canada on October 18, 1895. He comes from English-Irish descent. While he was in school, he participated in musical activities such as piano and clarinet. He also played sports, which included football, baseball and hockey. His other hobbies included hunting and fishing. Walsh began his college education at Queen's University (Canada) in 1913. During his time at Queen's, Walsh had to enlist for World War I, where he became a lieutenant in the Canadian Army. Due to a wound at the Battle of Ypres, he was sent home with an honorable discharge.
He then went to the University of Manitoba College of Medicine, where he received his medical degree in 1921. While working in private practice, Walsh started to gain interest in ophthalmology. Around this time, the Wilmer Institute of Ophthalmology in Baltimore, Maryland opened, so Walsh wrote to Dr. Wilmer asking for a resident position. Dr. Wilmer was extremely impressed with Walsh and granted him as a position as a first year resident. Walsh moved to Baltimore with his wife, Marion, and his two children, McMurty and Walter, in 1930 at the age of 35. By his fourth year, Walsh was the chief resident.
He was almost 40 years old when he finished his residency. Marion died in 1960 of a brain tumor, and Walsh remarried several years later to Josie. Josie worked as the head surgical nurse at the Winnipeg General Hospital. Career  Early medical career   Following Walsh's graduation from the University of Manitoba College of Medicine in 1921, he spent nine years in general practice. For the first two years, he was employed as a house officer at Winnipeg General Hospital. In 1923, Walsh moved to Estavan, Saskatchewan, where he delivered babies and performed appendectomies as a general practitioner. In 1930 Walsh went back to school for ophthalmology.
Career in Neuro-Ophthalmology  During Walsh's residency at the Wilmer Eye Institute, Walsh would see patients, teach, and host Saturday morning conferences that allowed ophthalmologists and neurologists to interact and discuss cases. Although Walsh worked in both neurology and ophthalmology, he focused more on ophthalmology and was never formally a neurologist. Walsh first entered the field of neuro-ophthalmology after approaching neuroscientist Dr. Frank Ford about performing joint research relating ophthalmology to the central nervous system during his last year of residency. Walsh's role in the research project included visiting many of Ford's patients and giving full ophthalmologic exams. Walsh then related his findings to many of the neurological findings of Ford.
As Ford and Walsh's research project came to a close, Walsh realized he wanted to continue his studies in the relationship between neurology and ophthalmology. He published the Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology paper in 1936, which was the first research project in the field neuro-ophthalmology. Following his residency, Walsh became a full-time staff member at the Wilmer Eye Institute of Johns Hopkins Hospital. Walsh left the Wilmer Eye Institute in 1945 to go into private practice in Baltimore, Maryland because of financial reasons. Walsh is most well known for coauthoring Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology in 1947, which is the first textbook on neuro-ophthalmology. The book contained years of Walsh's observations, analysis, and cataloguing of diseases that affect the eye through the nervous system.
In the 1960s, there were only 4 neuro-ophthalmologists in the United States. Over the course of Walsh's career, the number of neuro-ophthalmologists greatly increased, and many in the field looked to Walsh's work for their education and training. In 1960, following the death of his wife, Walsh returned as a full-time faculty member at Wilmer, where he remained until his death in 1978. Research   Walsh's contributions to neuro-ophthalmology extended beyond his clinical work and teachings. Walsh documented and analyzed all of his clinical cases, and used them to perform research. He wrote down many of his major discoveries in published research papers.
One of his most cited papers was on Tilted Disk Syndrome. He used many techniques, such as Retinoscopy, Static and Kinetic Golmann Perimetry, Fluorescein angiography, and ocular ultrasonography, to diagnose the syndrome. Walsh discovered several symptoms that could be used as diagnostic tools, such as an obliquely direct axis of the vertical disk. In another one of his most cited articles, Walsh discussed whether oral contraceptives affected or complicated the parts of a patient's brain related to the eyes. Walsh came to the conclusion that, while birth control pills may cause hazards to visions in some extreme cases due to blood clotting, they did not normally cause problems with vision.
Accomplishments and honors  Walsh received the following awards over his career:  Lucian Howe Medal from American Ophthalmological Society  Jules Stein Award from the Jules Stein Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles  Proctor Award from American Medical Association   Karl-Leibrecht Prize from German Ophthalmological Society  Proctor Medical Award from Association for Research in Ophthalmology In addition to receiving these awards, Walsh also held positions within these groups:  President and Member of the Board of Scientific Counselors at National Institutes of Health  President of the American Ophthalmological Society   Vice President of American Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology  Second Vice President of American Medical Association  Walsh was also inducted as an honorary member in these Neurological and Ophthalmological societies:  American Neurological Society  American Association of Neurological Surgeons  Canadian Ophthalmological Society  Australian Ophthalmological Society  German Ophthalmological Society  Irish Ophthalmological Society  Brazilian Ophthalmological Society  Sicilian Ophthalmological Society  Colombian Ophthalmological Society  Mexican Ophthalmological Society  Peruvian Ophthalmological Society  Uruguayan Ophthalmological Society Walsh received honorary Doctor  of Science degrees from the University of Western Australia and the University of Manitoba, and honorary Doctor of Law degrees from Queen's University and the Johns Hopkins University.
In the October 1962 issue of the American Journal of Ophthalmology, there was a special article about Walsh himself. In the article, Walsh is depicted as the leader of the field of neuro-ophthalmology. Death and legacy  Death  In 1978, Walsh realized that he wasn't feeling very well and went to the doctor. A team at Johns Hopkins diagnosed Walsh with oat cell carcinoma, which filled half of his lungs. He remained in Baltimore for about seven months up until his death in November 1978, at the age of 83. The Frank B. Walsh Neuro-Ophthalmalogy Society  In 1958, Frank Walsh and Richard Lindenberg started collaborating with the goal of forming a society where neuro-ophthalmologists could meet and discuss new ideas and facts.
In 1966, Joel Sacks joined Walsh and Lindenberg, and the trio hosted their first meeting in 1969. The first three meetings, which they named the Neuro-Ophthalmic Pathology Symposium, included case presentations, clinical conferences, and discussion with local and visiting experts. These first meetings were small, but they were the first time that neuro-ophthalmologists from North America were able to meet as a group and collaborate. Over the years the society continued to grow, and it allowed experts to exchange information. As one member said, "at the Walsh Society we saw and heard the cutting edge of neuro-ophthalmology, one or two years before it made the literature."
After Walsh’s death in 1978, the group was renamed as the Frank B. Walsh Neuro-Ophthalmology Society. For its first 23 years, the society had no formal organization, constitution, bylaws, dues, board of directors, or membership. Rather, it existed as a forum where experts of neurology and ophthalmology could casually collaborate and share experiences and findings. Even after 1990 when the society elected its first board of directors, was formally recognized as a not-for-profit entity by the state of Maryland, drafted a constitution and bylaws, and had a formal member list, the group saw themselves as a "happy family" rather than professionals meeting in a work environment.
Some meetings were even described as "raucous," with presentations being full of puns and clinical events so bizarre that the audience had no choice but to laugh. In 1992, the Walsh Society became a subgroup of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society. The integration of the Walsh Society into a larger, more official society, in addition to the creation of a board of directors, constitution, and formal membership, drew criticism from several members. Some believed that the movement to make the society more formal and organized turned a purely academic environment into one diluted by political and economic issues. The society still meets to this day on an annual basis.
Impact on Neuro-Ophthalmology  In the words of a modern neuro-ophthalmologist, "Dr. Walsh developed a body of knowledge, recorded that knowledge, and shared it in an organized and systematic fashion which has not been improved upon, even to this day." In 2005, the sixth edition of Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology was published as Walsh and Hoyt's Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology in 3 volumes edited by Neil R. Miller and Nancy J. Newman. After his death in 1978, the Wilmer Eye Institute established the Frank B. Walsh Chair of Neuro-ophthalmology, the first such chair in the world. Walsh is considered by many to be the father of neuro-ophthalmology, as he both pioneered and promoted the field.
Postmortem honors  In 2000, Frank B. Walsh was inducted into the American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery Ophthalmology Hall of Fame. References  Category:1895 births Category:1978 deaths Category:University of Manitoba alumni Category:Canadian ophthalmologists Category:American ophthalmologists Category:People from Oxbow, Saskatchewan
Up to His Neck is a 1954 British comedy film directed by John Paddy Carstairs and starring Ronald Shiner as Jack Carter, Hattie Jacques as Rakiki and Anthony Newley as Tommy. Premise Sailor Jack Carter (Ronald Shiner) has been marooned for ten years on a South Sea island, and treated as a King by natives. He is eventually rescued by the Royal Navy, who then use him to train up commandos to recover a stolen submarine, and to foil an oriental criminal plot.
Cast  Ronald Shiner as Jack Carter  Brian Rix as Wiggy  Laya Raki as Lao Win Tan  Harry Fowler as Smudge  Colin Gordon as Lieutenant Commander Sterning  Michael Brennan as Chief Petty Officer Brazier  Bryan Forbes as Subby  Alec Mango as Bandit General  Anthony Newley as Tommy  Gerald Campion as Skinny  Roland Curram as Jock  Norman Mitchell as Fungus  Hattie Jacques as Rakiki  John Warwick as Lieutenant Truman  Martin Boddey as Chang  Philip Stainton as Mr Woo  References  External links  Category:1954 films Category:1950s comedy films Category:British films Category:British comedy films Category:Military humor in film Category:Films scored by Benjamin Frankel
Hugh Cruttwell (31 October 1918 – 24 August 2002) was an influential English teacher of drama and principal of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Biography Hugh Percival Cruttwell was born in Singapore, but lived in England from the age of eight. He was educated at King's School, Bruton, in Somerset, and studied History at Hertford College, Oxford. He began his career as an assistant stage manager at the Theatre Royal, Windsor. He soon became an associate director and over a period of three years directed sixty plays. While working at Theatre Royal, he first met his future wife, actress Geraldine McKeown (who later took the stage name Geraldine McEwan).
The couple married in 1953, and had two children. Their son, Greg is an actor, screenwriter, director and film producer. After leaving Windsor, Cruttwell enjoyed much success as a freelance director. Following a spell teaching at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art, he was approached to take over the principalship of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, following the resignation of John Fernald in 1965. He was heavily involved in the activities of Renaissance Theatre Company and Renaissance Films; companies established by David Parfitt and Kenneth Branagh. He was a production/creative consultant of Branagh's films of Henry V, Much Ado About Nothing, Dead Again, Peter's Friends and Mary Shelley's Frankenstein.
He adapted, from a short story by Chekhov, the Academy Award winning short film Swan Song, starring Sir John Gielgud. Influence In his eighteen years as principal of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, Cruttwell spotted, nurtured and polished generations of actors who have gone on to become household names. In paying homage to his former teacher and associate, Kenneth Branagh wrote:  Filmography  Henry V (1989) .... Technical Advisor  Dead Again (1991) .... Production Consultant  Peter's Friends (1992) .... Production Consultant  Swan Song (1992) .... Screenwriter  Much Ado About Nothing (1993) .... Production Consultant  Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1994) .... Performance Consultant  As Dreams Are Made On (2004) .... Special Thanks  References  External links  Profile    Category:1918 births Category:2002 deaths Category:English theatre directors Category:Academics of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art Category:People educated at King's School, Bruton Category:People from Singapore Category:Alumni of Hertford College, Oxford Category:Disease-related deaths in England
The Simplified Instructional Computer (also abbreviated SIC) is a hypothetical computer system introduced in System Software: An Introduction to Systems Programming, by Leland Beck. Due to the fact that most modern microprocessors include subtle, complex functions for the purposes of efficiency, it can be difficult to learn systems programming using a real-world system. The Simplified Instructional Computer solves this by abstracting away these complex behaviors in favor of an architecture that is clear and accessible for those wanting to learn systems programming. SIC Architecture  The SIC machine has basic addressing, storing most memory addresses in hexadecimal integer format. Similar to most modern computing systems, the SIC architecture stores all data in binary and uses the two's complement to represent negative values at the machine level.
Memory storage in SIC consists of 8-bit bytes, and all memory addresses in SIC are byte addresses. Any three consecutive bytes form a 24-bit 'word' value, addressed by the location of the lowest numbered byte in the word value. Numeric values are stored as word values, and character values use the 8-bit ASCII system. The SIC machine does not support floating-point hardware and has at most 32,768 bytes of memory. There is also a more complicated machine built on top of SIC called the Simplified Instruction Computer with Extra Equipment (SIC/XE). The XE expansion of SIC adds a 48-bit floating point data type, an additional memory addressing mode, and extra memory (1 megabyte instead of 32,768 bytes) to the original machine.
All SIC assembly code is upwards compatible with SIC/XE. SIC machines have several registers, each 24 bits long and having both a numeric and character representation:  A (0): Used for basic arithmetic operations; known as the accumulator register. X (1): Stores and calculates addresses; known as the index register. L (2): Used for jumping to specific memory addresses and storing return addresses; known as the linkage register. PC (8): Contains the address of the next instruction to execute; known as the program counter register. SW (9): Contains a variety of information, such as carry or overflow flags; known as the status word register.
In addition to the standard SIC registers, there are also four additional general-purpose registers specific to the SIC/XE machine:  B (3): Used for addressing; known as the base register. S (4): No special use, general purpose register. T (5): No special use, general purpose register. F (6): Floating point accumulator register (This register is 48-bits instead of 24). These five/nine registers allow the SIC or SIC/XE machine to perform most simple tasks in a customized assembly language. In the System Software book, this is used with a theoretical series of operation codes to aid in the understanding of assemblers and linker-loaders required for the execution of assembly language code.
Addressing Modes for SIC and SIC/XE The Simplified Instruction Computer has three instruction formats, and the Extra Equipment add-on includes a fourth. The instruction formats provide a model for memory and data management. Each format has a different representation in memory: Format 1: Consists of 8 bits of allocated memory to store instructions. Format 2: Consists of 16 bits of allocated memory to store 8 bits of instructions and two 4-bits segments to store operands. Format 3: Consists of 6 bits to store an instruction, 6 bits of flag values, and 12 bits of displacement. Format 4: Only valid on SIC/XE machines, consists of the same elements as format 3, but instead of a 12-bit displacement, stores a 20-bit address.
Both format 3 and format 4 have six-bit flag values in them, consisting of the following flag bits: n: Indirect addressing flag i: Immediate addressing flag x: Indexed addressing flag b: Base address-relative flag p: Program counter-relative flag e: Format 4 instruction flag  Addressing Modes for SIC/XE  Rule 1:  e = 0 : format 3  e = 1 : format 4  format 3:  b = 1, p = 0    (base relative)  b = 0, p = 1    (pc relative)  b = 0, p = 0    (direct addressing)  format 4:  b = 0, p = 0    (direct addressing)  x = 1    (index)  i = 1, n = 0    (immediate)  i = 0, n = 1    (indirect)  i = 0, n = 0    (SIC)  i = 1, n = 1    (SIC/XE for SIC compatible)  Rule 2:  i = 0, n =0	(SIC)  b, p, e is part of the address.
SIC Assembly Syntax  SIC uses a special assembly language with its own operation codes that hold the hex values needed to assemble and execute programs. A sample program is provided below to get an idea of what a SIC program might look like. In the code below, there are three columns. The first column represents a forwarded symbol that will store its location in memory. The second column denotes either a SIC instruction (opcode) or a constant value (BYTE or WORD). The third column takes the symbol value obtained by going through the first column and uses it to run the operation specified in the second column.
This process creates an object code, and all the object codes are put into an object file to be run by the SIC machine. COPY   START  1000        FIRST  STL    RETADR        CLOOP  JSUB   RDREC               LDA    LENGTH               COMP   ZERO               JEQ    ENDFIL               JSUB   WRREC               J      CLOOP        ENDFIL LDA    EOF               STA    BUFFER               LDA    THREE               STA    LENGTH               JSUB   WRREC               LDL    RETADR               RSUB        EOF    BYTE   C'EOF'        THREE  WORD   3        ZERO   WORD   0        RETADR RESW   1        LENGTH RESW   1        BUFFER RESB   4096        . . SUBROUTINE TO READ RECORD INTO BUFFER        . RDREC  LDX    ZERO               LDA    ZERO        RLOOP  TD     INPUT               JEQ    RLOOP               RD     INPUT               COMP   ZERO               JEQ    EXIT               STCH   BUFFER,X               TIX    MAXLEN               JLT    RLOOP        EXIT   STX    LENGTH               RSUB        INPUT  BYTE   X'F1'        MAXLEN WORD   4096        .
. SUBROUTINE TO WRITE RECORD FROM BUFFER        . WRREC  LDX    ZERO        WLOOP  TD     OUTPUT               JEQ    WLOOP               LDCH   BUFFER,X               WD     OUTPUT               TIX    LENGTH               JLT    WLOOP               RSUB        OUTPUT BYTE   X'06'               END    FIRST  If you were to assemble this program, you would get the object code depicted below. The beginning of each line consists of a record type and hex values for memory locations. For example, the top line is an 'H' record, the first 6 hex digits signify its relative starting location, and the last 6 hex digits represent the program's size. The lines throughout are similar, with each 'T' record consisting of 6 hex digits to signify that line's starting location, 2 hex digits to indicate the size (in bytes) of the line, and the object codes that were created during the assembly process.
HCOPY 00100000107A        T0010001E1410334820390010362810303010154820613C100300102A0C103900102D        T00101E150C10364820610810334C0000454F46000003000000        T0020391E041030001030E0205D30203FD8205D2810303020575490392C205E38203F        T0020571C1010364C0000F1001000041030E02079302064509039DC20792C1036        T002073073820644C000006        E001000  Sample program Given below is a program illustrating data movement in SIC. LDA FIVE STA ALPHA LDCH CHARZ STCH C1  ALPHA RESW 1 FIVE WORD 5 CHARZ BYTE C'Z' C1 RESB 1  Emulating the SIC System  Since the SIC and SIC/XE machines are not real machines, the task of actually constructing a SIC emulator is often part of coursework in a systems programming class. The purpose of SIC is to teach introductory-level systems programmers or collegiate students how to write and assemble code below higher-level languages like C and C++. With that being said, there are some sources of SIC-emulating programs across the web, however infrequent they may be.
An assembler and a simulator written by the author, Leland in Pascal is available on his educational home page at ftp://rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/beck SIC/XE Simulator And Assembler downloadable at https://sites.google.com/site/sarimohsultan/Projects/sic-xe-simulator-and-assembler SIC Emulator, Assembler and some example programs written for SIC downloadable at http://sicvm.sourceforge.net/home.php SicTools - virtual machine, simulator, assembler and linker for the SIC/XE computer available at https://jurem.github.io/SicTools/  See also  Computer  MIX  System software  Assembly language  Processor register  Virtual machine  References      Information of SIC and SIC/XE systems: https://web.archive.org/web/20121114101742/http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~stremler/2003_CS530/SicArchitecture.html  List of SIC and SIC/XE instructions: http://solomon.ipv6.club.tw/~solomon/Course/SP.941/sic-instruction.html  Brief memory addressing information: http://www.unf.edu/~cwinton/html/cop3601/s10/class.notes/basic4-SICfmts.pdf  SIC/XE Mode Addressing: http://uhost.rmutp.ac.th/wanapun.w/--j--/ch2-2.pdf  External links  SICvm A Virtual Machine based on a Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC)  Category:Educational abstract machines Category:Computer science education
Clostridium tetani is a common soil bacterium and the causative agent of tetanus. When growing in soil, C. tetani is rod-shaped and up to 2.5 μm long. However, when forming spores, C. tetani becomes substantially enlarged at one end, resembling a tennis racket or drumstick. C. tetani spores are extremely hardy and can be found globally in soil or in the gastrointestinal tract of animals. If inoculated into a wound, C. tetani can grow and produce a potent toxin, tetanospasmin, which interferes with motor neurons, causing tetanus. The toxin's action can be prevented with tetanus toxoid vaccines, which are often administered to children worldwide.
Characteristics  C. tetani is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacterium, typically up to 0.5 μm wide and 2.5 μm long. It is motile by way of various flagella that surround its body. C. tetani cannot grow in the presence of oxygen. It grows best at temperatures ranging from 33 to 37°C. Upon exposure to various conditions, C. tetani can shed its flagella and form a spore. Each cell can form a single spore, generally at one end of the cell, giving the cell a distinctive drumstick shape. C. tetani spores are extremely hardy and are resistant to heat, various antiseptics, and boiling for several minutes.
The spores are long-lived and are distributed worldwide in soils as well as in the intestines of various livestock and companion animals. Evolution C. tetani is classified within the genus Clostridium, a broad group of over 150 species of Gram-positive bacteria. C. tetani falls within a cluster of nearly 100 species that are more closely related to each other than they are to any other genus. This cluster includes other pathogenic Clostridium species such as C. botulinum and C. perfringens. The closest relative to C. tetani is C. cochlearium. Other Clostridium species can be divided into a number of genetically related groups, many of which are more closely related to members of other genera than they are to C. tetani.
Examples of this include the human pathogen C. difficile, which is more closely related to members of genus Peptostreptococcus than to C. tetani. Role in disease  While C. tetani is frequently benign in the soil or in the intestinal tracts of animals, it can sometimes cause the severe disease tetanus. Disease generally begins with spores entering the body through a wound. In deep wounds, such as those from a puncture or contaminated needle injection the combination of tissue death and limited exposure to surface air can result in a very low-oxygen environment, allowing C. tetani spores to germinate and grow.
As C. tetani grows at the wound site, it releases the toxins tetanolysin and tetanospasmin as cells lyse. The function of tetanolysin is unclear, although it may help C. tetani to establish infection within a wound. Tetanospasmin ("tetanus toxin") is one of the most potent toxins known, with an estimated lethal dose less than 2.5 nanograms per kilogram of body weight, and is responsible for the symptoms of tetanus. Tetanospasmin spreads via the lymphatic system and bloodstream throughout the body, where it is taken up into various parts of the nervous system. In the nervous system, tetanospasmin acts by blocking the release of the inhibitory neurotransmitters glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid at motor nerve endings.
This blockade leads to the widespread activation of motor neurons and spasming of muscles throughout the body. These muscle spasms generally begin at the top of the body and move down, beginning about 8 days after infection with lockjaw, followed by spasms of the abdominal muscles and the limbs. Muscle spasms continue for several weeks. The gene encoding tetanospasmin is found on a plasmid carried by many strains of C. tetani; strains of bacteria lacking the plasmid are unable to produce toxin. The function of tetanospasmin in bacterial physiology is unknown. Treatment and prevention C. tetani is susceptible to a number of antibiotics, including chloramphenicol, clindamycin, erythromycin, penicillin G, and tetracycline.
However, the usefulness of treating C. tetani infections with antibiotics remains unclear. Instead, tetanus is often treated with tetanus immune globulin to bind up circulating tetanospasmin. Additionally, benzodiazepines or muscle relaxants may be given to reduce the effects of the muscle spasms. Damage from C. tetani infection is generally prevented by administration of a tetanus vaccine consisting of tetanospasmin inactivated by formaldehyde, called tetanus toxoid. This is made commercially by growing large quantities of C. tetani in fermenters, then purifying the toxin and inactivating in 40% formaldehyde for 4-6 weeks. The toxoid is generally coadministered with diphtheria toxoid and some form of pertussis vaccine as DPT vaccine or DTaP.
This is given in several doses spaced out over months or years to elicit an immune response that protects the host from the effects of the toxin. Research C. tetani can be grown on various anaerobic growth media such as thioglycolate media, casein hydrolysate media, and blood agar. Cultures grow particularly well on media at a neutral to alkaline pH, supplemented with reducing agents. The genome of a C. tetani strain has been sequenced, containing 2.80 million base pairs with 2,373 protein coding genes. History Clinical descriptions of tetanus associated with wounds are found at least as far back as the 4th century BCE, in Hippocrates' Aphorisms.
The first clear connection to the soil was in 1884, when Arthur Nicolaier showed that animals injected with soil samples would develop tetanus. In 1889, C. tetani was isolated from a human victim by Kitasato Shibasaburō, who later showed that the organism could produce disease when injected into animals, and that the toxin could be neutralized by specific antibodies. In 1897, Edmond Nocard showed that tetanus antitoxin induced passive immunity in humans, and could be used for prophylaxis and treatment. In World War I, injection of tetanus antiserum from horses was widely used as a prophylaxis against tetanus in wounded soldiers, leading to a dramatic decrease in tetanus cases over the course of the war.
The modern method of inactivating tetanus toxin with formaldehyde was developed by Gaston Ramon in the 1920s; this led to the development of the tetanus toxoid vaccine by P. Descombey in 1924, which was widely used to prevent tetanus induced by battle wounds during World War II. References  External links Type strain of Clostridium tetani at BacDive -  the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase  Category:Clostridiaceae Category:Gram-positive bacteria Category:Tetanus Category:Bacteria described in 1881 tetani Category:Pathogenic bacteria
The tonsillar branch of the facial artery ascends between the pterygoideus internus and styloglossus muscles, and then along the side of the pharynx, perforating the constrictor pharyngis superior, to ramify in the substance of the palatine tonsil and root of the tongue. References  External links  Category:Arteries of the head and neck
Peter John Kay (born 2 July 1973) is an English comedian and actor. Kay has written, produced, and acted in several television and film projects, and authored three books. Born and brought up in Bolton, Lancashire, Kay studied media performance at the University of Salford. He began working part-time as a stand-up comedian, winning the North West Comedian of the Year award. In 1997, he won Channel 4's So You Think You're Funny contest and the following year was nominated for a Perrier Award for his show at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival. With his public profile raised, in 2000, he co-wrote and starred in That Peter Kay Thing for Channel 4.
This resulted in a spin-off sitcom, Phoenix Nights, which ran for two series from 2001–02, and in turn generated another spin-off, Max and Paddy's Road to Nowhere, in 2004. In 2005, he recorded a promotional video in which he mimed to Tony Christie's 1971 hit "Is This the Way to Amarillo"; the song then reached number 1 in the UK Singles Chart, becoming that year's best-selling single in the UK. In 2008, Kay co-wrote and starred in Britain's Got the Pop Factor... and Possibly a New Celebrity Jesus Christ Soapstar Superstar Strictly on Ice, a parody of several British reality television shows.
As the series' fictional protagonist Geraldine McQueen, he released the single "The Winner's Song", which reached number 2 in the UK singles chart. His 2010–11 stand-up comedy tour was officially inaugurated into the Guinness World Records as the most successful of all time, playing to over 1.2 million people. He co-wrote and starred in Peter Kay's Car Share, a sitcom screened by the BBC for two series between 2015–17. He also starred in the 2015 BBC sitcom Cradle to Grave. In 2016, Kay won the BAFTA TV Award for Best Male Comedy Performance, the BAFTA TV Award for Best Scripted Comedy and the National Television Award for Best Comedy for Car Share.
He also received an honorary doctorate from the University of Salford. Early life  Kay was born and brought up in Farnworth, Lancashire, where he attended Mount Saint Joseph School, leaving with one GCSE in art. His father, Michael, was an engineer who died just before Peter's career took off. His mother, Deirdre O'Neill, is a Roman Catholic from Coalisland, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland and Peter was brought up in her faith. He took several minor jobs, including working in a toilet roll factory, a Netto supermarket, Manchester Arena, a cash and carry, a cinema, a petrol station and a bingo hall, which later inspired episodes for That Peter Kay Thing.
He began a degree course at the University of Liverpool in Drama, Theatre Studies and English Literature. Struggling with the course, he changed to studying a Higher National Diploma (HND) in media performance (including stand-up) at the University of Salford's Adelphi Campus School of Media, Music and Performance. In recognition of his contribution to the entertainment industry, Kay went on to receive an Honorary Doctor of Arts degree from his alma mater on 19 July 2016, at Salford's Lowry Theatre. His first stand-up was the competition the North West Comedian of the Year, which was held in Manchester and hosted by Dave Spikey, who would later be the co-star and co-writer of Phoenix Nights.
Kay was last on the bill and won the competition, beating Johnny Vegas. Kay has said that he sought a career in comedy. However, he continued to work part-time as an usher at his local cinema in Bolton whilst performing stand-up locally. When the cinema closed, he was presented with the choice of finding another job or moving into comedy full-time. After he entered and won Channel 4's So You Think You're Funny? contest in 1997, his first semi-professional stand-up appearances were at the 1998 Edinburgh Fringe Festival, where he received a prestigious Perrier Award nomination. During this time, he also appeared at various other clubs, such as London's Comedy Store.
Although this led to a certain level of public recognition, it was only after his first live video show Live at the Top of the Tower in 2000 that Kay attained mainstream recognition. During this period, he appeared on several chat shows, such as Friday Night with Jonathan Ross and Parkinson, on the latter of which he had previously served as warm-up. It was at this time that production also began on Phoenix Nights. Subsequent advertisements for John Smith's bitter which imitate the style of Phoenix Nights saw Kay develop his catchphrases "'ave it!" and "two lamb bhunas". In a Bolton nightclub in 1998, Kay met Susan Gargan whilst he was working at the local cinema.
They married in 2001 after being in a relationship for three years. They have remained very private about their children. They have a teenage son, Charlie Michael Kay (that they named after their fathers, with Charlie being the name of Susan's late father). They are also thought to have other children. 1997–2000: Early career  Kay's first TV project was in a 1997 episode of New Voices, a comedy series which showcased rising talent. His episode, "Two Minutes", written by Johanne McAndrew, saw him play a getaway driver as two of his friends attempted to rob a pub of its takings.
In 1997, he played a delivery driver in the BBC drama Born to Run. in 1998 Peter Kay appeared in a series of sketches for Granada TV's "Last Last Show" "Roy Mills Films of Fun" where he made his TV debut as a character comedy actor, and also did a stand up set. Neil Fitzmaurice also appeared in the series alongside many other local comedians who Kay later recruited for his C4 series. After presenting a slot titled "Peter Kay's World of Entertainment" on BBC Two's The Sunday Show, Kay made an episode of Channel 4's Comedy Lab, "The Services", in 1998, which won a Royal Television Society award for best newcomer.
This served as a pilot for That Peter Kay Thing. Following the series' success, Kay and his co-writers – Neil Fitzmaurice and Dave Spikey – used the episode "In the Club" as the basis for Phoenix Nights, which was an immediate hit. Set in a newly refurbished social club run by Brian Potter, the first series was filmed in part at St Gregory's Social Club in Farnworth, Greater Manchester, where the exterior, hallways and function suite were used. In 2004, Kay followed the success with Max and Paddy's Road to Nowhere, a spin-off of Phoenix Nights. The show featured the bouncer characters from the show—played by Kay and Paddy McGuinness—and at times also featured other characters from Phoenix Nights.
Six episodes were made and broadcast from November to December 2004 by Channel 4. In 2005, Kay was awarded a Rose d'Or at the international television festival in Montreux for Best Performance by an Actor. On 17 April 2006, Channel 4 broadcast a "Peter Kay Night", showing out-takes from Phoenix Nights (previously featured on DVD), a behind-the-scenes documentary "180 – A Tour Documentary" which followed Kay behind the scenes of his Mum Wants a Bungalow tour and screened the whole Peter Kay Live in Manchester Arena show. In 2008, he returned to television after an absence of four years with the BAFTA-winning satire of reality talent shows, Peter Kay's Britain's Got the Pop Factor... and Possibly a New Celebrity Jesus Christ Soapstar Superstar Strictly on Ice, which he co-wrote with Paul Coleman.
The two-hour special was screened on Channel 4 on 17 October 2008. Kay won his second Royal Television Society award for best actor for playing Geraldine McQueen, a transsexual dinner lady from Ireland. 2000–2011: Stage shows Kay has released several DVDs of live performances, including  "Live at the Top of the Tower, Live at the Bolton Albert Halls (which holds the record as biggest selling British stand-up DVD), Peter Kay: The Live Collections (the previous two combined), Peter Kay: Live at Manchester Arena, and Peter Kay Live – The Tour That Didn't Tour Tour (which was recorded during his fifteen-night sold-out run at The O2 Arena in London).
BBC work  In 2007, Kay followed this success with a cover version of "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)", originally by the Proclaimers, for Comic Relief. The video featured a celebration of British talent. In 2009, Kay switched his musical fund-raising to Children in Need with the release of Peter Kay's All Star Animated Band, which had taken two years to complete. He brought together over 100 animated children's characters in a six-minute animated medley. These characters included Thomas the Tank Engine, Bob the Builder and Paddington Bear. It also featured some of the characters' original voice artists including Bernard Cribbins, Neil Morrissey, Ken Barrie and Ringo Starr.
The video was premiered on BBC1 on 20 November 2009. Kay returned his support to Comic Relief in 2011 with a cover version of "I Know Him So Well". The song was re-recorded by multi-platinum selling singer Susan Boyle and Kay in the guise of Geraldine McQueen from Britain's Got the Pop Factor. The video which accompanied the single was also directed by Kay and identically parodied the original video shot for shot. It premiered on Comic Relief on Friday, 18 March 2011. In May 2015 his own sitcom Peter Kay's Car Share began to air. The series was a success and a second series was commissioned to start in April 2017.
In October 2015, he starred in Cradle to Grave another BBC sitcom based on Danny Baker's life as a teenager. In April 2020, Kay featured in the BBC The Big Night In where he introduced an updated version of Is This The Way to Amarillo. It marked his first television appearance for two years. Return to stand-up In November 2009, after an absence of seven years, Kay announced a return to stand-up with four (later extended to 20) dates at the Manchester Arena the following April with a show entitled The Tour That Doesn't Tour Tour...Now On Tour. Demand for tickets caused him to announce soon after that the show would be toured.
In January 2012, the tour entered the Guinness Book of World Records as the most successful stand-up comedy tour of all time, playing to a total of 1.2 million people. Kay's tour faced criticism when his disabled fans were hit with bills of up to £39 on premium phone lines booking tour tickets. In November 2017, Kay announced his intention to return to stand-up with his first tour in eight years. Peter Kay Live: Have Gags, Will Travel was scheduled to begin touring in 2018, beginning with the Genting Arena in April before touring at venues such as SSE Hydro, Manchester Arena, The O2 Arena, First Direct Arena, SSE Arena Belfast, Sheffield Arena and Echo Arena Liverpool.
On 13 December 2017, Kay announced that he was cancelling all future work projects (including Peter Kay Live: Have Gags Will Travel tour) for family reasons. He has asked that the media respect his and his family's privacy. The tour hit criticism again regarding phone calls as fans were charged 62p per minute to call premium rate phone lines to claim ticket refunds. Theatre work In February 2007, Kay played flamboyant gay director Roger DeBris in the Mel Brooks musical The Producers at Manchester's Palace Theatre for 120 shows. Guest appearances He appeared in the first episode of the 2002 series of Linda Green, playing a pizza delivery man who ended up being something of a soulmate to the eponymous heroine.
He has had two roles in Coronation Street. The first, in the late 1990s, was a brief appearance as a shopfitter, but in January 2004 he co-wrote his scenes, appearing alongside Sally Lindsay, who played Shelley Unwin. On 17 June 2006, Kay appeared in the Doctor Who episode "Love & Monsters". His character, the sinister Victor Kennedy, proved to be an alien called the Abzorbaloff in disguise. Kay was included in the Independent on Sunday's "Happy List" in 2009 as "simply Britain's best comedian", and – as an exception to their general rule – was included again in 2010 for also raising funds for Children in Need.
On 9 September 2017, Kay took part in the "We Are Manchester" benefit concert to mark the reopening of Manchester Arena following the terrorist attack in May 2017. He gave a speech to the crowd before introducing the concert's headline act Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds. Goodnight Vienna Productions Kay and his wife Susan are the two directors of Goodnight Vienna Productions, which co-produces Kay's comedy output. Discography Albums 2005: The Best of Peter Kay – So FarSingles   As Geraldine McQueen. Filmography  Television  Live Tours  Film  Stand-up DVDs In December 2011, it was reported that Kay had sold over 10 million DVDs, a UK record for a comedian and more than the combined sales of best selling films Avatar and Mamma Mia!''.
References  External links  Category:1973 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century English comedians Category:Alumni of the University of Salford Category:Comedians from Lancashire Category:British male comedy actors Category:English Roman Catholics Category:English male comedians Category:English male film actors Category:English male television actors Category:English male voice actors Category:English male writers Category:English people of Irish descent Category:English stand-up comedians Category:English television directors Category:English television writers Category:Male actors from Lancashire Category:Male screenwriters Category:People from Bolton Category:People from Farnworth Category:Male television writers
National Center for Spinal Disorders is located in the 12th District of Budapest on Királyhágó Street. It is the only hospital in Hungary that covers virtually the entire diagnostic and treatment spectrum of spinal disorders from diagnosis and non-surgical and surgical treatments right through to rehabilitation. The high level of professional know-how, state-of-the-art equipment and preparedness has made it the country's foremost spine care institution. It is financed by the National Health Insurance Fund. History The National Center for Spinal Disorders was part of the Orthopedic Clinic Department of Spine Surgery and Rehabilitation of the Semmelweis University of Budapest until 1995 when it was incorporated first into the Central Army Hospital and then into the Hungarian National Health Center.
It subsequently became independent in 2005 under the direction of Peter Paul Varga, MD, its current director general, with charter members, Maria Ferenc, MD, rheumatologist, Gabor Jakab, MD, orthopedic surgeon, and Istvan Toth, MD, neurosurgeon. It is operated by the Buda Health Center, Ltd.  Spine care The medical staff of the National Center for Spinal Disorders includes general-, orthopedic-, trauma- and neuro-surgeons, rheumatologists, anesthesiologist-intensive care doctors, radiologists, psychologists, physiotherapists and others (i.e., urologists, gynecologists, neurologists, ophthalmologists, otolaryngologists, etc.) required for the complex examination, care and treatment of the spine.
Spine surgery The National Center for Spinal Disorders has gained international recognition for its work in the following areas of spine surgery: Spinal deformities Spinal tumors Spinal prostheses Traditional spinal surgeries Spinal disorders in the elderly Complex diagnostics Minimally invasive spinal surgery  Conservative treatment (non-surgical) of spinal disorders The conservative treatment department's primary concern is the evaluation, treatment and examination of patients not requiring surgery. Condition evaluation is the process of discovering whether a spinal disorder is the result of an activity or mechanical in origin with the evaluation result forming the basis for planning surgery or conservative treatment. The goal of conservative treatment is to alleviate pain, to return the patients to their normal activities and work as soon as possible and to increase the spine's functional and weight bearing capacity.
Conservative treatments include:  pain relief infusions, injections, joint, nerve root or spinal canal block injections, physiotherapy treatments (especially individual exercise programs), packs, psychotherapy and spine school for patient education and teaching. As part of in-hospital examination, a disease or diseases signifying other possible differential diagnostic problems or background psychosocial factors as the cause of spine or limb pain will be eliminated or confirmed. Outpatient care Outpatient care is available at the musculoskeletal, anesthesiological, neurological, psychological, physiotherapy and emergency clinics. The Musculoskeletal Clinic The musculoskeletal clinic sees mostly patients with spinal disorders; however, many with diverse musculoskeletal problems requiring help in general orthopedics or traumatology are also treated here.
The Physiotherapy Clinic Physiotherapy is an elemental part of the complex treatment of the spine wherein a doctor-therapist team works closely together for the patient's earliest recovery and rehabilitation by setting up individual therapy programs with individualized activities in order to increase the spine's functional capacity, range of movement as well as the spine's stabilizing musculature and endurance. With the training exercises performed daily as directed, the patient will be able to return to his or her regular daily activities (work, sports, leisure) without complaints. The Anesthesiological Clinic The anesthesiological examination is an elemental and crucial part of pre-surgical preparation performed by especially trained and experienced professionals.
The Neurological Clinic The Neurological Clinic sees patients who, for differential diagnosis reasons, require organic neurological and/or complex electrophysiological examination in order to set up a diagnosis. Radiology The Radiology Department of the National Center for Spinal Disorders was one of the first to have a direct digital (ddR) x-ray equipment installed in Hungary. This made the entire spectrum of radiological examinations with lower radiation and no x-ray film possible. A 3D/4D ultrasound equipment has been in use since September, 2005. The CT/MRI laboratory also contains a fast 4 slice multisclice CT equipment for examining every region of the body and an open MRI for patients suffering from claustrophobia.
Aside from the examination of the skull and the spine, the equipment is excellent for diagnosing musculoskeletal abnormalities, joints and sports injuries. Psychotherapy The Psychosomatic Clinic  was established in 2010 by Noemi Csaszar, PhD and Prof. Emoke Bagdy, PhD for up-to-date and effective help to those suffering from chronic bodily afflictions. Noemi Csaszar, the group's director, has been working in psychotherapy for the past fifteen years and teaching psychotherapy methods for several years. The Psychotherapy Department has worked out a system whereby beginning psychological problems can be diagnosed thus averting stress-related physical-psychological problems. International contacts The National Center for Spinal Disorders plays an important part in the international spine care circles.
The medical staff is very active in both national and international spine organizations both as lecturers and invited guests and the institution itself is a member of the international spine society AOSpine with Peter Paul Varga, MD director in Hungary. The Center is also the organizer and host of the yearly held Bologna-Budapest International Spine Conference. Research and development Internationally registered research and development is conducted through the Research and Development Department where PhD undergraduate students, doctors, physiotherapists and research assistants work on their projects. The research focuses on degenerative spine disorders and molecular biology, biomechanics and clinical questions regarding tumors of the spine.
The research is mostly funded through grants (OTKA [The Hungarian Scientific Research Fund], European Union, Eurospine, AOSpine, etc.). The research results are published in international medical journals and presented at both national and international conferences. Social responsibility Prevention and patient information are of prime concern. Under the direction of Annamaria Somhegyi, MD, the director of prevention, the institute has been in close cooperation with the Hungarian Spine Society since 1995 in furthering their posture correction and prevention program in schools. Prevention is also part of the conservative treatment in the hospital.
Directors   Peter Paul Varga, MD, Director General, Spine Surgery, Orthopedic Surgery  Kornel Papik, MD, Administrative Director, Orthopedic Surgery  Zoltan Hoffer, MD,  Spine Surgery, Orthopedic Surgery  Gabor Jakab, MD, Director of Science and Education, Spine Surgery, Orthopedic Surgery  Milica Urosevics, MD, Director of Anesthesiology  Istvan Toth, MD, Spine Surgery, Traumatology, Neurosurgery  Somhegyi Annamária, MD, PhD, Director of Prevention, Rheumatology  References  Sources  National Center for Spinal Disorders - Introduction National Center for Spinal Disorders, an affiliate of the Buda Health Center, Ltd. ittlakunk.hu National Center for Spinal Disorders on gerinces.hu National Center for Spinal Disorders on AOSpine Foundation's website  Category:Hospitals in Hungary Category:Budapest
Charles L. Raison (born December 26, 1957) is an American psychiatrist and professor of psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health as well as the Mary Sue and Mike Shannon Chair for Healthy Minds, Children & Families and Professor with the School of Human Ecology in Madison, Wisconsin. Prior to this he was a professor in the Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, and the Barry and Janet Lang Professor of Integrative Mental Health at the Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, at the University of Arizona.
In addition to his academic positions, Dr. Raison serves as the founding Director of the Center for Compassion Studies in the College of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the University of Arizona and is the Director for Clinical and Translational Research for the Usona Institute, as well as the mental health expert for CNN.com. Early life and education Dr. Raison has an undergraduate degree in anthropology from Stanford University and a Master's degree in English literature from the University of Denver. He received his medical degree from Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO and did his residency training in psychiatry at the Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior at UCLA, where he later served as Director of Emergency Psychiatry Services.
Education Undergraduate: 1976-1980 Stanford University, Stanford, CA, B.A. in Anthropology with honors and departmental distinction  Graduate: 1982-85 University of Denver, Denver, CO, M.A. in English, with emphasis in creative writing  PreMedical: 1985-86 Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA, Premedical Program, Post Baccalaureate  Medical: 1987-91 Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, M.D.
degree  Post-graduate training 1991-1992 Internship, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute and Hospital, Los Angeles, CA 1992-1995 Psychiatric Residency, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute and Hospital, Los Angeles, CA 1994-1995 Chief Resident, Adult Inpatient Services, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute and Hospital, Los Angeles, CA  Awards and honors 2014: Principal Guest Scientist, 31st Midwest Symposium on Family Systems Theory and Therapy 2014: Invited to give Bench-to-Bedside Keynote Address at the International Behavioral Neuroscience Society (IBNS) meeting 2014: Raymond Pearl Award for “contributions to our understanding of evolutionary biocultural origins of mental health and illness”, Human Biology Association 2013: NARSAD Independent Investigator Award (Brain & Behavior Research Society) 2012: Chairman of the U.S. Psychiatric and Mental Health Congress 2011: Champion of Hope Award from the Africa's Children's Fund 2011: Distinguished Visiting Professorship, Brooke Army Medical Center, San Antonio, TX 2011: Invited Member, Emory University Public Scholars Seminar 2011: Chairman of the U.S. Psychiatric and Mental Health Congress 2009: Senior Fellow of the Mind & Life Institute 2009-2010 Who's Who in Medicine and Healthcare 2009: American Psychiatric Association Ninth Annual Research Colloquium for Junior Investigators, Invited Faculty Member 2008: Semi-finalist presidential search for Naropa University, Boulder, CO 2006: Emory College Seed Fund Award to Improve the Research Profile of the Arts and Sciences 2006: Future Leaders in Psychiatry Travel Award 2005: Emory College Seed Fund Award to Improve the Research Profile of the Arts and Sciences 2005: Emory University Teaching Fund Award to develop interdisciplinary course entitled Phenomenology of Depression: Body, Mind and Culture 2005: Who's Who in Medical Sciences Education 2004: National Institutes of Health Extramural Loan Repayment Program Award 2004: American Psychiatric Association Ninth Annual Research Colloquium for Junior Investigators, Invited Member 2003: Emory University Medical Students' Teaching Award for Psychiatry 2002: National Institutes of Health Extramural Loan Repayment Program Award 2002: American Psychiatric Association Seventh Annual Research Colloquium for Junior Investigators, Invited Member 2002-2006 K23 Mentored Patient-Oriented Research Career Development Award, National Institute of Mental Health 2001: Bristol Meyers Squibb Young Faculty Development Award 2001: Emory University Psychiatry Senior Residents' Outstanding Educator Award 2000: Emory University Teaching Fund Award for the development of an interdisciplinary course entitled Psychobiological Foundations of Personhood: Tibetan Buddhist and Western Perspectives 2000: Emory Medical Care Foundation Research Award 2000: Future Leaders in Psychiatry Travel Award 1998: Balm Foundation Research Grant 1993: American Psychoanalytic Association Fellow 1991: Alpha Omega Alpha, Washington University Chapter 1991: Missouri State Medical Association Award 1984: Colorado State Fellow, University of Denver  Publications  Scientific articles published in peer-reviewed journals     Miller, A.H., Haroon, E., Raison, C.L., Felger, J.C. Cytokine Targets in the Brain: Impact on Neurotransmitters and Neurocircuits.
Depression & Anxiety 2013; 30::297-306  Hanusch, K., Janssen, C.H., Billheimer, D, Jenkins, I., Spurgeon, E., Lowry, C.A., Raison, C.L. Whole Body Hyperthermia (WBH) for the Treatment of Major Depression: Associations with Thermoregulatory Cooling. American Journal of Psychiatry 2013; 170: 802-4.  Review articles and clinical guidelines Raison C.L., Nemeroff C.B. "Cancer and depression: prevalence, diagnosis and treatment. 2000. Home Health Consultant 7; 9: 34-41. Raison, C.L. "Managing neuropsychiatric side effects of peginterferon. The Treatment Reporter. November 2002 Edition. Projects in Knowledge publications. Demetrashvili, M., Raison, C.L., Miller, A.H. Depression in at-risk populations. CNS news. July 2002: 9-12. Raison, C.L., Afdhal, N.H. Neuropsychiatric side effects associated with interferon-alfa plus ribavirin therapy: Recognition and risk factors.
In: UpToDate, Rose, B.D. (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2006. Raison, C.L., Afdhal, N.H. Neuropsychiatric side effects associated with interferon-alfa plus ribavirin therapy: Treatment and prevention. In: UpToDate, Rose, B.D. (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2006. Maletic, V. & Raison, C.L. Immune disturbances in chronic pain: cause, consequence or both? Current Immunology Reviews, Accepted for publication  Rook, G.A.W., Raison, C.L., Lowry, C.A. Major Depressive Disorder, Immunoregulation, Inflammation and Our Changing Microbial Environment. www.brainimmune.com. Friday, 4 November 2011. Rook, G.A.W., Raison, C.L., Lowry, C.A. Microbial “Old Friends”, immunoregulation and psychiatric disorders. Old Herborn University Seminar Monograph 2012 Raison, C.L. & Miller, A.H. Do Cytokines Really Sing the Blues?
Cerebrum: the online magazine that can change your mind. Dana Foundation, http://www.dana.org/news/cerebrum. August 2013  Books Maletic, V., Jain, R., Raison, C.L. 100 Questions and Answers about Pain. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc. Sudbury, MA, 2010. Draud, J.W., Jain, R., Maletic, V, Raison, C.L. Treating the Whole Patient: Exploring the Healing Potential of a Mind-Body Approach to Mental Health. CME LLC, 2011 Raison, C.L., Maletic, V. J. The New Mind-Body Science of Depression, W.W. Norton, New York, 2013  Book chapters Raison, C.L., Miller, A.H. Immune System and Central Nervous System Interactions. In: Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 8th Edition.
Eds: Sadock, B.J., Sadock, V.A. Philadelphia. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. 2005, pp. 137–161. Raison, C.L., Purselle, D.C., Capuron, L., Miller, A.H. Treatment of Depression in Medical Illness. In: Biology of Depression. Eds: Licinio, J. and Wong, M. 2005, pp. 253–278. Raison, C.L., Giese-Davis, J., Miller, A.H., Spiegel, D. Depression in Cancer: Mechanisms, Consequences and Treatment. In: The Physician's Guide to Depression and Bipolar Disorders. Eds: Evans, D.L., Charney, D.S., Lewis, L. 2006, pp. 377–409. Norris, E.R., Raison, C.L. Depression. In: Medical Management of the Surgical Patient: a Textbook of the Perioperative Patient. Eds: Lubin, M.F., Smith, R.B., Dobson, T.F., Spell, N., Walker, H.K.
2006, pp 479–490. Raison, C.L., Miller, A.H. Immune System and Central Nervous System Interactions. In: Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9th Edition. Eds: Sadock, B.J., Sadock, V.A. Philadelphia. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. 2009, pp 175–198. Owen-Smith, A.A., Raison, C.L. Complementary and Alternative Medicine. In: Clinical Manual of Prevention Principles in Mental Health Care. Ed: Compton, M. American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc, 2009, pp 105–119. Thompson, D.S., Raison, C.L., Jonas, C., Miller, A.H. Cancer and Depression: Phenomenology and Pathophysiology. In: Internal Medicine Care of Cancer Patients. Eds: Gagel, R.F., Escalante, C.P., and Yeung S-C. In press. Nater, U., Heim, C.M., Raison, C.L.
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. In: vol: Neurobiology of Psychiatric Disorders. Eds: Schlaepfer, T.; series: Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Eds: Aminoff, M.J, Boller, F., Swabb, D.F., Elsevier, 2012. Miller, A.H., Pace, T.W.W., Raison, C.L. Neuropsychiatric effects of IFN-alpha: relevance to depression. In: Understanding Depression: A Translational Approach. Eds: Pariante, C.M., Nesse, R.M., Nutt, D., Wolpert, L. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2009, pp 223–237. Nater, U., Raison, C.L., Miller, A.H., Reeves, W.C. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. In: The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science, 2nd Edition. Eds: Craighead WE and Nemeroff CB. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ. 2004, pgs 177-180.
Burke, M.A., Raison, C.L., Miller, A.H. Depression in cancer: pathophysiology at the mind-body interface. In: Cancer Symptom Science: Measurements, Mechanisms, and Management. Eds: Cleeland, C.S., Fisch, M.J., Dunn, A.J. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, 2010, pp. 75–85. Pace, T.W.W., Raison, C.L., Miller, A.H. Role of inflammation in neuropsychiatric disorders. In: Inflammation, Life Style and Chronic Diseases: The Silent Link. Ed. : Aggarwal, B.B., 2011 Raison, C.L., Mascaro, J.S., Pace, T.W. Research on the Endocrinology of Compassion. In: Compassion: From Theory to Training to Neuroscience. A Multimedia Book. Ed. : Singer, T.A., 2012 Nater UM, Heim CM, Raison C, (2012). Chronic fatigue syndrome.
In: Schlaepfer T, Nemeroff CB (Eds. ), Neurobiology of Psychiatric Disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol 106. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pgs 573-587 Raison, C.L., Miller, A.H. The Role of Inflammation in Depression: Implications for Phenomenology, Pathophysiology and Treatment. In: Leonard, B., Halaris, A. (Eds.) Modern Trends in Pharmacopsychiatry, Vol. 28, 2013; Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers, Basel, Switzerland Raison, C.L., Miller, A.H., Rook, G.A.W., Begay, T. Role of Inflammation in Diseases of the Nervous System (Psychiatry). In: Zigmond, M.J., Coyle, J.T., Rowland, L.P. (Eds.) Neurobiology of Brain Disorders. Elsevier, 2013 Dodson-Lavelle, B., Ozawa-de Silva, B., Raison, C.L., and Negi, L.T. Healing Through Compassion: Cognitively-Based Compassion Training for Foster Care Youth.
In: Rozelle, D., Rome, D. (Eds.) Contemplative Methods in Trauma Treatment: Integrating Mindfulness and Other Approaches. Guilford Press, 2014 Shah, N. & Raison, C.L. Depression and the surgical patient. In: Lubin, M.F., Dodson, T.F., Winawer, N. (Eds.) Medical Management of the Surgical Patient: a Textbook of Perioperative Medicine, Cambridge University Press, 2013 Shah, N. & Raison, C.L. Psychological and emotional reactions to illness and surgery. In: Lubin, M.F., Dodson, T.F., Winawer, N. (Eds.) Medical Management of the Surgical Patient: a Textbook of Perioperative Medicine, Cambridge University Press, 2013 Rook, G.A.W., Lowry, C.A., Raison, C.L. Microbiota and the hygiene hypothesis of psychiatric disorders.
In: Cryan, J.., Lyte, M. (Eds.) The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Health and Disease, Springer, 2013  Commentaries and editorials Miller, A.H., Raison, C.L. Cytokines, p38 MAP Kinase and the Pathophysiology of Depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006. 31: 2089-2090. Raison, C.L. Buddhists Meet Mind Scientists in Conference on Meditation and Depression. Psychiatric Times, 25(3), May 2008 Raison, C.L. An Evolutionary View on the Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Compassion. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences Winter 2009: Raison, C.L., Maletic, V., Jain, R., Draud, J. From Chaos to Consilience Parts I-III. Psychiatric Times, May–August 2009 Rook, G.A.W., Raison, C.L., Lowry, C.A. Childhood microbial experience, immunoregulation, inflammation and adult susceptibility to psychosocial stressors and depression in rich and poor countries.
Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health 2012; Epub Raison, C.L. & Miller A.H. Malaise, melancholia and madness: The evolutionary legacy of an inflammatory bias  Category:American psychiatrists Category:Living people Category:People from Dinuba, California Category:Stanford University alumni Category:University of Arizona faculty Category:University of Denver alumni Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty Category:1957 births
Eclipse is an integrated development environment (IDE) used in computer programming. It contains a base workspace and an extensible plug-in system for customizing the environment. Eclipse is written mostly in Java and its primary use is for developing Java applications, but it may also be used to develop applications in other programming languages via plug-ins, including Ada, ABAP, C, C++, C#, Clojure, COBOL, D, Erlang, Fortran, Groovy, Haskell, JavaScript, Julia, Lasso, Lua, NATURAL, Perl, PHP, Prolog, Python, R, Ruby (including Ruby on Rails framework), Rust, Scala, and Scheme. It can also be used to develop documents with LaTeX (via a TeXlipse plug-in) and packages for the software Mathematica.
Development environments include the Eclipse Java development tools (JDT) for Java and Scala, Eclipse CDT for C/C++, and Eclipse PDT for PHP, among others. The initial codebase originated from IBM VisualAge. The Eclipse software development kit (SDK), which includes the Java development tools, is meant for Java developers. Users can extend its abilities by installing plug-ins written for the Eclipse Platform, such as development toolkits for other programming languages, and can write and contribute their own plug-in modules. Since the introduction of the OSGi implementation (Equinox) in version 3 of Eclipse, plug-ins can be plugged-stopped dynamically and are termed (OSGI) bundles.
Eclipse software development kit (SDK) is free and open-source software, released under the terms of the Eclipse Public License, although it is incompatible with the GNU General Public License. It was one of the first IDEs to run under GNU Classpath and it runs without problems under IcedTea. History Eclipse was inspired by the Smalltalk-based VisualAge family of integrated development environment (IDE) products. Although fairly successful, a major drawback of the VisualAge products was that developed code was not in a component-based software engineering model. Instead, all code for a project was held in a compressed lump (somewhat like a zip file but in a proprietary format called .dat).
Individual classes could not be easily accessed, certainly not outside the tool. A team primarily at the IBM Cary NC lab developed the new product as a Java-based replacement. In November 2001, a consortium was formed with a board of stewards to further the development of Eclipse as open-source software. It is estimated that IBM had already invested nearly $40 million by that time. The original members were Borland, IBM, Merant, QNX Software Systems, Rational Software, Red Hat, SuSE, TogetherSoft, and WebGain. The number of stewards increased to over 80 by the end of 2003. In January 2004, the Eclipse Foundation was created.
Eclipse 3.0 (released on 21 June 2004) selected the OSGi Service Platform specifications as the runtime architecture. The Association for Computing Machinery recognized Eclipse with the 2011 ACM Software Systems Award on 26 April 2012. Licensing The Eclipse Public License (EPL) is the fundamental license under which Eclipse projects are released. Some projects require dual licensing, for which the Eclipse Distribution License (EDL) is available, although use of this license must be applied for and is considered on a case-by-case basis. Eclipse was originally released under the Common Public License, but was later re-licensed under the Eclipse Public License. The Free Software Foundation has said that both licenses are free software licenses, but are incompatible with the GNU General Public License (GPL).
Name According to Lee Nackman, Chief Technology Officer of IBM's Rational division (originating in 2003) at that time, the name "Eclipse" (dating from at least 2001) was not a wordplay on Sun Microsystems, as the product's primary competition at the time of naming was Microsoft Visual Studio, which Eclipse was to eclipse. Different versions of Eclipse have been given different science-related names. The versions named after Callisto, Europa, and Ganymede, which are moons of Jupiter, were followed by a version named after Galileo, the discoverer of those moons. These were followed by two sun-themed names, Helios of Greek mythology, and Indigo, one of the seven colors of a rainbow (which is produced by the sun).
The version after that, Juno, has a triple meaning: a Roman mythological figure, an asteroid, and a spacecraft to Jupiter. Kepler, Luna, and Mars continued the astronomy theme, and then Neon and Oxygen constituted a theme of chemical elements. Photon represented a return to sun-themed names. , the alphabetic scheme was abandoned and instead releases are named in the format YYYY-MM. Starting with version 4.9, the project has opted for dropping that naming convention in order to better align with new Simultaneous Release strategy and adopt a date-based naming convention to reflect the quarterly releases. Releases Since 2006, the Foundation has coordinated an annual Simultaneous Release.
Each release includes the Eclipse Platform and several other Eclipse projects. From 2008 through 2018, each Simultaneous Release had occurred on the 4th Wednesday of June. In 2018 the project switched to quarterly (13 week) YYYY-MM releases without intermediate service releases. Architecture Eclipse uses plug-ins to provide all the functionality within and on top of the run-time system. Its run-time system is based on Equinox, an implementation of the OSGi core framework specification. In addition to allowing the Eclipse Platform to be extended using other programming languages, such as C and Python, the plug-in framework allows the Eclipse Platform to work with typesetting languages like LaTeX and networking applications such as telnet and database management systems.
The plug-in architecture supports writing any desired extension to the environment, such as for configuration management. Java and CVS support is provided in the Eclipse SDK, with support for other version control systems provided by third-party plug-ins. With the exception of a small run-time kernel, everything in Eclipse is a plug-in. Thus, every plug-in developed integrates with Eclipse in the same way as other plug-ins; in this respect, all features are "created equal". Eclipse provides plug-ins for a wide variety of features, some of which are from third parties using both free and commercial models. Examples of plug-ins include for Unified Modeling Language (UML), for Sequence and other UML diagrams, a plug-in for DB Explorer, and many more.
The Eclipse SDK includes the Eclipse Java development tools (JDT), offering an IDE with a built-in Java incremental compiler and a full model of the Java source files. This allows for advanced refactoring techniques and code analysis. The IDE also makes use of a workspace, in this case a set of metadata over a flat filespace allowing external file modifications as long as the corresponding workspace resource is refreshed afterward. Eclipse implements the graphical control elements of the Java toolkit called Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT), whereas most Java applications use the Java standard Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT) or Swing. Eclipse's user interface also uses an intermediate graphical user interface layer called JFace, which simplifies the construction of applications based on SWT.
Eclipse was made to run on Wayland during a Google Summer of Code (GSoC) Project in 2014.  , language packs being developed by the Babel Project provide translations into over 40 natural languages. Rich client platform Eclipse provides the rich client platform (RCP) for developing general-purpose applications.
The following components constitute the rich client platform:  Equinox OSGi – a standard bundling framework  Core platform – boot Eclipse, run plug-ins  Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT) – a portable widget toolkit  JFace – viewer classes to bring model view controller programming to SWT, file buffers, text handling, text editors  Eclipse Workbench – views, editors, perspectives, wizards  Examples of rich client applications based on Eclipse are:  IBM Notes 8 and 9  Attachmate-Novell NetIQ Designer for Identity Manager  Apache Directory Studio  Remote Component Environment  DBeaver  Server platform Eclipse supports development for Tomcat, GlassFish and many other servers and is often capable of installing the required server (for development) directly from the IDE.
It supports remote debugging, allowing a user to watch variables and step through the code of an application that is running on the attached server. Web Tools Platform The Eclipse Web Tools Platform (WTP) project is an extension of the Eclipse platform with tools for developing Web and Java EE applications. It includes source and graphical editors for a variety of languages, wizards and built-in applications to simplify development, and tools and APIs to support deploying, running, and testing apps. Modeling platform The Modeling project contains all the official projects of the Eclipse Foundation focusing on model-based development technologies. All are compatible with the Eclipse Modeling Framework created by IBM.
Those projects are separated in several categories: Model Transformation, Model Development Tools, Concrete Syntax Development, Abstract Syntax Development, Technology and Research, and Amalgam. Model Transformation projects uses Eclipse Modeling Framework (EMF) based models as an input and produce either a model or text as an output. Model to model transformation projects includes ATLAS Transformation Language (ATL), an open source transformation language and toolkit used to transform a given model or to generate a new model from a given EMF model. Model to text transformation projects contains Acceleo, an implementation of MOFM2T, a standard model to text language from the Object Management Group (OMG).
The Acceleo code generator can generate any textual language (Java, PHP, Python, etc.) from EMF based models defined with any metamodel (Unified Modeling Language (UML), Systems Modeling Language (SysML), etc.). It is open-source. Model Development Tools projects are implementations of various modeling standards used in the industry, and their toolkits. Among those projects can be found implementations of several standards:  Unified Modeling Language (UML)  Systems Modeling Language (SysML)  Object Constraint Language (OCL)  Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN)  Interactive Media Manager (IMM)  Semantics of Business Vocabulary and Business Rules (SBVR)  XML Schema (XSD)  National Electronic Distributors Association (NEDA)  The Concrete Syntax Development project contains the Graphical Modeling Framework, an Eclipse-based framework dedicated to the graphical representation of EMF based models.
The Abstract Syntax Development project hosts the Eclipse Modeling Framework, core of most of the modeling project of the Eclipse Foundation and the framework available for EMF like Connected Data Objects (CDO), EMF query or EMF validation. Technology and Research projects are prototypes of Modeling project; this project is used to host all the modeling projects of the Eclipse Foundation during their incubation phase. Amalgam provides the packaging and integration between all the available modeling tools for the Eclipse package dedicated to modeling tools. Application lifecycle management Application lifecycle management (ALM) and task management in Eclipse need an optional component called Mylyn (), an open-source implementation of the task-focused interface.
It provides an API for tools embedding the task-focused interface. For software developers, it helps a developer work efficiently with many different tasks (such as bugs, problem reports or new features). Tasks are integrated into Mylyn. For all tasks that have been integrated, Mylyn monitors user activity and tries to identify information relevant to the task at hand. It uses this task context to focus the Eclipse UI on the related information. Mylyn can integrate with repositories such as Bugzilla, Trac, Redmine, Mantis, JIRA, Unfuddle, and GitHub. It focuses on improving productivity by reducing searching, scrolling, and navigation. By making task context explicit, Mylyn is also meant to facilitate multitasking, planning, reusing past efforts, and sharing expertise.
The project name comes from myelin, an electrically insulating layer that surrounds neurons' axons. The original name of this project, "Mylar", replicated a trademark of a boPET film company, so the Eclipse Foundation changed the project name. Extensions Eclipse supports a rich selection of extensions, adding support for Python via PyDev, Android development via Google's ADT, JavaFX via e(fx)clipse, JavaScript, jQuery, and many others at the Eclipse Marketplace. Valable is a Vala plug-in for Eclipse. Alternative distributions Several alternative distributions exist in the Eclipse project. PHP Development Tools  The PHP Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP) Development Tools project provides a framework for the Eclipse platform.
The project encompasses all development components, including code-completion, develop PHP and facilitate extensibility. It leverages the existing Eclipse Web Tools Platform (WTP) and Dynamic Languages Toolkit (DLTK). Android Development Tools Android Development Tools (ADT) was superseded in 2015 by the Eclipse foundation's own plugin, called Andmore: Development Tools for Android, after Google discontinued development of their plug-in for the Eclipse IDE, that is designed to provide an integrated environment in which to build Android applications. ADT/Andmore extends the abilities of Eclipse to let developers set up new Android projects, create an application UI, add packages based on the Android Framework API, debug their applications using the Android SDK tools, and export signed (or unsigned) .apk files in order to distribute their applications.
It is freely available to download. Googles' ADT was the official IDE for Android until 2015 but was replaced by Eclipse's Andmore and the official Android Studio. See also   Comparison of integrated development environments  Comparison of integrated development environments for Java  List of Eclipse-based software  List of Eclipse projects  References  Sources  External links        Category:Android (operating system) development software Category:Code navigation tools Category:Cross-platform free software Category:Debuggers Category:Eclipse (software) Category:Formerly proprietary software Category:Free HTML editors Category:Free integrated development environments Category:Free software programmed in Java (programming language) Category:Free UML tools Category:IBM software Category:Integrated development environments Category:Java development tools Category:Java platform Category:Linux integrated development environments Category:Linux programming tools Category:Linux software Category:MacOS programming tools Category:MacOS text editors Category:Programming tools for Windows Category:Software development kits Category:Software using the Eclipse license
In human anatomy, the adductor minimus (adductor femoris minimus or adductor quartus) is a small and flat skeletal muscle in the thigh which constitutes the upper, lateral part of the adductor magnus muscle. Structure The adductor minimus originates on the pelvis at the inferior ramus of the pubis as the anterior-most part of the adductor magnus. It is inserted on the back of the femur at the medial lip of the linea aspera and thus crosses the proximal part of the true adductor magnus. The adductor minimus and the adductor magnus are frequently separated by a branch of the superior perforating branch of the profunda femoris artery and the former muscle is considered independent from the latter because it is primarily a separate entity.
Innervation It shares innervation with the adductor magnus; the obturator nerve supplies the part attached to the linea aspera while the tibial nerve (L3-5), a branch of the sciatic nerve, supplies the part inserted onto adductor tubercle. Variation In 33% of people a supernumerary muscle is found between the adductor brevis and minimus. When present, this muscle originates from the upper part of the inferior ramus of the pubis from where it runs downwards and laterally. In half of cases, it inserts into the anterior surface of the insertion aponeurosis of the adductor minimus. In the remaining cases, it is either inserted into the upper part of the pectineal line or the posterior part of the lesser trochanter.
While similar to its neighbouring adductors, it is formed by separation from the superficial layer of the obturator externus, and is thus not ontogenetically related to the adductors. Function It adducts and laterally rotates the femur. References  Category:Hip adductors Category:Thigh muscles Category:Medial compartment of thigh
D&S may refer to:  Domination and submission (BDSM), or  the Chilean company Distribución y Servicio (D&S)  See also  S&D (disambiguation)
Allegiant Stadium is a domed stadium under construction, located in Paradise, Nevada, United States. It will serve as the home stadium for the National Football League (NFL)'s Las Vegas Raiders and the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV) Rebels college football team. It is located on about  of land west of Mandalay Bay at Russell Road and Hacienda Avenue and between Polaris Avenue and Dean Martin Drive, just west of Interstate 15. Construction of the $1.8 billion stadium began on November 13, 2017, and is expected to be completed in July 2020 in time for the 2020 NFL season. Raiders officials have noted this will be a "substantial completion" date meaning not every element of the stadium will be finished, but enough will be done to host football games, concerts and other events.
History  Timeline  2016 In January 2016, reports emerged that Las Vegas Sands was considering developing a stadium in conjunction with Majestic Realty and UNLV, on a  site on Tropicana Avenue owned by UNLV. UNLV had been in the market for a new stadium to replace Sam Boyd Stadium since at least 2011. Raiders owner Mark Davis visited Las Vegas on January 29 to tour the site and meet with Sands chairman Sheldon Adelson and other local figures. The Raiders, who had been trying to get a new stadium built for the team since the 1980s, had just missed out on relocating to Los Angeles that same month with the Rams and Chargers moving into a new stadium in Inglewood, California and were at an impasse in Oakland.
In order for the team to relocate to Las Vegas, a new stadium was required, since Sam Boyd Stadium was undersized for the NFL and there were no other professional-caliber stadiums in Nevada. On March 21, 2016, when asked about Las Vegas, Davis said, "I think the Raiders like the Las Vegas plan," and "it's a very very very intriguing and exciting plan." Davis also met with Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval about the stadium plan. On April 1, 2016, Davis met with UNLV officials and toured Sam Boyd Stadium to evaluate whether it could serve as a temporary home for the team.
On April 28, 2016, Davis said he wanted to move the Raiders to Las Vegas and pledged $500 million toward the construction of the proposed $2.4-billion domed stadium. "Together we can turn the Silver State into the silver and black state," Davis said. In the spring of 2016, the board of directors of Las Vegas Sands rejected Adelson's stadium proposal. Adelson decided to move ahead with the stadium as an individual investment, pledging $650 million of his personal wealth to the project. The viability of the Tropicana Avenue site was called into serious question in June 2016, when Southwest Airlines objected to the location because its proximity to the northern end of one of McCarran Airport's runways could negatively affect the safety and capacity of air traffic at the airport.
The list of potential locations soon expanded to nine candidates, including the sites of the Wild Wild West casino, the Wynn golf course, the Riviera casino, the Las Vegas Festival Grounds, and Cashman Center. By September, the list was narrowed to two possibilities: the Bali Hai Golf Club, south of Mandalay Bay, and a vacant lot on Russell Road, just west of Interstate 15. On August 25, 2016, the Raiders filed a trademark application for "Las Vegas Raiders" on the same day renderings of a proposed stadium design were released. On September 15, 2016, the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee unanimously voted to recommend and approve $750 million for the Las Vegas stadium plan.
Majestic Realty revealed in October 2016 that it had withdrawn from the stadium project. In October 2016, Sandoval called a special session of the Nevada Legislature to consider the stadium and other tourism-related proposals. The funding bill for the stadium was approved by a 16–5 vote in the Senate and by 28–13 in the Assembly, and was signed into law by Sandoval on October 17. The bill allowed Clark County to increase its hotel tax to raise the $750 million in funding. 2017  The Raiders filed relocation papers on January 19 to move from Oakland to Las Vegas. On January 26, 2017, the Raiders submitted a proposed lease agreement for the stadium.
It was reported that the Raiders had selected the Russell Road site as the stadium location, the team would pay one dollar in rent, and that they could control the naming rights for both the stadium and plaza and in addition keep signage sponsorship revenue. Days after the Raiders' announced proposal, Adelson dropped out of the stadium project, pulling his proposed $650 million contribution. Shortly after this announcement, Goldman Sachs, which had planned to finance part of the project, withdrew as well. As a result, the Raiders were expected to increase their contribution from $500 million to $1.15 billion. On March 6, the Raiders revealed Bank of America would lend $650 million to replace the Adelson portion of the funding.
NFL owners voted to approve the move by a margin of 31–1 on March 27. The next day, the Raiders and the Las Vegas Stadium Authority began accepting deposits for season tickets for the new stadium. The Raiders announced that they planned to remain in Oakland until the stadium was complete. The Raiders closed the purchase of the land for the stadium at the Russell Road site on May 1. The purchase price was reported at $77.5 million. On May 11, it was announced that in a joint venture Mortenson Construction and McCarthy Construction would be the developers for the stadium.
Mortenson previously worked on U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis. The stadium authority approved a stadium lease with the Raiders on May 18. The lease was to be for 30 years with four successive extension options of five years each. On September 18, construction activity began on the stadium site with site preparation. A groundbreaking ceremony was held on November 13. The ceremony featured NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell, Raiders owner Mark Davis, his mother Carol Davis, various Raiders legends including Howie Long, Jim Plunkett, Tom Flores and Ray Guy, Las Vegas and Nevada politicians such as Governor Brian Sandoval, Las Vegas Mayor Carolyn Goodman, Clark County Commissioner Steve Sisolak and stadium authority head Steve Hill.
The event was hosted by George Lopez and included other celebrities like Carlos Santana, longtime Vegas icon Wayne Newton and Howie Dorough and Nick Carter of the Backstreet Boys. It also featured a tribute to the victims of the nearby 2017 Las Vegas shooting, including a performance by Judith Hill and the Las Vegas House of Blues Gospel Choir performing ‘Rise up’ and the lighting of 58 beams of light, symbolizing the 58 victims killed in the attack. 2018  In January, construction crews began blasting caliche rock with dynamite to excavate and create the stadium bowl. On February 3, the Raiders opened a  stadium preview center at Town Square, located a few miles from the stadium site, featuring interactive exhibits and team memorabilia, with plans for simulations of views from individual seats and a large-scale stadium model.
On August 27, Clark County gave the stadium a new vanity address, rechristening it from its original 5617 Dean Martin Drive address, to 3333 Al Davis Way (the former Aldebaran Avenue). 2019 It was announced on May 24, 2019, that 20 additional suites would be added to the stadium in the south end zone, with six suites on the main concourse and 14 suites in the lower suite level, one section above the main concourse. The suites were added in an effort to make the stadium more attractive for a Super Bowl. Financing The budget for development of the stadium is estimated at $1.8 billion.
Of this, $78 million was spent to purchase the land, $1.33 billion is estimated to be spent on construction, $123 million on furniture, fixtures, and equipment, $234 million on design and engineering, and $31 million on utilities and infrastructure. Some reports gave a budget of $1.9 billion, which also included $100 million to build a separate Raiders practice facility. The financing for the project is expected to come in the form of $750 million in public funding and $1.1 billion from the Raiders. The public portion of the funding will come from municipal bonds issued by Clark County, backed by the proceeds of a special tax on hotel rooms in the Las Vegas area, which took effect in March 2017.
The Raiders' contribution was expected to include a $650 million loan from Bank of America, $200 million from the NFL's stadium loan program, and $300 million from sales of personal seat licenses at the stadium, naming rights for the stadium, and sponsorships. Local government cannot receive any rent or revenue sharing from the stadium, because such an arrangement would not be compatible with the tax-exempt status of the bonds. Proponents instead argued that the public financing would be justified by increased economic activity and tax revenue related to the stadium. Critics have argued that the economic projections were based on overly optimistic assumptions.
A total of $645 million in construction bonds sold out in 90 minutes in April 2018, representing Clark County's contribution to the project beyond room taxes already collected. Design For Allegiant Stadium, Mark Davis retained the same architecture firm, MANICA Architecture, that had designed the previously proposed Carson Stadium near Los Angeles. Davis retained much of the look from the Carson stadium because he "fell in love with the overall design of it". The stadium will be a 10 level domed stadium with a clear ETFE roof, silver and black exterior and large retractable curtain-like side windows facing the Las Vegas Strip.
The design includes a large torch in one end that will house a flame in honor of Al Davis, the late long-time owner of the Raiders. The torch will be  tall and when completed will be the largest 3D printed object in the world. Updated renderings released after the relocation vote passed show the stadium with a roll-in natural grass field similar to the one at State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. While the Raiders will play on the grass field, UNLV prefers to play on an artificial turf surface. The artificial turf will be placed directly on the stadium's concrete floor, and the tray holding the grass field is being designed so that it can roll in and out without disrupting the turf underneath it.
Tenants and events The stadium will replace Sam Boyd Stadium and will serve as the home of both the Raiders and the UNLV Rebels football program. The first UNLV football game at the stadium is scheduled against the California Golden Bears for Saturday, August 29, 2020. College football  Pac-12 Football Championship Game On July 24, 2019, the Pac-12 Conference announced that the 2020 and 2021 Pac-12 Football Championship Game would be played at Allegiant Stadium, moving from Levi's Stadium. Las Vegas Bowl  The stadium will host the annual Las Vegas Bowl which moves from Sam Boyd Stadium and features the Pac-12 against a team from the Big Ten Conference or Southeastern Conference.
Concerts  On March 3, 2020, it was announced that Garth Brooks would be the first musical act to play at Allegiant Stadium, doing so on August 22, 2020. Other potential events Stadium backers project 20 to 25 additional events per year outside of Raiders and Rebels games with additional plausible possibilities including the Super Bowl with a capacity of 71,835 seats, the Pro Bowl, the NFL Draft, WrestleMania, the NCAA Final Four, the USA Sevens rugby tournament, Monster Jam, boxing matches, Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) events, other neutral-site college football games, international soccer matches, and corporate shows. David Beckham visited Las Vegas in 2016 to advocate for the stadium as a possible home for his Major League Soccer expansion team, although he ultimately announced the launch of the team with a stadium in Miami.
In 2019, it was revealed that Vegas Golden Knights owner Bill Foley was engaged in discussions with MLS to land a team to play in the stadium. The stadium was submitted as a potential site for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, but was later withdrawn from consideration. Naming rights 	 On August 5, 2019, the Raiders announced the team had reached an agreement with Summerlin-based Allegiant Air's owner, Allegiant Travel Co., for the naming rights for the first 30 years of the stadium's use beginning in 2020.
See also   Sports in the Las Vegas metropolitan area  Oakland Raiders relocation to Las Vegas  Las Vegas Ballpark, home of the Las Vegas Aviators of Minor League Baseball (MiLB)  T-Mobile Arena, home of the Vegas Golden Knights of the National Hockey League (NHL)  SoFi Stadium, another new NFL stadium set to open in 2020 as the home of the Los Angeles Rams and Los Angeles Chargers in Inglewood, California. References  External links     Proposed Las Vegas Stadium Virtual Tour from the National Football League (NFL)'s official YouTube channel  Construction page for stadium from Mortenson|McCarthy  Las Vegas Stadium Authority  Stadium webcam  Category:Sports venues in Las Vegas Category:American football venues in Nevada Category:College football venues Category:Las Vegas Bowl Category:Las Vegas Raiders stadiums Category:National Football League venues Category:NCAA bowl game venues Category:Paradise, Nevada Category:Stadiums under construction in the United States Category:UNLV Rebels football venues
Desorption is a phenomenon whereby a substance is released from or through a surface. The process is the opposite of sorption (that is, either adsorption or absorption). This occurs in a system being in the state of sorption equilibrium between bulk phase (fluid, i.e. gas or liquid solution) and an adsorbing surface (solid or boundary separating two fluids). When the concentration (or pressure) of substance in the bulk phase is lowered, some of the sorbed substance changes to the bulk state. In chemistry, especially chromatography, desorption is the ability for a chemical to move with the mobile phase. The more a chemical desorbs, the less likely it will adsorb, thus instead of sticking to the stationary phase, the chemical moves up with the solvent front.
In chemical separation processes, stripping is also referred to as desorption as one component of a liquid stream moves by mass transfer into a vapor phase through the liquid-vapor interface. After adsorption, the adsorbed chemical will remain on the substrate nearly indefinitely, provided the temperature remains low. However, as the temperature rises, so does the likelihood of desorption. The general equation for the rate of desorption is:  where  is the rate constant for desorption,  is the concentration of the adsorbed material, and  is the kinetic order of desorption. Usually, the order of the desorption can be predicted by the number of elementary steps involved:  Atomic or simple molecular desorption will typically be a first-order process (i.e., a simple molecule on the surface of the substrate desorbs into a gaseous form).
Recombinative molecular desorption will generally be a second-order process (i.e., two hydrogen atoms on the surface desorb and form a gaseous H2 molecule). The rate constant  may be expressed in the form  where  is the "attempt frequency" (often the Greek letter ), the chance of the adsorbed molecule overcoming its potential barrier to desorption,  is the activation energy of desorption,  is the Boltzmann constant, and  is the temperature. Desorption mechanisms  Depending on the nature of the absorbent/adsorbent-to-surface bond, there are a multitude of mechanisms for desorption. The surface bond of a sorbant can be cleaved thermally, through chemical reactions or by radiation, all which may result in desorption of the species.
Thermal desorption  Reductive or oxidative desorption  In some cases, adsorbed molecules are chemically bonded to the surface/material, providing a strong adhesion and limiting desorption. If this is the case, desorption requires a chemical reaction which cleaves the chemical bonds. One way to accomplish this is to apply a voltage to the surface, resulting in either reduction or oxidation of the adsorbed molecule (depending on the bias and the adsorbed molecules). In a typical example of reductive desorption, a self-assembled monolayers of alkyl thiols on a gold surface can be removed by applying a negative bias to the surface resulting in reduction of the sulfur head-group.
The chemical reaction for this process would be:  where R is an alkyl chain (e.g. CH3), S is the sulfur atom of the thiol group, Au is a gold surface atom and e− is an electron supplied by an external voltage source. Another application for reductive/oxidative desorption is to clean active carbon material through electrochemical regeneration. Electron-stimulated desorption  Electron-stimulated desorption occurs as a result of an electron beam incident upon a surface in vacuum, as is common in particle physics and industrial processes such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM). At atmospheric pressure, molecules may weakly bond to surfaces in what is known as adsorption.
These molecules may form monolayers at a density of 1015  atoms/(cm2 ) for a perfectly smooth surface,. One monolayer or several may form, depending on the bonding capabilities of the molecules. If an electron beam is incident upon the surface, it provides energy to break the bonds of the surface with molecules in the adsorbed monolayer(s), causing pressure to increase in the system. Once a molecule is desorbed into the vacuum volume, it is removed via the vacuum's pumping mechanism (re-adsorption is negligible). Hence, fewer molecules are available for desorption, and an increasing number of electrons are required to maintain constant desorption.
See also  Adsorption  Sorption isotherm  Chemisorption  Gibbs isotherm  Moisture sorption isotherm  Langmuir equation  References  Category:Surface science Category:Articles containing video clips
In computer graphics, line clipping is the process of removing lines or portions of lines outside an area of interest. Typically, any line or part thereof which is outside of the viewing area is removed. There are two common algorithms for line clipping: Cohen–Sutherland and Liang–Barsky. A line-clipping method consists of various parts. Tests are conducted on a given line segment to find out whether it lies outside the view volume. Afterwards, intersection calculations are carried out with one or more clipping boundaries. Determining which portion of the line is inside or outside of the clipping volume is done by processing the endpoints of the line with regards to the intersection.
Cohen–Sutherland  In computer graphics, the Cohen–Sutherland algorithm (named after Danny Cohen and Ivan Sutherland) is a line-clipping algorithm. The algorithm divides a 2D space into 9 regions, of which only the middle part (viewport) is visible. In 1967, flight-simulation work by Danny Cohen led to the development of the Cohen–Sutherland computer graphics two- and three-dimensional line clipping algorithms, created with Ivan Sutherland. Liang–Barsky  The Liang–Barsky algorithm uses the parametric equation of a line and inequalities describing the range of the clipping box to determine the intersections between the line and the clipping box. With these intersections it knows which portion of the line should be drawn.
This algorithm is significantly more efficient than Cohen–Sutherland, but Cohen–Sutherland does trivial accepts and rejects much faster, so it should be considered instead if most of the lines you need to clip would be completely in or out of the clip window. Cyrus–Beck  Very similar to Liang–Barsky line-clipping algorithm. The difference is that Liang–Barsky is a simplified Cyrus–Beck variation that was optimized for a rectangular clip window. The Cyrus–Beck algorithm is primarily intended for a clipping a line in the parametric form against a convex polygon in 2 dimensions or against a convex polyhedron in 3 dimensions. Nicholl–Lee–Nicholl  The Nicholl–Lee–Nicholl algorithm is a fast line-clipping algorithm that reduces the chances of clipping a single line segment multiple times, as may happen in the Cohen–Sutherland algorithm.
The clipping window is divided into a number of different areas, depending on the position of the initial point of the line to be clipped. Fast clipping This algorithm has similarities with Cohen–Sutherland. The start and end positions are classified by which portion of the 9-area grid they occupy. A large switch statement jumps to a specialized handler for that case. In contrast, Cohen–Sutherland may have to iterate several times to handle the same case. O(lg N) algorithm  This algorithm classifies vertices against the given line in the implicit form p: ax + by + c = 0. As the polygon is assumed to be convex and vertices are ordered clockwise or anti-clockwise, binary search can be applied and leads to a O(lg N) run-time complexity.
Skala This algorithm is based on homogeneous coordinates and duality. It can be used for line or line-segment clipping against a rectangular window, as well as against a convex polygon. The algorithm is based on classifying a vertex of the clipping window against a half-space given by a line p: ax + by + c = 0. The result of the classification determines the edges intersected by the line p. The algorithm is simple, easy to implement and extensible to a convex window as well. The line or line segment p can be computed from points r1, r2 given in homogeneous coordinates directly using the cross product as p = r1 × r2 = (x1, y1, w1) × (x2, y2, w2) or as p = r1 × r2 = (x1, y1, 1) × (x2, y2, 1).
See also  Clipping (computer graphics)  References  Category:Clipping (computer graphics)
The Transverse Acetabular Ligament (transverse ligament) is in reality a portion of the acetabular labrum, though differing from it in having no cartilage cells among its fibers. It consists of strong, flattened fibers, which cross the acetabular notch, and convert it into a foramen through which the nutrient vessels enter the joint. Prevents inferior displacement of head of femur. Additional Images  References  External links    Category:Ligaments of the lower limb
Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. is an American situation comedy that originally aired on CBS from September 25, 1964, to May 2, 1969. The series was a spin-off of The Andy Griffith Show, and the pilot episode was aired as the season finale of the fourth season of its parent series on May 18, 1964. The show ran for a total of 150 half-hour episodes spanning over five seasons, in black-and-white for the first season, and then in color for the remaining four seasons. In 2006, CBS Home Entertainment (distributed by Paramount) began releasing the series on DVD. The final season was released in November 2008.
Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. was a hit, never placing lower than tenth in the Nielsen ratings, and ended its run as the second-highest-rated series in the United States. It has enjoyed continued popularity through reruns and DVD releases. The series was created by Aaron Ruben, who also produced the show with Sheldon Leonard and Ronald Jacobs. Filmed and set in California, it stars Jim Nabors as Gomer Pyle, a naive but good-natured gas station attendant from the town of Mayberry, North Carolina, who enlists in the United States Marine Corps. Frank Sutton plays Gomer's high-octane, short-fused Gunnery Sergeant Vince Carter, and Ronnie Schell plays Gomer's friend Duke Slater.
Roy Stuart portrayed Corporal Chuck Boyle, GySgt. Carter's good-natured sidekick. Allan Melvin played in the recurring role of Gunnery Sergeant Carter's rival, Staff Sergeant Charley Hacker. History  Everett Greenbaum and Jim Fritzell, writers for The Andy Griffith Show, are credited with creating the character of Gomer Pyle. The character was based on an "incompetent" gas station attendant whom Greenbaum met and named after Gomer Cool (a writer) and Denver Pyle (an actor on The Andy Griffith Show). Jim Nabors was cast to play Gomer; he had been performing for a Santa Monica nightclub, The Horn, when Andy Griffith discovered him.
Though originally intended to appear in only one episode, Gomer proved popular, and after appearing in seasons 3 and 4, Nabors was given his own spin-off produced by Aaron Ruben. The pilot episode of Gomer Pyle was filmed in 1963 as part of The Andy Griffith Show, but was not aired until 1964, as the finale of The Andy Griffith Show'''s fourth season. The 1960s saw a return to "the more mundane sensibilities of comedy," due to viewers' wishes for television programming to be a "cultural antidepressant."
Thus, fantasy- and rurally-oriented comedies gained popularity and dominated the Nielsen ratings.The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge, p. 418 Like other comedies at the time, Gomer Pyle was a "deep escapist" show; it avoided political commentary and offered viewers a distraction from the social changes of the 1960s.Moore, Bensman, and Van Dyke p. 128 Despite being a military-themed show and airing during the peak of the Vietnam War, the show never discussed the war.Marc & Thompson, p. 94 Instead, the show was founded on "Gomer's innocent simplicity [and] Sergeant Carter's frustration and later concern for Gomer's well-being." This, compounded with the popularity of rural comedies in the 1960s, made the show popular.
Frank Sutton, who played Carter, ascribed the show's popularity to its concentration on its two main characters, and the plots being built around their respective personalities. The program remained in the top 10 of the ratings throughout its run—in the top three for all but its third season when CBS moved it from Fridays to Wednesdays.Hyatt, p. 96 Nabors quit because he desired to move to something else, 'reach for another rung on the ladder, either up or down'. After Gomer Pyle left the air, Jim Nabors hosted his own variety show, The Jim Nabors Hour, from 1969 to 1971.
As well as showcasing Nabors' singing and rich baritone voice, the show included comedy sketches that featured Nabors's Gomer Pyle co-stars Frank Sutton and Ronnie Schell. Though told that he should not leave Gomer Pyle, Nabors felt that the show would still be exciting and noted that every character he portrayed in his sketches "turn[ed] out to be Gomer." Production  The show was produced by creator Aaron Ruben, Andy Griffith Show producer Sheldon Leonard (in partnership with Griffith), and Ronald Jacobs; it was co-produced by Bruce Bayley Johnson and Duke Vincent. Among the writers were Sam Bobrick, Harvey Miller, Aaron Ruben, Jack Elinson, and Bill Idelson; Andy Griffith Show writers Everett Greenbaum and Jim Fritzell also wrote episodes.
Coby Ruskin was the primary director in the first four seasons, before John Rich took over the role for the fifth season; other directors included Gary Nelson, Peter Baldwin, and Alan Rafkin. Ruth Burch was in charge of the casting, and John Finger directed the cinematography. The theme song was composed by Earle Hagen, who also composed the themes for shows such as The Andy Griffith Show, The Dick Van Dyke Show, and That Girl. The show was filmed at Camp Pendleton, Desilu Studios's Desilu-Cahuenga, and RKO Forty Acres backlot, where The Andy Griffith Show was filmed.Leonard & Griffith, p. 133 Though Ruben preferred the use of a multiple-camera setup for comedy programs, Gomer Pyle used a single-camera setup because much of the shooting was conducted outdoors.
In his book And The Show Goes On, Sheldon Leonard explained that the armed forces offer levels of "cooperation" with filmmakers. Because the Marines felt that the show would be good for the branch's image, Gomer Pyle was given "total cooperation," meaning that the show was allowed unlimited access to military equipment. The vehicles in the show were provided by the Chrysler Corporation, as opposed to the parent series' vehicles that came from the Ford Motor Company. Although Jeeps are also prominent in the show, the brand itself would not become a part of Chrysler until the AMC buyout that occurred in 1987.
Nabors and Sutton were the only actors credited in every episode (however, Sutton did not appear in every episode). Ronnie Schell (who played Duke Slater) left after the third season to star in Good Morning World, though he returned for the fifth season, promoted to corporal, after graduating from non-commissioned officer training. Roy Stuart, who played Corporal Chuck Boyle, made his debut in the second season and left after the fourth. Andy Griffith, Frances Bavier, Ron Howard, and George Lindsey made guest appearances on the series reprising their respective roles from The Andy Griffith Show. Denver Pyle and Allan Melvin, who both had roles on The Andy Griffith Show, appeared in Gomer Pyle, but did not reprise their original roles.
Denver Pyle, who had played Briscoe Darling in six episodes of The Andy Griffith Show, played tomato farmer Titus Purcell in the Gomer Pyle episode "The Price of Tomatoes." Allan Melvin, who had played "Doc" Clarence Malloy and other antagonists on The Andy Griffith Show, played Sergeant Carter's rival, Staff Sergeant Hacker, for four seasons. Nabors also carried the Gomer Pyle character to fellow CBS series The Lucy Show, in which he made a cameo appearance in a 1966 episode. Episodes   Premise  The premise of Gomer Pyle is similar to and perhaps inspired by Andy Griffith's starring role in the Broadway play and movie version of No Time for Sergeants, which was based on the Mac Hyman novel of the same title.
Like Leonard's other shows, Gomer Pyle was character-driven; the main characters were "accessible" and "engaging," and the supporting characters were often eccentric. In the show's pilot episode, Gomer, a gas-station attendant from Mayberry, joins the Marines. Gomer's naivete immediately exasperates his drill instructor, Gunnery Sergeant Carter (Frank Sutton). Originally situated in Camp Wilson in North Carolina, the setting was moved to the fictional Camp Henderson in California. The show was a fish-out-of-water piece, which, like its contemporary The Beverly Hillbillies, featured rural characters out of their normal settings.Browne, p. 331 Like other comedies of the 1960s, the show avoided political commentary (especially concerning the Vietnam War) and focused instead on the predicaments that ensued from Gomer's unintentional breaking of the rules or sticking his foot in his mouth.
Among the themes explored were the honesty and "strong family values supposedly inherent in small town life"; according to author Gerard Jones, Gomer Pyle's basic message was "far simpler than any corporate suburban sitcoms with their lessons in compromise and role-following [...] It said merely that the oldest, most basic, least sophisticated sort of sweetness could redeem even the toughest modern types".Newcomb, pp. 113–115 Author Elizabeth Hirschman noted that Gomer represented a "uniquely American archetype"—a "large, powerful man physically" with the "simple, honest nature of a child or animal". She also noted that, like stories with characters of such an archetype, Gomer's trusting nature was often taken advantage of, though in the end he "reaps happiness" because of his innocence.
In his book Watching M*A*S*H, Watching America, media and communications scholar James Wittebols said that Gomer Pyle illustrated how class differences "supposedly negated or diminished by military training" made themselves apparent in the military world. Characters  Gomer Pyle (played by Jim Nabors), from Mayberry, North Carolina, is a good-natured and innocent private whose naïvete constantly annoys his drill instructor, Sergeant Carter. Eventually, however, his "unquestioning love and trust of the world" lead those in his platoon to befriend him. His good nature attracts the friendship of women; meanwhile, in so far as Carter's abrasiveness repels women, Gomer is in the position of salvaging numerous social occasions by charming the women whose opinions are important to officers at the Marine base.
Gomer was created as a stereotype of a rural American; according to Time, he "wears a gee-whiz expression, spouts homilies out of a lopsided mouth and lopes around uncertainly like a plowboy stepping through a field of cow dung. He is a walking disaster area." Though never promoted beyond private first class during the show's run, Jim Nabors (who played Gomer) was given an honorary promotion to lance corporal in 2001, to corporal in 2007, and then to sergeant in 2013 by the Marines. Gomer Pyle's birthday was February 26. Vince Carter (played by Frank Sutton), a gunnery sergeant from Kansas, is Gomer's irritable, abrasive, and socially inept drill instructor (later his platoon sergeant) who is constantly annoyed by Gomer's well-intentioned mistakes.
Carter disdains Gomer's country idiosyncrasies ("golly!" "Shazam!" "surprise, surprise, surprise!"). He is also put off by Gomer's expectation that the platoon should be a family, of which Carter is the father figure: As much as Carter wants their working relationship to be temporary, as is common in the military, Gomer expects a life-long friendship, which exasperates Carter. Due to the audience's demand for more family-oriented programming, he eventually revealed his softer side: Carter became a father figure to Gomer as well as his best friend. Sutton stated that his character was created "out of whole cloth for the show" and, as the actor played him "by ear," Carter greatly changed during the first season.
Barbara Stuart played his girlfriend "Miss Bunny" for three seasons. Mark Slade appeared in eight episodes in 1964 in the role of "Eddie" though in the first of those appearances he was billed as "Private Swanson." Duke Slater (played by Ronnie Schell) is Gomer's friend and platoon-mate. Schell left the show in the fourth season to star in the short-lived show Good Morning, World but returned in the final season as the corporal of Gomer's platoon. Chuck Boyle (played by Roy Stuart) is Gomer's corporal. He often serves as Carter's conscience and sticks up for Gomer when Sergeant Carter is annoyed over his mistakes.
Stuart debuted in the second season and left the show after the fourth season; Boyle was replaced by Duke Slater as corporal for the final season. Lou-Ann Poovie (played by Elizabeth MacRae) is Gomer's girlfriend. She debuts in the third season as a singer for a nightclub, but leaves the job at Gomer's urging to return home to Turtle Creek, North Carolina, and marry her beau Monroe Efford. In a later episode in the same season, she returns to California and reveals that she called the wedding off. At the end of the episode, she reveals that she wants Gomer to be her boyfriend, to the dismay of Carter and Duke.
After she loses her job at the nightclub, Gomer finds her a job as a salesclerk at a record shop. Ratings and timeslots  Legacy  In 1987, some 18 years after Gomer Pyle finished its broadcast run, Stanley Kubrick's film Full Metal Jacket was released. In it, the nickname "Gomer Pyle" is derogatorily given to Private Leonard Lawrence (played by Vincent D'Onofrio) during boot camp, after incurring the drill instructor's wrath (Gunnery Sergeant Hartman played by R. Lee Ermey) for being unable to turn off his idiot's grin and his perceived incompetence.Mark T. Conrad, "Chaos, Order and Morality: Nietzsche's Influence on Full Metal Jacket", in Jerold Abrams, ed., The Philosophy of Stanley Kubrick (University Press of Kentucky), 2007, , pp.
33, 40-41. Excerpts available at Google Books. A brief clip of the show airing on American Forces Vietnam Network television appears during the military hospital scene in the 1994 film Forrest Gump.<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iF-JMu89y2M.</ref>  Media E. Kitzes Knox wrote a novel based on the series, also titled Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. The paperback was published by Pyramid and released in 1966. Jim Nabors recorded Shazam!, which is not a soundtrack of the show but features Jim singing novelty songs in his "Gomer" voice, and released it on the Columbia Records label. Home media CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount Home Entertainment) has released all five seasons of Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.
on DVD in Region 1. All episodes have been fully restored and digitally remastered in full-color, but due to clearance issues, some episodes that feature Nabors (and other cast members) singing have been edited to remove those performances. On March 10, 2015, CBS DVD released Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.- The Complete series'' on DVD in Region 1. In Region 4, Shock Entertainment has released all five seasons on DVD in Australia. Footnotes  References  Bibliography  Further reading  External links         Category:1964 American television series debuts Category:1969 American television series endings Category:1960s American sitcoms Category:American television spin-offs Category:Black-and-white American television programs Category:CBS original programming Category:English-language television programs Category:Military comedy television series Category:Television shows set in North Carolina Category:Television shows set in California Category:Television series by CBS Television Studios Category:Television programs about the United States Marine Corps
Heterobasidion annosum is a basidiomycete fungus in the family Bondarzewiaceae. It is considered to be the most economically important forest pathogen in the Northern Hemisphere. Heterobasidion annosum is widespread in forests in the United States and is responsible for the loss of one billion U.S. dollars annually. This fungus has been known by many different names. First described by Fries in 1821, it was known by the name Polyporus annosum. Later, it was found to be linked to conifer disease by Robert Hartig in 1874, and was renamed Fomes annosus by H. Karsten. Its current name of Heterobasidion annosum was given by Brefeld in 1888.
Heterobasidion annosum causes one of the most destructive diseases of conifers. The disease caused by the fungus is named annosus root rot. Description  The fruiting bodies of the fungus, which are also known as basidiocarps, are normally  brackets which are whitish around the margins and dark brown on the uneven, knobbly upper surface. However they can also take a resupinate form, consisting only of a white crust which corresponds to the underside of the bracket. Basidiocarps are up to about 40 cm in diameter and 3.5 cm thick. The fertile surface of the fruiting body is white, easily bruising brown, and has barely visible pores, with 3-4 per mm.
The flesh, which has a strong fungus smell, is elastic when young but becomes woody when older. Sexual spores called basidiospores are created in the fertile layer on the lower surface of the basidiocarps, whilst conidiospores occur in the asexual stage and are produced on microscopic "conidiophores" which erupt through the surface of the host tree. Conidiospores and basidiospores are both produced by this fungus, the latter being more important for infecting the conifers. Ecology and life cycle  In the summertime, basidiospores, the primary infective propagules, are released. These basidiospores are carried long distances by wind currents. They infect trees (usually conifers) through damage such as freshly cut stumps.
Once on the stump the fungus colonizes and moves into the root via mycelium. Heterobasidion annosum moves short distances from the roots of an infected stump through root grafts with other trees. It can also spread through insects that feed on roots. Since this fungus can not move very far through soil, it relies on tree roots to help it infect neighbouring trees. In these roots, it can grow 0.1–2.0 m per year. This results in a spread of the fungus and disease gaps in the forest. These disease gaps are produced when the trees dies and falls, creating gaps in the forest canopy.
These gaps affect the moisture and sunlight available, altering the habitats for plants and animals on the forest floor. Spiniger meineckellus, the name for of the asexual stage of this fungus, is produced on stumps when the conditions are moist, and the conidiospores that are produced will be able to live in the soil for up to ten months. The role of conidiospores is unknown in the infection process and is not thought to be important. Symptoms and signs of disease  Symptoms and signs of fungus disease are often found underground. The H. annosum infections cause an abnormal change in structure in the roots that climbs up to the butt of the tree.
More than half the tree may be killed before any symptoms appear to the human eye. Basidiocarps can take up to one and a half or even three years to be visible. This infections causes the trees to have abnormal needle growth, pale yellow barks, and the trees to wither and die. This root disease typically causes the tree to have a thin crown from bottom up and inside out. Trees will eventually die. A landscape scale symptom is the rings of dead trees in various stages of decay and death, with the oldest at the center and progressively younger moving outward.
The white rot fungus found in the roots is the sign of telling whether the tree has been affected by H. annosum. The bark changes colors as the stages progress, they go from pale yellow, to a crusty light brown, and finally in its advanced stage it turns white with the signature of Fomes annosus ― a sprinkled streak of black spots. Another sign is the leaking part of the root that causes a compact mass to form between it and the sand. Isolation  There are several ways to isolate Heterobasidion annosum. Water agar could be used with infected host tissue to produce conidiophores which a simple or branched part hypha of a fungus to eliminate heterobasidion annosum.
Another way of isolating heterobasidion annosum is by using the thin disks of living sapwood from Picea abies. By cutting the thin disks into petri dishes which is used to culture bacteria and placing them on moist filter paper, this technique allows spores to be captured from the air, and result in the asexual stage of the fungus forming on the disks. Management  Theoretically, a root can be suppressed during all stages of its life cycle. There are three ways of managing Heterobasidion annosum: silvicultural control measures, chemical methods and biological control. Silvicultural control involves planting species with low susceptibility.
This could lower the root rot problem and free an infected site from inoculum. A more extreme measure is to remove the inoculum from the infected site. Proper planning and mixture schemes produce a better yield than a pure plantation (i.e. containing only one species). An alternative species could always be used for protection against H. annosum. Chemical methods include prophylactic stump treatment with a solution of urea immediately after the infection. This protects the stump by hydrolysis of the compound by the enzyme urease in the living wood tissue, which results in formation of ammonia and a rise in pH to a level that H. annosum at which mycelia are unable to survive.
Biological control is another alternative. Currently, a number of fungal species such as Phlebiopsis gigantea, Bjerkandera adusta and Fomitopsis pinicola have been tested on stumps as competitors and antagonists against H. annosum. However, among these, only Phlebiopsis gigantea shows good results of eliminating H. annosum. References  External links  A plant pathogen profile  Category:Fungi described in 1841 Category:Fungal tree pathogens and diseases Category:Russulales Category:Fungi of Europe Category:Fungi of North America Category:Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries
This is a discography for the English alternative rock singer Morrissey. Since the Smiths disbanded in 1987 he has released 13 studio albums, two live albums, 12 compilation albums, one extended play (EP), 54 singles and seven video albums on HMV, Sire Records, Parlophone, Polydor, RCA Victor, Island, Mercury, Sanctuary Records, EMI, Reprise Records, Rhino, Decca Records, Harvest Records, Capitol Music Group and BMG. Albums  Studio albums  Live albums  Mini albums Rare Tracks is a Japan-only mini-album by Morrissey containing all six B-sides to the UK Maladjusted singles, which was released in 1997. Track listing  "Lost"  "Heir Apparent"  "The Edges Are No Longer Parallel"  "This Is Not Your Country"  "Now I Am a Was"  "I Can Have Both"  Compilations  A Chart position for the 2004 re-entry; the 1997 chart position was number 26.
Other album appearances  Extended plays  Singles  B Double A-side C Re-issue. D "Glamorous Glue" was originally from the 1992 album Your Arsenal. It was not released as a single in 1992 (in any format, in any country), but made it to number 13 on the US Modern Rock charts as an album track that year. The UK chart position is for the 2011 UK single release, done to promote the Very Best of Morrissey compilation. E "Satellite of Love" did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100, but peaked at number 1 on the Hot Singles Sales chart. Videos  Music videos  References  Category:Alternative rock discographies Category:Discographies of British artists Discography
The axillary bud (or lateral bud) is an embryonic or organogenic shoot located in the axil of a leaf. Each bud has the potential to form shoots, and may be specialized in producing either vegetative shoots (stems and branches) or reproductive shoots (flowers). Once formed, a bud may remain dormant for some time, or it may form a shoot immediately. Overview  An axillary bud is an embryonic or organogenic shoot which lies dormant at the junction of the stem and petiole of a plant. It arises exogenously from outer layer of cortex of the stem. Axillary buds do not become actively growing shoots on plants with strong apical dominance (the tendency to grow just the terminal bud on the main stem).
Apical dominance occurs because the shoot apical meristem produces auxin which prevents axillary buds from growing. The axillary buds begin developing when they are exposed to less auxin, for example if the plant naturally has weak apical dominance, if apical dominance is broken by removing the terminal bud, or if the terminal bud has grown far enough away for the auxin to have less of an effect. Axillary buds can be used to differentiate if the plant is single-leafed or multi-leafed. Simply count the number of leaves after an axillary bud. If there is only one leaf, then the plant is considered single-leafed, if not it is considered multi-leafed.
An example of axillary buds are the eyes of the potato. Effects of auxin  As the apical meristem grows and forms leaves, it leaves behind a region of meristematic cells at the node between the stem and the leaf. These axillary buds are usually dormant, inhibited by auxin produced by the apical meristem, which is known as apical dominance. If the apical meristem is removed, or has grown a sufficient distance away from an axillary bud, the axillary bud may become activated (or more appropriately freed from hormone inhibition). Like the apical meristem, axillary buds can develop into a stem or flower.
Diseases that affect axillary buds  Certain plant diseases - notably phytoplasmas - can cause the proliferation of axillary buds, and cause plants to become bushy in appearance. References  Category:Plant morphology
In enzymology, a serine C-palmitoyltransferase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction: palmitoyl-CoA + L-serine  CoA + 3-dehydro-D-sphinganine + CO2  Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are palmitoyl-CoA and L-serine, whereas its 3 products are CoA, 3-dehydro-D-sphinganine, and CO2. This reaction is a key step in the biosynthesis of sphingosine which is a precursor of many other sphingolipids. This enzyme participates in sphingolipid metabolism. It employs one cofactor, pyridoxal phosphate. Nomenclature   This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, specifically those acyltransferases transferring groups other than aminoacyl groups. The systematic name of this enzyme class is palmitoyl-CoA:L-serine C-palmitoyltransferase (decarboxylating).
Other names in common use include:  serine palmitoyltransferase,   SPT, 3-oxosphinganine synthetase, and   acyl-CoA:serine C-2 acyltransferase decarboxylating. Structure   Serine C-palmitoyltransferase is a member of the AOS (a-oxoamine synthase) family of PLP-dependent enzymes, which catalyse the condensation of amino acids and acyl-CoA thioester substrates. The human enzyme is a heterodimer consisting of two monomeric subunits known as long chain base 1 and 2 (LCB1/2) encoded by separate genes. The active site of LCB2 contains lysine and other key catalytic residues that are not present in LCB1, which does not participate in catalysis but is nevertheless required for the synthesis and stability of the enzyme.
As of late 2007, two structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes  and . Mechanism   The PLP (pyridoxal 5′-phosphate)-dependent serine C-palmitoyltransferase carries out the first enzymatic step of de novo sphingolipid biosynthesis. The enzyme catalyses a Claisen-like condensation between L-serine and an acyl-CoA thioester (CoASH) substrate (typically C16-palmitoyl) or an acyl-ACP (acyl-carrier protein) thioester substrate, to form 3-ketodihydrosphingosine. Initially PLP cofactor is bound to the active-site lysine via a Schiff base to form the holo-form or internal aldimine of the enzyme. The amine group of L-serine then attacks and displaces the lysine bound to PLP, forming the external aldimine intermediate.
Subsequently, deprotonation occurs at the Cα of serine, forming the quinonoid intermediate that attacks the incoming thioester substrate. Following decarboxylation and lysine attack, the product 3-ketodihydrosphingosine is released and catalytically active PLP is reform. This condensation reaction forms the sphingoid base or long-chain base found in all subsequent intermediate sphingolipids and complex sphingolipids in the organism. Isoforms   A variety of different serine C-palmitoyltransferase isoforms exist across different species. Unlike in eukaryotes, where the enzyme is heterodimeric and membrane bound, bacterial enzymes are homodimers and cytoplasmic. Studies of the isoform of the enzyme found in the Gram-negative bacterium S. paucimobilis were the first to elucidate the structure of the enzyme, revealing that PLP cofactor is held in place by several active site residues including Lys265 and His159.
Specifically, the S. paucimobilis isoform features an active-site arginine residue (Arg378) that plays a key role in stabilizing the carboxy moiety of the PLP-L-serine external aldimine intermediate. Similar arginine residues in enzyme homologues (Arg370, Arg390) play analogous roles. Other homologues, such as in Sphingobacterium multivorum, feature the carboxy moiety bound to serine and methionine residues via water in place of arginine. Certain enzyme homologues, such as in S. multivorum as well as B. stolpii, are found to be associated with the inner cell membrane, thus resembling the eukaryotic enzymes. The B. stolpii homologue also features substrate inhibition by palmitoyl-CoA, a feature shared by the yeast and mammalian homologues.
Clinical significance   HSAN1 (hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type 1) is a genetic disorder caused by mutations in either one of SPTLC1 or SPTLC2, genes encoding the two heterodimeric subunits of the eukaryotic serine C-palmitoyltransferase enzyme. These mutations have been shown to alter active site specificity, specifically by enhancing the ability of the enzyme to condense L-alanine with the palmitoyl-CoA substrate. This is consistent with elevated levels of deoxysphingoid bases formed by the condensation of alanine with palmitoyl-CoA observed in HSAN1 patients. Species distribution   Serine C-palmitoyltransferase is expressed in a large number of species from bacteria to humans. The bacterial enzyme is a water-soluble homodimer whereas in eukaryotes the enzyme is a heterodimer which is anchored to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Humans and other mammals express three paralogous subunits SPTLC1, SPTLC2, and SPTLC3. It was originally proposed that the functional human enzyme is a heterodimer between a SPTLC1 subunit and a second subunit which is either SPTLC2 or SPTLC3. However more recent data suggest that the enzyme may exist as a larger complex, possibly an octamer, comprising all three subunits. References   Category:EC 2.3.1 Category:Pyridoxal phosphate enzymes Category:Enzymes of known structure
The ZIL-135 is a large, eight-wheeled military transport and self-propelled artillery truck produced in the Cold War by the Soviet Union starting in 1959. Its purpose was to carry and launch an artillery missile, specifically a FROG-7, from surface-to-surface. The ZIL-135 was widely exported to other communist countries, most notably North Korea, where it is a common sight in films and military marches. It also served as the TEL for the BM-27 Uragan artillery rocket system. This vehicle has two gasoline engines that power its 20 tonnes to a maximum speed of 65 kilometers per hour. One engine drives the four wheels on the left of the truck, while the other engine drives the four wheels on the right.
The ZIL-135 has eight wheel drive, but only the front and rear axles are used for steering. It has a maximum cruising range of 500 kilometers. The cab of the ZIL-135 is NBC protected, allowing the rockets to be fired without exposing the crew to possible contaminants. The six-man crew can emplace or displace the system in three minutes.
Variants  ZiL ZIL-135 (9P113): launcher for FROG-7 (Luna-M) missile (1959) ZIL-135B: amphibious version of ZIL-135 (1959) ZIL-135e: non-amphibious version of ZIL-135B (1960) ZIL-135E: Diesel-electric transmission (1965) ZIL-135K: launcher for C-5 missile (1961) ZIL-135KM: launcher for SS-N-3 Shaddock missile (1962, prototype for BAZ) ZIL-135KP: land train (1969) ZIL-135L: improved suspension (1961) ZIL-135LM: ZIL-135L with manual transmission (1964) ZIL-135LN: chassis-cab based on ZIL-135K ZIL-135P: amphibious landing transport (landing barge) (1965) ZIL-135SH: zero-turn radius (1967)  BAZ ZIL-135K: launcher for FCR-2 missile (1961) BAV-135LM: ZIL-135K with manual transmission (1963) BAV-135LMT (BAV-135L7): tropical weather version of BAV-135LM (1968)  BAV-135LMP: launcher for BM-27 Uragan MLRS (1976) BAV-135LTM: transporter for Luna-M missile (1963) BAV-135L4: civilian version (1968) BAV-E135G: experimental prototype with gas turbine engine BAV-135M1: prototype with a single diesel engine BAV-135MB: launcher for SPU-35V, Tu-143 and Tu-243 (1964) BAV-135MBP: BAV-135MB with metal cargo platform BAV-135MBK: BAV-135MB with increased cargo and towing capacity (1991) BAV-135MBL: (1993)  Specifications   Length:   Width:   Height:   GVW (without missile): 11.57 tons  Ground clearance:   Pitch angle: 57°  Engine: 2 X ZIL-375YA V-8 6.9 liter gas engines  Horsepower:  X 2  Top speed:   Range:   Fuel consumption:  -  References  Category:Wheeled self-propelled rocket launchers Category:ZiL vehicles Category:Military trucks of the Soviet Union
Suffocation is the process of Asphyxia. Suffocation or Suffocate may also refer to:   Suffocation (band), an American death metal band  Suffocation (album), 2006  "Suffocation", a song on Morbid Angel's debut album, Altars of Madness  "Suffocation", a song on Obituary's debut album Slowly We Rot  "Suffocation", a song on Vangelis's album See You Later  "Suffocate", a song by the post-grunge band Finger Eleven from their 2000 album The Greyest of Blue Skies (album)  "Suffocate", a song by the post-grunge band Cold from their 2003 album Year of the Spider  "Suffocate", a song by the rock band Green Day from their 2002 album Shenanigans  "Suffocate" (Feeder song), a 1998 single by Feeder  "Suffocate" (J.
Holiday song), a 2007 single by J. Holiday  "Suffocate", a song by Mutiny Within from Mutiny Within  "Suffocate" (King Adora song), 2001
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is a 1937 American animated musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Productions and originally released by RKO Radio Pictures. Based on the German fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm, it is the first full-length cel animated feature film and the earliest Disney animated feature film. The story was adapted by storyboard artists Dorothy Ann Blank, Richard Creedon, Merrill De Maris, Otto Englander, Earl Hurd, Dick Rickard, Ted Sears and Webb Smith. David Hand was the supervising director, while William Cottrell, Wilfred Jackson, Larry Morey, Perce Pearce, and Ben Sharpsteen directed the film's individual sequences.
Snow White premiered at the Carthay Circle Theatre in Los Angeles, California on December 21, 1937, followed by a nationwide release on February 4, 1938. It was a critical and commercial success, and with international earnings of $8 million during its initial release briefly held the record of highest-grossing sound film at the time. The popularity of the film has led to its being re-released theatrically many times, until its home video release in the 1990s. Adjusted for inflation, it is one of the top-ten performers at the North American box office and the highest-grossing animated film. Snow White was nominated for Best Musical Score at the Academy Awards in 1938, and the next year, producer Walt Disney was awarded an honorary Oscar for the film.
This award was unique, consisting of one normal-sized, plus seven miniature Oscar statuettes. They were presented to Disney by Shirley Temple. In 1989, the United States Library of Congress deemed the film "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" and selected it as one of the first 25 films for preservation in the National Film Registry. The American Film Institute ranked it among the 100 greatest American films, and also named the film as the greatest American animated film of all time in 2008. Disney's take on the fairy tale has had a significant cultural impact, resulting in popular theme park attractions, a video game, and a Broadway musical.
Plot   Snow White is a lonely princess living with her stepmother, a vain Queen. The Queen worries that Snow White will be more beautiful than her, so she forces Snow White to work as a scullery maid and asks her Magic Mirror daily "who is the fairest one of all". For years the mirror always answers that the Queen is, pleasing her. One day, the Magic Mirror informs the Queen that Snow White is now "the fairest" in the land; on that same day, Snow White meets and falls in love with a prince who overhears her singing. The jealous Queen orders her Huntsman to take Snow White into the forest and kill her.
She further demands that the huntsman return with Snow White's heart in a jeweled box as proof of the deed. However, the Huntsman cannot bring himself to kill Snow White. He tearfully begs for her forgiveness, revealing the Queen wants her dead and urges her to flee into the woods and never look back. Lost and frightened, the princess is befriended by woodland creatures who lead her to a cottage deep in the woods. Finding seven small chairs in the cottage's dining room, Snow White assumes the cottage is the untidy home of seven orphaned children. In reality, the cottage belongs to seven adult dwarfs—named Doc, Grumpy, Happy, Sleepy, Bashful, Sneezy, and Dopey—who work in a nearby mine.
Returning home, they are alarmed to find their cottage clean and suspect that an intruder has invaded their home. The dwarfs find Snow White upstairs, asleep across three of their beds. Snow White awakes to find the dwarfs at her bedside and introduces herself, and all of the dwarfs eventually welcome her into their home after she offers to clean and cook for them. Snow White keeps house for the dwarfs while they mine for jewels during the day, and at night they all sing, play music and dance. Meanwhile, the Queen discovers that Snow White is still alive when the mirror again answers that Snow White is the fairest in the land and reveals that the heart in the jeweled box is actually that of a pig.
Using a potion to disguise herself as an old hag, the Queen creates a poisoned apple that will put whoever eats it into the "Sleeping Death", a curse she learns can only be broken by "love's first kiss", but is certain Snow White will be buried alive. While the Queen goes to the cottage while the dwarfs are away, the animals are wary of her and rush off to find the dwarfs. Faking a potential heart attack, the Queen tricks Snow White into bringing her into the cottage to rest. The Queen fools Snow White into biting into the poisoned apple under the pretense that it is a magic apple that grants wishes.
As Snow White falls asleep, the Queen proclaims that she is now the fairest of the land. The dwarfs return with the animals as the Queen leaves the cottage and give chase, trapping her on a cliff. She tries to roll a boulder over them, but before she can do so, lightning strikes the cliff, causing her to fall to her death. The dwarfs return to their cottage and find Snow White seemingly dead, being kept in a deathlike slumber by the poison. Unwilling to bury her out of sight in the ground, they instead place her in a glass coffin trimmed with gold in a clearing in the forest.
Together with the woodland creatures, they keep watch over her. A year later, the prince from the beginning of the movie learns of her eternal sleep and visits her coffin. Saddened by her apparent death, he kisses her, which breaks the spell and awakens her. The dwarfs and animals all rejoice as the Prince takes Snow White to his castle. Cast    Adriana Caselotti as Snow White: Snow White is a young princess. Her stepmother has forced her to work as a scullery maid in the castle. Despite this, she retains a cheerful but naïve demeanor. Marge Belcher served as the live-action model.
Lucille La Verne as the Queen / Witch: The Queen is the stepmother of Snow White. Once her magic mirror says that Snow White is the "fairest" instead of her, she immediately enlists Humbert the huntsman to kill her in the woods. After she discovers that Snow White did not die, she disguises herself as an old hag and uses a poisoned apple to remove Snow White from her path without killing her. Harry Stockwell as The Prince. He first sees Snow White singing at her wishing well. The prince immediately falls in love with her and her voice. He later reappears to revive her.
Roy Atwell as Doc: The leader of the seven dwarfs, Doc wears glasses and often mixes up his words. Pinto Colvig as Grumpy and Sleepy in a dual role: Grumpy initially disapproves of Snow White's presence in the dwarfs' home, but later warns her of the threat posed by the Queen and rushes to her aid upon realizing that she is in danger, leading the charge himself. He has the biggest nose of the dwarfs and is frequently seen with one eye shut. Sleepy is always tired and appears laconic in most situations. Sterling Holloway, who would later voice many other characters for future Disney films was originally considered to voice Sleepy by Walt Disney.
Otis Harlan as Happy: Happy is the joyous dwarf and is usually portrayed laughing. Scotty Mattraw as Bashful: Bashful is the shyest of the dwarfs, and is often embarrassed by the presence of any attention directed at him. Billy Gilbert as Sneezy: Sneezy's name is earned by his extraordinarily powerful sneezes (caused by hay fever), which are seen blowing even the heaviest of objects across a room. Eddie Collins as Dopey (vocal effects and live-action reference only): Dopey is the only dwarf who does not have a beard. He is mute, with Happy explaining that he has simply "never tried" to speak.
In the movie's trailer, Walt Disney describes Dopey as "nice, but sort of silly". Mel Blanc was considered to voice Dopey by Walt Disney. Moroni Olsen as The Magic Mirror: The Slave of the Magic Mirror appears as a green mask in clouds of smoke. The Queen regularly asks him who is "the fairest" in the land. Stuart Buchanan as The Huntsman: Despite his status as the Queen's assassin, the Huntsman cannot bear to kill Snow White, even when the Queen orders him to take the princess's heart. Production   Development on Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs began in early 1934, and in June 1934, Walt Disney announced the production of his first feature, to be released under Walt Disney Productions, to The New York Times.
One evening that same year, Disney acted out the entire story of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs to his staff, announcing that the film would be produced as a feature-length film. Before Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the Disney studio had been primarily involved in the production of animated short subjects in the Mickey Mouse and Silly Symphonies series. Disney hoped to expand his studio's prestige and revenues by moving into features, and estimated that Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs could be produced for a budget of ; this was ten times the budget of an average Silly Symphony.
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was to be the first full-length cel animated feature in motion picture history, and as such Walt Disney had to fight to get the film produced. Both his brother and business partner Roy Disney and his wife Lillian attempted to talk him out of it, and the Hollywood movie industry referred to the film derisively as "Disney's Folly" while it was in production. He had to mortgage his house to help finance the film's production, which eventually ran up a total cost of $1,488,422.74, a massive sum for a feature film in 1937. Story development  On August 9, 1934, twenty-one pages of notes—entitled "Snowwhite suggestions"—were compiled by staff writer Richard Creedon, suggesting the principal characters, as well as situations and 'gags' for the story.
As Disney had stated at the very beginning of the project, the main attraction of the story for him was the Seven Dwarfs, and their possibilities for "screwiness" and "gags"; the three story meetings held in October and attended by Disney, Creedon, Larry Morey, Albert Hurter, Ted Sears and Pinto Colvig were dominated by such subjects. At this point, Disney felt that the story should begin with Snow White's discovery of the Cottage of the Seven Dwarfs. Walt Disney had suggested from the beginning that each of the dwarfs, whose names and personalities are not stated in the original fairy tale, could have individual personalities.
The dwarfs names were chosen from a pool of about fifty potentials, including Jumpy, Deafy, Dizzey, Hickey, Wheezy, Baldy, Gabby, Nifty, Sniffy, Swift, Lazy, Puffy, Stuffy, Tubby, Shorty, and Burpy. The seven finalists were chosen through a process of elimination. The leader of the dwarfs, required to be pompous, self-important and bumbling, was named Doc; others were named for their distinguishing character traits. At the end of the October story meetings, however, only Doc, Grumpy, Bashful, Sleepy and Happy of the final seven were named; at this point, Sneezy and Dopey were replaced by 'Jumpy' and an unnamed seventh dwarf.
Along with a focus on the characterizations and comedic possibilities of the dwarfs, Creedon's eighteen-page outline of the story written from the October meetings, featured a continuous flow of gags as well as the Queen's attempt to kill Snow White with a poisoned comb, an element taken from the Grimms' original story. After persuading Snow White to use the comb, the disguised Queen would have escaped alive, but the dwarfs would have arrived in time to remove it. After the failure of the comb, the Queen was to have the Prince captured and taken to her dungeon, where she would have come to him (story sketches show this event both with the Queen and the Witch) and used magic to bring the dungeon's skeletons to life, making them dance for him and identifying one skeleton as "Prince Oswald", an example of the more humorous atmosphere of this original story treatment.
It is written in story notes that the Queen has such magical power only in her own domain, the castle. With the Prince refusing to marry her, the Queen leaves him to his death (one sketch shows the Prince trapped in a subterranean chamber filling with water) as she makes her way to the dwarfs' cottage with the poisoned apple. The forest animals were to help the Prince escape the Queen's minions and find his horse. The Prince was to ride to the cottage to save Snow White but took the wrong road (despite warnings from the forest animals and his horse, whom he, unlike Snow White, could not understand).
He, therefore, would not have arrived in time to save her from the Queen but would have been able to save her with love's first kiss. This plot was not used in the final film, though many sketches of the scene in the dungeon were made by Ferdinand Hovarth. Other examples of the more comical nature of the story at this point include suggestions for a "fat, batty, cartoon type, self-satisfied" Queen. The Prince was also more of a clown, and was to serenade Snow White in a more comical fashion. Walt Disney encouraged all staff at the studio to contribute to the story, offering five dollars for every 'gag'; such gags included the dwarfs' noses popping over the foot of the bed when they first meet Snow White.
Disney became concerned that such a comical approach would lessen the plausibility of the characters and, sensing that more time was needed for the development of the Queen, advised in an outline circulated on November 6 that attention be paid exclusively to "scenes in which only Snow White, the Dwarfs, and their bird and animal friends appear". The names and personalities of the dwarfs, however, were still "open to change". A meeting of November 16 resulted in another outline entitled 'Dwarfs Discover Snowwhite', which introduced the character of Dopey, who would ultimately prove to be the most successful and popular of the dwarf characterisations.
For the rest of 1934 Disney further developed the story by himself, finding a dilemma in the characterization of the Queen, who he felt could no longer be "fat" and "batty", but a "stately beautiful type", a possibility already brought up in previous story meetings. Disney did not focus on the project again until the autumn of 1935. It is thought that he may have doubted his, and his studio's ability, and that his trip to Europe that summer restored his confidence. At this point, Disney and his writers focused on the scenes in which Snow White and the dwarfs are introduced to the audience and each other.
He laid out the likely assignments for everyone working on the film in a memorandum of November 25, 1935, and had decided on the personalities of the individual dwarfs. It had first been thought that the dwarfs would be the main focus of the story, and many sequences were written for the seven characters. However, at a certain point, it was decided that the main thrust of the story was provided by the relationship between the Queen and Snow White. For this reason, several sequences featuring the dwarfs were cut from the film. The first, which was animated in its entirety before being cut, showed Doc and Grumpy arguing about whether Snow White should stay with them.
Another, also completely animated, would have shown the dwarfs eating soup noisily and messily; Snow White unsuccessfully attempts to teach them how to eat 'like gentlemen'. A partially animated sequence involved the dwarfs holding a "lodge meeting" in which they try to think of a gift for Snow White; this was to be followed by the elaborate 'bed building sequence', in which the dwarfs and the forest animals construct and carve a bed for the princess. This also was cut, as it was thought to slow down the movement of the story. The soup-eating and bed-building sequences were animated by Ward Kimball, who was sufficiently discouraged by their removal to consider leaving the studio, however Disney persuaded him to stay by promoting him to supervising animator of Jiminy Cricket in his next feature Pinocchio (1940).
Animation   The primary authority on the design of the film was concept artist Albert Hurter. All designs used in the film, from characters' appearances to the look of the rocks in the background, had to meet Hurter's approval before being finalized. Two other concept artists — Ferdinand Hovarth and Gustaf Tenggren — also contributed to the visual style of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Hovarth developed a number of dark concepts for the film, although many other designs he developed were ultimately rejected by the Disney team as less easily translated into animation than Hurter's. Tenggren was used as a color stylist and to determine the staging and atmosphere of many of the scenes in the film, as his style borrowed from the likes of Arthur Rackham and John Bauer and thus possessed the European illustration quality that Walt Disney sought.
He also designed the posters for the film and illustrated the press book. However, Hovarth didn't receive a credit for the film. Other artists to work on the film included Joe Grant, whose most significant contribution was the design for the Queen's Witch form. Art Babbitt, an animator who joined the Disney studio in 1932, invited seven of his colleagues (who worked in the same room as him) to come with him to an art class that he himself had set up at his home in the Hollywood Hills. Though there was no teacher, Babbit had recruited a model to pose for him and his fellow animators as they drew.
These "classes" were held weekly; each week, more animators would come. After three weeks, Walt Disney called Babbit to his office and offered to provide the supplies, working space and models required if the sessions were moved to the studio. Babbit ran the sessions for a month until animator Hardie Gramatky suggested that they recruit Don Graham; the art teacher from the Chouinard Institute taught his first class at the studio on November 15, 1932, and was joined by Phil Dike a few weeks later. These classes were principally concerned with human anatomy and movement, though instruction later included action analysis, animal anatomy and acting.
Though the classes were originally described as a "brutal battle", with neither instructor nor students well-versed in the other's craft, the enthusiasm and energy of both parties made the classes stimulating and beneficial for all involved. Graham often screened Disney shorts and, along with the animators, provided critique featuring both strengths and weaknesses. For example, Graham criticised Babbit's animation of Abner the mouse in The Country Cousin as "taking a few of the obvious actions of a drunk without coordinating the rest of the body", while praising it for maintaining its humour without getting "dirty or mean or vulgar. The country mouse is always having a good time".
Very few of the animators at the Disney studio had had artistic training (most had been newspaper cartoonists); among these few was Grim Natwick, who had trained in Europe. The animator's success in designing and animating Betty Boop for Fleischer Studios showed an understanding of human female anatomy, and when Walt Disney hired Natwick he was given female characters to animate almost exclusively. Attempts to animate Persephone, the female lead of The Goddess of Spring, had proved largely unsuccessful; Natwick's animation of the heroine in Cookie Carnival showed greater promise, and the animator was eventually given the task of animating Snow White herself.
Though live action footage of Snow White, the Prince and the Queen was shot as reference for the animators, the artists' animators disapproved of rotoscoping, considering it to hinder the production of effective caricature. None of Babbit's animation of the Queen was rotoscoped; despite Graham and Natwick's objections, however, some scenes of Snow White and the Prince were directly traced from the live-action footage. It proved difficult to add color to Snow White's and the queen's face. Eventually they found a red dye that worked, and which was added with a small piece of cotton wrapped around a tipple pencil on each individual cel.
Helen Ogger, an employee at the ink department, was also an animator and decided to use the same system used in animation. The method was so time-consuming that it was never used again on the same scale. It was also used to a smaller degree in Pinocchio and Fantasia, but after Ogger left the studio in 1941 there was nobody with the same skills who could replace her. The studio's new multiplane camera gave a three-dimensional feeling in many sequences and was also used to give a rotating effect in the scene where the Queen transforms into a witch. Music   The songs in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs were composed by Frank Churchill and Larry Morey.
Paul J. Smith and Leigh Harline composed the incidental music score. Well-known songs from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs include "Heigh-Ho", "Some Day My Prince Will Come", and "Whistle While You Work". Since Disney did not have its own music publishing company at the time, the publishing rights for the music and songs were administered through Bourne Co. Music Publishers, which continues to hold these rights. In later years, the studio was able to acquire back the rights to the music from many of the other films, but not Snow White. Snow White became the first American film to have a soundtrack album, released in conjunction with the feature film.
Before Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, a film soundtrack recording was unheard of and of little value to a movie studio. Cinematic influences  At this time, Disney also encouraged his staff to see a variety of films. These ranged from the mainstream, such as MGM's Romeo and Juliet (1936)—to which Disney made direct reference in a story meeting pertaining to the scene in which Snow White lies in her glass coffin—to the more obscure, including European silent cinema. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, as well as the two Disney films to follow it, were also influenced by such German expressionist films as Nosferatu (1922) and The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1919), both of which were recommended by Disney to his staff.
This influence is particularly evident in the scenes of Snow White fleeing through the forest and the Queen's transformation into the Witch. The latter scene was also inspired by Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931), to which Disney made specific reference in story meetings. Release  Original theatrical run  Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs premiered at the Carthay Circle Theatre on December 21, 1937, to a wildly receptive audience, many of whom were the same naysayers who had dubbed the film "Disney's Folly". The film received a standing ovation at its completion from an audience that included Judy Garland, Marlene Dietrich and Charles Laughton.
Six days later, Walt Disney and the seven dwarfs appeared on the cover of Time magazine. The New York Times said, "Thank you very much, Mr. Disney". The American entertainment trade publication Variety observed that "[so] perfect is the illusion, so tender the romance and fantasy, so emotional are certain portions when the acting of the characters strikes a depth comparable to the sincerity of human players, that the film approaches real greatness." Following successful exclusive runs at Radio City Music Hall in New York City and a theater in Miami in January 1938, RKO Radio Pictures put the film into general release on February 4.
It became a major box-office success, earning four times more money than any other motion picture released in 1938. Snow White proved equally popular with foreign audiences. In September 1938—seven months after the film's nationwide release in the United States—Variety also reported that the animated feature was having a remarkably long box-office run at theaters in Sydney, Australia. In that city it noted, "Walt Disney's 'Snow White' (RKO) experienced no difficulty at hitting 11 weeks, with more ahead."
Variety reported as well that Snow White was having even longer runs in other cities overseas, such as in London, where the film had generated greater box-office receipts than during its exclusive New York screenings at Radio City Music Hall:  In total revenue during its original release, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs grossed $3.5 million in the United States and Canada, and by May 1939 its gross internationally amounted to $6.5 million, making it the most successful sound film of all time, displacing Al Jolson's The Singing Fool (1928) (Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was soon displaced from this position by Gone with the Wind in 1940).
By the end of its original run, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs had earned $7,846,000 in international box office receipts. This earned RKO a profit of $380,000. Re-releases  Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was first re-released in 1944, to raise revenue for the Disney studio during the World War II period. This re-release set a tradition of re-releasing Disney animated features every seven to 10 years, and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was re-released to theaters in 1952, 1958, 1967, 1975, 1983, 1987 and 1993. Coinciding with the 50th-anniversary release in 1987, Disney released an authorized novelization of the story, written by children's author Suzanne Weyn.
In 1993, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs became the first film to be entirely scanned to digital files, manipulated, and recorded back to film. The restoration project was carried out entirely at 4K resolution and 10-bit color depth using the Cineon system to digitally remove dirt and scratches. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs has had a lifetime gross of $418 million across its original release and several reissues. Adjusted for inflation, and incorporating subsequent releases, the film still registers one of the top-10 American film moneymakers of all time. Reception  The film was a tremendous critical success, with many reviewers hailing it as a genuine work of art, recommended for both children and adults.
Although film histories often state that the animation of the human characters was criticized, more recent scholarship finds that most reviewers praised the realistic style of the human animation, with several stating that audiences will forget that they are watching animated humans rather than real ones. At the 11th Academy Awards, the film won an Academy Honorary Award for Walt Disney "as a significant screen innovation which has charmed millions and pioneered a great new entertainment field". Disney received a full-size Oscar statuette and seven miniature ones, presented to him by 10-year-old child actress Shirley Temple. The film was also nominated for Best Musical Score.
"Some Day My Prince Will Come" has become a jazz standard that has been performed by numerous artists, including Buddy Rich, Lee Wiley, Oscar Peterson, Frank Churchill, and Oliver Jones. Albums by Miles Davis, by Wynton Kelly, and Alexis Cole. Noted filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and Charlie Chaplin praised Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs as a notable achievement in cinema; Eisenstein went so far as to call it the greatest film ever made. The film inspired Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to produce its own fantasy film, The Wizard of Oz, in 1939. Another animation pioneer, Max Fleischer, decided to produce his animated feature film Gulliver's Travels in order to compete with Snow White.
The 1943 Merrie Melodies short Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs, directed by Bob Clampett, parodies Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by presenting the story with an all-black cast singing a jazz score. Snow White's success led to Disney moving ahead with more feature-film productions. Walt Disney used much of the profits from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs to finance a new $4.5 million studio in Burbank – the location on which The Walt Disney Studios is located to this day. Within two years, the studio completed Pinocchio and Fantasia and had begun production on features such as Dumbo, Bambi, Alice in Wonderland and Peter Pan.
American Film Institute recognition The American Film Institute (AFI), an independent non-profit organization created in the United States by the National Endowment for the Arts, releases a variety of annual awards and film lists recognizing excellence in filmmaking. The AFI 100 Years... series, which ran from 1998 to 2008, created categorized lists of America's best movies as selected by juries composed from among over 1,500 artists, scholars, critics, and historians. A film's inclusion in one of these lists was based on the film's popularity over time, historical significance and cultural impact. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was selected by juries for inclusion on many AFI lists, including the following:   AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies – No.
49  AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 34  AFI's 10 Top 10 – No. 1 Animated film  AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains: The Queen – No. 10 Villain  AFI's 100 Years... 100 Songs:  "Someday My Prince Will Come" – No. 19  Home media  On October 28, 1994, the film was released for the first time on home video on VHS and LaserDisc as the first release in the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection. By 1995, the film had sold 24million home video units and grossed . As of 2002, the film sold 25.1million home video units in the United States.
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released on DVD on October 9, 2001, the first in Disney's Platinum Editions, and featured, across two discs, the digitally restored film, a making-of documentary narrated by Angela Lansbury, an audio commentary by John Canemaker and, via archived audio clips, Walt Disney. A VHS release followed on November 27, 2001. Both versions were returned to the Disney Vault on January 31, 2002. As of 2001, the film grossed a combined  from box office and home video revenue. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released on Blu-ray on October 6, 2009, the first of Disney's Diamond Editions, and a new DVD edition was released on November 24, 2009.
The Blu-ray includes a high-definition version of the movie sourced from a new restoration by Lowry Digital, a DVD copy of the film, and several bonus features not included on the 2001 DVD. This set returned to the Disney Vault on April 30, 2011. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment re-released Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs on Blu-ray and DVD on February 2, 2016, as the first of the Walt Disney Signature Collection Line. It was released on Digital HD on January 19, 2016, with bonus material. Legacy   Following the film's release, a number of Snow White themed merchandise were sold, including hats, dolls, garden seeds, and glasses.
The film's merchandise generated sales of , equivalent to over  adjusted for inflation. Comic strip adaptation  The Silly Symphony Sunday comic strip ran a four-month-long adaptation of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs from December 12, 1937, to April 24, 1938. The comic was written by Merrill De Maris, and drawn by Hank Porter and Bob Grant. This adaptation was republished several times as a comic book, most recently in 1995. The 1984 film Gremlins used the cartoon in the theater scenes. Theme parks   Snow White's Scary Adventures is a popular theme park ride at Disneyland (an opening day attraction dating from 1955), Tokyo Disneyland, and Disneyland Paris.
Fantasyland at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom underwent an expansion from 2012 to 2014. The Snow White's Scary Adventures ride was replaced with Princess Fairytale Hall, where Snow White and other princesses are located for a meet and greet. Included in the 2013 expansion of Fantasyland is the Seven Dwarfs Mine Train roller coaster. Snow White, her Prince, the Queen, and the Seven Dwarfs are also featured in parades and character appearances throughout the parks. Disneyland's Fantasyland Theater hosted Snow White: An Enchanting Musical from 2004 to 2006. Video games  The first attempt at a Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs video game was for the Atari 2600 as part of their line of children's games.
It was never officially released, although a "homebrew" version was made available on a limited basis. Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released for the Game Boy Color system in 2001. Snow White also makes an appearance in the PlayStation 2 game Kingdom Hearts as one of the seven fabled Princesses of Heart. A world based on the movie, Dwarf Woodlands, appears in Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep for the PSP. In 2013's free-to-play mobile game Snow White: Queen's Return (also known as Seven Dwarfs: The Queen's Return), an uncanonical continuation of the film, the Queen has survived the fall at the climax of the film and then reverted to her youthful form to cast a curse on Snow White and the dwarfs and their entire forest.
Broadway musical  Unknown Mary Jo Salerno played Snow White in the Disney-produced Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (also known as Snow White Live!) at the Radio City Music Hall. Music and lyrics for four new songs were created by Jay Blackton and Joe Cook, respectively; titles included "Welcome to the Kingdom of Once Upon a Time" and "Will I Ever See Her Again?". It ran from October 18 to November 18, 1979, and January 11 to March 9, 1980, a total of 106 performances. Canceled prequel  In the 2000s, DisneyToon Studios began development on a computer-animated prequel to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, titled The Seven Dwarfs.
Director Mike Disa and screenwriter Evan Spiliotopoulos pitched a story explaining how the Dwarfs met, and how the Evil Queen killed Snow White's father and took the throne. According to Disa, DisneyToon management changed the prequel to center around how Dopey lost his voice upon witnessing the death of his mother. After Disney purchased Pixar in 2006, John Lasseter, DisneyToons' new Chief Creative Officer, canceled Dwarfs. Live-action feature film adaptations   In March 2016, the studio announced a new film in development titled Rose Red, a live-action spin-off film which will be told from the perspective of Snow White's sister, Red Rose.
The film will be produced by Tripp Vinson and written by Justin Merz, Evan Daugherty, and Kristin Gore. Brie Larson is considered for the title role. In October 2016, a live-action adaptation of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was announced. The script will be written by Erin Cressida Wilson; while Benj Pasek and Justin Paul, who also wrote new song material for the live action adaptation for Aladdin (2019), will write new songs for the project. By September 2019, Marc Webb had signed on as to director. Principal photography is scheduled to begin in March 2020, in Vancouver. Other appearances  The Seven Dwarfs made rare appearances in shorts, despite their popularity; they simply were too numerous to animate efficiently.
Commissioned shorts The Standard Parade (1939), The Seven Wise Dwarfs (1941, using mostly recycled footage), All Together (1942) and The Winged Scourge (1943) all include appearances. The animated television series House of Mouse, which included many Disney character animated cameos, included the characters in the special Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse. The Evil Queen appeared in a starring role in the film Once Upon a Halloween as well. In the arena of live action, the fantasy television series Once Upon a Time (produced by Disney-owned ABC Studios) regularly includes live-action interpretations of these characters including Snow White, the Prince, the Evil Queen and Grumpy.
An animated television series featuring a new version of the seven dwarfs titled The 7D premiered on Disney XD on July 7, 2014, and ended its run on November 5, 2016. The show takes place 30 years before the events of the original film. See also   List of animated feature-length films  List of Disney animated features  List of Disney animated films based on fairy tales  References    Bibliography    Green, Stanley (1999) Hollywood Musicals Year by Year (2nd ed. ), pub. Hal Leonard Corporation  page 76  Holliss, Richard and Brian Sibley (1994). Krause, Martin and Linda Witowski (1994). External links      Walt's Masterworks: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs at Disney.com (archived)           Streaming audio  Snow White on Lux Radio Theater: December 26, 1938.
Guest appearance by Walt Disney.
Snow White on Screen Guild Theater: December 23, 1946     Category:1937 feature films   Category:1937 animated films Category:1930s fantasy adventure films Category:1930s color films Category:1930s American animated films Category:American films Category:American children's animated adventure films Category:American children's animated fantasy films Category:American fantasy adventure films Category:American musical films Category:American romantic fantasy films Category:Animated musical films Category:Animated films about friendship Category:Animated films featuring female antagonists Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Films about princesses Category:Films about royalty Category:Films about shapeshifting Category:Films about dwarfs Category:Films awarded an Academy Honorary Award Category:Films based on Snow White Category:Films directed by William Cottrell Category:Films directed by David Hand Category:Films directed by Wilfred Jackson Category:Films directed by Larry Morey Category:Films directed by Perce Pearce Category:Films directed by Ben Sharpsteen Category:Films set in mining communities Category:Films set in the Middle Ages Category:Films produced by Walt Disney Category:Films scored by Frank Churchill Category:Films scored by Leigh Harline Category:Films scored by Paul Smith (film and television composer) Category:Rotoscoped films Category:United States National Film Registry films Category:Walt Disney Animation Studios films Category:Walt Disney Pictures films Category:Films about witchcraft Category:1930s romantic fantasy films Category:1930s children's animated films Category:Films adapted into comics Category:Films adapted into plays Category:Films adapted into video games
Salting or Salted may refer to:  People George Salting (1835–1909), Australian-born English art collector, who left the Salting Bequest, which included the Salting Madonna (Antonello da Messina), National Gallery, London  Other  Salting (food), the preparation of food with edible salt for conservation or taste  Salting the earth, the practice of "sowing" salt on cities or property as a symbolic act  Salt marsh  Salting out, a method of separating proteins using salt  Salting (initiation ceremony), an early modern English university initiation ceremony  Salting roads, the application of salt to roads in winter to act as a de-icing agent  Figuratively, adding ("sprinkling") a small quantity of something to something else for various reasons  Salt (cryptography), a method to secure passwords  Salted bomb, a nuclear weapon specifically engineered to enhance residual radioactivity  Salting (confidence trick), process of adding valuable substances to a core sample, or otherwise scattering valuable resources on a piece of property to be "discovered" by a prospective buyer  Salt, allowing a horse to catch the nagana disease, so that after recovery the horse can be used in infected areas  Salting mailing lists, including fictitious entries in mailing lists to detect misuse  Salt (union organizing), a labor union tactic involving the act of getting a job at a specific workplace with the intent of organizing a union  Salted (book), a 2010 cookbook by Mark Bitterman  See also  Salt (disambiguation)  Salty (disambiguation)
The Robert College of Istanbul ( or , often abbreviated to RC) is an independent high school in Turkey. The co-educational boarding school is situated in a  wooded campus on the European side of Istanbul in the Beşiktaş district, with the historic Arnavutköy neighborhood to the east, and the upscale Ulus neighborhood to the west. The 154-year-old institution is arguably the oldest American school still in existence in its original location outside the United States. Robert College is accredited by the New York State Association of Independent Schools. Robert College has a long list of notable alumni, including entrepreneurs, politicians, journalists, artists, two Turkish Prime Ministers, two Bulgarian Prime Ministers, three members of the Turkish cabinet, and one Nobel Prize recipient, Orhan Pamuk.
The school is a member of the G20 Schools group. History   In 1863, Robert College was founded in Bebek by Christopher Robert, a wealthy American philanthropist, and Cyrus Hamlin, a missionary devoted to education. Six years after its foundation, with the permission () of the Ottoman Sultan, the first campus (currently housing Boğaziçi University) was built in Bebek at the ridge of the Rumelian Castle, very close to a Bektashi tekke, whose leaders maintained an excellent relationship with the Congregational and Presbyterian founders of Robert College, according to Dr. Friedrich Schrader, a German lecturer at Robert College during the 1890s.
The first building of the school was named "Hamlin Hall" in memory of Cyrus Hamlin. In 1878, Christopher Robert died. According to the article A Millionaire's Will, published in the New York Times (November 27, 1878), Robert left a great portion of his wealth to the College. A College Catalog was compiled in 1878–1879, giving general information and an outline of the courses of study. Defining the aims of the College the catalog stated: "The object of the College is to give to its students, without distinction of race or religion, a thorough educational equal in all respects to that obtained at a first-class American college and based upon the same general principles."
After Hamlin, Robert College was administrated by George Washburn (1877–1903) and Caleb Gates (1903–1932). Though founded at the time of the Ottoman Empire as an institution of higher learning serving the Christian minorities of the Empire as well as foreigners living in Constantinople, the school adopted a strictly secular educational model in accordance with the republican principles of Turkey in 1923. Robert College, at various points of its existence, had junior high school, high school, and university sections under the names Robert Academy, Robert Yüksek and American College for Girls. Since 1971, the current-day Robert College has functioned only as a "high school" (more comparable to the French lycée in academic rigor) on its Arnavutköy campus (formerly the campus of American College for Girls), yet it retains the title of 'College'.
The Bebek campus and academic staff were turned over to the Republic of Turkey for use as a public university named Boğaziçi University, the renamed continuation of Robert College's university section. Major events    1863, September 16: Robert College opened with 31 students at Bebek Seminary School. 1922: President C. Gates and Hüseyin Pektaş (the first Muslim graduate and then Vice-President of the college) attended the Conference of Lausanne representing foreign educational institutions in the Ottoman Empire. 1932: With Dr. Paul Monroe, the joint Presidency system was adopted by Robert College (RC) and the American College for Girls (ACG). Robert Academy was the preparatory school for Robert College, which had a reputable Engineering School.
Instruction was bilingual, in Turkish and English. Graduates of ACG are considered ACG Alumni, not RC Alumni. 1957: Robert College was granted permission to become an institution of higher learning by the Republic of Turkey; Robert College Yüksek provided university-level instruction and is the precursor of the current Boğaziçi University. Robert Academy remained on the Bebek campus as a private high school. 1971: Robert College Yüksek officially closed on 18 May and was renamed Boğaziçi University. The merger of the American College for Girls and Robert Academy as a co-educational private institution with junior high and high schools, on the Arnavutköy campus was officially confirmed on September 1971.
Robert College's Bebek campus was donated to the Republic of Turkey. Boğaziçi University was established as a public university on this land. 1998: With the adoption of a law calling for eight years of uninterrupted primary education in Turkey (junior high school would now be a part of primary education), the school stopped accepting students to its junior high school section. 2004: The last junior high school students graduated and the school's junior high school section was officially closed. Now, Robert College has Prep, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th grades, and accepts students who have finished compulsory primary education of eight years.
{{quote|"Robert College stands as a token of the close cooperation between Turkey and the USA. It is an institution which has made important contributions to the cultural life of this country and will continue to play a valuable part in the promotion of culture and education."
| Cemal Gürsel, President of the Republic of Turkey|Message for the Centennial Celebrations of Robert College, 1963}}   List of presidents and heads    Cyrus Hamlin, 1863–1877  George Washburn, 1877–1903  Caleb Frank Gates, 1903–1932  Paul Monroe, 1932–1935  Walter Livingston Wright, 1935–1943  Harold Lorain Scott (Acting President), 1943–1944  Floyd Henson Black, 1944–1955  Duncan Smith Ballantine, 1955–1961  Harold Locke Hazen (Acting President), 1961  Patrick Murphy Malin, 1962–1964  James L. Brainerd (Acting President), 1965  Dwight James Simpson, 1965–1967  Howard P. Hall (Acting President), 1967–1968  John Scott Everton, 1968–1971  John Clay Chalfant, 1971–1977  James Richard Maggart, 1977–1981  Elizabeth Dabanovitch (Acting Head), 1981–1982  Alan Donn Kesselheim, 1982–1984  Margaret A. Johnson (Interim Head), 1984–1988  Harry A. Dawe, 1988–1992  Benjamin D. Williams III (Interim Head), 1992–1993  Christopher Wadsworth, 1993–2001  Livingston Merchant, 2001–2005  John Russell Chandler, 2005–2012  Anthony Jones, 2012–2015  Charles H. Skipper, 2015–2019  Adam Oliver, 2019–Present   Academics   , as per Turkish Ministry of Education regulations, Turkish is the instructional language of history and social studies classes.
Students  Robert College accepts 180 to 220 students each year, who have scored within the top 0.2 percentile in a nationwide examination, which every Turkish student must take in order to study in a high school (secondary education) after they complete their primary education. The school has around 1000 students each academic year. In the 1998–1999 academic year there were 942 students, with 99% having Turkish nationality. Circa 1904, the school had about 300 students, with boarding space for about 200.
Lucy Mary Jane Garnett wrote in the 1904 work Turkish Life in Town and Country that at that time most of the students were Christian as the college had a requirement for students to attend Christian Sunday church services and chapel services, and "it would be unsafe for any professed Moslem to become either a resident or a daily student" since the Ottoman government would take a dim view of a Muslim going to chapel. In 1904, Greek students made up the majority and other students included significant numbers of Armenians and Bulgarians. Faculty and staff  The faculty have an average of 20 years of teaching experience and the majority have either Turkish or United States citizenship.
The school currently has faculty who are 50% Turkish, and 48% English native speakers (including faculty from English speaking countries other than the United States). Sixty percent of the full-time faculty hold master's degrees or higher. there were 102 teachers, with 45% being Turkish and 32% being American. Of the teachers, eight were part-time. The school's guidance counselors, as of that year, were English-speaking Turkish citizens. , as per Turkish Ministry of Education regulations, the school employs only Turkish citizens to teach history and social studies classes. , the school pays its foreign employees funds so that their children may attend Istanbul International Community School, If an employee chooses another school, Robert College will pay an equivalent amount.
In 1904, faculty included Americans, Turks, Armenians, Bulgarians, and Greeks. Curriculum  Robert College is a five-year high school, with the first year (Prep) being the English immersion year that prepares students for rigorous curriculum, which is mostly in English. English is the language of instruction used in Science, Mathematics, Literature, Physical Education, Art and Music courses. Turkish is the required language of instruction in social sciences and Turkish language/literature. Higher education  Robert College graduates traditionally continue their education in the United States or Turkey, though in recent years the number of students studying in Canada and the United Kingdom increased.
Every year approximately 50–60 percent of the graduating class choose to study abroad, while those wishing to study in Turkey get placed in a university based on their score on the Core Proficiency Test-Advanced Proficiency Test (TYT-AYT). In 2006, Robert College ranked first in all three sections of ÖSS, a formerly-administered Student Selection and Placement System test, among private high schools in Turkey, with 76 out of 132 students taking the exam scoring in the top 0.3% (top 5000). Out of the 104 students who chose to study in Turkey, 29 were admitted to Boğaziçi University, which is the overall highest ranking school in Turkey.
56 students chose to continue their education abroad and 36% of these students are attending Ivy League colleges. In 2011, Robert College placed 123 graduates in Turkish universities, 21 of them, 40%, in Bosphorus University. Another 53 planned to study abroad, 8 (15%) in the Ivy League. Of the 79 students who had applied abroad, 75 were offered admission. Co-curricular activities  Robert College has a rich history of co-curricular activities and sports, with about 100 student activity clubs as of 2015. Robert College introduced basketball to the Ottoman Empire in 1907. The first Student Council in Ottoman Empire was also formed in 1908 in Robert College.
Student Council  Student Council is formed of a group of annually elected student governors and a faculty advisor. The elected body is proportional with class size. As well as class representatives, the president, the vice president, the secretary and the treasurer are elected after a period of campaigning. Student Council is responsible for facilitating communications between students, faculty and administration, as well as organizing social activities and fundraising for clubs. Student Council also organizes the largest and oldest high school festival, Fine Arts Festival, in Turkey. The President of the Student Council, representing the student body, makes a speech during the opening, closing, and graduation ceremonies.
Publications    English   Bosphorous Chronicle: The school's newspaper published monthly. Record: The Yearbook. Kaleidoscope: The English literature magazine. Turkish   Köprü (The Bridge): The school's Turkish newspaper, published bimonthly (first published in January 2009). Martı (Seagull): Turkish literature journal. Oda (Room): Turkish literature journal publishing poems, stories and photos submitted by students. Tarih (History): The History Club's annual publication. Sinek (Fly): The Film Review Club's annual publication. Conferences and festivals    Fine Arts Festival (FAF)   The Fine Arts Festival is the largest secondary school festival in Turkey. It has been held annually since 1982 by the Robert College Student Council. Each year, more than 2,000 people attend the festival, which is traditionally held in May.
The festival is a big event in which many student groups can perform on stage. There are various art exhibitions and dance shows that also take place. Student Council members visit other high schools in Istanbul and advertise for this event. At the end of the festival, a well-known artist or band typically performs on stage. Most of the revenues used to fund this event are raised through food and ticket sales. Food vendors are usually selected by Student Council members and consist of restaurants close to Robert College such as "kumpir" sellers in Ortaköy. This promotes the tight-knit Robert College community spirit.
International Istanbul Youth Forum (IYF)  The International Istanbul Youth Forum is an annually held conference at Robert College. It has been organized every year since 2006 with participants from numerous European countries. Each year, more than 150 participants from all over Europe gather at the RC campus. The conference is organized by the Robert College European Youth Club. Ethics Forum  The Ethics Forum is the first to be established at high school level in Turkey. Robert College Ethical Values Club organizes an ethics case study contest at national level among high school students, following their forum. The results are announced at the Ethics Conference near the end of the year.
Both events attract more than twenty public and private schools from around Turkey. Robert College International Model United Nations (RCIMUN)  Robert College International Model United Nations (RCIMUN) is a THIMUN-affiliated Model United Nations conference organized annually by the Robert College Model United Nations Club (RCMUN) since 2006. The conference includes four General Assembly committees, those being the Political, Human Rights, Environment, and Disarmament Committees, a Special Conference committee, the Security Council of UN, an Advisory Panel, ECOSOC, Specialized Agencies (RCSA), the equivalent of two intertwined historical committees which simulate a single historical event, a separate Historical Security Council, as well as a simulation of the International Criminal Court.
Approximately 750 students, of which about 42% were from international schools attended the 2012 conference. Istanbul Gençlik Forumu (IGF)  Istanbul Gençlik Forumu is a national conference where representatives from over 30 high schools from different regions come together to discuss issues regarding the future of Turkey. In 2008, the 5th IGF welcomed over 250 participants. Discussions about international affairs are held in Turkish and each committee is responsible for writing a resolution. Then, at the General Assembly, each resolution is discussed and voted on. It is also the National Selection Conference of EYP Turkey, which is also recognized by the international office of European Youth Parliament.
The conference is held annually and is organized by the Robert College European Youth Club. Turkish Theater Festival (TIFES)  Organized by the Robert College Theater Club, TIFES is one of the major theatrical events at high school level in Turkey. The festival takes place in Robert College campus during the first week of June. Numerous plays are put on stage during the week in Suna Kıraç Hall and famous actors, actresses and playwrights give talks on topics related to theatrical arts. Junior Achievement Robert College Conference (JARC)  Robert College Junior Achievement Club is hosting this event. About 300 Junior Achievement students from all over Turkey meet each other and share their experiences with others and famous entrepreneurs and artists related to the topics like Risk (2010), Alternative Careers (2009), Creating a Brand (2008).
The entertaining workshop about these topics is a didacting icebreaking activity to strengthen the relationship between Junior Achievement students. The nearest conference is in April 2011. Robert College Business Society Conference Series    Robert College Decision Analysis and Risk Management Conference 2015 (RCDARM)   The conference took place at 13th–14th-15 November. Keynote Speaker was Chris Spetzler of Decision Education Foundation. The conference was noted to be highly successful and future collaborations with the Decision Education Foundation were decided. Campus  The  wooded campus overlooking the Bosphorus is home to historic buildings as well as modern ones, centennial trees and a rich fauna, among which the Bosphorus Beetle, an endemic species to this campus, could be counted.
Major buildings   Gould Hall: This building, the oldest educational building on the campus, is a gift from Helen Gould Shepard, daughter of the famous 19th century Wall Street financier Jay Gould. She donated US$150,000 for the construction, which began in 1911 and was completed in 1914. Today it houses classrooms, the main administrative offices, the İbrahim Bodur library, Heritage Room, and the RC Commons area, as well as the Turkish Literature and Social Sciences Departments. Mitchell Hall: Originally home to the school kitchens and dining room, the building was a gift from Miss Olivia E. Phelps Stokes, who donated US$100,000.
A modest woman, she asked for the building to be named in memory of her friend, Sarah Lindlay Mitchell. Today, the building houses classrooms used primarily for Math lessons, the Math Department, the Sait Halman Computer Center, the audio-visual center, and two Multimedia Rooms (MMRs). The top floor is used for examinations, minor conferences, and weekly club sessions. Woods Hall: Completed in 1914, the building was a partial gift from Mrs. Henry Woods of Boston, who donated US$58,000, with Helen Gould Shepard supplying the remaining US$25,000 required. It was used as a Science Building until 1990, and today is home to classrooms used primarily for English lessons, two English department offices, and two college counselling offices.
Sage Hall: A gift from Mrs. Margaret Olivia Sage, widow of Russell Sage, a famous 19th century financier and associate of Jay Gould, Sage Hall is one of the few buildings still used for its original purpose. A philanthropist, she donated US$100,000 for the building, built as a dormitory. Today, the building houses the girls' dormitories, infirmary, art studios and a darkroom. Bingham Hall: Originally built as a medical school building, financed by William Bingham in memory of his mother, Mary Payne Bingham, the building housed the junior high school section from 1925 to 1992. Today, it is home to the boys' dormitories, as well as a small conference room, business and administrative offices.
Feyyaz Berker Hall: Feyyaz Berker Hall, which today houses the science labs and classrooms, as well as the Science Department, was completed in 1990, and named after its largest donor, leading Turkish businessman and Robert College Trustee, Feyyaz Berker (Robert College Eng '46 alumnus). Contents of the Biology Museum, which has one of the rarest collections in Turkey, is scattered around the second and third floors of the building. Suna Kıraç Hall: A state-of-the-art theater building completed in 1990, which includes a large stage, make-up rooms, modern sound and lighting system and seatings for 512 people, was named after its largest donor Suna Kıraç (American College for Girls '60 alumnus), a leading Turkish businesswoman and Robert College Trustee.
Its basement houses the music department and several music rooms. Nejat Eczacıbaşı Hall: The modern school gymnasium was opened in 1990 and named after its largest donor, prominent Turkish bio-chemist and businessman Dr. Nejat Eczacıbaşı (Robert College '32 alumnus). Its basement houses the Multi-Purpose Room (MPR). İbrahim Bodur Library  When founded in 1863, Robert College had four students. A sum of $2,120 had been allocated to the library, and Harvard University had donated 200 volumes for the opening of the library. During the 1950s and '60s, the college had one of the largest collections in Turkey. (In 1957: 111,598 books and 214 periodicals; the American College for Girls Library 27,163 books and 108 periodicals, according to the Turkiye Kütüphaneleri Rehberi (Turkish Libraries Guide) published by the Turkish National Library that year.
After the foundation of Boğaziçi University, the college donated the majority of its collections to the newly founded university. Today, Robert College has the largest library collection among secondary schools in Turkey. The library houses more than 47,300 books, 190 periodical publications, and two web-based databases. It occupies an area of 700 square meters, with a seating capacity of 90, and serves a total of 927 students, as well as all the employees and alumni of the school on second and third floors of Gould Hall.
Other buildings and facilities    The Rodney B. Wagner Memorial Maze   Murat Karamancı Student Center (MKSC)  Dave Phillips Field  Tennis courts  Basketball courts  Faculty housing (Barton House, White House, Yalı, Guest House, and numerous other houses dispersed on campus)  Biology Pond  The Bridge and Security  ForumThis section only includes the buildings on today's Robert College campus (formerly the campus of American College for Girls); the ones on the former boys campus of Robert College can be found in the Boğaziçi University article. Tuition and financial aid  Robert College tuition fees for Prep grades in the 2016–2017 academic year are:  Tuition fees are adjusted each year according to the inflation rates in a limited range set by the Ministry of Education.
Robert College has been the most expensive private school in Turkey over the years. It is still the most expensive educational institution, surpassing some private universities. According to school data, 25% of students received financial aid for the 2016–2017 academic year. Notable alumni   Since the time of the Ottoman Empire, Robert College alumni have played a leading role in numerous fields including the arts, academia, science, engineering, business, civil society and government administration. Garnett stated in her 1904 publication that "since its foundation forty years ago many of its graduates have attained to high positions in the Governments of the Balkan principalities, and otherwise distinguished themselves."
In 1990, three alumni, Nejat Eczacıbaşı, Suna Kıraç and Feyyaz Berker donated the necessary funds for the construction of the new buildings that are mentioned in the Buildings section. An annual giving campaign raises funds for the school, as costs cannot be met by tuition fees alone. The development office publishes the RC Quarterly, which reaches 10,000 Robert College alumni around the world online and by mail. Bizimtepe, a cultural and recreational center next to the campus, is an affiliate of the Alumni Association.
Notable faculty (former and current)   Cahit Arf, mathematician  Calouste Gulbenkian, entrepreneur and art collector  Behçet Kemal Çağlar, poet  John Freely, Professor of Physics, author  Mebrure Gönenç, one of the first female members of the Turkish Parliament (alumna of the American College of Girls)  Frances Harshbarger, one of the first female American mathematicians to receive a doctorate  Necip Fazıl Kısakürek, poet and author  Paul Lange, conductor of the Ottoman Empire's Royal Orchestra, musician, father of US conductor Hans Lange  M. M. Mangasarian, Armenian-American atheist and secularist intellectual  Arman Manukyan, Professor of Economy and Accounting  Mihri Pektaş, one of the first female members of the Turkish Parliament (alumna of the American College of Girls)  Dave Phillips, Physical Education teacher, played professional basketball for Beşiktaş JK  Mary Paton Ramsay, literary scholar  Friedrich Schrader, German journalist and author  Karl von Terzaghi, Austrian civil engineer, known as the "father of soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering"   See also   Boğaziçi University Istanbul International Community School (former sister school) Education in the Ottoman Empire  List of high schools in Turkey  Koç School  Üsküdar American Academy   References and notes    Books on Robert College   Ali Neyzi, Alma Mater and the Story of Robert College Asya Orhon, Kolejlerin Koleji, Robert Kolej Betty Tank, Pushing My Shadow Caleb Frank Gates, Not To Me Only, Princeton, 1940.
Cyrus Hamlin, My Life and Times, Boston, 1893. Cyrus Hamlin, Among the Turks Eren Yanık, Akvaryum  via Internet Archive  Hester Donaldson Jenkins, An Educational Ambassador to the Middle East John Freely, History of Robert College, Istanbul, YKY, 2000. Lynn Scipio, My Thirty Years in Turkey, New Hampshire, Ringde, 1955. Mary Mills Patrick, A Bosphorus Adventure, London, 1934. Mary Mills Patrick, Under Five Sultans May Fincancı, The Story of Robert College Old and New Moris Farhi, Young Turk Orhan Türker, Mega Revma'dan Arnavutköy'e, Istanbul, 2005  Stevens Marcia & Malcolm, Against the Devil's Current: Life & Times of C.H. Talat S. Halman, Aklın Yolu Bindir, Istanbul, 2003.
Ugur Ersoy, 1950–55 Erguvan Renkli Yıllar'', Istanbul, 2004. External links   Finding aid to the Robert College papers at Columbia University Rare Book & Manuscript Library  Robert College  Robert College Alumni Association  Robert College Alumni Association of America  The Student Council  Fine Arts Festival  RC Quarterly Robert College Alumni Magazine  Robert College International Model United Nations Website  Robert College EYC Website  about Robert College  RC Quarterly    Category:Educational institutions established in 1863 Category:Turkey–United States relations Category:High schools in Istanbul Category:American international schools in Turkey Category:International Baccalaureate schools in Turkey Category:Private schools in Turkey Category:University-preparatory schools * Category:Bosphorus Category:Beşiktaş Category:1863 establishments in the Ottoman Empire
Erroll G. Southers is an expert in transportation security and counterterrorism and the author of Homegrown Violent Extremism (2013). He is a Professor of the Practice in National & Homeland Security, the Director of Homegrown Violent Extremism Studies and the Director of the Safe Communities Institute at the University of Southern California (USC) Sol Price School of Public Policy. He is also the research area leader for Countering Violent Extremism at the DHS National Center for Risk and Economic Analysis of Terrorism Events (CREATE) and managing director, counter-terrorism & infrastructure protection at TAL Global Corporation. He was assistant chief of the Los Angeles World Airports (LAWA) police department's office of homeland security and intelligence.
He is a former special agent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and was deputy director of homeland security under California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. In 2009 he was nominated by President Barack Obama to become head of the Transportation Security Administration, but withdrew. Education and early academic career Southers earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at Brown University in 1978, a Master of Public Administration, at University of Southern California in 1998 and a doctorate in policy, planning and development, from the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy, in 2013. Southers' dissertation, "Homegrown Violent Extremism: Designing a Community-Based Model to Reduce the Risk of Recruitment and Radicalization," explored the "morality, leadership and group behavioral constructs capable of supporting a terrorism resistant community model."
He is a senior fellow of the UCLA School of Public Affairs and a visiting fellow of the International Institute of Counter-Terrorism in Herzliya, Israel. Career Southers began his law enforcement career at the Santa Monica Police Department and served as a faculty member of the Rio Hondo police academy. During his four years in the FBI, Southers was assigned to counterterrorism, foreign counterintelligence and was a member of the bureau's SWAT Team. He was the deputy director for critical infrastructure protection of the California Office of Homeland Security (2004–2006), appointed by Schwarzenegger. He provided oversight of critical infrastructure protection policy, national pilot programs such as Protected Critical Infrastructure Information (PCII) and served as a member of the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP) working group, responsible for developing the NIPP.
In 2006, Southers was named associate director of special programs for CREATE, where he developed the university's executive program in counter-terrorism and serves as an adjunct professor of homeland security and public policy in the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy. Recognized as one of the university's counter-terrorism experts, he lectures at the joint chiefs of staff level IV antiterrorism seminars and has testified before the full congressional committee on homeland security. In 2007, he was appointed chief of intelligence and counter-terrorism for the Los Angeles World Airports (LAWA) police department, the nation's largest aviation law enforcement agency. Southers' interdisciplinary methodology has engaged CREATE and LAWA in pilot projects involving the testing of peroxide-based explosives detection methodologies and assistant randomized motoring over routes, designed to detect and deter terrorist pre-attack operations.
His international experience includes counterterrorism study and lectures in Canada, Great Britain, Israel and China, where he was invited to assess the proposed terrorism countermeasures for the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Nomination President Obama nominated Southers in September 2009, but the Senate recessed at the end of 2009, without having taken up the nomination. One reason for the delay was a hold placed on the nomination by Republican senator Jim DeMint, who opposed the unionization of TSA employees. DeMint cited Southers' possible support of the unionization of the TSA, which is forbidden in TSA's founding legislation, and inconsistencies in Southers' account of running background checks for personal reasons in the 1980s.
After the attempted bombing of Northwest Airlines Flight 253, in December 2009, delays were criticized by Marshall McClain, the president of the Los Angeles Airport Police peace officers' association, stating: "Friday's terrorist attack on U.S. aviation makes it all the more imperative that there be no further delays in filling this crucial position." On December 30, 2009, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid announced he would file for cloture on the Southers nomination, once the Senate returned from the December recess. Given the Democratic supermajority in the Senate at the time of the nomination, it was expected that Southers would be confirmed sometime in January 2010.
During the confirmation process, Southers offered an inconsistent account of database searches for criminal records on his estranged wife's boyfriend in the 1980s, which McClatchy reported in 2010 was with regard to Southers’ concern for his infant son's safety. He corrected his testimony in a Nov. 22, 2009, letter to the Senate.
On January 10, 2010, Southers withdrew his nomination, saying in a statement released by the White House, “My nomination has become a lightning rod for those who have chosen to push a political agenda at the risk of the safety and security of the American people.”   Commenting on Southers’ withdrawal, the former DHS Undersecretary for Border and Transportation Security Asa Hutchinson wrote, “This is an example of someone getting caught in Washington's political cross fires over something [unionization of TSA employees] that is candidly out of his control.”  References  External links Profile at LinkedIn Profile from USC SPPD (University of Southern California, School of Policy, Planning, and Development) Profile from the National Center for Risk and Economic Analysis of Terrorism Events (CREATE)  Profile from the Los Angeles Airport Peace Officers Association Profile at TAL Global Corporation  Category:Living people Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation agents Category:Law enforcement workers from California Category:Brown University alumni Category:USC Sol Price School of Public Policy alumni Category:University of Southern California faculty Category:Experts on terrorism Category:University of California, Los Angeles fellows Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Italian dressing is a vinaigrette-type salad dressing in American and Canadian cuisine that consists of water, vinegar or lemon juice, vegetable oil, chopped bell peppers, sugar or corn syrup, and a blend of numerous herbs and spices (including oregano, fennel, dill and salt). Onion and garlic can also be used to intensify the dressing’s flavor. A variety of Italian dressing known as creamy Italian consists of the same ingredients, but with milk products and stabilizers added to make the salad dressing creamy. It is often bought bottled, or prepared by mixing oil and vinegar with a packaged flavoring mix consisting of dehydrated vegetables and herbs.
Italian dressing is not used in Italy, where salad is normally dressed with olive oil, vinegar or lemon juice, salt, and sometimes balsamic vinegar at the table, and not with a pre-mixed vinaigrette. Italian dressing is also used as a marinade for meat or vegetables, for stir-frys, and on sandwiches. Pasta salads sometimes include Italian dressing. The caloric content of Italian dressing varies widely. History  Ken's North American style Italian salad dressing is thought to date back to 1941 in Framingham, Massachusetts. Florence Hanna, the daughter of Italian immigrants and wife of restaurateur Ken Hanna, made large batches of her family's salad dressing for the house salads at the restaurant.
The restaurant, originally called The '41 Cafe, later changed locations and became known as Ken's Steak House. The salad dressing became so popular that it was made in large vats in the basement of Ken's to keep up with demand. Customers started requesting the Italian dressing to go. The Crowley family, who owned a nearby manufacturing business, approached the Hanna family about bottling the popular salad dressing. This resulted in the creation of Ken's Salad Dressing, which now comes in several variations of Italian, as well as many other flavors. Wish-Bone Italian salad dressing was also served in Kansas City, Missouri, at the Wishbone Restaurant beginning in 1948.
The Wishbone had been opened in 1945 by Phillip Sollomi along with Lena Sollomi, Phillip's mother. The Italian dressing served at the Wishbone was based on a recipe from Lena Sollomi's Sicilian family which was a blend of oil, vinegar, herbs and spices. Demand for the salad dressing proved so high that Phillip started a separate operation to produce it for sale, making it by the barrel. The dressing recipe was eventually purchased by Lipton and has been made commercially by a succession of owners since, with the product currently made by Pinnacle Foods, Inc.  References  Category:American cuisine Category:Salad dressings Category:Italian-American cuisine
Quercus gambelii, with the common name Gambel oak, is a deciduous small tree or large shrub that is widespread in the foothills and lower mountain elevations of western North America. It is also regionally called scrub oak, oak brush, and white oak. As the Gambel oak and Quercus gambelii, it was named after the American naturalist William Gambel (1821–1849). Distribution The natural range of Quercus gambelii is centered in the western United States and northwestern Mexico, in the states of Arizona, Chihuahua, Colorado, New Mexico, Sonora, and Utah. It also extends into Nevada, Wyoming, Idaho, Nebraska, the Oklahoma Panhandle, Coahuila, and western Texas.
The tree typically grows at altitudes of  above sea level, where precipitation averages between  per year. Description Quercus gambelii trees vary significantly in size from one location to another. The average mature height is from , but occasionally reaches heights of  in some locations. Dwarf stands of plants under  tall are common in marginal areas where heavy browsing occurs. The largest trees are found in the southern range of the species along streams. These trees reach up to 100 feet tall. The champion tree is in Arizona at 114 feet tall. Although the tree's wood is hard and dense, its branches are irregular and crooked, making them flexible enough to bend without breaking when covered with heavy snow.
The bark is rough and brownish-gray. The leaves are generally  long and  broad, deeply lobed on each side of the central vein; the upper surface is glossy dark green, the undersurface is paler and velvety. They frequently turn orange and yellow during autumn, creating mountainsides of vivid colors. The flowers are inconspicuous unisexual catkins that occur in the spring. The acorns are  long, and about one-third to one-half enclosed by a cap or cup (cupule); they mature in September, turning from green to golden brown. The plant reproduces from acorns, but also spreads most rapidly from root sprouts that grow from vast underground structures called lignotubers.
These reproductive characteristics often result in dense groves or thickets of the trees that often cover entire mountainsides. Habitat Quercus gambelii flourishes in full sun on hillsides with thin, rocky, alkaline soil where competition from other plant species is limited. It also does well in richer soils, but in those areas it is forced to compete for growing room. It is well-adapted to locations where wet springs and hot, dry summers create conditions conducive to wildfires. After a fire, Gambel oak quickly re-establishes itself from root spouts. The plant is also quite drought tolerant. Associated plant species can include: chokecherry, arrowleaf balsamroot, bigtooth maple, mountain mahogany, ponderosa pine, and serviceberry.
Associated birds and mammals include Woodhouse's scrub jay, black-billed magpie, grouse, deer, chipmunks and squirrels. Uses Because of its abundance, the Gambel oak is an important food source for browsing animals such as deer and livestock. The sweetish acorns are frequently gathered by squirrels and stored for winter food; they are also eaten by wild turkeys and domestic animals such as hogs. Some insects depend on the Gambel oak: for example, the Colorado hairstreak butterfly uses it as a food source for caterpillars. Historically, acorns from Gambel oak provided a reliable source of food for Native Americans.
References  External links  photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in the Mexican State of Nuevo México (present-day US State of New Mexico) in 1847  gambelii Category:Trees of the Western United States Category:Trees of Northwestern Mexico Category:Flora of the Rocky Mountains Category:Flora of Arizona Category:Flora of Colorado Category:Flora of New Mexico Category:Flora of Utah Category:Plants described in 1848 Category:Taxa named by Thomas Nuttall Category:Plants used in Native American cuisine
The veins of the vestibule and semicircular canals accompany the arteries, and, receiving those of the cochlea at the base of the modiolus, unite to form the internal auditory veins (or veins of labyrinth) which end in the posterior part of the superior petrosal sinus or in the transverse sinus. References   Category:Veins of the head and neck
UV curing is the process by which ultraviolet light is used to initiate a photochemical reaction that generates a crosslinked network of polymers. UV curing is  adaptable to printing, coating, decorating, stereolithography, and in the assembly of a variety of products and materials. In comparison to other technologies, curing with UV energy may be considered a low temperature process, a high speed process, and is a solventless process, as cure occurs via direct polymerization rather than by evaporation. Originally introduced in the 1960s, this technology has streamlined and increased automation in many industries in the manufacturing sector. Applications  UV curing is used whenever there is a need for curing and drying of inks, adhesives and coatings.
UV-cured adhesive has become a high-speed replacement for two-part adhesives, eliminating the need for solvent removal, ratio mixing and potential life concern. It is used in the screen printing process, where UV curing systems are used to polymerize images on screen-printed products, ranging from T-shirts to 3D and cylindrical parts. It is used in fine instrument finishing (guitars, violins, ukuleles, etc. ), pool cue manufacturing and other wood craft industries. Printing with UV curable inks provides the ability to print on a very wide variety of substrates such as plastics, paper, canvas, glass, metal, foam boards, tile, films, and many other materials.
Other industries that take advantage of UV curing include medicine, automobiles, cosmetics (for example artificial fingernails and gel nail polish), food, science, education and art. This curable ink has efficiently met the requirements of the publication sector on variety of paper and board. Advantages of UV curing  The primary advantage of curing finishes and inks with ultraviolet light is the speed at which the final product can be readied for shipping. In addition to speeding up production, this can also reduce flaws and errors as the amount of time that dust, flies or any airborne object has to settle upon the object is reduced.
This can increase the quality of the finished item, and allow for greater consistency. The other obvious benefit is that manufacturers can devote less space to finishing items, since they don't have to wait for them to dry. This creates an efficiency that ripples through the entire manufacturing process. Types of UV curing   UV LED lamps are the most common lamps for curing, generating 365 or 395 nano-meter (UVA). Their light is intended and can be focused to a small area. Low pressure mercury vapor lamps without phosphor generate 254 nano-meter (UVC) and are less suitable because they harm the eyes.
Fluorescent lamps with UV phosphor can emit 300-400 nano-meter according to the phosphor but the energy per square centimeter is much lower compared to UV leds. They are more suitable for curing large surfaces. Types of ultraviolet lamps  Mercury vapor lamp (H type)  The mercury lamp has an output in the short wave UV range between 220 and 320 nm (nanometers) and a spike of energy in the longwave range at 365 nm. The H lamp is a good choice for clear coatings and thin ink layers and produces hard surface cures and high gloss finishes. Mercury vapor lamp with iron additive (D type)  The addition of iron to the lamp yields a strong output in the longwave range between 350 and 400 nm while the mercury component maintains good output in the short wavelength range.
The D lamp is a good choice for curing heavily pigmented inks, adhesives, and thick laydowns of clear materials. Mercury vapor lamp with gallium additive (V type)  The addition of gallium to the lamp yields a strong output in the longwave range between 400 and 450 nm. This makes the V lamp a good choice for curing white pigmented inks and base coats containing titanium dioxide which blocks the most shortwave UV. Fluorescent lamps  Fluorescent lamps are used for UV curing in a number of applications. In particular, these are used where the excessive heat of mercury vapor is undesirable, or when an item needs more than a single source of light and instead the item needs to be surrounded by light, such as musical instruments.
Fluorescent lamps can be created that produce ultraviolet anywhere within the UVA/UVB spectrum. Additionally, lamps that have multiple peaks are possible, allowing a wider variety of photoinitiators to be used. While fluorescent lamps are less efficient at producing UV than mercury vapor, newer initiators require less total energy, offsetting this disadvantage. Fluorescent lamps in a wide variety of sizes and wattages are available. LEDs   UV LED devices are capable of emitting a narrow spectrum of radiation (+/- 10 nm), while mercury lamps have a broader spectral distribution. Fluorescent ultraviolet lamps can be fairly narrow, although not as narrow as LEDs.
LEDs are much more expensive but last up to 10 times longer, and unlike fluorescent tubes, can be cycled on and off frequently as they require no startup or cool down period. While they can not produce the same spectrum as mercury vapor or fluorescent tubes, photoinitiators can be formulated to work with them easily. Other advantages of UV LED curing systems are the ability to be more compact, the ability to work with heat-sensitive substrates, better energy efficiency and improved safety by avoiding use of mercury. See also  Aconic reflector  References  Category:Ultraviolet radiation Category:Curing agents
Crisis Management Initiative (CMI) is an independent Finnish non-governmental organisation that works to prevent and resolve conflict through informal dialogue and mediation. Nobel Peace Prize laureate and former President of Finland Martti Ahtisaari founded CMI in 2000. CMI has offices in Helsinki and Brussels as well as a presence in selected countries. The organisation is officially registered as Crisis Management Initiative ry. Function CMI states it is focused on contributing to peace processes in three regions: the Middle East and North Africa, Eurasia and Sub-Saharan Africa. CMI states that it facilitates dialogue, mediates between conflicting sides, provides capacity-building and mediation support at all stages of conflict management and peace processes, and supports the broader peace building community.
CMI is often approached in conflicts related to which it has regional expertise and contacts. The choice of mediation also depends on the political will of its financial backers to solve a particular conflict. CMI works either directly with the parties of the conflict, or assists another organization like the United Nations or the African Union in their mediating efforts. CMI conducts its mediating work behind the scenes and does not comment on ongoing negotiations. Sometimes even successful negotiations are kept secret. CMI head offices are in Helsinki. The organization employs 80 persons. , the annual budget of CMI was 7,3 million euros.
It receives most of its funding, 55%, from the Finnish state. The European Union and other European countries are significant funders as well. In 2017, it campaigned to raise more than 600,000 euros from about 9,000 private donors as a surprise birthday "present" to Ahtisaari to fund more than 15 extra rounds of mediation talks. History Nobel Peace laureate and former President of Finland Martti Ahtisaari founded CMI on 24 August 2000, the same year he became Chairman of the International Crisis Group. After stepping down as the President of Finland that year, Ahtisaari declined the post of United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees because he wanted to focus instead on addressing the root causes of conflicts.
President Ahtisaari's long-term vision with CMI was to  contribute to as much as effectively as possible to solving violent conflict throughout the world. The main tasks of the organisation in its early years were to assist Martti Ahtisaari in his numerous international assignments, to participate in policy discussions, and to advocate capacity-building in civilian crisis management. This led to CMI taking its own projects, at first concerning crisis management and later on expanding to peace building and conflict resolution projects. One of CMI's most visible assignments, the Aceh peace process began in late 2004. CMI and its chairman president Ahtisaari were asked to facilitate talks between the government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM).
In 2008, President Ahtisaari was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for his important efforts, on several continents and over more than three decades, to resolve international conflicts". In its announcement, the Norwegian Nobel Committee also recognized Ahtisaari and CMI's central role in the Aceh process as well as their work in mediating peace in Iraq in 2008. CMI has mediated in South Sudan. In 2014, CMI organized unofficial talks between conflict parties in the Ukraine. It also worked for peace in Transnistria. In 2017, CMI mediated between the government and opposition parties of the Burundian unrest. CMI also facilitated negotiations between Hamas, Fatah and other Palestinian groups.
Because Hamas is classified as a terrorist group by many countries, CMI has been criticized for including them in talks. Because of the number of parties involved, it is difficult to assess the individual impact of CMI. More lately, CMI has campaigned to increase the role of women in mediation, and been involved in mediation in the Yemeni Civil War. In 2019, CMI removed all references to its employee and recently elected Member of Parliament of Finland, Hussein al-Taee, following his comparison of the Israel to the Islamic State and representatives of the Simon Wiesenthal Center saying al-Taee's writings were "clearly antisemitic."
See also   European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats  Finnish Institute of International Affairs  Swisspeace  References  External links     Category:Peace organizations based in Finland Category:Think tanks based in Finland Category:Think tanks established in 2000 Category:Research institutes in Finland Category:Research institutes of international relations Category:2000 establishments in Finland Category:Martti Ahtisaari
The Point Cloud Library (PCL) is an open-source library of algorithms for point cloud processing tasks and 3D geometry processing, such as occur in three-dimensional computer vision. The library contains algorithms for feature estimation, surface reconstruction, 3D registration, model fitting, and segmentation. It is written in C++ and released under the BSD license. These algorithms have been used, for example, for perception in robotics to filter outliers from noisy data, stitch 3D point clouds together, segment relevant parts of a scene, extract keypoints and compute descriptors to recognize objects in the world based on their geometric appearance, and create surfaces from point clouds and visualize them.
PCD File Format To be able to store various data formats, the pcd file format was created. It allows to use data types with dynamic field and  data descriptors to be stored in binary or ascii form. History The development of the Point Cloud Library started in March 2010 at Willow Garage. The project initially resided on a sub domain of Willow Garage then moved to a new website www.pointclouds.org in March 2011. PCL's first official release (Version 1.0) was released two months later in May 2011. Modules PCL is split into a number of modular libraries. References  External links   Open Perception Inc  Point Cloud Library (PCL) Users  Point Cloud Library (PCL) Developers  Category:3D graphics software Category:Free 3D graphics software Category:Free software programmed in C++ Category:Software using the BSD license
Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990; second edition 1999) is a book by the philosopher Judith Butler, in which the author argues that gender is a kind of improvised performance. The work is influential in feminism, women's studies, and lesbian and gay studies, and has also enjoyed widespread popularity outside of traditional academic circles. Butler's ideas about gender came to be seen as foundational to queer theory and the advancing of dissident sexual practices during the 1990s. Summary  Butler criticizes one of the central assumptions of feminist theory: that there exists an identity and a subject that requires representation in politics and language.
For Butler, "women" and "woman" are categories complicated by factors such as class, ethnicity, and sexuality. Moreover, the universality presumed by these terms parallels the assumed universality of the patriarchy, and erases the particularity of oppression in distinct times and places. Butler thus eschews identity politics in favor of a new, coalitional feminism that critiques the basis of identity and gender. She challenges assumptions about the distinction often made between sex and gender, according to which sex is biological while gender is culturally constructed. Butler argues that this false distinction introduces a split into the supposedly unified subject of feminism.
Sexed bodies cannot signify without gender, and the apparent existence of sex prior to discourse and cultural imposition is only an effect of the functioning of gender. Sex and gender are both constructed. Examining the work of the philosophers Simone de Beauvoir and Luce Irigaray, Butler explores the relationship between power and categories of sex and gender. For de Beauvoir, women constitute a lack against which men establish their identity; for Irigaray, this dialectic belongs to a "signifying economy" that excludes the representation of women altogether because it employs phallocentric language. Both assume that there exists a female "self-identical being" in need of representation, and their arguments hide the impossibility of "being" a gender at all.
Butler argues instead that gender is performative: no identity exists behind the acts that supposedly "express" gender, and these acts constitute, rather than express, the illusion of the stable gender identity. If the appearance of “being” a gender is thus an effect of culturally influenced acts, then there exists no solid, universal gender: constituted through the practice of performance, the gender "woman" (like the gender "man") remains contingent and open to interpretation and "resignification". In this way, Butler provides an opening for subversive action. She calls for people to trouble the categories of gender through performance. Discussing the patriarchy, Butler notes that feminists have frequently made recourse to the supposed pre-patriarchal state of culture as a model upon which to base a new, non-oppressive society.
For this reason, accounts of the original transformation of sex into gender by means of the incest taboo have proven particularly useful to feminists. Butler revisits three of the most popular: the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss's anthropological structuralism, in which the incest taboo necessitates a kinship structure governed by the exchange of women; Joan Riviere's psychoanalytic description of "womanliness as a masquerade" that hides masculine identification and therefore also conceals a desire for another woman; and Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic explanation of mourning and melancholia, in which loss prompts the ego to incorporate attributes of the lost loved one, in which cathexis becomes identification.
Butler extends these accounts of gender identification in order to emphasize the productive or performative aspects of gender. With Lévi-Strauss, she suggests that incest is "a pervasive cultural fantasy" and that the presence of the taboo generates these desires; with Riviere, she states that mimicry and masquerade form the "essence" of gender; with Freud, she asserts that "gender identification is a kind of melancholia in which the sex of the prohibited object is internalized as a prohibition" (63) and therefore that "same-sexed gender identification" depends on an unresolved (but simultaneously forgotten) homosexual cathexis (with the father, not the mother, of the Oedipal myth).
For Butler, "heterosexual melancholy is culturally instituted as the price of stable gender identities" (70) and for heterosexuality to remain stable, it demands the notion of homosexuality, which remains prohibited but necessarily within the bounds of culture. Finally, she points again to the productivity of the incest taboo, a law which generates and regulates approved heterosexuality and subversive homosexuality, neither of which exists before the law. In response to the work of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan that posited a paternal Symbolic order and a repression of the "feminine" required for language and culture, Julia Kristeva added women back into the narrative by claiming that poetic language—the "semiotic"—was a surfacing of the maternal body in writing, uncontrolled by the paternal logos.
For Kristeva, poetic writing and maternity are the sole culturally permissible ways for women to return to the maternal body that bore them, and female homosexuality is an impossibility, a near psychosis. Butler criticizes Kristeva, claiming that her insistence on a "maternal" that precedes culture and on poetry as a return to the maternal body is essentialist: "Kristeva conceptualizes this maternal instinct as having an ontological status prior to the paternal law, but she fails to consider the way in which that very law might well be the cause of the very desire it is said to repress" (90). Butler argues the notion of "maternity" as the long-lost haven for females is a social construction, and invokes Michel Foucault's arguments in The History of Sexuality (1976) to posit that the notion that maternity precedes or defines women is itself a product of discourse.
Butler dismantles part of Foucault's critical introduction to the journals he published of Herculine Barbin, an intersex person who lived in France during the 19th century and eventually committed suicide when she was forced to live as a man by the authorities. In his introduction to the journals, Foucault writes of Herculine's early days, when she was able to live her gender or "sex" as she saw fit as a "happy limbo of nonidentity" (94). Butler accuses Foucault of romanticism, claiming that his proclamation of a blissful identity "prior" to cultural inscription contradicts his work in The History of Sexuality, in which he posits that the idea of a "real" or "true" or "originary" sexual identity is an illusion, in other words that "sex" is not the solution to the repressive system of power but part of that system itself.
Butler instead places Barbin's early day not in a "happy limbo" but along a larger trajectory, always part of a larger network of social control. She suggests finally that Foucault's surprising deviation from his ideas on repression in the introduction might be a sort of "confessional moment", or vindication of Foucault's own homosexuality of which he rarely spoke and on which he permitted himself only once to be interviewed. Butler traces the feminist theorist Monique Wittig's thinking about lesbianism as the one recourse to the constructed notion of sex. The notion of "sex" is always coded as female, according to Wittig, a way to designate the non-male through an absence.
Women, thus reduced to "sex", cannot escape carrying sex as a burden. Wittig argues that even the naming of the body parts creates a fiction and constructs the features themselves, fragmenting what was really once "whole". Language, repeated over time, "produces reality-effects that are eventually misperceived as 'facts'" (115). Butler questions the notion that "the body" itself is a natural entity that "admits no genealogy", a usual given without explanation: "How are the contours of the body clearly marked as the taken-for-granted ground or surface upon which gender signification are inscribed, a mere facticity devoid of value, prior to significance?"
(129). Building on the thinking of the anthropologist Mary Douglas, outlined in her Purity and Danger (1966), Butler claims that the boundaries of the body have been drawn to instate certain taboos about limits and possibilities of exchange. Thus the hegemonic and homophobic press has read the pollution of the body that AIDS brings about as corresponding to the pollution of the homosexual's sexual activity, in particular his crossing the forbidden bodily boundary of the perineum. In other words, Butler's claim is that "the body is itself a consequence of taboos that render that body discrete by virtue of its stable boundaries" (133).
Butler proposes the practice of drag as a way to destabilize the exteriority/interiority binary, finally to poke fun at the notion that there is an "original" gender, and to demonstrate playfully to the audience, through an exaggeration, that all gender is in fact scripted, rehearsed, and performed. Butler attempts to construct a feminism (via the politics of jurido-discursive power) from which the gendered pronoun has been removed or not presumed to be a reasonable category. She claims that even the binary of subject/object, which forms the basic assumption for feminist practices—"we, 'women,' must become subjects and not objects"—is a hegemonic and artificial division.
The notion of a subject is for her formed through repetition, through a "practice of signification" (144). Butler offers parody (for example, the practice of drag) as a way to destabilize and make apparent the invisible assumptions about gender identity and the inhabitability of such "ontological locales" (146) as gender. By redeploying those practices of identity and exposing as always failed the attempts to "become" one's gender, she believes that a positive, transformative politics can emerge. All page numbers are from the first edition: Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York, Routledge, 1990). Publication history Gender Trouble was first published by Routledge in 1990.
Later that year, a second edition was published by Routledge. In 2006, a Routledge Classics edition was published. Reception Gender Trouble was reviewed by Shane Phelan in Women & Politics. The work has enjoyed widespread popularity outside of traditional academic circles, even inspiring an intellectual fanzine, Judy! Butler, in a preface to the second edition of the book, writes that she was surprised by the size of the book's audience and its eventual status as a founding text of queer theory. Anthony Elliott writes that with the publication of Gender Trouble, Butler established herself at the forefront of feminism, women's studies, lesbian and gay studies, and queer theory.
According to Elliott, the core idea expounded in Gender Trouble, that "gender is a kind of improvised performance, a form of theatricality that constitutes a sense of identity", came to be seen as "foundational to the project of queer theory and the advancing of dissident sexual practices during the 1990s." On November 23, 2018, the playwright Jordan Tannahill read the entirety of Gender Trouble outside the Hungarian Parliament Building in protest of Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán's decision to revoke accreditation and funding for gender studies programs in the country. See also  Feminist philosophy  Poststructuralism  Third-wave feminism  Undoing Gender  References  Further reading  Judith Butler: Live Theory by Vicki Kirby  Category:1990s LGBT literature Category:1990 non-fiction books Category:American non-fiction books Category:Books by Judith Butler Category:English-language books Category:Feminist books Category:Gender studies books Category:Intersex in non-fiction Category:LGBT literature in the United States Category:LGBT non-fiction books Category:Queer theory Category:Postmodern feminism Category:Routledge books
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are members of a drug class that reduces pain, decreases fever, prevents blood clots, and in higher doses, decreases inflammation. Side effects depend on the specific drug but largely include an increased risk of gastrointestinal ulcers and bleeds, heart attack, and kidney disease. The term nonsteroidal distinguishes these drugs from steroids, which while having a similar eicosanoid-depressing, anti-inflammatory action, have a broad range of other effects. First used in 1960, the term served to distance these medications from steroids, which were particularly stigmatised at the time due to the connotations with anabolic steroid abuse. NSAIDs work by inhibiting the activity of cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX-1 or COX-2).
In cells, these enzymes are involved in the synthesis of key biological mediators, namely prostaglandins, which are involved in inflammation, and thromboxanes, which are involved in blood clotting. There are two types of NSAIDs available: non-selective and COX-2 selective. Most NSAIDs are non-selective and inhibit the activity of both COX-1 and COX-2. These NSAIDs, while reducing inflammation, also inhibit platelet aggregation (especially aspirin) and increase the risk of gastrointestinal ulcers/bleeds. COX-2 selective inhibitors have less gastrointestinal side effects but promote thrombosis and substantially increase the risk of heart attack. As a result, COX-2 selective inhibitors are generally contraindicated due to the high risk of undiagnosed vascular disease.
These differential effects are due to the different roles and tissue localisations of each COX isoenzyme. By inhibiting physiological COX activity, all NSAIDs increase the risk of kidney disease and through a related mechanism, heart attack. In addition, NSAIDS can blunt the production of erythropoietin resulting in anaemia, since haemoglobin needs this hormone to be produced. Prolonged use is dangerous and case studies have shown the health risk with celecoxib. The most prominent NSAIDs are aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen, all available over the counter (OTC) in most countries. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is generally not considered an NSAID because it has only minor anti-inflammatory activity.
It treats pain mainly by blocking COX-2 and inhibiting endocannabinoid reuptake almost exclusively within the brain, but not much in the rest of the body. Medical uses  NSAIDs are usually used for the treatment of acute or chronic conditions where pain and inflammation are present. NSAIDs are generally used for the symptomatic relief of the following conditions:   Osteoarthritis  Rheumatoid arthritis  Mild-to-moderate pain due to inflammation and tissue injury  Low back pain  Inflammatory arthropathies (e.g., ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, reactive arthritis)  Tennis elbow  Headache  Migraine  Acute gout  Dysmenorrhea (menstrual pain)  Metastatic bone pain  Postoperative pain  Muscle stiffness and pain due to Parkinson's disease  Pyrexia (fever)  Ileus  Renal colic  Macular edema  Traumatic Injury  Aspirin, the only NSAID able to irreversibly inhibit COX-1, is also indicated for antithrombosis through inhibition of platelet aggregation.
This is useful for the management of arterial thrombosis and prevention of adverse cardiovascular events like heart attacks. Aspirin inhibits platelet aggregation by inhibiting the action of thromboxane A2. In a more specific application, the reduction in prostaglandins is used to close a patent ductus arteriosus in neonates if it has not done so physiologically after 24 hours. NSAIDs are useful in the management of post-operative dental pain following invasive dental procedures such as dental extraction. When not contra-indicated they are favoured over the use of paracetamol alone due to the anti-inflammatory effect they provide. When used in combination with paracetamol the analgesic effect has been proven to be improved.
There is weak evidence suggesting that taking pre-operative analgesia can reduce the length of post operative pain associated with placing orthodontic spacers under local anaesthetic. Combination of NSAIDs with pregabalin as preemptive analgesia has shown promising results for decreasing post operative pain intensity. The effectiveness of NSAIDs for treating non-cancer chronic pain and cancer-related pain in children and adolescents is not clear. There have not been sufficient numbers of high-quality randomized controlled trials conducted. Inflammation  Differences in anti-inflammatory activity between NSAIDs are small, but there is considerable variation in individual response and tolerance to these drugs. About 60% of patients will respond to any NSAID; of the others, those who do not respond to one may well respond to another.
Pain relief starts soon after taking the first dose and a full analgesic effect should normally be obtained within a week, whereas an anti-inflammatory effect may not be achieved (or may not be clinically assessable) for up to 3 weeks. If appropriate responses are not obtained within these times, another NSAID should be tried.
Contraindications NSAIDs may be used with caution by people with the following conditions:  Irritable bowel syndrome  Persons who are over age 50, and who have a family history of GI (gastrointestinal) problems  Persons who have had past GI problems from NSAID use  NSAIDs should usually be avoided by people with the following conditions:   Peptic ulcer or stomach bleeding  Uncontrolled hypertension  Kidney disease  People that suffer with inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis)  Past transient ischemic attack (excluding aspirin)  Past stroke (excluding aspirin)  Past myocardial infarction (excluding aspirin)  Coronary artery disease (excluding aspirin)  Undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery  Congestive heart failure (excluding low-dose aspirin)  In third trimester of pregnancy  Persons who have undergone gastric bypass surgery  Persons who have a history of allergic or allergic-type NSAID hypersensitivity reactions, e.g.
aspirin-induced asthma  Adverse effects The widespread use of NSAIDs has meant that the adverse effects of these drugs have become increasingly common. Use of NSAIDs increases risk of a range of gastrointestinal (GI) problems, kidney disease and adverse cardiovascular events. As commonly used for post-operative pain, there is evidence of increased risk of kidney complications. Their use following gastrointestinal surgery remains controversial, given mixed evidence of increased risk of leakage from any bowel anastomosis created. An estimated 10–20% of NSAID patients experience indigestion. In the 1990s high doses of prescription NSAIDs were associated with serious upper gastrointestinal adverse events, including bleeding.
Over the past decade, deaths associated with gastric bleeding have declined. NSAIDs, like all medications, may interact with other medications. For example, concurrent use of NSAIDs and quinolones may increase the risk of quinolones' adverse central nervous system effects, including seizure. There is an argument over the benefits and risks of NSAIDs for treating chronic musculoskeletal pain. Each drug has a benefit-risk profile and balancing the risk of no treatment with the competing potential risks of various therapies is the clinician's responsibility. Combinational risk  If a COX-2 inhibitor is taken, a traditional NSAID (prescription or over-the-counter) should not be taken at the same time.
In addition, people on daily aspirin therapy (e.g., for reducing cardiovascular risk) must be careful if they also use other NSAIDs, as these may inhibit the cardioprotective effects of aspirin. Rofecoxib (Vioxx) was shown to produce significantly fewer gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (ADRs) compared with naproxen. The study, the VIGOR trial, raised the issue of the cardiovascular safety of the coxibs. A statistically significant increase in the incidence of myocardial infarctions was observed in patients on rofecoxib. Further data, from the APPROVe trial, showed a statistically significant relative risk of cardiovascular events of 1.97 versus placebo—which caused a worldwide withdrawal of rofecoxib in October 2004.
Use of methotrexate together with NSAIDS in rheumatoid arthritis is safe, if adequate monitoring is done. Cardiovascular  NSAIDs, aside from aspirin, increase the risk of myocardial infarction and stroke. This occurs at least within a week of use. They are not recommended in those who have had a previous heart attack as they increase the risk of death or recurrent MI. Evidence indicates that naproxen may be the least harmful out of these. NSAIDs aside from (low-dose) aspirin are associated with a doubled risk of heart failure in people without a history of cardiac disease. In people with such a history, use of NSAIDs (aside from low-dose aspirin) was associated with a more than 10-fold increase in heart failure.
If this link is proven causal, researchers estimate that NSAIDs would be responsible for up to 20 percent of hospital admissions for congestive heart failure. In people with heart failure, NSAIDs increase mortality risk (hazard ratio) by approximately 1.2–1.3 for naproxen and ibuprofen, 1.7 for rofecoxib and celecoxib, and 2.1 for diclofenac. On 9 July 2015, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) toughened warnings of increased heart attack and stroke risk associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) other than aspirin. Possible erectile dysfunction risk  A 2005 Finnish study linked long term (over 3 months) use of NSAIDs with an increased risk of erectile dysfunction.
The study was correlational only, and depended solely on self-reports (questionnaires). A 2011 publication in The Journal of Urology received widespread publicity. According to the study, men who used NSAIDs regularly were at significantly increased risk of erectile dysfunction. A link between NSAID use and erectile dysfunction still existed after controlling for several conditions. However, the study was observational and not controlled, with low original participation rate, potential participation bias, and other uncontrolled factors. The authors warned against drawing any conclusion regarding cause. Gastrointestinal  The main adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with NSAID use relate to direct and indirect irritation of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
NSAIDs cause a dual assault on the GI tract: the acidic molecules directly irritate the gastric mucosa, and inhibition of COX-1 and COX-2 reduces the levels of protective prostaglandins. Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis in the GI tract causes increased gastric acid secretion, diminished bicarbonate secretion, diminished mucus secretion and diminished trophic effects on the epithelial mucosa. Common gastrointestinal side effects include:  Nausea or vomiting  Indigestion  Gastric ulceration or bleeding  Diarrhea  Clinical NSAID ulcers are related to the systemic effects of NSAID administration. Such damage occurs irrespective of the route of administration of the NSAID (e.g., oral, rectal, or parenteral) and can occur even in people who have achlorhydria.
Ulceration risk increases with therapy duration, and with higher doses. To minimize GI side effects, it is prudent to use the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time—a practice that studies show is often not followed. Over 50% of patients who take NSAIDs have sustained some mucosal damage to their small intestine. The risk and rate of gastric adverse effects is different depending on the type of NSAID medication a person is taking. Indomethacin, ketoprofen, and piroxicam use appear to lead to the highest rate of gastric adverse effects, while ibuprofen (lower doses) and diclofenac appear to have lower rates.
Certain NSAIDs, such as aspirin, have been marketed in enteric-coated formulations that manufacturers claim reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal ADRs. Similarly, some believe that rectal formulations may reduce gastrointestinal ADRs. However, consistent with the systemic mechanism of such ADRs, and in clinical practice, these formulations have not demonstrated a reduced risk of GI ulceration. Numerous "gastro-protective" drugs have been developed with the goal of preventing gastrointestinal toxicity in people who need to take NSAIDS on a regular basis. Gastric adverse effects may be reduced by taking medications that suppress acid production such as proton pump inhibitors (e.g. : omeprazole and esomeprazole), or by treatment with a drug that mimics prostaglandin in order to restore the lining of the GI tract (e.g.
: a prostaglandin analog misoprostol). Diarrhea is a common side effect of misoprostol, however, higher doses of misoprostol have been shown to reduce the risk of a person having a complication related to a gastric ulcer while taking NSAIDS. While these techniques may be effective, they are expensive for maintenance therapy. Hydrogen sulfide NSAID hybrids prevent the gastric ulceration/bleeding associated with taking the NSAIDs alone. Hydrogen sulphide is known to have a protective effect on the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal system. Inflammatory bowel disease NSAIDs should be used with caution in individuals with inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis) due to their tendency to cause gastric bleeding and form ulceration in the gastric lining.
Renal NSAIDs are also associated with a fairly high incidence of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) on the kidney and over time can lead to chronic kidney disease. The mechanism of these kidney ADRs is due to changes in kidney blood flow. Prostaglandins normally dilate the afferent arterioles of the glomeruli. This helps maintain normal glomerular perfusion and glomerular filtration rate (GFR), an indicator of kidney function. This is particularly important in kidney failure where the kidney is trying to maintain renal perfusion pressure by elevated angiotensin II levels. At these elevated levels, angiotensin II also constricts the afferent arteriole into the glomerulus in addition to the efferent arteriole it normally constricts.
Since NSAIDs block this prostaglandin-mediated effect of afferent arteriole dilation, particularly in kidney failure, NSAIDs cause unopposed constriction of the afferent arteriole and decreased RPF (renal perfusion flow) and GFR. Common ADRs associated with altered kidney function include:  Sodium and fluid retention  Hypertension (high blood pressure)  These agents may also cause kidney impairment, especially in combination with other nephrotoxic agents. Kidney failure is especially a risk if the patient is also concomitantly taking an ACE inhibitor (which removes angiotensin II's vasoconstriction of the efferent arteriole) and a diuretic (which drops plasma volume, and thereby RPF)—the so-called "triple whammy" effect. In rarer instances NSAIDs may also cause more severe kidney conditions:  Interstitial nephritis  Nephrotic syndrome  Acute kidney injury  Acute tubular necrosis  Renal papillary necrosis  NSAIDs in combination with excessive use of phenacetin or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may lead to analgesic nephropathy.
Photosensitivity  Photosensitivity is a commonly overlooked adverse effect of many of the NSAIDs. The 2-arylpropionic acids are the most likely to produce photosensitivity reactions, but other NSAIDs have also been implicated including piroxicam, diclofenac, and benzydamine. Benoxaprofen, since withdrawn due to its liver toxicity, was the most photoactive NSAID observed. The mechanism of photosensitivity, responsible for the high photoactivity of the 2-arylpropionic acids, is the ready decarboxylation of the carboxylic acid moiety. The specific absorbance characteristics of the different chromophoric 2-aryl substituents, affects the decarboxylation mechanism. During pregnancy  NSAIDs are not recommended during pregnancy, particularly during the third trimester. While NSAIDs as a class are not direct teratogens, they may cause premature closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus and kidney ADRs in the fetus.
Additionally, they are linked with premature birth and miscarriage. Aspirin, however, is used together with heparin in pregnant women with antiphospholipid syndrome. Additionally, indomethacin is used in pregnancy to treat polyhydramnios by reducing fetal urine production via inhibiting fetal kidney blood flow. In contrast, paracetamol (acetaminophen) is regarded as being safe and well tolerated during pregnancy, but Leffers et al. released a study in 2010 indicating that there may be associated male infertility in the unborn. Doses should be taken as prescribed, due to risk of liver toxicity with overdoses. In France, the country's health agency contraindicates the use of NSAIDs, including aspirin, after the sixth month of pregnancy.
Allergy and allergy-like hypersensitivity reactions  A variety of allergic or allergic-like NSAID hypersensitivity reactions follow the ingestion of NSAIDs. These hypersensitivity reactions differ from the other adverse reactions listed here which are toxicity reactions, i.e. unwanted reactions that result from the pharmacological action of a drug, are dose-related, and can occur in any treated individual; hypersensitivity reactions are idiosyncratic reactions to a drug.
Some NSAID hypersensitivity reactions are truly allergic in origin: 1) repetitive IgE-mediated urticarial skin eruptions, angioedema, and anaphylaxis following immediately to hours after ingesting one structural type of NSAID but not after ingesting structurally unrelated NSAIDs; and 2) Comparatively mild to moderately severe T cell-mediated delayed onset (usually more than 24 hour), skin reactions such as maculopapular rash, fixed drug eruptions, photosensitivity reactions, delayed urticaria, and contact dermatitis; or 3) far more severe and potentially life-threatening t-cell-mediated delayed systemic reactions such as the DRESS syndrome, acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis, the Stevens–Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Other NSAID hypersensitivity reactions are allergy-like symptoms but do not involve true allergic mechanisms; rather, they appear due to the ability of NSAIDs to alter the metabolism of arachidonic acid in favor of forming metabolites that promote allergic symptoms.
Afflicted individuals may be abnormally sensitive to these provocative metabolites or overproduce them and typically are susceptible to a wide range of structurally dissimilar NSAIDs, particularly those that inhibit COX1. Symptoms, which develop immediately to hours after ingesting any of various NSAIDs that inhibit COX-1, are: 1) exacerbations of asthmatic and rhinitis (see aspirin-induced asthma) symptoms in individuals with a history of asthma or rhinitis and 2) exacerbation or first-time development of wheals or angioedema in individuals with or without a history of chronic urticarial lesions or angioedema. Other The use of NSAIDS for analgesia following gastrointestinal surgery remains controversial, given mixed evidence of an increased risk of leakage from any bowel anastomosis created.
This risk may vary according to the class of NSAID prescribed. Common adverse drug reactions (ADR), other than listed above, include: raised liver enzymes, headache, dizziness. Uncommon ADRs include an abnormally high level of potassium in the blood, confusion, spasm of the airways, and rash. Ibuprofen may also rarely cause irritable bowel syndrome symptoms. NSAIDs are also implicated in some cases of Stevens–Johnson syndrome. Most NSAIDs penetrate poorly into the central nervous system (CNS). However, the COX enzymes are expressed constitutively in some areas of the CNS, meaning that even limited penetration may cause adverse effects such as somnolence and dizziness.
NSAIDs may increase the risk of bleeding in patients with Dengue fever For this reason, NSAIDs are only available with a prescription in India. In very rare cases, ibuprofen can cause aseptic meningitis. As with other drugs, allergies to NSAIDs might exist. While many allergies are specific to one NSAID, up to 1 in 5 people may have unpredictable cross-reactive allergic responses to other NSAIDs as well. Drug interactions  NSAIDs reduce kidney blood flow and thereby decrease the efficacy of diuretics, and inhibit the elimination of lithium and methotrexate. NSAIDs cause decreased ability to form blood clots, which can increase the risk of bleeding when combined with other drugs that also decrease blood clotting, such as warfarin.
NSAIDs may aggravate hypertension (high blood pressure) and thereby antagonize the effect of antihypertensives, such as ACE inhibitors. NSAIDs may interfere and reduce efficiency of SSRI antidepressants. Various widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) enhance endocannabinoid signaling by blocking the anandamide-degrading membrane enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). Mechanism of action Most NSAIDs act as nonselective inhibitors of the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, inhibiting both the cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) isoenzymes. This inhibition is competitively reversible (albeit at varying degrees of reversibility), as opposed to the mechanism of aspirin, which is irreversible inhibition. COX catalyzes the formation of prostaglandins and thromboxane from arachidonic acid (itself derived from the cellular phospholipid bilayer by phospholipase A2).
Prostaglandins act (among other things) as messenger molecules in the process of inflammation. This mechanism of action was elucidated in 1970 by John Vane (1927–2004), who received a Nobel Prize for his work (see Mechanism of action of aspirin). COX-1 is a constitutively expressed enzyme with a "house-keeping" role in regulating many normal physiological processes. One of these is in the stomach lining, where prostaglandins serve a protective role, preventing the stomach mucosa from being eroded by its own acid. COX-2 is an enzyme facultatively expressed in inflammation, and it is inhibition of COX-2 that produces the desirable effects of NSAIDs.
When nonselective COX-1/COX-2 inhibitors (such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen) lower stomach prostaglandin levels, ulcers of the stomach or duodenum and internal bleeding can result. NSAIDs have been studied in various assays to understand how they affect each of these enzymes. While the assays reveal differences, unfortunately, different assays provide differing ratios. The discovery of COX-2 led to research to the development of selective COX-2 inhibiting drugs that do not cause gastric problems characteristic of older NSAIDs. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is not considered an NSAID because it has little anti-inflammatory activity. It treats pain mainly by blocking COX-2 mostly in the central nervous system, but not much in the rest of the body.
However, many aspects of the mechanism of action of NSAIDs remain unexplained, and for this reason, further COX pathways are hypothesized. The COX-3 pathway was believed to fill some of this gap but recent findings make it appear unlikely that it plays any significant role in humans and alternative explanation models are proposed. NSAIDs interact with the endocannabinoid system and its endocannabinoids, as COX2 have been shown to utilize endocannabinoids as substrates, and may have a key role in both the therapeutic effects and adverse effects of NSAIDs, as well as in NSAID-induced placebo responses. NSAIDs are also used in the acute pain caused by gout because they inhibit urate crystal phagocytosis besides inhibition of prostaglandin synthase.
Antipyretic activity  NSAIDS have antipyretic activity and can be used to treat fever. Fever is caused by elevated levels of prostaglandin E2, which alters the firing rate of neurons within the hypothalamus that control thermoregulation. Antipyretics work by inhibiting the enzyme COX, which causes the general inhibition of prostanoid biosynthesis (PGE2) within the hypothalamus. PGE2 signals to the hypothalamus to increase the body's thermal setpoint. Ibuprofen has been shown more effective as an antipyretic than paracetamol (acetaminophen). Arachidonic acid is the precursor substrate for cyclooxygenase leading to the production of prostaglandins F, D, and E.  Classification NSAIDs can be classified based on their chemical structure or mechanism of action.
Older NSAIDs were known long before their mechanism of action was elucidated and were for this reason classified by chemical structure or origin. Newer substances are more often classified by mechanism of action. Salicylates   Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)  Diflunisal (Dolobid)  Salicylic acid and its salts  Salsalate (Disalcid)  Propionic acid derivatives   Ibuprofen  Dexibuprofen  Naproxen  Fenoprofen  Ketoprofen  Dexketoprofen  Flurbiprofen  Oxaprozin  Loxoprofen  Acetic acid derivatives   Indomethacin  Tolmetin  Sulindac  Etodolac  Ketorolac  Diclofenac  Aceclofenac  Bromfenac  Nabumetone (drug itself is non-acidic but the active, principal metabolite has a carboxylic acid group)  Enolic acid (oxicam) derivatives   Piroxicam  Meloxicam  Tenoxicam  Droxicam  Lornoxicam  Isoxicam (withdrawn from market 1985)  Phenylbutazone (Bute)  Anthranilic acid derivatives (fenamates) The following NSAIDs are derived from fenamic acid.
which is a derivative of anthranilic acid, which in turn is a nitrogen isostere of salicylic acid, which is the active metabolite of aspirin. Mefenamic acid  Meclofenamic acid  Flufenamic acid  Tolfenamic acid  Selective COX-2 inhibitors (coxibs)   Celecoxib (FDA alert)  Rofecoxib (withdrawn from market)  Valdecoxib (withdrawn from market)  Parecoxib FDA withdrawn, licensed in the EU  Lumiracoxib TGA cancelled registration  Etoricoxib not FDA approved, licensed in the EU  Firocoxib used in dogs and horses  Sulfonanilides   Nimesulide (systemic preparations are banned by several countries for the potential risk of hepatotoxicity)  Others  Clonixin  Licofelone acts by inhibiting LOX (lipooxygenase) and COX and hence known as 5-LOX/COX inhibitor  H-harpagide in figwort or devil's claw  Chirality  Most NSAIDs are chiral molecules; diclofenac is a notable exception.
However, the majority are prepared as racemic mixtures. Typically, only a single enantiomer is pharmacologically active. For some drugs (typically profens), an isomerase enzyme in vivo converts the inactive enantiomer into the active form, although its activity varies widely in individuals. This phenomenon is likely responsible for the poor correlation between NSAID efficacy and plasma concentration observed in older studies when specific analysis of the active enantiomer was not performed. Ibuprofen and ketoprofen are now available in single-enantiomer preparations (dexibuprofen and dexketoprofen), which purport to offer quicker onset and an improved side-effect profile. Naproxen has always been marketed as the single active enantiomer.
Main practical differences NSAIDs within a group tend to have similar characteristics and tolerability. There is little difference in clinical efficacy among the NSAIDs when used at equivalent doses. Rather, differences among compounds usually relate to dosing regimens (related to the compound's elimination half-life), route of administration, and tolerability profile. Regarding adverse effects, selective COX-2 inhibitors have lower risk of gastrointestinal bleeding. With the exception of naproxen, nonselective NSAIDs increase the risk of having a heart attack. Some data also supports that the partially selective nabumetone is less likely to cause gastrointestinal events. A consumer report noted that ibuprofen, naproxen, and salsalate are less expensive than other NSAIDs, and essentially as effective and safe when used appropriately to treat osteoarthritis and pain.
Pharmacokinetics  Most nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are weak acids, with a pKa of 3–5. They are absorbed well from the stomach and intestinal mucosa. They are highly protein-bound in plasma (typically >95%), usually to albumin, so that their volume of distribution typically approximates to plasma volume. Most NSAIDs are metabolized in the liver by oxidation and conjugation to inactive metabolites that typically are excreted in the urine, though some drugs are partially excreted in bile. Metabolism may be abnormal in certain disease states, and accumulation may occur even with normal dosage. Ibuprofen and diclofenac have short half-lives (2–3 hours). Some NSAIDs (typically oxicams) have very long half-lives (e.g.
20–60 hours). History  From the era of Greek medicine to the mid-19th century, the discovery of medicinal agents was classed as an empirical art; folklore and mythological guidance were combined in deploying the vegetable and mineral products that made up the expansive pharmacopeia of the time. Myrtle leaves were in use by 1500 BCE. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE) first reported using willow bark and in 30 BCE Celsus described the signs of inflammation and also used willow bark to mitigate them. On 25 April 1763, Edward Stone wrote to the Royal Society describing his observations on the use of willow bark-based medicines in febrile patients.
The active ingredient of willow bark, a glycoside called salicin, was first isolated by Johann Andreas Buchner in 1827. By 1829, French chemist Henri Leroux had improved the extraction process to obtain about 30g of purified salicin from 1.5kg of bark. By hydrolysis, salicin releases glucose and salicyl alcohol which can be converted into salicylic acid, both in vivo and through chemical methods. The acid is more effective than salicin and, in addition to its fever-reducing properties, is anti-inflammatory and analgesic. In 1869, Hermann Kolbe synthesised salicylate, although it was too acidic for the gastric mucosa. The reaction used to synthesise aromatic acid from a phenol in the presence of CO2 is known as the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction.
By 1897 the German chemist Felix Hoffmann and the Bayer company prompted a new age of pharmacology by converting salicylic acid into acetylsalicylic acid—named aspirin by Heinrich Dreser. Other NSAIDs like ibuprofen were developed from the 1950s forward. In 2001, NSAIDs accounted for 70,000,000 prescriptions and 30billion over-the-counter doses sold annually in the United States. Research While studies have been conducted to see if various NSAIDs can improve behavior in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease and observational studies in humans have shown promise, there is no good evidence from randomized clinical trials that NSAIDs can treat or prevent Alzheimer's in humans; clinical trials of NSAIDs for treatment of Alzheimer's have found more harm than benefit.
NSAIDs coordinate with metal ions affecting cellular function. Veterinary use Research supports the use of NSAIDs for the control of pain associated with veterinary procedures such as dehorning and castration of calves. The best effect is obtained by combining a short-term local anesthetic such as lidocaine with an NSAID acting as a longer term analgesic. However, as different species have varying reactions to different medications in the NSAID family, little of the existing research data can be extrapolated to animal species other than those specifically studied, and the relevant government agency in one area sometimes prohibits uses approved in other jurisdictions.
For example, ketoprofen's effects have been studied in horses more than in ruminants but, due to controversy over its use in racehorses, veterinarians who treat livestock in the United States more commonly prescribe flunixin meglumine, which, while labeled for use in such animals, is not indicated for post-operative pain. In the United States, meloxicam is approved for use only in canines, whereas (due to concerns about liver damage) it carries warnings against its use in cats except for one-time use during surgery. In spite of these warnings, meloxicam is frequently prescribed "off-label" for non-canine animals including cats and livestock species.
In other countries, for example The European Union (EU), there is a label claim for use in cats. Also Carprofen. See also  Discovery and development of cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors  References  External links    Category:Hepatotoxins
From Russia with Love is a 1963 spy film and the second in the James Bond series produced by Eon Productions, as well as Sean Connery's second role as MI6 agent James Bond. It was directed by Terence Young, produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, and written by Richard Maibaum and Johanna Harwood, based on Ian Fleming's similarly named 1957 novel. In the film, Bond is sent to assist in the defection of Soviet consulate clerk Tatiana Romanova in Turkey, where SPECTRE plans to avenge Bond's killing of Dr. No. Following the success of Dr. No, United Artists greenlit a sequel and doubled the budget available for the producers.
In addition to filming on location in Turkey, the action scenes were shot at Pinewood Studios, Buckinghamshire, and in Scotland. Production ran over budget and schedule, and was rushed to finish by its scheduled October 1963 release date. From Russia with Love was a critical and commercial success. It took in more than $78 million in worldwide box-office receipts, far more than its $2 million budget and more than its predecessor Dr. No, thereby becoming a blockbuster in 1960s cinema. This film also marked the debut of Desmond Llewelyn as Q, a role he would play for 36 years (and seventeen films) until The World Is Not Enough in 1999.
Plot  Seeking revenge against MI6 Agent 007 James Bond for the death of their agent Dr. No in Jamaica, international criminal organisation SPECTRE begins training agents to kill him. Irish assassin Donald "Red" Grant proves himself by quickly killing a fake Bond with a garrote concealed in his wristwatch during training. SPECTRE's chief planner, Czech chess grandmaster Kronsteen (Number 5), devises a plan to play British and Soviet intelligence against each other to procure a Lektor cryptography device from the Soviets and lure Bond to his assassination. SPECTRE's chief executive (Number 1) puts Rosa Klebb (Number 3), a former SMERSH (Soviet counter-intelligence) colonel, in charge of the mission.
Klebb chooses Grant to protect Bond until he acquires the Lektor, then eliminate 007 and steal the machine for SPECTRE (to be eventually sold back to its legitimate owner). Klebb also recruits Tatiana Romanova, a cipher clerk at the Soviet consulate in Istanbul, who believes Klebb is still working for SMERSH. In London, M informs Bond that Romanova has contacted "Station T" in Turkey, offering to defect with a top-secret Lektor on the condition that Bond handle her case personally. M decides the chance of obtaining a Lektor is worth the risk, and Q gives Bond an attaché case with concealed throwing knife, gold sovereigns, a tear gas booby trap, and an ArmaLite AR-7 sniper rifle.
In Istanbul, Bond meets station head Ali Kerim Bey, tailed by Bulgarian agents working for Russia, who are, in turn, tailed by Grant; he kills one agent and dumps their car outside the Soviet Consulate. The Soviets bomb Kerim's office with a limpet mine in retaliation, but he is away from his desk with his mistress. He and Bond spy on a Soviet consulate meeting through a periscope in the aqueducts beneath Istanbul, and learn that Soviet agent Krilencu is responsible for the bombing. Kerim and Bond lay low at a rural gypsy settlement, where Krilencu attacks them with a band of Bulgarians; Bond is saved by a sniper shot from Grant.
Bond and Kerim track down Krilencu, and Kerim kills him with Bond's rifle. Bond finds Romanova in his hotel suite and they have sex, neither aware SPECTRE is filming them. Romanova brings the consulate floor plans to the Ayasofya Müzesi, formally the Hagia Sophia, and Grant kills the other Bulgarian to ensure Bond receives them. Using the plans, Bond and Kerim steal the Lektor and escape with Romanova aboard the Orient Express. Kerim and Bond subdue a Soviet security officer named Benz tailing them. Grant kills Kerim and Benz, preventing Bond from rendezvousing with one of Kerim's men. At the Belgrade station, Bond passes word of Kerim Bey's death to his son, and asks for an agent from Station Y to meet him at Zagreb.
Grant kills Nash, sent from Station Y, and poses as the agent. After drugging Romanova at dinner, Grant overpowers Bond, taunting him that Romanova believed she was working for Mother Russia, and reveals his plan to leave the compromising film of Bond and Romanova with a blackmail letter, staging their deaths as a murder-suicide to scandalise the British intelligence community. Bond tricks Grant into setting off the booby trap in his attaché case and stabs him with the concealed knife before strangling him with his own garrote, and flees with Romanova in Grant's getaway truck. Number 1 confronts Klebb and Kronsteen for their failure.
Kronsteen is executed by the henchman Morzeny's poison-tipped switchblade in his shoe, while Klebb is given one last chance to acquire the Lektor, which they have arranged to sell back to the Russians. Following Grant's escape route, Bond destroys a SPECTRE helicopter, and he and Romanova steal Grant's boat on the Dalmatian coast. Pursued by Morzeny's squadron of SPECTRE powerboats, Bond detonates his own powerboat's fuel drums with a flare gun, engulfing the pursuers in a sea of flames. He and Romanova reach a hotel in Venice, where they are attacked by Klebb, disguised as a maid. She tries to kick Bond with a poisoned switchblade shoe, but Romanova shoots her.
Their mission accomplished, Bond and Romanova depart on a romantic boat ride, and Bond throws Grant's blackmail film into the canal. Cast   Sean Connery as James Bond, MI6 agent 007. Pedro Armendáriz as Ali Kerim Bey, head of MI6 Station T in Istanbul. Lotte Lenya as Rosa Klebb (SPECTRE No. 3), a former SMERSH colonel-turned-SPECTRE operative. Robert Shaw as Donald "Red" Grant, a cunning SPECTRE assassin and one of the principal Bond enemies. Daniela Bianchi as Tatiana Romanova, a Soviet Consulate clerk and Bond's love interest. Fleming based Romanova on Christine Granville. Bianchi's dialogue was dubbed by an uncredited Barbara Jefford.
Bernard Lee as M, chief of British Intelligence. Walter Gotell as Morzeny, a SPECTRE thug who trains personnel on SPECTRE Island. Gotell would go on to play a different character, General Gogol, in later entries in the series. Vladek Sheybal as Kronsteen (SPECTRE No. 5), a Czechoslovak chess grandmaster and SPECTRE agent. Anthony Dawson as Ernst Stavro Blofeld (SPECTRE No. 1), the head and mastermind of SPECTRE and Bond's nemesis. Dawson previously played Professor Dent in Dr. No. He was credited pseudonymously as "?" for the role. Dawson's dialogue was dubbed by an uncredited Eric Pohlmann. Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny, M's secretary.
Desmond Llewelyn as Major Boothroyd, head of MI6 Q Branch, also called the "Equipment Officer"  Eunice Gayson as Sylvia Trench, Bond's semi-regular girlfriend. Gayson's dialogue was dubbed by an uncredited Nikki van der Zyl. Francis de Wolff as Vavra, chief of a Gypsy tribe used for dirty work by Kerim Bey. Fred Haggerty as Krilencu, a Bulgarian assassin who works as a killer for the Soviets in the Balkans. Aliza Gur and Martine Beswick as Vida (in green) and Zora (in red), respectively, two jealous Gypsy girls who are disputing the same man.
Cast notes: Additional cast members include Peter Bayliss as Russian agent Commissar Benz, Peter Madden as Canadian chessmaster MacAdams, George Pastell as the Orient Express train conductor, Nadja Regin as Kerim Bey's lonely girlfriend, Nusret Ataer as Mehmet, Kerim Bey's son and agent, Neville Jason as Kerim Bey's chauffeur, Michael Culver and Elizabeth Counsell as a couple in a punt, William Hill as Captain Nash, a British agent killed and impersonated by Red Grant, and Lisa Guiraut as a Gypsy belly dancer. Production Following the financial success of Dr. No, United Artists greenlit a second James Bond film. The studio doubled the budget offered to Eon Productions with $2 million, and also approved a bonus for Sean Connery, who would receive $100,000 along with his $54,000 salary.
As President John F. Kennedy had named Fleming's novel From Russia with Love among his ten favourite books of all time in Life magazine, producers Broccoli and Saltzman chose this as the follow-up to Bond's cinematic debut in Dr. No. From Russia with Love was the last film President Kennedy saw at the White House on 20 November 1963 before going to Dallas. Most of the crew from the first film returned, with major exceptions being production designer Ken Adam, who went to work on Dr. Strangelove and was replaced by Dr. Nos art director Syd Cain; title designer Maurice Binder was replaced by Robert Brownjohn, and stunt coordinator Bob Simmons was unavailable and was replaced by Peter Perkins though Simmons performed stunts in the film.
John Barry replaced Monty Norman as composer of the soundtrack. The film introduced several conventions which would become essential elements of the series: a pre-title sequence, the Blofeld character (referred to in the film only as "Number 1") (though Blofeld is mentioned in the end credits, with the actor referred to only as "? "), a secret-weapon gadget for Bond, a helicopter sequence (repeated in every subsequent Bond film except The Man with the Golden Gun), a postscript action scene after the main climax, a theme song with lyrics, and the line "James Bond will return/be back" in the credits.
Writing Ian Fleming's novel was a Cold War thriller but the producers replaced the Soviet undercover agency SMERSH with the crime syndicate SPECTRE so as to avoid controversial political overtones. The SPECTRE training grounds were inspired by the film Spartacus. The original screenwriter was Len Deighton, who accompanied Harry Saltzman, Syd Cain, and Terence Young to Istanbul but he was replaced because of a lack of progress. Thus, two of Dr. Nos writers, Johanna Harwood and Richard Maibaum, returned for the second film in the series. Some sources state Harwood was credited for the "adaptation" mostly for her suggestions which were carried over into Maibaum's script.
Harwood stated in an interview for Cinema Retro that she had been a screenwriter of several of Harry Saltzman's projects, and her screenplay for From Russia with Love had followed Fleming's novel closely, but she left the series due to what she called Terence Young's constant rewriting of her screenplay with ideas that were not in the original Fleming work. Maibaum kept on making rewrites as filming progressed. Red Grant was added to the Istanbul scenes just prior to the film crew's trip to Turkey; this brought more focus to the SPECTRE plot, as Grant started saving Bond's life there (a late change during shooting involved Grant killing the bespectacled spy at Hagia Sophia instead of Bond, who ends up just finding the man dead).
For the last quarter of the movie, Maibaum added two chase scenes, with a helicopter and speedboats, and changed the location of Bond and Klebb's battle from Paris to Venice. Uncredited rewrites were contributed by Berkely Mather. Casting Although uncredited, the actor who played Number 1 was Anthony Dawson, who had played Professor Dent in the previous Bond film, Dr. No, and appeared in several of Terence Young's films. In the end credits, Blofeld is credited with a question mark. Blofeld's lines were redubbed by Viennese actor Eric Pohlmann in the final cut. Peter Burton was unavailable to return as Major Boothroyd, so Desmond Llewelyn, a Welsh actor who was a fan of the Bond comic strip published in the Daily Express, accepted the part.
However, screen credit for Llewelyn was omitted at the opening of the film and is reserved for the exit credits, where he is credited simply as "Boothroyd". Llewelyn's character is not referred to by this name in dialogue, but M does introduce him as being from Q Branch. Llewelyn remained as the character, better known as Q, in all but one of the series' films until his death in 1999. Several actresses were considered for the role of Tatiana, including Italians Sylva Koscina and Virna Lisi, Danish actress Annette Vadim, and English-born Tania Mallet. 1960 Miss Universe runner-up Daniela Bianchi was ultimately cast, supposedly Sean Connery's choice.
Bianchi started taking English classes for the role, but the producers ultimately chose to have her lines redubbed by British stage actress Barbara Jefford in the final cut. The scene in which Bond finds Tatiana in his hotel bed was used for Bianchi's screen test, with Dawson standing in, this time, as Bond. The scene later became the traditional screen test scene for prospective James Bond actors and Bond Girls. In her initial scene with Klebb, Tatiana refers to training for the ballet, referencing the actress's real life background. Greek actress Katina Paxinou was originally considered for the role of Rosa Klebb, but was unavailable.
Terence Young cast Austrian singer Lotte Lenya after hearing one of her musical recordings. Young wanted Kronsteen's portrayer to be "an actor with a remarkable face", so the minor character would be well remembered by audiences. This led to the casting of Vladek Sheybal, whom Young also considered convincing as an intellectual. Several women were tested for the roles of Vida and Zora, the two fighting Gypsy girls, and after Aliza Gur and Martine Beswick were cast, they spent six weeks practising their fight choreography with stunt work arranger Peter Perkins. Beswick was mis-credited as 'Martin Beswick' in the film's opening titles, but this error was fixed for the 2001 DVD release.
Mexican actor Pedro Armendáriz was recommended to Young by director John Ford to play Kerim Bey. After experiencing increasing discomfort on location in Istanbul, Armendáriz was diagnosed with inoperable cancer. Filming in Istanbul was terminated, the production moved to Britain, and Armendáriz's scenes were brought forward so that he could complete his scenes without delay. Though visibly in pain, he continued working as long as possible. When he could no longer work, he returned home and took his own life. Remaining shots after Armendáriz left London had a stunt double and Terence Young himself as stand-ins. Englishman Joe Robinson was a strong contender for the role of Red Grant but it was given to Robert Shaw.
Filming  Most of the film was set in Istanbul, Turkey. Locations included the Basilica Cistern, Hagia Sophia and the Sirkeci railway station, which also was used for the Belgrade and Zagreb railway stations. The MI6 office in London, SPECTRE Island, the Venice hotel and the interior scenes of the Orient Express were filmed at Pinewood Studios with some footage of the train. In the film, the train journey was set in Eastern Europe. The journey and the truck ride were shot in Argyll, Scotland and Switzerland. The end scenes for the film were shot in Venice. However, to qualify for the British film funding of the time, at least 70 percent of the film had to have been filmed in Great Britain or the Commonwealth.
The Gypsy camp was also to be filmed in an actual camp in Topkapi, but was actually shot in a replica of it in Pinewood. The scene with rats (after the theft of the Lektor) was shot in Spain, as Britain did not allow filming with wild rats, and an attempt to film white rats painted in cocoa in Turkey did not work. Principal photography began on 1 April 1963, and wrapped on 23 August. Ian Fleming spent a week in the Istanbul shoot, supervising production and touring the city with the producers. Director Terence Young's eye for realism was evident throughout production.
For the opening chess match, Kronsteen wins the game with a reenactment of Boris Spassky's victory over David Bronstein in 1960. Production Designer Syd Cain built up the "chess pawn" motif in his $150,000 set for the brief sequence. Cain also later added a promotion to another movie Eon was producing, making Krilencu's death happen inside a billboard for Call Me Bwana. A noteworthy gadget featured was the attaché case (briefcase) issued by Q Branch. It had a tear gas bomb that detonated if the case was improperly opened, a folding AR-7 sniper rifle with twenty rounds of ammunition, a throwing knife, and 50 gold sovereigns.
A boxer at Cambridge, Young choreographed the fight between Grant and Bond along with stunt coordinator Peter Perkins. The scene took three weeks to film and was violent enough to worry some on the production. Robert Shaw and Connery did most of the stunts themselves. After the unexpected loss of Armendáriz, production proceeded, experiencing complications from uncredited rewrites by Berkely Mather during filming. Editor Peter Hunt set about editing the film while key elements were still to be filmed, helping to restructure the opening scenes. Hunt and Young came up with the idea of moving the Red Grant training sequence to the beginning of the film (prior to the main title), a signature feature that has been an enduring hallmark of every Bond film since.
The briefing with Blofeld was rewritten, and back projection was used to refilm Lotte Lenya's lines. Behind schedule and over-budget, the production crew struggled to complete production in time for the already-announced premiere date that October. On 6 July 1963, while scouting locations in Argyll, Scotland, for that day's filming of the climactic boat chase, Terence Young's helicopter crashed into the water with art director Michael White and a cameraman aboard. The craft sank into 40–50 feet (12–15 m) of water, but all escaped with minor injuries. Despite the calamity, Young was behind the camera for the full day's work.
A few days later, Bianchi's driver fell asleep during the commute to a 6 am shoot and crashed the car. The actress's face was bruised and Bianchi's scenes had to be delayed for two weeks while the facial contusions healed. The helicopter and boat chase scenes were not in the original novel but were added to create an action climax. The former was inspired by the crop-dusting scene in Alfred Hitchcock's North by Northwest and the latter by a previous Young/Broccoli/Maibaum collaboration, The Red Beret. These two scenes would initially be shot in Istanbul but were moved to Scotland. The speedboats could not go fast enough due to the many waves in the sea, and a rented boat filled with cameras ended up sinking in the Bosphorus.
A helicopter was also hard to obtain, and the special effects crew were nearly arrested trying to get one at a local airbase. The helicopter chase was filmed with a radio controlled miniature helicopter. The sounds of the boat chase were replaced in post-production since the boats were not loud enough, and the explosion, shot in Pinewood, got out of control, burning Walter Gotell's eyelids and seriously injuring three stuntmen. Photographer David Hurn was commissioned by the producers of the James Bond films to shoot a series of stills with Sean Connery and the actresses of the film. When the theatrical property Walther PPK pistol did not arrive, Hurn volunteered the use of his own Walther LP-53 air pistol.
Though the photographs of the "James Bond is Back" posters of the US release airbrushed out the long barrel of the pistol, film poster artist Renato Fratini used the long-barrelled pistol for his drawings of Connery on the British posters. For the opening credits, Maurice Binder had disagreements with the producers and did not want to return. Designer Robert Brownjohn stepped into his place, and projected the credits on female dancers, inspired by constructivist artist László Moholy-Nagy projecting light onto clouds in the 1920s. Brownjohn's work started the tradition of scantily clad women in the Bond films' title sequences. Music  From Russia with Love is the first Bond film in the series with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer.
The theme song was composed by Lionel Bart of Oliver! fame and sung by Matt Monro, although the title credit music is a lively instrumental version of the tune beginning with Barry's brief "James Bond Is Back" then segueing into Monty Norman's "James Bond Theme". Monro's vocal version is later played during the film (as source music on a radio) and properly over the film's end titles. Barry travelled with the crew to Turkey to try getting influences of the local music, but ended up using almost nothing, just local instruments such as finger cymbals to give an exotic feeling, since he thought the Turkish music had a comedic tone that did not fit in the "dramatic feeling" of the James Bond movies.
Recalling his visit to Istanbul, John Barry said, "It was like no place I'd ever been in my life. [The Trip] was supposedly to seep up the music, so Noel Rogers and I used to go 'round to these nightclubs and listen to all this stuff. We had the strangest week, and really came away with nothing, except a lot of ridiculous stories. We went back, talked to Lionel, and then he wrote 'From Russia with Love.''' In this film, Barry introduced the percussive theme "007"—action music that came to be considered the "secondary James Bond theme". He composed it to have a lighter, enthusiastic and more adventurous theme to relax the audience.
The arrangement appears twice on the soundtrack album; the second version, entitled "007 Takes the Lektor", is the one used during the gunfight at the Gypsy camp and also during Bond's theft of the Lektor decoding machine. The completed film features a holdover from the Monty Norman-supervised Dr. No music; the post-rocket-launch music from Dr. No is played in From Russia with Love during the helicopter and speedboat attacks. Release and reception From Russia with Love premiered on 10 October 1963 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. Ian Fleming, Sean Connery and Walter Gotell attended the premiere. The following year, it was released in 16 countries worldwide, with the United States premiere on 8 April 1964, at New York's Astor Theatre.
Upon its first release, From Russia with Love doubled Dr. Nos gross by earning $12.5 million ($ million in  dollars) at the worldwide box office. After reissue it grossed $78 million, of which $24 million was from North America. It was the most popular movie at the British box office in 1963. The film's cinematographer Ted Moore won the BAFTA award and the British Society of Cinematographers award for Best Cinematography. At the 1965 Laurel Awards, Lotte Lenya stood third for Best Female Supporting Performance, and the film secured second place in the Action-Drama category. The film was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for "From Russia with Love".
Contemporary reviews In comparing the film to its predecessor, Dr. No, Richard Roud, writing in The Guardian, said that From Russia with Love "didn't seem quite so lively, quite so fresh, or quite so rhythmically fast-moving." He went on to say that "... the film is highly immoral in every imaginable way; it is neither uplifting, instructive nor life-enhancing. Neither is it great film-making. But it sure is fun." Writing in The Observer, Penelope Gilliatt noted that "The way the credits are done has the same self-mocking flamboyance as everything else in the picture." Gilliatt went on to say that the film manages "to keep up its own cracking pace, nearly all the way.
The set-pieces are a stunning box of tricks". The critic for The Times wrote of Bond that he is "the secret ideal of the congenital square, conventional in every particular ... except in morality, where he has the courage—and the physical equipment—to do without thinking what most of us feel we might be doing ..." The critic thought that overall, "the nonsense is all very amiable and tongue-in-cheek and will no doubt make a fortune for its devisers". Bosley Crowther of The New York Times said: "Don't miss it! This is to say, don't miss it if you can still get the least bit of fun out of lurid adventure fiction and pseudo-realistic fantasy.
For this mad melodramatization of a desperate adventure of Bond with sinister characters in Istanbul and on the Orient Express is fictional exaggeration on a grand scale and in a dashing style, thoroughly illogical and improbable, but with tongue blithely wedged in cheek." Time magazine called the film "fast, smart, shrewdly directed and capably performed" and commented extensively on the film's humour, saying "Director Young is a master of the form he ridicules, and in almost every episode he hands the audience shocks as well as yocks. But the yocks are more memorable. They result from slight but sly infractions of the thriller formula.
A Russian agent, for instance, does not simply escape through a window; no, he escapes through a window in a brick wall painted with a colossal poster portrait of Anita Ekberg, and as he crawls out of the window, he seems to be crawling out of Anita's mouth. Or again, Bond does not simply train a telescope on the Russian consulate and hope he can read somebody's lips; no, he makes his way laboriously into a gallery beneath the joint, runs a submarine periscope up through the walls, and there, at close range, inspects two important Soviet secrets: the heroine's legs."
Later reviews  From Russia with Love received generally positive reviews from critics; Rotten Tomatoes sampled 57 reviewers and judged 95% of the reviews to be positive with a rating of 8/10. Its summary states: "The second James Bond film, From Russia with Love, is a razor-sharp, briskly-paced Cold War thriller that features several electrifying action scenes." Many online sites also commonly cite From Russia with Love as the best Bond film of all time. In his 1986 book, Danny Peary described From Russia with Love as "an excellent, surprisingly tough and gritty James Bond film" which is "refreshingly free of the gimmickry that would characterise the later Bond films, and Connery and Bianchi play real people.
We worry about them and hope their relationship will work out ... Shaw and Lotte Lenya are splendid villains. Both have exciting, well-choreographed fights with Connery. Actors play it straight, with excellent results." Film critic James Berardinelli cited this as his favourite Bond film, writing "Only From Russia with Love avoids slipping into the comic book realm of Goldfinger and its successors while giving us a sampling of the familiar Bond formula (action, gadgets, women, cars, etc.). From Russia with Love is effectively paced and plotted, features a gallery of detestable rogues (including the ultimate Bond villain, Blofeld), and offers countless thrills".
In June 2001 Neil Smith of BBC Films called it "a film that only gets better with age". In 2004, Total Film magazine named it the ninth-greatest British film of all time, making it the only James Bond film to appear on the list. In 2006, Jay Antani of Filmcritic praised the film's "impressive staging of action scenes", while IGN listed it as second-best Bond film ever, behind only Goldfinger. That same year, Entertainment Weekly put the film at ninth among Bond films, criticising the slow pace. When the "James Bond Ultimate Collector's Set" was released in November 2007 by MGM, Norman Wilner of MSN chose From Russia with Love as the best Bond film.
Conversely, in his book about the Bond phenomenon, The Man With the Golden Touch, British author Sinclair McKay states "I know it is heresy to say so, and that some enthusiasts regard From Russia With Love as the Holy Grail of Bond, but let's be searingly honest – some of it is crashingly dull." In 2014 Time Out polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films; From Russia With Love was listed at 69. The British Film Institute's screenonline guide called the film "one of the series' high points" and said it "had advantages not enjoyed by many later Bond films, notably an intelligent script that retained the substance of Ian Fleming's novel while toning down the overt Cold War politics (the Cuban Missile Crisis had only occurred the previous year)."
In 2008, Michael G. Wilson, the current co-producer of the series, stated "We always start out trying to make another From Russia with Love and end up with another Thunderball." Sean Connery, Michael G. Wilson, Barbara Broccoli, Timothy Dalton and Daniel Craig also consider this their favourite Bond film. Albert Broccoli listed it with Goldfinger and The Spy Who Loved Me as one of his top three favourites, explaining that he felt "it was with this film that the Bond style and formula were perfected". Video game adaptation  In 2005, the From Russia with Love video game was developed by Electronic Arts and released on 1 November 2005 in North America.
It follows the storyline of the book and film, albeit adding in new scenes, making it more action-oriented. One of the most significant changes to the story is the replacement of the organisation SPECTRE to OCTOPUS because the name SPECTRE constituted a long-running legal dispute over the film rights to Thunderball between United Artists/MGM and writer Kevin McClory. Most of the cast from the film returned in likeness. Connery not only allowed his 1960s likeness as Bond to be used, but the actor, in his 70s, also recorded the character's dialogue, marking a return to the role 22 years after he last played Bond in Never Say Never Again.
Featuring a third-person multiplayer deathmatch mode, the game depicts several elements of later Bond films, such as the Aston Martin DB5 from Goldfinger (1964) and the rocket belt from Thunderball (1965). The game was penned by Bruce Feirstein, who had previously worked on the film scripts for GoldenEye, Tomorrow Never Dies, The World Is Not Enough, and the 2004 video game, Everything or Nothing. Its soundtrack was composed by Christopher Lennertz and Vic Flick. See also   Outline of James Bond  References Informational notes  Citations  Bibliography      Further reading    Tibbetts, John C., and James M. Welsh, eds. The Encyclopedia of Novels Into Film (2nd ed.
2005) pp 146–147.
External links   From Russia With Love at BFI Screenonline              From Russia With Love from MGM  Category:1960s action films Category:1960s spy films Category:1960s thriller films Category:1960s sequel films Category:1963 films Category:American films Category:American sequel films Category:American spy films Category:British films Category:British sequel films Category:British spy films Category:Cold War espionage Category:Cold War spy films Category:Defection in fiction Category:English-language films Category:Films adapted into video games Category:Films scored by John Barry (composer) Category:Films directed by Terence Young Category:Films set in Istanbul Category:Films set in London Category:Films shot in Scotland Category:Films set on trains Category:Films set in Venice Category:Films set in Yugoslavia Category:Films set on the Orient Express Category:Films shot in Argyll and Bute Category:Films shot in Berkshire Category:Films shot in Buckinghamshire Category:Films shot in Gwynedd Category:Films shot in Istanbul Category:Films shot in Madrid Category:Foreign films shot in Switzerland Category:Films shot in Venice Category:Films shot in Wales   Category:James Bond films Category:Films shot at Pinewood Studios Category:Rail transport films Category:Films about Romani people Category:United Artists films Category:Films with screenplays by Johanna Harwood Category:Films with screenplays by Richard Maibaum Category:Films with screenplays by Berkely Mather Category:Films produced by Harry Saltzman Category:Films produced by Albert R. Broccoli Category:Films set in Zagreb Category:Films set in Belgrade Category:Eon Productions films
TSG 1881 Sprockhövel is a German association football club based in Sprockhövel, North Rhine-Westphalia. With over 2,500 members, TSG is the largest sport club in the town and includes departments for athletics, badminton, basketball, budō, dance, gymnastics, handball, swimming, table tennis, tennis, triathlon, volleyball, and various fitness activities. History The roots of the club go back to the establishment in 1881 of Turngemeinde Sprockhövel which later became Turnverein Sprockhövel. In 1938, TV merged with Sportverein Sprockhövel, which was formed in 1907 and renamed Athene Sprockhövel in 1909, to create the current day club. Between 1922 and 1927 the team played in the highest level regional league where it faced sides such Schalke 04, MSV Duisburg, and Borussia Dortmund.
TSG spent several decades in lower tier local play until a series of promotions; first to the Landesliga (VI) in 1996, the Verbandsliga Westfalen Südwest (V) in 1997, and to the Oberliga Westfalen (IV) for the first time in 2000. Since then the club has played as an elevator side, moving up and down frequently between fourth- and fifth-tier play, and last won promotion to the Oberliga Westfalen (V) again in 2012. A third-place finish in the Oberliga in 2015–16 earned the club direct promotion to the Regionalliga West after runners-up SpVgg Erkenschwick declined, but they were relegated back to the Oberliga after just one season.
Honours The club's honours:  Verbandsliga Westfalen – Group 2 (V)  Champions: 2000, 2002, 2007, 2009  Stadium Sprockhövel plays its home matches at Im Baumhof which was opened in 1936 and has a capacity of 3,500. External links  Official website   Fan site  Category:Football clubs in Germany Category:Football clubs in North Rhine-Westphalia Category:Association football clubs established in 1881 Category:1881 establishments in Germany Category:Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis
Terence Wheelock, a 20-year-old young man from Summerhill in the North Inner City of Dublin, died on 16 September 2005, from alleged injuries received in Garda custody. Terence was arrested with three others on suspicion of stealing a car and taken to Store St Garda station. Two hours later he was found unconscious in his cell. On 13 May 2007, a jury at the coroner's court returned a verdict of death by suicide. Circumstances leading up to his death  Garda Tadhg O’Leary, from Fitzgibbon Street Garda station, said Gardaí received a phone call from a woman on that day to report a car being brought into a back yard at Sean O’Casey Avenue and being covered with a sheet.
Garda O’Leary had a check run on the black Toyota Yaris, and the owner in Donnybrook confirmed it had been stolen. He later spotted four young men in the car. “Terrence Wheelock, who was known to me, jumped from the passenger seat,” he said. “All four youths ran from the car into the back door of the house.”  Gardaí confirmed all four were surrounded in the square at the front of the house by officers and gave themselves up shortly after midday. The inquest heard Wheelock and another man were brought to Store Street Garda station. At that point, Garda O’Leary said he discovered two bench warrants were in existence for Wheelock and he would have to be held to appear before the District Court.
“At the time of the arrest of the youths they were caught red-handed”, he said. Terence Wheelock died in hospital on 16 December 2005 after he was found unconscious in a cell in Store Street Garda Station two weeks earlier. An inquiry by the Garda Ombudsman into Wheelock's death found he was not mistreated in any way in Store Street Garda Station. The Ombudsman's Report also found that an allegation that he was sexually assaulted was wholly without foundation and that there was insufficient evidence to support an allegation of assault. While no individual garda was found to be culpable in relation to Wheelock's death, the report identified a number of system failures including the failure to remove the cord from his tracksuit and to properly record details in custody.
Death  Garda View  The Garda Síochána stated that Terence committed suicide while in his cell, hanging himself with a ligature which "was secured to a fixture which is countersunk into the wall". Kieran Bisset, a member of Dublin Fire Brigade who provide ambulance cover in the Dublin area, said a number of Gardaí were performing CPR on the unconscious man when the Fire Brigade were called after 2.30pm. “There was an obvious ligature mark around the front of his neck,” he said, adding it was deep and previous experience would indicate it was from a cord or a shoelace. The Gardaí stated that on observing Terrence in the cell they took him into the open cell area where CPR was performed  Family View  Wheelock's family contested the idea that Terence had hanged himself.
According to his brother Larry, "Terence was a healthy, happy-go-lucky young man with no history of self-harm and for him to have committed suicide would have been entirely out of character." His family believe that Wheelock died as a result of injuries received from the gardaí while in custody. According to Larry Wheelock, Terrances' brother, Terrence was in fact a victim of police brutality and high-ranking members of the force have actively attempted to cover up what really happened. Inconsistencies and Matters Arising  The Dublin City Coroner's Court earlier heard that bruising on Mr Wheelock were consistent with medical intervention.
Dr Maureen Smith from the Forensic Science Laboratory told the court she was unable to generate a DNA profile from the tissue sample she was given from the post mortem. Using blood samples, she determined that blood found on Mr Wheelock's T-shirt was not his blood, but most likely that of a close relative, a matter she said that merited further investigation. As per normal procedure Terence should have been checked in his cell on a regular basis. According to the station records ten minutes before he was found unconscious he was inspected and it was believed that he was asleep.
Ten minutes later Gardaí state they found him hanging from a light fixture. The ambulance was called approximately 5 minutes after Terence was found in his cell. The delay was blamed on Gardaí trying to perform CPR and first aid prior to contacting Dublin Fire Brigade. Gardaí admitted that this was an error on their part. The Wheelock family claim that Gardaí called to the Wheelock house, informed Terence’s mother Esther that her son had hanged himself, and told her that he was in St. James’s Hospital on the south side of Dublin. These Gardaí then drove her to St. James’s.
They claimed not to know the way to get there and Esther says she had to direct them. Terence had in fact been brought to the Mater Hospital on the north side of Dublin and much nearer to the Wheelock family home and Store Street Garda station. By the time his family became aware of this and went to the Mater Hospital his clothing had been taken away by Gardaí. Terence was in a coma. Gardaí from Store Street Garda station had no input into what hospital be used nor would their work include detailed knowledge of the southside. The Garda press statement mentioned that there was no evidence of any bruising on Terence’s body.
This was contradicted by his family who saw him in the hospital, and also by photographs taken in hospital. These photographs were all later explained as medical intervention which took place in hospital and after he was removed from Garda custody. When the family managed to get hold of the custody records the names of the arresting Gardaí had been altered to show another name which Gardaí explained was due to an error in recording the incorrect name. Gardaí also stated that this amendment was made at the time of arrival and not later. The Wheelock family had to make many attempts to recover Terence’s clothes for independent forensic examination.
These attempts were continually rebuffed by the Dept of Justice. When the family finally received the clothes worn by Terence, they claim they clothing was found to be heavily bloodstained. However, medical evidence shows that the blood was not Terrences and therefore could not have been present at the time of Terrence being taken to hospital. How blood from a family relative came to be on the clothes after they were released has never been explained by the family. The Garda Commissioner appointed Detective Superintendent Oliver Hanley from Dun Laoghaire Garda Station to look into the events around Terence’s death.
Hanley served in Store Street station for over fifteen years. Therefore, it has been questioned whether he could be said to be truly independent. Alleged Garda intimidation  According to the family, they were also subject to intimidation and even attacks from the Gardaí because of their campaign for an investigation. On the May 17, 2006, Larry, Terence's brother was distributing leaflets about their family's campaign. According to him, "he was approached by a guard who tore up the leaflets and then tried to arrest him. The Wheelock family also claim harassment however Garda sources state that the reason for extra Gardaí in the area was to combat ongoing anti-social behaviour in the area."
On July 3, 2006, The Wheelock family moved from their home in Summerhill where they had lived for over twenty years. Larry Junior said "we couldn't stick it anymore, the Garda harassing us, it was getting worse and worse. Day after day they were using horses and dogs, and shining lights into the house, laughing and joking at all hours. They looked a sad lot. It was very upsetting for my mother and father. So that is why we decided to move. Hopefully they won't have another excuse at our new home." No evidence was brought forward supporting these allegations nor were any complaints made to the Garda Ombudsman.
Demonstrations  There were protests in favour of an independent inquiry on the death of Terence Wheelock. They took place in many locations including Store Street Garda Station, Dáil Éireann, The Minister for Justice's office and Bertie Ahern's constituency office. Investigation   In July 2007, the Garda Síochána Ombudsman Commission announced that it would carry out an investigation into the case. Terence's brother, Larry Wheelock told journalists that an official from the Ombudsman's office had contacted the family to inform them it was to launch an inquiry for various reasons. Among these, he said, were that it is in the public interest to investigate the circumstances surrounding the death; the close nature of the verdict (a four-to-three majority), and the injuries on Terence's body.
The GSOC report, which was published in March 2010, found that there was no credible evidence that Mr Wheelock had been mistreated. References   Category:1985 births Category:2005 deaths Category:People from Dublin (city)
Z-fighting, also called stitching, is a phenomenon in 3D rendering that occurs when two or more primitives have very similar distances to the camera. This would cause them to have near-similar or identical values in the z-buffer, which keeps track of depth. This then means that when a specific pixel is being rendered, it is nearly random which one of the two primitives gets drawn in that pixel because the z-buffer cannot distinguish precisely which one is farther from the other. Traditionally, the farther pixel would be discarded. It is particularly prevalent with coplanar polygons, where two faces occupy essentially the same space, with neither in front.
Affected pixels are rendered with fragments from one polygon or the other arbitrarily, in a manner determined by the precision of the z-buffer. It can also vary as the scene or camera is changed, causing one polygon to "win" the z test, then another, and so on. The overall effect is a flickering, noisy rasterization of two polygons which "fight" to color the screen pixels. This problem is usually caused by limited sub-pixel precision and floating point and fixed point round-off errors. The more z-buffer precision one uses, the less likely it is that z-fighting will be encountered. But for coplanar polygons, the problem is inevitable unless corrective action is taken.
As the distance between near and far clip planes increases and in particular the near plane is selected near the eye, the greater the likelihood exists that z-fighting between primitives will occur. With large virtual environments inevitably there is an inherent conflict between the need to resolve visibility in the distance and in the foreground, so for example in a space flight simulator if you draw a distant galaxy to scale, you will not have the precision to resolve visibility on any cockpit geometry in the foreground (although even a numerical representation would present problems prior to z-buffered rendering). To mitigate these problems, z-buffer precision is weighted towards the near clip plane, but this is not the case with all visibility schemes and it is insufficient to eliminate all z-fighting issues.
Mitigation   Z-fighting can be reduced through the use of a higher resolution depth buffer, by z-buffering in some scenarios, or by simply moving the polygons further apart. Z-fighting, which cannot be entirely eliminated, in this manner is often resolved by the use of a stencil buffer, or by applying a post transformation screen space z-buffer offset to one polygon which does not affect the projected shape on screen, but does affect the z-buffer value to eliminate the overlap during pixel interpolation and comparison. Where z-fighting is caused by different transformation paths in hardware for the same geometry (for example in a multi-pass rendering scheme) it can sometimes be resolved by requesting that the hardware use invariant vertex transformation.
Z-fighting that is caused by insufficient precision in the depth buffer can be resolved by simply reducing the visible distance in the world. This reduces the distance between the near and far planes, and solves the precision issue. However, in certain virtual environments, such as a space simulator, or a flight simulator, this is not possible. Alternative techniques exist in these cases. One of these techniques is to "simulate" the distance of objects far from the user without actually changing their position. For example, if the maximum safe view distance (beyond which z-fighting occurs) is 10,000 units, and an object to be rendered is 15,000 units away, that object could instead be rendered at 10,000 units but it could be scaled down in proportion to the distance that it was moved.
So, an object that has been scaled down by half will look like it is twice as far as it actually is. If this is done only for objects that are already close to, or at, the maximum view distance, and objects close to the user are rendered normally, this technique should not be noticeable. Another technique that is utilized to reduce or completely eliminate Z-fighting is switching to a logarithmic Z-buffer, reversing Z. This technique is seen in the game Grand Theft Auto V. Due to the way they are encoded, floating point numbers have much more precision when closer to 0.
Here, reversing Z leads to more precision when storing the depth of very distant objects, hence greatly reducing Z-fighting. References   Category:3D graphic artifacts Category:3D rendering
Carol Ann Yager (January 26, 1960 – July 18, 1994) was an American woman who was the heaviest woman ever recorded and one of the most severely obese people in history. Weight Yager lost the most weight by non-surgical means in the shortest documented time:  in three months. When Yager died in 1994 at the age of 34, she weighed about , and was  in height. Bizarre magazine reported that she was estimated to have been more than  wide, although this measurement has not been verified by Yager's medical team or family members. Shortly before her death, however, she was able to fit through her custom-built  wide front door.
Published reports quoted her then-boyfriend as stating that he estimated her peak weight at about . When questioned about this estimate, Yager's doctor declined comment. Early life Yager stated that she had developed an eating disorder as a child in response to being sexually abused by a "close family member," although in later interviews, she indicated that there were other contributing factors to her severe obesity. At the same time, however, she denied eating anything more than normal quantities of food. She lived throughout most of her life in Beecher, Michigan, in Mount Morris Township, near Flint, Michigan, and was cared for in her final years by health care professionals, friends, her daughter Heather and son Stephen Bishop, and other family members, many of whom visited daily.
Eventually, she was moved into a nursing home. She appeared on The Jerry Springer Show, and was the subject of attention from several dieting gurus. Health problems In January 1993, she was admitted to Hurley Medical Center, weighing-in at . She suffered from cellulitis due to a bacterial infection, and immunodeficiency. She stayed in the hospital for three months, where she was restricted to a 1200 calorie diet, and while there lost , though most of this was believed to have been fluid. (Severely obese people often suffer from edema, and their weight can fluctuate rapidly as fluid is taken up or released.)
Yager suffered from many other obesity-related health problems as well, including breathing difficulty, a dangerously high blood sugar level, and stress on her heart and other organs. As is common with many severely obese patients, Yager was not able to stand or walk, because her muscles were not strong enough to support her, due in part to muscle atrophy from disuse. Yager was hospitalized 13 times in two years, according to Beecher Fire Department chief Bennie Zappa. Each trip required as many as 15 to 20 firefighters from two stations to assist paramedics to convey Yager to the ambulance in relay fashion.
One team inside the house would pass her through the doorway to another team on the outside, who would pass her to another team inside the ambulance, where she would ride on the floor. Each trip cost the township up to $450 per station. Death Yager died in Flint on July 18, 1994. A short time before her death, Yager's latest boyfriend, Larry Maxwell, who was characterized by her family as being "an opportunist who courted media attention for money-making possibilities," married her friend, Felicia White. Maxwell had said that the only donation in Yager's name he ever received was for $20, although numerous talk shows, newspapers, radio stations, and other national and international media are reported to have offered her cash and other gifts in exchange for interviews, pictures, etc.
Dietary educator Richard Simmons was quoted as saying that he was "angry that Yager's story was actively peddled to tabloid and television media by Maxwell and others." Yager's death certificate lists kidney failure as the cause of death, with morbid obesity and multiple organ failure as contributing causes. Yager was buried privately, with about 90 friends and family members attending memorial services. See also  List of the heaviest people  Obesity  References  Category:1960 births Category:1994 deaths Category:Deaths from kidney failure Category:Obesity in the United States Category:People from Genesee County, Michigan
The history of Belgium extends before the founding of the modern state of that name in 1830, and is intertwined with those of its neighbors: the Netherlands, Germany, France and Luxembourg. For most of its history, what is now Belgium was either a part of a larger territory, such as the Carolingian Empire, or divided into a number of smaller states, prominent among them being the Duchy of Brabant, the County of Flanders, the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and County of Luxembourg. Due to its strategic location and its history as a country of encounter between different cultures, Belgium has been called the "crossroads of Europe"; for the many armies fighting on its soil, it has also been called the "battlefield of Europe" or the "cockpit of Europe".
It is also remarkable as a European nation which contains, and is divided by, a language boundary between Latin-derived French and Germanic Dutch. Belgium's modern shape can be partly traced back at least as far as the "Seventeen Provinces" within the Burgundian Netherlands. These lands straddled the ancient boundary of the Scheldt that had divided medieval France and Germany, but they were brought together under the House of Valois-Burgundy, and unified into one autonomous territory by their heir Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in his Pragmatic Sanction of 1549. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) later led to the split between a northern Dutch Republic and the Southern Netherlands from which Belgium and Luxembourg developed.
This southern territory continued to be ruled by the Habsburg descendants of the Burgundian house, at first as the "Spanish Netherlands". Invasions from France under Louis XIV led to the loss of what is now Nord-Pas-de-Calais to France, while the remainder finally became the "Austrian Netherlands". The French Revolutionary wars led to Belgium becoming part of France in 1795, bringing the end of the semi-independence of areas which had belonged to the Catholic church. After the defeat of the French in 1814, a new United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created, which eventually split one more time during the Belgian Revolution of 1830–1839, giving three modern nations, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
The ports and textile industry of Belgium were important back into the Middle Ages, and modern Belgium was one of the first countries to experience an Industrial Revolution, which brought prosperity in the 19th century but also opened a political dichotomy between liberal businessmen and socialist workers. The king set up his own private colonial empire in the Belgian Congo, which the government took over after a major scandal in 1908. Belgium was neutral but its strategic location as a pathway to France made it an invasion target for Germany in 1914 and 1940. Conditions under the occupation were severe.
In the postwar period Belgium was a leader in European unification, as a founding member of what has become the European Union. Brussels is now host to the headquarters of NATO and is the de facto capital of the European Union. The colonies became independent in the early 1960s. Politically the country was once polarized on matters of religion and, in recent decades, it has faced new divisions over differences of language and unequal economic development. This ongoing antagonism has caused far-reaching reforms since the 1970s, changing the formerly unitary Belgian state into a federal state, and repeated governmental crises.
It is now divided into three regions: Flanders  (Dutch-speaking) in the north, Wallonia (French-speaking) in the south, and bilingual Brussels in the middle. There is also a German-speaking population along the border with Germany that was granted to Prussia in the Congress of Vienna in 1815 but added to Belgium following the 1919 Treaty of Versailles following World War I. German is the third official language of Belgium. Names Belgium was a name chosen when the modern country was created, but it has a long history. It is originally a classical name, used by Julius Caesar. The term continued to be used occasionally in different ways until the creation of the modern country.
While Caesar described the Belgian part of Gaul as a larger area, much bigger than modern Belgium, including large parts of modern France, Germany and the Netherlands, he only used the term "Belgium" once, refer to a smaller core area now in Northern France, where the tribes ruling the Belgian military alliance lived. Under Roman rule this region was the equivalent of the province of Belgica Secunda, which stretched into the coastal Flemish part of modern Belgium. In late Roman and medieval times the term Belgium tended to be used to refer to Roman Belgica Prima, and its successor Upper Lotharingia, in the Moselle region of Germany, Luxembourg and France.
Only slowly in modern times did the old term start to be used for the area to the north of the two Roman Belgica provinces, now the Netherlands and Belgium. For example, it was sometimes used as a classical name for the northern "United Provinces", roughly the predecessor of the modern Netherlands, after they separated from the Spanish-ruled south, roughly the predecessor of modern Belgium, in the early modern era. Belgium only began to be used exclusively for the southern part of the Netherlands when it was deliberately chosen as the new name for the new country, which broke out of the post-Waterloo kingdom of the Netherlands after a struggle which lasted from 1830 to 1839.
Before independence  Prehistory  On Belgian territory Neanderthal fossils were discovered at Engis in 1829–30 and elsewhere, some dating back to at least 100,000 BCE. The earliest Neolithic farming technology of northern Europe, the so-called LBK culture, reached the east of Belgium at its furthest northwesterly stretch from its origins in southeast Europe. Its expansion stopped in the Hesbaye region of eastern Belgium around 5000 BCE. The Belgian LBK is notable for its use of defensive walls around villages, something which may or may not have been necessary because of the proximity of hunter gatherers. So-called Limburg pottery and La Hoguette pottery are styles which stretch into northwestern France and the Netherlands, but it has sometimes been argued that these technologies are the result of pottery technology spreading beyond the original LBK farming population of eastern Belgium and northeastern France, and being made by hunter gatherers.
A slightly later-starting Neolithic culture found in central Wallonia is the so-called "Groupe de Blicquy", which may represent an offshoot of the LBK settlers. One notable archaeological site in this region is the Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes. Farming in Belgium however failed to take permanent hold at first. The LBK and Blicquy cultures disappeared and there is a long gap before a new farming culture, the Michelsberg culture, appeared and became widespread. Hunter gatherers of the Swifterbant culture apparently remained in the sandy north of Belgium, but apparently became more and more influenced by farming and pottery technology. In the third and late fourth millennia BCE, the whole of Flanders shows relatively little evidence of human habitation.
Although it is felt that there was a continuing human presence, the types of evidence available make judgement about the details very difficult. The Seine-Oise-Marne culture spread into the Ardennes, and is associated with megalithic sites there (for example Wéris), but did not disperse over all of Belgium. To the north and east, in the Netherlands, a semi-sedentary culture group has been proposed to have existed, the so-called Vlaardingen-Wartburg-Stein complex, which possibly developed from the above-mentioned Swifterbant and Michelsburg cultures. The same pattern continues into the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. In the last part of the Neolithic, evidence is found for the Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cultures in the south of the Netherlands, but these cultures also do not seem to have had a big impact in all of Belgium.
The population of Belgium started to increase permanently with the late Bronze Age from around 1750 BCE. Three possibly related European cultures arrived in sequence. First the Urnfield culture arrived (for example, tumuli are found at Ravels and Hamont-Achel in the Campine). Then, coming into the Iron Age, the Hallstatt culture, and the La Tène culture. All three of these are associated with Indo-European languages, with specifically Celtic languages being especially associated with La Tène material culture, and possibly Halstatt. This is because historical Greek and Roman records from areas where this culture settled show Celtic placenames and personal names.
However it is possible in Belgium that especially in the northern areas the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures were brought by new elites, and that the main language of the population was not Celtic. From 500 BC Celtic tribes settled in the region and traded with the Mediterranean world. From c. 150 BC, the first coins came into use, under the influence of trade with the Mediterranean. Celtic and Roman periods  When Julius Caesar arrived in the region, as recorded in his De Bello Gallico, the inhabitants of Belgium, northwestern France, and the German Rhineland were known as the Belgae (after whom modern Belgium is named), and they were considered to be the northern part of Gaul.
The region of Luxembourg, including the part of the Belgian province of Luxembourg around Arlon, was inhabited by the Treveri, who were not listed by Caesar as Belgae, although the Romans later placed them in the province of the Belgae. The exact nature of the distinction between the Belgae to the North and the Celts to the south, and the Germani across the Rhine, is disputed. Caesar said that the Belgae were separated from the rest of Gaul by language, law and custom, and he also says they had Germanic ancestry, but he does not go into detail. It seems clear that Celtic culture and language were very influential upon the Belgae, especially those in modern France.
On the other hand, linguists have proposed that there is evidence that the northern part of the Belgic population had previously spoken an Indo European language related to, but distinct from, Celtic and Germanic, and among the northern Belgae, Celtic may never have been the language of the majority. (See Belgian language and Nordwestblock.) The leaders of the Belgic alliance which Caesar confronted were in modern France, the Suessiones, Viromandui and Ambiani and perhaps some of their neighbours, in an area that he appears to distinguish as the true "Belgium" of classical times. Concerning the territory of modern Belgium, he reported that the more northerly allies of the Belgae, from west to east the Menapii, Nervii, and Germani cisrhenani, were less economically developed and more warlike, similar to the Germani east of the Rhine river.
The Menapii and northern Germani lived among low thorny forests, islands and swamps, and the central Belgian Nervii lands were deliberately planted with thick hedges, in order to be impenetrable to cavalry. There is also less archaeological evidence of large settlements and trade in the area. According to Tacitus, writing a generation later, the Germani cisrhenani (who included the Eburones) were in fact the original tribe to be called Germani, and all other uses of the term extended from them, though in his time the same people were now called the Tungri. Tacitus also reported that both the Treveri and Nervii claimed Germanic and Belgic kinship.
Modern linguists use the word "germanic" to refer to languages but it is not known for sure whether even the Belgian Germani spoke a Germanic language, and their tribal and personal names are clearly Celtic. This is in fact also true of the possibly related tribes across the Rhine from them at this time. Archaeologists have also had difficulty finding evidence of the exact migrations from east of the Rhine which Caesar reports and more generally there has been skepticism about using him in this way due to the political motives of his commentaries. But the archaeological record gives the impression that the classical Belgian Germani were a relatively stable population going back to Urnfield times, with a more recently immigrated elite class who would have been of more interest to Caesar.
The Menapii and Nervii flourished within the Roman province of Gallia Belgica, along with the southern Belgae and the Treveri. These Roman provinces were broken into civitates, each with a capital city, and each representing one of the major tribal groups named by Caesar. At first, only one, Tongeren capital of the Tungri, was in modern Belgium. Later, the capital of the Menapii was moved from Cassel in modern France to Tournai in Belgium. The Nervian capital was in the south of the territory in modern France, at Bavay, and later moved to Cambrai. Trier, the capital of the Treveri, is today in Germany, near Luxembourg.
The northeastern corner of this province, including Tongeren and the area of the earlier Germani, was united with the militarized Rhine border to form a newer province known as Germania Inferior. Its cities included Ulpia Noviomagus (Nijmegen in the modern Netherlands), Colonia Ulpia Trajana (Xanten in modern Germany) and the capital Colonia Agrippina (Cologne in Germany). Later, Emperor Diocletian restructured the provinces around 300, and split the remaining Belgica into two provinces: Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda. Belgica Prima was the eastern part and had Trier as its main city, and included part of the Belgian province of Luxembourg. It became one of the most important Roman cities in Western Europe in the 3rd century.
Christianity was also first introduced to Belgium during the late-Roman period, and the first known bishop in the region Servatius taught in the middle of the Fourth century in Tongeren. Early Middle Ages  In the Middle Ages, the old Roman civitates became the basis of Christian dioceses, and the row of dioceses which form the core of modern Belgium (Tournai, Cambrai, and Liège) were the most northerly continental areas to retain a Romanized culture. The modern Belgian language boundary derives from this period, as the area was a contact point of Frankish and Romanized populations. As the Western Roman Empire lost power, Germanic tribes came to dominate the military, and then form kingdoms.
Coastal Flanders, the old territory of the Menapii, became part of the "Saxon Shore". In inland northern Belgium, Franks from the Roman frontier in the Rhine delta were allowed to re-settle in Toxandria in the 4th century. Wallonia, dominated by bands of forests and poor farming land, remained more heavily Romanized, although eventually became subject to Franks in the 5th century. Franks remained important in the Roman military, and the Romanized Frankish Merovingian Dynasty eventually took over northern France. Clovis I, the best-known king of this dynasty, first conquered Romanized northern France, later called Neustria, then turned north to the Frankish lands later referred to as Austrasia, which included all or most of Belgium.
He converted to Catholicism, followed by many followers. Christian missionaries preached to the populace and started a wave of conversion (Saint Servatius, Saint Remacle, Saint Hadelin). The Merovingian dynasty was succeeded by the Carolingian dynasty, whose family power base was in and around the eastern part of modern Belgium. After Charles Martel countered the Moorish invasion from Spain (732 — Poitiers), King Charlemagne (born close to Liège in Herstal or Jupille) brought a huge part of Europe under his rule and was crowned the "Emperor of the new Holy Roman Empire" by the Pope Leo III (800 in Aachen). The Vikings raided widely throughout this period, but a major settlement that had caused problems in the area of Belgium was defeated in 891 by Arnulf of Carinthia in the battle of Leuven.
The Frankish lands were divided and reunified several times under the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties, but eventually were firmly divided into France and the Holy Roman Empire. The parts of the County of Flanders stretching out west of the river Scheldt (Schelde in Dutch, Escaut in French) became part of France during the Middle Ages, but the remainders of the County of Flanders and the Low Countries were part of the Holy Roman Empire, specifically they were in the stem duchy of Lower Lotharingia, which had a period as an independent kingdom. Through the early Middle Ages, the northern part of present-day Belgium (now commonly referred to as Flanders) was a Germanic language-speaking area, whereas in the southern part people had continued to be Romanized and spoke derivatives of Vulgar Latin.
As the Holy Roman Emperors and French Kings lost effective control of their domains in the 11th and 12th centuries, the territory more or less corresponding to the present Belgium was divided into relatively independent feudal states, including: The County of Flanders The Marquisate of Namur The Duchy of Brabant (see also Duke of Brabant) The County of Hainaut The Duchy of Limburg The County of Luxembourg The Prince-Bishopric of Liège (the territory over which the bishop ruled as a lord, which was smaller than the diocese)  The coastal county of Flanders was one of the wealthiest parts of Europe in the late Middle Ages, from trading with England, France and Germany, and it became culturally important.
During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Rheno-Mosan or Mosan art movement flourished in the region moving its centre from Cologne and Trier to Liège, Maastricht and Aachen. Some masterpieces of this Romanesque art are the shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral; the baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège by Renier de Huy; the Stavelot Triptych; the shrine of Saint Remacle in Stavelot; the shrine of Saint Servatius in Maastricht; and Notger's gospel in Liège. 13th–16th centuries  In this period, many cities, including Ypres, Bruges and Ghent, obtained their city charter. The Hanseatic League stimulated trade in the region, and the period saw the erection of many Gothic cathedrals and city halls.
With the decline of the Holy Roman emperors' power starting in the 13th century, the Low Countries were largely left to their own devices. The lack of imperial protection also meant that the French and English began vying for influence in the region. In 1214, King Philip II of France defeated the Count of Flanders in the Battle of Bouvines and forced his submission to the French crown. Through the remainder of the 13th century, French control over Flanders steadily increased until 1302 when an attempt at total annexation by Philip IV met a stunning defeat when Count Guy (who had the support of the guilds and craftsmen) rallied the townspeople and humiliated the French knights at the Battle of the Golden Spurs.
Undaunted, Philip launched a new campaign that ended with the inconclusive Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle in 1304. The king imposed harsh peace terms on Flanders, which included ceding the important textile-making centers of Lille and Douai. Thereafter, Flanders remained a French tributary until the start of the Hundred Years' War in 1337. In Brabant, skillful work by the duke of that territory and the Count of Hainaut-Holland foiled various French manipulations. Paris's influence in the Low Countries was counterbalanced by England, which maintained important ties to the coastal ports. Flanders faced the difficult situation of being politically subservient to France, but also reliant on trade with England.
Many craftsmen emigrated to England, which also came to dominate the wool-shipping business. Flemish cloth nonetheless remained a highly valued product, and it was highly dependent on English wool. Any interruption in the supply of that invariably resulted in riots and violence from the weavers' guilds. On the whole though, Flemish trade became a passive one. Flanders received imports from other areas of Europe, but itself purchased little abroad except wine from Spain and France. Bruges became a great commercial center after the Hanseatic League set up business there and the Italian banking houses followed suit. A few towns in the Low Countries dated back to Roman times, but most had been founded from the 9th century onward.
The oldest were in the Scheldt and Meuse areas, with many towns in what's now the Netherlands being much younger and only dating from the 13th century. From early on, the Low Countries began to develop as a commercial and manufacturing center. Merchants became the dominant class in the towns, with the nobility largely limited to countryside estates. By 1433 most of the Belgian and Luxembourgish territory along with much of the rest of the Low Countries became part of Burgundy under Philip the Good. When Mary of Burgundy, granddaughter of Philip the Good married Maximilian I, the Low Countries became Habsburg territory.
Their son, Philip I of Castile (Philip the Handsome) was the father of Charles V. The Holy Roman Empire was unified with Spain under the Habsburg Dynasty after Charles V inherited several domains. Especially during the Burgundy period (the 15th and 16th centuries), Tournai, Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Brussels, and Antwerp took turns at being major European centers for commerce, industry (especially textiles) and art. Bruges was the pioneer. It had a strategic location at the crossroads of the northern Hanseatic League trade and the southern trade routes. Bruges was already included in the circuit of the Flemish and French cloth fairs at the beginning of the 13th century, but when the old system of fairs broke down the entrepreneurs of Bruges innovated.
They developed, or borrowed from Italy, new forms of merchant capitalism, whereby several merchants would share the risks and profits and pool their knowledge of markets. They employed new forms of economic exchange, including bills of exchange (i.e. promissory notes) and letters of credit. Antwerp eagerly welcomed foreign traders, most notably the Portuguese pepper and spice traders. In art the Renaissance was represented by the Flemish Primitives, a group of painters active primarily in the Southern Netherlands in the 15th and early 16th centuries (for example, Johannes Van Eyck and Rogier Van der Weyden), and the Franco-Flemish composers (e.g. Guillaume Dufay).
Flemish tapestries and, in the 16th and 17th centuries, Brussels tapestry hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe. The Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, issued by Roman Emperor Charles V, established the so-called Seventeen Provinces, or Belgica Regia in its official Latin term, as an entity on its own, apart from the Empire and from France. This comprised all of Belgium, present-day north-western France, present-day Luxembourg, and present-day Netherlands, except for the lands of the Prince-Bishop of Liège. The Burgundian princes from Philip II (the Bold) to Charles the Bold enhanced their political prestige with economic growth and artistic splendour.
These "Great Dukes of the West" were effectively sovereigns, with domains extending from the Zuiderzee to the Somme. The urban and other textile industries, which had developed in the Belgian territories since the 12th century, became the economic center of northwestern Europe. The death of Charles the Bold (1477) and the marriage of his daughter Mary to the archduke Maximilian of Austria ended the independence of the Low Countries by bringing them increasingly under the sway of the Habsburg dynasty. Mary and Maximilian's grandson Charles became king of Spain as Charles I in 1516 and Holy Roman emperor as Charles V in 1519.
In Brussels on 25 October 1555, Charles V abdicated Belgica Regia to his son, who in January 1556 assumed the throne of Spain as Philip II. Dutch Revolt  The northern part of Belgica Regia, comprising seven provinces and eventually forming the Dutch Republic, became increasingly Protestant (specifically, Calvinist), while the larger part, called 't Hof van Brabant and comprising the ten southern provinces, remained primarily Catholic. This schism, and other cultural differences which had been present since ancient times, launched the Union of Atrecht in the Belgian regions, later followed by the Union of Utrecht in the northern regions. When Philip II, son of Charles V, ascended the Spanish throne he tried to abolish all Protestantism.
Portions of Belgica Regia revolted, eventually resulting in the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic. The horrors of this war—massacres, religious violence, mutinies—were precursors to the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) with which it would merge. After the Iconoclastic Fury of 1566, Spanish authorities were able to largely gain control of the Low Countries. The most notable event of this period was the Battle of Oosterweel, in which Spanish forces destroyed an army of Dutch Calvinists. King Philip II sent in Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, as Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands from 1567 to 1573.
Alba established a special court called the Council of Troubles (nicknamed the "Council of Blood"). The Blood Council's reign of terror saw it condemn thousands of people to death without due process and drive the nobles into exile while seizing their property. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands, in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's Flemish victims can not have fallen short of 50,000. The Dutch Revolt spread to the south in the mid-1570s after the Army of Flanders mutinied for lack of pay and went on the rampage in several cities.
At the Battle of Gembloux, on January 31, 1578, the Dutch, who were retiring from Namur, were followed by Don Juan of Austria, who sent forward a picked force of 1,600 men, under Gonzaga and Mondragón in pursuit; they attacked the rearguard, under Philip Egmont, and dispersed it, and then, falling suddenly upon the main body, utterly routed it, killing at least 10,000 rebels. The Spaniards lost 10 or 11 at most. Don Juan of Austria died on October 1, 1578, and was succeeded by Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma. With the arrival of large numbers of troops from Spain, Farnese began a campaign of reconquest in the south.
He took advantage of the divisions in the ranks of his opponents between the Dutch-speaking Flemish and the French-speaking Walloons to foment growing discord. By doing so he was able to bring back the Walloon provinces to an allegiance to the king. By the treaty of Arras in 1579, he secured the support of the "Malcontents", as the Catholic nobles of the south were styled. The seven northern provinces, controlled by Calvinists, responded with the Union of Utrecht, where they resolved to stick together to fight Spain. Farnese secured his base in Hainaut and Artois, then moved against Brabant and Flanders.
He captured many rebel towns in the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), and Ghent (1584). On August 17, 1585, Farnese laid siege to the great seaport of Antwerp. Antwerp was one of the richest cities in northern Europe and a rebel stronghold ever since Spanish and Walloon troops sacked it in 1576. The city was open to the sea, strongly fortified, and well defended under the leadership of Marnix van St. Aldegonde. Engineer Sebastian Baroccio cut off all access to the sea by constructing a bridge of boats across the Scheldt. The Dutch sailed fireships, called Hellburners, against the bridge and one of the exploding infernal machines blew up a 200-foot-long span and killed 800 Spaniards.
The besiegers repaired the damage, however, and pressed the investment. The city surrendered in 1585 as 60,000 Antwerp citizens (60% of the pre-siege population) fled north. Brussels, Mechelen and Geertruidenberg fell the same year. In a war composed mostly of sieges rather than battles, Farnese proved his mettle. His strategy was to offer generous terms for surrender: there would be no massacres or looting; historic urban privileges were retained; there was a full pardon and amnesty; return to the Catholic Church would be gradual. Meanwhile, Catholic refugees from the North regrouped in Cologne and Douai and developed a more militant, tridentine identity.
They became the mobilising forces of a popular Counter-Reformation in the South, thereby facilitating the eventual emergence of the state of Belgium. In 1601, the Spanish besieged Ostend. The three-year-long siege produced more than 100,000 casualties before Ostend finally fell to the Spanish in 1604. While the former northern part of Belgica Regia, the Seven United Provinces, gained independence, Southern Belgica Regia remained under the rule of Spain (1556–1713). The Walloons spoke French and were distinguished from the Flemish who used Dutch. Yet court accounts were kept in Spanish. 17th and 18th centuries  During the 17th century, Antwerp continued to be blockaded by the Dutch but became a major European center for industry and art.
The Brueghels, Peter Paul Rubens and Van Dyck's baroque paintings were created during this period. Wars between France and the Dutch Republic After the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659), Spain shifted most of its troops out of Belgium to Iberia, where they engaged a failed effort to reconquer Portugal. From 1659, Madrid increasingly relied on the aid of allied armies to restrain French ambitions to annex the Spanish Netherlands, in which Spain showed declining interest after more than a century of war. Under Louis XIV (1643–1715), France pursued an expansionist policy, particularly affecting Belgium. France frequently held control of territories in the Southern Netherlands, confronted by various opponents including the Netherlands and Austria.
There was the War of Devolution (1667–1668), the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), the War of the Reunions (1683–1684), and the Nine Years' War (1688–1697). These were then followed by the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714). When Charles II of Spain died in 1700, two dynasties of foreign relatives contested for the throne, the House of Bourbon, who ruled France, and the Habsburgs, who were emperors of the Holy Roman Empire as well as holding various territories in central Europe. The Austrian Habsburgs were supported by an alliance led by Britain, the Dutch Republic, and several other northern European Protestant states, and the French were supported by Bavaria.
Much of the war occurred on Belgian soil, with the allies there being led upon the field by John Churchill, the Duke of Marlborough. After the victory of Austria and its allies, under the Treaty of Rastatt, the Belgian and present-day Luxembourg territories (except the lands under the lordship of the Prince Bishop of Liège) were transferred to the Austrian Habsburgs while the Bourbon Dynasty succeeded in inheriting Spain itself. They were thus called Belgium Austriacum from 1705 to 1795. Louis XIV died in 1715. Brabant Revolution The Belgian Revolution of 1789–90 overlapped with the French Revolution which began in 1789.
The movement called for independence from Austrian rule. Brabant rebels, under the command of Jean-André van der Mersch, defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Turnhout and launched the United States of Belgium together with the Prince Bishopric of Liège. The new state was beset by factionalism between the radical "Vonckists", led by Jan Frans Vonck and the more conservative "Statists" of the Henri Van der Noot. Businessmen with widescale operations generally supported the Statists, while the Vonckists attracted small business and members of the trade guilds. They called for independence from Austria but were conservative in social and religious questions.
By November 1790, the revolt had been crushed and the Habsburg Monarchy had returned to power. French control  Following the Campaigns of 1794 of the French Revolutionary Wars, Belgium Austriacum was invaded and annexed by France in 1795, ending Habsburg rule. Southern Netherlands and the territory of Liège was divided into nine united départements and became an integral part of France. The Bishopric of Liège was dissolved. Its territory was divided over the départements Meuse-Inférieure and Ourte. The Holy Roman Emperor confirmed the loss of Southern Netherlands,  by the Treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797. The French invaded and controlled Belgium, 1794–1814, imposing all their new reforms and incorporating what had been the "Austrian Netherlands" and the Prince-Bishopric of Liege into France.
New rulers were sent in by Paris. Belgian men were drafted into the French wars and heavily taxed. Nearly everyone was Catholic, but the Church was repressed. Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions. Belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit, but it was not at all popular. Until the establishment of the Consulate in 1799, Catholics were heavily repressed by the French. The first University of Leuven was closed in 1797 and churches were plundered.
During this early period of the French rule, the Belgian economy was completely paralyzed as taxes had to be paid in gold and silver coin while goods bought by the French were paid for with worthless assignats. During this period of systematic exploitation, about 800,000 Belgians fled the Southern Netherlands. The French occupation in Belgium led to further suppression of the Dutch language across the country, including its abolition as an administrative language. With the motto "one nation, one language", French became the only accepted language in public life as well as in economic, political, and social affairs. The measures of the successive French governments and in particular the 1798 massive conscription into the French army were unpopular everywhere, especially in Flemish regions, where it sparked the Peasants' War.
The brutal suppression of the Peasants' War marks the starting point of the modern Flemish movement. In 1814, the Allies drove out Napoleon and ended French rule. The plan was to join Belgium and the Netherlands, under Dutch control. Napoleon briefly returned to power during the Hundred Days in 1815, but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, south of Brussels. Economics France promoted commerce and capitalism, paving the way for the ascent of the bourgeoisie and the rapid growth of manufacturing and mining. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while the middle class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium's leadership role after 1815 in the Industrial Revolution on the Continent.
Godechot finds that after the annexation, Belgium's business community supported the new regime, unlike the peasants, who remained hostile. Annexation opened new markets in France for wool and other goods from Belgium. Bankers and merchants helped finance and supply the French army. France ended the prohibition against seaborne trade on the Scheldt that had been enforced by the Netherlands. Antwerp quickly became a major French port with a world trade, and Brussels grew as well. United Kingdom of the Netherlands  After Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo in 1815, the major victorious powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) agreed at the Congress of Vienna on uniting the former Belgium Austriacum and the former Seven United Provinces, creating the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was to serve as a buffer state against any future French invasions.
This was under the rule of a Protestant king, namely William I. Most of the small and ecclesiastical states in the Holy Roman Empire were given to larger states at this time, and this included the Prince-Bishopric of Liège which now became formally part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The enlightened despot William I, who reigned from 1815–1840, had almost unlimited constitutional power, the constitution having been written by a number of notable people chosen by him. As despot, he had no difficulty in accepting some of the changes resulting from the social transformation of the previous 25 years, including equality of all before the law.
However, he resurrected the estates as a political class and elevated a large number of people to the nobility. Voting rights were still limited, and only the nobility were eligible for seats in the upper house. William I was a Calvinist and intolerant of the Catholic majority in the newly created United Kingdom of the Netherlands. He promulgated the "Fundamental Law of Holland", with some modifications. This entirely overthrew the old order of things in the southern Netherlands, suppressed the clergy as an order, abolished the privileges of the Catholic Church, and guaranteed equal protection to every religious creed and the enjoyment of the same civil and political rights to every subject of the king.
It reflected the spirit of the French Revolution and in so doing did not please the Catholic bishops in the south, who had detested the Revolution. William I actively promoted economic modernization. His position as monarch was ambivalent, however; his sovereignty was real, but his authority was shared with a legislature elected partly by himself and partly by the wealthy citizens under a constitution granted by the king. Government was in the hands of ministries of state. The old provinces were reestablished in name only. The government was now fundamentally unitary, and all authority flowed from the center. The first 15 years of the Kingdom showed progress and prosperity, as industrialization proceeded rapidly in the south, where the Industrial Revolution allowed entrepreneurs and labor to combine in a new textile industry, powered by local coal mines.
There was little industry in the northern provinces, but most overseas colonies were restored, and highly profitable trade resumed after a 25-year hiatus. Economic liberalism combined with moderate monarchical authoritarianism to accelerate the adaptation of the Netherlands to the new conditions of the 19th century. The country prospered until a crisis arose in relations with the southern provinces. Unrest in the southern provinces Protestants controlled the new country although they formed only a quarter of the population. In theory, Catholics had full legal equality; in practice their voice was not heard. Few Catholics held high state or military offices. The king insisted that schools in the South end their traditional teaching of Catholic doctrine, even though everyone there was Catholic.
Socially, the French-speaking Walloons strongly resented the king's policy to make Dutch the language of government. There was also growing outrage at the king's insensitivity to social differences. According to Schama, there was growing hostility to the Dutch government whose "initiatives were met at first with curiosity, then with apprehension and finally with fierce and unyielding hostility". Political liberals in the south had their own grievances, especially regarding the king's authoritarian style; he seemed uncaring about the issue of regionalism, flatly vetoing a proposal for a French-language teacher-training college in francophone Liège. Finally, all factions in the South complained of unfair representation in the national legislature.
The south was industrializing faster and was more prosperous than the north, leading to resentment of northern arrogance and political domination. The outbreak of revolution in France in 1830 was used as a signal for revolt. The demand at first was autonomy for Belgium, as the southern provinces were now called. Eventually, revolutionaries began demanding total independence. Independence  The Belgian Revolution broke out in August 1830 when crowds, stirred by a performance of Auber's La Muette de Portici at the Brussels opera house of La Monnaie, spilled out onto the streets singing patriotic songs. Violent street fighting soon broke out, and anarchy reigned in Brussels.
The liberal bourgeoisie, who had initially been at the forefront of the burgeoning revolution, were appalled by the violence and became willing to accept a compromise with the Dutch. The revolution broke out for numerous reasons. On a political level, the Belgians felt significantly under-represented in the Netherlands' elected Lower Assembly and disliked the unpopular Prince of Orange, the future William II who was the representative of King William I in Brussels. The French-speaking Walloons also felt ostracised in a majority Dutch speaking country. There were also significant religious grievances felt by the majority Catholic Belgians in a nation controlled by the Dutch Protestants.
The king assumed the protest would blow itself out. He waited for a surrender, announcing an amnesty for all revolutionaries, except foreigners and the leaders. When this did not succeed he sent in the army. Dutch forces were able to penetrate the Schaerbeek Gate into Brussels, but the advance was stalled in the Parc de Bruxelles under a hail of sniper fire. Royal troops elsewhere met determined resistance from revolutionaries at makeshift barricades. It is estimated that there were no more than 1,700 revolutionaries (described by the French Ambassador as an "undisciplined rabble") in Brussels at the time, faced with over 6,000 Dutch troops.
However, faced with strong opposition, Dutch troops were ordered out of the capital on the night of 26 September after three days of street fighting. There were also battles around the country as revolutionaries clashed with Dutch forces. In Antwerp, eight Dutch warships bombarded the city following its capture by revolutionary forces. Belgian independence was not allowed by the 1815 Congress of Vienna; nevertheless the revolutionaries were regarded sympathetically by the major powers of Europe, especially the British. In November 1830, the London Conference of 1830 or "Belgian Congress" (comprising delegates from Great Britain, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria) ordered an armistice on November 4.
At the end of November Britain and France came up with a proposal — no military intervention and the establishment of an independent kingdom of Belgium — which was accepted by the other three more conservative participants, who had favored a military intervention to restore the absolutist regime of William I. A protocol signed on 20 January 1831 stated that Belgium would be formed of the regions that did not belong to the North in 1790. The new kingdom would be obliged to remain neutral in foreign affairs. The British foreign secretary Lord Palmerston strongly backed the Prince of Orange as the new king, a choice which would have maintained a dynastic link between the Netherlands and the new kingdom.
The Prince proved to be unacceptable to William I, his father, as well as to the French, who wanted a clear break with the Netherlands. Finally, Palmerston came up with his second choice, Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg — Princess Charlotte of Wales' widower, and an admirer of the British constitutional model — who was accepted by all. On July 21, 1831, the first "King of the Belgians" was inaugurated. The date of his acceptance of the constitution – 21 July 1831 – is marked a national holiday. The liberal bourgeoisie, who had been thrown off balance by the early stages of the revolution, hastily formed a provisional government under Charles Rogier to negotiate with the Dutch, officially declaring Belgian independence on 4 October 1830.
The Belgian National Congress was formed to draw up a constitution. Under the new constitution, Belgium became a sovereign, independent state with a constitutional monarchy. However, the constitution did severely limit voting rights to the French-speaking haute-bourgeoisie and the clergy, in a country where French was not the majority language. The Catholic church was afforded a good deal of freedom from state intervention. The state of conflict (but not open warfare) with the Netherlands lasted another eight years, but in 1839, the Treaty of London was signed between the two countries. By the treaty of 1839, the eastern part of Luxembourg did not join Belgium, but remained a possession of the Netherlands until different inheritance laws caused it to separate as an independent Grand Duchy (the western, French-speaking part of Luxembourg became the Belgian province of that name).
Belgium lost Eastern Limburg, Zeeuws Vlaanderen and French Flanders and Eupen: four territories which it had claimed on historical grounds. The Netherlands retained the former two while French Flanders, which had been annexed at the time of Louis XIV remained in French possession, and Eupen remained within the German Confederation, although it would pass to Belgium after World War I in reparations. At the Treaty of London, Britain also made a guarantee of Belgian neutrality that would be the stated Casus belli of Britain's entry into World War I. Independence to World War I  The Industrial Revolution  Most of society was highly traditional, especially in the small villages and rural areas and the quality of education was low.
Few people expected that Belgium – seemingly a "sluggish" and "culturally dormant" bastion of traditionalism – would leap to the forefront of the industrial revolution on the Continent. However, despite the status quo, Belgium recovered surprisingly quickly. The first postwar Olympic Games were held in Antwerp in 1920. In 1921, Luxembourg formed a customs union with Belgium. Reparations German reparations to Belgium for damage incurred during the First World War was set at £12.5 billion pounds sterling. In 1919 under the Treaty of Versailles the area of Eupen-Malmedy, along with Moresnet was transferred to Belgium. "Neutral Moresnet" was transferred to Belgium, as well as the Vennbahn railway.
An opportunity was given to the population to "oppose" against the transfer by signing a petition, which gathered few signatures, in large part thanks to intimidation by local authorities, and all regions remain part of Belgium today. Belgian requests to annex territory considered as historically theirs, from the Dutch, who were perceived as collaborators, was denied. Between 1923 and 1926, Belgian and French soldiers were sent to the Ruhr in Germany to force the German government to agree to continue reparation payments. The Occupation of the Ruhr led the Dawes Plan which allowed the German government more leniency in paying reparations.
The League of Nations in 1925 made Belgium the trustee for the former German East Africa which bordered the Belgian Congo to the east. It became Rwanda-Urundi (or "Ruanda-Urundi") (modern day Rwanda and Burundi). Although promising the League it would promote education, Belgium left the task to subsidised Catholic missions and unsubsidised Protestant missions. As late as 1962, when independence arrived, fewer than 100 natives had gone beyond secondary school. The policy was one of low-cost paternalism, as explained by Belgium's special representative to the Trusteeship Council: "The real work is to change the African in his essence, to transform his soul, [and] to do that one must love him and enjoy having daily contact with him.
He must be cured of his thoughtlessness, he must accustom himself to living in society, he must overcome his inertia." Art and culture  The Expressionism painting movement found a distinctive form in Flanders under artists like James Ensor, Constant Permeke and Léon Spilliaert. Belgian Surrealist art grew during the inter-war period. René Magritte's first surrealist painting, The Lost Jockey, appeared in 1926. Paul Delvaux was also an extremely influential painter in this genre. Comic strips became extremely popular in Belgium during the 1930s. One of the most popular comics of the 20th century, Hergé's The Adventures of Tintin first appeared in 1929.
The growth of comic strips was also accompanied by a popular art movement, exemplified by Edgar P. Jacobs, Jijé, Willy Vandersteen and André Franquin. World War II  Belgium tried to pursue a policy of unaligned neutrality before the war, but on May 10, 1940 the country was invaded by German forces. In the initial attacks, the fortifications which had been constructed to protect the borders like Fort Eben-Emael and the K-W Line were captured or bypassed by German forces. On May 28, after 18 days of fighting, Belgian forces (including the commander in chief, King Leopold III) surrendered. The elected government of Belgium, under Hubert Pierlot, escaped to form a government in exile.
Belgian Army in the United Kingdom  See also Free Belgian Forces  After the defeat in 1940, significant numbers of Belgian soldiers and civilians managed to escape to Britain to join the Belgian army in Exile. Belgian soldiers formed the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade, which also included a battery of soldiers from Luxembourg, more often known as the Brigade Piron after its commanding officer, Jean-Baptiste Piron. The Brigade Piron was involved in the Normandy Invasion and the battles in France and the Netherlands until liberation. Belgians also served in British special forces units during the war, forming a troop of No.10 Commando which was heavily involved in the Italian Campaign and Landings on Walcheren.
The 5th Special Air Service (SAS) was entirely made up of Belgians. Two Belgian squadrons, amounting to over 400 pilots, served in the Royal Air Force during the war, both 349 and 350 Squadrons, which claimed over 50 'kills'. Two Corvettes and a group of Minesweepers were also operated by the Belgians during the Battle of the Atlantic, comprising some 350 men in 1943  A significant contribution was made by the Belgian Congo. Congolese soldiers of the Force Publique were involved in fighting with Italian forces during the East African Campaign. Congolese soldiers also served in the Middle East and Burma.
The Congo was also a vitally important economic asset to the allied powers, particularly through its exports of rubber and uranium; in fact the uranium used during the Manhattan Project – including that used for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was supplied by the Belgian firm Union Minière du Haut Katanga from Katanga Province in the Belgian Congo. Occupation 1940–44  See also Belgium in World War II, Military Government and The Holocaust in Belgium Belgium was run by a Germany military government between its surrender and liberation in September 1944. The former fort at Breendonk, near Mechelen was requisitioned by the Nazis and used for detainment and interrogation of Jews, political prisoners and captured members of the resistance.
Of the 3,500 incarcerated in Breendonk between 1940–44, 1,733 died. About 300 people were killed in the camp itself, with at least 98 of them dying from deprivation or torture. In 1940, nearly 70,000 Jews were living in Belgium. Of these, 46 percent were deported from the Mechelen transit camp, while a further 5,034 people were deported via the Drancy internment camp (close to Paris). From the summer of 1942 until 1944, twenty-eight transports left Belgium carrying 25,257 Jews and 351 Roma to eastern Europe. Their destination was often Auschwitz Death Camp. Over the course of the war, 25,257 Jews were transported (including 5,093 children) and 352 Roma over the Mechelen-Leuven railway to concentration camps.
Only 1,205 returned home alive at the end of the war. Resistance See also Belgian Resistance and CDJ Resistance against the German occupiers of Belgium can be seen at all levels and from all quarters of the political spectrum, but was highly fragmented. The Government in Exile dealt with resistance collectively under the name Armée Secrète, however this was just a broad name for the many resistance organisations which existed. Some organisations were very left-wing, like the Communist Front de l'Indépendance, but there was also a far-right resistance movement, the Légion Belge which comprised dissident Rexists. However, there were also other groups like Groupe G which had no obvious political affiliation.
Resistance to the occupiers chiefly came in the form of helping allied airmen escape, and numerous lines were set up to organise this, for instance the Comet line which evacuated an estimated 14,000 allied airmen to Gibraltar. Sabotage was also used, and Group G's activities alone are estimated to have cost the Nazis 20 million man-hours of labor to repair damages done. The resistance were also instrumental in saving Jews and Roma from deportation to death camps, for instance the attack on the Twentieth convoy to Auschwitz Death Camp.There was also significant low-level resistance, for instance in June 1941, the City Council of Brussels refused to distribute Stars of David badges.
Many Belgians also hid Jews and political dissidents during the occupation, with one estimate putting the number at some 20,000 people. Collaboration  See also Rexism, DeVlag, VNV and Verdinaso During the period of Nazi occupation, some Belgians collaborated with their occupiers. There were pro-Nazi political organizations in both Flemish and Walloon communities before and during the war. The most significant were the Flemish DeVlag and Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond (VNV)  as well as the Catholic Walloon Rexist movement. These organisations were also fundamental to encouraging Belgians to enlist into the German army. Two divisions of the Waffen SS, the Flemish 27th SS "Langemarck" Division and the Walloon 28th SS "Wallonien" Division.
Some organisations, like Verdinaso appealed directly to Flemish separatist ideologies, though they did not become very popular. After the war, many of those who had collaborated – including many of the guards at Fort Breendonk – were tried, imprisoned or shot. Allied liberation 1944–45 Belgium was liberated late in 1944 by Allied forces, including British, Canadian, and American armies, including the Brigade Piron. On 3 September 1944 the Welsh Guards liberated Brussels. The British Second Army seized Antwerp on 4 of September 1944, and the First Canadian Army began conducting combat operations around the port that same month. Antwerp became a highly prized and heavily fought-over objective because its deep-water port was necessary to keep the allied armies supplied.
The Battle of the Scheldt in October 1944 was fought primarily on Dutch soil, but with the objective of opening the way for boats to Antwerp. The port city was also the ultimate objective of German armies during the Ardennes Offensive  which resulted in heavy fighting on Belgian soil during the winter of 1944–5. Following liberation, large numbers of Belgians who had remained in the country during the occupation were mobilised into the Belgian army in 57 "Fusilier Battalions". 100,000 Belgians were mobilised for the allies by the end of the war. Postwar Belgium  The "Royal Question"  Immediately after the war, Léopold III, who had surrendered himself to the German army in 1940, was released; however, the issue of whether he had betrayed his country by surrendering, while most government ministers had escaped to the United Kingdom, presented an important constitutional dilemma.
In particular, the Belgian public was concerned that he might be a collaborator with the Nazis. He had met Hitler in Berchtesgaden on November 19, 1940 and had even remarried (to Lilian Baels) during the war. Many Belgians, especially the Socialists, strongly opposed his return to power. He was kept in exile in Switzerland until 1950, while his brother Prince Charles presided as regent. A referendum was proposed in 1950 to solve the problem. However, it produced a very close result. In Flanders, the electorate voted 70% in favour ("Yes") of his return but Wallonia voted 58% against. Brussels also returned a 51% "No" vote.
Although the referendum narrowly produced a favourable result for Léopold (about 57.68% in the country as a whole), the militant socialist movement in Liège, Hainaut and other urban centres incited major protests and even called a General Strike against his return. Because of the possibility that the situation might escalate even further, Léopold III abdicated on July 16, 1951, in favour of his 20-year-old son Baudouin. Occupation of Germany, Korean War and EDC  After the defeat of Germany in 1945, Belgian soldiers were assigned to occupy a section of West Germany, known as Belgian Forces in Germany or FBA-BSD. The last Belgian soldiers left Germany in 2002.
The European Defence Community planned in the early 1950s would have involved Belgian soldiers, as well as soldiers from Germany, France and other Benelux countries. Though the planned EDC was never actually realised, it was still responsible for a major re-organisation of the Belgian army along US Army lines. Belgium was also involved in NATO. In 1950, a unit of volunteers from the Belgian army was sent to fight for the United Nations in the Korean War against Chinese and North Korean troops. The Belgian United Nations Command (or BUNC) arrived in Korea in early 1951, and fought at several key engagements of the conflict, including at the Battle of the Imjin River, Haktang-ni and Chatkol.
BUNC was decorated and received presidential citations from both the United States and Republic of Korea. Over 300 Belgians were killed in action during the conflict. The last Belgian soldiers returned from Korea in 1955. Benelux and Europe  See also Benelux, Nato, ECSC and EEC On September 5, 1944, the Benelux Customs Union was created. It entered into force in 1948, and ceased to exist on 1 November 1960, when it was replaced by the Benelux Economic Union after a treaty signed in The Hague on February 3, 1958. The Benelux Parliament was created in 1955. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the United Kingdom, is considered the precursor to the NATO agreement, which Belgium became an official member of on April 4, 1949.
The headquarters of NATO are located in Brussels, and the headquarters of SHAPE near Mons. Belgium was also one of the original founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in July 1952 and of the European Economic Community formed by the Treaty of Rome on March 25, 1957. Belgium has been a member of the Schengen area since 1985. The Belgian "Economic Miracle"  Marshall Plan The American Marshall Plan (officially named the  "European Recovery Program" or ERP) gave Belgium $559 million in grants from 1948 to 1951; it was not a loan and there was no repayment.
A central goal of the ERP was to promote the growth of productivity along the lines of American management and labor practices. Obstacles arose which clearly limited its impact. The interest among some Belgian employers in increasing rates of productivity per worker was motivated by the rise in wage levels. But the Americans also intended to inject a new "spirit of productivity" in Belgian industries, which implied, among other measures, a reinforcement of structures of corporatist negotiation between the social partners at a local level. The ambitions of the American strategy therefore extended beyond the defined goal of introducing a Fordist type of economic system with high wages, high productivity, and low prices to consumers.
After the belated establishment of the Belgian Office for the Increase of Productivity in 1952, the political character of the program became apparent. By incorporating American management principles, while at the same time decoding them and adapting them to the national situation, Belgian employers' organizations and trade unions skillfully exploited their position as intermediaries in order to appropriate the "modernist" label that they advocated. The "policy of productivity" was successful for a certain time because it matched the contours of the evolution of social reforms in Belgium. This policy success, however, was rendered impotent by the failure of the economic dimension of the productivity campaigns.
The Americans had in effect failed to recognize the structural importance of the major financial groups which dominated heavy industry in Belgium. By not adopting the American notions of productivity, and more generally by not carrying out any large-scale programs of innovation and investment in the key sectors that they controlled in the aftermath of the war, these holding companies greatly restricted the scope for American influence. Consequently, it was by other means, such as the training of managers, that the American paradigms entered into Belgian economic culture. Growth and poverty During the period 1945–1975, Keynesian economic theory guided politicians throughout Western Europe and this was particularly influential in Belgium.
After the war, the government cancelled Belgium's debts. It was during this period that the well-known Belgian highways were built. In addition, both the economy and the average standard of living rose significantly. As noted by Robert Gildea, "Social and economic policy was designed to restore liberal capitalism tempered by social reform, as prepared for during the war. Trade unions were also involved in a price and wage policy to cut inflation and this, together with the Allied use of Antwerp as the main entry point for war supplies, produced the so-called Belgian miracle of high economic growth combined with high wages."
According to one study, Belgian workers by 1961 earned wages “second only to those of the French in the Common Market area,” and earned 50% more than their Italian counterparts and 40% more than their Dutch counterparts. Despite postwar affluence, however, many Belgians continued to live in poverty. An organisation of several poverty action groups, known as the National Action for Security of Subsistence, claimed that more than 900,000 Belgians (about 10% of the population) lived in poverty in 1967, while in the early Seventies, a group of social scientists called the Working Group on Alternative Economics estimated that about 14.5% of the Belgian population lived in poverty.
In the sphere of economics, World War II marks a turning point. Because Flanders had been widely devastated during the war and had been largely agricultural since the Belgian uprising, it benefited most from the Marshall Plan. Its standing as an economically backward agricultural region meant that it obtained support from Belgium's membership of the European Union and its predecessors. At the same time, Wallonia experienced a slow relative decline as the products of its mines and mills came to be less in demand. The economic balance between the two parts of the country has remained less in favour of Wallonia than it was before 1939.
The Second "School War" 1950–59  After victory in the 1950 elections, a Christian Social Party (PSC-CVP) government came to power in Belgium. The new education minister, Pierre Harmel increased the wages of teachers in private (Catholic) schools and introduced laws linking the subsidies for private schools to the number of pupils. These measures were perceived by the anti-clerical Liberals and Socialists as a "declaration of war". When the 1954 elections brought to power a coalition of Socialists and Liberals, the new Education Minister, Leo Collard, immediately set out to reverse the measures taken by his predecessor, founding a large number of secular schools and only permitting teachers with a diploma, forcing many priests out of the profession.
These measures sparked mass protests from the Catholic bloc. A compromise was eventually found by the next government (a Catholic minority led by Gaston Eyskens), and the "Schools War" was concluded by the November 6, 1958 "School Pact". Congolese independence and the Congo Crisis  After riots in the Congo in 1959, the scheduled gradual transition to independence was speeded up dramatically. In June 1960, the Belgian Congo was replaced by the short lived First Republic of Congo, led by the democratically elected and charismatic Congolese statesman Patrice Lumumba, a former political prisoner. Belgian forces withdrew, leaving the military force, the Force Publique, under Congo's control.
Order broke down as mutinying soldiers attacked whites who remained in the country. Belgians forces were briefly sent in to evacuate Belgian nationals and army officers. In July 1960, the southern state of Katanga Province declared its independence, forming the State of Katanga. Katanga's bid for sovereignty was supported by Belgian mining companies and soldiers, who had considerable assets in the area. Later that month, United Nations peacekeepers were deployed to the country. During this period of anarchy, the region of South Kasai also declared independence. Faced with the possibility that the Soviet Union would attempt to use the situation to install a sympathetic regime, western powers including Belgium, supported Joseph Mobutu who installed his own, right-wing regime in the Congo.
Lumumba was murdered and civil war ensued. Belgian paratroopers were again deployed to the country, this time to rescue civilian hostages captured in Stanleyville during an operation known as Dragon Rouge. At the end Mobutu emerged as the ruler of the re-unified country, which he named Zaire. The General Strike of 1960–61  See also 1960–1961 Winter General Strike In December 1960, Wallonia was gripped by a general strike in response the general decline of Wallonian manufacturing but it succeeded only in Wallonia, in a period of turbulence in the aftermath of the Second Schools War. The Wallonian workers demanded federalism, in addition to structural reforms.
Even though the strike had been intended to be nationwide, Flemish workers appeared reluctant to support it. The Strike was led by André Renard, the founder of "Renardism" which combined militant socialism with Walloon nationalism. The historian Renée Fox described Wallonia's alienation:  At the beginning of the 1960s (...), a major reversal in the relationship between Flanders and Wallonia was taking place. Flanders had entered a vigorous, post–World War II period of industrialization, and a significant percentage of the foreign capital (particularly from the United States, coming into Belgium to support new industries, was being invested in Flanders. In contrast, Wallonia's coal mines and time-worn steel plants and factories were in crisis.
The region had lost thousands of jobs and much investment capital. A new Dutch-speaking, upwardly mobile "populist bourgeoisie" was not only becoming visible and vocal in Flemish movements but also in both the local and national policy...  [The strike of December 1960 against the austerity law of Gaston Eyskens ] was replaced by a collective expression of the frustrations, anxieties, and grievances that Wallonia was experiencing in response to its altered situation, and by the demands of the newly formed Walloon Popular Movement for...regional autonomy for Wallonia...  Nationwide the economy was generally healthy with an annual growth rate of 5% in the 1960s.
However old inefficient factories were being shut down in textiles and leather goods. Coal miners were angered by the closure of used-up mines. Limburg miners at the Zwartberg mine rioted in 1966 to protest its closure. Two miners were killed by police and ten were injured, while nineteen policemen were hurt. In 1973 a series of worldwide crises adversely affected the Belgian economy. The "Linguistic Wars"  This Flemish resurgence has been accompanied by a corresponding shift of political power to the Flemish, who constituted the majority of the population of around 60%. An official Dutch translation of the constitution was only accepted in 1967.
The linguistic wars reached a climax in 1968 with the splitting of the Catholic University of Leuven along linguistic lines into the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and Université Catholique de Louvain. The government of Paul Vanden Boeynants fell over the issue in 1968. The rise of the federal state  The successive linguistic disputes have made the successive Belgian governments very unstable. The three major parties (Liberal -right wing-, Catholic -center- and, Socialist -left wing-) all split in two according to their French- or Dutch-speaking electorate. A language border was determined by the first Gilson Act of November 8, 1962. The boundaries of certain provinces, arrondissements and municipalities were modified (among others, Mouscron became a part of Hainaut and Voeren became a part of Limburg) and facilities for linguistic minorities were introduced in 25 municipalities.
On August 2, 1963, the second Gilson Act entered into force, fixing the division of Belgium into four language areas: a Dutch, a French and a German language area, with Brussels as a bilingual area. In 1970, there was a first state reform, which resulted in the establishment of three cultural communities: the Dutch Cultural Community, the French Cultural Community and the German Cultural Community. This reform was a response to the Flemish demand for cultural autonomy. The constitutional revision of 1970 also laid the foundations for the establishment of three Regions, which was a response to the demand of the Walloons and the French-speaking inhabitants of Brussels for economic autonomy.
On February 18, 1970, Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens announces the end of "La Belgique de papa". The second state reform took place in 1980, when the cultural communities became Communities. The Communities assumed the competencies of the cultural communities with regard to cultural matters, and became responsible for the 'matters relating to the person', such as health and youth policy. From then on, these three Communities were known as the Flemish Community, the French Community and the German-speaking Community. Two Regions were established as well in 1980: the Flemish Region and the Walloon Region. However, in Flanders it was decided in 1980 to immediately merge the institutions of the Community and the Region.
Although the creation of a Brussels Region was provided for in 1970, the Brussels-Capital Region was not established until the third state reform. During the third state reform in 1988 and 1989, under Prime Minister Wilfried Martens, the Brussels-Capital Region was established with its own regional institutions, as well as Dutch and French institutions for community matters. The Brussels-Capital Region remained limited to 19 municipalities. Other changes included that the competencies of the Communities and Regions were expanded. One notable responsibility that was transferred to the Communities during the third state reform was education. The fourth state reform, which took place in 1993 under Prime Minister Jean-Luc Dehaene, consolidated the previous state reforms and turned Belgium into a fully-fledged federal state.
The first article of the Belgian Constitution was amended to read as follows, “Belgium is a Federal State which consists of Communities and Regions”. During the fourth state reform, the responsibilities of the Communities and the Regions were expanded again, their resources were increased and they were given more fiscal responsibilities. Other major changes included the direct election of the parliaments of the Communities and the Regions, the splitting up of the Province of Brabant into Flemish Brabant and Walloon Brabant, and the reformation of the Federal Parliament's bicameral system and the relations between the Federal Parliament and the Federal Government.
The first direct elections for the parliaments of the Communities and the Regions took place on May 21, 1995. However, the fourth state reform was not the end of the process of federalization. In 2001, a fifth state reform took place, under Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt, with the Lambermont and the Lombard Accords. In the course of that reform, more powers were transferred to the Communities and the Regions, with regard to agriculture, fisheries, foreign trade, development cooperation, auditing of electoral expenses and the supplementary financing of the political parties. The Regions became responsible for twelve regional taxes, and local and provincial government became a matter for the Regions.
The first municipal and provincial elections under the supervision of the Regions were the 2006 municipal elections. The functioning of the Brussels institutions was also amended during the fifth state reform, which resulted among other things in a guaranteed representation of the Flemish inhabitants of Brussels in the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region. At the end of 2011, following the longest political crisis in Belgium's contemporary history, a constitutional accord between the four main political families (socialists, liberals, social-Christians, ecologists), but excluding the Flemish nationalists, ushered in the sixth state reform which provided for major institutional changes and additional transfers of competences from the federal level to the Communities and the Regions.
Among other changes, the Senate ceased to be directly elected to become an assembly of regional parliaments, the Brussels-Capital Region was granted constitutive autonomy, and the Regions received economic, employment and family welfare competences as well as greater fiscal autonomy. Belgium was one of the founders of the European Common Market. Between 1999 and 2002, the Euro gradually replaced the Belgian franc (the currency of Belgium since 1830) at the rate of 1 EUR=40.3399 BEF Belgian Euro coins usually depict King Albert II on the obverse. Political parties See also Political parties in Belgium From the 1960s, most political parties, which had previously stood in elections in both Flemish and Walloon areas, split down linguistic divides.
The Catholic party split in 1968 while the Belgian Socialist Party split in 1978 into the French-speaking Parti Socialiste and Flemish Socialistische Partij. The Liberals also split on regional lines in 1992. "Green" politics in Belgium became quite successful in the aftermath of the Marc Dutroux Scandal and the "Dioxin Affair" which led to disillusionment with the preexisting parties and the decline of the Catholic vote. 1990 to present  The Marc Dutroux scandal  In 1996, confidence in the political and criminal justice systems was shaken by the news that one Marc Dutroux and his accomplices had kidnapped, tortured, and murdered young girls.
Parliamentary inquiries found the police forces were incompetent and bureaucratic, and the judicial system suffered from bureaucracy, very poor communication with, and support for, the victims, slow procedures and many loopholes for criminals. On October 26, 1996, about 300,000 Belgians joined the "White March" in Brussels in protest. Belgian military intervention since 1990  The United Nations mission in Rwanda during the Rwandan Civil War, known as UNAMIR, involved a significant Belgian contingent under the command of Roméo Dallaire. Belgium, as the former colonial power in the country, sent the largest force of around 400 soldiers from the 2nd Commando Battalion.
After the downing of the Rwandan and Burundian presidential plane 10 Belgian peacekeepers were kidnapped, mutilated and murdered by the Hutu-dominated government army. In response, Belgium withdrew all of its peacekeepers, blaming UNAMIR for failing to rescue their men. The Belgians had represented the largest and most capable element in the UNAMIR mission, leaving it incapacitated and unable to cope with the events of the Rwandan genocide. Belgian paratroopers were deployed to Somalia during Operation Restore Hope as part of UNOSOM tasked with securing aid deliveries and peacekeeping. Several Belgian soldiers were killed during the deployment. During the Kosovo crisis of 1999, 600 Belgian paratroopers participated in Operation Allied Harbour, a NATO operation to protect and provide assistance to the huge number of ethnic Albanian refugees in Albania and Macedonia.
That same year, 1,100 Belgian soldiers left for Kosovo to participate in the Kosovo Force (KFOR), a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Belgian soldiers have served in Lebanon, under the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). Approximately 394 Belgians have served in Lebanon, in demining and medical operations, and a frigate is also present. In the 2011, the Belgian Air Force deployed six F-16 fighter jets in support of the NATO intervention in the Libyan Civil War in accordance with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973. Belgian aircraft were involved in airstrikes on pro-Ghadaffi forces. Belgium is part of the ISAF mission in Afghanistan, joint with soldiers from Luxembourg.
Its continent is named BELU ISAF 21, with the main objective of providing security at Kabul International Airport, while detachments (KUNDUZ 16) assist in the northern PRTs of Kunduz and Mazar-i-Sharif. In September 2008, four F‑16 jets with about 140 support personnel were deployed. They operate from Kandahar Airport. The Belgian Air Force operated close together with the Dutch F-16 fighter jets already deployed there. Debt and economic slowdown  Belgium created huge debts during times when rates were low and generated new debts to service the initial debt. Its debts amounted to about 130% of the GDP in 1992 and were reduced to about 99% in 2001 when Belgium entered the Eurozone.
This drastic economic policy resulted in deep budget spending cuts, such as significant cuts to scientific research. Internal politics In the 1999 Belgian federal election, the traditional government parties suffered a significant defeat due to the so-called "Dioxin Affair", leading to the fall of Jean-Luc Dehaene's government after eight years in office. Guy Verhofstadt formed a government of Liberals, Socialists and Greens, forming a government without the Christian People's Party for the first time since 1958. In July 1999, a government of Greens and Flemish Liberals and Democrats announced a gradual phase-out of Belgium's seven nuclear reactors after 40 years of operation.
Though it was speculated that the next government without Greens would immediately revoke this legislation,. after the 2003 elections there was still no sign of a policy reversal,  particularly in the aftermath of the incident at Tihange reactor in 2002. In 2006, the Christian-Democratic and Flemish proposed a reconsideration of the phase out. The Belgian government was strongly opposed to the Iraq War during the Iraq crisis of 2003. The Verhofstadt government proposed a diplomatic solution regarding WMD and took the view that military action could only be taken with UN approval. On January 30, 2003, Belgium became the second country in the world to legally recognize same-sex marriage.
However, this law did not permit adoption by same-sex partners. In December 2005, a controversial proposal by the Socialist Party to permit adoption was approved by the Belgian Chamber of Representatives. Political Crisis 2010–11  See also Belgian federal election, 2010 and 2010–2011 Belgian government formation  The 2010 Belgian federal election produced a highly fragmented political landscape, with 11 parties elected to the Chamber of Representatives, none of which had more than 20% of the seats. The separatist New Flemish Alliance (N-VA), the largest party in Flanders and the country as a whole, controlled 27 of 150 seats in the lower chamber.
The Francophone Socialist Party (PS), the largest party in Wallonia, controlled 26 seats. Belgium beat the world record for time taken to form a new democratic government after an election, at 353 days. Finally a government coalition was sworn in on 6 December 2011, with Socialist Elio Di Rupo becoming Prime Minister of the Di Rupo Government. Historiography Modern historiography of Belgium began to appear in the later 18th century, as scholars moved beyond the chronicles of particular provinces, cities or leaders and relied on rapidly accumulating data. They wrote dissertations using the critical approach to particular historical problems. This development was sponsored by The Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium and reflected Enlightenment influences—such as that of Voltaire—in exploring the history of the people.
They pondered questions of causality. Their goal was building the blocks for a general history of the Austrian Netherlands, thus marking an important step toward the creation of a Belgian national history. Since Belgium became an independent nation only in 1830, defining nationhood was a special issue for the historians of the late 19th century. The usual European solutions which defined nationhood in terms of language would not work. The Romantic Joseph-Jean de Smet portrayed his country as a "phoenix" (a reference to the great bird that rose from the dead.) The challenge of defining the nation's past and present in the face of Dutch, Spanish, Austrian, French, and German influences posed a central problem.
Defending the boundaries of Belgium (especially why Flanders should not be in the Netherlands) was another issue that preoccupied historical writers such as Pirenne. The medievalist Godefroid Kurth (1847–1916) was a student of Germany's famous professor Leopold von Ranke. Kurth introduced Ranke's advanced scholarly methods in his seminar at the Universite de Liège. Belgian historiography achieved international stature in the early 20th century with the work of medievalist Henri Pirenne (1862–1935). Historiography at Ghent University was pioneered by medievalists, especially Hubert Van Houtte. After 1945 Charles Verlinden introduced the methods of the French Annales School of social history. Research topics at Ghent included colonial and maritime history, the history of prices and wages, agrarian history, business history, and the textile industry.
In the 1970 and 1980s came a broadening to such topics as historical demography; living standards and lifestyles; beggary and crime; and the history of culture and mind-sets. See also  BELvue Museum – a Brussels museum tracing the history of Belgium from 1830 until the present. History of Flanders  History of the Jews in Belgium  History of Wallonia  List of Belgian monarchs Family tree of Belgian monarchs  List of World Heritage Sites in Belgium  Politics of Belgium  Politics of Flanders  Politics of Wallonia  Timeline of Belgian history  References  Bibliography  Reference and surveys  Encyclopédie du Mouvement wallon, 3 vol., Charleroi, 2000.
Arblaster, Paul. A History of the Low Countries. (2006). 298 pp. Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, eds. History of the Low Countries (2006) 504pp excerpt and text search; also complete edition online   Cammaerts, Émile. A History of Belgium from the Roman Invasion to the Present Day (1921) 357 pages;  complete text online  Cook, Bernard A. Belgium: a history, 3rd ed. New York, 2004  Goris, Jan-Albert, ed. Belgium (1945). 522pp; a broad survey of history and culture online  Humes, Samuel. Belgium: Long United, Long Divided (2014) comprehensive scholarly history 330 pp  Israel, Jonathan. The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (1995) contain a great deal on Belgium; complete online edition; also excerpt and text search  Kossmann, E. H. The Low Countries 1780–1940 (1978) excerpt and text search ; full text online in Dutch (use CHROME browser for automatic translation to English) Kossmann-Putto, J.
A. and E. H. Kossmann. The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands (1987)  Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914 (1977) pp 142–214  Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870 (2nd ed. 1979), 552pp  Pirenne, H.  Histoire de Belgique vol2 (1903) online; full text of vol 3 (1907)online;  vol 5 (1920) online Stallaerts, Robert. The A to Z of Belgium (2010), a historical encyclopedia  Political history   Carlier, Julie. "Forgotten Transnational Connections and National Contexts: an 'entangled history' of the political transfers that shaped Belgian feminism, 1890–1914," Women's History Review (2010) 19#4 pp 503–522.
Conway, Martin. The Sorrows of Belgium: Liberation and Political Reconstruction, 1944–1947 (Oxford University Press, 2012) 512 pp. online review Deprez, Kas, and Louis Vos, eds. Nationalism in Belgium: Shifting Identities, 1780–1995 (1998), 21 essays by scholars  Dumont, Georges-Henri. Histoire de Bruxelles. Biographie d'une capitale (Brussels 1997)  Fishman, J. S. Diplomacy and Revolution. The London Conference of 1830 and the Belgian Revolt (Amsterdam 1988). Lorwin, Val R. "Belgium: Religion, class and language in national politics," in Robert Dahl, ed. Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (1966) pp 147–87. Mansel, Philip. "Nation Building: the Foundation of Belgium." History Today 2006 56(5): 21–27. Pirenne, Henri.
Belgian Democracy, Its Early History (1910, 1915) 250 pp. history of towns in the Low Countries online free  Pirenne, Henri. "The Formation and Constitution of the Burgundian State (Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries)." The American Historical Review. Volume 14, Issue 3, Page 477, April 1909 in JSTOR  Polansky, Janet L. Revolution in Brussels 1787–1793 (1987)  Stanard, Matthew G. "Selling the Empire Between the Wars: Colonial Expositions in Belgium, 1920–1940." French Colonial History (2005) 6: 159–178. in JSTOR  Stanard, Matthew G. Selling the Congo: A history of European pro-empire propaganda and the making of Belgian imperialism (U of Nebraska Press, 2012)  Strikwerda, C. J.
Mass Politics and the Origin of Pluralism: Catholicism, Socialism and Flemish Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Belgium (Lanham, MD and Leuven, 1997)  Strikwerda, C. J. Urban Structure, Religion and Language: Belgian Workers (1880–1914) (Ann Arbor, 1986)  Tollebeek, Jo. "Historical Representation and the Nation-State in Romantic Belgium (1830–1850)," Journal of the History of Ideas 59.2 (1998) 329–353 in Project Muse  VanYpersele, Laurence and Rousseaux, Xavier. "Leaving the War: Popular Violence and Judicial Repression of 'Unpatriotic' Behaviour in Belgium (1918–1921)," European Review of History 2005 12(1): 3–22. Fulltext: Ebsco  Economic, cultural and social history  Blomme, J. The Economic Development of Belgian Agriculture, 1880–1980 (Leuven, 1992)  Clark, Samuel.
"Nobility, Bourgeoisie and the Industrial Revolution in Belgium,"  Past & Present (1984) # 105 pp. 140–175; in JSTOR  Clough, Shepard B. A history of the Flemish Movement in Belgium: A study in nationalism (1930)  de Vries, Johan. "Benelux, 1920–1970," in C. M. Cipolla, ed. The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Contemporary Economics Part One (1976) pp 1–71  Deschouwer, Kris. "Ethnic structure, inequality and governance of the public sector in Belgium." Ethnic Inequalities and Public Sector Governance I UNRISD/Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2006). online  Dhondt, Jan,  and Marinette Bruwier in Carlo Cipolla, The Emergence of Industrial Societies-1 (Fontana, 1970) pp. 329–355  Houtte, J.
A. Van. "Economic Development of Belgium and the Netherlands from the Beginning of the Modern Era," Journal of European Economic History(1972), 1:100–120  Lijphart, Arend. Conflict and coexistence in Belgium: the dynamics of a culturally divided society (1981). Milward, A. S. and S. B. Saul. The Economic Development of Continental Europe, 1780–1870 (1973), pp. 292–296, 432–453. Mokyr, Joel. "The Industrial Revolution in the Low Countries in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative Case Study," Journal of Economic History (1974) 34#2 pp 365–99 in JSTOR  Mokyr, J. Industrialization in the Low Countries, 1795–1850 (New Haven, 1976). Mommens, A. The Belgian Economy in the Twentieth Century (London, 1994)  Silverman, Debora.
"'Modernité Sans Frontières:' Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of the Avant-Garde in King Leopold's Belgium, 1885–1910." American Imago (2011) 68#4 pp 707–797. online  Zolberg, Aristide R. "The Making of Flemings and Walloons: Belgium: 1830–1914," Journal of Interdisciplinary History (1974) 5#2 pp. 179–235 in JSTOR  Historiography  Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"French Colonial History'' (2014) 15 pp87–109. External links H-Net list H-Low-Countries is published free by email and is edited by scholars. Its occasional messages deal with new journal issues, methodology, archives, and teaching methods, Historical maps of Belgium from 1340 to 1990 on WHKMLA History of Belgium: Primary Documents World Wide Web Virtual Library — Belgian History Index Rulers.org — Belgium List of rulers for Belgium Overview of historical novels about The Netherland and Belgium  *
The Outer Banks are a  string of barrier islands and spits off the coast of North Carolina and southeastern Virginia, on the east coast of the United States. They cover most of the North Carolina coastline, separating Currituck Sound, Albemarle Sound, and Pamlico Sound from the Atlantic Ocean. The Outer Banks are a major tourist destination and are known around the world for their wide expanse of open beachfront. The Cape Hatteras National Seashore has four campgrounds open to visitors. The treacherous seas off the Outer Banks and the large number of shipwrecks that have occurred there have given these seas the nickname Graveyard of the Atlantic.
The Graveyard of the Atlantic Museum is located in Hatteras Village near a United States Coast Guard facility and the Hatteras ferry. The English Roanoke Colony—where Virginia Dare was born—vanished from Roanoke Island in 1587. The Lost Colony, written and performed today on Roanoke Island to commemorate the original colonists, is the second longest running outdoor drama in the United States and its theater acts as a cultural focal point for much of the Outer Banks. The Wright brothers' first flight in a controlled, powered, heavier-than-air vehicle took place on the Outer Banks on December 17, 1903, at Kill Devil Hills near the seafront town of Kitty Hawk.
The Wright Brothers National Monument commemorates the historic flights, and First Flight Airport is a small, general-aviation airfield located there. Geography  The Outer Banks is a string of peninsulas and barrier islands separating the Atlantic Ocean from mainland North Carolina. From north to south, the largest of these include: Bodie Island (which used to be an island but is now a peninsula due to tropical storms and hurricanes), Hatteras Island, Ocracoke Island, Portsmouth Island, and the Core Banks. Over time, the exact number of islands and inlets changes as new inlets are opened up, often during a breach created during violent storms, and older inlets close, usually due to gradually shifting sands during the dynamic processes of beach evolution.
The Outer Banks stretch southward from Sandbridge in Virginia Beach down the North Carolina coastline. Sources differ regarding the southern terminus of the Outer Banks. Generations of North Carolina schoolchildren have learned that the term includes the state's three prominent capes: Cape Hatteras, Cape Lookout, and Cape Fear. Other sources limit the definition to two capes (Cape Hatteras and Cape Lookout) and coastal areas in four counties (Currituck County, Dare County, Hyde County,and Carteret County). Some authors include Carteret's Shackelford Banks and Bogue Banks in their descriptions, while others exclude Bogue Banks. Still other references restrict the definition to the northern three counties of Currituck, Dare, and Hyde.
The abbreviations OBX (Outer Banks) and SOBX (Southern Outer Banks) are modern terms used to promote tourism and to market a variety of stickers, t-shirts, and other items to vacationers. OBX, which originated first, is generally used in the northern Outer Banks. SOBX is a misnomer, used to capitalize on the popularity of "OBX" and refers to the Crystal Coast area and the Bogue Banks. The northern part of the Outer Banks, from Oregon Inlet northward, is actually a part of the North American mainland, since the northern inlets of Bodie Island and Currituck Banks no longer exist. It is separated by the Currituck Sound and the Intracoastal Waterway, which passes through the Great Dismal Swamp occupying much of the mainland west of the Outer Banks.
Road access to the northern Outer Banks is cut off between Sandbridge and Corolla, North Carolina, with communities such as Carova Beach accessible only by four-wheel drive vehicles. North Carolina State Highway 12 links most of the popular Outer Banks communities in this section of the coast. The easternmost point is Rodanthe Pier in Rodanthe, NC . The Outer Banks are not anchored to offshore coral reefs like some other barrier islands and as a consequence they often suffer significant beach erosion during major storms. In fact, their location jutting out into the Atlantic makes them the most hurricane-prone area north of Florida, for both landfalling storms and brushing storms offshore.
Hatteras Island was cut in half on September 18, 2003, when Hurricane Isabel washed a 2,000 foot (600 m) wide and 15 foot (5 m) deep channel called Isabel Inlet through the community of Hatteras Village on the southern end of the island. The tear was subsequently repaired and restored by sand dredging by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. It was cut off once again in 2011 by Hurricane Irene. Access to the island was largely limited to boat access only from August to late October until another temporary bridge could be built. Vegetation The vegetation of the Outer Banks has biodiversity, although it is considered the northern limit for many southern plants such as wild scrub palms.
In the northeast part of the Outer Banks, from Virginia Beach southward past the North Carolina border to Oregon Inlet, the main types of vegetation are sea grasses, beach grasses and other beach plants including Opuntia humifusa on the Atlantic side and wax myrtles, bays, and grasses on the Sound side with areas of pine and Spanish moss-covered live oaks. Yucca aloifolia and Yucca gloriosa can be found growing wild here in the northern parts of its range on the beach. Sabal Minor palms were once indigenous to the entire Outer Banks, and they are still successfully planted and grown.
Its current most northerly known native stand is on Monkey Island in Currituck County. From Cape Hatteras National Seashore southward, the vegetation does include that of the northeastern Outer Banks such as Dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor), Yucca aloifolia and Yucca gloriosa; however, the main vegetation consists of Cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto), which can be found in the north, although they are native in the southern part of the Outer Banks, specifically prevalent from Cape Hatteras and all points southward. Pindo palms and windmill palms are also planted widely throughout the Outer Banks; although, they are not indigenous to the area.
A wide variety of native plants can be found at the Elizabethan Gardens in Manteo on Roanoke Island. Climate The Outer Banks has a humid subtropical climate. The outer banks have unusual weather patterns because of their unique geographical location. As the islands are jutted out from the eastern seaboard into the Atlantic Gulf Stream, the Outer Banks has a predisposition to be affected by hurricanes, Nor'easters (usually in the form of rain, and rarely snow or mixed precipitation), and other ocean-driven storms. The winters are typically milder than in inland areas, averaging lows in the upper 30s and highs in the lower 50s, and is more frequently overcast than in the summer.
However, the exposure of the Outer Banks makes them prone to higher winds, often causing wind chills to make the apparent temperature as cold as the inland areas. The summer months average lows from the mid-70s to highs in the upper 80s, depending on the time of the summer. The spring and fall are typically milder seasons. The fall and winter are usually warmer than areas inland, while the spring and the summer are often slightly cooler because of the moderating effects of being surrounded by water. Although snow is possible, averaging from 3 inches in the north to less than 1/2 inch per year in the south, there are many times when years pass between snowfalls.
The majority of nor'easters are "born" off the coasts of the Outer Banks. Culture  The Outer Banks is one of the most culturally distinctive areas of the East Coast of the United States. The Outer Banks were inhabited before the arrival of Europeans, with small branches of larger tribes, such as the Algonquin speaking Chowanoke, Secotan and Poteskeet living semi nomadic lives. Oftentimes Native Americans would use the barrier islands facing the Atlantic Ocean for fishing in the summer, and reside on Roanoke Island or the North Carolina mainland in the winter. European explorers to the Outer Banks as far back as the 1500s noted encountering the friendly Hatteras Island and Outer Banks Natives, noting their hospitality to foreign explorers as well as their happiness and overall quality of life.
European-borne diseases and migration to the mainland were likely the main causes for the decline of the Native population. Before bridges were built in the 1930s, the only form of transport between or off the islands was by boat, which allowed for the islands to stay isolated from much of the rest of the mainland. This helped to preserve the maritime culture and the distinctive Outer Banks accent or brogue, which sounds more like an English accent than it does an American accent. Many "bankers" have often been mistaken for being from England or Ireland when traveling to areas outside of the Outer Banks.
The brogue is more distinctive the further south one travels on the Outer Banks, with it being the thickest on Ocracoke Island and Harkers Island. Some residents of the Outer Banks, known as wreckers, made part of their living by scavenging wrecked ships—or by luring ships to their destruction. Horses with lanterns tied to their necks would be walked along the beach; the lanterns' up and down motion would appear to ships to represent clear water and a ship ahead; the unsuspecting captain would then drive his ship ashore following this false light. The islands are home to herds of feral horses, sometimes called "banker ponies", which according to local legend are descended from Spanish mustangs washed ashore centuries ago in shipwrecks.
Populations are found on Ocracoke Island, Shackleford Banks, Currituck Banks, and in the Rachel Carson Estuarine Sanctuary. Ocracoke was the last refuge of pirate Edward Teach, better known as Blackbeard. It is also where the infamous pirate was killed November 22, 1718 in a fierce battle with troops from Virginia. The Outer Banks are home to Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria), the roasted leaves of which were brewed into a high caffeine beverage called black drink by the Native Americans. The Outer Banks may be one of the few places where it is still consumed. Economy Major industries of the region include commercial fishing, boat building and tourism.
Since the 1990s the rise of tourism, has led the region to become an increasingly service oriented economy. There has been a long history of fishing in the Outer Banks, dating back to the end of the 17th century. Pirates ravaged the coast for the majority of the 1600s, but once they were ridden, the local settlers used fishing as their lifeline. In the mid-19th century, large-scale commercial fishing erupted, mostly due to the construction of the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal, which simplified shipping methods for fishermen. Saltwater fishing became the cash-crop of the Outer Banks, and blossomed it into a popular tourist destination.
In modern times, tourists will flock to the area just for the abundance of fishing opportunities. Anglers, otherwise known as fishermen, have a wide range of fishing methods, some of these methods date back to when the first settlers arrived, to choose from in the Outer Banks.
Lighthouses There are 6 lighthouses in the Outer Banks  Currituck Beach Lighthouse, located in Corolla, North Carolina  Roanoake Marshes Lighthouse, located in Manteo, North Carolina  Bodie Island Lighthouse, located south of Nags Head, North Carolina  Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, located in Buxton, North Carolina  Ocracoke Island Lighthouse, located in Ocracoke, North Carolina  Cape Lookout Lighthouse, located in Carteret County, North Carolina  Communities Towns and communities along the Outer Banks include (listed from north to south):  Currituck Banks  Sandbridge (VA)  Carova Beach  Corolla  Knotts Island  Bodie Island   Duck  Southern Shores  Kitty Hawk  Kill Devil Hills  Nags Head  Roanoke Island  Manteo  Wanchese  Hatteras Island    Rodanthe  Waves  Salvo  Avon  Buxton  Frisco  Hatteras  Ocracoke Island   Ocracoke  Core Banks   Portsmouth Island  Bogue Banks    Atlantic Beach  Pine Knoll Shores  Indian Beach  Salter Path  Emerald Isle  Parks   Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge  Cape Hatteras National Seashore  Cape Lookout National Seashore  Currituck Heritage Park  Currituck National Wildlife Refuge  False Cape State Park  Fort Macon State Park  Fort Raleigh National Historic Site  Jockey's Ridge State Park  Mackay Island National Wildlife Refuge  Pea Island National Wildlife Refuge  Wright Brothers National Memorial  Notable residents   Dennis Anderson, professional Monster Truck driver and creator of Grave Digger.
Marc Basnight, (born 1947), former member of the North Carolina State Senate  Andy Griffith (1926–2012), actor  Alexis Knapp, (born 1989), actress  Edward Teach (1680-1718), notorious English pirate better known as "Blackbeard," raided on the North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea. Manteo (disappeared after 1587) influential figure in the Croatoan Nation, ambassador to England and mediator. Wanchese (disappeared after 1587) influential figure in the Roanoke Nation, opposed English colonization. See also  Crystal Coast (Southern Outer Banks)  Hazard mitigation in the Outer Banks  Historic Albemarle Tour  Inner Banks  North Carolina Highway 12  Outer Banks Daredevils  References  External links   Outer Banks Visitors Bureau Dare county   College of The Albemarle    Category:Barrier islands of North Carolina Category:Beaches of Dare County, North Carolina Category:Beaches of North Carolina Category:Islands of Carteret County, North Carolina Category:Landforms of Currituck County, North Carolina Category:Landforms of Hyde County, North Carolina Category:Wright brothers
The Permian Basin is a large sedimentary basin in the southwestern part of the United States. The basin contains the Mid-Continent Oil Field province. This sedimentary basin is located in western Texas and southeastern New Mexico. It reaches from just south of Lubbock, past Midland and Odessa, south nearly to the Rio Grande River in southern West Central Texas, and extending westward into the southeastern part of New Mexico. It is so named because it has one of the world's thickest deposits of rocks from the Permian geologic period. The greater Permian Basin comprises several component basins; of these, the Midland Basin is the largest, Delaware Basin is the second largest, and Marfa Basin is the smallest.
The Permian Basin covers more than , and extends across an area approximately  wide and  long. The Permian Basin lends its name to a large oil and natural gas producing area, part of the Mid-Continent Oil Producing Area. Total production for that region up to the beginning of 1993 was over . The Texas cities of Midland, Odessa and San Angelo serve as the headquarters for oil production activities in the basin. The Permian Basin is also a major source of potassium salts (potash), which are mined from bedded deposits of sylvite and langbeinite in the Salado Formation of Permian age.
Sylvite was discovered in drill cores in 1925, and production began in 1931. The mines are located in Lea and Eddy counties, New Mexico, and are operated by the room and pillar method. Halite (rock salt) is produced as a byproduct of potash mining. Components  Delaware Basin   The Delaware Basin is the larger of the two major lobes of the Permian Basin within the foreland of the Ouachita–Marathon thrust belt separated by the Central Basin Platform. The basin contains sediment dating to Pennsylvanian, Wolfcampian (Wolfcamp Formation), Leonardian (Avalon Shale), and early Guadalupian times. The eastward-dipping Delaware basin is subdivided into several formations (Figure2) and contains approximately  of laminated siltstone and sandstone.
Aside from clastic sediment, the Delaware basin also contains carbonate deposits of the Delaware Group, originating from the Guadalupian times when the Hovey Channel allowed access from the sea into the basin. Midland Basin   The westward-dipping Midland Basin is subdivided into several formations (Figure 4) and is composed of laminated siltstone and sandstone. The Midland Basin was filled via a large subaqueous delta that deposited clastic sediment into the basin. Aside from clastic sediment, the Midland Basin also contains carbonate deposits originating from the Guadalupian times when the Hovey Channel allowed access from the sea into the basin. Central Basin Platform   The Central Basin Platform (CBP) is a tectonically uplifted basement block capped by a carbonate platform.
The CBP separates the Delaware and Midland Basins and is subdivided into several formations, from oldest to youngest Wolfcamp, Abo, Drinkard, Tubb, Blinebry, Paddock, Glorietta, San Andres, Grayburg, Queen, Seven Rivers, Yates, and Tansill Formations (Figure5). The sequence mainly comprises carbonate reef deposits and shallow marine clastic sediments. Eastern and Northwest Shelves  The Eastern and Northwestern Shelves are composed of shelf edge reefs and shelf carbonates flanking the Delaware and Midland Basins that grade up-dip into siltstones and evaporites. The Eastern and Northwestern Shelves are subdivided into the San Andres, Grayburg, Queen, Seven Rivers, Yates, and Tansill Formations. San Simon Channel  The San Simon Channel is a narrow syncline that separated the Central Basin Platform from the Northwestern Shelf during Leonardian and Guadalupian times.
Sheffield Channel  The Sheffield Channel separates the southern margin of the Midland Basin from the southern shelf and the Ouachita–Marathon thrust-belt during Leonardian and Guadalupian times. Hovey Channel  The Hovey Channel is a topographical low located on the southern edge of the Delaware Basin, allowing access to the Panthalassa sea during Guadalupian times. The Hovey Channel was originally an anticline which formed during Precambrian faulting, and was the main source of sea water for the Delaware Basin. The closing of the Hovey Channel towards the end of the Permian Period eventually caused the death of the Permian Reef, as without water being brought in through the Channel, salinity levels rose drastically in the Delaware Basin and the reef could not survive.
Horseshoe Atoll   The Horseshoe Atoll is a westward-tilting arcuate chain of reef mounds  long located in the Midland Basin, consisting of  of limestone accumulated in the Pennsylvanian and  in the Permian, with 15 significant reservoirs from  to  in depth. The reef complex consists of Upper Pennsylvanian Strawn, Canyon and Cisco limestones, overlain by Lower Permian Wolfcamp sandstones and shales of terrigenous origin prograding northeast to southwest. The first production well, Seabird Oil Company of Delaware No.1-B J.C. Caldwell, was completed in 1948. Depositional history   The Permian Basin is the thickest deposit of Permian aged rocks on Earth which were rapidly deposited during the collision of North America and Gondwana (South America and Africa) between the late Mississippian through the Permian.
The Permian Basin also includes formations that date back to the Ordovician Period (445 mya). Proterozoic  Prior to the breakup of the Precambrian supercontinent and the formation of the modern Permian Basin geometry, shallow marine sedimentation onto the ancestral Tobosa Basin characterized the passive margin, shallow marine environment. The Tobosa Basin also contains basement rock that dates back to 1330 million years ago (mya), and that is still visible in the present-day Guadalupe Mountains. The  basement rock contains biotite-quartz granite, discovered at a depth of . In the nearby Apache and Glass Mountains, the basement rock is made of metamorphosed sandstone and Precambrian-aged granite.
The entire area is also underlain by layered mafic rocks, which are thought to be a part of Pecos Mafic Igneous Suite, and extends  into the southern US. It has been dated to 1163 mya. Early to Mid Paleozoic (Late Cambrian to Mississippian)  Ordovician Period (485.4–443.8 mya)  Each period from the Paleozoic Era has contributed a specific lithology to the Tobosa Basin, accumulating into almost  of sediment at the start of the Pennsylvanian Period (323.2–298.9 mya). The Montoya Group is the youngest rock formation in the Tobosa Basin and was formed in the Ordovician Period (485.4–443.8 mya), and sit directly on the igneous and metamorphic basement rocks.
The rocks from the Montoya Group are described as light to medium grey, fine to medium grained crystalline calcareous dolomite. These rocks were sometimes inter-bedded with shale, dark grey limestone, and, less commonly, chert. the Montoya Group sequence is made up of carbonate limestone and dolomite which is described as dense, impermeable, and non-porous, and is more commonly found in the Glass Mountains outcrop, with thickness varying from . Silurian Period (443.8–419.2 mya)  During the Silurian Period, the Tobosa Basin experienced dramatic changes in sea level which led to the formation of multiple rock groups. The first of these groups, called the Fusselman Formation, is mostly made up of light grey, medium to coarse grained dolomite.
The thickness of this formation varies from , and parts of the Fusselman Formation were also subject to karstification, which indicates a drop in sea level. The second rock group that formed during the Silurian Period is called the Wristen Formation, which is mud, shale, and dolomite rich rock that reaches a thickness of  in some places. Karstification of the Fusselman Formation shows that a drop in sea level occurred, but sea levels rose again during a transgressive event, which lead to the creation of the Wristen Formation. Sea levels would then drop again, which led to major exposure, erosion, and karstification of these formations.
Devonian Period (419.2–358.9 mya)  The Thirtyone Formation was developed during the Devonian Period. This formation is characterized by its limestone, chert, and shale beds, some of which had a peak thickness of . this formation had many different types of limestone, including light-colored siliceous, chert-dominated, crinoid-rich, and sandy limestone. The Thirtyone Formation is very similar to the formation of the Mississippian Period, which is likely because there was little to no change in the environment during this time. Mississippian Period (358.9–323.2 mya)  The Mississippian Limestone is the main formation to develop during this Period. This formation, similar to the previously mentioned Thirtyone Formation, is composed primarily of limestone and shale.
The limestone beds are described as being "brown to dark brown, micro-crystalline to very finely crystalline, commonly sandy, and dolomitic", while the shale beds are "grey to black, hard, platy, pyritic, organic, and very siliceous". The Mississippian Limestone ranges from between  in thickness, while generally being thinner towards the southern part of the Tobosa Basin. The Barnett Shale is the second formation to have developed during the Mississippian Period. It consists mainly of silty brown shale and fine-grained sandstone and siltstone. This Formation was much thicker than the Mississippian Limestone, ranging from . The increased thickness can be explained by increased sedimentation in the area, which was likely caused by tectonic activity in the region.
Tectonic Activity During the Mississippian Period  The Ouachita Orogeny occurred during the Late Mississippian, leading to tectonic activity in the region. The subsequent folding and faulting caused by this Orogeny led to the Tobosa Basin being divided into three sections: the Delaware Basin, the Midland Basin, and the Central Basin Platform. The end of the Mississippian Period also led to the beginning of the formation of the modern Permian Reef Complex. The legacy of the early to mid Paleozoic is almost  of sediments that were accumulated due to almost uninterrupted sedimentation. Late Paleozoic (Pennsylvanian to Permian)  Pennsylvanian Period (323.2–298.9 mya)   The Pennsylvanian Period marked the beginning of geological processes that would shape the Permian Basin into what we see today.
As previously mentioned, rifting events during the Cambrian Period (early Paleozoic) left fault zones in the region. This fault zones acted as planes of weakness for faulting that was later initiated by the Ouachita Orogeny. These fault zones caused the Tobosa Basin to be transformed, due to tectonic activity, into the Permian Reef Complex, which comprises three parts: the Central Basin Platform, which is encircled by faults, and the Midland and Delaware Basins on either side. The Delaware Basin is the most important of these three basins. The Pennsylvanian Period also marked the beginning of climate change, as the world would begin its deglaciation while changing from an icehouse to greenhouse climate.
Due to all the tectonic changes that were occurring in the area, certain parts of the former Tobosa Basin were uplifted and exposed to erosion. The newly-formed Delaware Basin was exposed down to the Montoya Group (Ordovician Period), while other parts of the Reef Complex were exposed down to the Precambrian basement rock. The eroded sediments were redeposited onto the shelf of the Delaware Basin, which led to almost  of sediment being deposited over the course of the Pennsylvanian. The Morrow Formation   The main formation from the Pennsylvanian Period is called the Morrow Formation, which reaches a thickness of around  in the Delaware Basin.
Due to the variance in composition, this formation is usually divided into 3 parts: the Lower, Middle, and Upper Morrow. the Lower Morrow is formed from coarse-grained sandstone and inter-bedded limestone and shale. The Middle Morrow, also referred to as the Morrow Shale, is composed of shale and sandstone. These two parts of the Morrow Formation reach almost  in thickness. the last part of this formation, the Upper Morrow, is made up of inter-bedded limestone and sandstone. The Morrow Formation lies conformably on top of the previous Mississippian Formation, with classic sediments visibly prograding across the two formations. As the Mississippian changed to the Pennsylvanian, the sandstone across the two formations changed from a marine source to a deltaic environment, with the sandstone from the Morrow Formation having been shown to be from a fluvial deltaic source.
This change is attributed to an increase in sediment deposition form channels and point bars in the surrounding basin highlands, such as the Pedernal Highlands and the Central Basin Platform Highlands. Other formations  The Pennsylvanian Period also led to the development of other geologic formations, although none had the importance of the Morrow Formation. The Atoka Formation lies conformably on top of the Morrow Formation, and is characterized by its fossil-rich limestone inter-bedded with shale, reaching a max thickness of . During the formation of the Atoka, uplift was still occurring in the region, leading to increased sedimentation as the surrounding highlands were eroded.
The increased sedimentation led to the formation of medium- to coarse-grained sandstone. In the Atoka Formation, the first reef structures that formed in the Delaware Basin are visible. The Strawn Formation formed after the Atoka, also during the Pennsylvanian Period, and reached a max thickness of . In this formation, there was a significant increase in reef mounds. The Strawn Formation is primarily made up of massive limestone, along with "fine to medium-grained sandstone, dark to light-grey shale, and occasional reddish-brown, greenish-gray, bituminous shale". A great number of different fossil types were preserved in this formation, including brachiopods, foraminifera, bryozoans, corals, and crinoids.
The Pennsylvanian Period also includes two other formations, the Canyon and Cisco Formations, which are significant due to the major oil reservoirs discovered in them. Permian Period (298.9–251 mya)  The Permian Period was a time of major reef building to transform the Permian Reef Complex into a major reef system, with Permian-aged rock formations making up 95% of the present-day outcrops in the Permian Basin. When considering any type of reef building that occurred in the Permian, it is important to keep in mind that tectonics played a major part. During this period, the supercontinent of Pangaea, which lasted from 335 to 175 mya, started undergoing breakup.
Pangea was clustered together near the equator and surrounded by the superocean Panthalassa, with the Permian Basin located on its western edge within 5-10 degrees of the equator. Any reef building environment would need a source of water, and the Delaware Basin was located near a marginal sea. Thanks to the Hovey Channel, this sea transported water into the Delaware Basin. Global temperatures during this time were warm, as the world climate was changing from icehouse to greenhouse. This rise in global temperatures also led to the melting of ice masses located towards the South Pole, which then led to a rise in sea levels.
The Permian Period has been split up into main Epochs, each of which has separate subdivision. In each sub epoch, a different formation was formed in the different parts of the Permian Reef Complex. Cisuralian Epoch (298.9–272.3 mya)   The Cisularian Epoch contained two ages, the Wolfcampian and the Leonardian, both of which have a geological formation in the Permian Basin named after them. The Wolfcampian Formation lies conformably on top of the Pennsylvanian Formation and is the first formation from the Permian Period. Its composition varies depending on its location in the Basin, with the northernmost part being more rich in shale.
The thickness of this formation also varies, reaching a maximum of . The Wolfcampian is made up primarily of grey to brown shale and fine-grained, chert-dominated, brown limestone. There are also interbedded layers of fine-grained sandstone found within the formation. The primary formation that remains from the Leonardian Age is called the Bone Spring Limestone, which reaches a max thickness of  and lies directly below the Capitan Reef Complex. The Bone Spring limestone can be divided into two formations: the Victorio Peak Member, which consists of massive beds of limestone measuring up to ; and the Cutoff Shale Member, which is formed from black, platy, siliceous shale and shaley sandstone.
The Bone Spring Limestone consists of several fossils, such as bryozoans, crinoids, and spirifers, but lack algae and sponges that are plentiful in the rest of the Permian Reef Complex. Rocks from the Bone Spring Limestone are predominantly found in the Delaware Basin, but the Victorio Peak Member extends into the shelf margin area. Guadelupian Epoch (272.3–259.8 mya)  The Guadalupian Epoch was named after the Guadalupe Mountains, since this epoch in the Permian is when reef building was at its most efficient. Lasting from approximately 272–260 mya, this epoch was dominated by the Delaware Mountain Group, which can be further subdivided into rock divisions based on location in the Permian Reef Complex.
Brushy Canyon Formation  The first formation that makes up the Delaware Mountain Group is the Brushy Canyon Formation, and it lies in the Delaware Basin. The Brushy Canyon Formation is made up of thin interbedded layers of alternating fine grained and massive quartz sandstone, as well as shaley brown to black sandstone. This formation reaches a maximum thickness of  but thins out significantly as it approaches the basin margins due to transgressive onlap. The Brushy Canyon Formation also contains small reef patches, ripple marks, and crossed bedded strata, that indicate that the Delaware Basin had a shallow water environment at this time.
Cherry Canyon Formation  The next unit of the Delaware Mountain Group is the Cherry Canyon, which had multiple different sub-units and extended into the Delaware Basin and the surrounding shelf environments. The Cherry Canyon Formation can be subdivided into four sub-units, each of which will be discussed briefly. Lower Gateway Formation  The Lower Getaway member is a limestone that has different characteristics based on its location in the Delaware Basin, and contains patch reefs close to the basin margin. These reefs are often found on limestone conglomerate and breccias. The Upper Getaway Member is more consistent and is characterised as a thick bedded dolomite which integrates into the San Andres Formation as it moves toward the shelf.
The middle unit of the Cherry Canyon Formation is the South Wells Member, which is composed of sandstone and integrates itself into the Goat Seep Reef as it moves towards the basin shelf. Manzanita Member  The upper unit is the Manzanita Member, which consists of dolomite, and gets pinched out underneath the Capitan Formation as it moves into the basin margins. All four members of the Cherry Canyon Formation have undergone dolomitization near the basin margins. This is evident since the calcite/aragonite bioclastic debris that existed as a part of this formation has been preserved as molds in dolomite. It has been suggested by some authors that the clasts and debris might have been dolomitic upon deposition, but that is improbable since the debris came from the reef, which was not dolomitic.
Bell Canyon Formation  The Bell Canyon Formation is the next unit in the Delaware Mountain Group, and it is the age equivalent unit to the Capitan Reef Formation which formed on the shelf. The Bell Canyon Formation consists of "un-fossiliferous, dark-gray to black, platy, fine-grained limestone". All the Cherry Canyon Formation and the bottom part of the Bell Canyon Formation have thin interbeds of dark-colored bioclastic limestone and fine-grained sandstone. As these formations move towards the basin margins, the sandstone wedges out and the limestone thickens into massive, meters thick beds, containing reef talus. Goat Seep Reef Formation  The Goat Seep Reef Formation lies on the shelf margin and integrates with the Getaway Formation in the basin and the San Andres Formation towards the Shelf.
This formation is described as  thick,  long, and made up entirely of massive dolomite. In the bottom half of the formation, the dolomite is stratified into massive beds. This formation also contains molds of organisms destroyed by the dolomitization process. Reef building in the Guadalupian Epoch  The Guadalupian Epoch is one of the most successful in history in terms of reef building, since most Permian reefs reached their maximum in size, diversity, extent, and abundance during this Epoch, with the Capitan Reef being one of the most famous examples. In the Guadalupian, reefs were abundant globally, and grew in places such as the Delaware Basin, the Zechstein Basin in Eastern Europe, along the Tethys Ocean, and in cool water shelves in the Panthalassa Ocean.
The end of this golden age for reef building occurred due to the "end-Guadalupian reef crisis", which involved global drops in sea levels and regional salinity fluctuations. The movement and collision of micro-continents during the break up of Pangea also caused the destruction of many Guadalupian Reefs. Even with the number of reefs from that epoch that have been destroyed, there are over 100 Guadalupian reefs that remain in the world, the most from any Permian epoch. Reef growth during the Late Permian  The growth of the Capitan Reef, which is referred to as a "massive member" due to it being formed from massive limestone, can be described in three stages.
The first stage is the establishment of the reef and its rapid growth. Due to the slower rates of subsidence of this time, the reef was able to build itself up quickly. Once the reef reached sea level, it began to grow horizontally, since it could not grow vertically anymore. The reef environment during the first stage of development was described as warm (around ), shallow, high energy, clear water that was free from debris and which had a normal salinity level of 27 to 40 ppt (parts per thousand). The basin water provided plenty of nutrients, since there was continuous upwelling of water that mixed newly brought marine water with anoxic water from the basin floor.
The makeup of the reef is described as being built primarily from erect sponges, which have large, rigid skeletons, and abundant red algae, microbial micrite, and inorganic cement. The microbial micrite worked to trap sediment. One of the most prominent sponges that made up the Capitan Reef was the sponge family Guadalupiidae, a sponge that first appeared on Glass Mountains in the mid Permian and had spread into the Delaware Basin by the late Permian. There were more environmental changes to mark the second stage of the formation of the Capitan Reef. This period of growth was marked by eustatic changes in global sea levels, due to frequent glaciations.
The reef experienced major growth vertically at this stage and grew at a rapid enough pace to keep up with rising sea levels. The Capitan Reef also found a stable foundation on the reef debris and talus that rested on its slopes, and this foundation allowed the reef to grow outward. In some locations, nutrients and minerals were so abundant that the Capitan Reef grew out almost 50 km from the starting point. Reef death during the Late Permian  The third stage of the Capitan Reef is the death of the reef system. Ocean currents in the Permian played a huge role in setting up the climate of the region and for aiding in the growth and death of the Capitan Reef.
The climate of the basin region was hot and arid, which is shown in the evaporite deposits that can be found in the back reef region. The end in growth and accumulation of the Permian Reef Complex was influenced by tectonics. During the end of the Permian Period, the supercontinent of Pangaea was beginning its break up, which drastically changed the conditions that were previously favourable for reef growth. Change in tectonics limited the exchange of sea water in the Hovey Channel, which then led to a salinity increase in the Permian Basin. The reef could not survive this drastic change in water salinity, and was therefore destroyed.
Up until the Guadalupian, the Permian Basin had adequate water circulation with fresh water coming in from the Hovey Channel. Evaporite growth along the bottom portions of the basin showed that the water column was most likely stratified and euxinic, meaning the water was both anoxic and sulfidic. The passageways between the Delaware and Midland Basins were restricted due to tectonic changes, and this caused the salinity of the water to rise. The growing temperatures in the late Permian combined with the increase in salinity caused the extinction of the Capitan Reef, as well as the formation of evaporites with the basin.
The layers of evaporites that formed as a result of increased salinity is called the Castile Formation. This formation consists of alternating layers of gypsum/anhydrite and limestone, as well as massive beds of gypsum/anhydrite, salt, and some limestone. The unit measures almost  in total and was formed during the Lopingian Epoch. The individual layers (laminae) of gypsum/anhydrite are between  and  in thickness, which is thought to correlate with the basin salinity on a year by year basis. The Capitan Reef had been altered diagenetically early on in its history, especially after the deposition of the Castile Formation. There is evidence of fabric alteration throughout this formation, which is thought to indicate the dehydration and rehydration process of the gypsum and anhydrites.
There is also evidence of evaporite calcitization. The reef system was buried until it was exposed in the Mesozoic Era as a result of tectonic activity by the Laramide Orogeny. The deep water shale and carbonate reefs of the Delaware and Midland Basins and the Central Basin Platform would become lucrative hydrocarbon reservoirs. Generalized facies tracts of the Permian Basin   The Permian basin is divided into generalized facies belts differentiated by the depositional environment in which they formed, influenced by sea level, climate, salinity, and access to the sea. Lowstand systems tract  Lowering sea level exposes the peritidal and potentially, the shelf margin regions, allowing linear channel sandstones to cut into the shelf, extending beyond the shelf margin atop the slope carbonates, fanning outward toward the basin.
The tidal flats during a lowstand contain aeolian sandstones and siltstones atop supratidal lithofacies of the transgressive systems tract. The basin fill during a lowstand is composed of thin carbonate beds intermingled with sandstone and siltstone at the shelf and sandstone beds within the basin. Transgressive systems tract  These facies results from the abrupt deepening of the basin and the reestablishment of carbonate production. Carbonates such as bioturbated wackstone and oxygen poor lime mud accumulate atop the underlying lowstand systems tract sandstones in the basin and on the slope. The tidal flats are characterized by supratidal faces of hot and arid climate such as dolomudstones and dolopackstones.
The basin is characterized by thick carbonate beds on or close to the shelf with the shelf margin becoming progressively steeper and the basin sandstones becoming thinner. Highstand systems tract  Highstand systems tract facies results from the slowing down in the rise of sea level. It is characterized by carbonate production on the shelf margin and dominant carbonate deposition throughout the basin. The lithofacies is of thick beds of carbonates on the shelf and shelf margin and thin sandstone beds on the slope. The basin becomes restricted by the formation of red beds on the shelf, creating evaporites in the basin.
Tectonic history  During the Cambrian–Mississippian, the ancestral Permian Basin was the broad marine passive margin Tobosa Basin containing deposits of carbonates and clastics. In the early Pennsylvanian–early Permian the collision of North American and Gondwana Land (South America and Africa) caused the Hercynian orogeny. The Hercynian Orogeny resulted in the Tobosa basin being differentiated into two deep basins (the Delaware and the Midland Basins) surrounded by shallow shelves. During the Permian, the basin became structurally stable and filled with clastics in the basin and carbonates on the shelves. Lower Paleozoic passive margin phase (late Precambrian–Mississippian, 850–310 Mya)  This passive margin succession is present throughout the southwestern US and is up to  thick.
The ancestral Permian basin is characterized by weak crustal extension and low subsidence in which the Tobosa basin developed. The Tobosa basin contained shelf carbonates and shales. Collision phase (late Mississippian–Pennsylvanian, 310–265 Mya)  The two lobed geometry of the Permian basin separated by a platform was the result of the Hercynian collisional orogeny during the collision of North America and Gondwana Land (South America and Africa). This collision uplifted the Ouachita-Marathon fold belt and deformed the Tobosa Basin. The Delaware Basin resulted from tilting along areas of Proterozoic weakness in Tobosa basin. Southwestern compression reactivated steeply dipping thrust faults and uplifted the Central Basin ridge.
Folding of the basement terrane split the basin into the Delaware basin to the west and the Midland Basin to the east. Permian Basin phase (Permian, 265–230 Mya)  Rapid sedimentation of clastics, carbonate platforms and shelves, and evaporites proceeded synorogenically. Bursts of orogenic activity are divided by three angular unconformities in basin strata. Evaporite deposits in the small remnant basin mark the final stage of sedimentation as the basin became restricted from the sea during sea level fall. Hydrocarbon production and reserves   The Permian Basin is the largest petroleum-producing basin in the United States and has produced a cumulative 28.9billion barrels of oil and 75trillion cubic feet of gas.
Currently in early 2020, over 4 million barrels of oil a day are being pumped from the basin. Eighty percent of estimated reserves are located at less than  depth. Ten percent of the oil recovered from the Permian Basin has come from Pennsylvanian carbonates. The largest reservoirs are within the Central Basin Platform, the Northwestern and Eastern shelves, and within Delaware Basin sandstones. The Primary lithologies of the major hydrocarbon reservoirs are limestone, dolomite, and sandstone due to their high porosities. However, advances in hydrocarbon recovery such as horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing have expanded production into unconventional, tight oil shales such as those found in the Wolfcamp Shale.
History of resources  Oil reserves in the Permian Basin were first documented by W.H Abrams in Mitchell County, West Texas in 1920. The first commercial well was opened a year later in 1921, in the newly discovered Westbrook Oil Field in Mitchell County, at a depth of . Initially, the Permian Basin was thought to have a bowl-like shape, with geological survey crews unable to study the inside of the basin due to a lack of outcrops. The next few years contained discoveries of multiple oil fields, such as the World oil field, McCamey oil field (discovered in 1925), and the Yates oil field (1926).
All of these discoveries were made by random drilling or sub-surfacing mapping. Geophysical tests were vital in mapping the region, since tools such as seismographs and magnetometers were used to find anomalies in the area. Due to distances and lack of pipes in which to move oil, deep drilling tests were not done in the 1920s since the cost was unjustified. As a result, all the oil wells up to 1928 were less than  deep. During World War II the need for oil in the US became urgent, justifying the high costs of deep oil drilling. This breakthrough led to major oil reservoirs being found in every geological formation from the Cambrian Period to the Permian Period.
in 1966, the production of the Permian Basin measured 600 million barrels of oil, along with 2.3 trillion cubic ft of gas, which totaled $2 billion. The production values steadily increased thanks to the installation of gas pipelines and oil refineries in the area, reaching a total production of over 14.9 billion barrels in 1993. In addition to oil, one of the main commodities that is mined from the Permian Basin is potash, which was first discovered in the region in the late 1800s by geologist Johan August Udden. Early studies by Udden led to the United States Geological Survey exploring the area in search of potash, which was highly important during World War I as the US could no longer import it from Germany.
by the mid 1960s, seven potash mines were operating on the New Mexico side of the Permian Basin. Current production  As of 2018, the Permian Basin has produced more than 33 billion barrels of oil, along with 118 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. This production accounts for 20% of US crude oil production and 7% of US dry natural gas production. While the production was thought to have peaked in the early 1970s, new technologies for oil extraction, such as hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling, have increased production dramatically. Estimates from the Energy Information Administration have predicted that proven reserves in the Permian Basin still hold 5 billion barrels of oil and approximately 19 trillion cubic feet of natural gas.
By October 2019, the fossil-fuel executives said that until recently they had been making progress in cutting back on flaring, which is to burn natural gas. Drilling companies focus on drilling and pumping oil, which is highly lucrative but the less-valuable gas which is pumped along with the oil, is considered to be a "byproduct". During the current boom in the Permian oil fields, drilling for oil has "far outpaced pipeline construction" so the use of flaring has increased along with venting "natural gas and other potent greenhouse gases directly into the atmosphere". Both practices are legal under states' legislation.
The price of natural gas is so cheap that smaller companies that have the pipeline capacity are choosing to flare rather than pay pipeline costs. Counties of the Permian Basin   Due to its economic significance, the Permian Basin has also given its name to the geographic region in which it lies. The counties of this region include:  Andrews County pop. 14,057  Borden County pop. 525  Crane County pop. 4,165  Dawson County pop. 13,657  Ector County pop. 134,165  Eddy County, New Mexico pop. 52,706  Gaines County pop. 15,382  Glasscock County pop. 1,406  Howard County pop. 32,940  Lea County, New Mexico pop.
60,232  Loving County pop. 113  Martin County pop. 4,581  Midland County pop. 172,578  Pecos County pop. 16,248  Reeves County pop. 11,046  Terrell County pop. 969  Upton County pop. 3,130  Ward County pop. 10,528  Winkler County pop. 6,772  Yoakum County pop. 7,698 According to the 2008/2009 census, the Permian Basin had a total population of 522,568. Other counties sometimes considered part of the Permian Basin are:  Brewster County pop. 9,489  Crockett County pop. 3,740  Culberson County pop. 2,300  Jeff Davis County pop. 2,258  Kent County pop. 807  Mitchell County pop. 9,347  Presidio County pop. 7,470  Reagan County pop. 3,014  Scurry County pop.
16,222  Sterling County pop. 1,259  When including those counties, the population of the Permian Basin reaches 577,667. See also    List of geographical regions in Texas  University of Texas of the Permian Basin  Permian Basin Petroleum Museum  Permian Basin (Europe)  Slaughter Field  Val Verde Basin  References  External links   Permian Basin—Texas State Historical Association article  Category:Sedimentary basins of North America Category:Carboniferous United States Category:Permian United States Category:Geologic provinces of Texas Category:Regions of New Mexico Category:Regions of Texas Category:Carboniferous geology of New Mexico Category:Carboniferous geology of Texas Category:Permian geology of New Mexico Category:Permian geology of Texas Category:Oil fields of the United States Category:Oil fields in Texas
Graham Leslie Coxon (born 12 March 1969) is an English musician, singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist and painter who came to prominence as a founding member of the rock band Blur. As the group's lead guitarist and secondary vocalist, Coxon was featured on seven of Blur's studio albums, from 1991's Leisure to 2015's The Magic Whip, despite being absent from the group from 2002 to 2008 owing to a dispute with the other members during the recording of 2003's Think Tank. He has also led a solo career since 1998. As well as being a musician, Coxon was a visual artist: he designed the cover art for all his solo albums as well as Blur's 13 (1999).
Coxon plays several instruments and records his albums with little assistance from session musicians. Q magazine critic Adrian Deevoy has written: "Coxon is an astonishing musician. His restless playing style – all chord slides, rapid pulloffs, mini-arpeggios and fractured runs – seems to owe more to his saxophone training than any conventional guitar tuition." An innovative lead guitarist, he has been described by Oasis bandleader Noel Gallagher as "one of the most talented guitarists of his generation." Coxon was voted the 15th greatest guitarist of the last 30 years in a 2010 BBC poll. Early life Coxon was born in Rinteln, West Germany where his father, Bob Coxon, was stationed as a clarinet player and band leader in the British Army.
As a child, he moved first to Spondon, in Derby, a period during which he became a fan of Derby County. He then moved to Colchester, Essex, in South East England, where he grew up and met fellow Blur member Damon Albarn at The Stanway School, then known as Stanway Comprehensive, at the age of 11. He appeared on the popular BBC children's show Blue Peter twice. Music career  Blur   Coxon studied Fine Arts at Goldsmiths College, London, for two years, where early on he met bassist Alex James. In his time there he mixed with upcoming talents such as Damien Hirst, Michael Landy, Sam Taylor-Wood, and Abigail Lane, some of the future leading lights of the Britart movement.
He quit college due to the increasing success of his band at the time, Seymour, which later changed its name to Blur because the recording company, Food Records, thought Seymour was too 'student-ish'. They presented a list to the band of preferred names which included "The Shining Path" and "Blur". As well as providing all guitars, backing vocals, and occasional drums, Coxon's lo-fi and alternative musical style and tastes influenced the band's less commercial music in the late 1990s. He sang lead vocals on songs including "Red Necks", "You're So Great" from the album Blur, and "Coffee & TV", as well as a section of the chorus of "Tender", the bridge of "Lonesome Street" and a section of "Thought I Was a Spaceman" on The Magic Whip.
During the 1995 period of the media-dubbed 'Battle of Britpop', Coxon became increasingly weary and suspicious of the music industry. His behaviour was occasionally awkward, such as refusing to appear in the video for Blur song "Country House" unless he could dress as a milkman and take no part in any action with which he felt uncomfortable. In November 2001 Coxon was admitted to the Priory Hospital for 28 days to be treated for alcoholism. During this time, Blur began the recording sessions that would produce the material for their next album, Think Tank.
In February 2002, Coxon rejoined the band in the studio for the rest of the recording of Think Tank but after five days was asked by then manager Chris Morrison not to go back into the studio as the other members of the band had reported that the session was not going too well with him present. Coxon took this as a sign and left the band. As he stated in an interview in 2006, "I had a breakthrough, I think my life just became calmer, I gave up drinking. My priorities changed as I had a young daughter. The group didn't want me to record for the Think Tank album, so I took it as a sign to leave".
His last contribution to Blur was a song called "Battery in Your Leg", the closing song on Blur's 2003 album Think Tank, before leaving the line-up. Damon Albarn later revealed that the song "Sweet Song" was written after he had been looking at a photograph of Coxon. After Damon Albarn's revealing that he and Coxon had rebuilt their relationship, on 9 December 2008, Blur announced that the whole band would reunite for a show at Hyde Park on 3 July 2009. More dates were announced and the band played festival dates at Glastonbury, T in the Park and Oxegen 2009 as well as headlining shows in Manchester, Newcastle, Wolverhampton, Goldsmiths College and the East Anglian Railway Museum in Colchester.
Blur also played one show in Lyon, France. On 17 April 2010, the band released their first single since 2003, "Fool's Day", for the Record Store Day event as a 7" limited to 1000 copies. The band released the single as a free download on their official website the next day. More recently Blur announced via the NME website that they would reunite every so often and record more singles, preferably on 7 inch. However, Damon also stated that an album was not on its way as they were all too busy with their own individual projects. On 19 February 2015, Coxon and the band announced on social media that they would be releasing their eighth studio album on 27 April, titled The Magic Whip, Blur's first album in 12 years and first in 16 years in their original lineup.
Solo work  Coxon had already released three solo albums while a member of Blur before his 2002 departure. His first, released on his own Transcopic label was The Sky Is Too High in 1998, a ramshackle mixture of English folk music and 1960s-style garage rock, influenced by Billy Childish. This was followed by the more extreme The Golden D in 2000 and the thoughtful Dylan-Drakesque Crow Sit on Blood Tree (2001). After going solo full-time, he released The Kiss of Morning in 2002. The album proved to be his most accessible to date and was promoted with the single "Escape Song" which proved to be an interesting hybrid of Syd Barrett's "Octopus" and progressive rock trail-blazers The Nice.
In 2004, Coxon released his fifth solo album Happiness in Magazines, produced by ex-Blur and The Smiths producer Stephen Street. This proved to be his most successful album to date, and he received the NME Award for Best Solo Artist in 2005. In March 2006 he released his sixth solo album, called Love Travels at Illegal Speeds, again produced by Stephen Street. It marked Coxon's first album away from his now-defunct indie label 'Transcopic'. The LP was preceded by the singles "Standing on My Own Again" on 27 February and "You & I". Coxon embarked on a tour of the UK, starting at Newcastle University.
He was also involved in a single supporting the England national football team at the 2006 FIFA World Cup. The song was a re-working of the Sham 69 hit "Hurry Up Harry", and was released as "Sham 69 and The Special Assembly" (as well as Coxon and Sham 69, Virgin Radio DJ Christian O'Connell, who had run a competition on his show to find a band to record a song in support of the team, was involved in the recording of the song). "Hurry Up England" entered the UK Singles Chart at No. 10. In October 2006, Coxon released a double live album Burnt to Bitz: At the Astoria immediately after his sold-out London Astoria show.
The album features 27 songs, with at least one song from each of his albums. In July 2007 Coxon released a single with Paul Weller, called "This Old Town". The single peaked at No. 39 in the UK Singles Chart. Coxon's seventh 15-track studio album titled The Spinning Top, produced again by Stephen Street, was released on 11 May 2009. Coxon stated that the LP, which is primarily acoustic, followed a narrative – the story of a man from birth to death. "The album is mainly an acoustic journey although there is, of course, some explosive electric guitar action," he explained.
"There are some guests too! Robyn Hitchcock supplies some counter-attack guitar, Jas Singh plays dilruba and jori with his friends Gurjit Sembhi on taus and Jaskase Singh on esraj. Danny Thompson plays the legendary Victoria, Graham Fox gives plenty of swing on the drums and sizzle cymbals and Louis Vause tinkles the ivories." Pre-release response had been positive, with Monday Field of Frank Booth Review dubbing the album "a staggering artistic achievement, and Coxon's best solo release to date." His eighth solo album A+E was released in April 2012. Coxon wrote and recorded the score for the 2017 Channel 4 / Netflix television series The End of the F***ing World; it was his first original score.
The soundtrack was released in January 2018. In September of the same year, Coxon embarked on a solo tour in North America that featured some of the songs from his score. Transcopic and other contributions Coxon's independent label, Transcopic, was co-managed with his friend, and then business partner, Jamie Davis. Davis now runs Independent label Ark Recordings. Coxon illustrated and designed all of his own album art, and collaborated with his friend Nick Craske creating abstract digital work for the release of The Spinning Top; they also filmed two music videos, "Sorrow's Army" and "'In The Morning". Coxon also continued painting a series of personal work, most of which remained unseen until 2004, when he exhibited at the ICA in London.
Coxon has also been involved in remixing other peoples tracks, including Idlewild and Lowgold both of which were released as b-sides and the latter remix was later re-released on the bands anthology release Keep Music Miserable. In September 2006, Coxon revealed a musical soundscape, "english shoes squeek", created especially for "Verheaven" an exhibition at London's Riflemaker Gallery of the work of artist Julie Verhoeven. Coxon appeared on John McCusker's Under One Sky, providing the song "All Has Gone". In 2009, Coxon was involved in the creation of the Pete Doherty solo album Grace/Wastelands. Doherty had entered a period of sobriety, during which he holed up with Coxon to work on his debut solo album, Grace/Wasteland, (released 24 March 2009) a diverse collection of 12 songs that bounce between reggae and Doherty's standard post-punk.
Coxon played on all but one track on the album. Coxon has also produced albums by Mower and Assembly Line People Programme from his Transcopic label. In 2013, Graham Coxon was involved in a musical project where artists re-recorded the classic Beatles album Please Please Me. The Blur guitarist recorded the song "Baby It's You" live as part of a 10-hour recording session hosted by BBC Radio 2 to mark the 50th anniversary of a challenge set by recording company EMI to The Beatles to record a whole studio album in one session. Instruments and equipment Coxon has primarily used Fender Telecasters throughout his career, particularly a '52 reissue and a customised 1968 model with a Gibson PAF humbucker in the neck position, the latter was reissued by Fender as the Graham Coxon signature model although with some minor changes.
Since the Blur reunion in 2009 he almost exclusively used a vintage Telecaster Deluxe. During the Leisure era Coxon also used Gibson Les Pauls and a Fender Jaguar, whilst on some later songs, such as No Distance Left to Run and This Is a Low, Coxon uses a Gibson ES-335. He has occasionally used a heavily modified Fender Musicmaster which can be seen in the Coffee & TV and Beetlebum videos. Coxon plays all the instruments featured in his solo work, and has used a variety of guitars, notably Gibson SGs, and a Burns London Sonic. He has been recently seen playing a Telecaster Custom.
Graham recently received a custom made guitar from Gray Guitars - it is a Telecaster-type instrument and features a semi-acoustic body and P90 style pickups. Coxon's playing makes significant use of effects pedals such as distortion, delay (a significant example being "Essex Dogs") and flange (as heard in the pre-chorus of Girls & Boys). He uses a custom made Mike Hill pedalboard which over the years has included: Akai Headrush E2, Boss BF-2 Flanger, Boss CS-3 Compressor/Sustainer, Boss DD-3 Digital Delay, Boss DM-2 Analogue Delay, Boss OD-3, Boss NS-2 Noise Suppressor, Boss PN-2 Tremolo/Pan, Boss RV-5 Digital Reverb, Boss TR-2 Tremolo, Boss TU-2 Tuner, Boss VB-2 Vibrato, DOD Punkifier, Electro-Harmonix HOG, Electro-Harmonix Holy Grail, Line 6 FM4 Filter Modeller, ProCo RAT, Shin-Ei FY-2 Companion Fuzz, T-Rex Mudhoney Distortion.
For amplification, he uses two Marshall 1959 SLP heads going in to individual 1968 4x12 cabinets. A detailed gear diagram of Graham Coxon's 1993 Blur guitar rig is well-documented. Other artistic endeavours Coxon is a visual artist and designs all his album sleeves. He has also designed album sleeves for other artists. In July 2006, he wrote and had published a foreword for a new edition of Herman Hesse's Narcissus and Goldmund novel. His work also featured on the cover of English folk singer Kate Rusby's album The Girl Who Couldn't Fly. Personal life  Graham divides his time between London and Los Angeles and is married to long term partner, vocalist, poet and multimedia artist, Essy Syed.
They have two daughters between them, Pepper Bäk Troy Coxon, and their youngest, Dorelia Talys Bee Coxon. Solo discography  Solo studio albums  The Sky Is Too High (1998)  The Golden D (2000)  Crow Sit on Blood Tree (2001)  The Kiss of Morning (2002)  Happiness in Magazines (2004)  Love Travels at Illegal Speeds (2006)  The Spinning Top (2009)  A+E (2012)  Original Scores and Music    The End of the F***ing World (2018)   The End of the F***ing World 2 (2019)   I Am Not Okay With This (as Bloodwitch)  (2020)  References  External links       Category:1969 births Category:Living people Category:Alternative rock guitarists Category:20th-century English painters Category:English male painters Category:21st-century English painters Category:Alumni of Goldsmiths, University of London Category:Blur (band) members Category:English drummers Category:British male drummers Category:English male singers Category:English multi-instrumentalists Category:English songwriters Category:Lead guitarists Category:People from Rinteln Category:Britpop musicians Category:People from Spondon   Category:English male guitarists Category:Album-cover and concert-poster artists
The Supermarine Swift is a British single-seat jet-propelled fighter aircraft that was operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF). It was developed and manufactured by Supermarine during the 1940s and 1950s. The Swift featured many of the new jet age innovations, such as a swept wing. On 26 September 1953, a Swift F.4 piloted by Commander Mike Lithgow broke the world absolute speed record, reaching a speed of 737.7 mph (1,187 km/h); thus, the Swift was the world's fastest aircraft. After a protracted development period, the Swift entered service as an interceptor aircraft with the RAF in 1954. However, due to a spate of accidents incurred by the type, the Swift was grounded for a time, and experienced a relatively brief service life.
These issues with the Swift led to a public scandal surrounding the aircraft, harming the reputations of the British government, the RAF, and the aircraft industry. Ultimately, the less problematic Hawker Hunter assumed much of the intended role for the type and only half as many Swifts were manufactured as had once been intended. A later-produced photo reconnaissance variant of the Swift had resolved some of the teething problems that the type had suffered from, but this proved to be too late for it to regain favour. An advanced derivative of the Swift that was to be capable of transonic speeds, the Supermarine 545, was also under development during the early 1950s; however, in 1955, it was cancelled principally due to the poor performance of the Swift.
Design and development  Background During 1945, the Second World War came to a close and a new postwar Labour government, headed by Clement Attlee, came to power in Britain. The incoming Attlee government's initial stance on defence was that no major conflict would occur for at least a decade, and thus there would be no need to develop or to procure any new aircraft until 1957. In accordance with this policy, aside from a small number of exceptions such as what would become the Hawker Sea Hawk for the Royal Navy, the majority of Specifications issued by the Air Ministry for fighter-sized aircraft during the late 1940s were restricted to research purposes.
Aviation author Derek Wood refers to this policy as being: "a fatal error of judgement which was to cost Britain a complete generation of fighters and heavy bomber aircraft". In part, the Swift has its origins amongst these experimental fighter prototypes that were developed. Specifically, a number of Supermarine-built prototypes had been ordered under Specification E.41/46, which had sought the production of an experimental fighter aircraft furnished with a swept wing. The first of these prototypes was designated as the Type 510, which was heavily based on the straight-wing Supermarine Attacker, an early jet aircraft which was procured by the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) of the Royal Navy; the principal difference from the Attacker was that it had been modified with the addition of a swept wing configuration.
During 1948, the Type 510 had conducted its maiden flight, a year after the first navalised prototype Attacker had flown. This flight made it the first British aircraft to fly with both swept wings and a swept tailplane. The Type 510 also held the distinction of being the first swept-wing aircraft to take off from and land upon an aircraft carrier during trials held for the Fleet Air Arm. During the late 1940s, in the face of the emerging Cold War scenario, the RAF came to recognise that it would urgently require the development and procurement of fighters equipped with features such as swept wings; this need was felt to be so pressing that they were willing to accept interim fighter aircraft while more capable fighters would continue to be pursued.
In 1950, the outbreak of the Korean War and Britain's heavy involvement in this conflict led to a flurry of orders being issued; in particular, the RAF felt that a pair of proposed fighter aircraft from Hawker Aircraft and Supermarine were of high importance and thus placed orders for these proposed fighters 'off the drawing board' in 1950. The proposed Supermarine design was designated as the Type 541, which was essentially an advanced development of the earlier Type 510 experimental aircraft. The initial order that had been placed in 1950 for 100 aircraft was intended to serve as an insurance policy in the event of the Hawker effort failing to produce a viable aircraft; these two aircraft would later become known as the Supermarine Swift and the Hawker Hunter respectively.
In early 1946, the Type 541 order was increased to 150 aircraft, while the Air Ministry had hopes that it would be able to enter service in advance of the rival Hunter. However, the development of both the Swift and the Hunter would be protracted and also encountered several considerable technical challenges; according to Wood, this had been in part due to a failure to procure interim aircraft equipped with swept wings or to proceed with development of the Miles M.52. Wood describes the Swift as being "literally an attempt to squeeze a quart into a pint pot, with 30mm Aden guns, afterburning, power controls, adequate fuel and a respectable high subsonic performance".
The Type 541 replaced its predecessors' Rolls-Royce Nene centrifugal flow turbojet engine with the axial-flow Rolls-Royce AJ.65 turbojet engine, which became the famed Avon series. The fuselage, which had been given a cross section suitable for the Nene engine, was not redesigned for the narrower AJ.65 and Avon engines, and retained a somewhat portly appearance. It was also equipped with a tricycle undercarriage arrangement. A pair of Type 541 prototypes were produced; the first of these prototypes made its maiden flight in 1951 and the second during the following year. Into production The Swift had been declared to be a production "super-priority" item under a policy which had been created by Sir Winston Churchill (who had regained the position of Britain's Prime Minister in 1951) as a means of increasing production for projects considered to be of vital military importance.
According to Wood, volume manufacturing commenced in advance of the implementation of modifications based on the results of flight experiences with the prototypes; "too much had been asked for in too little time and production aircraft were rolling off the production line before a major redesign could be accomplished". The first production variant was a fighter designated the Swift F Mk 1, of which 18 were eventually built. It was powered by a single 7,500 lbf (33.4 kN)-thrust Avon 109 engine and carried an armament of two 30 mm ADEN cannons. On 25 August 1952, the first flight of a production standard Swift F 1 took place.
Peter Thorne, who had been appointed as the senior RAF test pilot for the incoming Swift in 1954, came to doubt the aircraft's suitability; observations by Thorne and several other pilots noted the Swift to possess unusual handling qualities alongside a troublesome engine. The second variant was the Swift F Mk 2, of which 16 were built. This was practically the same as the earlier F 1, except for being fitted with two extra ADENs and the leading edge of the wing being altered from straight to a compound sweep configuration. However, the addition of these cannon caused problems as the structural modifications required to house the increased ammunition load led to dangerous handling problems with the aircraft and it was clear that more thrust was required from its engine.
Numerous further modifications were then required to resolve the issues. The third Swift variant was the F Mk 3, with 25 being built and powered by an Avon 114 engine with reheat. It was never taken into operational service with the Royal Air Force and was used as an instructional airframe. The next variant was the F Mk.4, which included a variable incidence tailplane intended to correct the handling problems that the Swift suffered from. It did indeed fix the problem; however, it was found that reheat could not be ignited at high altitude which added to the Swift's list of problems.
The next in the line, the FR Mk 5, had a longer nose to accommodate a number of cameras to suit the reconnaissance role and had other modifications to its structure. The FR 5 also reverted to the F 1's twin ADEN cannon armament. It first flew in 1955 and entered service the following year. It performed its reconnaissance mainly at low level, making the reheat problem at high altitude irrelevant. Two further variants were designed; the PR Mk 6 was an unarmed photo reconnaissance variant. However, it was a short-lived program due to ever-present reheat problems. The last variant was the F Mk 7; this model was the first Swift variant to be fitted with guided missiles, having been armed with the Fairey Fireflash air-to-air missile and was powered by a new model of the Avon engine.
Only fourteen F 7 aircraft were built and none of these ever entered service with the RAF, being relegated – along with its prototype missiles – to conducting guided-missile trials duties only. Proposed derivative  In 1953, as a response to growing RAF interest in developing transonic aircraft to serve as a stopgap while the next generation of supersonic fighters were being developed, both Supermarine and Hawker proposed derivatives of their respective Swift and Hunter aircraft. By this point, the shortcomings of the Swift were not yet apparent, which perhaps had allowed Supermarine to gain the RAF's favour for their proposal, designated as the Type 545, over the rival Hawker P.1083.
The Type 545 had been drawn up to conform with the requirements given by Specification F.105D; it was projected to have been capable of attaining Mach 1.3 and powered by a model of Avon engine, promising superior performance to that of the P.1083. Externally, the Type 545 bore a crude resemblance to the Swift, and would have served as a spiritual successor to it, but was radically redesigned with an area-ruled fuselage and wing changes. In 1955, work on the project was cancelled, in part due to the considerable difficulties experienced with the Swift. Operational history  In February 1954, the Swift F 1 entered service with the RAF, No.
56 Squadron became the first RAF squadron to operate the type; upon its introduction, the Swift became the RAF's first swept-wing aircraft. The Swift F 2 entered service that same month; Wood refers to the type's introduction as having been "panicked", and that this adoption soon proved to be an "abysmal failure". Tragedy struck very early in the career of the Swift: there were a number of accidents that involved the F 1 and F 2, one of these being fatal. In August 1954, it was decided that the Swift F 1 would be grounded; the Swift F 2, which had effectively replaced the F 1 in that same month, was also soon grounded alongside it due to similar reasons.
The Swift F 3 and F 4 fighters were noted to have improved performance over their predecessors; the F 4 would be the last variant that the RAF would accept in the interceptor role. All fighter variants of the Swift were withdrawn from service by the RAF, after a short time in service, to be replaced by the more capable Hawker Hunter. While subject to its own problems, the Hunter had quickly proved to be a successful fighter aircraft. By autumn 1954, the issues with the Swift had become public knowledge and reports of the pending cancellation of the Swift were being printed by the national press; Under-Secretary of State for Air Sir George Ward stated of the aircraft in Parliament that: "Aerodynamic difficulties have been encountered, and it is not possible to say with certainty if they can be overcome in version under development".
In early February 1955, the Swift was rumoured to have failed its final evaluation by the RAF Central Fighter Establishment, and that the type would likely be restricted in RAF service to aerial reconnaissance or to ground attack roles as a result. On 2 March 1955, Minister of Supply Selwyn Lloyd acknowledged that development of the Swift had cost £20 million prior to the scrapping of the fighter variants. According to Wood, the Swift had become a national scandal by early 1955, which not only tarnished the aircraft but also the RAF and the British aircraft industry, the public and ministers alike generally adopting a more averse nature to aviation and other aircraft projects.
The FR.5 was the last Swift variant to enter service with the RAF and was eventually replaced by the Hunter FR.10, leaving RAF service entirely in 1961. The Swift FR 5 was deemed to be suitable for its role and was based with two squadrons that were assigned to RAF Germany. The Swift never saw combat action with the RAF. It did break a number of speed records in its time; in Libya, on 26 September 1953, an F.4 (WK198) piloted by Commander Mike Lithgow broke the world absolute speed record, reaching a speed of 737.7 mph (1,187 km/h), though it was broken in turn just eight days later by the Douglas Skyray, a United States Navy (USN) fighter.
The Swift has the distinction of being the last British production aircraft to hold this record (the Fairey Delta 2 was experimental). Under two hundred Swifts were built from an order of 497. A number of Swift airframes went to Australia for Operation Buffalo in 1956, being placed at various distances from a detonating atomic bomb. By its last variant many of the problems that had plagued earlier Swifts were resolved but the programme was not continued. The Hunter, performing satisfactorily in the same roles, removed any requirement to persist with the Swift. Variants  Type 510 Prototype developed from the Vickers Supermarine Attacker still with a tailwheel undercarriage but with swept wings and tail.
Type 517 Prototype fitted with a variable incidence tailplane. Type 535 Prototype fitted with a nosewheel undercarriage. Swift F.Mk 1 Single-seat fighter aircraft, fitted with a fixed variable-incidence tailplane, powered by a Rolls-Royce Avon RA-7/109 turbojet engine without an afterburner,  armed with two 30-mm ADEN cannons. Swift F.Mk 2 Single-seat fighter aircraft, armed with four 30-mm ADEN cannon. Swift F.Mk 3 Single-seat fighter aircraft, powered by an afterburning Rolls-Royce Avon RA-7A/114 turbojet engine, armed with two 30-mm ADEN cannon. Swift F.Mk 4 Single-seat fighter aircraft, fitted with a variable-incidence tailplane. Swift FR.Mk 5 Single-seat tactical-reconnaissance aircraft, fitted with a lengthened nose to accommodate three cameras, equipped with a frameless cockpit canopy, powered by a Rolls-Royce Avon 114 turbojet engine, armed with two 30-mm ADEN cannon.
Swift F.Mk 7 Single-seat fighter aircraft, fitted with a lengthened nose to accommodate a radar, armed with two Fairey Fireflash air-to-air missiles and no cannon. Operators   Royal Air Force  No. 2 Squadron RAF operated FR.5 variant. No. 4 Squadron RAF operated FR.5 variant. No. 56 Squadron RAF operated F.1 and F.2 variants. No. 79 Squadron RAF operated FR.5 variant. Survivors  VV106 (Supermarine Type 517) is stored by the Fleet Air Arm Museum, Yeovilton, England. WK198 (the F.4 prototype, fuselage only) this former World Air Speed record holder is on display at Brooklands Museum, Surrey; it was first preserved at the North East Aircraft Museum, Sunderland, England, on 2 April 2008 it was relocated to the RAF Millom Museum, Cumbria, but with that museum's closure in September 2010, WK198 was transferred to Brooklands on 3 February 2011.
WK275 (F.4) Having spent four years being restored to exhibition standard by Jet Art Aviation, this aircraft is now on loan to the Vulcan To The Sky Trust. It represents the definitive fighter variant with slab tail. WK277 (FR.5) on display at the Newark Air Museum, Newark, England. WK281 (FR.5) on display at the Tangmere Military Aviation Museum, Tangmere, England. G-SWIF (F.7, the former XF114) is stored by Solent Sky, Southampton, England. Specifications (Supermarine Swift FR Mk.5)  Notable appearances in media  See also  References  Citations  Bibliography     Winchester, Jim. The World's Worst Aircraft: From Pioneering Failures to Multimillion Dollar Disasters. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2005. .
Wood, Derek. Project Cancelled. Macdonald and Jane's Publishers, 1975. . Further reading  Birtles, Philip. Supermarine Attacker, Swift and Scimitar (Postwar Military Aircraft 7). London: Ian Allan, 1992. . Curry, Alan and Frank Goodridge. "The Rise and Fall of the Swift." FlyPast: Key Publications, May and July 1987. Taylor, John W.R. "Supermarine Swift." Combat Aircraft of the World from 1909 to the present. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969. . Walpole, Nigel. Swift Justice, the full story of the Supermarine Swift. Pen and Sword Books Ltd. 2004. External links  Swift at Thunder and Lightnings Picture of a Swift F.Mk.1 Picture of an early Swift Picture of the Supermarine 510 VV106  Category:1950s British fighter aircraft Swift Category:Single-engined jet aircraft Category:Aircraft first flown in 1948
Sylvia Alice Earle (née Reade; born August 30, 1935) is an American marine biologist, explorer, author, and lecturer. She has been a National Geographic explorer-in-residence since 1998. Earle was the first female chief scientist of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and was named by Time Magazine as its first Hero for the Planet in 1998. She is also part of the group Ocean Elders, which is dedicated to protecting the ocean and its wildlife. Early life and education Earle was born in 1935 in the Gibbstown section of Greenwich Township, Gloucester County, New Jersey, to Alice Freas (Richie) Earle and Lewis Reade.
Both of Earle's parents were enthusiastic about the outdoors and supportive of their daughter's early interests in the natural world. The family moved to Dunedin on the western coast of Florida during Earle's childhood. Earle received an associate degree from St. Petersburg Jr. College (1952), a Bachelor of Science degree from Florida State University (1955), a Master of Science (1956) and a Doctorate of Phycology (1966) from Duke University. Career Earle was the Curator of Phycology at the California Academy of Sciences (1979–1986) and a research associate at the University of California, Berkeley (1969–1981), Radcliffe Institute Scholar (1967–1969) and research fellow at Harvard University (1967–1981).
After receiving her Ph.D. in 1966, Earle spent a year as a research fellow at Harvard, then returned to Florida as the resident director of the Cape Haze Marine Laboratory. In 1969, she applied to join the Tektite Project, an installation fifty feet below the surface of the sea off the coast of the Virgin Islands which allowed scientists to live submersed in their area of study for up to several weeks. Although she had logged more than 1,000 research hours underwater, Earle was rejected from the program. The next year, she was selected to lead the first all-female team of aquanauts in Tektite II.
In 1979, she made an open-ocean JIM suit dive to the sea ocean floor near Oahu, setting a women's depth record of . In 1979 she also began her tenure as the Curator of Phycology at the California Academy of Sciences, where she served until 1986. From 1980 to 1984, she served on the National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere. In 1982 she and her later husband, Graham Hawkes, an engineer and submersible designer, founded Deep Ocean Engineering to design, operate, support and consult on piloted and robotic subsea systems. In 1985, the Deep Ocean Engineering team designed and built the Deep Rover research submarine, which operates down to .
By 1986, Deep Rover had been tested and Earle joined the team conducting training off Lee Stocking Island in the Bahamas. Earle left the company in 1990 to accept an appointment as Chief Scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, where she stayed until 1992. She was the first woman to hold that position. During this post, given her expertise on the impact of oil spills, Earle was called upon to lead several research trips during the Persian Gulf War in 1991 to determine the environmental damage caused by Iraq's destruction of Kuwaiti oil wells. In 1992, Earle founded Deep Ocean Exploration and Research (DOER Marine) to further advance marine engineering.
The company, now run by Earle's daughter Elizabeth; designs, builds, and operates equipment for deep-ocean environments. Since 1998, Earle has been a National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence. She is sometimes called "Her Deepness" or "The Sturgeon General." From 1998 to 2002, she led the Sustainable Seas Expeditions, a five-year program sponsored by the National Geographic Society and funded by the Richard and Rhoda Goldman Fund to study the United States National Marine Sanctuary. During this time, Earle was a leader of the Sustainable Seas Expeditions, council chair for the Harte Research Institute for the Gulf of Mexico Studies at Texas A&M-Corpus Christi, and chair of the Advisory Council for the Ocean in Google Earth.
She also provided the DeepWorker 2000 submersible used to quantify the species of fish as well as the space resources utilized within the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. Earle founded Mission Blue (also known as the Sylvia Earle Alliance, Deep Search Foundation, and Deep Search) in 2009. Given her past experience with the Exxon Valdez and Mega Borg oil spills, Earle was called to consult during the Deepwater Horizon Disaster in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. During this year she also gave a 14-minute speech in front of 3,500 delegates and United Nations ambassadors at The Hague International Model United Nations Conference.
In July 2012, Earle led an expedition to NOAA's Aquarius underwater laboratory, located off Key Largo, Florida. The expedition, entitled "Celebrating 50 Years of Living Beneath The Sea," commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of Jacques Cousteau's Conshelf I project and investigated coral reefs and ocean health. Mark Patterson co-led the expedition with Earle. Their aquanaut team also included underwater filmmaker D.J. Roller and oceanographer M. Dale Stokes. Earle made a cameo appearance in the daily cartoon strip Sherman's Lagoon in the week starting September 17, 2012, to discuss the closing of the Aquarius Underwater Laboratory. In May 2013, the Science Laureates of the United States Act of 2013 (H.R.
1891; 113th Congress) was introduced into Congress. Earle was listed by one commentator as a possible nominee for the position of Science Laureate, if the act were to pass. In January 2018, the Seattle Aquarium granted its inaugural Lifetime Achievement Award to Earle and renamed the Seattle Aquarium Medal in her honor. The Aquarium's first Lifetime Achievement Award was awarded to Earle. Alongside her work at Mission Blue, she also serves on several boards, including the Marine Conservation Institute. Aign to ignite public support for a global network of marine protected areas, Hope Spots large enough to save and restore the blue heart of the planet."
With TED's support, she launched Mission Blue, which aims to establish marine protected areas (dubbed "Hope Spots") around the globe. Mission Blue's vision is to achieve 30% protection of the ocean by 2030, and over 200 organisations have supported them in this mission to date (2019). These supporters range from large, global companies to small, bespoke research teams. With Mission Blue and its partners, Earle leads expeditions to Hope Spots around the globe. Past expeditions include Cuba in 2009, Belize in January 2010, the Galápagos Islands in April 2010, Costa Rica and the Central American Dome in early 2014 and the South African Coast in late 2014.
In August 2014, a Netflix exclusive documentary titled 'Mission Blue' was released. It focuses on Earle's life and career as her Mission Blue campaign to create a global network of marine protected areas. The organization has continued to grow with Earle's work and the help of her team. As of 2020, Mission Blue has created 122 Hope Spots around the world. (2020).
Accomplishments and honors   1970: U.S. Department of Interior Conservation Service Award and Los Angeles Times Woman of the Year  1976: NOGI Award for Science  1980: Explorers Club Lowell Thomas Award  1981: Ordained as a Knight of the Order of the Golden Ark by the Prince of the Netherlands  1986: Set the women's record for a world solo dive depth and tie the overall record with Graham Hawkes  1990: Society of Woman Geographers gold medal  1991: American Academy of Achievement Golden Plate Award  1996: Lindbergh Foundation award, the Explorers Club Medal and Zonta International Honorary Member  1997: SeaKeeper Award at The International SeaKeepers Society's Bal de la Mer  1998: UN Global 500 Laureate and National Wildlife Federation Conservationist of the Year  2000: National Women's Hall of Fame, Library of Congress Living Legend, Women Divers Hall of Fame  2004: International Banksia Award, the Richard Hopper Day Memorial Medal from the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, and the Barnard College medal  2005: John P. McGovern Science and Society Award from Sigma Xi  2009: Artiglio Award (Premio Artiglio 2009) and TED Prize  2009: Earle was awarded The National Audubon Society's prestigious Rachel Carson Award, a premier award honoring distinguished American women environmentalists.
2010: Earle was awarded the Roy Chapman Andrews Distinguished Explorer Award from the Roy Chapman Andrews Society in Beloit, WI. 2010: Carl Sagan Award for Public Understanding of Science  2011: Honorary doctorate from Smith College and commencement address at Warren Wilson College, Medal of Honor from the Dominican Republic  2013: Honorary doctorate from the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University and the Hubbard Medal, the National Geographic Society's highest honor, "for distinction in exploration, discovery and research"  2014: Walter Cronkite Award, UN Champions of the Earth Award, Glamour Woman of the Year, and the first woman to be celebrated at an Explorers Club Tribute Ceremony  2017: Rachel Carson Prize, Lewis Thomas Prize.
2017: The Perfect World Foundation Award The Conservationist of the year 2017 & the Prize "The Fragile Rhino"  2018: Seattle Aquarium Lifetime Achievement Award  2018: Princess of Asturias Award of Concord (Concordia)  2018: Doctor of Science from the University of Edinburgh  Publications  Earle has authored over 150 publications; a selection is listed here. Co-author (2011). The Protection and Management of the Sargasso Sea: The golden floating rainforest of the Atlantic Ocean. Summary Science and Supporting Evidence Case. Sargasso Sea Alliance. Earle, Sylvia (2012). The Sweet Spot in Time. Why the Ocean Matters to Everyone, Everywhere. Virginia Quarterly Review, Fall.
References  External links   Mission Blue  National Geographic Profile  DOER Marine  Sylvia Earle on Literati.net  Get to Know a Frog, or a Worm, or a Fish Says Sylvia Earle, at SeniorWomenWeb  Sylvia Earle interview by impactmania     TED Prize Wish: Sylvia Earle's TED Prize wish to protect our oceans (TED2009)  Video        Category:1935 births Category:Living people Category:American oceanographers Category:Aquanauts Category:Duke University alumni Category:Florida State University alumni Category:Harvard Fellows Category:People from Greenwich Township, Gloucester County, New Jersey Category:University of California, Berkeley staff Category:Women marine biologists Category:American environmentalists Category:American women environmentalists Category:Writers from Oakland, California Category:Female explorers Category:American explorers Category:American women scientists Category:Professional divers Category:Members of the Society of Woman Geographers
AM General is an American heavy vehicle and contract automotive manufacturer based in South Bend, Indiana. It is best known for the civilian Hummer and the military Humvee that are assembled in Mishawaka, Indiana. For a relatively brief period, 1974–1979, the company also manufactured transit buses, making more than 5,400. Corporate history  AM General traces its roots to the Standard Wheel Company of Terre Haute, Indiana, which expanded in 1903 to include the Overland Automotive Division. In 1908, John North Willys purchased the Overland company, then based in Indianapolis, Indiana, and renamed it Willys-Overland Motors, Inc. In the 1940s, Willys-Overland developed a vehicle to U.S. Army's requirements and later mass-produced "America's first four-wheel drive one-fourth-ton tactical utility truck"—the Jeep of World War II fame.
In 1953, Kaiser Motors purchased Willys-Overland, and changed the name to Kaiser-Willys Motor Company. In 1963 the company's name changed again to Kaiser-Jeep Corporation. In 1970 Kaiser-Jeep was purchased by American Motors Corporation  after which AMC set up AM General for AMC's military vehicle production. Defense and Government Products Division  In 1964, Kaiser-Jeep purchased the Studebaker facilities in South Bend, Indiana, which included Studebaker's "General Products Division", along with its substantial defense contracts. At the time, Kaiser had been awarded a US$87 million Army truck contract, and under government pressure agreed to perform the work at the South Bend plant it had recently acquired from Studebaker.
American Motors American Motors Corporation (AMC) purchased the Jeep Corporation from Kaiser in 1970 when Kaiser decided to leave the auto business. In 1971, AMC made the General Products Division of Jeep (producing military trucks, as well as contract and non-commercial vehicles) a wholly owned subsidiary and renamed it AM General Corporation. American Motors ended its history as an independent automaker in 1982 when controlling interest in the company was purchased by France's Renault. U.S. government regulations at that time forbade ownership of defense contractors by foreign governments, and Renault was partially owned by the French government. LTV Corporation In 1983, the LTV Corporation bought AM General from American Motors Corporation and established it as a wholly owned subsidiary of the LTV Aerospace and Defense Company.
In 1984, the AM General headquarters moved from the American Motors AMTEK Building in Detroit, Michigan, to Livonia, Michigan, and two years later to South Bend, Indiana, where the primary manufacturing operations were located. Renco Group In 1992, LTV sold AM General to The Renco Group, Inc., who in 2002 converted it to a limited liability company. Hummer brand  In 1992 AM General began marketing the HMMWV to the civilian market under the Hummer brand. In 1999 they sold the rights to the Hummer brand to General Motors. It continued production of the original civilian Hummer (marketed by GM as the H1) until June 2006 when it ceased production.
AM General built a separate factory to build a new Hummer H2, designed by and marketed by General Motors. The vehicle went on the market in 2002, and was produced under contract to GM until January 2009. AM General did not build the Hummer H3, and the firm was not part of General Motors Corporation. GM was sued early in 2003 by DaimlerChrysler, owners of the Jeep brand, for the Hummer's seven slot grille which resembled the design DaimlerChrysler argued consumers associated with Jeep vehicles. The lawsuit was dismissed due to the past corporate history involving AMC and Jeep. 2004 - Present On August 20, 2004, it was announced that Ronald Perelman's MacAndrews & Forbes company would form a joint venture with AM General's current owner, Renco Group, to give Perelman 70% ownership of AM General.
The deal reportedly cost close to US$1 billion. In 2008, AM General and the Vehicle Production Group (VPG), of Troy, Michigan, announced that contracts had been signed for AM General to begin producing purpose-built taxi-cabs, beginning in 2009. Actual production began in October 2011. The first vehicle off the line was presented to Marc Buoniconti, a former linebacker for The Citadel who was injured playing football in 1985. In May 2010, Azure Dynamics Corp. announced it had chosen AM General to assemble its electric drivetrain into Ford Transit Connect vehicles for the North American market. This product is being produced at AM General's facility in Livonia, Michigan.
September 2013, AM General reached an agreement to purchase the United States Department of Energy's (DOE) secured loan to the Vehicle Production Group (VPG). Prior to this, AM General acted as sole vehicle assembler for VPG. As a result of this transaction, AM General created a wholly owned company, Mobility Ventures LLC, to operate the Mobility Vehicle-1 (MV-1) business and receive all VPG assets. In 2015, production of Mercedes-Benz R-Class began at the Mishawaka assembly plant. Without this deal, "the German automaker would likely have had to shut down production of the vehicle, currently only sold in China." Production ended in October 2017.
Jeep Dispatcher 100  Another familiar product from the AM General line was the Jeep DJ-5 series—a purpose built "Dispatch Jeep" 2-wheel drive (RWD) version of the Jeep CJ-5—used in huge numbers as a right-hand drive mail delivery vehicle by the United States Postal Service. Buses   The AM General Metropolitan buses were manufactured for city transit use from 1974 until 1979, producing a total of 5,431 buses (including 219 electric trolley buses). The Metropolitan was built under a 1971 agreement with Flyer Industries, of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; AM General licensed the rights to build and market the Western Flyer D700 for the United States market.
The D700 itself was similar in design to the contemporaneous GM New Look buses. However, before starting production, AMG redesigned the front end of the Flyer D700, and thus the resulting Metropolitan was not simply a Flyer design built under license but rather a jointly designed vehicle. Flyer later adopted the design changes for its own production (as the models D800 and E800). Buses were built in lengths of either  or , and widths of  or . The model numbers reflected the chosen dimensions; for example, model "10240" indicated a 102-inch-wide, 40-foot-long bus. Suffixes "A" or "B" were used for later models, to indicate certain options.
In total, 3,571 40-foot diesel buses and 1,641 35-foot diesel buses were produced. Articulated buses  In 1977–1979, AM General also worked under a partnership with MAN of Germany to build SG 220 articulated buses for U.S. transit systems. MAN fabricated the bodyshells in Germany and shipped them to the US, where AM General completed the buses and was the primary contractor with the buyers. Two different lengths were offered,  and ; 93 buses were built to the shorter length, and all others were 60 feet long. By October 1978, the company had decided to discontinue its bus production, and the last MAN articulated bus completed by AM General was finished in March 1979.
The total number built was just under 400 (392 or 399), the largest group by far being 150 for Seattle's Metro Transit. MAN subsequently set up its own factory for U.S. production of its articulated buses, in the small town of Cleveland, North Carolina. Trolleybuses Production of complete motor buses (and of any two-axle motor buses) had ended in 1978, and aside from the fitting-out of the last articulated MAN shells, the only production in 1979 was that of two batches of trolleybuses (and the only such vehicles ever built by the company). These were all  vehicles, model 10240T: 110 trackless trolleys for the Philadelphia trolleybus system, operated by SEPTA, and 109 for the Seattle trolleybus system, operated by Metro Transit (now King County Metro).
One of the latter has been preserved (following its retirement in 2003) by King County Metro (see King County Metro fleet). Development and production of the HMMWV   In 1979, AM General began preliminary design work on the M998 Series High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV, pronounced Humvee); a 1.25-ton truck intended to replace the M151 and other Light Utility Vehicles. The U.S. Army awarded AM General a prototype contract in 1981 and the development and operational testing was conducted over a five-month period in 1982. In March 1983, AM General won an initial $1.2 billion contract to produce 55,000 Humvees to be delivered in five basic models and 15 different configurations over a five-year period.
Production began at the Mishawaka, Indiana, assembly plant in the fall of 1984 and the first deliveries were made in early 1985. The total production by mid-1991 was more than 72,000 vehicles including international sales. By March 1995 about 100,000 HMMWVs had been built. Since 1991, an additional 20,000 HMMWVs were ordered by governments. Late in 2000, AM General was awarded another production contract for 2,962 trucks in the M998A2 series. The contract contained six single-year options running to fiscal year 2007. This contract was extended. To date, nearly 250,000 units have been produced. Humvees feature full-time four-wheel drive, independent suspension, steep approach and departure angles, 60-percent gradeability and  of ground clearance.
Most recent production models included the M1151, M1152, M1165, and M1167. As of 2015, Humvees are in use by the U.S. Army, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Navy. The combined fleet is about 140,000 Humvees. More than 50 friendly foreign nations also have Humvees. The Humvee's replacement, a completely new Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) design, will be produced by Oshkosh Corporation with the first deliveries to the U.S. Army expected in 2016. AM General competed in the program but lost in the final selection, leading to fears that the company may be sold off having lost the opportunity to produce its signature product's replacement for an up to $30 billion program through 2040.
Although they were still making foreign Humvee sales, that may not last long after the JLTV enters production and it seems second-best on the market; there is speculation that larger defense companies like General Dynamics and BAE Systems may be interested in acquiring AM General. Even so, they are likely to have business for years sustaining and upgrading Humvees since the U.S. Humvee fleet will still be triple the number of JLTVs, and even announced the award of a contract to supply the Army with Humvee ambulances within an hour of saying they would not protest the JLTV decision. Other military vehicles  Prior to the development of newer vehicles, such as the HMMWV, AM General also acquired contracts from the Department of Defense to build medium and heavy trucks for the armed forces.
These included the M151 series of trucks M35 series of trucks and heavier 5-ton series of trucks. In 2005, AM General was contracted to take over militarization, sales, and marketing of LSSV vehicles. References  External links    AM General official site  AM General Site History Page  Category:Defense companies of the United States Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1971 Category:Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana Category:Companies based in St. Joseph County, Indiana Category:South Bend, Indiana Category:Bus manufacturers of the United States Category:American Motors Category:Military vehicle manufacturers Category:Car manufacturers of the United States Category:Trolleybus manufacturers Category:American companies established in 1971 Category:1971 establishments in Indiana Category:Contract vehicle manufacturers Category:Electric vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Big Ben is a volcanic massif that dominates the geography of Heard Island in the southern Indian Ocean. It is a stratovolcano with a diameter of approximately . Its highest point is Mawson Peak, which is  above sea level. Much of it is covered by ice, including 14 major glaciers which descend from Big Ben to the sea. Big Ben is the highest mountain in Australian Territory, except for those claimed in the Australian Antarctic Territory. A smaller volcanic headland, the Laurens Peninsula, extends approximately  to the northwest, created by a separate volcano, Mount Dixon; its highest point is Anzac Peak, at .
Big Ben has been known under a variety of names throughout its history, including Big Ben Peak, Old Ben Mountain, Emperor William Peak and Kaiser Wilhelm-Berg. Volcanic activity	 Volcanic activity at the cone has been known since 1881. An eruption occurred in 1993. Satellite images detected eruptions during 2000. On 2 February 2016, observations from Atlas Cove,  northwest of Mawson Peak, showed plumes up to  high over the volcano. Satellite images showed hotspots at various times from 2003 to 2008, and during September 2012. A further eruption was reported on 2 February 2016, and was recorded by scientists who happened to be in the area on an expedition.
Big Ben does not endanger humans because Heard Island is uninhabited. Big Ben is in a remote location, and without regular observation it is possible that eruptions have occurred at other times. See also List of volcanoes in Australia  References  External links Click here to see a map of Heard Island and McDonald Islands, including all major topographical features Location and history of Heard Island Australian Government (Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities) Heard Island and MacDonald Islands (HIMI) website  Category:Active volcanoes Category:Stratovolcanoes Category:Volcanoes of Heard Island and McDonald Islands
David George Leslie (born 14 April 1952)  is a former Scottish rugby union player. He played for Scotland 32 times between 1975 and 1985. He usually played at number eight, but occasionally at flanker. He was first capped against Ireland in 1975, but did not become a regular on the Scotland squad until 1981. He spent much of his playing time injured, missing the 1977, 1978, 1979 Five Nations, and half of the 1980 season. He broke a leg in 1982, missing the 1982 Scotland rugby union tour of Australia. Leslie scored Scotland's first try against  in 1984, only his second for Scotland.
He played for Gala RFC, which he captained. Controversially, he was left off the 1983 British Lions tour to New Zealand. In 1984, he was voted Rugby World'''s "Player of the Season". Richard Bath writes of him that: "Throughout his career, he was consistently the most focussed and fearless player in a Scottish squad which had more than its fair share of fearless breakaways... for all his intensity, Leslie found it hard to establish himself in the Scottish side until late on in his career." Allan Massie considered that: "Leslie's first quality is courage. All back-row forwards have to be brave, but Leslie's courage defies reason and probability alike: he reckons any ball on the ground is his to win.
The courage is so blinding that one is apt to overlook the skill, judgement and timing with which he launches himself at such balls and attaches himself to them. "He is in fact a very skilful educated player (he often played fly-half in his schooldays). He gives and takes a pass better than most of the Scottish three-quarter line. He has acquired the knack of dipping his shoulder into the tackler and slipping the ball at the same moment to a supporting player. He kicks well. Perhaps though his greatest asset with the ball in his hand is his intuitive knowledge of what is right.
Jim Telfer has said that he can stop worrying when Leslie has the ball, being 99 per cent sure that he will out it to the best use possible. This is a quality that many of even the best and most spectacular of back-row men never acquire." He went to school at High School of Dundee and Glenalmond College. References Notes  Bibliography  Bath, Richard (ed.) The Complete Book of Rugby (Seven Oaks Ltd, 1997 )  Massie, Allan A Portrait of Scottish Rugby'' (Polygon, Edinburgh; )  Category:Scottish rugby union players Category:1952 births Category:Living people Category:Scotland international rugby union players Category:People educated at the High School of Dundee Category:People educated at Glenalmond College Category:Gala RFC players Category:Dundee HSFP players Category:West of Scotland FC players Category:North and Midlands players Category:Rugby union number eights Category:Rugby union flankers
Professor Norman Fenton (born 18 May 1956) is a British mathematician who is currently Professor of Risk Information Management at Queen Mary University of London and is also a director of Agena, a company that specialises in risk management for critical systems. Education Fenton was a student at Ilford County High School for Boys (1967–1974) and studied mathematics at the London School of Economics (1975–78) gaining a first class Bachelor of Science degree and also winning the ‘School Scholar’ prize in 1976 and 1977. He gained his Master of Science at the University of Sheffield (1978) winning the "ATM Flett Prize", and Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Sheffield (1981) under the supervision of Peter Vamos.
His thesis was on "Representations of Matroids". In 2007–2008 Fenton completed a course in expert witness training with Bond Solon under the auspices of Cardiff University Law Dept. Career Between leaving school and going to university, Fenton worked for Hedge and Butler Wine Merchants (1974–1975) and also worked there in subsequent summers (1976 and 1977). After his PhD in 1981, Fenton joined University College Dublin (Mathematics Department) as Post-Doctoral Research Fellow. From 1982 to 1984 he was a postdoctoral research fellow at Oxford University (Mathematics Institute), and also member of Wolfson College. In 1984 he joined South Bank University (Dept Electrical & Electronic Eng) first as senior lecturer and then reader.
He set up and was director of the Centre for Software & Systems Engineering before leaving in 1989 to join City University (Centre for Software Reliability). In 1993 Fenton was appointed professor at City University (aged 34). In 1989 Fenton, along with Martin Neil and Ed Tranham, set up the company Agena Ltd in Cambridge. Fenton was CEO between 1998 and 2015 and remains a director. In 2000 Fenton joined Queen Mary University of London (School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science) as professor (part-time) and he has been there since. He is director of the Risk and Information Management Research Group.
In 2015 Fenton formed a new company Aldgate Analytics Ltd where he is CEO. Research Fenton currently works on quantitative risk assessment. This typically involves analysing and predicting the probabilities of unknown events using Bayesian statistical methods including especially causal, probabilistic models (Bayesian networks). This type of reasoning enables improved assessment by taking account of both statistical data and also expert judgment. In April 2014 Fenton was awarded one of the prestigious European Research Council Advanced Grants to focus on these issues. Fenton's experience in risk assessment covers a wide range of application domains such as legal reasoning (he has been an expert witness in major criminal and civil cases), medical analytics, vehicle reliability, embedded software, transport systems, financial services, and football prediction.
Fenton has a special interest in raising public awareness of the importance of probability theory and Bayesian reasoning in everyday life (including how to present such reasoning in simple lay terms) and he maintains a website dedicated to this and also a blog focusing on probability and the law. In March 2015 Norman presented the BBC documentary Climate Change by Numbers. Fenton has published 7 books and 230 referred articles and has provided consulting to many major companies worldwide. His 2012 book was the first to bring Bayesian networks to a general audience. Fenton's current projects are focused on using Bayesian methods for improved legal reasoning and improved medical decision making.
Since June 2011 he has led an international consortium (Bayes and the Law) of statisticians, lawyers and forensic scientists working to improve the use of statistics in court. In 2016, he is leading a prestigious 6-month Programme on Probability and Statistics in Forensic Science at the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, University of Cambridge. In addition to his research on risk assessment, Fenton is renowned for his work in software engineering (including pioneering work on software metrics); the third edition of his book "Software Metrics: A Rigorous and  Practical  Approach” was published in November 2014. The book is one of the most cited in software engineering (5040 citations, Google Scholar, Feb 2016).
Honours  BBC Documentary "Climate Change by Numbers" (which Fenton co-presented, screened first 2 March 2015) won the following awards:  American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Science Journalism Gold Award for "best in-depth TV reporting" 2015. details here. European Science TV and New Media Award for the best Science programme on an environmental issue, 2015. Faculty of Science and Engineering Research Award (Queen Mary University of London)  2015  Lead Researcher in award of a Cambridge University Newton Institute Programme Semester (topic is Probability and Statistics in Forensic Science) to take place 18 July – 21 December 2016. Awarded European Research Council Advanced Fellowship Grant (value 1,572,562 euros for a 4-year programme) 1 April 2014.
The Fenton and Neil paper "A critique of software defect prediction models" placed in top 1% most influential papers in its field based on number of citations (according to Essential Science Indicators). International Patent (Publication Number WO 03/090466) for Improved TV Programme Selection (based on Bayesian Networks, Fuzzy Logic and an original approach to TV programme classification). Named as one of the world's 15 top scholars (for the third time). Glass RL and Chen TY, "An assessment of Systems and Software Engineering scholars and institutions (1996–2000)", Journal of Systems and Software 59, 107–113, Oct 2001. Appointed Professor at City University at the age of 34.
ATM Flett prize for MSc, 1979. Top First Class Degree, University of London, 1978. School Scholar at LSE 1976–78. Winner of LSE Undergraduate Prize 1976, 1977. Chartered Engineer, Member of the IET  (since 1987). Chartered Mathematician, Fellow of the IMA (AFIMA 1988, FIMA 1998). Fellow of the BCS (British Computer Society) since 2005. References  Category:1956 births Category:Living people Category:British mathematicians Category:Academics of Queen Mary University of London Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics Category:Alumni of the University of Sheffield Category:People educated at Ilford County High School
Her Majesty's Prison Wakefield is a Category A men's prison, located in Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England. The prison is operated by Her Majesty's Prison Service. The prison has been nicknamed the "Monster Mansion" due to the large number of high-profile, high-risk sex offenders and murderers held there. History  Wakefield Prison was originally built as a house of correction in 1594. Most of the current prison buildings date from Victorian times. The current prison was designated a Dispersal prison in 1966 and is the oldest of the Dispersal prisons still operating across England and Wales. The English Dialect Dictionary noted references to Wakefield were often short for referring to the long-standing prison (e.g.
"being sent to Wakefield" meant being sent to prison). "Here We Go 'Round the Mulberry Bush" The exercise yard at Wakefield had a mulberry tree, around which female inmates used to exercise. This has been linked to the nursery rhyme "Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush" by the erstwhile prison governor, RS Duncan in his book Here we go round the mulberry bush': The House of Correction 1595 / HM Prison Wakefield 1995'' (published by author 1994). This origin of the song is also propounded on the prison's website. There is no corroborative evidence to support this theory. The tree was removed in May 2019 as it had died.
A cutting from it was taken by a retired prison officer. This will be used in an attempt to grow the tree again. First World War During the First World War, Wakefield Prison was used as a Home Office work camp. The ordinary criminal prisoners were removed, and the new influx were sentenced to two or more years' imprisonment for refusing to obey military orders. After the closure of Dyce Work Camp in October 1916, Wakefield Prison was also used to intern conscientious objectors. In September 1918 a group of conscientious objectors took advantage of a slackening in the prison regime that occurred towards the end of the war, by rebelling and refusing to undertake any work.
They issued a list of demands for better treatment, known as the Wakefield Manifesto'''. IRA prisoners As a high-security prison, Wakefield was used to house IRA prisoners at various points in the 20th century. In some cases in the 1950s, the IRA attempted to free the prisoners, such as Cathal Goulding in 1956 (the attempt was aborted when the sirens sounded) and James Andrew Mary Murphy in 1959 (who was freed). During a hunger strike by Provisional IRA prisoners, Frank Stagg died in Wakefield Prison on 12 February 1976. The case brought international media attention as the Irish Government denied Stagg's last request for a military funeral march from Dublin to Ballina, and instead arranged for the Irish police to bury him secretly.
On 1 March 1976, Merlyn Rees, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in the Wilson ministry, announced that those people convicted of causing terrorist offences would no longer be entitled to Special Category Status, which was challenged during later hunger strikes. Recent history In 2001 it was announced that a new Supermax security unit was to be built at Wakefield Prison. The unit was to house the most dangerous inmates within the British prisons system, and was the first such unit of its kind to be built in the United Kingdom. In March 2004 an inspection report from Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Prisons criticised staff at Wakefield Prison for being disrespectful to inmates.
The report claimed that the prison was "over-controlled", and a third of the prison's inmates claimed to have been victimised. Facilities Wakefield Prison holds approximately 600 of Britain's most dangerous people (mainly sex offenders and prisoners serving life sentences for violent crimes against women and children). Accommodation at the prison comprises single-occupancy cells with integral sanitation. All residential units have kitchens available for offenders to prepare their own meals. An Incentives and Earned Privileges system allows standard and enhanced offenders the opportunity of in-cell TV. All offenders are subject to mandatory drugs testing and there are voluntary testing arrangements, which are compulsory for all offenders employed, for example as wing cleaners or kitchen workers.
HMP Wakefield offers a range of activities for inmates, including charity work, an accredited course in industrial cleaning, and a Braille shop where offenders convert books to Braille. The Education Department is operated by The Manchester College, and offers learning opportunities ranging from basic skills to Open University courses. Other facilities include a prison shop, gym, and multi-faith chaplaincy. A prison inspection in 2018 found that Wakefield Prison was on the whole calm, secure, decent and well managed. The rest of the prison service could learn good practise from Wakefield. Despite the above prisoners needing psychiatric care face unacceptable delays before they are transferred to secure psychiatric hospitals and prisoners' mental condition worsens while they are waiting for transfer.
Peter Clarke said, "Because of the totally unacceptable delays in doing so, many prisoners across the prison estate are held in conditions that are not in any way therapeutic and indeed in many cases clearly exacerbate their condition. (...) The situation at Wakefield was yet another example of prisoners with severe illness not receiving the care that they needed." Inspectors noted a prisoner who was "exceptionally challenging to manage and had complex needs that could not be met in the prison. While staff attempted to manage him positively and constructively, his condition was deteriorating during a lengthy wait to be admitted to a secure hospital," according to the inspection report.
Notable inmates  Current Ian Watkins – Former lead singer and lyricist of the band the Lostprophets, convicted of several sex offences, some involving children and infants. After a period at Wakefield transferred to Long Lartin to enable his terminally ill mother to have easier visitation rights, and subsequently transferred to HM Prison Rye Hill. In August 2019 he was convicted of possession of a banned item, a mobile phone, while back at Wakefield in March 2018. Mark Bridger, child molester and murderer who abducted and murdered 5-year-old April Jones. Former  Fred Haslam (1897-1979) – a First World War conscientious objector  Klaus Fuchs – Spy convicted of supplying information from British and American nuclear weapon research to the USSR, served nine years and four months of his fourteen-year term at Wakefield, between 1951 and 1959.
Ian Huntley – who was convicted of the Soham double child murder, from 2004 to 2008, when he was moved to HMP Frankland. Radislav Krstić - Bosnian Serb war criminal Dr. Harold Shipman – Widely considered the most prolific serial killer in modern history; committed suicide at Wakefield Prison in January 2004. Shipman had been on round-the-clock suicide watch at two previous prisons, but such 'special measures' had not been deemed necessary after his transfer to Wakefield. Michael Sams Colin Ireland – Serial killer dubbed "The Gay Slayer" who murdered five homosexual men in a three-month span in the early 1990s; died from Pulmonary fibrosis in 2012.
Robert Black – Convicted in 1994 of murdering three young girls during the 1980s, spent many years at HMP Wakefield before he was transferred to HMP Maghaberry in Northern Ireland, where he died in 2016. References  External links  Ministry of Justice pages on Wakefield  Category:Category A prisons in England Category:Buildings and structures in Wakefield Category:Prisons in West Yorkshire Category:1594 establishments in England Category:Men's prisons Category:Dispersal prisons
The heel is the prominence at the posterior end of the foot. Heel also may refer to:  Heel (shoe)  Heel of the hand  Heel (professional wrestling)  Heel (corporation), a homeopathy company  Heel, Netherlands  The neck joint of a guitar  The end of a loaf of bread  A dog obedience training command  North Carolina Tar Heels, often known as the "Heels"  Heel (album)  a small piece of plant attached to the cutting  See also    Heeling (disambiguation)  it:Tacco
The K-20 is an aerial photography camera used during World War II, famously from the Enola Gay's tail gunner position to photograph the nuclear mushroom cloud over Hiroshima. Designed by Fairchild Camera and Instrument, approximately 15,000 were manufactured under licence for military contract by Folmer Graflex Corporation in Rochester, New York between 1941 and 1945. The K-20 uses a 5.25″×20′ to 5.25″×200′ roll film, with an image size of 4×5 inches. Lenses were ″  with an adjustable diaphragm and were non-interchangeable; these were made by Kodak, Ilex, or Bausch & Lomb, as available at the time of order. The camera featured the use of a vacuum to keep the film flat.
Earlier aerial cameras, from the World War I era, included the Kodak K1, with focal plane shutter, the Fairchild K3, K3A, K3B etc., with in-lens shutter to eliminate distortion, K5 etc., some of which used individual glass plates, some individual sheet film, and some roll film. Similar cameras, from the World War II era are: K17, K18, K19, K21, K22, F20, F40, F56, etc., many making 9″×9″ or 9″×18″ images using 9″+ roll film. See also  Aerial archaeology  Aerial landscape art  Aviation photography  Bird's-eye view  F24 camera  Orthophoto  Pictometry  Reconnaissance  References  External links   Early Days Remote Sensing (PDF)  Category:Aerial cameras Category:Military cartography Category:World War II military equipment of the United States
Duchenne may refer to:  Duchenne de Boulogne (1806–1875), a French physician who pioneered modern neurology Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a severe recessive X-chromosome linked form of muscular dystrophy Duchenne smile, a smile that involves certain facial muscles and is believed to indicate genuine happiness
Ras or RAS may refer to:  Arts and media  RAS Records Real Authentic Sound, a reggae record label  Rundfunk Anstalt Südtirol, a Tyrolese public broadcasting service  Rás 1, an Icelandic radio station   Rás 2, an Icelandic radio station  Organizations  Railway Air Services, a UK airline  Rajasthan Administrative Service, India  Remote Astronomical Society Observatory of New Mexico  Richard Allen Schools, a charter school system in Ohio, USA  Richardson Adventist School, now North Dallas Adventist Academy  IEEE Robotics and Automation Society  Royal Air Squadron, a flying club in the UK  Royal American Shows, an American travelling carnival company operating from the 1920s to the 1990s  Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland  Royal Astronomical Society, UK, founded 1820  Russian Academy of Sciences  Science and technology  .ras, a SunOS raster format  RAS algorithm, an algorithm for iterative proportional fitting in economics  RAS supergroup or SAR supergroup, a plant clade  Recirculating aquaculture system  Recurrent aphthous stomatitis or canker sores  Registered Accessibility Specialist  Registration, Admission and Status, a telephony protocol under H.323  Reliability, availability and serviceability of computer hardware  Remote access service, on a network  Renin–angiotensin system, hormone system that regulates blood pressure  Reticular activating system in the brain, regulating wakefulness  Retinoic acid syndrome, a complication of acute promyelocytic leukemia  Reusable Asset Specification of software  Row Address Strobe in dynamic random-access memory  Russian Accounting Standards Renal artery stenosis, the narrowing of the renal arteries  Ras superfamily, a superfamily of signalling proteins  Ras subfamily, a family of signalling proteins  Other uses  Ras (fascism), regional fascist leader in Italy  Ras (surname)  Ras (title), an Ethiopian aristocratic and court title, as in Ras Tafari  Ras cheese  RAS syndrome, "redundant acronym syndrome" syndrome  Rás Tailteann, an annual cycling race in Ireland  Stari Ras, a capital city of medieval Serbian state of Raška  Nicholas Furlong (musician) or Ras  Replenishment at sea  Rassius "Ras" Luine, a character from Tales of Eternia  People with the given name  Ra's al Ghul, a fictional villain in Batman media  See also  Ra (disambiguation)  Rass (disambiguation)  Raz (disambiguation)
Linearity is the property of a mathematical relationship or function which means that it can be graphically represented as a straight line. Examples are the relationship of voltage and current across a resistor (Ohm's law), or the mass and weight of an object. Proportionality implies linearity, but linearity does not imply proportionality. In mathematics In mathematics, a linear map or linear function f(x) is a function that satisfies the following two properties:   Additivity: . Homogeneity of degree 1:  for all α. The homogeneity and additivity properties together are called the superposition principle. It can be shown that additivity implies homogeneity in all cases where α is rational; this is done by proving the case where α is a natural number by mathematical induction and then extending the result to arbitrary rational numbers.
If f is assumed to be continuous as well, then this can be extended to show homogeneity for any real number α, using the fact that rationals form a dense subset of the reals. In this definition, x is not necessarily a real number, but can in general be a member of any vector space. A more specific definition of linear function, not coinciding with the definition of linear map, is used in elementary mathematics. The concept of linearity can be extended to linear operators. Important examples of linear operators include the derivative considered as a differential operator, and many constructed from it, such as del and the Laplacian.
When a differential equation can be expressed in linear form, it is generally straightforward to solve by breaking the equation up into smaller pieces, solving each of those pieces, and summing the solutions. Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerned with the study of vectors, vector spaces (also called linear spaces), linear transformations (also called linear maps), and systems of linear equations. The word linear comes from the Latin word linearis, which means pertaining to or resembling a line. For a description of linear and nonlinear equations, see linear equation. Nonlinear equations and functions are of interest to physicists and mathematicians because they can be used to represent many natural phenomena, including chaos.
Linear polynomials  In a different usage to the above definition, a polynomial of degree 1 is said to be linear, because the graph of a function of that form is a line. Over the reals, a linear equation is one of the forms:  where m is often called the slope or gradient; b the y-intercept, which gives the point of intersection between the graph of the function and the y-axis. Note that this usage of the term linear is not the same as in the section above, because linear polynomials over the real numbers do not in general satisfy either additivity or homogeneity.
In fact, they do so if and only if . Hence, if , the function is often called an affine function (see in greater generality affine transformation). Boolean functions In Boolean algebra, a linear function is a function  for which there exist  such that , where   Note that if , the above function is considered affine in linear algebra (i.e. not linear). A Boolean function is linear if one of the following holds for the function's truth table:  In every row in which the truth value of the function is T, there are an odd number of Ts assigned to the arguments, and in every row in which the function is F there is an even number of Ts assigned to arguments.
Specifically, , and these functions correspond to linear maps over the Boolean vector space. In every row in which the value of the function is T, there is an even number of Ts assigned to the arguments of the function; and in every row in which the truth value of the function is F, there are an odd number of Ts assigned to arguments. In this case, . Another way to express this is that each variable always makes a difference in the truth value of the operation or it never makes a difference. Negation, Logical biconditional, exclusive or, tautology, and contradiction are linear functions.
Physics In physics, linearity is a property of the differential equations governing many systems; for instance, the Maxwell equations or the diffusion equation. Linearity of a homogenous differential equation means that if two functions f and g are solutions of the equation, then any linear combination  is, too. In instrumentation, linearity means that for every change in the variable you are observing, you get the same change in the output of the measurement apparatus - this is highly desirable in scientific work. In general, instruments are close to linear over a useful certain range, and most useful within that range.
In contrast, human senses are highly nonlinear- for instance, the brain totally ignores incoming light unless it exceeds a certain absolute threshold number of photons. Electronics In electronics, the linear operating region of a device, for example a transistor, is where a dependent variable (such as the transistor collector current) is directly proportional to an independent variable (such as the base current). This ensures that an analog output is an accurate representation of an input, typically with higher amplitude (amplified). A typical example of linear equipment is a high fidelity audio amplifier, which must amplify a signal without changing its waveform.
Others are linear filters, linear regulators, and linear amplifiers in general. In most scientific and technological, as distinct from mathematical, applications, something may be described as linear if the characteristic is approximately but not exactly a straight line; and linearity may be valid only within a certain operating region—for example, a high-fidelity amplifier may distort a small signal, but sufficiently little to be acceptable (acceptable but imperfect linearity); and may distort very badly if the input exceeds a certain value, taking it away from the approximately linear part of the transfer function. Integral linearity  For an electronic device (or other physical device) that converts a quantity to another quantity, Bertram S. Kolts writes:  There are three basic definitions for integral linearity in common use: independent linearity, zero-based linearity, and terminal, or end-point, linearity.
In each case, linearity defines how well the device's actual performance across a specified operating range approximates a straight line. Linearity is usually measured in terms of a deviation, or non-linearity, from an ideal straight line and it is typically expressed in terms of percent of full scale, or in ppm (parts per million) of full scale. Typically, the straight line is obtained by performing a least-squares fit of the data. The three definitions vary in the manner in which the straight line is positioned relative to the actual device's performance. Also, all three of these definitions ignore any gain, or offset errors that may be present in the actual device's performance characteristics.
Many times a device's specifications will simply refer to linearity, with no other explanation as to which type of linearity is intended. In cases where a specification is expressed simply as linearity, it is assumed to imply independent linearity. Independent linearity is probably the most commonly used linearity definition and is often found in the specifications for DMMs and ADCs, as well as devices like potentiometers. Independent linearity is defined as the maximum deviation of actual performance relative to a straight line, located such that it minimizes the maximum deviation. In that case there are no constraints placed upon the positioning of the straight line and it may be wherever necessary to minimize the deviations between it and the device's actual performance characteristic.
Zero-based linearity forces the lower range value of the straight line to be equal to the actual lower range value of the device's characteristic, but it does allow the line to be rotated to minimize the maximum deviation. In this case, since the positioning of the straight line is constrained by the requirement that the lower range values of the line and the device's characteristic be coincident, the non-linearity based on this definition will generally be larger than for independent linearity. For terminal linearity, there is no flexibility allowed in the placement of the straight line in order to minimize the deviations.
The straight line must be located such that each of its end-points coincides with the device's actual upper and lower range values. This means that the non-linearity measured by this definition will typically be larger than that measured by the independent, or the zero-based linearity definitions. This definition of linearity is often associated with ADCs, DACs and various sensors. A fourth linearity definition, absolute linearity, is sometimes also encountered. Absolute linearity is a variation of terminal linearity, in that it allows no flexibility in the placement of the straight line, however in this case the gain and offset errors of the actual device are included in the linearity measurement, making this the most difficult measure of a device's performance.
For absolute linearity the end points of the straight line are defined by the ideal upper and lower range values for the device, rather than the actual values. The linearity error in this instance is the maximum deviation of the actual device's performance from ideal. Military tactical formations In military tactical formations, "linear formations" were adapted from phalanx-like formations of pike protected by handgunners towards shallow formations of handgunners protected by progressively fewer pikes. This kind of formation would get thinner until its extreme in the age of Wellington with the 'Thin Red Line'. It would eventually be replaced by skirmish order at the time of the invention of the breech-loading rifle that allowed soldiers to move and fire independently of the large-scale formations and fight in small, mobile units.
Art Linear is one of the five categories proposed by Swiss art historian Heinrich Wölfflin to distinguish "Classic", or Renaissance art, from the Baroque. According to Wölfflin, painters of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries (Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael or Albrecht Dürer) are more linear than "painterly" Baroque painters of the seventeenth century (Peter Paul Rubens, Rembrandt, and Velázquez) because they primarily use outline to create shape. Linearity in art can also be referenced in digital art. For example, hypertext fiction can be an example of nonlinear narrative, but there are also websites designed to go in a specified, organized manner, following a linear path.
Music In music the linear aspect is succession, either intervals or melody, as opposed to simultaneity or the vertical aspect. Measurement In measurement, the term "linear foot" refers to the number of feet in a straight line of material (such as lumber or fabric) generally without regard to the width. It is sometimes incorrectly referred to as "lineal feet"; however, "lineal" is typically reserved for usage when referring to ancestry or heredity. The words "linear" & "lineal"  both descend from the same root meaning, the Latin word for line, which is "linea". See also Linear actuator Linear element Linear system Linear medium Linear programming Linear differential equation Bilinear Multilinear Linear motor Linear A and Linear B scripts.
Linear interpolation  References  External links  Category:Elementary algebra Category:Concepts in physics Category:Broad-concept articles
Cellulomonas iranensis  is a cellulolytic and mesophilic bacterium from the genus of Cellulomonas which has been isolated from forest soil from Iran. References     Category:Micrococcineae Category:Bacteria described in 2000
The heat index (HI) is an index that combines air temperature and relative humidity, in shaded areas, to posit a  human-perceived equivalent temperature, as how hot it would feel if the humidity were some other value in the shade. The result is also known as the "felt air temperature", "apparent temperature", "real feel" or "feels like". For example, when the temperature is  with 70% relative humidity, the heat index is . This heat index temperature has an implied (unstated) humidity of 20%. This is the value of relative humidity for which the heat index number equals the actual air temperature.
The human body normally cools itself by perspiration, or sweating. Heat is removed from the body by evaporation of that sweat. However, high relative humidity reduces the evaporation rate. This results in a lower rate of heat removal from the body, hence the sensation of being overheated. This effect is subjective, with different individuals perceiving heat differently for various reasons (such as differences in body shape, metabolic differences, differences in hydration, pregnancy, menopause, effects of drugs and/or drug withdrawal); its measurement has been based on subjective descriptions of how hot subjects feel for a given temperature and humidity. This results in a heat index that relates one combination of temperature and humidity to another.
Because the heat index is based on temperatures in the shade, while people often move across sunny areas, then the heat index can give a much lower temperature than actual conditions of typical outdoor activities. Also, for people exercising or active, at the time, then the heat index could give a temperature lower than the felt conditions. For example, with a temperature in the shade of  at 60% relative humidity, then the heat index would seem , but movement across sunny areas of , would give a heat index of over , as more indicative of the oppressive and sweltering heat.
Plus when actively working, or not wearing a hat in sunny areas, then the feels-like conditions would seem even hotter. Hence, the heat index could seem unrealistically low, unless resting inactive (idle) in heavily shaded areas. History  The heat index was developed in 1979 by Robert G. Steadman. Like the wind chill index, the heat index contains assumptions about the human body mass and height, clothing, amount of physical activity, individual heat tolerance, sunlight and ultraviolet radiation exposure, and the wind speed. Significant deviations from these will result in heat index values which do not accurately reflect the perceived temperature.
In Canada, the similar humidex (a Canadian innovation introduced in 1965) is used in place of the heat index. While both the humidex and the heat index are calculated using dew point, the humidex uses a dew point of  as a base, whereas the heat index uses a dew point base of . Further, the heat index uses heat balance equations which account for many variables other than vapor pressure, which is used exclusively in the humidex calculation. A joint committee  formed by the United States and Canada to resolve differences has since been disbanded. The heat index is referenced to any combination of air temperature and humidity where the partial pressure of water vapor is equal to a baseline value of .
For example, this corresponds to an air temperature of  and relative humidity of 50% in the sea-level psychrometric chart. At standard atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa), this baseline also corresponds to a dew point of  and a mixing ratio of 0.01 (10 g of water vapor per kilogram of dry air). A given value of relative humidity causes larger increases in the heat index at higher temperatures. For example, at approximately , the heat index will agree with the actual temperature if the relative humidity is 45%, but at , any relative-humidity reading above 18% will make the heat index higher than .
It has been suggested that the equation described is valid only if the temperature is or more. The relative humidity threshold, below which a heat index calculation will return a number equal to or lower than the air temperature (a lower heat index is generally considered invalid), varies with temperature and is not linear. The threshold is commonly set at an arbitrary 40%. The heat index and its counterpart the humidex both take into account only two variables, shade temperature and atmospheric moisture (humidity), thus providing only a limited estimate of thermal comfort. Additional factors such as wind, sunshine and individual clothing choices also affect perceived temperature; these factors are parameterized as constants in the heat index formula.
Wind, for example, is assumed to be . Wind passing over wet or sweaty skin causes evaporation and a wind chill effect that the heat index does not measure. The other major factor is sunshine; standing in direct sunlight can add up to  to the apparent heat compared to shade. There have been attempts to create a universal  apparent temperature, such as the wet-bulb globe temperature, "relative outdoor temperature", "feels like", or the proprietary "RealFeel". Meteorological considerations Outdoors in open conditions, as the relative humidity increases, first haze and ultimately a thicker cloud cover develops, reducing the amount of direct sunlight reaching the surface.
Thus, there is an inverse relationship between maximum potential temperature and maximum potential relative humidity. Because of this factor, it was once believed that the highest heat index reading actually attainable anywhere on Earth was approximately . However, in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia on July 8, 2003, the dew point was  while the temperature was , resulting in a heat index of . The human body requires evaporative cooling to prevent overheating. Wet-bulb temperature, and  Wet Bulb Globe Temperature are used to determine the ability of a body to eliminate excess heat. A sustained wet-bulb temperature of about   can be fatal to healthy people; at this temperature our bodies switch from shedding heat to the environment, to gaining heat from it.
Thus a wet bulb temperature of   is the threshold beyond which the body is no longer able to adequately cool itself. Table of values  The table below is from the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The columns begin at , but there is also a heat index effect at  and similar temperatures when there is high humidity. For example, if the air temperature is  and the relative humidity is 65%, the heat index is  Effects of the heat index (shade values)  Exposure to full sunshine can increase heat index values by up to 8 °C (14 °F). Formula  There are many formula devised to approximate the original tables by Steadman.
Anderson et al. (2013), NWS (2011), Jonson and Long (2004), and Schoen (2005) have lesser residuals in this order. The former two are a set of polynomials, but the third one is by a single formula with exponential functions. The formula below approximates the heat index in degrees Fahrenheit, to within ±. It is the result of a multivariate fit (temperature equal to or greater than  and relative humidity equal to or greater than 40%) to a model of the human body. This equation reproduces the above NOAA National Weather Service table (except the values at  & 45%/70% relative humidity vary unrounded by less than ±1, respectively).
where HI = heat index (in degrees Fahrenheit) T = ambient dry-bulb temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) R = relative humidity (percentage value between 0 and 100)  The following coefficients can be used to determine the heat index when the temperature is given in degrees Celsius, where HI = heat index (in degrees Celsius) T = ambient dry-bulb temperature (in degrees Celsius) R = relative humidity (percentage value between 0 and 100)   c1 = -8.78469475556  c2 = 1.61139411  c3 = 2.33854883889  c4 = -0.14611605  c5 = -0.012308094  c6 = -0.0164248277778  c7 = 0.002211732  c8 = 0.00072546  c9 = -0.000003582  An alternative set of constants for this equation that is within ± of the NWS master table for all humidities from 0 to 80% and all temperatures between  and all heat indices below  is:  A further alternate is this:  where  For example, using this last formula, with temperature  and relative humidity (RH) of 85%, the result would be: .
See also   Apparent temperature    Humidex  Wet-bulb temperature  Wind chill  References  External links  Description of wind chill & apparent temperature Formulae in metric units Heat Index Calculator Calculates both °F and °C Current map of global heat index values  Category:Atmospheric thermodynamics Category:Meteorological indices
Younger And Younger is 1993 American comedy film directed by Percy Adlon and starring Donald Sutherland, Brendan Fraser, and Lolita Davidovich. Plot Jonathan Younger owns a self-storage facility. He has a strained relationship with wife Penny, a plain and skittish woman who is startled by a noise Jonathan makes and dies from a heart attack. Jonathan's college-aged son Winston returns home to help run the family business. While they interact with a number of quirky customers, Jonathan is haunted by the spirit of his late wife, who becomes increasingly attractive to him with each ghostly apparition.
Cast Donald Sutherland as Jonathan Younger  Brendan Fraser as Winston Younger  Lolita Davidovich as Penny Sally Kellerman as ZigZag Lilian  Julie Delpy as Melodie Linda Hunt as Frances Pit Krüger as Roger Nicholas Gunn as Benjamin  Awards and nominations Brussels International Fantastic Film Festival Won, "Silver Raven Award" - Percy Adlon  Tokyo International Film Festival Won, "Best Actress Award" - Lolita Davidovich  References  External links  Category:1993 films Category:1990s comedy-drama films Category:American fantasy-comedy films Category:1990s romantic comedy films Category:German films Category:American films Category:English-language films Category:Films directed by Percy Adlon Category:Films scored by Hans Zimmer Category:American romantic comedy films Category:American comedy-drama films
The 1992–93 season was the 113th season of football in England. The season saw the Premier League in its first season, replacing Division One of the Football League as the top league in England. Every team in the Premier League played each other twice within the season, one game away and one at home, and were awarded three points for a win and one for a draw. Overview This season saw the birth of the FA Premier League. This meant a break-up of the 104-year-old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions. In 1992 all of the First Division Clubs resigned from the Football League and, on 27 May, the FA Premier League was formed as a limited company, which worked out of an office at the then Football Association's headquarters, Lancaster Gate.
The three divisions which remained in the Football League were renamed. The old Division Two was now called Division One. The old Division Three was now called Division Two, and the old Division Four was now Division Three. Individual achievements  Players Manchester United winger Ryan Giggs, 19, was voted PFA Young Player of the Year for the second year running after helping his employers win their first league title for 26 years. Teddy Sheringham was the new Premier League's top scorer with 22 goals. He scored once for Nottingham Forest and was then transferred to Tottenham Hotspur, opening his goalscoring account with the club by scoring 21 league goals.
Chris Waddle was voted FWA Footballer of the Year after helping Sheffield Wednesday reach both domestic cup finals. Guy Whittingham scores a club record 42 league goals during the season for Portsmouth. He was on target 46 times in all competitions. The PFA Players' Player of the Year award went to experienced Aston Villa centre-back Paul McGrath. Gary Pallister played every minute of Manchester United's title-winning Premier League campaign. No other player matched that feat until the 2014–15 season, more than two decades later. Coventry signed Newcastle striker Micky Quinn for a nominal fee in November, and he responded by scoring 17 Premier League goals (the first 10 in 6 games) to keep the Sky Blues clear of relegation.
Striker Les Ferdinand established himself as one of the country's top marksmen with more than 20 goals in all competitions for Queens Park Rangers. Alan Shearer scored 16 goals in his first 21 Premier League games for Blackburn Rovers before a serious knee injury ended his season. David Kelly scored 25 Division One goals to help Newcastle win promotion to the Premier League, but surprisingly he spurned the chance of Premier League football to sign for Wolves as strike-partner for the ever-prolific Steve Bull. Andy Cole scored 12 goals in his first 12 games for Division One champions Newcastle. Managers Alex Ferguson took Manchester United to title success in the new Premier League, ending their 26-year wait for the league title.
George Graham guided Arsenal to a unique double of winning both domestic cups in the same season. Mike Walker pulled off one of the surprises of the season by taking Norwich City to a club best finish of third in the Premier League and helping them achieve European qualification for the first time in their history. Gerry Francis helped Queens Park Rangers finish highest out of all the London-based clubs in the new Premier League as they finished fifth. Kevin Keegan restored success to Newcastle United by guiding them to the Division One title. Glenn Hoddle guided Swindon Town to success in the Division One playoffs to achieve promotion to the Premier League – and top-flight football for a club who had never played at that level before.
Lou Macari won the Division Two title with Stoke City. Bruce Rioch continued the revival at Bolton Wanderers by gaining automatic promotion to Division One. Alan Little had a dream start in management by winning the Division Three playoff with York City, just two months after he had taken over from John Ward. Martin O'Neill took Wycombe Wanderers into the Football League as Conference champions. Events  Top division's first season as Premier League  The FA launched its new Premier League of 22 elite clubs, which broke away from the Football League. The new league was backed up by a £305million exclusive TV rights deal with BSkyB.
This paved the way for the Premier League's members to spend heavily on new players and also to convert their stadia into an all-seater format, which was necessary as a result of the Taylor Report's requirement that top division stadia should be all seater from the start of the 1994–95 season. Man United win title after 26 years Manchester United won the first Premier League championship to end their 26-year wait for the league title. They fought off stiff competition from runners-up Aston Villa, third-placed Norwich City and fourth-placed Blackburn Rovers to finish top of the league. Brilliant young winger Ryan Giggs was PFA Young Player of the Year for the second year running, while Alex Ferguson received the Manager of the Year award.
Other significant players in the title winning side were top goalscorer Mark Hughes, temperamental but brilliant French striker Eric Cantona (bought from Leeds United in mid-season), reliable centre back Gary Pallister and confident midfielder Paul Ince. Manchester United would go on further to dominate the Premier League till the present day, with challenges coming from Arsenal, Newcastle United, Aston Villa, Blackburn, Liverpool and Chelsea for the title. The top three of Manchester United, Aston Villa and Norwich City mirrors that of the final Second Division table of 1974-75, the last season Manchester United played outside the top flight. Blackburn Rovers won the Third Division the same season.
Arsenal win cup double Arsenal became the first team to win the FA Cup and League Cup in the same season, beating Sheffield Wednesday 2–1 in both finals. Steve Morrow scored the winning goal in the League Cup final, but was accidentally dropped by captain Tony Adams during the post-match celebrations, broke his arm and missed the FA Cup triumph. Arsenal's double gave them two places in UEFA competitions, meaning that Norwich City were awarded a UEFA Cup place for finishing third in the League. Norwich had never qualified for Europe before, due to the ban on English clubs following the Heysel stadium disaster.
Nottingham Forest relegated Brian Clough retired after 18 years as manager of Nottingham Forest. In his final season as manager they were relegated from the Premier League, but earlier in his reign he had brought league championship and European Cup glory to the previously unfashionable club. There had even been some success in the final few years of his reign, as Forest were League Cup winners in 1989 and 1990. They were losing finalists in the 1991 FA Cup and 1992 League Cup, but finally bowed out of the top flight after the sale of key players like Des Walker and Teddy Sheringham who proved impossible to replace.
Swindon reach top division Swindon Town finally reached the top flight of English football by beating Leicester City 4–3 in the Division One playoff final. They had been denied promotion three years earlier because of financial irregularities. Manager of the jubilant Swindon side was 36-year-old Glenn Hoddle, the former Tottenham and England midfielder, who had built a formidable squad containing players like Shaun Taylor, Micky Hazard and Craig Maskell. Shortly after achieving promotion glory with Swindon, Hoddle agreed to become manager of Chelsea and was replaced at the County Ground by his assistant John Gorman. Wycombe get in the League Martin O'Neill, who played in the great Nottingham Forest team of the late 1970s and early 1980s, achieved his first success in management by getting Wycombe Wanderers promoted to the Football League as well as completing the double by winning the FA Trophy.
They replaced Halifax Town, who finished bottom of Division Three. Wycombe's fortunes had been looking good since they moved into their new Adams Park ground in 1990, and the Conference and FA Trophy double all but erased memories of the previous year when they went through the agony of missing out on promotion on goal difference to their bitter rivals Colchester United. Maidstone lose place in the League Maidstone United, struggling in the league's basement division with huge debts, no registered stadium and just two registered players, had their first game of the 1992–93 season cancelled and were given two days to guarantee that they would be able to fulfill their fixtures.
Unable to comply with these requirements, the club resigned from the league on 17 August 1992. The club was soon reformed and applied to join the Kent County League for the following season. The League decided that Maidstone would not be replaced by another club, so the top four tiers of the English league pyramid would revert to the 92-club format which it had adopted until 1991. Barnet win promotion Controversial chairman Stan Flashman quit Barnet after a season of turmoil in which he regularly sacked and reinstated manager Barry Fry, but the club still managed to win promotion from Division Three despite spending months on the verge of oblivion due to a mounting financial crisis.
They had been banned from the transfer market for most of the season because they were unable to afford their player's wages. League changes sponsor Barclays bank ended their six-year sponsorship of the Football League. They were replaced by Endsleigh Insurance, who put pen to paper in a three-year sponsorship deal. Notable debuts  5 September 1992: Andy Turner, midfielder aged 17 years and 166 days, becomes the youngest Premier League scorer when he scores on his competitive debut for Tottenham Hotspur against Everton. 16 September 1992: Gary Neville, 17-year-old defender, makes his debut for Manchester United against Torpedo Moscow in the UEFA Cup first round first leg tie at Old Trafford, which ends in a goalless draw.
23 September 1992: David Beckham, 17-year-old midfielder, comes on as a substitute for Manchester United as they draw 1–1 at Brighton in the Football League Cup second round first leg. 27 September 1992: Nick Barmby, 18-year-old attacking midfielder, makes his debut for Tottenham Hotspur in a 2–0 Premier League defeat at Sheffield Wednesday. 21 November 1992: Nicky Butt, 17-year-old midfielder, comes on a substitute for Manchester United in their 3–0 home win over Oldham Athletic in the Premier League. 5 December 1992: Sol Campbell, 18-year-old defender, scores on his debut for Tottenham Hotspur as they lose 2–1 at home to Chelsea in the Premier League.
Notable retirements   Tommy Caton, Charlton Athletic defender formerly with Manchester City and Arsenal, retired in March after two years out of action with injury, and died the following month from a heart attack at the age of 30. Brian Clough, Legendary Manager of Hartlepools United, Derby County, Brighton, Leeds United, and Nottingham Forest manager retired after 28 years in club management. His last meaningful game on 6 May 1993 against Sheffield United confirmed Nottingham Forest relegation following a 2-0 defeat at The City Ground. Chris Hughton, former Tottenham Hotspur and Republic of Ireland defender, retired at end of season when playing for Brentford.
Darren Salton, retired after being badly injured in a car crash in November. Had played 18 times in the league for Luton Town and was capped six times by the Scotland under-21 side. His teammate Paul Telfer was also in the car but suffered only minor injuries. Gary A. Stevens, Portsmouth defender, retired after failing to recover from a knee injury suffered in the 1988–89 season when tackled by Vinnie Jones. Top goalscorers  Premier League  Teddy Sheringham (Nottingham Forest/Tottenham Hotspur) – 22 goals  Division One  Guy Whittingham (Portsmouth) – 42 goals  Division Two  Bob Taylor (West Bromwich Albion) – 30 goals  Division Three  Darren Foreman (Scarborough)/Carl Griffiths (Shrewsbury Town) – 27 goals English League Leading Goalscorers  Honours  Notes = Number in parentheses is the times that club has won that honour (First Division & Premier League).
Number after slash is Premier League only. * indicates new record for competition  English national team  League tables  FA Premier League  The first champions of the new Premier League were Manchester United, who ended their 26-year wait for a top division title in dramatic style. After some disappointing results in the opening months of the season, the arrival of French striker Eric Cantona from Leeds United in late November signalled a turnaround for Alex Ferguson's men, who only lost two more league games all season and finished as champions by a 10-point margin above their nearest contenders Aston Villa, managed by Ferguson's predecessor as United manager Ron Atkinson.
Finishing in third place were a Norwich City side who had been among the pre-season favourites for relegation, but had instead spent the season chasing the title and actually leading the league more than once. Newly promoted Blackburn Rovers, in the top flight for the first time since the 1960s, finished fourth, their title challenge having slowed down after top scorer Alan Shearer was ruled out for the second half of the season with injury. Fifth placed QPR were the highest place of the London sides, although 10th placed Arsenal did manage to win a unique double of the FA Cup and League Cup, defeating Sheffield Wednesday in both finals.
Liverpool endured another relatively disappointing season in the league, finishing sixth for the second season running, although they had entered March in 15th place before a strong finish to the season, in which Ian Rush found the net 11 times, saw them climb up the table. Defending champions Leeds United had an even more disappointing campaign, finishing 17th and failing to win a single away game in the league. The first team to go down from the Premier League were Nottingham Forest, whose iconic manager Brian Clough retired after 18 years at the helm. Newly promoted Middlesbrough, who had fallen from mid table after a disastrous run of late winter form, went down on the final day, as did Crystal Palace on goal difference – while Oldham Athletic survived on goal difference after winning their final three games of the season.
Leading goalscorer: Teddy Sheringham (Tottenham Hotspur) – 22  League Division One  Newcastle United's first full season under the management of Kevin Keegan ended in Division One championship glory and promotion to the Premier League. Following the Geordies into football's big-money league were West Ham United and Swindon Town. West Ham had suffered relegation just one season earlier, and had been many people's favourites for an automatic return to the elite. Swindon, meanwhile, had finally reached the top flight after 73 years of trying – they had actually won promotion via the playoffs three years earlier, but promotion had been denied a few weeks later due to financial irregularities.
Third-placed Portsmouth had opened up a 9-point gap over fourth-placed Tranmere Rovers, but lost to Leicester City in the playoff semi-finals and this ended any promotion hopes for a club who had begun the season as favourites for promotion, and ended it with 88 points. Grimsby Town finished an impressive ninth in the table, while 10th place was occupied by Peterborough United in their first season at this level. Going down were Cambridge United (who had just missed out on promotion a year earlier), Brentford and Bristol Rovers. Brentford, newly promoted a season earlier, had stood in 10th place at the turn of 1993, but a sharp decline in form during the final few months of the season saw them relegated on the final day of the season.
Luton Town narrowly avoided a second successive relegation. Leading goalscorer: Guy Whittingham (Portsmouth) – 42  League Division Two  Lou Macari guided Stoke City to their first successful season in years as they were crowned Division Two champions. Bruce Rioch brought some long-awaited success to Bolton Wanderers as they occupied the division's second promotion place. Osvaldo Ardiles guided West Bromwich Albion to promotion via the playoffs, bringing some long-awaited success to another club who had once enjoyed better times. Preston North End, Wigan Athletic, Mansfield Town and Chester City occupied Division Two's four relegation places. Mansfield were newly promoted, while the other three teams had been established at this level for no less than six years.
Hartlepool United equalled an English football record by playing eleven consecutive matches without scoring a single goal, in a terrible mid-season run which saw them fall from the promotion chase to the relegation battle, although some decent results in the final stages of the season kept them up. Brighton finished ninth in the table despite rising debts, the constant need to sell players, and doubts regarding the future of the club. Leading goalscorer: Bob Taylor (West Bromwich Albion) – 30  League Division Three  Cardiff City and Wrexham continued their good progress by occupying Division Three's top two places. They were joined in third place by Barnet, who had spent most of the season on the brink of expulsion from the league due to financial problems.
The final promotion place went to York City, who won the playoffs just weeks after Alan Little was appointed manager. Halifax Town, after 72 years of league membership, finished bottom of the league and were replaced by Conference champions Wycombe Wanderers. They went down following an escape act by Gillingham, whose player-manager Glenn Roeder then moved up two divisions to take charge of Watford. Halifax's place in the league was taken by GM Vauxhall Conference champions Wycombe Wanderers, managed by the former Nottingham Forest player Martin O'Neill. Leading goalscorers: Darren Foreman (Scarborough), and Carl Griffiths (Shrewsbury Town) – 27  Transfer deals For subsequent transfer deals see 1993–94 in English football.
Diary of the season 3 July 1992 – Ron Atkinson appoints Dave Sexton, the man he succeeded as Manchester United manager eleven years ago, to his coaching staff at Aston Villa. 6 July 1992 – Liverpool sign 21-year-old goalkeeper David James from Watford for £1 million. 8 July 1992 – Blackburn Rovers sign Middlesbrough winger Stuart Ripley for £1.3 million. 10 July 1992 – Oldham Athletic pay a club record £600,000 for Manchester City defender Neil Pointon. 11 July 1992 – Ted Fenton, manager of West Ham United from 1950 to 1961, dies aged 77 after being injured in a car crash in Leicester.
14 July 1992 – Arsenal sign John Jensen, midfielder in Denmark's European Championship winning team, from Brøndby in a £1.1 million deal. 17 July 1992 – Chris Waddle returns to England after three years in France with Marseille, joining Sheffield Wednesday for £1 million. 19 July 1992 – Striker Kerry Dixon ends nine years at Chelsea to sign for Southampton in a £575,000 deal. 21 July 1992 – Tottenham Hotspur sign defender Neil Ruddock from Southampton for £750,000. 23 July 1992 – David Rocastle ends nine years at Arsenal by joining Leeds United in a £2 million deal. 25 July 1992 – Everton are reported to be £3.6 million in debt.
27 July 1992 – The new Premier League rejects sponsorship deals offered by Bass Breweries and Ford Motor Company, meaning it will be without a sponsor in its first season. 28 July 1992 – Alan Shearer signs for newly promoted Blackburn Rovers for an English record fee of £3.5 million, with David Speedie moving in the opposite direction in part exchange. Aston Villa add Ray Houghton, from Liverpool for £900,000, to their ranks. 29 July 1992 – Lou Macari, the former Swindon Town manager now at Stoke City, is cleared of tax fraud offences at Winchester Crown Court. Swindon's former chairman Brian Hillier is found guilty and given a one-year prison sentence.
Club accountant Vince Farrar is also found guilty and receives a six-month suspended sentence. 31 July 1992 – Coca-Cola become sponsors of the Football League Cup in a two-year deal worth £2.25 million. 1 August 1992 – Nottingham Forest sell defender Des Walker to Sampdoria for £1.5million. 3 August 1992 – Bass Brewery's reported US$17.1 million proposal to sponsor the Premier League for the first three seasons fails after three – Arsenal, Liverpool and Nottingham Forest – of the top-flight's 22 clubs object. 5 August 1992 – Manchester City sign winger Rick Holden from Oldham Athletic for £900,000. 7 August 1992 – Manchester United sign 23-year-old Cambridge United striker Dion Dublin for £1million.
8 August 1992 – Eric Cantona scores a hat-trick for Leeds United in a 4–3 victory over Liverpool at Wembley Stadium in the 1992 FA Charity Shield. 12 August 1992 – Chelsea pay a club record £2.1million for Norwich City's Scottish striker Robert Fleck. 14 August 1992 – Norwich City sign Mark Robins from Manchester United for £800,000, while Everton boost their attack with a £500,000 move for Paul Rideout. West Ham United winger Stuart Slater joins Celtic for £1.5million. 15 August 1992 – The new FA Premier League begins. The first goal is scored by Sheffield United striker Brian Deane in the fifth minute of a 2–1 home win over Manchester United.
Alan Shearer begins his Blackburn Rovers career with two goals against Crystal Palace in a 3–3 draw at Selhurst Park.Arsenal surrender a two-goal lead to lose 4-2 at home to Norwich, with Mark Robins scoring twice on his debut for the visitors. In Division One, Bristol City and Portsmouth draw 3-3 in a thrilling match at Ashton Gate. Peterborough United, in the second tier for the first time, achieve a surprise 1-0 home win over promotion favourites Derby County. In the new Division Three, debt ridden Maidstone United have their first game of the season cancelled and are given 48 hours to guarantee that they will be able to fulfill their fixtures for this season.
16 August 1992 – Sky Sports broadcast their first live Premier League game. Teddy Sheringham scores the only goal as Nottingham Forest beat Liverpool at the City Ground. West Ham United begin their Division One promotion push with a 1-0 win at Barnsley. Notts County, who went down with West Ham last season, lose 1-0 at newly-promoted Birmingham City. 17 August 1992 – Maidstone United resign from the Football League after being unable to guarantee that they can fulfil their fixtures for this season. 18 August 1992 - The second round of Premier League matches are played. Norwich and Coventry are the only two teams to begin the new league season with back-to-back victories, with Norwich defeating Chelsea 2-1 at Carrow Road and Coventry winning 2-0 away to a Tottenham side who have yet to secure a successor to last season's top scorer Gary Lineker in attack.
Manchester United suffer another disappointing result, losing 3-0 at home to Everton. In Division One, Swindon Town achieve a dramatic 4-3 away win over Bristol Rovers. 22 August 1992 - Newly-promoted Middlesbrough achieve a remarkable 4-1 home win over defending champions Leeds United at Ayresome Park. A thrilling match at Boundary Park sees Oldham beat Nottingham Forest 5-3. Sheffield Wednesday and Chelsea draw 3-3 at Hillsborough, and Manchester United pick up their first point of the season in a 1-1 draw with Ipswich at Old Trafford. Landlords West Ham United host tenants Charlton Athletic at Upton Park, and Charlton win 1-0 to make it three consecutive league wins and top the table.
24 August 1992 – Manchester United record their first Premier League win at the fourth time of asking when a late goal by Dion Dublin gives them a 1–0 win at Southampton. 25 August 1992 – Chester City lose 2–1 to Stockport County in the first match at their new Deva Stadium home in the League Cup. Manchester City equal the British national record for a defender (which they set last year when signing Keith Curle) by paying £2.5 million for Wimbledon's Terry Phelan. In Leeds United's 5–0 home win over Tottenham Hotspur, Eric Cantona becomes the first player to score a hat-trick in the Premier League.
Newly-promoted Ipswich take more points off a more favoured team, holding Liverpool to a 2-2 draw at Portman Road. Charlton take their winning start in Division One to four matches with a 4-1 win over Bristol Rovers at Upton Park. 26 August 1992 - QPR knock Coventry City off the top of the table with a 1-0 win at Highfield Road, to occupy top spot for the first time since October 1987. An East Midlands derby in Division One sees Leicester City beat Derby County 3-2 at Filbert Street. 27 August 1992 – Tottenham Hotspur pay £2.1 million for Nottingham Forest's 26-year-old striker Teddy Sheringham to fill the gap left in attack by Gary Lineker's departure in the close season.
29 August 1992 - Blackburn Rovers go top of the Premier League with a 2-0 away win over Coventry. QPR surrender their lead with a 1-0 defeat at Chelsea. A thrilling match at Maine Road ends in a 3-3 draw between Manchester City and Oldham Athletic. Manchester United's recovery continues with a 2-0 win at Nottingham Forest. Division One leaders Charlton drop points for the first time this season with a goalless draw at home to Luton. Cambridge United, who qualified for the playoff last season, suffer a fourth successive defeat when they crash 4-1 to Swindon Town at the County Ground.
30 August 1992 – Exeter City manager Alan Ball and former Bolton Wanderers manager Phil Neal join the England national team coaching staff. 31 August 1992 – Norwich go top of the Premier League with a 3-1 win over Nottingham Forest at Carrow Road. 1 September 1992 – Crystal Palace sign 21-year-old striker Chris Armstrong from Millwall for £1 million. 2 September 1992 – Aston Villa pay a club record £2.5 million for Liverpool striker Dean Saunders. Dion Dublin breaks his leg in Manchester United's 1-0 home win over Crystal Palace, and is expected to be out of action until early spring.
Chelsea travel to Villa Park and beat Aston Villa 3-1. 5 September 1992 - An exciting set of Premier League fixtures includes a 1-0 home win for Norwich over Southampton, which maintains their lead of the table. Nottingham Forest are bottom of the table after a 4-1 defeat to Blackburn at Ewood Park. Manchester City beat Sheffield Wednesday 3-0 at Hillsborough. Wimbledon record their first win of the season with a 3-2 victory over Arsenal at Selhurst Park. Charlton remain top of Division One with a 2-0 win over Sunderland at Roker Park. Newcastle United take their winning start to the season to five successive victories with a 2-1 away win over Bristol Rovers.
Wolverhampton Wanderers are third after a 4-3 win over Peterborough. 6 September 1992 – Hereford United have a Football League record four players sent off in a 1–1 Division Three draw with Northampton Town at the County Ground. Manchester United make it four Premier League victories in a row by beating Leeds 2-0 at Old Trafford. Division One promotion favourites Derby County are currently bottom of the table with one point from their first five games, having lost 4-3 at home to Bristol City. 9 September 1992 – Vinnie Jones returns to Wimbledon after three years away in a £700,000 move from Chelsea.
11 September 1992 – Dean Saunders signs for Aston Villa from Liverpool, for a transfer fee of £2.3 million. 12 September 1992 - Norwich maintain their lead of the Premier League with a 3-2 win over Chelsea at Stamford Bridge. Manchester United have climbed to third after beating Everton 2-0 at Goodison Park to make it five league wins in succession. Crystal Palace are still looking for a first Premier League after being held to a 2-2 draw at home to Oldham, although Nottingham Forest are still bottom after losing 2-1 at home to Sheffield Wednesday. Newcastle go top of Division One with a sixth successive victory, beating Portsmouth 3-1 on Tyneside.
15 September 1992 – All 22 Division Three clubs receive £10,000 compensation each from the Football League to cover the loss of gate revenue brought upon by the recent demise of Aldershot and Maidstone United. Blackburn miss the chance to go top of the Premier League by losing 3-2 at home to Everton. West Ham boost their chances of an immediate return to the top flight by beating Bristol City 5-1 at Ashton Gate. 16 September 1992 – Derby County pay the record fee for a club outside the top division – and a national record for a defender – when they sign Notts County centre-back Craig Short in a £2.5 million deal.
In the Premier League, Blackburn Rovers' unbeaten start comes to an end when Everton beat them 3–2 at Ewood Park, with Tony Cottee scoring twice. 19 September 1992 – At Villa Park, home debutant Dean Saunders sinks his former club, bagging two in a 4–2 win over a depleted Liverpool side. Meanwhile, Wimbledon's 1–1 draw with Blackburn Rovers ends with three players sent off: Tony Dobson and Mike Newell for Rovers and Vinnie Jones on his second debut for the Dons. Elsewhere in London, QPR and Middlesbrough drew 3–3 after a late Rangers penalty converted by Andy Sinton. Post-match, Boro boss Lennie Lawrence announces the cancellation of a move to sign Robert Lee, owing to the player's unwillingness to commit to a move away from the capital and the involvement of another club.
Norwich are still top of the Premier League thanks to a 1-0 home win over Sheffield Wednesday. Newcastle extend their winning start to the Division One campaign to seven games, beating Bristol City 5-0. Millwall break into the playoff zone with a 6-0 home win over Notts County. 20 September 1992 – Division One leaders Newcastle United sign Charlton Athletic midfielder Robert Lee for £700,000. 26 September 1992 – Alan Shearer scored his tenth Premier League goal for Blackburn Rovers in his tenth appearance in a 2–0 defeat of Oldham Athletic at Ewood Park, although Norwich are still top of the table after a 1-1 draw at Coventry, who occupy third place.
Division One leaders Newcastle have now won eight successive games, their latest triumph being by a single goal over Peterborough at London Road. Charlton are still second with a 2-0 home win over Swindon, while Derby finally win a league game at the eighth attempt, beating Southend United 2-0 at the Baseball Ground. 27 September 1992 - Wolves, third in Division One, strengthen their promotion push with a 4-0 away win over local rivals Birmingham City, with striker Darren Roberts scoring a hat-trick on his league debut following his recent move from non-league Burton Albion. Birmingham are sixth in the league the season after their promotion, although they have picked up just one point from their last four games after starting with four successive victories.
28 September 1992 – Preston North End's Les Chapman and Carlisle United's Aidan McCaffrey become the first managerial casualties of the season. 29 September 1992 – Manchester United are eliminated from the UEFA Cup on penalties after two goalless draws in their first round contest with Torpedo Moscow. 30 September 1992 – The month ends with Norwich City topping the Premier League, with Blackburn Rovers in second place, Coventry City third and Manchester United fourth. Brian Clough's Nottingham Forest prop up the top flight with just one win from their opening nine games. Crystal Palace, who finished third in the league two seasons ago, lie in second from bottom place.
Newcastle United lead Division One with a 100% record in the league stretching eight games, with Charlton Athletic occupying second place without any defeats from their opening nine games. Wolverhampton Wanderers, Leicester City, Birmingham City (in the hunt for a second successive promotion) and Millwall occupy the playoff zone. Derby County, who began the season as most people's favourites for the Division One title, are third from bottom in the table, only a point ahead of Bristol Rovers and Barnsley. 3 October 1992 – Blackburn Rovers go top of the Premier League, displacing Norwich in dramatic fashion with a 7–1 win at Ewood Park.
Strikers Alan Shearer and Roy Wegerle both find the net twice. Coventry hold onto third place with a 2-2 home draw against Crystal Palace. Defending champions Leeds crash to a 4-2 defeat at Ipswich. QPR are fourth after a 4-1 home win over their London rivals Tottenham, who are on the brink of the relegation zone. 4 October 1992 - Newcastle extend their 100% start to the Division One season to nine games with a 2-1 win over Brentford at Griffin Park. Wolves miss out on the chance to go second when West Ham hold them to a goalless draw at home.
9 October 1992 – Leeds United defeat VfB Stuttgart 2–0 in a play-off in the first round of the 1992–93 UEFA Champions League in the Nou Camp. Based on the results in the first two matches, Leeds would have been eliminated on the away goals rule. However, near the end of the second leg at Elland Road, Stuttgart had fielded four foreign players rather than the maximum permitted three. The result was declared void and Leeds were awarded the match 3–0 meaning a play-off was needed, which was staged in Barcelona. 10 October 1992 - The following week's international fixtures mean that there is no Premier League action this weekend.
However, Football League fixtures are played, with Newcastle now having won 10 successive fixtures, beating Tranmere 1-0 at home. Second-placed Charlton lose 2-1 to Bristol City at Ashton Gate, but Wolves miss another chance to leapfrog them when they are held to a 1-1 draw by Southend at Roots Hall. Watford climb into the top half of the table with a 4-2 home win over Bristol Rovers, who fall into bottom place. 11 October 1992 - West Ham boost their Division One promotion push with another big victory, this time defeating Sunderland 6-0 at Upton Park. 14 October 1992 – England draw 1–1 with Norway in their disappointing opener to the World Cup qualifying series.
16 October 1992 – Tottenham Hotspur striker Gordon Durie is banned for three games after feigning an injury in order to win his team a free kick. 17 October 1992 - Norwich go back on top of the Premier League with a 2-1 home win over QPR, although victory for Blackburn on Monday will send Kenny Dalglish's team back to the summit of the league. West Ham move into second place in Division with a 4-0 away win of Bristol Rovers. Fifth-placed Swindon beat Notts County 5-1 at home. 18 October 1992 – Cardiff City chairman Rick Wright announces he is considering withdrawing the club from the Football League in order to transfer to the League of Wales next season.
Ian Rush breaks Roger Hunt's 23-year goalscoring for Liverpool, and scores his 287th goal for the club in their 2–2 league draw with Manchester United at Old Trafford, although the Reds surrender their 2-0 lead when Mark Hughes scores twice during the final 10 minutes. Newcastle make it 11 successive victories with a 2-1 win over local rivals Sunderland at Roker Park, and are now 10 points ahead of second-placed West Ham and 11 points ahead of third-placed Wolves. 19 October 1992 - Blackburn miss the chance to regain their lead of the Premier League when they are held to a goalless draw at Aston Villa.
20 October 1992 – Chester City part company with manager Harry McNally after seven years in charge, following a poor start to the season. 21 October 1992 - Nottingham Forest are still bottom of the Premier League despite recording their second win of the season, a 1-0 home victory over Middlesbrough. 22 October 1992 – Cambridge United sack John Beck, who had guided them to successive promotions in the first two of his three seasons as manager. 23 October 1992 – Barclays Bank announce that they will not be renewing their sponsorship of the Football League after the end of the season.
Barclays have been the league's sponsors since the start of the 1987–88 season. 24 October 1992 – Newcastle United's 11-match winning start to the Division One campaign ends with a 1–0 defeat at home to Grimsby Town. Blackburn go top of the Premier League on goal difference with a goalless draw at home to Manchester United, who have now gone 10 league games without a defeat but have drawn their last five following a five-match winning run, pushing them down to seventh place. The recent shortage of goals has led to calls for Alex Ferguson to sign another striker, and a recent £3.5million bid for Sheffield Wednesday striker David Hirst has been rejected.
25 October 1992 - Norwich miss the chance to go back on top of the Premier League with a 4-1 defeat to Liverpool at Anfield. 26 October 1992 – Former Queens Park Rangers captain Glenn Roeder is appointed player-manager of Gillingham in place of Damien Richardson. 31 October 1992 – October ends with Blackburn ahead of Norwich at the top of the Premier League with a vastly superior goal difference, after both teams were held to draws today. QPR, Arsenal and Coventry are all three points behind them, with QPR and Arsenal both having a game in hand. Manchester United suffer their first defeat in 11 games when a Lawrie Sanchez goal gives Wimbledon a 1-0 at Old Trafford and lifts the visitors out of the relegation zone.
Everton have now fallen into the relegation zone after some promising performances early in the season, having lost 3-1 at home to Manchester City today. 1 November 1992 - Aston Villa moved into third place and are three points short of the top of the Premier League after a 2-0 home win over QPR. 2 November 1992 - Goals from Paul Merson and Ian Wright give Arsenal a 2-1 win over Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park, and send the Gunners into third place, just one point behind Blackburn and Norwich. Victory for Palace would have lifted the hosts out of the relegation zone on goal difference.
3 November 1992 - Midweek fixtures in Division One produce a series of dramatic results. Barnsley win 5-1 away to Bristol Rovers. Cambridge and Luton draw 3-3 at the Abbey Stadium. Oxford United and Portsmouth draw 5-5 at the Manor Ground. Peterborough climb to the brink of the playoff places with a 2-1 win over Watford at Vicarage Road. Derby County's recovery continues with a 2-0 win over local rivals Notts County at Meadow Lane. 4 November 1992 – Leeds United play Rangers at Elland Road in the second leg of their second round UEFA Champions League tie. Trailing 2–1 from the first leg in Glasgow, Leeds went into the return match strongly favoured to turn the tie around.
However, Rangers defied expectations and won 2–1 again on the night to progress to the first ever group stages of the Champions League. 7 November 1992 - Arsenal go top of the Premier League with a 3-0 home win over Coventry City. Aston Villa boost their challenge with a 1-0 home win over Manchester United, who are now 10th in the table and have won none of their last seven league games, their worst run the league for three years. Their local rivals Manchester City beat Leeds United 4-0 at Maine Road - the same result which occurred in the clash between the two teams there last season.
Liverpool beat Middlesbrough 4-1 at Anfield. Peterborough continue their surprise push for a playoff place in Division One by beating Sunderland 5-2 at London Road. Wolves beat Bristol Rovers 5-1 at the Molineux to keep their promotion challenge strong. 9 November 1992 – Mark Robins scores a hat-trick for Norwich City in their 3–2 away win over Oldham Athletic, which takes the Canaries back to the top of the Premier League. 10 November 1992 – Dennis Rofe resigns as manager of Division One strugglers Bristol Rovers, and is succeeded by 65-year-old Malcolm Allison on an interim basis. 13 November 1992 - Graham Barrow is given the Chester City manager's job on a permanent basis.
14 November 1992 - The forthcoming international fixtures mean that there is no Premier League action this weekend, but it is business as usual in the Football League. Luton remain the drop zone and in danger of a second successive relegation following a 4-0 defeat Oxford. Newcastle remain in pole position with a 3-1 win at Charlton, who have dropped to seventh following a recent downturn in form. 15 November 1992 – Transfer-listed Newcastle United striker Micky Quinn joins Coventry City on a month's loan. 18 November 1992 – England achieve a comfortable 4–0 win over Turkey in the second World Cup qualifying game.
Wimbledon midfielder Vinnie Jones is fined £20,000 for his appearance in the video Soccer's Hard Men. 19 November 1992 – The High Court rules that Liverpool fan Tony Bland, 22, who suffered brain damage in the Hillsborough disaster in April 1989 and has been in a persistent vegetative state ever since, can have treatment withdrawn and be allowed to die. 21 November 1992 – Manchester United's seven-match winless Premier League run ends with a 3–0 home victory over Oldham Athletic, with two goals from Mark Hughes and another from Brian McClair. 17-year-old midfielder Nicky Butt makes his debut for United as a substitute.
Midfielder Neil Webb leaves Old Trafford after three years and returns to Nottingham Forest for £800,000. Norwich now have a four-point lead at the top of the Premier League, having beaten Sheffield United 2-1 at Carrow Road. The bottom two clubs, Crystal Palace and Nottingham Forest, draw 1-1 at Selhurst Park. The main action in Division sees West Ham beat Oxford 5-3 at Upton Park and Tranmere squander the chance to go second with a 4-0 defeat at Fratton Park to a Portsmouth side who are closing in on the playoff places. 26 November 1992 – Manchester United sign Leeds United and France striker Eric Cantona in a £1.2 million deal.
27 November 1992 – 65-year-old former Manchester City manager Malcolm Allison is appointed team manager by Bristol Rovers. 28 November 1992 – Aston Villa's 12-match unbeaten run is ended when they lose 3-2 at home to Norwich, who now have a five-point lead over their nearest challengers Blackburn. Elsewhere in the Premier League, Mark Hughes scores the only goal as Manchester United win at the Arsenal, and at Ewood Park, Alan Shearer's goal helps the Rovers overcome the Rangers 1–0. Crystal Palace remain second from bottom with just one victory to their name after being beaten 5-0 by Liverpool at Anfield.
Oldham move two more places clear of the relegation zone with a 4-1 win over Middlesbrough at Boundary Park. Newcastle maintain their runaway lead at the top of Division One with a 4-1 home win over Cambridge United. 29 November 1992 - Chelsea move into fifth place in the Premier League with a 1-0 win over Leeds at Stamford Bridge. 30 November 1992 – Norwich City finish November as Premier League leaders, leading Blackburn Rovers by five points. Crystal Palace and Nottingham Forest continue to prop up the top flight, while Everton have climbed out of the relegation zone at the expense of Wimbledon.
In Division One, leaders Newcastle United now have a 12-point lead over their nearest contenders, Tranmere Rovers (in the hunt for top-flight football for the first time in their history, which would give them three promotions in just five seasons). The playoff zone is occupied by West Ham United, Swindon Town, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Millwall. A surprise promotion challenge is coming from Grimsby Town (who were playing in the old Fourth Division three years ago) who now occupy eighth place in Division One. The relegation zone is unchanged from the end of October, except for Luton Town having climbed a point above another team fighting two successive relegations, Notts County.
UEFA announces that UEFA Euro 1996, held in England, will be contested by 16 teams, doubling the number of entrants from the traditional eight. 1 December 1992 – Barnet sack manager Barry Fry, despite being second-top of Division Three. 4 December 1992 – Birmingham City coach Ian Atkins is appointed manager of Cambridge United. At the top end of the Division table, John Aldridge scores a hat-trick as Tranmere strengthen their hold on second place with a 5-2 win over West Ham at Prenton Park. 5 December 1992 – Nottingham Forest win for only the third time in the league this season, beating Leeds 4-1 at Elland Road, but are still bottom of the table due to second-from-bottom Crystal Palace winning 2-0 at home to Sheffield United.
Norwich now have an eight-point lead at the top of the Premier League after beating Wimbledon 2-1 at Carrow Road, while their nearest rivals Blackburn find themselves on the receiving end of a John Hendrie hat-trick and a 3-2 defeat to Middlesbrough at Ayresome Park. Newcastle maintain their wide lead at the top of Division One with a 2-0 away win over Notts County. 6 December 1992 - Eric Cantona makes his debut for Manchester United as a substitute in a 2-1 win for his new club in the Manchester derby at Old Trafford. United are now fifth in the Premier League after three successive victories.
7 December 1992 – Birmingham City are put up for sale with offers in the region of £750,000 invited for the 84% shareholding of former owner Samesh Kumar, who was recently declared bankrupt. Everton beat Liverpool 2-1 in the Merseyside derby at Goodison Park, with Everton's Peter Beardsley becoming only the second player who have scored for both clubs in Merseyside derbies. The result lifts Everton two places into 17th, while slip one place to 10th on goal difference. 8 December 1992 – John McGrath resigns as manager of Halifax Town, who are 17th in Division Three. Due to the club's desperate financial situation, they make the unorthodox move of appointing physiotherapist Mick Rathbone as manager for the remainder of the season.
11 December 1992 – Ipswich Town sign Bulgarian striker Bontcho Guentchev from Sporting CP for £250,000. Barnet reinstate manager Barry Fry ten days after sacking him. Chelsea climb into second place in the Premier League with a goalless draw at Middlesbrough. 12 December 1992 - Manchester United record a fourth successive Premier League victory, beating Norwich 1-0 at Old Trafford with Mark Hughes scoring the only goal of the game. They are now third in the table and six points behind the leaders. Aston Villa beat Nottingham Forest 2-1 at Villa Park to cut Norwich's lead of the table to five points.
Oldham fall into the relegation zone with a 5-2 defeat against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park, which lifts Joe Kinnear's men out of the drop zone. Crystal Palace are level on points with both teams after defeating QPR 3-1 at Loftus Road. 13 December 1992 - Blackburn drop three more points when they lose 2-1 to Liverpool at Anfield. Newcastle suffer a rare defeat in Division One, losing 1-0 to Barnsley at Oakwell. Bristol Rovers climb out of the drop zone with an impressive 4-0 win over neighbours Bristol City at Twerton Park. 15 December 1992 – Micky Quinn signs for Coventry City on a permanent basis for £250,000, having scored six goals in four matches on loan.
18 December 1992 – Liverpool sign Norway defender Stig Inge Bjørnebye from Rosenborg for £600,000. A takeover of Peterborough United sees manager Chris Turner installed as chairman, with Lil Fuccillo being appointed manager. 19 December 1992 – Coventry City thrash Liverpool 5–1 at Highfield Road, inflicting Liverpool's heaviest league defeat for 16 years. Micky Quinn scores twice, taking his tally to eight goals in five matches, as does defender Brian Borrows. Aston Villa drop two points in their title, being held to a 1-1 draw with Manchester City at Maine Road. Tranmere strengthen their hold on second place in Division One with a 3-0 home win over sixth-placed Wolves.
20 December 1992 – Eric Cantona scores his first goal for Manchester United in a 1–1 league draw with Chelsea at Stamford Bridge. Crystal Palace beat Leeds 1-0 at Selhurst Park to make it three league wins a row, lifting them out of the relegation zone. 21 December 1992 - Norwich are still four points ahead at the top of the Premier League despite a 2-0 home defeat to their East Anglian rivals Ipswich Town, who are now sixth in the table. 22 December 1992 – Chelsea sign Russian goalkeeper Dmitri Kharin from CSKA Moscow for £200,000. 26 December 1992 – Manchester United draw 3–3 at Sheffield Wednesday after being 3–0 down at half time, and are now second in the table behind Norwich City.
Micky Quinn's good form for Coventry City continues as he scores twice in their 3–0 home win over title-chasing Aston Villa, making it 10 goals in his first six games for the club. Alan Shearer scores in a 2–1 home win for Blackburn over Leeds United to take his goals tally to 16 in the league and 22 in all competitions, but suffers a serious knee injury and is expected to be ruled out until next season. Crystal Palace win for the fourth game in succession, beating their tenants Wimbledon 2-0 to climb up to 17th place and push them deeper into relegation trouble.
In the Division One promotion race, Newcastle maintain a wide lead at the top of the table by beating Wolves 2-1 at home, West Ham's hopes of automatic promotion are dented when they are held to a 1-1 draw by Charlton at the recently reopened Valley, and Brentford and Grimsby both win their Boxing Day fixtures to close in the playoff places. 28 December 1992 – Andy Sinton scores a hat-trick in Queens Park Rangers' 4–2 win over Everton. Norwich are held to a goalless draw by Leeds at Elland Road, and Manchester United move into second place and cut their lead to three points by beating Coventry 5-0 at Old Trafford.
Crystal Palace resume their upturn in form with a 1-0 win over Middlesbrough at Ayresome Park. Newcastle suffer only their fourth Division One defeat of the season when Oxford beat them 4-2 at the Manor Ground. More drama in the promotion race sees Portsmouth beat Derby 4-2 at the Baseball Ground. 29 December 1992 - Chelsea climb four places up to fifth in the Premier League with a 1-0 win over Leeds at Stamford Bridge. 31 December 1992 – The year ends with Norwich City still leading the table, with a three-point lead over Manchester United. Nottingham Forest remain bottom, Wimbledon remain in the relegation zone and Crystal Palace have moved clear of the bottom three at the expense of Sheffield United.
Newcastle United enter the new year with their 12-point lead over Tranmere Rovers still intact. West Ham United, Millwall, Portsmouth and Leicester City occupy the playoff zone. Newly promoted Brentford occupy tenth position and are just two points short of the playoff zone which would give them a chance of reclaiming the top division place they lost in 1947. However, Birmingham City's early promotion challenge has given way to a drastic loss of form that has pushed them to the bottom of Division One. Also facing the threat of relegation are Luton Town, who only slipped out of the top flight last season, and are only one point clear of the relegation zone, as well as Southend United and Cambridge United, who were both in last season's promotion hunt.
1 January 1993 – 35-year-old midfielder Gordon Strachan is awarded an OBE. 2 January 1993 – Crystal Palace, the 1990 FA Cup finalists, suffer a shock third round exit from the competition when they lose 1–0 at Hartlepool United. 4 January 1993 – Scunthorpe United manager Bill Green becomes the first Football League managerial casualty of 1993 when he is sacked in favour of Richard Money. 6 January 1993 – Eighteen months after leaving Manchester United for Aston Villa, Les Sealey returns to Old Trafford on a free transfer. 7 January 1993 – Blackburn Rovers sign Swedish midfielder Patrik Andersson from Malmö FF for £800,000.
9 January 1993 - The first Premier League games of 1993 see Manchester United go top of the Premier League on goal difference with a 4-1 home win over Tottenham, although they are still level on points with Aston Villa, who beat Liverpool 2-1 at Anfield, and a Norwich side who play tomorrow. Division One leaders Newcastle United beat Bristol City 2-1 at Ashton Gate. 10 January 1993 - Norwich miss the chance to regain their lead of the Premier League, losing 1-0 to Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough. 13 January 1993 – Liverpool suffer a shock FA Cup exit in the third round replay, losing 2–0 at home to Division Two side Bolton Wanderers.
14 January 1993 – Notts County, bottom of Division One and in danger of a second successive relegation, sack manager Neil Warnock. 16 January 1993 - Norwich draw 1-1 at home to Coventry and go back to the top of the Premier League. Nottingham Forest's survival hopes are boosted with a 3-0 home win over Chelsea. Blackburn get their title bid back on track with a 1-0 at Oldham. 17 January 1993 - Aston Villa go top of the Premier League with a 5-1 home win over Middlesbrough. 18 January 1993 - The lead of the Premier League changes for the third day running when Manchester United triumph 3-1 over QPR at Loftus Road to top the table on goal difference.
21 January 1993 – Denis Smith is sacked after less than ten months as manager of Bristol City. 26 January 1993 – Blackburn Rovers sign Norway defender Henning Berg from Lillestrøm in a £400,000 deal. There is midweek drama in the Premier League as Berg's new club lose 5-2 at home to a Coventry side who are now fifth in the table just five points off the top. Middlesbrough jump clear of the relegation zone with a 2-1 home win over Southampton. Oldham's survival bid is dented by a 1-0 home defeat to Manchester City, who climb four places to sixth.
Wimbledon miss the chance to climb out of the drop zone, losing 3-1 at home to Everton. 27 January 1993 - The top three sides in the Premier League all achieve home wins. Manchester United beat Nottingham Forest 2-0, Aston Villa beat Sheffield United 3-1 and Norwich battle it out to beat Crystal Palace 4-2. A West London derby at Loftus Road sees Chelsea and QPR draw 1-1. Ipswich beat Tottenham 2-0 at White Hart Lane. 30 January 1993 - Norwich return to the top of the Premier League with a 1-0 win over Everton at Goodsion Park, thanks to their local rivals Ipswich beating Manchester United 2-1 at Portman Road and Aston Villa losing 2-0 at Southampton.
Ipswich are now fourth in the table, six points off the top and surprisingly emerging as title contenders for the first time in 11 years. Blackburn continue to feel the absence of Alan Shearer as they lose 3-2 to Manchester City at Maine Road. Oldham fall to the bottom of the table after Nottingham Forest overhaul them with a 2-0 victory at the City Ground. Wimbledon climb out of the relegation zone with a 2-0 win at Coventry. Liverpool, who didn't play today, are now a lowly 17th in the table, but have games in hand over everyone else in the Premier League.
31 January 1993 – January ends with Norwich City still top of the Premiership, but with their lead over Manchester United now down to a single point. Aston Villa and Ipswich Town are continuing to keep up the pressure, but Blackburn Rovers have slumped to fifth place. Nottingham Forest and Oldham Athletic hold the bottom two places, with Sheffield United still occupying the final relegation position. The Division One promotion chase is still led by runaway leaders Newcastle United, whose nearest challenge is from a West Ham United side who are 11 points behind them with a game in hand.
Millwall, Tranmere Rovers, Portsmouth and Leicester City occupy the playoff zone. The division's bottom two clubs, Luton Town and Notts County, are under serious threat of a second successive relegation, joined in the bottom three by a Southend United side who spent much of last season challenging for promotion to the Premier League. The only league action of the day sees Liverpool win 1-0 at Arsenal to climb five places up to 12th in the Premier League. Arsenal are now 10th in the league after briefly topping the table in November, but are still in contention for the FA Cup and League Cup.
1 February 1993 – Sunderland, struggling in Division One, sack Malcolm Crosby as manager, nine months after he led them to the FA Cup final. 2 February 1993 - Blackburn's title challenge continues to fade with a 2-1 home defeat to Crystal Palace, with the result boosting the visiting side's survival bid. 4 February 1993 – Nearly seven years after selling him to Aston Villa, Arsenal buy Martin Keown from Everton for £2 million. 5 February 1993 – Terry Butcher is named as the new manager of Sunderland, one year after being sacked by Coventry City. 6 February 1993 - Manchester United regain their lead of the Premier League on goal difference, beating Sheffield United 2-1 at Old Trafford after coming from a goal behind.
Second-placed Aston Villa beat Ipswich 2-0 at home. Oldham boost their survival hopes but remain in the bottom three with a 3-1 win over Chelsea at Boundary Park. The biggest drama in Division One sees Millwall move one point short of the top two with a 5-2 home win over Watford, while Derby have slid into the bottom half of the table with a 3-2 defeat at home to Peterborough. 8 February 1993 - Manchester United remain top of the Premier League despite being held to a goalless draw by Leeds at Elland Road. 9 February 1993 - Ipswich and QPR draw 1-1 at Portman Road.
Sheffield United climb off the bottom of the Premier League table with a 2-0 win over Middlesbrough, who are now just one place outside the relegation zone following a run of bad results. Among the midweek action in Division One is Newcastle United's fifth defeat of the season, a 2-0 reverse at Portsmouth, but they remain firmly in the lead at the top of the table. 10 February 1993 - Wimbledon continue their climb up the table with a 1-0 win over Arsenal at Highbury. Aston Villa miss the chance to go top, losing 1-0 to Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park, with the result helping the hosts move further clear of the relegation zone.
Norwich's title hopes are hit by a 3-0 defeat at Southampton. 12 February 1993 – Newcastle United sign 21-year-old striker Andy Cole from Bristol City for a club record £1.75 million. 13 February 1993 – Manchester United's double hopes are ended when they lose 2–1 to Sheffield United at Bramall Lane in the FA Cup fifth round. Steve Bruce misses a penalty. 14 February 1993 – Paul Compton resigns as Torquay United manager hours after a defeat by Division Three leaders Cardiff City, which leaves Torquay bottom of the entire Football League and in serious danger of relegation to the Conference.
Neil Warnock, who joined the club only days beforehand as a "footballing consultant", replaces Compton as manager. 15 February 1993 – Ian Porterfield is sacked after less than two years as manager of Chelsea. David Webb, who left the Southend United job last summer, is appointed as Chelsea's new manager on a trial contract until the end of the season. Alan Shearer will miss the rest of the season following surgery on his knee injury. 17 February 1993 – England achieve a third successive win in their World Cup qualifying series, triumphing 6–0 over San Marino at Wembley.
20 February 1993 - Aston Villa return to the top of the Premier League with a 2-1 home win over Everton, but Manchester United keep the pressure on them when two late goals from Ryan Giggs give them a 2-1 home win over Southampton after a goal from substitute Nicky Banger put the Saints in the lead. Norwich keep their title bid going with a 2-1 home win over Manchester City. Nottingham Forest boost their survival bid with a 2-1 away win over Middlesbrough. QPR move up to fourth win a 2-0 home win over Coventry, who drop two places to seventh.
Tottenham's upturn continues with a 4-0 home win over Leeds, in which Teddy Sheringham scores the club's first Premier League hat-trick. 21 February 1993 - Blackburn win 2-0 at home to Chelsea, although they are still 12 points off the top they have two games in hand. The top two clubs in Division One, West Ham and Newcastle, grind out a goalless draw at Upton Park. 22 February 1993 - Sheffield United climb out of the relegation zone with a 2-0 home win over Oldham, who are now bottom of the table and four points adrift of safety. 23 February 1993 - Sheffield Wednesday climb into fourth place with a 2-1 win over Manchester City at Maine Road, sparking talk of a possible late run for the Premier League title.
24 February 1993 - Nottingham Forest climb out of the relegation zone with a 1-0 win over QPR at the City Ground. 27 February 1993 - Aston Villa remain top of the Premier League with a 1-0 home win over Wimbledon, although Manchester United are still just two points of them with a game in hand after a 3-0 win over Middlesbrough at Old Trafford. 28 February 1993 – February ends with Aston Villa top of the Premier League, two points ahead of Manchester United, who have a match in hand. Norwich City, Sheffield Wednesday and Blackburn Rovers complete the top five.
Oldham Athletic prop up the table, with Middlesbrough and Sheffield United joining them in the bottom three. Division One leaders Newcastle United have a seven-point margin over their nearest rivals West Ham United, and the playoff zone is occupied by Millwall, Swindon Town, Portsmouth and Tranmere Rovers. Grimsby Town's unlikely promotion challenge continues as they are just three goals away from a place in the top six. An improvement in form has seen Notts County and Luton Town climb out of the bottom three and ease their fears of a second successive relegation; the relegation zone now consists of Southend, Bristol Rovers and Birmingham.
The only league action of the day is a goalless draw between Norwich and Blackburn at Carrow Road, a result which does no favours to the Premier League title ambitions of either team. 1 March 1993 - A mid-table London derby in the Premier League is the only league action of the day, with Chelsea beating Arsenal 1-0 at Stamford Bridge. 2 March 1993 - Middlesbrough halt their slump in Premier League form but remain in the relegation zone on goal difference, beating Ipswich 1-0 at Portman Road. Sheffield United climb out of the relegation zone with a remarkable 6-0 win over Tottenham at Bramall Lane.
3 March 1993 – Tony Bland dies in hospital after treatment was withdrawn, making him the Hillsborough disaster's 96th victim after nearly four years in a coma. 6 March 1993 – Manchester United beat struggling Liverpool 2–1 at Anfield in the Premier League. 7 March 1993 – With Bristol Rovers having fallen back to the foot of Division One after a brief improvement in results, Malcolm Allison announces his intention to resign as soon as a successor can be appointed. 8 March 1993 – Birmingham City are taken over by newspaper publisher David Sullivan, who appoints 24-year-old Karren Brady as the first female managing director of a professional football club.
9 March 1993 - Manchester United remain top of the Premier League despite a 1-0 defeat to Oldham at Boundary Park, with Neil Adams scoring the only goal of the game. 10 March 1993 - Aston Villa miss the chance to go back on top of the Premier League, they goalless draw at home to Tottenham meaning that Manchester United still lead the way on goal difference. Norwich keep their title challenge on track with a 1-0 away win over Sheffield United. 12 March 1993 – Russell Osman becomes the Bristol City's new manager. John Ward leaves York City to take over at Bristol Rovers, and is succeeded at Bootham Crescent by Alan Little.
14 March 1993 - Manchester United and Aston Villa remained locked together on points at the top of the Premier League after a 1-1 draw at Old Trafford. 20 March 1993 - Aston Villa return to the top of the Premier League with a 2-0 home win over Sheffield Wednesday, as the Manchester derby ends in a 1-1 draw at Maine Road. Norwich's 3-0 defeat away to Wimbledon keeps them in third place and is a major step towards survival for their hosts. An entertaining clash at Highbury sees Arsenal beat Southampton 4-3. 21 March 1993 - Nottingham Forest miss the chance to climb back out of the relegation zone after Leeds hold them to a 1-1 draw at the City Ground.
22 March 1993 - Oldham climb out of the bottom three with a 3-2 win over Middlesbrough at Ayresome Park, which pushes their hosts deeper into relegation trouble. 24 March 1993 – Bryan Hamilton resigns as Wigan Athletic manager in the wake of a defeat to Division Two's basement side Chester City, with Wigan in serious danger of their first-ever relegation. Dave Philpotts is appointed as caretaker manager for the remainder of the season. Midweek drama in the Premier League sees Sheffield United climb out of the relegation zone with a 3-1 win over Coventry at Highfield Road. Ipswich are now 16th in the table just two months after being fourth, following a 3-0 defeat to Everton at Goodison Park.
Following a 3-0 win over QPR at Loftus Road, Blackburn are 15 points off the top with three games in hand over a Norwich side who have resumed their lead with a 1-0 win over the previous leaders Aston Villa. Manchester United miss the chance to regain the lead of the table when Arsenal hold them to a goalless draw at Old Trafford. Nottingham Forest maintain their survival bid with a 2-1 win at Southampton. 25 March 1993 – Blackburn Rovers sign Chelsea defender Graeme Le Saux for £700,000. Norwich City sign 25-year-old AFC Bournemouth striker Efan Ekoku for £500,000.
Blackburn Rovers pay Coventry City £2.5 million for striker Kevin Gallacher, with £1 million-rated Roy Wegerle moving in the opposite direction. 28 March 1993 – Aston Villa's Paul McGrath is voted PFA Players' Player of the Year. The PFA Young Player of the Year award goes to Manchester United's Ryan Giggs for the second year running. 31 March 1993 – England make it four wins from their first five World Cup qualifying matches after defeating Turkey 2–0 away in İzmir. The month ends with Norwich City back on top of the Premier League, though Aston Villa are just a point behind with a match in hand.
Manchester United are still close behind, while Blackburn Rovers have three matches in hand on the leaders. Nottingham Forest have slipped back into the relegation zone behind Sheffield United, while Oldham Athletic are still in the relegation zone and Middlesbrough now occupy bottom place. In Division One, Newcastle United still lead the way, though West Ham United have cut their lead down to five points. Portsmouth, Swindon Town, Millwall and Leicester City occupy the playoff zone. A dismal run of form for Tranmere Rovers has taken them from second to seventh place in just three months, and they are now six points outside the playoff zone.
A dismal month for Grimsby Town has seen their promotion challenge virtually ended; in fact, they are actually closer to the relegation zone than to sixth place (albeit only by goal difference). Bristol Rovers are six points away from safety and look certain for relegation, but fellow strugglers Southend and Cambridge end March still optimistic of avoiding the drop. In Division Two, Stoke City are ten points clear of second-placed Port Vale and looking all but assured of promotion. Controversial chairman Stan Flashman leaves Division Three leaders Barnet, and as a parting shot sacks and reinstates manager Barry Fry on the same day.
1 April 1993 – Within 24 hours of his latest dismissal and reinstatement at Barnet, Barry Fry finally leaves the troubled North London club to succeed Colin Murphy as manager of Southend United. Fry's assistant Edwin Stein agrees to take charge of the club for the remainder of the season, but makes it clear that he will not continue as manager beyond that. 3 April 1993 – Sheffield Wednesday reach their first FA Cup final in 27 years as they defeat Sheffield United 2–1 at Wembley with goals from Mark Bright and Chris Waddle. United's consolation goal came from Alan Cork.
The two teams are led out by Sheffield United's cancer-stricken goalkeeper Mel Rees. Oldham climb out of the relegation zone with a 6-2 home win over Wimbledon, while Middlesbrough remain bottom of the table after crashing to a 4-0 defeat at Chelsea. Blackburn keep their faint title hopes alive with a 4-1 home win over Liverpool. 4 April 1993 – Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur meet in the FA Cup semi-finals for the second time in three seasons. Arsenal win 1–0, with captain Tony Adams scoring the only goal of the match. Aston Villa return to the top of the Premier League with a 1-0 away win over Nottingham Forest, who miss the chance to climb out of the relegation zone.
5 April 1993 - In a crucial match in the title run-in, Manchester United win 3-1 against Norwich at Carrow Road with goals from Eric Cantona, Ryan Giggs and Andrei Kanchelskis in the first half, with former United striker Mark Robins later reducing Norwich's deficit. United are now one point behind leaders Aston Villa with six games left to play. 6 April 1993 - Middlesbrough boost their survival hopes with a 1-0 home win over Arsenal, as do Sheffield United with a 2-1 home win over Leeds. 7 April 1993 - Blackburn's recent surge continues with a 3-1 away win over Nottingham Forest, as the hosts drop another three points in their bid to avoid relegation.
9 April 1993 – Norwich City's Premier League title hopes are further damaged by a 5–1 defeat at Tottenham Hotspur. 10 April 1993 – Centre-back Steve Bruce scores two late goals to give Manchester United a 2–1 home win over Sheffield Wednesday, putting them top of the table by a point with five games remaining as Aston Villa are held to a goalless draw at home by Coventry. A 4-3 defeat to QPR at Loftus Road pushes Nottingham Forest closer to relegation. 12 April 1993 – Trailing Birmingham City 1–4 after 60 minutes, Swindon Town score five goals in 30 minutes to win 6–4.
The Premier League title race sees the top four teams all win. Middlesbrough slide closer to relegation with a 4-1 defeat at Crystal Palace, while a 2-1 home win over Tottenham keeps Nottingham Forest's survival hopes alive. Ian Rush continues his return to form with his seventh league goal in eight matches as Liverpool draw 1–1 with Manchester City at Maine Road. 14 April 1993 - 20-year-old striker Chris Sutton scores a hat-trick for Norwich as a 4-2 home win over Leeds keeps their title hopes alive. 17 April 1993 – Midfielder Mark Walters scores a hat-trick as Liverpool beat Coventry City 4–0 in the Premier League at Anfield.
Manchester United remain in pole position with a 3-0 home win over Chelsea, which puts the title mathematically beyond Blackburn's reach despite a 3-1 win at Sheffield United. Liverpool's improvement in form continues with a 4-0 home win over Coventry. 18 April 1993 – Arsenal beat Sheffield Wednesday 2–1 in the League Cup final. Steve Morrow, the scorer of Arsenal's winning goal, breaks his arm in a freak accident during the on-pitch celebrations and would likely miss next month's FA Cup final between the same two teams. 19 April 1993 – Norwich City's 3–1 defeat at Ipswich Town ends their title hopes.
20 April 1993 - Middlesbrough pick up another three valuable points in their bid for Premier League survival, beating Tottenham 3-0 at Ayresome Park. 21 April 1993 - More midweek drama in the Premier League sees Manchester United go four points clear with two games remaining by beating Crystal Palace 2-0 at Selhurst Park, as Aston Villa lose 3-0 to Blackburn at Ewood Park. Liverpool climb to fifth place with a 2-0 home win over Leeds. 24 April 1993 - Newcastle drop off the top of Division One for the first time since September, as new leaders Portsmouth beat Wolves 2-0 at Fratton Park.
However, Newcastle are still just one point behind with two games in hand. 25 April 1993 - Newcastle make a quick return to the top of Division One with a 1-0 home win over Sunderland, and now need just two points from their final three games to be sure of promotion. 26 April 1993 – Brian Clough announces that he will retire as Nottingham Forest manager at the end of the season after 18 years in charge. 28 April 1993 – England and the Netherlands draw 2–2 at Wembley in their World Cup qualifier. Stoke City clinch the Division Two title.
30 April 1993 – Former Charlton Athletic defender Tommy Caton dies at his home in Oxfordshire at age 30 after suffering a heart attack, just weeks after retiring from playing following a two-year absence due to injury. As April draws to a close, Manchester United are four points ahead of Aston Villa in the league with two matches remaining. The Division One promotion race is still wide open, with Newcastle United still top and needing just two points from their final three matches to seal promotion. Portsmouth occupy second place and need four points from their final two matches to get promoted, but West Ham United could still overtake them if they managed at least one win and a draw from their next two games.
West Ham United, Swindon Town, Leicester City and Tranmere Rovers complete the top six. Millwall are now the only team who can prevent the Wirral side from finishing in the play-off zone and maintaining their challenge to get into the Premier League. Bristol Rovers are mathematically relegated, needing a minimum of ten points as well as a 21-goal swing between them and 21st-placed Sunderland from the remaining two matches, but Cambridge and Brentford are more optimistic of avoiding the drop. 1 May 1993 – Nottingham Forest are relegated from the Premier League after a 2–0 defeat to Sheffield United at the City Ground.
Oldham, who also have 40 points but have played fewer games, still have a mathematical chance of survival but need at least six points from their final three games to avoid relegation. Norwich beat Liverpool 1-0 at Carrow Road to move closer to securing third place - which will mean a place in the UEFA Cup if Arsenal win the FA Cup final later this month. 2 May 1993 – Manchester United are confirmed as league champions of England for the first time in 26 years after Aston Villa lose 1–0 at home to Oldham Athletic, which is a big boost for the visiting side's survival hopes.
3 May 1993 - The day after clinching the Premier League title without kicking a ball, Manchester United defeat Blackburn Rovers 3-1 at Old Trafford. 4 May 1993 – Newcastle United seal the Division One title and promotion to the Premier League with a 2–0 win at Grimsby Town. Their local rivals Middlesbrough are relegated from the Premier League due to Sheffield United's 2-0 win at Everton. 5 May 1993 – Oldham Athletic remain in with a slim chance of Premier League survival by achieving a surprise 3–2 home win over Liverpool at Boundary Park. 8 May 1993 – Liverpool's 6–2 home win over Tottenham Hotspur sees them finish sixth.
Oldham beat the drop in dramatic fashion with a 4-3 win over Southampton, while Crystal Palace go down in the last relegation place with a 3-0 defeat Arsenal. West Ham seal promotion to the Premier League as Division One runners-up with a 2-0 home win over Cambridge United, who are relegated along with Brentford and Bristol Rovers, having been in the playoffs and on the brink of the Premier League just 12 months ago. Portsmouth miss out on automatic promotion, and go into the playoffs along with Swindon Town, Leicester City and Tranmere Rovers. Millwall lose 3–0 at home to Bristol Rovers in Division One in their last game at The Den; they will move into a new 20,000-seat stadium at the start of next season.
Halifax Town, who are bottom of Division Three after a disastrous second half of the season, are relegated from the Football League due to Northampton Town, the only team they could have caught, winning their final game of the season. 9 May 1993 - The last action of the season in Division One sees Newcastle beat Leicester 7-1 at home, with both Andy Cole and David Kelly scoring hat-tricks for the division's champions. Kelly is Newcastle's top scorer with 25 league goals this season, while Cole has scored 12 times in as many games (including two hat-tricks) since his transfer from Bristol City.
Meanwhile, some of the last Premier League games see QPR beat runners-up Aston Villa 2-1 at Loftus Road, and champions Manchester United beat Wimbledon 2-1 at Selhurst Park in a game where 36-year-old captain Bryan Robson scores his first league goal in 18 months. 11 May 1993 - The first Premier League season draws to a close with Tottenham winning the North London derby 3-1 at Highbury, and QPR beating Sheffield Wednesday by the same scoreline at Loftus Road. 12 May 1993 – Leyton Orient managing director Frank Clark, a former Nottingham Forest player, returns to the City Ground as the club's new manager.
13 May 1993 – Chris Waddle is voted FWA Footballer of the Year. 14 May 1993 – Tottenham Hotspur chairman Alan Sugar sacks chief executive and former team manager Terry Venables, who helped him take control of the club two years ago. However, Venables is reinstated within hours by a High Court injunction. 15 May 1993 – Arsenal and Sheffield Wednesday draw 1–1 in the FA Cup final. Ian Wright opens the scoring for the North Londoners in the 20th minute, but David Hirst equalises for Trevor Francis's men after 61 minutes. 17 May 1993 – Six days after leaving Chelsea, David Webb is named as the new manager of Brentford, in place of Phil Holder after the West London club's relegation from Division One.
20 May 1993 – Arsenal beat Sheffield Wednesday 2–1 in the FA Cup final replay. Once again, Ian Wright opens the scoring, with a goal in the 34th minute. Chris Waddle equalises in the 68th minute, but with just one minute of extra time remaining, Andy Linighan wins the match with a goal for Arsenal. Steve Coppell resigns after nine years manager of Crystal Palace. 21 May 1993 – Keith Alexander becomes the first permanent black manager of an English league side when he is named as Steve Thompson's successor at Lincoln City. 27 May 1993 – Striker Nigel Clough agrees to join Liverpool from Nottingham Forest in a £2.75 million deal.
28 May 1993 – Wigan Athletic announce Kenny Swain as their new manager following relegation to Division Three. 29 May 1993 – England draw 1–1 with Poland in Katowice, extending their unbeaten run in the World Cup qualifiers to seven games. York City win the Division Three play-off final on penalties over Crewe Alexandra after a 1–1 draw. 30 May 1993 – West Bromwich Albion win the Division Two play-off final and secure promotion to Division One with a 3–0 win over Port Vale. Sheffield United goalkeeper Mel Rees dies of cancer aged 26. 31 May 1993 – Swindon Town are promoted to the top division of English football after 73 years of trying thanks to a 4–3 win over Leicester City in the Division One play-off final.
2 June 1993 – England suffer their first defeat of this World Cup qualifying series, losing 2–0 to Norway in Oslo. 3 June 1993 – Former assistant manager Alan Smith is promoted to role of manager at Crystal Palace. Barnsley recruit 36-year-old defender Viv Anderson from Sheffield Wednesday to become their new player-manager. Neil Warnock ends his tenure at Torquay United, and is replaced by player-assistant manager Don O'Riordan. 4 June 1993 – Glenn Hoddle is named as Chelsea's new manager. Hoddle, 36, will also be registered as a player with the club. 9 June 1993 – Paul Ince becomes England's first black captain in their 2–0 defeat against the United States in Foxborough, Massachusetts.
10 June 1993 – David Kelly, whose 25 Division One goals helped Newcastle United reach the Premier League this season, completes a £750,000 transfer to Wolverhampton Wanderers. 14 June 1993 – Arsenal pay Crystal Palace £1 million for Ireland winger Eddie McGoldrick. 17 June 1993 – Manchester United break the national transfer record by paying Nottingham Forest £3.75 million for Roy Keane. 18 June 1993 – David O'Leary, who has spent his whole career playing for Arsenal, moves to Leeds United on a free transfer. 19 June 1993 – Ossie Ardiles, who won promotion from Division Two as manager of West Bromwich Albion this year, is unveiled as manager of Tottenham Hotspur.
His assistant at West Brom, former Spurs boss Keith Burkinshaw, succeeds him. 23 June 1993 – Peter Beardsley signs for Newcastle United in a £1.5 million deal from Everton, six years after he left Tyneside. Nottingham Forest prepare for their promotion push by paying £2.5 million for Southend United striker Stan Collymore. 29 June 1993 – Merthyr Tydfil decide against joining the League of Wales and opt to remain in the GM Vauxhall Conference. 30 June 1993 – Edwin Stein resigns as Barnet manager and follows his predecessor Barry Fry to Southend United, where he becomes assistant manager. Goalkeeper and club captain Gary Phillips is provisionally announced as manager for the following season, though it remains to be seen whether Barnet will even start the next season due to their financial problems.
Deaths  11 July 1992 – Ted Fenton, 77, who died from injuries sustained in a Leicestershire car crash, was manager of West Ham United from 1950 to 1961 and had served them as a player from 1932 to 1946. 11 December 1992 – Billy Cook, 83, was the last surviving player from Everton's FA Cup winning side of 1933. He was also capped 15 times for Northern Ireland at centre-half. 25 December 1992 – Ted Croker, 68, was Secretary of The Football Association from 1973 to 1989. He was the younger brother of footballer Peter Croker, who won the FA Cup with Charlton Athletic in 1947.
11 January 1993 – Tommy Walker, 77, played 97 league games at inside-forward for Chelsea in the immediate post World War II years after his transfer from Hearts, where he had been prolific with 192 goals in 170 Scottish league games. He was less prolific south of the border, but after retiring as a player enjoyed huge success back at Hearts as manager, winning no less than seven major trophies between 1951 and 1966. 17 February 1993 – Jack Froggatt, 70, forward who won the league with Portsmouth in 1949 and 1950, and was capped 13 times by England. 24 February 1993 – Bobby Moore, 51, who captained England to World Cup glory in 1966 as well as winning an FA Cup and Cup Winners' Cup with West Ham, died after a two-year battle against bowel cancer.
Just over a week before his death, Moore had given radio commentary on an England game. More than 1,800 people attended a memorial service to Moore at Westminster Abbey on 28 June 1993. 3 March 1993 – Tony Bland, 22, who had been in a coma for nearly four years due to injuries suffered in the Hillsborough disaster, became the tragedy's 96th victim when he died following a landmark High Court ruling which allowed treatment to be withdrawn. April 1993 – Roy Bailey, 60, former Crystal Palace and Ipswich goalkeeper. Kept goal for Ipswich when they won the league in 1962.
Father of Manchester United and England goalkeeper Gary Bailey. 30 April 1993 – Tommy Caton, 30, who played for Manchester City, Arsenal, Oxford United and Charlton Athletic. Was on the losing side for Manchester City in the 1981 F.A Cup final. Died following a heart attack in April 1993. 30 May 1993 – Mel Rees, 26, Sheffield United goalkeeper, died of cancer. Had previously played for Cardiff City and West Bromwich Albion. 8 June 1993 – John Atyeo, 61, who played for Bristol City during the postwar years, scored a club record total of 350 goals in nearly 600 games between 1951 and 1966.
He was capped six times at senior level by England during the 1950s, scoring five goals. References
As part of the Apollo 12 mission, the camera from the Surveyor 3 probe was brought back from the Moon to Earth. On analyzing the camera it was found that the common bacterium Streptococcus mitis was alive on the camera. This was attributed by NASA to the camera not being sterilized on Earth prior to its launch two and a half years previously.. However, later study showed that the scientists analysing the camera on return to Earth used procedures that were inadequate to prevent recontamination after return to Earth, for instance with their arms exposed, not covering their entire bodies as modern scientists would do.
There may also have been possibilities for contamination during the return mission as the camera was returned in a porous bag rather than the airtight containers used for lunar sample return. As a result, the result remains controversial. History Since the Apollo Program, there has been at least one independent investigation into the validity of the NASA claim. Leonard D. Jaffe, a Surveyor program scientist and custodian of the Surveyor 3 parts brought back from the Moon, stated in a letter to the Planetary Society that a member of his staff reported that a "breach of sterile procedure" took place at just the right time to produce a false positive result.
One of the implements being used to scrape samples off the Surveyor parts was laid down on a non-sterile laboratory bench, and then was used to collect surface samples for culturing. Jaffe wrote, "It is, therefore, quite possible that the microorganisms were transferred to the camera after its return to Earth, and that they had never been to the Moon." In 2007, NASA funded an archival study that sought the film of the camera-body microbial sampling, to confirm the report of a breach in sterile technique. The bacterial test is now non-repeatable because the parts were subsequently taken out of quarantine and fully re-exposed to terrestrial conditions (the Surveyor 3 camera is now on display in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.).
The Surveyor 3 camera was returned from the Moon in a nylon duffel bag, and was not in the type of sealed airtight metal container used to return lunar samples in the early Apollo missions. It is therefore possible that it was contaminated by the astronauts and the environment in the Apollo 12 capsule itself. In March 2011, three researchers co-authored a paper, entitled  "A Microbe on the Moon? Surveyor III and Lessons Learned for Future Sample Return Missions" that assessed the validity of claims that the S. mitis samples found on the camera had indeed survived for nearly three years on the Moon.
The paper concluded that the presence of microbes could more likely be attributed to poor clean room conditions rather than the survival of bacteria for three years in the harsh moon environment. The paper also discussed the implication this incident would have for contamination control in future space missions. Countervailing evidence against the secondary contamination hypothesis is the fact that, according to Lieutenant Colonel Fred Mitchell, lead author of the original 1971 paper there was a significant delay before the sampled culture began growing: this is consistent with the sampled bacteria consisting of dormant cells, but not if the sampled culture was the result of fresh contamination.
In addition, according to Mitchell, the microbes clung exclusively to the foam during culturing, which would not have happened had there been contamination. Furthermore, if fresh contamination had occurred, millions of individual bacteria and "a representation of the entire microbial population would be expected"; instead, only a few individual bacteria were sampled, and only from a single species. This subject was covered in the 2008 Discovery Channel documentary series, When We Left Earth and on episode of the Science Channel series Nasa's Unexplained Files entitled Return of the Moon Bugs. References  External links  Category:Astrobiology Category:Bacteria Category:Apollo 12 Category:Moon myths
A soakage, or soak, is a source of water in Australian deserts. It is called thus because the water generally seeps into the sand, and is stored below, sometimes as part of an ephemeral river or creek. Aboriginal water source Soakages were traditionally important sources of water for Australian Aborigines in the desert, being the most dependable source in times of drought in Australia. Aborigines would scoop out the sand or mud using a coolamon or woomera, often to a depth of several metres, until clean water gathered in the base of the hole. Knowing the precise location of each soakage was extremely valuable knowledge.
It is also sometimes called a native well. Anthropologist Donald Thomson wrote:  For a white man the difficulty in this country is that there is no way in which he can find the wells and soaks unless he does so by chance, and certainly nothing to indicate that the well is there, nor as a rule, even when the terrain and at least its superficial geological formation, the lie of the country, is examined, is there anything to explain the presence of water when he does find it ...A lifetime of experience, backed by the traditional knowledge that is handed down from generation to generation, enables these people [the Pintupi in this instance] to judge, without having to visit a well that they know, whether it will still contain water and whether, if dry, with the sides fallen in and the well full of debris, it is worth cleaning out.
Cleaning and maintaining the well Wells were covered to keep them free from fouling by animals. This involved blocking the well with dead branches and uprooted trees. When the wells fell into disrepair, people would bail the well, using the coolamon to throw slush against the wall. This would set like a cement wash and help to hold loose sand, preventing it from falling into the water. Wells could be up to fifteen feet deep, with small toe holds cut into the walls. Recording well locations Donald Thomson writes:Just before we left, the old men recited to me the names of more than fifty waters – wells, rockholes and claypans ... this, in an area that the early explorers believed to be almost waterless, and where all but a few were, in 1957, still unknown to the white man.
And on the eve of our going, Tjappanongo (Tjapanangka) produced spear-throwers, on the backs of which were designs deeply incised, more or less geometric in form. Sometimes with a stick, or with his finger, he would point to each well or rock hole in turn and recite its name, waiting for me to repeat it after him. Each time, the group of old men listened intently and grunted in approval – "Eh!" – or repeated the name again and listened once more. This process continued with the name of each water until they were satisfied with my pronunciation, when they would pass on to the next.
I realized that here was the most important discovery of the expedition – that what Tjappanongo and the old men had shown me was really a map, highly conventionalized, like the works on a "message" or "letter" stick of the Aborigines, of the waters of the vast terrain over which the Bindibu hunted. White explorers and the wells In the nineteenth century, both Warburton and Carnegie recorded that they had run down Aborigines with camels and captured and chained them to compel them to reveal their secret sources of water. This action left a lasting impression on the desert Aborigines, who would have handed accounts of this down through successive generations.
In the 1930s, when H. H. Finlayson made his journeys through the desert by camel, he noted that a gelded male camel, after a hard three-and-a-half-day journey in intense heat without water, drank  by actual measure without stopping, and fifteen minutes later, another . This sheds light on the resentment built up among desert Aborigines against explorers for the exploitation and, by enlarging well entrances and digging out springs, the devastation of their precious water supplies to satisfy camel teams. Don McLeod also tells a story of clashes over soak water at the time of the gold rushes in Western Australia:  During the time of the Laverton rush, the Blackfellows tried to keep their meager water supplies hidden from the knowledge of white prospectors since their horses and camels quickly exhausted the limited soaks.
McLeod relates a story told to him by an old prospector by the name of Long, observing an Aboriginal man and woman:  The man took the throwing stick he was carrying and worked it into the sand. He then broke off a hollow reed and, placing it in the hole he had thus developed, lay down on his stomach and appeared to suck up something through the reed. His companion repeated his movements before they quietly moved on... Without delay Long, with the aid of a shovel, proved the existence of a soak of sweet water, from which he replenished his supplies...Only a few days later in the same place, another prospector had the same Blackfellow bailed up, threatening to shoot him unless he revealed a source of water.
This was certainly not an untypical bush encounter. However, [they were] interrupted by yet another prospector riding a camel. The Blackfellow took advantage of the confusion and threw a spear into the bush and escaped. On the diggings, a hue and cry was raised over this alleged murderous attack and a party was quickly organised to set out and teach the Blackfellows a lesson - for daring to protect their water. Mustering what guns they could, the punitive party went out to what later became known as Skull Creek, and shot every Blackfellow they could find. The bodies were buried in shallow graves.
See also  Bindibu Expedition  Canning Stock Route  Claypan  Groundwater  Waterhole  Soak dike  References  External links   Us Mob - Finding water in the desert  Category:Geography of Australia Category:History of Indigenous Australians Category:Australian Aboriginal bushcraft Category:Australian English Category:Water Category:Hydrology Category:Aquifers Category:Water wells Category:Exploration of Western Australia Category:Agriculture in Australia Category:Water supply and sanitation in Australia
Filter paper is a semi-permeable paper barrier placed perpendicular to a liquid or air flow. It is used to separate fine substances  from liquids or air. It is used in science labs to remove solids from liquids. This can be used to remove sand from water. Properties Filter paper has various properties. The important parameters are wet strength, porosity, particle retention, volumetric flow rate, compatibility, efficiency and capacity. There are two mechanisms of filtration with paper; volume, and surface. By volume filtration the particles are caught in the bulk of the filter paper. By surface filtration the particles are caught on the paper surface.
Filter paper is mostly used because even a small piece of filter paper will absorb a significant volume of liquid. Manufacture  The raw materials are different paper pulps. The pulp may be from softwood, hardwood, fiber crops, mineral fibers. For high quality filters,  dissolving pulp and mercerised pulp are used. Most filter papers are made on small paper machines. For laboratory filters the machines may be as small as 50 cm width. The paper is often crêped to improve porosity. The filter papers may also be treated with reagents or impregnation to get the right properties. Types  Air filters  The main application for air filters are combustion air to engines.
The filter papers are transformed into filter cartridges, which then is fitted to a holder. The construction of the cartridges mostly requires that the paper is stiff enough to be self-supporting. A paper for air filters needs to be very porous and have a weight of 100 - 200 g/m2. Normally particularly long fibrous pulp that is mercerised is used to get these properties. The paper is normally impregnated to improve the resistance to moisture. Some heavy duty qualities are made to be rinsed and thereby extend the life of the filter. Coffee filter  Coffee filters of paper are made from about 100 g/m2 crêped paper.
The crêping allows the coffee to flow freely between the filter and the filtration funnel. The raw materials (pulp) for the filter paper are coarse long fiber, often from fast growing trees. Both bleached and unbleached qualities are made. Coffee filters are made in different shapes and sizes to fit into different holders. Important parameters are strength, compatibility, efficiency and capacity. Fuel filters  The paper used for fuel filters is a crêped paper with controlled porosity, which is pleated and wound to cartridges. The raw material for filter paper used in fuel filters are made of a mixture of hardwood and softwood fibres.
The basis weight of the paper is 50 - 80 g/m2. Laboratory filters  Filter papers are widely used in laboratory experiments across many different fields, from biology to chemistry. The type of filter used will differ according to the purpose of the procedure and the chemicals involved. Generally, filter papers are used with laboratory techniques such as gravity or vacuum filtration. Qualitative filter paper  Qualitative filter paper is used in qualitative analytical techniques to determine materials. There are different grades of qualitative filter paper according to different pore size. There are total 13 different grades of qualitative filter paper. The largest pore size is grade 4; the smallest pore size is grade 602 h; the most commonly used grades are grade 1 to grade 4.
Grade 1  Grade 1 qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 11 μm. This grade of filter paper is widely used for many different fields in agricultural analysis, air pollution monitoring and other similar experiments. Grade 2  Grade 2 qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 8 μm. This grade of filter paper requires more filtration time than Grade 1 filter paper. This filter paper is used for monitoring specific contaminants in the atmosphere and soil testing. Grade 3  Grade 3 qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 6 μm. This grade of filter paper is very suitable for carrying samples after filtration.
Grade 4   Grade 4 qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 20~25 μm. This grade of filter paper has the largest pore size among all standard qualitative filter papers. It is very useful as rapid filter for cleanup of geological fluids or organic extracts during experiment. Grade 602 h  Grade 602 h qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 2 μm. This grade of filter paper has the smallest pore size among all standard qualitative filter papers. It is used for collecting or removing fine particles. Quantitative Filter Paper  Quantitative filter paper, also called ash-free filter paper, is used for quantitative and gravimetric analysis.
During the manufacturing, producers use acid to make the paper ash-less and achieve high purity. Chromatography Papers  Chromatography is a method chemists use to separate compounds. This type of filter paper has specific water flow rate and absorption speed to maximize the result of paper chromatography. The absorption speed of this type of filter paper is from 6 cm to 18 cm and the thickness is from 0.17 mm from 0.93 mm. Extraction Thimbles  Extraction thimbles are rod-shape filter paper often used in Soxhlet extractors or atomized extractors. It is ideal for very sensitive detection, the performance it depends on the thickness of inner diameter.
Also, it is usually used in areas of food control and environmental monitoring. Glass Fiber Filters  Glass fiber filter has the pore size of 1 μm, it is useful for filtering highly contaminated solutions or difficult-to-filter solution. Also, glass fiber filter has extends filter life, wide range of particulate loads and can prevent sample contamination. In addition, different types of glass fiber filter are suitable for different filtration situation. There are 7 different types of glass fiber filters and the major difference is thickness. Quartz Fiber Filter  Quartz fiber filter paper has a high resistance to chemicals, does not absorb NOx and SOx dioxides, is unaffected by humidity and is easily sterilized.
Thus, it is mostly used for air pollution analysis. PTFE filter  PTFE filter has wide operating temperature (-120 °C~260 °C) with high air permeability. The resistance to high temperature makes PTFE filter paper suitable for use in autoclaves. It is often used to filter hot oils, strong solvents and collecting airborne particulates. Oil filters  Engine oil is filtered to remove impurities. Filtration of oil is normally done with volume filtration. Filter papers for lubrication oils are impregnated to resist high temperatures. Tea bags  Tea bags are made from abacá fibers, a very thin and long fiber manilla hemp. Often the paper is augmented with a minor portion of synthetic fibers.
The bag paper is very porous and thin and has high wet strength. See also Filter  References  Category:Paper Category:Filters Category:Analytical chemistry Category:Laboratory equipment Category:Liquid-solid separation Category:Solid-gas separation
An adjustment disorder (AjD) occurs when an individual has significant difficulty adjusting to or coping with a significant psychosocial stressor. The maladaptive response usually involves otherwise normal emotional and behavioral reactions that manifest more intensely than usual (taking into account contextual and cultural factors), causing marked distress, preoccupation with the stressor and its consequences, and functional impairment. Diagnosis of AjD is quite common; there is an estimated incidence of 5–21% among psychiatric consultation services for adults. Adult women are diagnosed twice as often as are adult men. Among children and adolescents, girls and boys are equally likely to receive this diagnosis.
AjD was introduced into the mental disorders classification systems almost 30 years ago, but similar syndromes were recognized for many years before that. Signs and symptoms Some emotional signs of adjustment disorder are: sadness, hopelessness, lack of enjoyment, crying spells, nervousness, anxiety, desperation, feeling overwhelmed and thoughts of suicide, performing poorly in school/work etc. Common characteristics of AjD include mild depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and traumatic stress symptoms or a combination of the three. According to the DSM-5, there are six types of AjD, which are characterized by the following predominant symptoms: depressed mood, anxiety, mixed depression and anxiety, disturbance of conduct, mixed disturbance of emotions and conduct, and unspecified.
However, the criteria for these symptoms are not specified in greater detail. AjD may be acute or chronic, depending on whether it lasts more or less than six months. According to the DSM-5, if the AjD lasts less than six months, then it may be considered acute. If it lasts more than six months, it may be considered chronic. Moreover, the symptoms cannot last longer than six months after the stressor(s), or its consequences, have terminated. However, the stress-related disturbance does not only exist as an exacerbation of a pre-existing mental disorder. Unlike major depression, the disorder is caused by an outside stressor and generally resolves once the individual is able to adapt to the situation.
The condition is different from anxiety disorder, which lacks the presence of a stressor, or post-traumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder, which usually are associated with a more intense stressor. Suicidal behavior is prominent among people with AjD of all ages, and up to one-fifth of adolescent suicide victims may have an adjustment disorder. Bronish and Hecht (1989) found  that 70% of a series of patients with AjD attempted suicide immediately before their index admission and they remitted faster than a comparison group with major depression. Asnis et al. (1993) found that AjD patients report persistent ideation or suicide attempts less frequently than those diagnosed with major depression.
According to a study on 82 AjD patients at a clinic, Bolu et al. (2012) found that 22 (26.8%) of these patients were admitted due to suicide attempt, consistent with previous findings. In addition, it was found that 15 of these 22 patients chose suicide methods that involved high chances of being saved. Henriksson et al. (2005) states statistically that the stressors are of one-half related to parental issues and one-third in peer issues. One hypothesis about AjD is that it may represent a sub-threshold clinical syndrome. Risk factors Those exposed to repeated trauma are at greater risk, even if that trauma is in the distant past.
Age can be a factor due to young children having fewer coping resources; children are also less likely to assess the consequences of a potential stressor. A stressor is generally an event of a serious, unusual nature that an individual or group of individuals experience. The stressors that cause adjustment disorders may be grossly traumatic or relatively minor, like loss of a girlfriend/boyfriend, a poor report card, or moving to a new neighborhood. It is thought that the more chronic or recurrent the stressor, the more likely it is to produce a disorder. The objective nature of the stressor is of secondary importance.
Stressors' most crucial link to their pathogenic potential is their perception by the patient as stressful. The presence of a causal stressor is essential before a diagnosis of adjustment disorder can be made. There are certain stressors that are more common in different age groups:  Adulthood: Marital conflict Financial conflict Health issues with oneself, partner or dependent children Personal tragedy such as death or personal loss Loss of job or unstable employment conditions e.g. corporate takeover or redundancy  Adolescence and childhood: Family conflict or parental separation School problems or changing schools Sexuality issues Death, illness or trauma in the family  In a study conducted from 1990 to 1994 on 89 psychiatric outpatient adolescents, 25% had attempted suicide in which 37.5% had misused alcohol, 87.5% displayed aggressive behaviour, 12.5% had learning difficulties, and 87.5% had anxiety symptoms.
Diagnosis  DSM-5 classification  The basis of the diagnosis is the presence of a precipitating stressor and a clinical evaluation of the possibility of symptom resolution on removal of the stressor due to the limitations in the criteria for diagnosing AjD. In addition, the diagnosis of AjD is less clear when patients are exposed to stressors long-term, because this type of exposure is associated with AjD and major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Some signs and criteria used to establish a diagnosis are important. First, the symptoms must clearly follow a stressor. The symptoms should be more severe than would be expected.
There should not appear to be other underlying disorders. The symptoms that are present are not part of a normal grieving for the death of family member or other loved one. Adjustment disorders have the ability to be self-limiting. Within five years of when they are originally diagnosed, approximately 20–50% of the sufferers go on to be diagnosed with psychiatric disorders that are more serious. ICD-11 classification International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), assigns codes to classify diseases, symptoms, complaints, social behaviors, injuries, and such medical-related findings. ICD-11 classifies Adjustment disorder (6B43) under "Disorders specifically associated with stress".
Treatment  There has been little systematic research regarding the best way to manage individuals with an adjustment disorder. Because natural recovery is the norm, it has been argued that there is no need to intervene unless levels of risk or distress are high. However, for some individuals treatment may be beneficial. AjD sufferers with depressive or anxiety symptoms may benefit from treatments usually used for depressive or anxiety disorders. One study found that AjD sufferers received similar interventions to those with other psychiatric diagnoses, including psychological therapy and medication.
In addition to professional help, parents and caregivers can help their children with their difficulty adjusting by:  offering encouragement to talk about their emotions; offering support and understanding; reassuring the child that their reactions are normal; involving the child's teachers to check on their progress in school; letting the child make simple decisions at home, such as what to eat for dinner or what show to watch on TV; having the child engage in a hobby or activity they enjoy. Criticism Like many of the items in the DSM, adjustment disorder receives criticism from a minority of the professional community as well as those in semi-related professions outside the health-care field.
First, there has been criticism of its classification. It has been criticized for its lack of specificity of symptoms, behavioral parameters, and close links with environmental factors. Relatively little research has been done on this condition. An editorial in the British Journal of Psychiatry described adjustment disorder as being so "vague and all-encompassing… as to be useless," but it has been retained in the DSM-5 because of the belief that it serves a useful clinical purpose for clinicians seeking a temporary, mild, non-stigmatizing label, particularly for patients who need a diagnosis for insurance coverage of therapy. In the US military there has been concern about its diagnosis in active duty military personnel.
References  Further reading    Casey, P. R., & Strain, J. J. (Eds.). (2015). Trauma-and Stressor-related Disorders: A Handbook for Clinicians. American Psychiatric Pub. External links   Category:Adjustment disorders Category:Abnormal psychology Category:Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform disorders Category:Childhood psychiatric disorders Category:Trauma and stressor related disorders Category:Psychiatric diagnosis
Lalu Prasad Yadav (born 11 June 1948) is an Indian politician from the state of Bihar. He is the president of the Rashtriya Janata Dal, former chief minister of Bihar, former UPA minister of railways, and former member of Parliament of the 15th Lok Sabha. He entered politics at Patna University as a student leader and was elected as then youngest member of the Lok Sabha in 1977 as a Janata Party candidate at the age of 29. He became the chief minister of Bihar in 1990 but had to resign in 1997 following escalating corruption charges relating to the Fodder Scam.
From 1997 to 2005 his wife Rabri Devi ruled as the Chief Minister of the state. His party came to power in 2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election in partnership with Nitish Kumar of JD(U), but Nitish Kumar dumped Lalu's party from the power in July 2017 after the Enforcement Directorate and CBI lodged several criminal cases against Lalu, his wife Rabri, his son and former deputy chief minister, Tejashwi Yadav, in another disproportionate assets and railway tender bribery scam during Lalu's stint as the Railway Minister.
On 3 October 2013, he was sentenced to five years of rigorous imprisonment and  fine for his role in the first Fodder Scam by the CBI court, then again for 3.5 years in a second fodder scam case on the same day, 23 December 2017 when his member of parliament daughter Misa Bharti was also officially charged by Enforcement Directorate in disproportionate assets, while 3 more fodder scam cases against him are also pending in the court. Yadav was found guilty in third fodder scam case in January, 2018. In March, 2018, the Special CBI Court convicted him in the fourth fodder scam case which is related to swindling of Rs.
3.13 crore from the Dumka treasury. In the Dumka Treasury case a total of Rs 60 lakh fine imposed (Rs 30 lakh under PC act and Rs 30 lakh under IPC) and 14 years' imprisonment (7 years under IPC and 7 years under Prevention of Corruption Act) was sentenced on Lalu Prasad Yadav in to run consecutively. Early and personal life Lalu, second of his parents' six sons, was born in Phulwaria in Bihar to Kundan Ray and Marachhiya Devi, and attended a local middle school before moving to Patna with his elder brother. After completing Bachelor of Laws and a Master in Political Science from B. N. College of Patna University, he worked as clerk in Bihar Veterinary College at Patna where his elder brother was also a peon.
He turned down Patna University's Honorary Doctorate in 2004. Yadav married Rabri Devi on 1 June 1973, in an arranged marriage, and they went on to have 9 children: two sons and seven daughters. "The Making of Laloo Yadav, The Unmaking of Bihar", updated and reprinted under the title "Subaltern Sahib: Bihar and the Making of Laloo Yadav", is a book based on Lalu's life by Sankarshan Thakur. Children Lalu Prasad and his wife have 9 children. Political career  Positions held  1977: Elected to the 6th Lok Sabha at the age of 29. 1980–1989: Member of the Bihar Legislative Assembly (two terms).
1989: A Leader of Opposition of Bihar Legislative Assembly, Chairman of Pustakalaya Committee, Convenor of Committee on Public Undertakings. Re-elected to the 9th Lok Sabha (2nd term). 1990–1995: Member of the Bihar Legislative Council. 1990–1997: Chief Minister of Bihar  1995–1998: Member of the Bihar Legislative Assembly. 1996: Lalu implicated in Fodder Scam  1997: Splits from Janata Dal to form Rashtriya Janata Dal. 1998: Re-elected to 12th Lok Sabha (3rd term). 1998–1999: Member of General Purposes Committee, Committee on Home Affairs and its Sub Committee on Swatantrata Sainik Samman Pension Scheme, Consultative Committee of Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. 2004: Re-elected to the 14th Lok Sabha (4th term).
Appointed Cabinet Minister in the Ministry of Railways in UPA govt. Lalu, wife Rabri Devi, son Tejashwi Yadav and daughter Misa Bharti booked for railway tender bribery scam, disproportionate illegal property and income tax evasion cases in 2017. 2009: Re-elected to the 15th Lok Sabha (5th term) and disqualified in 2013 subsequent to his conviction in the first fodder scam case. 2020: RJD declares Lalu as mahagathbandhan coordinator for Assembly polls. 1970–1990: Student politics  In 1970, Lalu entered in student politics as the general secretary of the Patna University Students' Union (PUSU), became its president in 1973, joined Jai Prakash Narayan' Bihar Movement in 1974 where he became sufficiently close to Janata Party (JP) leaders to become the Janata alliance's winning candidate in the 1977 Lok Sabha election from Chapra at the age of 29.
In 1979, the Janata Party government fell due to in-fighting.The parliament was dissolved with new polls held in 1980. Lalu quit Janata party to join the splinter group, Janata Party-S led by Raj Narain, only to lose the re-election in 1980.He managed to win Bihar Legislative Assembly election later in 1980, and again in 1985 to become leader of opposition in Bihar assembly in 1989.Later in 1989, he was also elected for Lok Sabha under V. P. Singh government.By 1990, he positioned himself as the leader of Yadav (11.7% of the Bihar's) and lower castes. Muslims, who had traditionally served as Congress (I) vote bank, shifted their loyalty to Prasad after the 1989 Bhagalpur violence.
He became popular among the Muslim and Yadav voters of Bihar. 1990–1997: Lalu and wife as chief ministers of Bihar In 1990, Janata Dal came to power in Bihar. PM V. P. Singh wanted former chief minister Ram Sundar Das to lead the government. and Chandra Shekhar backed Raghunath Jha. To break deadlock deputy PM Devi Lal nominated Prasad as CM candidate. He was victorious in an internal poll of Janata Dal MLA's and became the chief minister. On 23 September 1990, Prasad arrested L. K. Advani at Samastipur during the latter's Ram Rath Yatra to Ayodhya, and presented himself as a secular leader.
The World Bank lauded his party for its work in the 1990s on the economic front. In 1993, Prasad adopted a pro-English policy and pushed for the re-introduction of English as a language in school curriculum, contrary to the angrezi hatao (banish English) policy of then Uttar Pradesh CM Mulayam Singh Yadav. Policy of opposition to English was considered an anti-elite policy since both the Yadav leaders represented the same social constituents The Backward castes, Dalits and minority communities. With the help of Yadav-Muslim votes, Lalu continued to be Bihar CM. In the Fodder Scam, Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) issued an arrest warrant for Yadav, and he had to resign from CM's post.
Subsequently, he installed his wife Rabri Devi as Bihar CM. 1998–2002: Formation of RJD and out of power  In 1997, due to allegation related to Fodder Scam, a leadership revolt surfaced in Janata Dal, consequently Lalu broke away from Janata Dal and formed a new political party Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD). In 1998 general for 12th Lok Sabha Lalu won from Madhepura, but lost in 1999 general election to Sharad Yadav. In 2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election he won and remained in opposition. 2002–2005: RJD and Rabri rule in Bihar In 2002, Lalu was elected in Rajya Sabha where he stayed till 2004.
In 2002, RJD formed the government with Rabri Devi as the CM. Except for brief President rule and 8 days term of Nitish Kumar, RJD remained in power in Bihar till 2005. 2004–2009: Railway Minister In 2004, Yadav contested general election from Chapra and Madhepura against Rajiv Pratap Rudy and Sharad Yadav respectively and won from both the seats. In total, RJD won 21 seats and it allied with Indian National Congress becoming second-largest member of UPA I after Congress. Yadav became the railway minister in the 2004 UPA Government. Later, he gave up the Madhepura seat. As railway minister, Yadav left passenger fares untouched and focused on other sources of revenue for the railways.
He banned plastic cups from being used to serve tea at railway stations and replaced those with kulhars (earthen cups), in order to generate more employment in rural areas. Later, he also said that he had plans to introduce buttermilk and khādī. In June 2004, he announced that he would get on the railway himself to inspect its problems and went on to board the Patna railway station at midnight. When he took over, the Indian Railways was a loss-making organisation. In the four years under his leadership, it showed a cumulative total profit of Rs.250 billion (US$5.2 billion). According to CAG, it was the new practice of issuing a "statement of cash and investible surplus" that helped Lalu project a rosy picture.
In 2008, the profits shown were . Schools of management became interested in Yadav's leadership in managing the turnaround (with more or less the same IAS officers and the same workforce who worked under the previous ministers). The alleged turnaround was introduced as a case study by the prestigious Indian Institute of Management. Yadav also received invitations from eight Ivy League schools for lectures, and addressed over a hundred students from Harvard, Wharton and others in Hindi. In 2009, Yadav's successor Mamata Banerjee and the opposition parties alleged that the so-called turnaround of the Railways during his tenure was merely a result of presenting financial statements differently.
In 2011, a report by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) endorsed this view. CAG found that the "surplus" shown on the financial statements during Yadav's tenure covered "cash and investible surplus", which were not included in the "net surplus" figures released by the Railways in the earlier years. The "cash surplus" included the money available for paying dividend, contribution to the Depreciation Reserve Fund used for renewal or replacement of existing assets, and other funds for investment. The "investible surplus" included the money allocated for capital expenditure. The report concluded that the performance of the Railways actually declined marginally during the last few years of Lalu's tenure.
Earlier in August 2008, CNN-IBN had also alleged that Yadav had misused his position as the Union Railway Minister to help his relatives acquire land. 2005–2010: RJD out of power in Bihar In November 2005 state elections RJD won 54 seats, less than both Janata Dal United (JDU) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Nitish Kumar led coalition, consisting of JD(U) and BJP, came to power. In the 2010 elections, the RJD tally was reduced to just 22 seats whereas the ruling alliance claimed a record 206 out of the 243 Assembly seats. 2009–2014: Out of power in center and Bihar In 2009 general election RJD won 4 seats and provided outside support to Manmohan Singh government.
In May 2012, Lalu Prasad Yadav envisaged Hamid Ansari, previous vice-president, as a presidential candidate. In May 2013, Lalu Yadav tried to rejuvenate the party and fuel the party workers in his Parivartan Rally. After the conviction in Fodder Scam on 3 October 2013, Yadav was disqualified from the membership of Lok Sabha. In 2014 general election, Lalu Yadav's RJD again won 4 seats. Lalu Yadav has been working on a merger of six parties to form a Janata Parivar. 2015–current: Conviction in 2 fodder scam cases In the 2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election, Lalu Yadav's RJD became the largest party with a total of 81 seats.
He along with his partner Nitish Kumar of JD(U) had the absolute majority to form a government in Bihar. This was cited as a major comeback for the RJD and for Lalu Yadav on the political stage of Bihar after a gap of 10 years. But that suffocating alliance did not last long as Nitish Kumar dumped and ousted Lalu's party from the power and alliance in July 2017 after the Enforcement Directorate and Central Bureau of Investigation lodged several criminal cases against Lalu's son and Deputy Chief Minister, Tejashwi Yadav. Corruption, conviction and criticism  Corruption cases Lalu has been convicted and jailed in 2 scams, he and his family, including wife Rabri Devi, sons Tejashwi Yadav and Tej Pratap Yadav, and daughter Misa Bharti have all been charged in several other corruption cases (c. Jan 2018).
1996 Fodder Scam – 1st case of ₹ 33.61 crores scammed from Chaibasa treasury: a conviction in 2013 Fodder scam has several cases, in which Lalu is an accused in 6 cases, he has been convicted in 2 cases and 3 more cases against him are still pending in the court (c. Jan 2018). In the 1st case, Lalu was accused in 1996 and later convicted in "Fodder Scam" cases in which about ₹ 4.50 billion ($ 111.85 million) were siphoned off from the animal husbandry department, albeit the probe itself was ordered by him. Several reports of alleged embezzlement of money withdrawn from the animal husbandry department were tabled from 1990–95.
In January 1996, a raid conducted on Chaibasa treasury indicated the siphoning off of funds by non-existent companies. Yadav then ordered an inquiry to probe the alleged irregularities. However, after a public interest litigation, the Bihar High Court in March 1996 ordered the case to be handed over to the CBI. In June 1997, CBI filed the charge sheet in the case and made Yadav an accused. The fodder scam forced Yadav to resign from the office of Chief Minister and he appointed his wife, Rabri Devi, his successor as the state's Chief Minister. In 2001, the Supreme Court transferred the scam cases to newly formed Jharkhand and trial began in a special court in Ranchi in 2002.
In August 2013, Yadav tried to get the trial court judge transferred, but his plea was rejected by Supreme Court of India. Yadav has been an accused in many of the 53-odd cases filed. He has been remanded to custody on multiple occasions because of the number of cases. Over 64 people were convicted in the case. Yadav was first sent to "Judicial remand" (Bihar Military Police guest house, Patna) on 30 July 1997, for 134 days. On 28 October 1998, he was again sent to the same guest house for 73 days. When the Supreme Court of India took exception to his guest house stay, he had also moved to the Beur jail in Patna.
On 26 November 2001, Yadav was again remanded, in a case related to the fodder scam. Yadav accused the NDA of creating a conspiracy against him. On 1 October 2004, the Supreme Court of India served a notice to Yadav and his wife, Rabri Devi, on the fodder scam. This was in response to a petition which alleged that they have been interfering with the investigation. Lalu Prasad Yadav, along with 44 other accused, was convicted on 30 September 2013, by Central Bureau of Investigation court at Ranchi, after being found guilty in fraudulent withdrawal of ₹ 37 crores (₹ 370 million) from Chaibasa treasury.
Several other politicians, IAS officers were also convicted in the case. Immediately after the verdict was pronounced, Lalu Prasad Yadav was arrested and taken to Birsa Munda Central Jail, located at Ranchi. Consequent upon his conviction, Mr Yadav stands disqualified as MP and he will not be eligible to contest public election for the next six years. He has been given a jail sentence of five years and a fine of 25 lakh rupees. He was released on bail from Birsa Munda Central Jail, after he completed the bail formalities in a Special CBI court, two-and-a-half months after he was convicted in a fodder scam case.
1998 Lalu's disproportionate assets case In 1998, a disproportionate assets case arising out of fodder scam was registered against Yadav and Rabri Devi. In April 2000, both were made co-accused in the charge-sheet and surrendered. While Rabri Devi got bail due to being CM of Bihar, Yadav was remanded for 11 days and sent to the Beur Jail. Due to the proceedings in the fodder scam, Yadav was remanded for a day in Beur jail on 28 November 2000. CBI failed to prove them guilty and they were acquitted by a CBI court in 2006. Bihar government wanted to appeal against the acquittal, but the Supreme Court in 2010 ruled that the state government can not challenge such rulings.
1996 Fodder Scam – 2nd case of INR89.27 lakh scammed from Deoghar treasury: conviction in 2017 Lalu was convicted and jailed in 2nd Fodder Scam case of INR8.927 million on the same day 23 December 2017 when his member of parliament daughter Misa Bharti was also officially charged by Enforcement Directorate in disproportionate assets. while 4 more fodder scam cases against him are also pending in the court.
Lalu was convicted 23 December 2017 and sentenced on 6 January 2018 to 3½ years' imprisonment and INR1,000,000 fine under the under the Prevention of Corruption Act and the Sections 120B (criminal conspiracy), section 420 (cheating and dishonestly), section 467 (forgery), section 471 (forged record) and section 477A (falsification) of the Indian Penal Code and for the fraudulent withdrawal of INR8,900,000 from the Deoghar district treasury between 1990 and 1994  1996 Fodder Scam – 3rd case of INR35.62 crore scammed from Chaibasa treasury: conviction in 2018 This case, pertaining to scamming INR356.2 million scammed from the Chaibasa tresury of West Singhbhum district,  1996 Fodder Scam – 4th case of INR 3.97 crore scammed from Dumka treasury: conviction in 2018 Lalu Prasad was convicted by the special CBI court in the fourth fodder scam case relating to alleged withdrawal of Rs 3.13 crore from the Dumka district treasury over two decades ago.
CBI Judge awarded him two separate sentences of seven years each under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the Prevention of Corruption Acts. 1996 Fodder Scam – 5th case of INR184 crore scammed from Doranda treasury: pending in court This case, pertaining to the scamming of INR1.84 billion from the Doranda tresary in Ranchi, is still pending in the Special CBI Court (c. Jan 2018). 2005 Indian Railway tender scam: Lalu family booked by CBI  2005 Indian Railway tender scam, investigated by the CBI, is the bribery and corruption case where Lalu Prasad Yadav and his family are charged for illegally receiving prime property from the bidder as a bribe for corruptly awarding the Railway tender during Lalu's tenure as Railway Minister.
Transfer of these properties as bribe to Lalu and his children were disguised using the shell companies; for example, wife Rabri Devi and three children, Misa Bharti, Tejashwi Yadav and Tej Pratap Yadav, received Saguna Mor Mall property worth INR 45 crore through a shell company named Delight Marketing (renamed as Lara properties), and another shell company AB Exports was used to transfer properties worth INR 40 crore for a price of INR 4 lakh to Lalu's other three children Tejashwi Yadav, Ragini and Chanda. This case spawned several other related but independent cases, such as disproportionate assets case as well as tax avoidance case by ED.
Under the Benami Transactions Prohibition Act recipient of such benami properties can be imprisoned for up to 7 years and fined up to 25% fair market value, and convicted politicians are barred from contesting elections or holding elected position for six years. 2017 Delight Properties 45 crore benami disproportionate assets and tax evasion cases: Lalu family booked by ED  Investigated by Enforcement Directorate (ED), against Lalu, his wife Rabri Devi, son Tejashwi Yadav, daughter Misa Bharti and others, arose from the alleged illegal proceeds of the "2005 Indian Railway tender scam". The I-T department issued summons for 12 June 2017 to MP Misa Bharti, over benami land deals worth Rs.
10 billion. Misa was officially charged by ED in disproportionate assets case on the same day her father was convicted again in the second fodder scam. After CBI lodged a FIR on 5 July 2017, ED also filed the Case Information Report (ECIR) on 27 July 2017 against Lalu, his wife Rabri, their younger son Tejashwi Prasad Yadav and others in the railways tender corruption and ill-gotten property scam that happened during Lalu's tenure as the Railway Minister. Taking action against this scam, ED of Income Tax Department on 12 September 2017 attached more than 12 properties in Patna and Delhi including the plot for the mall in Patna, a farm house in Delhi and up-market land in Palam Vihar in Delhi.
This includes the transfer of INR450 million (45 crore) Seguna mor benami property transferred to Lalu's wife Rabri Devi and children Tejashwi Yadav and Tej Pratap Yadav by using a shell company named Delight Properties, which was later renamed as Lara Properties. (Updated: 7 Jan 2018)  2017 AB Exports 40 crore benami disproportionate assets and tax evasion cases: Lalu family booked by ED AB Exports was a shell company used to transfer, as a bribe for the railway tender scam, INR400 million (40 crore) benami property for a mere price of INR400,000 to Lalu's 3 children Tejashwi Yadav, Ragini Yadav and Chanda Singh.
ED has attached this property and booked the 3 accused children of Lalu. (Updated: 7 Jan 2018)  2017 Patna zoo soil scam  2017 Patna zoo soil scam is a case against Lalu Prasad Yadav and his sons Tej Pratap Yadav and Tejaswi Yadav for the "gross irregularities" of selling soil from the construction of Tej Pratap's Saguna Mor mall basement. The bogus beautification scheme was for Rs 90 lakh to Patna zoo without inviting any tenders when Tej Pratap was the minister of environment and forest in Bihar, a department that controls the zoo.
The scam came to the light in April 2017, a public interest litigation (PIL) was filed in Patna High Court in October 2017, court ordered the Bihar government to furnish the details of investigation, following which the case was handed over to Bihar Vigilance Investigation Bureau (VIB) department for the investigation under the Pollution Control Board Act, the Environment Protection Act and Wildlife Protection Act (1972) (update: 6 Jan 2018). Criticism  Negative image of corrupt, nepotistic and dynastic politician Lalu Prasad Yadav is one of the first noted politicians to lose parliamentary seat on being arrested in fodder scam as per Supreme Court decision banning convicted legislators to hold their posts.
Despite several ongoing corruption cases against him, he and his wife Rabri Devi ruled Bihar state for 15 years, a period during which every economic and social rankings of the state went to lowest level when compared to other states of India. During his tenure as Chief Minister, Bihar's law and order was at lowest, kidnapping was on rise and private armies mushroomed. He was criticised in 2002 as his supporters lifted cars, furniture from showrooms in Patna to be used in wedding of his daughter. Alleged voter pandering While campaigning for Bihar elections in 2005, both Lalu Prasad Yadav and Ram Vilas Paswan used a Muslim cleric in the traditional Islamic dress to woo Muslim voters.
The cleric would accompany them in their helicopter to various election meetings, share the stage with them and make speeches that attacked the United States for its alleged anti-Muslim activities. Pramod Mahajan, senior leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party, had criticised both leaders for this by comparing the cleric with Osama bin Laden and blaming that they were "glorifying the name of a man who is recognised as the most wanted terrorist in the world."
See also  List of Chief Ministers of Bihar  References  External links      |-  |-  |-  |-  Category:Criminals from Bihar Category:Indian politicians convicted of crimes Category:Indian politicians convicted of corruption Category:Indian politicians disqualified from office Category:Chief Ministers of Bihar Category:Finance Ministers of Bihar Category:Railway Ministers of India Category:6th Lok Sabha members Category:9th Lok Sabha members Category:12th Lok Sabha members Category:14th Lok Sabha members Category:15th Lok Sabha members Category:Rajya Sabha members from Bihar Category:Leaders of the Opposition in the Bihar Legislative Assembly Category:Indian socialists Category:Janata Party (Secular) politicians Category:Lok Dal politicians Category:Janata Dal politicians Category:Janata Party politicians Category:Chief ministers from Janata Dal Category:Rashtriya Janata Dal politicians Category:Indian political party founders Category:Indians imprisoned during the Emergency (India) Category:V. P. Singh administration Lalu Prasad Category:Indian Hindus Category:Living people Category:1947 births
Cybercrime, or computer-oriented crime, is a crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. Cybercrimes can be defined as: "Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm, or loss, to the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (networks including chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups) and mobile phones (Bluetooth/SMS/MMS)". Cybercrime may threaten a person or a nation's security and financial health.
Issues surrounding these types of crimes have become high-profile, particularly those regarding hacking, copyright infringement, unwarranted mass-surveillance, sextortion, child pornography, and child grooming. There are many privacy concerns surrounding cybercrime when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or otherwise. Debarati Halder and K. Jaishankar further define cybercrime from the perspective of gender and defined 'cybercrime against women' as "Crimes targeted against women with a motive to intentionally harm the victim psychologically and physically, using modern telecommunication networks such as internet and mobile phones". Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes.
Cybercrimes crossing international borders and involving the actions of at least one nation-state is sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare. A report (sponsored by McAfee), published in 2014, estimated that the annual damage to the global economy was $445 billion. Approximately $1.5 billion was lost in 2012 to online credit and debit card fraud in the US. In 2018, a study by Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), in partnership with McAfee, concludes that close to $600 billion, nearly one percent of global GDP, is lost to cybercrime each year. Classifications  Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities. Financial fraud crimes  Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss.
In this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by:   Altering in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise and is a common form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or entering false data, or by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized processes;  Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized transactions. This is difficult to detect;  Altering or deleting stored data; Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems, including bank fraud, carding, identity theft, extortion, and theft of classified information. These types of crime often result in the loss of private information or monetary information.
Cyberterrorism  Government officials and information technology security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems and server scans since early 2001. There is a growing concern among government agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) that such intrusions are part of an organized effort by cyberterrorist foreign intelligence services, or other groups to map potential security holes in critical systems. A cyberterrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a government or an organization to advance his or her political or social objectives by launching a computer-based attack against computers, networks, or the information stored on them.
Cyberterrorism, in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources (Parker 1983). As such, a simple propaganda piece on the Internet that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. There are also hacking activities directed towards individuals, families, organized by groups within networks, tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power, collecting information relevant for ruining peoples' lives, robberies, blackmailing, etc. Cyberextortion  Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to or threatened with repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers.
These hackers demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks and to offer "protection". According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, cybercrime extortionists are increasingly attacking corporate websites and networks, crippling their ability to operate and demanding payments to restore their service. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI and many go unreported in order to keep the victim's name out of the public domain. Perpetrators typically use a distributed denial-of-service attack. However, other cyberextortion techniques exist such as doxing extortion and bug poaching. An example of cyberextortion was the attack on Sony Pictures of 2014.
Cyberwarfare  The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) notes that the cyberspace has emerged as a national-level concern through several recent events of geostrategic significance. Among those are included, the attack on Estonia's infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. In August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyber attacks, this time in a coordinated and synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia. The December 2015 Ukraine power grid cyberattack has also been attributed to Russia and is considered the first successful cyber attack on a power grid. Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states, the concept of cyberspace operations impacts and will be adapted by warfighting military commanders in the future.
Computer as a target These crimes are committed by a selected group of criminals. Unlike crimes using the computer as a tool, these crimes require the technical knowledge of the perpetrators. As such, as technology evolves, so too does the nature of the crime. These crimes are relatively new, having been in existence for only as long as computers have—which explains how unprepared society and the world, in general, is towards combating these crimes. There are numerous crimes of this nature committed daily on the internet. It is seldom committed by loners, instead it involves large syndicate groups. Crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices include: Computer viruses Denial-of-service attacks Malware (malicious code)  Computer as a tool  When the individual is the main target of cybercrime, the computer can be considered as the tool rather than the target.
These crimes generally involve less technical expertise. Human weaknesses are generally exploited. The damage dealt is largely psychological and intangible, making legal action against the variants more difficult. These are the crimes which have existed for centuries in the offline world. Scams, theft, and the likes have existed even before the development in high-tech equipment. The same criminal has simply been given a tool which increases their potential pool of victims and makes them all the harder to trace and apprehend. Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include: Fraud and identity theft (although this increasingly uses malware, hacking or phishing, making it an example of both "computer as target" and "computer as tool" crime) Information warfare Phishing scams Spam Propagation of illegal obscene or offensive content, including harassment and threats  The unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes (spam) is unlawful in some jurisdictions.
Phishing is mostly propagated via email. Phishing emails may contain links to other websites that are affected by malware. Or, they may contain links to fake online banking or other websites used to steal private account information. Obscene or offensive content The content of websites and other electronic communications may be distasteful, obscene or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances, these communications may be illegal. The extent to which these communications are unlawful varies greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs.
One area of Internet pornography that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is child pornography, which is illegal in most jurisdictions in the world. Online harassment  Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, harassment directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals focusing for example on gender, race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation. There are instances where committing a crime using a computer can lead to an enhanced sentence. For example, in the case of United States v. Neil Scott Kramer, Kramer was handed an enhanced sentence according to the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual §2G1.3(b)(3) for his use of a cell phone to "persuade, induce, entice, coerce, or facilitate the travel of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct."
Kramer appealed the sentence on the grounds that there was insufficient evidence to convict him under this statute because his charge included persuading through a computer device and his cellular phone technically is not a computer. Although Kramer tried to argue this point, the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual states that the term computer "means an electronic, magnetic, optical, electrochemical, or other high-speed data processing device performing logical, arithmetic, or storage functions, and includes any data storage facility or communications facility directly related to or operating in conjunction with such device." In the United States alone, Missouri and over 40 other states have passed laws and regulations that regard extreme online harassment as a criminal act.
These acts can be punished on a federal scale, such as US Code 18 Section 2261A, which states that using computers to threaten or harass can lead to a sentence of up to 20 years, depending on the action taken. Several countries outside of the United States have also created laws to combat online harassment. In China, a country that supports over 20 percent of the world's internet users, the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council  passed a strict law against the bullying of young people through a bill in response to the Human Flesh Search Engine.
The United Kingdom passed the Malicious Communications Act, among other acts from 1997 to 2013, which stated that sending messages or letters electronically that the government deemed “indecent or grossly offensive” and/or language intended to cause “distress and anxiety” can lead to a prison sentence of six months and a potentially large fine. Australia, while not directly addressing the issue of harassment, has grouped the majority of online harassment under the Criminal Code Act of 1995. Using telecommunication to send threats or harass and cause offense was a direct violation of this act. Although freedom of speech is protected by law in most democratic societies (in the US this is done by the First Amendment), it does not include all types of speech.
In fact, spoken or written "true threat" speech/text is criminalized because of "intent to harm or intimidate." That also applies for online or any type of network related threats in written text or speech. Drug trafficking Darknet markets are used to buy and sell recreational drugs online. Some drug traffickers use encrypted messaging tools to communicate with drug mules. The dark web site Silk Road was a major online marketplace for drugs before it was shut down by law enforcement (then reopened under new management, and then shut down by law enforcement again). After Silk Road 2.0 went down, Silk Road 3 Reloaded emerged.
However, it was just an older marketplace named Diabolus Market, that used the name for more exposure from the brand's previous success. Documented cases   One of the highest profiled banking computer crime occurred during a course of three years beginning in 1970. The chief teller at the Park Avenue branch of New York's Union Dime Savings Bank embezzled over $1.5 million from hundreds of accounts. A hacking group called MOD (Masters of Deception), allegedly stole passwords and technical data from Pacific Bell, Nynex, and other telephone companies as well as several big credit agencies and two major universities. The damage caused was extensive, one company, Southwestern Bell suffered losses of $370,000 alone.
In 1983, a 19-year-old UCLA student used his PC to break into a Defense Department International Communications system. Between 1995 and 1998 the Newscorp satellite pay to view encrypted SKY-TV service was hacked several times during an ongoing technological arms race between a pan-European hacking group and Newscorp. The original motivation of the hackers was to watch Star Trek reruns in Germany; which was something which Newscorp did not have the copyright to allow. On 26 March 1999, the Melissa worm infected a document on a victim's computer, then automatically sent that document and a copy of the virus spread via e-mail to other people.
In February 2000, an individual going by the alias of MafiaBoy began a series denial-of-service attacks against high-profile websites, including Yahoo!, Dell, Inc., E*TRADE, eBay, and CNN. About 50 computers at Stanford University, and also computers at the University of California at Santa Barbara, were amongst the zombie computers sending pings in DDoS attacks. On 3 August 2000, Canadian federal prosecutors charged MafiaBoy with 54 counts of illegal access to computers, plus a total of ten counts of mischief to data for his attacks. The Stuxnet worm corrupted SCADA microprocessors, particularly of the types used in Siemens centrifuge controllers. The Flame (malware) that mainly targeted Iranian officials in an  attempt to obtain sensitive information.
The Russian Business Network (RBN) was registered as an internet site in 2006. Initially, much of its activity was legitimate. But apparently, the founders soon discovered that it was more profitable to host illegitimate activities and started hiring its services to criminals. The RBN has been described by VeriSign as "the baddest of the bad". It offers web hosting services and internet access to all kinds of criminal and objectionable activities, with individual activities earning up to $150 million in one year. It specialized in and in some cases monopolized personal identity theft for resale. It is the originator of MPack and an alleged operator of the now defunct Storm botnet.
On 2 March 2010, Spanish investigators arrested 3 in infection of over 13 million computers around the world. The "botnet" of infected computers included PCs inside more than half of the Fortune 1000 companies and more than 40 major banks, according to investigators. In August 2010 the international investigation Operation Delego, operating under the aegis of the Department of Homeland Security, shut down the international pedophile ring Dreamboard. The website had approximately 600 members and may have distributed up to 123 terabytes of child pornography (roughly equivalent to 16,000 DVDs). To date this is the single largest U.S. prosecution of an international child pornography ring; 52 arrests were made worldwide.
In January 2012 Zappos.com experienced a security breach after as many as 24 million customers' credit card numbers, personal information, billing and shipping addresses had been compromised. In June 2012 LinkedIn and eHarmony were attacked, compromising 65 million password hashes. 30,000 passwords were cracked and 1.5 million EHarmony passwords were posted online. December 2012 Wells Fargo website experienced a denial of service attack. Potentially compromising 70 million customers and 8.5 million active viewers. Other banks thought to be compromised: Bank of America, J. P. Morgan U.S. Bank, and PNC Financial Services. 23 April 2013 saw the Associated Press' Twitter account's hacked - the hacker posted a hoax tweet about fictitious attacks in the White House that they claimed left President Obama injured.
This hoax tweet resulted in a brief plunge of 130 points from the Dow Jones Industrial Average, removal of $136 billion from S&P 500 index, and the temporary suspension of AP's Twitter account. The Dow Jones later restored its session gains. In May 2017, 74 countries logged a ransomware cybercrime, called "WannaCry"  Illicit access to camera sensors, microphone sensors, phonebook contacts, all internet-enabled apps, and metadata of mobile telephones running Android and IOS were reportedly made accessible by Israeli spyware, found to be being in operation in at least 46 nation-states around the world. Journalists, Royalty and government officials were amongst the targets.
Previous accusations of cases of Israeli-weapons companies meddling in international telephony and smartphones have been eclipsed in the 2018 reported case. In December 2019, the United States intelligence and an investigation by The New York Times revealed that messaging application of the United Arab Emirates, ToTok is a spying tool. The research revealed that the Emirati government attempted to track every conversation, movement, relationship, appointment, sound and image of those who install the app on their phones. Combating computer crime It is difficult to find and combat cyber crime's perpetrators due to their use of the internet in support of cross-border attacks.
Not only does the internet allow people to be targeted from various locations, but the scale of the harm done can be magnified. Cyber criminals can target more than one person at a time. The availability of virtual spaces  to public and private sectors has allowed cybercrime to become an everyday occurrence. In 2018, The Internet Crime Complaint Center received 351,937 complaints of cybercrime, which lead to $2.7 billion lost. Investigation A computer can be a source of evidence (see digital forensics). Even where a computer is not directly used for criminal purposes, it may contain records of value to criminal investigators in the form of a logfile.
In most countries Internet Service Providers are required, by law, to keep their logfiles for a predetermined amount of time. For example; a European wide Data Retention Directive (applicable to all EU member states) states that all e-mail traffic should be retained for a minimum of 12 months. There are many ways for cybercrime to take place, and investigations tend to start with an IP Address trace, however, that is not necessarily a factual basis upon which detectives can solve a case. Different types of high-tech crime may also include elements of low-tech crime, and vice versa, making cybercrime investigators an indispensable part of modern law enforcement.
Methods of cybercrime detective work are dynamic and constantly improving, whether in closed police units or in international cooperation framework. In the United States, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) are government agencies that combat cybercrime. The FBI has trained agents and analysts in cybercrime placed in their field offices and headquarters. Under the DHS, the Secret Service has a Cyber Intelligence Section that works to target financial cyber crimes. They use their intelligence to protect against international cybercrime. Their efforts work to protect institutions, such as banks, from intrusions and information breaches.
Based in Alabama, the Secret Service and the Alabama Office of Prosecution Services work together to train professionals in law enforcement through the creation of The National Computer Forensic Institute. This institute works to provide "state and local members of the law enforcement community with training in cyber incident response, investigation, and forensic examination in cyber incident response, investigation, and forensic examination." Due to the common use of encryption and other techniques to hide their identity and location by cybercriminals, it can be difficult to trace a perpetrator after the crime is committed, so prevention measures are crucial. Prevention  The Department of Homeland Security also instituted the Continuous Diagnostics and Mitigation (CDM) Program.
The CDM Program monitors and secures government networks by tracking and prioritizing network risks, and informing system personnel so that they can take action. In an attempt to catch intrusions before the damage is done, the DHS created the Enhanced Cybersecurity Services (ECS) to protect public and private sectors in the United States. The Cyber Security and Infrastructure Security Agency approves private partners that provide intrusion detection and prevention services through the ECS. An example of one of these services offered is DNS sinkholing. Legislation Due to easily exploitable laws, cybercriminals use developing countries in order to evade detection and prosecution from law enforcement.
In developing countries, such as the Philippines, laws against cybercrime are weak or sometimes nonexistent. These weak laws allow cybercriminals to strike from international borders and remain undetected. Even when identified, these criminals avoid being punished or extradited to a country, such as the United States, that has developed laws that allow for prosecution. While this proves difficult in some cases, agencies, such as the FBI, have used deception and subterfuge to catch criminals. For example, two Russian hackers had been evading the FBI for some time. The FBI set up a fake computing company based in Seattle, Washington. They proceeded to lure the two Russian men into the United States by offering them work with this company.
Upon completion of the interview, the suspects were arrested outside of the building. Clever tricks like this are sometimes a necessary part of catching cybercriminals when weak legislation makes it impossible otherwise. Then-President Barack Obama released in an executive order in April 2015 to combat cybercrime. The executive order allows the United States to freeze assets of convicted cybercriminals and block their economic activity within the United States. This is some of the first solid legislation that combats cybercrime in this way. The European Union adopted directive 2013/40/EU. All offences of the directive, and other definitions and procedural institutions are also in the Council of Europe's Convention on Cybercrime..
It is not only the US and the European Union who are introducing new measures against cybercrime. ON 31 May 2017 China announced that its new cybersecurity law takes effect on this date. Penalties Penalties for computer-related crimes in New York State can range from a fine and a short period of jail time for a Class A misdemeanor such as unauthorized use of a computer up to computer tampering in the first degree which is a Class C felony and can carry 3 to 15 years in prison. However, some hackers have been hired as information security experts by private companies due to their inside knowledge of computer crime, a phenomenon which theoretically could create perverse incentives.
A possible counter to this is for courts to ban convicted hackers from using the Internet or computers, even after they have been released from prisonthough as computers and the Internet become more and more central to everyday life, this type of punishment may be viewed as more and more harsh and draconian. However, nuanced approaches have been developed that manage cyber offenders' behavior without resorting to total computer or Internet bans. These approaches involve restricting individuals to specific devices which are subject to computer monitoring or computer searches by probation or parole officers. Awareness  As technology advances and more people rely on the internet to store sensitive information such as banking or credit card information, criminals increasingly attempt to steal that information.
Cybercrime is becoming more of a threat to people across the world. Raising awareness about how information is being protected and the tactics criminals use to steal that information continues to grow in importance. According to the FBI's Internet Crime Complaint Center in 2014, there were 269,422 complaints filed. With all the claims combined there was a reported total loss of $800,492,073. But cybercrime does yet seem to be on the average person's radar. There are 1.5 million cyber-attacks annually, that means that there are over 4,000 attacks a day, 170 attacks every hour, or nearly three attacks every minute, with studies showing us that only 16% of victims had asked the people who were carrying out the attacks to stop.
Anybody who uses the internet for any reason can be a victim, which is why it is important to be aware of how one is being protected while online. Intelligence  As cybercrime has proliferated, a professional ecosystem has evolved to support individuals and groups seeking to profit from cybercriminal activities. The ecosystem has become quite specialized, including malware developers, botnet operators, professional cybercrime groups, groups specializing in the sale of stolen content, and so forth. A few of the leading cybersecurity companies have the skills, resources and visibility to follow the activities of these individuals and group. A wide variety of information is available from these sources which can be used for defensive purposes, including technical indicators such as hashes of infected files or malicious IPs/URLs, as well as strategic information profiling the goals, techniques and campaigns of the profiled groups.
Some of it is freely published, but consistent, on-going access typically requires subscribing to an adversary intelligence subscription service. At the level of an individual threat actor, threat intelligence is often referred to that actor's "TTP", or "tactics, techniques, and procedures," as the infrastructure, tools, and other technical indicators are often trivial for attackers to change. Corporate sectors are considering crucial role of artificial intelligence cybersecurity. Diffusion of cybercrime The broad diffusion of cybercriminal activities is an issue in computer crimes detection and prosecution. According to Jean-Loup Richet (Associate Professor at the Sorbonne Business School), technical expertise and accessibility no longer act as barriers to entry into cybercrime.
Indeed, hacking is much less complex than it was a few years ago, as hacking communities have greatly diffused their knowledge through the Internet. Blogs and communities have hugely contributed to information sharing: beginners could benefit from older hackers' knowledge and advice. Furthermore, hacking is cheaper than ever: before the cloud computing era, in order to spam or scam one needed a dedicated server, skills in server management, network configuration, and maintenance, knowledge of Internet service provider standards, etc. By comparison, a mail software-as-a-service is a scalable, inexpensive, bulk, and transactional e-mail-sending service for marketing purposes and could be easily set up for spam.
Cloud computing could be helpful for a cybercriminal as a way to leverage his or her attack, in terms of brute-forcing a password, improving the reach of a botnet, or facilitating a spamming campaign. Agencies  ASEAN  Australian High Tech Crime Centre  Cyber Crime Investigation Cell, a wing of Mumbai Police, India  Cyber Crime Unit (Hellenic Police), formed in Greece in 1995  National White Collar Crime Center, in the United States  National Cyber Crime Unit, in the United Kingdom  See also  References  Further reading  Balkin, J., Grimmelmann, J., Katz, E., Kozlovski, N., Wagman, S. & Zarsky, T. (2006) (eds) Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment, New York University Press, New York.
Bowker, Art (2012) "The Cybercrime Handbook for Community Corrections: Managing Risk in the 21st Century" Charles C. Thomas Publishers, Ltd. Springfield. Brenner, S. (2007) Law in an Era of Smart Technology, Oxford: Oxford University Press  Broadhurst, R., and Chang, Lennon Y.C. (2013) "Cybercrime in Asia: trends and challenges", in B. Hebenton, SY Shou, & J. Liu (eds), Asian Handbook of Criminology (pp. 49–64). New York: Springer ()  Chang, L.Y. C. (2012) Cybercrime in the Greater China Region: Regulatory Responses and Crime Prevention across the Taiwan Strait. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. ()  Chang, Lennon Y.C., & Grabosky, P. (2014) "Cybercrime and establishing a secure cyber world", in M. Gill (ed) Handbook of Security (pp. 321–339).
NY: Palgrave. Csonka P. (2000) Internet Crime; the Draft council of Europe convention on cyber-crime: A response to the challenge of crime in the age of the internet? Computer Law & Security Report Vol.16 no.5. Easttom, Chuck (2010) Computer Crime Investigation and the Law  Fafinski, S. (2009) Computer Misuse: Response, regulation and the law Cullompton: Willan  Glenny, Misha, DarkMarket : cyberthieves, cybercops, and you, New York, NY : Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. Grabosky, P. (2006) Electronic Crime, New Jersey: Prentice Hall  Halder, D., & Jaishankar, K. (2016). Cyber Crimes against Women in India. New Delhi:  SAGE Publishing. . Halder, D., & Jaishankar, K. (2011) Cybercrime and the Victimization of Women: Laws, Rights, and Regulations.
Hershey, PA, USA: IGI Global. Jaishankar, K. (Ed.) (2011). Cyber Criminology: Exploring Internet Crimes and Criminal behavior. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor, and Francis Group. McQuade, S. (2006) Understanding and Managing Cybercrime, Boston: Allyn & Bacon. McQuade, S. (ed) (2009) The Encyclopedia of Cybercrime, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Parker D (1983) Fighting Computer Crime, U.S.: Charles Scribner's Sons. Pattavina, A. (ed) Information Technology and the Criminal Justice System, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Robertson, J. (2 March 2010). Authorities bust 3 in infection of 13m computers. Retrieved 26 March 2010, from Boston News: Boston.com  Walden, I. (2007) Computer Crimes and Digital Investigations, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rolón, Darío N. Control, vigilancia y respuesta penal en el ciberespacio, Latin American's New Security Thinking, Clacso, 2014, pp. 167/182  Richet, J.L. (2013) From Young Hackers to Crackers, International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction (IJTHI), 9(3), 53–62. Wall, D.S. (2007) Cybercrimes: The transformation of crime in the information age, Cambridge: Polity. Williams, M. (2006) Virtually Criminal: Crime, Deviance and Regulation Online, Routledge, London. Yar, M. (2006) Cybercrime and Society, London: Sage.
External links  Centre for Cyber Victim Counselling (CCVC) The American Society of Digital Forensics & eDiscovery – Cybercrime Information A Guide to Computer Crime from legal.practitioner.com Virtual Forum Against Cybercrime Cyber Crime Law Complete Information CyberCrime Asia Research Center – Information about computer crime, Internet fraud and CyberTerrorism in Asia Information and Research Center for Cybercrime Germany International Journal of Cyber Criminology Common types of cyber attacks Countering ransomware attacks  Government resources Cybercrime.gov from the United States Department of Justice National Institute of Justice Electronic Crime Program from the United States Department of Justice FBI Cyber Investigators  home page US Secret Service Computer Fraud Australian High Tech Crime Centre UK National Cyber Crime Unit from the National Crime Agency    Category:Computer security Category:Organized crime activity Category:Harassment
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them is a 2016  fantasy film directed by David Yates. A joint British and American production, it is a spin-off of and prequel to the Harry Potter film series. It was produced and written by J. K. Rowling in her screenwriting debut, inspired by her 2001 "guide book" of the same name. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Eddie Redmayne, Katherine Waterston, Dan Fogler, Alison Sudol, Ezra Miller, Samantha Morton, Jon Voight, Carmen Ejogo, and Colin Farrell. It is the first installment in the Fantastic Beasts film series, and ninth overall in the Wizarding World franchise that began with the Harry Potter films.
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them premiered in New York City on 10 November 2016 and opened in theaters worldwide on 18 November 2016 in 3D, IMAX 3D 4K Laser, 4DX, and other large-format theaters. It received generally positive reviews from critics and emerged a commercial success after grossing $814 million worldwide, making it the eighth highest-grossing film of 2016. The film was nominated for five BAFTAs, including Best British Film, and won for Best Production Design. It was nominated for two Academy Awards and won for Best Costume Design, becoming the first Wizarding World film to win an Academy Award.
The first sequel, Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald, was released on 16 November 2018. Filming for a second sequel, as yet unnamed, will begin in spring 2020, with a projected release date in November 2021. Plot In 1926, British wizard and "magizoologist" Newt Scamander arrives in New York, en route to Arizona. He encounters Mary Lou Barebone, a non-magical woman ("No-Maj" or "Muggle") who heads the New Salem Philanthropic Society. As Newt listens to her speaking about witches and wizards being real and dangerous, a Niffler escapes from Newt's magically expanded suitcase, which houses various magical creatures. As Newt attempts to capture the Niffler, he meets No-Maj cannery worker and aspiring baker Jacob Kowalski, and they unwittingly swap suitcases.
Demoted Ministry of Magic auror (hunter of dark wizards) Tina Goldstein takes him to the Magical Congress of the United States of America (MACUSA) headquarters, hoping to regain her former position. However, as Jacob's suitcase contains only baked goods, Newt is released. At Jacob's tenement apartment, several creatures escape from Newt's suitcase. After Tina and Newt find Jacob and the suitcase, Tina takes them to her apartment and introduces them to Queenie, her Legilimens sister. Jacob and Queenie are mutually attracted, though American wizards are forbidden to have any contact with No-Majs. Newt takes Jacob inside his magically expanded suitcase, where Jacob encounters a contained Obscurus, a parasite that develops inside magically gifted children if they suppress their magical abilities.
Newt extracted it from a young girl who died: Those afflicted rarely live past the age of ten. Newt persuades Jacob to help search for the missing creatures. After they re-capture two of the three escaped beasts, Tina returns the suitcase to MACUSA. Officials arrest them, believing one of Newt's beasts to be responsible for killing Senator Henry Shaw, Jr.. The Director of Magical Security, Percival Graves accuses Newt of conspiring with the infamous dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald, and decides to destroy Newt's suitcase and erase Jacob's recent memories of magic. Newt and Tina are sentenced to immediate death in secret, but they escape, aided by Queenie and Jacob, who also retrieve Newt's suitcase.
Following a tip from Tina's old goblin informant Gnarlack, the foursome find and re-capture the last of the escaped creatures. Meanwhile, Graves approaches Mary Lou's adopted son Credence and offers to free him from his abusive mother. In exchange, Graves wants Credence to find an Obscurus that he believes has caused the mysterious destructive incidents around the city. Credence finds a wand under his adopted sister Modesty's bed. Mary Lou assumes it is Credence's wand, but Modesty says it is hers. When Modesty is about to be punished, the Obscurus kills Mary Lou and her eldest daughter Chastity. Graves arrives, and after Credence leads him to Modesty, who he assumes is the Obscurus's host, he dismisses Credence as being a Squib and refuses to teach him magic as he had previously promised.
Credence reveals he is the real host, having lived longer than any other host due to the intensity of his magic. In a fit of rage, Credence transforms and attacks the city. Newt finds Credence hiding in a subway tunnel, but he is attacked by Graves. Tina, who knows Credence (she lost her job trying to protect him from Mary Lou) arrives and attempts to calm him, while Graves tries to convince Credence to listen to him. As Credence begins to settle back into human form, Aurors arrive and apparently disintegrate him to protect the magical society. However, a tiny Obscurus fragment escapes.
Graves admits his plan to unleash the Obscurus, expose the magical community to the No-Majs and frame Newt for it. He angrily claims that MACUSA protects the No-Majs more than themselves. As the president orders the Aurors to apprehend Graves, he attacks and begins to defeat all of them. Newt manages to subdue him with one of his beasts, and uses a Revelio Charm to expose  Graves as Gellert Grindelwald in disguise. He is then taken into custody. MACUSA fears their secret world has been exposed, but Newt releases his Thunderbird to disperse a potion as rainfall over the city, erasing all New Yorkers' recent memories while MACUSA wizards repair the destruction.
Queenie kisses Jacob goodbye as the rain erases his memories. Jacob and the rest of the No-Majs are obliviated with the help of the Thunderbird, and Newt returns to England. Jacob opens a bakery: Some of his products look like the beasts he met. Queenie enters, and Jacob smiles at her, seemingly starting to remember the events that he's been through. Cast    Eddie Redmayne as Newt Scamander, an introverted British wizard, magizoologist and an employee of the Ministry of Magic. Scamander is the future author of the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry standard textbook Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them.
Redmayne was cast in June 2015. Matt Smith and Nicholas Hoult were also considered for the role. Katherine Waterston as Porpentina "Tina" Goldstein, a grounded, down-to-earth witch and former Auror employed by MACUSA. She longs to fight for what is right, but was demoted to a position well below her skill level. Dan Fogler as Jacob Kowalski, a genial No-Maj cannery worker and aspiring baker who is accidentally exposed to the New York City magical community upon meeting Newt. Alison Sudol as Queenie Goldstein, Tina's younger sister and roommate, described as a free-spirited big-hearted bombshell she is a naturally born and skilled Legilimens.
The picture is Sudol's feature film debut. Michelle Rodriguez, Carolyn Murphy, Heather Matarazzo and Lindsey Stirling were also under consideration for the role of Queenie. Ezra Miller as Credence Barebone, Mary Lou's troubled adopted son, who is an Obscurial. Samantha Morton as Mary Lou Barebone, a narrow-minded No-Maj and the sinister leader of the New Salem Philanthropic Society or "The Second-Salemers," a group whose goals include exposing and killing wizards and witches. Jon Voight as Henry Shaw Sr., a newspaper owner and the father of U.S. Senator Henry Shaw, Jr., and Langdon Shaw. Carmen Ejogo as Seraphina Picquery, the President of MACUSA, the Magical Congress of the United States of America.
As such, she is the American equivalent of a Minister for Magic in the United Kingdom. Gemma Chan as Madam Ya Zhou. Colin Farrell as Percival Graves, a high-ranking Auror and Director of Magical Security for MACUSA, responsible for with the protection of wizards. Ron Perlman as the voice of Gnarlack, a goblin gangster who owns a magical speakeasy nightclub called "The Blind Pig.”  Faith Wood-Blagrove as Modesty Barebone, a haunted young girl who is the youngest of Mary Lou's adopted children. Wood-Blagrove was chosen for the role following thousands of auditions in an open casting call. Ronan Raftery as Langdon Shaw, the youngest of Henry Shaw, Sr.'s sons, who begins to believe in magic.
Josh Cowdery as Henry Shaw, Jr., the eldest of Henry Shaw, Sr.'s sons; an arrogant and cruel U.S. Senator. Kevin Guthrie as Mr. Abernathy,  Tina and Queenie's MACUSA supervisor. Jenn Murray as Chastity Barebone, the middle of Mary Lou's adopted children. Johnny Depp  as Gellert Grindelwald, an infamous, powerful dark wizard who believes in the superiority of wizards and seeks to lead a new Wizarding Order. Zoë Kravitz as Leta Lestrange, Newt's former love, who betrayed his trust. Production  Development  Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them is mentioned several times as a school textbook in the Harry Potter book series, although Scamander himself does not appear in any of the books.
In 2001, Rowling published an edition of the "textbook" to be sold to raise money for the British charity Comic Relief. The book is a directory of magical creatures with an introduction by its author, Newt Scamander: It does not contain a narrative. First announced in September 2013, the Fantastic Creatures project marked Rowling's debut as a screenwriter. The film sees the return of producer David Heyman, as well as writer Steve Kloves, both veterans of the Potter film franchise. There were rumors that Alfonso Cuarón would direct, which he refuted in May 2014. Warner Bros. announced that David Yates would direct at least the first instalment of a planned trilogy.
James Newton Howard was brought on board to score the film. Filming  Principal photography began on 17 August 2015, at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, in Hertfordshire, England and wrapped in January 2016. Several scenes were shot on location in London. After two months, the production moved to the Cunard Building and St George's Hall in Liverpool, which was transformed into 1920s New York City. Framestore in London produced the visual effects for the film. Music   On 9 April 2016, the film's website announced that James Newton Howard would write and compose the score. On 24 October 2016, Pottermore published an official first look at the film's main theme composed by Howard.
The main theme incorporated John Williams' themes from earlier films, such as "Hedwig's Theme". The soundtrack was released by WaterTower Music on 18 November 2016, coinciding with the film's release worldwide. Visual effects  The visual effects were provided by Cinesite, DNEG, Framestore, Image Engine, Moving Picture Company, Milk VFX and Rodeo FX. Release  Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them had its world premiere at Alice Tully Hall in New York City on 10 November 2016. The film was released worldwide on 18 November 2016, in 2D, 3D and the new IMAX 3D 4K Laser system. It would premiere one day earlier in a number of other countries, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Germany and Italy, on 17 November.
The film would be released to a total of 1,028 IMAX 3D screens worldwide (388 screens in the United States and Canada, 347 screens in China, 26 screens in Japan and 267 screens in other countries). This marked the second time—after Doctor Strange—that a film secured a release in more than 1,000 IMAX 3D screens worldwide. Marketing  Publicity On 4 November 2015, Entertainment Weekly released the first official publicity shots of the film, including pictures of characters Newt, Tina, and Queenie, and behind-the-scenes shots of production and filming on various sets designed to mirror 1920s New York City. On 10 December 2015, @Fantastic Beasts announced on Twitter that an "announcement trailer" would be released on 15 December.
A teaser poster was also released along with the one-minute trailer. During "A Celebration of Harry Potter" at Universal Orlando Resort in February 2016, a featurette was released showcasing several interviews with various cast and crew members, as well as the first official behind-the-scenes footage. On 10 April 2016, the first "teaser trailer" was released during the MTV Movie Awards. On 10 August 2016, more information and publicity shots for the film were released through Entertainment Weekly, with new information on Ezra Miller's character, Credence Barebone, and the news that Zoë Kravitz would have a role in the series.
New images released at the time include the quartet running down a New York City alleyway; David Yates chatting to stars Katherine Waterston and Eddie Redmayne on the set in front of a blown out subway station; Colin Farrell's character, Percival Graves, interrogating an arrested and handcuffed Newt; and Graves and Credence putting up anti-magic propaganda. Tie-in literature and merchandise The film's script was published in book form on 18 November 2016. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them: The Original Screenplay was written by Rowling herself. On 7 March 2016 a trailer-preview was released about the History of Magic in North America as it is in the Harry Potter universe.
On 7 October 2016, Rowling also released on Pottermore four pieces of writing exclusively as an introduction to the film Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, titled History of Magic in North America. It includes information about scourers in North America, brutal and violent magical mercenaries who played a significant role in the historic Salem witch trials of the 1600s, as well as info about various American wand makers; the role magic played in World War I; Native American magic; the foundation of MACUSA; the harsh enforcement No-Maj/Wizarding segregation; and life in 1920s Wizarding America; with info about wand permits and prohibition.
On 28 June 2016, Rowling released a second part to her History of Magic in North America series, concerning the fictitious Ilvermorny School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, detailing the founding of the pre-eminent American Wizarding academy and allowing users to sort themselves into one of the four houses of the school. The school itself is mentioned in the film. A "story pack" based on Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them was released for the video game Lego Dimensions by WB Games and TT Games. The pack includes a constructible model of MACUSA, figures of Newt Scamander and a Niffler, and a six-level game campaign that adapts the film's events.
The pack was released on the same day as the film, alongside a "fun pack" containing figures of Tina Goldstein and a Swooping Evil. The cast of the film reprises their roles in the game. Home media Fantastic Beasts was released on Digital HD on 7 March 2017, and on 4K UHD, 3D Blu-ray, Blu-ray and DVD on 28 March 2017. Reception  Box office  Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them grossed $234 million in the United States and Canada and $580 million in other countries for a total of $814 million. The film was made on a budget of $180 million, with an additional $150 million spent on marketing.
Worldwide, the film grossed $219.9 million during its opening weekend in around 64 markets on 24,200 screens, both the fifth-biggest in Rowling's wizarding cinematic universe, and the seventh-biggest for the month of November 2016. IMAX totalled $15 million from 605 screens. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $164 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the ninth-most profitable release of 2016. United Kingdom and Ireland Fantastic Beasts went on general release in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 18 November 2016. It debuted with £15.33 million ($19.15 million) from 666 cinemas, the biggest debut of any film in 2016, ahead of the previous record holder, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (£14.62 million).
The film vied with Bridget Jones' Baby and briefly won first place, only to be surpassed during the last days of 2016 by Rogue One: A Star Wars Story. United States and Canada In the United States and Canada, estimates predicted that the film would gross $68–85 million—or more—in its opening weekend. The film was released on 18 November in 4,143 cinemas, of which 388 were IMAX screens, and more than 3,600 were showing the film in 3D It grossed $29.7 million on its first day, the second-lowest opening day among Rowling's adaptations (behind the $29.6 million Friday of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets).
This included $8.75 million it earned from Thursday-night preview screenings beginning at 6 p.m. in 3,700 cinemas. In total, the film earned $74.4 million in its opening weekend, falling in line with projections and finishing first at the box office, but it recorded the lowest opening among films in Rowling's Harry Potter universe. It made $8 million from 388 IMAX screens, $9 million from 500 premium large-format locations and $1.75 million from Cinemark XD. The film's opening was considered a hit, taking into account the fact that the story was not based on an existing, popular source, and the film itself was missing the franchise's main character, Harry Potter.
It was the top choice among moviegoers, representing 47% of the weekend's total $157.6 million tickets sales. On its second Friday, it had a gradual drop of 37% ($18.5 million) from the week before, the second-best Friday drop for any Harry Potter film, behind The Philosopher's Stone. This was in part due to Black Friday, the most lucrative day of the Thanksgiving Day stretch. It ended up grossing $45.1 million in its second weekend (a drop of just 39.4%), finishing 2nd at the box office behind newcomer Moana. Other markets Outside North America, the film debuted day-and-date in 63 countries, along with its North American release, where it was projected to gross $90–125 million in its opening weekend.
It opened 16 November 2016 in 9 countries, earning $6.9 million from 5,070 screens. It opened in 38 more countries on 18 November, earning $16.6 million for a total of $23.5 million in two days. In three days, it made $53.6 million. Through Sunday, 20 November, the film had a five-day opening weekend of $145.5 million from 63 countries, above the initial projections. It earned another $132 million in its second weekend after a large debut in China and Japan.
It recorded the biggest opening day of all time among the Harry Potter franchise in Korea ($1.7 million), the Philippines ($1.2 million), the UAE ($429,000) and Ukraine, the second biggest in Mexico ($1.8 million), Russia and the CIS ($1.7 million), Brazil ($1.3 million) and in Indonesia ($480,000), all behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 and the third biggest in the United Kingdom ($5.4 million), behind Part 1 and Part 2. It also scored the second-biggest Warner Bros. opening of all-time in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Notably, France opened with $1.8 million, Spain with $1.4 million, and Germany with $1 million ($2 million including paid previews).
In terms of opening weekends, the film posted the biggest opening among the Harry Potter franchise in 16 markets, including South Korea ($14.2 million, also the third-biggest opening for the studio), Russia ($9.8 million) and Brazil ($6.4 million), the biggest opener of the year in Germany ($10.2 million), Sweden, Belgium and Switzerland and the biggest Warner Bros. debut in those along with France ($10.2 million), Holland and Denmark. Italy debuted with $6.6 million, the biggest for a U.S. film in the country. Australia opened with $7.4 million, followed by Mexico ($5.8 million) and Spain ($4.5 million). It opened in China on 25 November alongside Disney's animated Moana but did not face significant competition from it.
It earned $11.2 million on its opening day from 11,600 screens, the best among the Rowlings cinematic universe. In total, it had an opening weekend of $41.1 million, dominating 60% of the top five films with 70,000 screenings per day. This alone surpassed the entire lifetime total of all Harry Potter films save the last one. Similarly in Japan—typically the biggest or second biggest market for the previous Harry Potter films—it debuted with $15.5 million, besting the total lifetime of all the previous films except for Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince and Deathly Hallows – Part 2. The film also set a number of IMAX records.
In total, the opening weekend was worth $7 million from 276 screens, which is the second-highest ever in the Wizarding World, behind Deathly Hallows – Part 2. In 33 territories, it opened at number one. Moreover, it's also the third-highest-grossing November international IMAX opening ever, and the No. 1 start for IMAX in November in 19 countries including Japan ($1.1 million), the UK, Russia, Germany, and the Netherlands. In China, it had the biggest IMAX opening among the franchise with $5.1 million from 347 IMAX screens. Overall, the film has earned a global cumulative total of $19.1 million from the format.
It has become the highest-grossing film in Rowling's cinematic universe in Russia ($16.7 million) and the second-highest in South Korea ($24.6 million). China ($41.1 million) the United Kingdom ($37.6 million), followed by Germany ($18.4 million), France ($16.7 million), and Spain ($13.3 million) are the film's biggest-earning markets. Critical response   The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 333 critics and judged 74% of the reviews as positive, with an average rating of 6.82/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them draws on Harry Potters rich mythology to deliver a spin-off that dazzles with franchise-building magic all its own."
Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating to reviews, gives the film a score 66 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 90% positive score and a 74% "definite recommend". Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film five out of five stars, hailing it as "a rich, baroque, intricately detailed entertainment" and a "terrifically good-natured, unpretentious and irresistibly buoyant film". NME's Larry Bartleet also gave it five out of five, calling it "more enchanting to your inner kid than the Potter films ever were".
IndieWire's Eric Kohn gave the film a B+ saying that it "delivers the most satisfying period fantasy since Tim Burton's Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street", and that its layers of sophistication made it one of the best Hollywood blockbusters of the year. Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a positive review, writing "Newt Scamander is nothing like Harry, but it has to be this way. It all has to be different. And it is, but, again, with just enough 'sameness' to make us feel like we are at home again. I'm looking forward to wherever these movies are taking us".
John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the film is "likely to draw in just about everyone who followed the Potter series and to please most of them". However, New York Magazine's David Edelstein deemed the film a "distinctly unmagical slog", remarking that the beasts "aren’t especially fantastic and the effects are too blandly corporate to be exhilarating". In a mixed review, Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club found the film "patchy but occasionally charming." Accolades    Notes  Sequels   Initially, in October 2014, the studio announced the film would be the start of a trilogy. In July 2016, David Yates confirmed that Rowling had written the screenplay for the second film and had ideas for the third.
In October 2016, Rowling announced that the series would comprise five films. The first sequel, titled Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald, was released on 16 November 2018. The film's script, Fantastic Beasts—The Crimes of Grindelwald: The Original Screenplay, was published on 16 November 2018. On 4 November 2019, Wizarding World officially announced that production of the as-yet-unnamed third picture is slated to begin in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in Spring 2020, with a release date of 12 November 2021.
References  Literature  External links              Category:2016 films Category:2016 3D films Category:2010s fantasy adventure films Category:2010s prequel films Category:American films Category:American 3D films Category:American fantasy adventure films Category:BAFTA winners (films) Category:British films Category:British 3D films Category:British fantasy adventure films Category:English-language films Category:Films based on works by J. K. Rowling Category:Films scored by James Newton Howard Category:Film spin-offs Category:Films directed by David Yates Category:Films produced by David Heyman Category:Films produced by J. K. Rowling Category:Films set in 1926 Category:Films set in New York City Category:Films set in the Roaring Twenties Category:Films shot in England Category:Films shot in London Category:Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award Category:Films using computer-generated imagery Category:Harry Potter (film series) Category:Heyday Films films Category:High fantasy films Category:IMAX films Category:Fiction about memory erasure and alteration Category:Warner Bros. films Category:Wizarding World films Category:Films with screenplays by J. K. Rowling
Italian Renaissance painting is the painting of the period beginning in the late 13th century and flourishing from the early 15th to late 16th centuries, occurring in the Italian peninsula, which was at that time divided into many political states, some independent but others controlled by external powers. The painters of Renaissance Italy, although often attached to particular courts and with loyalties to particular towns, nonetheless wandered the length and breadth of Italy, often occupying a diplomatic status and disseminating artistic and philosophical ideas. The city of Florence in Tuscany is renowned as the birthplace of the Renaissance, and in particular of Renaissance painting, although later in the era Rome and Venice assumed increasing importance in painting.
A detailed background is given in the companion articles Renaissance art and Renaissance architecture. Italian Renaissance painting is most often be divided into four periods: the Proto-Renaissance (1300–1425), the Early Renaissance (1425–1495), the High Renaissance (1495–1520), and Mannerism (1520–1600). The dates for these periods represent the overall trend in Italian painting and do not cover all painters as the lives of individual artists and their personal styles overlapped these periods. The Proto-Renaissance begins with the professional life of the painter Giotto and includes Taddeo Gaddi, Orcagna and Altichiero. The Early Renaissance style was started by Masaccio and then further developed by Fra Angelico, Paolo Uccello, Piero della Francesca, Sandro Botticelli, Verrocchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Giovanni Bellini.
The High Renaissance period was that of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Coreggio, Giorgione, the latter works of Giovanni Bellini, and Titian. The Mannerist period, dealt with in a separate article, included the latter works of Michelangelo, as well as Pontormo, Parmigianino, Bronzino and Tintoretto. Influences  The influences upon the development of Renaissance painting in Italy are those that also affected Philosophy, Literature, Architecture, Theology, Science, Government and other aspects of society. The following is a summary of points dealt with more fully in the main articles that are cited above. Philosophy A number of Classical texts, that had been lost to Western European scholars for centuries, became available.
These included Philosophy, Poetry, Drama, Science, a thesis on the Arts and Early Christian Theology. The resulting interest in Humanist philosophy meant that man's relationship with humanity, the universe and with God was no longer the exclusive province of the Church. A revived interest in the Classics brought about the first archaeological study of Roman remains by the architect Brunelleschi and sculptor Donatello. The revival of a style of architecture based on classical precedents inspired a corresponding classicism in painting, which manifested itself as early as the 1420s in the paintings of Masaccio and Paolo Uccello. Science and technology   Simultaneous with gaining access to the Classical texts, Europe gained access to advanced mathematics which had its provenance in the works of Byzantine and Islamic scholars.
The advent of movable type printing in the 15th century meant that ideas could be disseminated easily, and an increasing number of books were written for a broad public. The development of oil paint and its introduction to Italy had lasting effects on the art of painting. Society The establishment of the Medici Bank and the subsequent trade it generated brought unprecedented wealth to a single Italian city, Florence. Cosimo de' Medici set a new standard for patronage of the arts, not associated with the church or monarchy. The serendipitous presence within the region of Florence of certain individuals of artistic genius, most notably Giotto, Masaccio, Brunelleschi, Piero della Francesca, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, formed an ethos that supported and encouraged many lesser artists to achieve work of extraordinary quality.
A similar heritage of artistic achievement occurred in Venice through the talented Bellini family, their influential inlaw Mantegna, Giorgione, Titian and Tintoretto. Themes  Much painting of the Renaissance period was commissioned by or for the Catholic Church. These works were often of large scale and were frequently cycles painted in fresco of the Life of Christ, the Life of the Virgin or the life of a saint, particularly St. Francis of Assisi. There were also many allegorical paintings on the theme of Salvation and the role of the Church in attaining it. Churches also commissioned altarpieces, which were painted in tempera on panel and later in oil on canvas.
Apart from large altarpieces, small devotional pictures were produced in very large numbers, both for churches and for private individuals, the most common theme being the Madonna and Child. Throughout the period, civic commissions were also important. Local government buildings were decorated with frescoes and other works both secular, such as Ambrogio Lorenzetti's The Allegory of Good and Bad Government, and religious, such as Simone Martini's fresco of the Maestà, in the Palazzo Pubblico, Siena. Portraiture was uncommon in the 14th and early 15th centuries, mostly limited to civic commemorative pictures such as the equestrian portraits of Guidoriccio da Fogliano by Simone Martini, 1327, in Siena and, of the early 15th century, John Hawkwood by Uccello in Florence Cathedral and its companion portraying Niccolò da Tolentino by Andrea del Castagno.
During the 15th century portraiture became common, initially often formalised profile portraits but increasingly three-quarter face, bust-length portraits. Patrons of art works such as altarpieces and fresco cycles often were included in the scenes, a notable example being the inclusion of the Sassetti and Medici families in Domenico Ghirlandaio's cycle in the Sassetti Chapel. Portraiture was to become a major subject for High Renaissance painters such as Raphael and Titian and continue into the Mannerist period in works of artists such as Bronzino. With the growth of Humanism, artists turned to Classical themes, particularly to fulfill commissions for the decoration of the homes of wealthy patrons, the best known being Botticelli's Birth of Venus for the Medici.
Increasingly, Classical themes were also seen as providing suitable allegorical material for civic commissions. Humanism also influenced the manner in which religious themes were depicted, notably on Michelangelo's Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Other motifs were drawn from contemporary life, sometimes with allegorical meaning, some sometimes purely decorative. Incidents important to a particular family might be recorded like those in the Camera degli Sposi that Mantegna painted for the Gonzaga family at Mantua. Increasingly, still lifes and decorative scenes from life were painted, such as the Concert by Lorenzo Costa of about 1490. Important events were often recorded or commemorated in paintings such as Uccello's Battle of San Romano, as were important local religious festivals.
History and historic characters were often depicted in a way that reflected on current events or on the lives of current people. Portraits were often painted of contemporaries in the guise of characters from history or literature. The writings of Dante, Voragine's Golden Legend and Boccaccio's The Decameron were important sources of themes. In all these subjects, increasingly, and in the works of almost all painters, certain underlying painterly practices were being developed: the observation of nature, the study of anatomy, of light, and perspective. Proto-Renaissance painting  Traditions of 13th-century Tuscan painting The art of the region of Tuscany in the late 13th century was dominated by two masters of the Byzantine style, Cimabue of Florence and Duccio of Siena.
Their commissions were mostly religious paintings, several of them being very large altarpieces showing the Madonna and Child. These two painters, with their contemporaries, Guido of Siena, Coppo di Marcovaldo and the mysterious painter upon whose style the school may have been based, the so-called Master of St Bernardino, all worked in a manner that was highly formalised and dependent upon the ancient tradition of icon painting. In these tempera paintings many of the details were rigidly fixed by the subject matter, the precise position of the hands of the Madonna and Christ Child, for example, being dictated by the nature of the blessing that the painting invoked upon the viewer.
The angle of the Virgin's head and shoulders, the folds in her veil, and the lines with which her features were defined had all been repeated in countless such paintings. Cimabue and Duccio took steps in the direction of greater naturalism, as did their contemporary, Pietro Cavallini of Rome. Giotto  Giotto, (1266–1337), by tradition a shepherd boy from the hills north of Florence, became Cimabue's apprentice and emerged as the most outstanding painter of his time. Giotto, possibly influenced by Pietro Cavallini and other Roman painters, did not base the figures he painted upon any painterly tradition, but upon the observation of life.
Unlike those of his Byzantine contemporaries, Giotto's figures are solidly three-dimensional; they stand squarely on the ground, have discernible anatomy and are clothed in garments with weight and structure. But more than anything, what set Giotto's figures apart from those of his contemporaries are their emotions. In the faces of Giotto's figures are joy, rage, despair, shame, spite and love. The cycle of frescoes of the Life of Christ and the Life of the Virgin that he painted in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua set a new standard for narrative pictures. His Ognissanti Madonna hangs in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, in the same room as Cimabue's Santa Trinita Madonna and Duccio's Ruccellai Madonna where the stylistic comparisons between the three can easily be made.
One of the features apparent in Giotto's work is his observation of naturalistic perspective. He is regarded as the herald of the Renaissance. Giotto's contemporaries Giotto had a number of contemporaries who were either trained and influenced by him,  or whose observation of nature had led them in a similar direction. Although several of Giotto's pupils assimilated the direction that his work had taken, none was to become as successful as he. Taddeo Gaddi achieved the first large painting of a night scene in an Annunciation to the Shepherds in the Baroncelli Chapel of the Church of Santa Croce, Florence.
The paintings in the Upper Church of the Basilica of St. Francis, Assisi, are examples of naturalistic painting of the period, often ascribed to Giotto himself, but more probably the work of artists surrounding Pietro Cavallini. A late painting by Cimabue in the Lower Church at Assisi, of the Madonna and St. Francis, also clearly shows greater naturalism than his panel paintings and the remains of his earlier frescoes in the upper church. Mortality and redemption  A common theme in the decoration of Medieval churches was the Last Judgement, which in northern European churches frequently occupies a sculptural space above the west door, but in Italian churches such as Giotto's Scrovegni Chapel it is painted on the inner west wall.
The Black Death of 1348 caused its survivors to focus on the need to approach death in a state of penitence and absolution. The inevitability of death, the rewards for the penitent and the penalties of sin were emphasised in a number of frescoes, remarkable for their grim depictions of suffering and their surreal images of the torments of Hell. These include the Triumph of Death by Giotto's pupil Orcagna, now in a fragmentary state at the Museum of Santa Croce, and the Triumph of Death in the Camposanto Monumentale at Pisa by an unknown painter, perhaps Francesco Traini or Buonamico Buffalmacco who worked on the other three of a series of frescoes on the subject of Salvation.
It is unknown exactly when these frescoes were begun but it is generally presumed they post-date 1348. Two important fresco painters were active in Padua in the late 14th century, Altichiero and Giusto de' Menabuoi. Giusto's masterpiece, the decoration of the Padua Baptistery, follows the theme of humanity's Creation, Downfall, and Salvation, also having a rare Apocalypse cycle in the small chancel. While the whole work is exceptional for its breadth, quality and intact state, the treatment of human emotion is conservative by comparison with that of Altichiero's Crucifixion at the Basilica of Sant'Antonio, also in Padua. Giusto's work relies on formalised gestures, where Altichiero relates the incidents surrounding Christ's death with great human drama and intensity.
In Florence, at the Spanish Chapel of Santa Maria Novella, Andrea di Bonaiuto was commissioned to emphasise the role of the Church in the redemptive process, and that of the Dominican Order in particular. His fresco Allegory of the Active and Triumphant Church is remarkable for its depiction of Florence Cathedral, complete with the dome which was not built until the following century. International Gothic During the later 14th century, International Gothic was the style that dominated Tuscan painting. It can be seen to an extent in the work of Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti, which is marked by a formalized sweetness and grace in the figures, and Late Gothic gracefulness in the draperies.
The style is fully developed in the works of Simone Martini and Gentile da Fabriano, which have an elegance and a richness of detail, and an idealised quality not compatible with the starker realities of Giotto's paintings. In the early 15th century, bridging the gap between International Gothic and the Renaissance are the paintings of Fra Angelico, many of which, being altarpieces in tempera, show the Gothic love of elaboration, gold leaf and brilliant colour. It is in his frescoes at his convent of Sant' Marco that Fra Angelico shows himself the artistic disciple of Giotto. These devotional paintings, which adorn the cells and corridors inhabited by the friars, represent episodes from the life of Jesus, many of them being scenes of the Crucifixion.
They are starkly simple, restrained in colour and intense in mood as the artist sought to make spiritual revelations a visual reality. Early Renaissance painting  Florence The earliest truly Renaissance images in Florence date from 1401, although they are not paintings. That year a competition was held amongst seven young artists to select the artist to create a pair of bronze doors for the Florence Baptistery, the oldest remaining church in the city. The competitors were each to design a bronze panel of similar shape and size, representing the Sacrifice of Isaac. Two of the panels from the competition have survived, those by Lorenzo Ghiberti and Brunelleschi.
Each panel shows some strongly classicising motifs indicating the direction that art and philosophy were moving, at that time. Ghiberti used the naked figure of Isaac to create a small sculpture in the Classical style. The figure kneels on a tomb decorated with acanthus scrolls that are also a reference to the art of Ancient Rome. In Brunelleschi's panel, one of the additional figures included in the scene is reminiscent of a well-known Roman bronze figure of a boy pulling a thorn from his foot. Brunelleschi's creation is challenging in its dynamic intensity. Less elegant than Ghiberti's, it is more about human drama and impending tragedy.
Ghiberti won the competition. His first set of Baptistry doors took 27 years to complete, after which he was commissioned to make another. In the total of 50 years that Ghiberti worked on them, the doors provided a training ground for many of the artists of Florence. Being narrative in subject and employing not only skill in arranging figurative compositions but also the burgeoning skill of linear perspective, the doors were to have an enormous influence on the development of Florentine pictorial art. Brancacci Chapel  The first Early Renaissance frescos or paintings were started in 1425 when two artists commenced painting a fresco cycle of the Life of St. Peter in the chapel of the Brancacci family, at the Carmelite Church in Florence.
They both were called by the name of Tommaso and were nicknamed Masaccio and Masolino, Slovenly Tom and Little Tom. More than any other artist, Masaccio recognized the implications in the work of Giotto. He carried forward the practice of painting from nature. His frescos demonstrate an understanding of anatomy, of foreshortening, of linear perspective, of light, and the study of drapery. In the Brancacci Chapel, his Tribute Money fresco has a single vanishing point and uses a strong contrast between light and dark to convey a three-dimensional quality to the work. As well, the figures of Adam and Eve being expelled from Eden, painted on the side of the arch into the chapel, are renowned for their realistic depiction of the human form and of human emotion.
They contrast with the gentle and pretty figures painted by Masolino on the opposite side of Adam and Eve receiving the forbidden fruit. The painting of the Brancacci Chapel was left incomplete when Masaccio died at 26 in 1428. The Tribute Money was completed by Masolino while the remainder of the work in the Chapel was finished by Filippino Lippi in the 1480s. Masaccio's work became a source of inspiration to many later painters, including Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Development of linear perspective  During the first half of the 15th century, the achieving of the effect of realistic space in a painting by the employment of linear perspective was a major preoccupation of many painters, as well as the architects Brunelleschi and Alberti who both theorised about the subject.
Brunelleschi is known to have done a number of careful studies of the piazza and octagonal baptistery outside Florence Cathedral and it is thought he aided Masaccio in the creation of his famous trompe l'oeil niche around the Holy Trinity he painted at Santa Maria Novella. According to Vasari, Paolo Uccello was so obsessed with perspective that he thought of little else and experimented with it in many paintings, the best known being the three The Battle of San Romano paintings (completed by 1450s) which use broken weapons on the ground, and fields on the distant hills to give an impression of perspective.
In the 1450s Piero della Francesca, in paintings such as The Flagellation of Christ, demonstrated his mastery over linear perspective and also over the science of light. Another painting exists, a cityscape, by an unknown artist, perhaps Piero della Francesca, that demonstrates the sort of experiment that Brunelleschi had been making. From this time linear perspective was understood and regularly employed, such as by Perugino in his Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter (1481–82) in the Sistine Chapel. Understanding of light Giotto used tonality to create form. Taddeo Gaddi in his nocturnal scene in the Baroncelli Chapel demonstrated how light could be used to create drama.
Paolo Uccello, a hundred years later, experimented with the dramatic effect of light in some of his almost monochrome frescoes. He did a number of these in terra verde ("green earth"), enlivening his compositions with touches of vermilion. The best known is his equestrian portrait of John Hawkwood on the wall of Florence Cathedral. Both here and on the four heads of prophets that he painted around the inner clock face in the cathedral, he used strongly contrasting tones, suggesting that each figure was being lit by a natural light source, as if the source was an actual window in the cathedral.
Piero della Francesca carried his study of light further. In the Flagellation he demonstrates a knowledge of how light is proportionally disseminated from its point of origin. There are two sources of light in this painting, one internal to a building and the other external. Of the internal source, though the light itself is invisible, its position can be calculated with mathematical certainty. Leonardo da Vinci was to carry forward Piero's work on light. The Madonna  The Blessed Virgin Mary, revered by the Catholic Church worldwide, was particularly evoked in Florence, where there was a miraculous image of her on a column in the corn market and where both the Cathedral of "Our Lady of the Flowers" and the large Dominican church of Santa Maria Novella were named in her honour.
The miraculous image in the corn market was destroyed by fire, but replaced with a new image in the 1330s by Bernardo Daddi, set in an elaborately designed and lavishly wrought canopy by Orcagna. The open lower storey of the building was enclosed and dedicated as Orsanmichele. Depictions of the Madonna and Child were a very popular art form in Florence. They took every shape from small mass-produced terracotta plaques to magnificent altarpieces such as those by Cimabue, Giotto and Masaccio. In the 15th and first half of the 16th centuries, one workshop more than any other dominated the production of Madonnas.
They were the della Robbia family, and they were not painters but modellers in clay. Luca della Robbia, famous for his cantoria gallery at the cathedral, was the first sculptor to use glazed terracotta for large sculptures. Many of the durable works of this family have survived. The skill of the della Robbias, particularly Andrea della Robbia, was to give great naturalism to the babies that they modelled as Jesus, and expressions of great piety and sweetness to the Madonna. They were to set a standard to be emulated by other artists of Florence. Among those who painted devotional Madonnas during the Early Renaissance are Fra Angelico, Fra Filippo Lippi, Verrocchio and Davide Ghirlandaio.
The custom was continued by Botticelli who produced a series of Madonnas over a period of twenty years for the Medici; Perugino, whose Madonnas and saints are known for their sweetness and Leonardo da Vinci, for whom a number of small attributed Madonnas such as the Benois Madonna have survived. Even Michelangelo who was primarily a sculptor, was persuaded to paint the Doni Tondo, while for Raphael, they are among his most popular and numerous works. Early Renaissance painting in other parts of Italy  Andrea Mantegna in Padua and Mantua One of the most influential painters of northern Italy was Andrea Mantegna of Padua, who had the good fortune to be in his teen years at the time in which the great Florentine sculptor Donatello was working there.
Donatello created the enormous equestrian bronze, the first since the Roman Empire, of the condotiero Gattemelata, still visible on its plinth in the square outside the Basilica of Sant'Antonio. He also worked on the high altar and created a series of bronze panels in which he achieved a remarkable illusion of depth, with perspective in the architectural settings and apparent roundness of the human form all in very shallow relief. At only 17 years old, Mantegna accepted his first commission, fresco cycles of the Lives of Saints James and Christopher for the Ovetari Chapel in the transept of the church of the Eremitani, near the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.
Unfortunately, the building was mostly destroyed during World War II, and they are only known from photographs which reveal an already highly developed sense of perspective and a knowledge of antiquity, for which the ancient University of Padua had become well known, early in the 15th century. Mantegna's last work in Padua was a monumental San Zeno altarpiece, created for the abbot of the Basilica of San Zeno, Verona from 1457 to 1459. This polyptych of which the predella panels are particularly notable for the handling of landscape elements, was to influence the further development of Renaissance art in Northern Italy.
Mantegna's most famous work is the interior decoration of the Camera degli Sposi in the Ducal palace, Mantua, dated about 1470. The walls are frescoed with scenes of the life of the Gonzaga family, talking, greeting a younger son and his tutor on their return from Rome, preparing for a hunt and other such scenes that make no obvious reference to matters historic, literary, philosophic or religious. They are remarkable for simply being about family life. The one concession is the scattering of jolly winged putti, who hold up plaques and garlands and clamber on the illusionistic pierced balustrade that surrounds a trompe l'oeil view of the sky that decks the ceiling of the chamber.
Mantegna's main legacy in considered the introduction of spatial illusionism, carried out by a mastery of perspective, both in frescoes and in sacra conversazione paintings: his tradition of ceiling decoration was followed for almost three centuries. Antonello da Messina In 1442 Alfonso V of Aragon became ruler of Naples, bringing with him a collection of Flemish paintings and setting up a Humanist Academy. Antonello da Messina seems to have had access to the King's collection, which may have included the works of Jan van Eyck. Recent evidence indicates that Antonello was likely in contact with Van Eyck's most accomplished follower, Petrus Christus, in Milan in early 1456 and likely learned the techniques of oil painting, including painting almost microscopic detail and minute gradations of light, directly from Christus.
As well, his works' calmer expressions on peoples' faces and calmness in the works' overall composition also appears to be a Netherlandish influence. Antonello went to Venice in 1475 and remained there until the fall of 1476 so it is likely that Antonello passed on the techniques of using oil paints, painting the gradation of light, and the principles of calmness to Venetian painters, including Giovanni Bellini, one of the most significant painters of the High Renaissance in Northern Italy, during that visit. Antonello painted mostly small meticulous portraits in glowing colours. But one of his most famous works, St. Jerome in His Study, demonstrates his superior ability at handling linear perspective and light.
The composition of the small painting is framed by a late Gothic arch, through which is viewed an interior, domestic on one side and ecclesiastic on the other, in the centre of which the saint sits in a wooden corral surrounded by his possessions while his lion prowls in the shadows on the floor. The way the light streams in through every door and window casting both natural and reflected light across the architecture and all the objects would have excited Piero della Francesca. Progression towards the High Renaissance  Patronage and Humanism  In Florence, in the later 15th century, most works of art, even those that were done as decoration for churches, were generally commissioned and paid for by private patrons.
Much of the patronage came from the Medici family, or those who were closely associated with or related to them, such as the Sassetti, the Ruccellai, and the Tornabuoni. In the 1460s, Cosimo de' Medici had established Marsilio Ficino as his resident Humanist philosopher, and facilitated his translation of Plato and his teaching of Platonic philosophy, which focused on humanity as the centre of the natural universe, on each person's personal relationship with God, and on fraternal or "platonic" love as being the closest that a person could get to emulating or understanding the love of God. In the Medieval period, everything related to the Classical period was perceived as associated with paganism.
In the Renaissance it came increasingly to be associated with enlightenment. The figures of Classical mythology began to take on a new symbolic role in Christian art and in particular, the Goddess Venus took on a new discretion. Born fully formed, by a sort of miracle, she was the new Eve, symbol of innocent love, or even, by extension, a symbol of the Virgin Mary herself. We see Venus in both these roles in the two famous tempera paintings that Botticelli did in the 1480s for Cosimo's nephew, Pierfrancesco de' Medici, the Primavera and the Birth of Venus. Meanwhile, Domenico Ghirlandaio, a meticulous and accurate draughtsman and one of the finest portrait painters of his age, executed two cycles of frescoes for Medici associates in two of Florence's larger churches, the Sassetti Chapel at Santa Trinita and the Tornabuoni Chapel at Santa Maria Novella.
In these cycles of the Life of St Francis and the Life of the Virgin Mary and Life of John the Baptist there was room for portraits of patrons and of the patrons' patrons. Thanks to Sassetti's patronage, there is a portrait of the man himself, with his employer, Lorenzo il Magnifico, and Lorenzo's three sons with their tutor, the Humanist poet and philosopher, Agnolo Poliziano. In the Tornabuoni Chapel is another portrait of Poliziano, accompanied by the other influential members of the Platonic Academy including Marsilio Ficino. Flemish influence From about 1450, with the arrival in Italy of the Flemish painter Rogier van der Weyden and possibly earlier, artists were introduced to the medium of oil paint.
Whereas both tempera and fresco lent themselves to the depiction of pattern, neither presented a successful way to represent natural textures realistically. The highly flexibly medium of oils, which could be made opaque or transparent, and allowed alteration and additions for days after it had been laid down, opened a new world of possibility to Italian artists. In 1483 the huge altarpiece of the Adoration of the Shepherds painted by Hugo van der Goes arrived in Florence. Painted as early as 1475 at the behest of the Portinari family, it was shipped out from Bruges and installed in the Chapel of Sant' Egidio at the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova.
The altarpiece glows with intense reds and greens, contrasting with the glossy black velvet robes of the Portinari donors. In the foreground is a still life of flowers in contrasting containers, one of glazed pottery and the other of glass. The glass vase alone was enough to excite attention. But the most influential aspect of the triptych was the extremely natural and lifelike quality of the three shepherds with stubbly beards, workworn hands and expressions ranging from adoration to wonder to incomprehension. Domenico Ghirlandaio promptly painted his own version, with a beautiful Italian Madonna in place of the long-faced Flemish one, and himself, gesturing theatrically, as one of the shepherds.
Papal commission In 1477 Pope Sixtus IV replaced the derelict old chapel at the Vatican in which many of the papal services were held. The interior of the new chapel, named the Sistine Chapel in his honour, appears to have been planned from the start to have a series of 16 large frescoes between its pilasters on the middle level, with a series of painted portraits of popes above them. In 1480, a group of artists from Florence was commissioned with the work: Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli. This fresco cycle was to depict Stories of the Life of Moses on one side of the chapel, and Stories of the Life of Christ on the other with the frescoes complementing each other in theme.
The Nativity of Jesus and the Finding of Moses were adjacent on the wall behind the altar, with an altarpiece of the Assumption of the Virgin  between them. These paintings, all by Perugino, were later destroyed to paint Michelangelo's Last Judgement. The remaining 12 pictures indicate the virtuosity that these artists had attained, and the obvious cooperation between individuals who normally employed very different styles and skills. The paintings gave full range to their capabilities as they included a great number of figures of men, women and children and characters ranging from guiding angels to enraged Pharaohs and the devil himself.
Each painting required a landscape. Because of the scale of the figures that the artists agreed upon, in each picture, the landscape and sky take up the whole upper half of the scene. Sometimes, as in Botticelli's scene of The Purification of the Leper, there are additional small narratives taking place in the landscape, in this case The Temptations of Christ. Perugino's scene of Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter  is remarkable for the clarity and simplicity of its composition, the beauty of the figurative painting, which includes a self-portrait among the onlookers, and especially the perspective cityscape which includes reference to Peter's ministry to Rome by the presence of two triumphal arches, and centrally placed an octagonal building that might be a Christian baptistry or a Roman Mausoleum.
High Renaissance painting  The High Renaissance of painting was the culmination of the varied means of expression and various advances in painting technique, such as linear perspective, the realistic depiction of both physical  and psychological features, and the manipulation of light and darkness, including tone contrast, sfumato (softening the transition between colours) and chiaroscuro (contrast between light and dark), in a single unifying style which expressed total compositional order, balance and harmony. In particular, the individual parts of the painting had a complex but balanced and well-knit relationship to a dynamic whole. Painting of the High Renaissance is considered to be the absolute zenith of western painting and achieved the balancing and reconciliation, in harmony, of contradictory and seemingly mutually exclusive artistic positions, such as real versus ideal, movement versus rest, freedom versus law, space versus plane, and line versus colour.
Most art historians state that the High Renaissance started around 1495 or 1500 and ended in 1520 with the death of Raphael, although some say the High Renaissance ended about 1525 or in 1527 with the Sack of Rome by the army of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, or about 1530. Many cite Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper, started in 1495 and completed in 1498, as being the first work of the High Renaissance. In his book, A History of Art: Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, 1985, Frederick Hartt states that 1520 to 1530 was a transition period between the High Renaissance and Mannerism.
The High Renaissance was dominated by three painters: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael; while Giovanni Bellini, Giorgione and Titian were the leaders of Venetian High Renaissance painting, with Correggio and Andrea del Sarto being other significant painters of the High Renaissance style. Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo (1452–1519) spent his formative years training in the Florence workshop of Verrocchio before moving to Milan, where he worked from 1482 to 1499 before spending 1500 to 1506 back in Florence. Because of the scope of his interests and the extraordinary degree of talent that he demonstrated in so many diverse areas, he is regarded as the archetypal "Renaissance man".
But it was first and foremost as a painter that he was admired in his own time, and as a painter, he drew on the knowledge he gained from his other interests. Leonardo was a scientific observer. He learned by looking at things. He studied and drew the flowers of the fields, the eddies of the river, the form of the rocks and mountains, the way light reflected from foliage and sparkled in a jewel. In particular, he studied the human form, dissecting thirty or more unclaimed cadavers from a hospital in order to understand muscles and sinews. Leonardo achieved a degree of realism in the expression of human emotion, prefigured by Giotto but unknown since Masaccio's Adam and Eve.
Leonardo's Last Supper, painted from 1495 to 1498 in the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie (Milan), became the benchmark for religious narrative painting for the next half millennium. Many other Renaissance artists painted versions of the Last Supper, but only Leonardo's was destined to be reproduced countless times in wood, alabaster, plaster, lithograph, tapestry, crochet and table-carpets. More than any other artist, he advanced the study and painting of "atmosphere". In his paintings such as the Mona Lisa (c.1503-1517) and Virgin of the Rocks (1483-1486) (the earliest complete work fully of his hand), he used light and shade with such subtlety that, for want of a better word, it became known as Leonardo's "sfumato" or "smoke".
He exhibited a revolutionary use of colour by defining the transition between figures by colour modulation instead of by actual lines. His work invited the viewer into a mysterious world of shifting shadows, chaotic mountains and whirling torrents. Another significant work of Leonardo's was The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne (c.1503-1519); the monumental three-dimensional quality of the group and the calculated effects of dynamism and tension in the composition made it a model that inspired Classicists and the Mannerists in equal measure. Apart from the direct impact of the works themselves, Leonardo's studies of light, anatomy, landscape, and human expression were disseminated in part through his generosity to a retinue of students.
Michelangelo  In 1508 Pope Julius II succeeded in getting the Florentine sculptor Michelangelo (1475-1564) to agree to continue the decorative scheme of the Sistine Chapel. The Sistine Chapel ceiling was constructed in such a way that there were twelve sloping pendentives supporting the vault that formed ideal surfaces on which to paint the Twelve Apostles. Michelangelo soon devised an entirely different scheme, far more complex both in design and in iconography. The scale of the work, which he executed single handed except for manual assistance, was titanic and took nearly five years to complete. The Pope's plan for the Apostles would thematically have formed a pictorial link between the Old Testament and New Testament narratives on the walls, and the popes in the gallery of portraits.
It is the twelve apostles, and their leader Peter as first Bishop of Rome, that make that bridge. But Michelangelo's scheme went the opposite direction. The theme of Michelangelo's ceiling is not God's grand plan for humanity's salvation. The theme is about humanity's disgrace. It is about why humanity and the faith needed Jesus. Superficially, the ceiling is a Humanist construction. The figures are of superhuman dimension and, in the case of Adam, of such beauty that according to the biographer Vasari, it really looks as if God himself had designed the figure, rather than Michelangelo. But despite the beauty of the individual figures, Michelangelo has not glorified the human state, and he certainly has not presented the Humanist ideal of platonic love.
In fact, the ancestors of Christ, which he painted around the upper section of the wall, demonstrate all the worst aspects of family relationships, displaying dysfunction in as many different forms as there are families. Vasari praised Michelangelo's seemingly infinite powers of invention in creating postures for the figures. Raphael, who was given a preview by Bramante after Michelangelo had downed his brush and stormed off to Bologna in a temper, painted at least two figures in imitation of Michelangelo's prophets, one at the church of Sant' Agostino and the other in the Vatican, his portrait of Michelangelo himself in The School of Athens.
Michelangelo's later work, The Last Judgement, painted on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel between 1534 and 1541, shows a Mannerist style, with generally elongated bodies, which took over from the High Renaissance style between 1520 and 1530. Raphael With Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, Raphael's (1483–1520) name is synonymous with the High Renaissance, although he was younger than Michelangelo by 18 years and Leonardo by almost 30 and died at the age of 37 just one year after Leonardo. It cannot be said that he greatly advanced the state of painting as his two famous contemporaries did. Rather, his work was the culmination of all the developments of the High Renaissance.
Raphael was born the son of a painter, so his career path, unlike that of Michelangelo who was the son of minor nobility, was decided without a quarrel. Some years after his father's death he worked in the Umbrian workshop of Perugino, an excellent painter and a superb technician. His first signed and dated painting, executed at the age of 21, is the Betrothal of the Virgin, which immediately reveals its origins in Perugino's Christ giving the Keys to St. Peter. Raphael, who moved to Florence in 1504 and to Rome in 1508, unashamedly drew on the skills of the renowned painters whose lifespans encompassed his.
In his works the individual qualities of numerous different painters are drawn together. The rounded forms and luminous colours of Perugino, the lifelike portraiture of Ghirlandaio, the realism and lighting of Leonardo, and the powerful draughtsmanship of Michelangelo became unified in the paintings of Raphael. In his short life he executed a number of large altarpieces, an impressive Classical fresco of the sea nymph, Galatea, outstanding portraits with two popes and a famous writer among them, and, while Michelangelo was painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling, a series of wall frescoes in the Raphael Rooms of the Apostolic Palace nearby, of which the School of Athens (1509–11) in the Stanza della Segnatura is uniquely significant.
This fresco depicts a meeting of all the most learned ancient Athenians, gathered in a grand classical setting around the central figure of Plato, whom Raphael has famously modelled upon Leonardo da Vinci. The brooding figure of Heraclitus who sits by a large block of stone, is a portrait of Michelangelo, and is a reference to the latter's painting of the Prophet Jeremiah in the Sistine Chapel. His own portrait is to the right, beside his teacher, Perugino. But the main source of Raphael's popularity was not his major works, but his small Florentine pictures of the Madonna and Christ Child.
Over and over he painted, in slightly different poses, a similar plump, calm-faced blonde woman and her chubby babies the most famous probably being La Belle Jardinière ("The Madonna of the Beautiful Garden"), now in the Louvre. His larger work, the Sistine Madonna, used as a design for countless stained glass windows, has come, in the 21st century, to provide the iconic image of two small cherubs which has been reproduced on everything from paper table napkins to umbrellas. Giovanni Bellini    A leader of Venetian painting, Giovanni Bellini (1430–1516) was born within a year of his brother Gentile, his brother-in-law Mantegna and Antonello da Messina, but lived a decade longer than the first two and almost three decades longer than the latter.
He was painting right up until his death and his works illustrate several influences. His early works show the influence of Mantegna with incisive lines and clearly delineated colours while after Messina's stay in Venice in 1475 to 1476 his works adopted a Flemish-like realism and luminous colours, which shows he was highly successful at adopting the techniques of oil painting brought by Messina. He was first the teacher of Giorgione and Titian but was later influenced by Giorgione, most notably in adopting tonalism wherein paint is applied in superimposed layers creating a soft diffused effect so figures and landscapes become more unified in atmosphere.
Bellini became the only great 15th-century painter to cross the threshold from the Early Renaissance to the High Renaissance style with works such as Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredan (1501), wherein the Doge shows a calmness Bellini likely learned from Messina, and Baptism of Christ (1500–1502). Bellini, like Raphael, also produced numerous small Madonnas in rich glowing colour, usually of more intense tonality than his Florentine counterpart. Traditionally, in the painting of altarpieces of the Madonna and Child, the enthroned figure of the Virgin is accompanied by saints, who stand in defined spaces, separated physically in the form of a polytych or defined by painted architectural boundaries.
Piero della Francesca used the Classical niche as a setting for his enthroned Madonnas (with saints grouped around the throne), as Masaccio had used it as the setting for his Holy Trinity at Santa Maria Novella. Bellini used this same form, known as Sacred Conversations, in several of his later altarpieces such as that for the Venetian church of San Zaccaria (1505). It is a masterful composition which uses tonalism and extends the real architecture of the building into the illusionistic architecture of the painting, making the niche a sort of loggia opened up to the landscape and to daylight which streams across the figures of the Virgin and Child, the two female saints and the little angel who plays a viola making them brighter than Saint Peter and Saint Jerome in the foreground.
Giorgione    Despite the brevity of his career (he died in 1510 at about 35) and the low number of works universally agreed to be totally by his hand (as low as four or five), Giorgione is often credited as being the founder of the Venetian High Renaissance style, although different scholars cite different reasons for asserting this. One is his increasing use of gradations of colour and light (colour modulation), including sfumato, often achieved by tonalism, to define the shapes of figures and landscapes and to create an atmosphere wherein all components of the painting are unified. Some believe he may have been taught this by Leonardo da Vinci, who is said to have visited Venice in 1501.
In his Castelfranco Madonna, 1505, the use of line and colour modulation are equally balanced but in The Tempest, c.1510, colour modulation almost entirely replaces line creating an artistic vision in which humankind and nature are combined. Some consider the Tempest one of the most important paintings produced in Italy as the components are held together by colour and there is a dreamy atmosphere of perfect harmony. Giorgione was the first painter to assign a leading role to nature and whenever his paintings feature a landscape it becomes an integral part of the painting. The Castelfranco Madonna, when compared to Giovanni Bellini's similar San Zaccaria Altarpiece, illustrates another innovation of Giorgione – adjusting the directions and positions of the figures, such as the lance held by St. Liberale to the left and the folds in the Madonna's robe being placed in parallel, to more unify the subjects.
Lastly, Giorgione's paintings are always ambiguous in their meaning and open to different interpretations. In The Tempest, the naked woman feeding a baby and the clothed man, and a flash of lightning, perhaps represents Adam and Eve in their post-Eden days, or perhaps it does not. Another painting attributed to him, The Three Philosophers, may represent the Magi planning their journey in search of the infant Christ, or it may not. None of Giorgione's paintings has ever had a certain interpretation. Until recent years, it had appeared certain that Giorgione painted the very first female nude that stands, or rather, lies, as a subject to be portrayed and admired for beauty alone with the Sleeping Venus, 1510.
While it had been long accepted that Titian finished the landscape of the painting after Giorgione's death, many art scholars are increasingly questioning if Giorgione painted the entire female body. Titian  Titian (c. 1490–1576) trained in the workshop of Giovanni Bellini alongside Giorgione and then assisted Giorgione. Following Giorgione's death, he was the monarch of the Venetian School for over 60 years. His early work shows strong influences of Bellini and Giorgione, but he soon he took the principles of form and colour announced by those two and established colour, not line, as the major determinant in painting, thereby consummating the Venetian High Renaissance style.
He did this by applying colours of paint paste-like in patches alongside each other with loose and sweeping brush strokes. This brought out the light and colour in equal measure at the same time; he was famous in his own day as the master of light and colour. Another strength of Titian was the composition of his paintings. In the Pesaro Madonna, 1519–1526, he moves the Madonna from the centre instead placing her at the upper vertex of a powerful diagonal line (as opposed to the usual vertical or horizontal) which still focuses the attention on the Madonna. This was one of the first works to group figures in an circular, ascending structure.
Assumption of the Virgin, 1516–1518, also features diagonal lines (shaped by the cherubs located around the Virgin), which carries the triumphant message of the painting upward into the upper levels of the Church of Frari in Venice on whose altar it stands. This work was the first to have visual suggestion of movement; all of Titian's works have a new dynamism in the movements of people compared to the static elements of other High Renaissance painters. The Assumption of the Virgin also features, like all of his paintings, glowing, deep, rich colours due to Titian's applying layer after layer of paint, sometimes of different colours.
Titian was also the most sought after portraitist of his time and brought portraiture to the same level of esteem as narrative painting. Highly notable are the Equestrian Portrait of Charles V, 1548, an equestrian picture in a symphony of purples, and the portrait of Doge Andrea Gritti, ruler of Venice, perhaps Titian's most powerful portrait. As Titian aged, he maintained a generally High Renaissance style until his last years, when figure was almost completed dissolved in the movement of colour, so he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of Italian painting, which had moved almost completely towards Mannerism by 1530.
In many ways, Titian can be considered the founder of modern painting. Correggio  [[File:Cathedral (Parma) - Assumption by Correggio.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Correggio:  Assumption of the Virgin]]  Correggio (1489–1534), who never visited Rome, but must have seen the works of the Raphael, Michelangelo and Titian, worked in a personal High Renaissance style in Parma, in Northern Italy. He invented the open heaven filled with floating figures church dome, which became a hallmark of the 17th century Baroque period with his Vision of St. John the Evangelist, 1520–1524, in Parma’s San Giovanni Evangelista, and the Assumption of the Virgin, 1526–1530, in Parma Cathedral.
One art scholar states that in the latter, Correggio creates a “dazzling illusion:  the architecture of the dome seems to dissolve and the form seems to explode through the building drawing the viewer up into the swirling vortex of saints and angels who rush upwards to accompany the Virgin in to heaven.”  In those domes and other works, his bold use of perspective, usually by setting a dark colour against light colours to enhance the illusion of depth, is described as astonishing. His chief interest was painting light and he anticipates the effects to be achieved by Caravaggio at the start of the next century.
His mastery of foreshortening (causing objects to look shorter because they are angled to the viewer) to create perspective is described as perhaps the most skillful ever. In Jupiter and Io, 1531–1532, Correggio painted a strong contrast between the luminous figure of Io and the soft but dark clouds filling the sky, which seem to envelop Io’s gleaming body. Correggio was able to execute the diffuse effect of clouds, haze or mist perfectly and together with colour modulation infuses his characters with a distinct sense of weightlessness. He painted flesh in a delicate, voluptuous manner that has never been surpassed and presents a new concept of feminine beauty only rediscovered during the Rococo period.
Correggio had many pupils, but none carried on his style but he prefigured many components of Baroque painting. Other significant High Renaissance painters  Andrea del Sarto (1486–1530), a Florentine, drew upon both Michelangelo and Raphael in his work, but went far beyond them in the portrayal of facial expressions and gestures, as evidenced in Madonna of the Harpies, 1517. His figures show a greater individuality than earlier High Renaissance works while losing none of the nobility. In the 1520s, he remained faithful to the ideals of the High Renaissance, such as in paintings’ compositions and with the faces of his figures usually being calm and often beautiful, showing none of the torment of his Mannerist contemporaries, some of whom were his pupils.
Lorenzo Lotto (1480–1556), one of the most important High Renaissance painters in Venice, also spent time in other areas of Northern Italy as, perhaps due to his greater focus on realist detail and on line than rather than colour compared to the Venetian school, he was not much appreciated in Venice. While he painted a variety of subjects, he was an excellent portrait painter who had a superior ability to see into the soul of his subjects and to portray a depth of feeling in the painting. He usually included other objects in the background or foreground of the portrait to portray the subject's character.
Influence of Italian Renaissance painting The lives of both Michelangelo and Titian extended well into the second half of the 16th century. Both saw their styles and those of Leonardo, Mantegna, Giovanni Bellini, Antonello da Messina and Raphael  adapted by later painters to form a disparate style known as Mannerism, and move steadily towards the great outpouring of imagination and painterly virtuosity of the Baroque period. The artists who most extended the trends in Titian's large figurative compositions were Tintoretto and Veronese, although Tintoretto is considered by many to be a Mannerist. Rembrandt's knowledge of the works of both Titian and Raphael is apparent in his portraits.
The direct influences of Leonardo and Raphael upon their own pupils was to effect generations of artists including Poussin and schools of Classical painters of the 18th and 19th centuries. Antonello da Messina's work had a direct influence on Albrecht Dürer and Martin Schongauer and through the latter's engravings, countless artists including the German, Dutch and English schools of stained glass makers extending into the early 20th century. Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling and later The Last Judgment had direct influence on the figurative compositions firstly of Raphael and his pupils and then almost every subsequent 16th-century painter who looked for new and interesting ways to depict the human form.
It is possible to trace his style of figurative composition through Andrea del Sarto, Pontormo, Bronzino, Parmigianino, Veronese, to el Greco, Carracci, Caravaggio, Rubens, Poussin and Tiepolo to both the Classical and the Romantic painters of the 19th century such as Jacques-Louis David and Delacroix. Under the influence of the Italian Renaissance painting, many modern academies of art, such as the Royal Academy, were founded, and it was specifically to collect the works of the Italian Renaissance that some of the world's best known art collections, such as the National Gallery, London, were formed. See also  Old Master  Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects Timeline of Italian artists to 1800  Notes and references  Bibliography  General  Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists, (1568), 1965 edition, trans George Bull, Penguin,   Frederick Hartt, A History of Italian Renaissance Art, (1970) Thames and Hudson,   R.E.
Wolf and R. Millen, Renaissance and Mannerist Art, (1968) Abrams, ISBN unknown  Keith Christiansen, Italian Painting, (1992) Hugh Lauter Levin/Macmillan,   Helen Gardner, Art through the Ages, (1970) Harcourt, Brace and World,   Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy, (1974) Oxford University Press,   Margaret Aston, The Fifteenth Century, the Prospect of Europe, (1979) Thames and Hudson,   Ilan Rachum, The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia, (1979) Octopus,   Diana Davies, Harrap's Illustrated Dictionary of Art and Artists, (1990) Harrap Books,   Luciano Berti, Florence: the city and its art, (1971) Scala, ISBN unknown  Rona Goffen, Renaissance Rivals: Michelangelo, Leonardo, Raphael, Titian, (2004) Yale University Press,   Arnold Hauser, The Social History of Art, Vol.
2: Renaissance, Mannerism, Baroque, (1999) Routledge,   Luciano Berti, The Ufizzi, (1971) Scala, Florence. ISBN unknown  Michael Wilson, The National Gallery, London, (1977) Scala,   Hugh Ross Williamson, Lorenzo the Magnificent, (1974) Michael Joseph,     Painters  John White, Duccio, (1979) Thames and Hudson,   Cecilia Jannella, Duccio di Buoninsegna, (1991) Scala/Riverside,   Sarel Eimerl, The World of Giotto, (1967) Time/Life,   Mgr.
Giovanni Foffani, Frescoes by Giusto de' Menabuoi, (1988) G. Deganello, ISBN unknown  Ornella Casazza, Masaccio and the Brancacci Chapel, (1990) Scala/Riverside,   Annarita Paolieri, Paolo Uccello, Domenico Veneziano, Andrea del Castagno, (1991) Scala/Riverside,   Alessandro Angelini, Piero della Francesca, (1985) Scala/Riverside,   Peter Murray and Pier Luigi Vecchi, Piero della Francesca, (1967) Penguin,   Umberto Baldini, Primavera, (1984) Abrams,   Ranieri Varese, Il Palazzo di Schifanoia, (1980) Specimen/Scala, ISBN unknown  Angela Ottino della Chiesa, Leonardo da Vinci, (1967) Penguin,   Jack Wasserman, Leonardo da Vinci, (1975) Abrams,   Massimo Giacometti, The Sistine Chapel, (1986) Harmony Books,   Ludwig Goldschieder, Michelangelo, (1962) Phaidon, ISBN unknown  Gabriel Bartz and Eberhard König, Michelangelo, (1998) Könemann,   David Thompson, Raphael, the Life and Legacy, (1983) BBC,   Jean-Pierre Cuzin, Raphael, his Life and Works, (1985) Chartwell,   Mariolina Olivari, Giovanni Bellini, (1990) Scala.
ISBN unknown  Cecil Gould, Titian'', (1969) Hamlyn, ISBN unknown   01 * * * Category:Art history
Archery, or the use of bow and arrows, was developed by the end of the Upper Paleolithic. Archery has been an important military and hunting skill for over 10,000 years and figures prominently in the mythologies of many cultures. Archers, whether on foot, in chariots or on mounted archery were a major part of most militaries until gradually being replaced by firearms. Gunpowder, which was first introduced by Chinese empires in 9th century AD, was used to enhance projectile weapons including arrows. Firearms diffused throughout Eurasia by the militaries of gunpowder empires, which greatly reduced the importance of archery in warfare.
Starting in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, militaries entirely replaced archers with riflemen and fielded them into regiments. Nonetheless, archery is still practiced today, including in the training regime of certain special forces. Archery continues to be a popular sport; most commonly in the form of target archery, but in some places also for hunting. Prehistory  Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic The oldest known evidence of arrows comes from the South African site of Sibudu Cave, where the remains of bone and stone arrowheads  have been found dating approximately 60,000–70,000 years ago. Based on indirect evidence, the bow seems also to have also appeared or reappeared later in Eurasia, near the transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic.
The earliest definite remains of bow and arrow from Europe are possible fragments from Germany found at Mannheim-Vogelstang dated 17,500–18,000 years ago, and at Stellmoor dated 11,000 years ago. Azilian points found in Grotte du Bichon, Switzerland, alongside the remains of both a bear and a hunter, with flint fragments found in the bear's third vertebra, suggest the use of arrows at 13,500 years ago. At the site of Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets found embedded in a skull and within the thoracic cavity of another skeleton, suggest the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons about 10,000 years ago.
In the Levant, artifacts which may be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from the Natufian culture, (ca. 12,800–10,300 BP) onwards. The Khiamian and PPN A shouldered Khiam-points may well be arrowheads. The oldest indication for archery in Europe comes from Stellmoor in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg, Germany. They were associated with artifacts of the late Paleolithic (11,000–9,000BP). The arrows were made of pine and consisted of a mainshaft and a 15–20 centimetre (6–8 inches) long foreshaft with a flint point. They had shallow grooves on the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow. The oldest definite bows known so far come from the Holmegård swamp in Denmark.
In the 1940s, two bows were found there, dated to about 8,000 BP. The Holmegaard bows are made of elm and have flat arms and a D-shaped midsection. The center section is biconvex. The complete bow is  (5 ft) long. Bows of Holmegaard-type were in use until the Bronze Age; the convexity of the midsection has decreased with time. Mesolithic pointed shafts have been found in England, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. They were often rather long, up to  (4 ft) and made of European hazel (Corylus avellana), wayfaring tree (Viburnum lantana) and other small woody shoots. Some still have flint arrow-heads preserved; others have blunt wooden ends for hunting birds and small game.
The ends show traces of fletching, which was fastened on with birch-tar. The oldest depictions of combat, found in Iberian cave art of the Mesolithic, show battles between archers. A group of three archers encircled by a group of four is found in Cueva del Roure,   Morella la Vella, Castellón, Valencia. A depiction of a larger battle (which may, however, date to the early Neolithic), in which eleven archers are attacked by seventeen running archers, is found in Les Dogue, Ares del Maestrat, Castellón, Valencia. At Val del Charco del Agua Amarga, Alcañiz, Aragon, seven archers with plumes on their heads are fleeing a group of eight archers running in pursuit.
Archery seems to have arrived in the Americas via Alaska, as early as 6000 BCE, with the Arctic small tool tradition, about 2,500 BCE, spreading south into the temperate zones as early as 2,000 BCE, and was widely known among the indigenous peoples of North America from about 500 CE. Neolithic The oldest Neolithic bow known from Europe was found in anaerobic layers dating between 7,400–7,200 BP, the earliest layer of settlement at the lake settlement at La Draga, Banyoles, Girona, Spain. The intact specimen is short at 1.08m, has a D-shaped cross-section, and is made of yew wood. Stone wrist-guards, interpreted as display versions of bracers, form a defining part of the Beaker culture and arrowheads are also commonly found in Beaker graves.
European Neolithic fortifications, arrow-heads, injuries, and representations indicate that, in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Europe, archery was a major form of interpersonal violence. For example, the Neolithic settlement at Carn Brea was occupied between around 3700 and 3400 BC; excavations found that every timber structure on the site had been burnt, and there was a concentration of arrow heads around a probable entrance to the enclosure; these arrows may have been used by a large group of archers in an organized assault. Bronze Age Chariot-borne archers became a defining feature of Middle Bronze Age warfare, from Europe to Eastern Asia and India.
However, in the Middle Bronze Age, with the development of massed infantry tactics, and with the use of chariots for shock tactics or as prestigious command vehicles, archery seems to have lessened in importance in European warfare. In approximately the same period, with the Seima-Turbino Phenomenon and the spread of the Andronovo culture, mounted archery became a defining feature of Eurasian nomad cultures and a foundation of their military success, until the massed use of guns. In China, crossbows were developed, and Han Dynasty writers attributed Chinese success in battles against nomad invaders to the massed use of crossbows, first definitely attested at the Battle of Ma-Ling in 341 BCE.
Ancient history  Ancient civilizations, notably the Persians, Parthians, Egyptians, Nubians, Indians, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese fielded large numbers of archers in their armies. Arrows were destructive against massed formations, and the use of archers often proved decisive. The Sanskrit term for archery, dhanurveda, came to refer to martial arts in general. Mounted archers were used as the main military force for many of the equestrian nomads, including the Cimmerians and the Mongols. North Africa  The ancient Egyptian people took to archery as early as 5,000 years ago. Archery was widespread by the time of the earliest pharaohs and was practiced both for hunting and use in warfare.
Legendary figures from the tombs of Thebes are depicted giving "lessons in archery". Some Egyptian deities are also connected to archery. The "Nine bows" were a conventional representation of Egypt's external enemies. One of the oldest representations of the Nine bows is on the seated statue of Pharaoh Djoser (3rd Dynasty, 27th century BCE). Many of the archers in service to Egypt were of Nubian extraction commonly referred to as Medjay, who go from a mercenary force during their initial service to Egypt in the Middle Kingdom to an elite paramilitary unit by the New Kingdom. So prolific were the Nubians as archers that Nubia as whole would be referred to Ta-Seti or land of the bow by the Ancient Egyptians.
Mesopotamia  The Assyrians and Babylonians extensively used the bow and arrow for hunting and warfare. The empires in ancient Mesopotamia formed the first standing armies used exclusively for warfare. This included soldiers trained and employed as archers. The archers served as an integral division of the military and was used on foot and on chariots. The Chariot warriors of the Kassites relied heavily on the bow. The Nuzi texts detail the bows and the number of arrows assigned to the chariot crew. Archery was essential to the role of the light horse-drawn chariot as a vehicle of warfare. The Old Testament has multiple references to archery as a skill identified with the ancient Hebrews.
Xenophon describes long bows used to great effect in Corduene. Three-bladed (trilobate) arrowheads have been found in the United Arab Emirates, dated to 100BCE-150CE. Eurasian Steppes  The composite bow was first produced in the Eurasian Steppes during the Bronze Age, and from there it diffused throughout the Old World. The nomads from the Eurasian steppes are believed to play an integral part in introducing the compound bow to other civilizations, including Mesopotamia, Iran, India, East Asia, and Europe. There are arrowheads from the earliest chariot burials at Krivoye Lake, part of the Sintashta culture about 2100–1700 BCE. These people are also believed to have invented spoke-wheeled chariots, and chariot archery became an integral component of the militaries of early Indo-Europeans.
Domestication of horses and mounted horseback archery are also believed to have originated in the Eurasian steppes. This revolutionized warfare as well as the practice of archery. India  The use of bow and arrow was recorded extensively throughout the history of the Indian subcontinent, starting from the Vedic period. Vedic hymns in the Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda lay emphasis on the use of the bow and arrow. The second Veda, the Yajurveda contains Dhanurveda (dhanus "bow" and veda "knowledge"), which was an ancient treatise on the science of archery and its use in warfare. The existence of Dhanurveda or “Science of Archery” in antiquity is evident from references made in several works of ancient literature.
The Viṣṇu Purāṇa refers it as one of the eighteen branches of knowledge taught, while the Mahābhārata mentions it as having sutras like other vedas. Śukranīti describes it as that ‘upaveda of yajurveda’ which has five arts or practical aspects. The Dhanurveda enumerates the rules of archery, and describes the uses of weapons and the training the army. Besides providing the account of the training of the archers, Vasiṣṭha’s Dhanurveda describes the different types of bows and arrows, as well as the process of making them. Detailed accounts of training methodologies in early India considered to be an essential martial skill in early India.
The composite bow was introduced into the Indian subcontinent by Aryan tribes during the Indo-European migrations into India. The bow was used extensively on foot as well on chariots. It was incorporated into the standing armies of the Mahajanapadas, and used in mounted warfare on horses, camels, and elephants with a howdah. The importance of archery continued through antiquity during the Maurya Empire. The Arthashastra, a military treaties written by Chanakya during the Maurya Era, goes in depth on the importance and implementation of archery. It also mentions an archery school at Taxila which enrolled 103 princes from different kingdoms across the empire.
During the era of the Gupta Empire mounted archery was largely supplanted by foot archers. This was in contrast to the nomadic armies on horseback from Central Asia such as the Iranian, Scythians, Parthians, Kushans, and Hunas. Later Indian kingdoms entities would maintain and field large numbers of mounted archers. The use of bows and arrows continued to be used as the mainstay of most Indian armies until the advent of firearm, introduced by Islamic gunpowder empires. Greco-Roman antiquity The people of Crete practiced archery and Cretan mercenary archers were in great demand. Crete was known for its unbroken tradition of archery.
The Greek god Apollo is the god of archery, also of plague and the sun, metaphorically perceived as shooting invisible arrows, Artemis the goddess of hunting. Heracles and Odysseus and other mythological figures are often depicted with a bow. During the invasion of India, Alexander the Great personally took command of the shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians and horse-javelin-men and led them against the Kamboja clans—the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus (Panjkora) valley, and the Assakenois of the Swat and Buner valleys. The early Romans had very few archers, if any. As their empire grew, they recruited auxiliary archers from other nations.
Julius Caesar's armies in Gaul included Cretan archers, and Vercingetorix his enemy ordered "all the archers, of whom there was a very great number in Gaul, to be collected". By the 4th century, archers with powerful composite bows were a regular part of Roman armies throughout the empire. After the fall of the western empire, the Romans came under severe pressure from the highly skilled mounted archers belonging to the Hun invaders, and later Eastern Roman armies relied heavily on mounted archery. East Asia  For millennia, archery has played a pivotal role in Chinese history. In particular, archery featured prominently in ancient Chinese culture and philosophy: archery was one of the Six Noble Arts of the Zhou dynasty (1146–256 BCE); archery skill was a virtue for Chinese emperors; Confucius himself was an archery teacher; and Lie Zi (a Daoist philosopher) was an avid archer.
Because the cultures associated with Chinese society spanned a wide geography and time range, the techniques and equipment associated with Chinese archery are diverse. In East Asia Joseon Korea adopted a military-service examination system from China, and South Korea remains a particularly strong performer at Olympic archery competitions even to this day. Middle Ages  The Sasanian general Bahram Chobin has been credited with writing a manual of archery in Ibn al-Nadim's catalogue Kitab al-Fihrist. A complete arrow of 75 cm (along with other fragments and arrow heads) dated back to 1283 CE, was discovered inside a cave situated in the Qadisha Valley, Lebanon.
A treatise on Saracen archery was written in 1368. This was a didactic poem on archery dedicated to a Mameluke sultan by ṬAIBUGHĀ, al-Ashrafī. A 14th century treatise on Arab archery was written by Hussain bin Abd al-Rahman. A treatise on Arab archery by Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya, Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr (1292AD-1350AD) comes from the 14th century. Another treatise,  A book on the excellence of the bow & arrow of c. 1500 details the practices and techniques of archery among the Arabs of that time. An online copy of the text is available. Skilled archers were prized in Europe throughout the Middle Ages.
Archery was an important skill for the Vikings, both for hunting and for war. The Assize of Arms of 1252 tells us that English yeomen were required by law, in an early version of a militia, to practice archery and maintain their skills. We are told that 6,000 English archers launched 42,000 arrows per minute at the Battle of Crecy in 1346. The Battle of Agincourt in 1415 is notable for Henry V's introduction of the English longbow into military lore. Henry VIII was so concerned about the state of his archers that he enjoined tennis and other frivolous pursuits in his Unlawful Games Act 1541.
Decline of archery  The advent of firearms eventually rendered bows obsolete in warfare. Despite the high social status, ongoing utility, and widespread pleasure of archery, almost every culture that gained access to even early firearms used them widely, to the relative neglect of archery. In Ireland, Geoffrey Keating (c. 1569 – c. 1644) mentions archery as having been practiced "down to a recent period within our own memory." Early firearms were inferior in rate of fire (a Tudor English author expects eight shots from the English longbow in the time needed for a "ready shooter" to give five from the musket), and François Bernier reports that well-trained mounted archers at the Battle of Samugarh in 1658 were "shooting six times before a musketeer can fire twice".
Firearms were also very susceptible to wet weather. However, they had a longer effective range (up to 200 yards for the longbow, up to 600 yards for the musket), greater penetration, and were tactically superior in the common situation of soldiers shooting at each other from behind obstructions. They also penetrated steel armour without any need to develop special musculature. Armies equipped with guns could thus provide superior firepower, and highly trained archers became obsolete on the battlefield. The Battle of Cerignola in 1503 was won by Spain mainly by the use of matchlock firearms, marking the first time a major battle in Europe was won through the use of firearms.
The last regular unit armed with bows was the Archers’ Company of the Honourable Artillery Company, ironically a part of the oldest regular unit in England to be armed with gunpowder weapons. The last recorded use of bows in battle in England seems to have been a skirmish at Bridgnorth; in October 1642, during the English Civil War, an impromptu militia, armed with bows, was effective against un-armoured musketmen. The last use of the bow in battle in Britain is said to have occurred at the Battle of Tippermuir in Scotland on 1 September 1644, when James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose's Royalist highlanders defeated an army of Scottish Covenanters .
Among Montrose's army were bowmen . (A more recent use of archery in war was in 1940, on the retreat to Dunkirk, when Jack Churchill, who had brought his bows on active service, "was delighted to see his arrow strike the centre German in the left of the chest and penetrate his body"). Archery continued in some areas that were subject to limitations on the ownership of arms, such as the Scottish Highlands during the repression that followed the decline of the Jacobite cause, and the Cherokees after the Trail of Tears. The Tokugawa shogunate severely limited the import and manufacture of guns, and encouraged traditional martial skills among the samurai; towards the end of the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877, some rebels fell back on the use of bows and arrows.
Archery remained an important part of the military examinations until 1894 in Korea and 1904 in China. Within the steppe of Eurasia, archery continued to play an important part in warfare, although now restricted to mounted archery. The Ottoman Empire still fielded auxiliary cavalry which was noted for its use of bows from horseback. This practice was continued by the Ottoman subject nations, despite the Empire itself being a proponent of early firearms. The practice declined after the Crimean Khanate was absorbed by Russia; however mounted archers remained in the Ottoman order of battle until the post 1826 reforms to the Ottoman Army.
The art of traditional archery remained in minority use for sport and for hunting in Turkey up until the 1820s, but the knowledge of constructing composite bows, fell out of use with the death of the last bowyer in the 1930s. The rest of the Middle East also lost the continuity of its archery tradition at this time. An exception to this trend was the Comanche culture of North America, where mounted archery remained competitive with muzzle-loading guns. "After... about 1800, most Comanches began to discard muskets and pistols and to rely on their older weapons." Repeating firearms, however, were superior in turn, and the Comanches adopted them when they could.
Bows remained effective hunting weapons for skilled horse archers, used to some extent by all Native Americans on the Great Plains to hunt buffalo as long as there were buffalo to hunt. The last Comanche hunt was in 1878, and it failed for lack of buffalo, not lack of appropriate weapons. Ongoing use of bows and arrows was maintained in isolated cultures with little or no contact with the outside world. The use of traditional archery in some African conflicts has been reported in the 21st century, and the Sentinelese still use bows as part of a lifestyle scarcely touched by outside contact.
A remote group in Brazil, recently photographed from the air, aimed bows at the aeroplane. Bows and arrows saw considerable use in the 2007–2008 Kenyan crisis. Recreational revival   The British initiated a major revival of archery as an upper-class pursuit from about 1780–1840. Early recreational archery societies included the Finsbury Archers and the Kilwinning Papingo, established in 1688. The latter held competitions in which the archers had to dislodge a wooden parrot from the top of an abbey tower. The Company of Scottish Archers was formed in 1676 and is one of the oldest sporting bodies in the world. It remained a small and scattered pastime, however, until the late 18th century when it experienced a fashionable revival among the aristocracy.
Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, with the patronage of George, the Prince of Wales. Archery societies were set up across the country, each with its own strict entry criteria and outlandish costumes. Recreational archery soon became extravagant social and ceremonial events for the nobility, complete with flags, music and 21 gun salutes for the competitors. The clubs were "the drawing rooms of the great country houses placed outside" and thus came to play an important role in the social networks of local elites. As well as its emphasis on display and status, the sport was notable for its popularity with females.
Young women could not only compete in the contests but retain and show off their sexuality while doing so. Thus, archery came to act as a forum for introductions, flirtation and romance. It was often consciously styled in the manner of a Medieval tournament with titles and laurel wreaths being presented as a reward to the victor. General meetings were held from 1789, in which local lodges convened together to standardise the rules and ceremonies. Archery was also co-opted as a distinctively British tradition, dating back to the lore of Robin Hood and it served as a patriotic form of entertainment at a time of political tension in Europe.
The societies were also elitist, and the new middle class bourgeoisie were excluded from the clubs due to their lack of social status. After the Napoleonic Wars, the sport became increasingly popular among all classes, and it was framed as a nostalgic reimagining of the preindustrial rural Britain. Particularly influential was Sir Walter Scott's 1819 novel, Ivanhoe that depicted the heroic character Locksley winning an archery tournament. A modern sport The 1840s saw the first attempts at turning the recreation into a modern sport. The first Grand National Archery Society meeting was held in York in 1844 and over the next decade the extravagant and festive practices of the past were gradually whittled away and the rules were standardised as the 'York Round' – a series of shoots at 60, 80, and 100 yards.
Horace A. Ford helped to improve archery standards and pioneered new archery techniques. He won the Grand National 11 times in a row and published a highly influential guide to the sport in 1856. Towards the end of the 19th century, the sport experienced declining participation as alternative sports such as croquet and tennis became more popular among the middle class. By 1889, just 50 archery clubs were left in Britain, but it was still included as a sport at the 1900 Paris Olympics. In the United States, primitive archery was revived in the early 20th century. The last of the Yahi Indian tribe, a native known as Ishi, came out of hiding in California in 1911.
His doctor, Saxton Pope, learned many of Ishi's traditional archery skills, and popularized them. The Pope and Young Club, founded in 1961 and named in honor of Pope and his friend, Arthur Young, became one of North America's leading bowhunting and conservation organizations. Founded as a nonprofit scientific organization, the Club was patterned after the prestigious Boone and Crockett Club and advocated responsible bowhunting by promoting quality, fair chase hunting, and sound conservation practices. In Korea, the transformation of archery to a healthy pastime was led by Emperor Gojong, and is the basis of a popular modern sport. The Japanese continue to make and use their unique traditional equipment.
Among the Cherokees, popular use of their traditional longbows never died out. In China, at the beginning of the 21st century, there has been revival in interest among craftsmen looking to construct bows and arrows, as well as in practicing technique in the traditional Chinese style. In modern times, mounted archery continues to be practiced as a popular competitive sport in modern Hungary and in some Asian countries but it is not recognized as an international competition. Archery is the national sport of the Kingdom of Bhutan. From the 1920s, professional engineers took an interest in archery, previously the exclusive field of traditional craft experts.
They led the commercial development of new forms of bow including the modern recurve and compound bow. These modern forms are now dominant in modern Western archery; traditional bows are in a minority. In the 1980s, the skills of traditional archery were revived by American enthusiasts, and combined with the new scientific understanding. Much of this expertise is available in the Traditional Bowyer's Bibles (see Further reading). Modern game archery owes much of its success to Fred Bear, an American bow hunter and bow manufacturer. See also Archery Kyūdō, Japanese archery Yabusame, Japanese horseback archery Gungdo, Korean archery Turkish archery Chinese archery Archery in India  References  uiowa.edu  Further reading  The Traditional Bowyers Bible Volume 1.
The Lyons Press, 1992. The Traditional Bowyers Bible Volume 2. The Lyons Press, 1992. The Traditional Bowyers Bible Volume 3. The Lyons Press, 1994. The Traditional Bowyers Bible Volume 4. The Lyons Press, 2008. External links  Archery Library Online Archery Books with historical content
Attention to Detail Ltd (ATD) was a British video game developer based in Hatton, England. History  Attention to Detail was founded in September 1988 by University of Birmingham graduates Chris Gibbs, Fred Gill, Martin Green, Jon Steele and Jim Torjussen. In January 1997, the company was acquired by Geoff Brown, who established Geoff Brown Holdings (later Kaboom Studios) to manage the ownership. Amid financial struggles at Kaboom Studios, Attention to Detail went into liquidation on 28 August 2003, laying off all 50 staff members. The closure was partially caused by the company being unable to secure a publishing deal for their in-development title, Ion Runner, which was effectively cancelled.
Games developed  References   Category:1988 establishments in England Category:Defunct video game companies
One Pattern (stylized as ONE PATTERN) is a 1986 album by P-Model and the last before the band's hiatus in 1988. Background After the end of the supporting tour for Karkador, P-Model was left without a bassist and a keyboardist. Frontman Susumu Hirasawa recruited Teruo Nakano and Yoshikazu Takahashi to fill the roles respectively, taking P-Model's sound in a new direction. One Pattern's style follows closely after Hirasawa's work in Karkador, with Nakano as the main creative partner. Together, they employed varied musical styles, from orchestral to classic guitar work, while producing in a way as to create a lo-fi sound.
Production Due to the rising prominence of digital technology at the time, artificial sounds were used on the album more so than ever before. The songs were recorded with a Casio CZ-5000's built-in 8 track sequencer, as the band could not afford a standalone. For reproducing the sound for live performances they relied on intuition and using the devices they had on hand. Hirasawa implemented a MIDI guitar on some songs, sometimes purposefully playing it "the wrong way" aiming to surprise the listener, though he struggled with the unreliability of the gear and its constant sound output delay. The complex basslines were played by Nakano on either a bass or on a keyboard.
Takahashi took to heavy usage of samplers and using a cassette deck to play pre-recorded choral accompaniments, as well as having a hand in engineering. Drummer Yasuhiro Araki meanwhile, had his role in the band greatly diminished, with most of the drumming on the album handled by sequencers. One Pattern was recorded under a strenuous schedule by a P-Model in low spirits, with Hirasawa having his vision heavily imposed on by various circumstances, and he has since called this his least favorite P-Model album. This was reflected in the album's title, "one pattern" being a Japanese phrase for "stuck in a rut".
Track listing  Personnel  P-Model - Arrangements, Backing vocals on "Drums" Susumu Hirasawa - Vocal, Keyboards, Guitar Yasuhiro Araki - Drums, Gong Bass, Percussion  - Bass, Keyboards, Lead vocals on "LICORICE LEAF" and "Möbius band", Backing vocals Yoshikazu Takahashi - Systems (Keyboards, Sampler, Cassette deck, Backing vocals, Engineering)   Guest musicians & production Kayo "Kokubo" Matsumoto - "MAMA" Vocal on "OH MAMA!"
(credited as "Suginami Jido Gassho-Dan") - "Sunpaleets" Voice Masami Orimo (listed under special thanks) - Backing vocals on "Drums"  Akiro "Kamio" Arishima (AC Unit) - Keyboards on "Another Day", Production Akitsugu Doi (Alfa Records) - Mixing, Engineering Katsunori Takashima (Alfa Records) and Nobuo Namie (Freedom Studio) - Assistant Engineering Mitsuharu Kobayashi (CBS-Sony) - Mastering Engineer   Staff Toshikazu Awano (Alfa Records) - A&R Coordination Mitsuru Hirose (Model House) - Artist Management Yūichi Hirasawa - Art director Tatsuo Kuda - Photography Akemi Tsujitani (AC Unit) - Costumer Special Thanks: Yoshiaki Kondo (Gok Sound), Akai,  (Tōkai Gakki), Taro Yamamoto, Imagica  Release history  "Another Day" is included on the TWINS SOUND SAMPLER Vol.2～ROCK/POPS COLLECTION various artists compilation.
"OH MAMA!" is included on the TWINS SOUND SAMPLER Vol.4～TECHNO POP COLLECTION various artists compilation. References  External links ONE PATTERN at NO ROOM - The official site of Susumu Hirasawa (P-MODEL)  ONE PATTERN at Sony Music's official site  Category:1986 albums Category:P-Model albums Category:Alfa Records albums Category:Japanese-language albums
The ring ouzel (Turdus torquatus) is a European member of the thrush family, Turdidae. It is the mountain equivalent of the closely related common blackbird, and breeds in gullies, rocky areas or scree slopes. Nomenclature "Ouzel" (or "ousel") is an old name for common blackbird. The word is cognate with German "Amsel". "Ouzel" may also be applied to a group of superficially similar but more distantly related birds, the dippers, the European representative of which is sometimes known as the water ouzel. As with the English name, the scientific name also refers to the male's obvious white neck crescent, being derived from the Latin words turdus, "thrush", and torquatus, "collared".
Taxonomy About 65 species of medium to large thrushes are in the genus Turdus, characterised by rounded heads, longish, pointed wings, and usually melodious songs. Although two European thrushes, the song thrush and mistle thrush, are early offshoots from the Eurasian lineage of Turdus thrushes after they spread north from Africa, the ring ousel is descended from ancestors that had colonised the Caribbean islands from Africa and subsequently reached Europe from there. Description The adult male is all black except for a white crescent on the breast and a yellowish bill. The wings have a silvery appearance due to white feather edgings.
The male sings its loud and mournful song from trees or rocks. The female is similar but duller, and younger birds often lack the breast crescent. The juvenile has brown plumage. This species was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 under its current scientific name. Behaviour and ecology It breeds in the higher regions of western and central Europe and also in the Caucasus and in the Scandinavian mountains. Most populations are migratory, wintering in the Mediterranean region. It is declining in parts of its range, particularly in Ireland, where  breeding is now largely confined to two counties, Donegal and Kerry, and there are fears that it may soon become  extinct there.
It is territorial and normally seen alone or in pairs, although loose flocks may form on migration. When not breeding, several birds may also be loosely associated in good feeding areas, such as a fruiting tree, often with other thrushes. Diet The ring ouzel is omnivorous, eating a wide range of insects, earthworms, small rodents, reptiles and berries. Nesting  The ring ouzel nests in bushes or amongst rocks, laying several pale blue eggs, mottled with brown, in a neat cup-shaped nest. References  Bibliography   Clement and Hathaway, Thrushes  External links  Ageing and sexing (PDF; 0.9 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze  Category:Turdus Category:Birds of Europe Category:Birds described in 1758
Levan can refer to:  Places Levan, Fier, a village in Fier municipality, Fier County, Albania Levan, Berat, a village in Berat County, Albania Levan, Utah  The town of Levan, Inverclyde, United Kingdom  Levan, Afghanistan  People  Levan (name), Georgian masculine given name  Buildings  Castle Levan, is a fortified tower house in Levan area of Gourock, Inverclyde, Scotland. Others  Levan Farm was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. Levan polysaccharide, a homopolysaccharide which is composed of D-fructofuranosyl   A group of fructans produced by bacteria or created by breaking down other kinds of plant fructans, called levan beta 2→6  LEVAN (Search Engine), an acronym for Learn Everything About Anything, a visual processing search engine developed by the Allen Brain Institute and the University of Washington.
Albert Levan  LeVan  C. J. LeVan, U.S. Army Lieutenant General, Army Air Defense Command
On 2D displays, such as computer monitors and TVs, the display size (or viewable image size or VIS) is the physical size of the area where pictures and videos are displayed. The size of a screen is usually described by the length of its diagonal, which is the distance between opposite corners, usually in inches. It is also sometimes called the physical image size to distinguish it from the "logical image size," which describes a screen's display resolution and is measured in pixels. History  The size of a screen is usually described by the length of its diagonal, which is the distance between opposite corners, usually in inches.
It is also sometimes called the physical image size to distinguish it from the "logical image size," which describes a screen's display resolution and is measured in pixels. The method of measuring screen size by its diagonal was inherited from the method used for the first generation of CRT television, when picture tubes with circular faces were in common use. Being circular, the external diameter of the bulb was used to describe their size. Since these circular tubes were used to display rectangular images, the diagonal measurement of the visible rectangle was smaller than the diameter of the tube due to the thickness of the glass surrounding the phosphor screen (which was hidden from the viewer by the casing and bezel).
This method continued even when cathode ray tubes were manufactured as rounded rectangles; it had the advantage of being a single number specifying the size, and was not confusing when the aspect ratio was universally 4:3. In the US, when virtually all TV tubes were 4:3, the size of the screen was given as the true screen diagonal with a V following it (this was a requirement in the US market but not elsewhere). In virtually all other markets, the size of the outer diameter of the tube was given. What was a 27V in the US could be a 28" elsewhere.
However the V terminology was frequently dropped in US advertising referring to a 27V as a 27". This was not misleading for the consumer as the seller had to give the actual screen size by law. Flat panel displays by contrast use the actual diagonal of their visible display size, thus the size is the actual size presented to the viewer in all markets. This means that a similarly specified size of display will be larger as a flat panel display compared with a cathode ray tube display. When the common aspect ratio went from 4:3 to 16:9, the new widescreens were labeled with a W in the US.
A screen that is approximately the same height as a 27V would be a 32W. Vizio and other US TV manufacturers have introduced even wider screens with a 21:9 aspect ratio in order to match aspect ratios used in cinemas. In order to gauge the relative sizes of these new screens, the screen aspect must be considered. In a commercial market where multiple aspect ratios are being sold, it will always take two numbers to describe the screen size, some combination of diagonal, aspect ratio, height or width. Set sizes are frequently given as a "class" as screens from different manufacturers will have slight differences in size.
However the "class" should be within 1/2" of the actual size. The reasons for the different sizes within a class stem from differences in the manufacturers' equipment. As manufacturers move from one size to another, newer larger sizes must fit on the same size glass, though with fewer displays being cut from it. Some sizes fit well and maximize glass utilization, other sizes fit more poorly and waste glass. As an example, in some cases, increasing the screen size by even 0.1" can cause an LCD manufacturer to go from 12 screens fitting on their glass sheet to 9. This would make them uncompetitive with other screen makers.
Optimal screen size and viewing distance The resolution of the human eye (with 20/20 vision) is about one minute of arc. For full HDTV resolution, this one minute of arc implies that the TV watcher should sit 4 times the height of the screen away. At this distance the individual pixels can not be resolved while simultaneously maximising the viewing area. So the ideal set size can be determined from the chart below by measuring the distance from where the watcher would sit to the screen in centimeters (or inches), dividing that by 4, and comparing with the screen heights below.
At this distance, viewers with better than 20/20 vision will still be able to see the individual pixels. If the user is replacing a standard definition TV with an HDTV this implies that the best visual experience will be with a set that is twice as tall as the standard definition set. As the average size LCD TV being sold is now 38", which is only about 15% taller than a 27" standard definition TV, this means that most consumers buy HDTV sets that are smaller than what they could utilize. Cost and budget also limit screen size. The TV image is composed of many lines of pixels.
Ideally, the TV watcher sits far enough away from the screen that the individual lines merge into one solid image. The watcher may sit even farther away and still see a good picture, but it will be a smaller portion of their visual field. However, note that viewing behavior is dependent on screen size. With increasing screen sizes, visual exploration is enhanced with an increased number of fixations of shorter duration and a tendency to view only the center of the display. Display sizes of common TVs and computer monitors  Common screen dimensions are listed in the table below. If the display is not listed, then the following equations can be used.
Note that D is the diagonal (in centimeters or inches), W is the width (in pixels), and H is the height (in pixels). See also  Display resolution  Computer display standard  References  Category:Display technology
Basal or basilar is a term meaning base, bottom, or minimum. Science  Basal (anatomy), an anatomical term of location for features associated with the base of an organism or structure  Basal (medicine), a minimal level that is necessary for health or life, such as a minimum insulin dose  Basal (phylogenetics), a sister group relationship in a phylogenetic tree  Places  Basal, Hungary, a village in Hungary  Basal, Pakistan, a village in the Attock District  Other  Basal plate (disambiguation)  Basal sliding, the act of a glacier sliding over the bed before it due to meltwater increasing the water pressure underneath the glacier causing it to be lifted from its bed  See also  Basal conglomerate, see conglomerate (geology)
The 24 Hours of Le Mans (24 heures du Mans) is the world's oldest sports car endurance race and one of the most famous and influential in motorsports history. The overall winners of all events since 1923 are listed here. The race has been run every year since its inception with the exception of 1936, where the race was not run due to worker strikes, and 1940 to 1948, due to World War II. Records for wins are also listed. Lower class wins are not included. After the first 44 events had two drivers per winning entry, the winning entry used three drivers in 1977, which became the winning norm from 1985 onwards.
With multiple drivers per winning entry, tempered by some drivers winning more than once, a total of 136 different drivers have won in the 87 runnings of the race. Winners  Records  Drivers  Most wins  Most consecutive wins  Winning drivers per nation  Total wins per nation  Constructors  Most wins  Most consecutive wins  By nationality  Motive Power  Notes  References   Le Mans 1965 in Automobile Historique n°48 May 2005   24 heures du Mans 1973 in Automobile Historique n°49 June/July 2005  External links  Le Mans official site  Le Mans winners, history  Results pages  Le Mans Register  Le Mans History All the cars, drivers, classifications, history, photos  Category:Auto racing lists Winners  fr:24 Heures du Mans#Palmarès
The palmar radioulnar ligament (volar radioulnar ligament, anterior radioulnar ligament) is a narrow band of fibers extending from the anterior margin of the ulnar notch of the radius to the front of the head of the ulna. It is sometimes abbreviated PRUL. References  Category:Ligaments of the upper limb
Category:English words
A cnidocyte (also known as a cnidoblast or nematocyte) is an explosive cell containing one giant secretory organelle or cnida (plural cnidae) that defines the phylum Cnidaria (corals, sea anemones, hydrae, jellyfish, etc.). Cnidae are used for prey capture and defense from predators. Despite being morphologically simple, lacking a skeleton and many species being sessile, cnidarians prey on fish and crustaceans. A cnidocyte fires a structure that contains the toxin, from a characteristic subcellular organelle called a cnidocyst (also known as a cnida or nematocyst). This is responsible for the stings delivered by a cnidarian. Structure and function   Each cnidocyte contains an organelle called a cnida, cnidocyst, nematocyst, ptychocyst or spirocyst.
This organelle consists of a bulb-shaped capsule containing a coiled hollow tubule structure attached to it. An immature cnidocyte is referred to as a cnidoblast or nematoblast. The externally oriented side of the cell has a hair-like trigger called a cnidocil, which is a mechano- and chemo-receptor. When the trigger is activated, the tubule shaft of the cnidocyst is ejected and, in the case of the penetrant nematocyst, the forcefully ejected tubule penetrates the target organism. This discharge takes a few microseconds, and is able to reach accelerations of about 40,000 g. Recent research suggests the process occurs in as little as 700 nanoseconds, thus reaching an acceleration of up to 5,410,000 g. After penetration, the toxic content of the nematocyst is injected into the target organism, allowing the sessile cnidarian to capture the immobilized prey.
Recently, in two sea anemones species (Nematostella vectensis and Anthopleura elegantissima), the type I neurotoxin protein Nv1 was shown to be localized in ectodermal gland cells in the tentacles, next to but not in nematocytes. Upon encounter with a crustacean prey, nematocytes discharge and pierce the prey, and Nv1 is massively secreted into the extracellular medium by the nearby gland cells, thus suggesting another mode of entry for toxins. Cnidocyte capsule composition  The cnidocyte capsule is made of novel Cnidaria-specific genes which combine known protein domains. Minicollagen genes are one of the major structural components of the capsule. They are very short genes containing the characteristic collagen-triple helix sequence, as well as polyproline domains and cystein-rich domains.
Trimers of minicollagen proteins assemble through their terminal cystein-rich domain, forming highly organized and rigid supra-structures. Minicollagen 1 Ncol-1 polymers assemble on the inner shell while the outer capsule is composed of polymerized NOWA (Nematocyst Outer Wall Antigen) proteins. Nematogalectin, minicollagen Ncol-15 and chondroitin are novel proteins used to build the tubule shaft. In piercing cnidocytes, the novel protein spinalin is used to make the spines present at the base of the shaft. Discharge mechanism   The cnidocyst capsule stores a large concentration of calcium ions, which are released from the capsule into the cytoplasm of the cnidocyte when the trigger is activated.
This causes a large concentration gradient of calcium across the cnidocyte plasma membrane. The resulting osmotic pressure causes a rapid influx of water into the cell. This increase in water volume in the cytoplasm forces the coiled cnidae tubule to eject rapidly. Prior to discharge the coiled cnidae tubule exists inside the cell in an "inside out" condition. The back pressure resulting from the influx of water into the cnidocyte together with the opening of the capsule tip structure or operculum, triggers the forceful eversion of the cnidae tubule causing it to right itself as it comes rushing out of the cell with enough force to impale a prey organism.
Prey detection   Cnidae are "single use" cells, and this costs a lot of energy. In Hydrozoans, in order to regulate discharge, cnidocytes are connected as "batteries", containing several types of cnidocytes connected to supporting cells and neurons. The supporting cells contain chemosensors, which, together with the mechanoreceptor on the cnidocyte (cnidocil), allow only the right combination of stimuli to cause discharge, such as prey swimming, and chemicals found in prey cuticle or cuteous tissue. This prevents the cnidarian from stinging itself although sloughed off cnidae can be induced to fire independently. Types of cnidae  Over 30 types of cnidae are found in different cnidarians.
They can be divided into the following groups:  Penetrant: The penetrant or stenotele is the largest and most complex nematocyst. When discharged, it pierces the skin or chitinous exoskeleton of the prey and injects the venomous fluid, hypnotoxin, that either paralyzes the victim or kills it. Glutinant: a sticky surface used to stick to prey, referred to as ptychocysts and found on burrowing (tube) anemones, which help create the tube in which the animal lives  Volvent: The volvent or desmoneme is a small and pear-shaped nematocyst. It contains a short, thick, spineless, smooth and elastic thread tube forming a single loop and closed at the far end.
When discharged, it tightly coils around the prey. They are the smallest nematocysts. A lasso-like string is fired at prey and wraps around a cellular projection on the prey, which are referred to as spirocysts. Cnidocyte subtypes can be differentially localized in the animal. In the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, the majority of its non-penetrant sticky cnidocytes, the spirocytes, are found in the tentacles, and are thought to help with prey capture by sticking to the prey. By contrast, the two penetrant types of cnidocytes present in this species display a much broader localization, on the outer epithelial layer of the tentacles and body column, as well as on the pharynx epithelium and within mesenteries.
The diversity of cnidocytes types correlates with the expansion and diversification of structural cnidocyst genes like minicollagen genes. Minicollagen genes form compact gene clusters in Cnidarian genomes, suggesting a diversification through gene duplication and subfunctionalization. Anthozoans display less capsule diversity and a reduced number of minicollagen genes, and meduzosoans have more capsule diversity (about 25 types) and a vastly expanded minicollagen genes repertoire. In the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, some minicollagens display a differential expression pattern in different cnidocytes subtypes. Cnidocyte development  Cnidocytes are single-use cells that need to be continuously replaced throughout the life of the animal with different mode of renewal across species.
Modes of renewal  In Hydra polyps, cnidocytes differentiate from a specific population of stem cells, the interstitial cells (I-cells) located within the body column. Developing nematocytes first undergo multiple rounds of mitosis without cytokinesis, giving rise to nematoblast nests with 8, 16, 32 or 64 cells. After this expansion phase, nematoblasts develop their capsule. Nests separate into single nematocytes when the formation of the capsule is complete. Most of them migrate to the tentacles where they are incorporated into battery cells, which hold several nematocytes, and neurons. Battery cells coordinate firing of nematocytes. In the hydrozoan jellyfish Clytia hemispherica, nematogenesis takes place at the base of the tentacles, as well as in the manubrium.
At the base of the tentacles, nematoblasts proliferate then differentiate along a proximal-distal gradient, giving rise to mature nematocytes in the tentacles through a conveyor belt system. In the Anthozoan sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, nematocytes are thought to develop throughout the animal from epithelial progenitors. Cnidocyst maturation  The nematocyst forms through a multi-step assembly process from a giant post-Golgi vacuole. Vesicles from the Golgi apparatus first fuse onto a primary vesicle: the capsule primordium. Subsequent vesicle fusion enables the formation of a tubule outside of the capsule, which then invaginates into the capsule. Then, an early maturation phase enables the formation of long arrays of barbed spines onto the invaginated tubule through the condensation of spinalin proteins.
Finally, a late maturation stage gives rise to undischarged capsules under high osmotic pressure through the synthesis of poly-γ-glutamate into the matrix of the capsule. This trapped osmotic pressure enables rapid thread discharge upon triggering through a massive osmotic shock. Nematocyst toxicity   Nematocysts are very efficient weapons. A single nematocyst has been shown to suffice in paralyzing a small arthropod (Drosophila larva). The most deadly cnidocytes (to humans, at least) are found on the body of a box jellyfish. One member of this family, the sea wasp, Chironex fleckeri, is "claimed to be the most venomous marine animal known," according to the Australian Institute of Marine Science.
It can cause excruciating pain to humans, sometimes followed by death. Other cnidarians, such as the jellyfish Cyanea capillata (the "Lion's Mane" made famous by Sherlock Holmes) or the siphonophore Physalia physalis (Portuguese man o' war, "Bluebottle") can cause extremely painful and sometimes fatal stings. On the other hand, aggregating sea anemones may have the lowest sting intensity, perhaps due to the inability of the nematocysts to penetrate the skin, creating a feeling similar to touching sticky candies. Besides feeding and defense, sea anemone and coral colonies use cnidocytes to sting one another in order to defend or win space.
Venom from animals such as cnidarians, scorpions and spiders may be species-specific. A substance that is weakly toxic for humans or other mammals may be strongly toxic to the natural prey or predators of the venomous animal. Such specificity has been used to create new medicines and bioinsecticides, and biopesticides. Animals in the phylum Ctenophora ("sea-gooseberries" or "comb jellies") are transparent and jelly-like but have no nematocysts, and are harmless to humans. Certain types of sea slugs, such as the nudibranch aeolids, are known to undergo kleptocnidy (in addition to kleptoplasty), whereby the organisms store nematocysts of digested prey at the tips of their cerata.
See also  Cnidosac, the sac in which an aeolid nudibranch stores the cnidocytes from its prey species  References  External links   Dangerous marine animals of Northern Australia: the Sea Wasp Australian Institute of Marine Science; dangers of box jellyfish  Nematocysts Firing Movie    Category:Animal cells Category:Cnidarian anatomy
The bandy-bandy (Vermicella), also commonly known as the hoop snake, is a species of venomous snake in the family Elapidae. The word bandy-bandy (bandi-bandi) is thought to derive from the indigenous dialect of Kattang, in the Taree region, New South Wales. There are 6 known species of bandy-bandy, all of which are endemic to Australia. The bandy-bandy is considered weakly venomous. Description The bandy-bandy is a smooth-scaled, glossy snake with a distinctive pattern of sharply contrasting black and white rings that continue right around the body. The snout is black and rounded. The eyes are small. The tail is short and blunt.
The dorsal scales are in 15 rows at mid body. The average total length (including tail) is . Taxonomy Bandy-bandys are easily distinguished from all other Australian land snakes by their alternate black and white bands on their body, which give the species both its common names and its scientific name (from the diminutive form, annul-, of the Latin anus, meaning "ring"). Though since 1996, only five species of bandy-bandies were thought to be in the genus Vermicella, the discovery of another species (V. parscauda) on a peninsula in Australia's far north indicates more species of bandy-bandies may exist. Eastern Bandy-Bandy (Vermicella annulata) The most common of bandy-bandies, occurring throughout Northern and Eastern Australia.
Found in a variety of habitats such as wet coastal forests, Acacia, Mulga and Mallee scrubs, savannah woodland and spinifex desert sandhills. Internasals present; commonly less than 260 ventral scales. Wide-Banded Northern Bandy-Bandy (Vermicella intermedia) Distributed in a band across North-western NT and far northern WA. Found in Eucalyptus forests and dry woodlands. Internasals absent; Less than 75 black bands total on the body and tail. Northern Bandy-Bandy (Vermicella multifasciata) A patchy distribution in north-western NT and far northern WA. Found in Eucalyptus forests and dry woodlands. Internasals absent; More than 75 black blands total on the body and tail.
Pilbara Bandy-Bandy (Vermicella snelli) Only located in the Pilbara region, WA. Found in all habitats of its distribution, such as scrubs, grasslands and stony ranges. Internasals present; usually more than 285 ventral scales. Worm-Like Bandy-Bandy (Vermicella vermiformis) Only two separate areas of distribution in Australia: one in central Australia and one in southern Arnhem Land, NT. The northern population is found in dry woodlands and eucalypt forests, whereas the southern population is found in scrubs and stony ranges. Internasals present; Usually up to 285 ventral scales. Vermicella parscauda A new species discovered in 2018. Specimens found only in the Weipa area, Cape York, QLD.
Found in Eucalyptus forests and dry woodlands. Internasals present; ventral scales ranging from 213 - 230. White banding tends to be incomplete around the body and forms an indistinct boundary with black banding. Venom Despite being an elapid, V. annulata is weakly venomous with localized symptoms around the bite area. It is generally considered harmless due to the small size of its mouth and its inoffensive nature. Distribution and habitat The bandy-bandy is found mainly in suburbs with woodland habitats such as Mt Cotton, Mt Crosby, Kholo, Brisbane, and Lockyer Valley. It is most common in areas of remnant habitat structure such as the foothills of Mt Glorious and Brisbane Forest Park.
Recently, it was found in Cannonvale in the Whitsunday region of North Queensland and in late 2019 - the Mid-North Coast of NSW in the Coffs Harbour region. In Southeast Queensland, it is found across a wide range of habitats and vegetation types, from coastal forest and woodland, to scrubland, mulga, and outback desert. It is found also in central New South Wales (Dubbo/Parkes) and Lower North Coast NSW (Pacific Palms/Hunter Valley). The bandy-bandy has also been spotted in the White Rock and Spring Mountain Conservation Park near Ipswich, Queensland. The Bandy-Bandy is also found in the South-Eastern side of South Australia.
Reproduction  The bandy-bandy is oviparous. Females produce offspring at seasonal time to other elapid snakes, laying eggs in the late summer (February - March) after undergoing vitellogenesis in October. The size of a clutch of V.annulata averages at 7.7 offspring, but up to 13 offspring has been recorded in a single clutch. Female bandy-bandys are much larger in size compared to males, where female V.annulata have a mean snout-vent length of 54.4 cm compared to 39.2 cm in males. Larger size is a selective pressure on females, as size determines the fecundity of the female. Whilst male-male combat is highly documented and prevalent in many animals as a means of sexual selection, this is thought not to occur in Vermicella due to the small size of males.
Diet  The Bandy-bandy’s diets consist mostly, if not solely of blind snakes. They have adapted only a few small teeth behind its fang to feed on their specific diet. A previous study suggests their diet consists of the single genus Ramphotyphlops, based on what was found in dissections and what was eaten by snakes in captivity. However, when considering past records, the blind snakes Vermicella feeds on comprises of the entire family Typhlopidae. However, the possibility remains that other burrowing animals such as skinks may be a rare part of their diet. Bandy-bandys are highly responsive to the chemical trails left by blind snakes, following them to their full extent as a means of locating its prey.
They were unresponsive to the chemical trails of other reptiles i.e. the Yellow-Bellied Three-Toed Skink and the Golden Crowned Snake. Preying mostly on blind snakes is another odd characteristic of the bandy-bandy, when compared to the diets of its elapid relatives. Blind snakes are large in comparison to the bandy-bandy, in some cases larger than the bandy-bandy itself. It has been seen with its prey protruding a few centimetres from its mouth while it waits for the slow digestion process. As a consequence of their large prey items, bandy-bandy’s have a much lower feeding rate than other elapids, whereby only 1.1% of captured specimens contained prey items, compared to the average of 20.3% in other elapids.
Behavior A nocturnal, burrowing snake, V. annulata is found beneath the soil surface, under stumps, rocks, and logs. It emerges at night to forage, especially after rain. Defense  The bandy-bandy has a striking colouration pattern, which certainly is not intended to be used as camouflage on a forest floor. A regular banded pattern in snakes has its benefits for both a fight and flight response. For the flight response, a regular banded pattern causes the phenomenon of ‘flicker fusion’, by which bandy-bandy’s achieve this effect by moving fast enough in dim light. This is faster than the majority of vertebrates’ critical fusion frequencies (CFFs) in their eyes and thus causes a great effect of confusion to predators.
In terms of the fight response, a banded pattern is likely to be a disruptive colouration to a predator. Aposematism is prevalent throughout the animal kingdom as a means of a warning signal, usually indicating a poisonous or venomous defence. The bandy-bandy is mildly venomous and may present as a dangerous threat to its predators, if they were to attack it. However, the fight-response of the bandy-bandy not only involves the snake’s colouration, but involves an impressive defensive stance. The bandy-bandy has a unique defensive display behaviour, where it lifts loops of its body vertically to a height of 15 cm.
Its head and tail maintains on ground level, facing its tail towards the perceived threat and the head the farthest from its perceived threat, shielded by the vertical loops. Advantages to this defensive display are noted as: (1) conspicuous display of striped colouration; (2) confusion for the predator as to the location of the head; (3) the appearance of being much larger than previously thought. Around the home The bandy-bandy is infrequently encountered. Occasionally, a specimen is discovered by a roaming cat at night or often found after falling into a backyard swimming pool. It prefers subterranean refugia under large rocks or deeply set ground timber.
Related species discovery In 2018, a new member of the bandy-bandy snake genus was discovered, and named V. parscauda. The new species was found by Dutch biologist Freek Vonk at Weipa on Cape York Peninsula, near Rio Tinto's bauxite mining operations, and may be endangered. References  Further reading Cogger HG (2014). Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia, Seventh Edition. Clayton, Victoria, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. xxx + 1,033 pp. . Gray JE (1841). "A Catalogue of the Species of Reptiles and Amphibia hitherto Described as Inhabiting Australia, with a Description of some New Species from Western Australia. Appendix E". pp. 422–449. In: Grey G (1841).
Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-west and Western Australia, During the Years 1837, 38, and 39, under the Authority of Her Majesty's Government. ... In Two Volumes. Vol. II. London: T. & W. Boone. xiv + 480 pp. (Calamaria annulata, new species, p. 443). Wilson, Steve; Swan, Gerry (2013). A Complete Guide to Reptiles of Australia, Fourth Edition. Sydney: New Holland Publishers. 522 pp. . External links Vermicella annulata occurrence records from Atlas of Living Australia  Category:Elapidae Category:Snakes of Australia Category:Reptiles of Queensland Category:Endemic fauna of Australia Category:Reptiles described in 1841 Category:Taxa named by John Edward Gray
Betrixaban (trade name Bevyxxa) is an oral anticoagulant drug which acts as a direct factor Xa inhibitor. Betrixaban is FDA approved for venous thrombosis prevention in adults hospitalized for an acute medical illness who are at risk for thromboembolic complications due to restricted mobility and other risk factors. Compared to other DOACs betrixaban has relatively low  renal excretion (ca. 17%) and is not metabolized by CYP3A4. History  Betrixaban was originally developed by Millennium Pharmaceuticals. Portola Pharmaceuticals acquired rights for betrixaban in 2004 and co-developed it with Merck. In 2011 Merck discontinued joint development. The drug has undergone human clinical trials for prevention of embolism after knee surgery and for prevention of stroke following non-valvular atrial fibrillation.
Later betrixaban was studied in a large phase III clinical trial ("APEX") for extended duration thromboprophylaxis in acute medically ill patients. Previously apixaban and rivaroxaban have failed to show positive risk/benefit ratio in this indication compared to enoxaparin. APEX trial compared betrixaban with enoxaparin and included 7513 patients. Lower rate of VTE events was found in betrixaban arm with no increase in major bleedings compared to enoxaparin. Based on these results betrixaban was approved by FDA on June 23rd, 2017 becoming the first DOAC approved for extended prophylaxis in hospitalized patients. Betrixaban has been also reviewed by EMA but didn't receive marketing approval in EU mainly due to concerns of increased bleeding risk and absence of reversal agent.
See also  Rivaroxaban  Apixaban  Edoxaban  Enoxaparin  References  Category:Direct Xa inhibitors
A case series (also known as a clinical series) is a type of medical research study that tracks subjects with a known exposure, such as patients who have received a similar treatment, or examines their medical records for exposure and outcome. Case series may be consecutive or non-consecutive, depending on whether all cases presenting to the reporting authors over a period were included, or only a selection. When information on more than three patients is included, the case series is considered to be a systematic investigation designed to contribute to generalizable knowledge (i.e., research), and therefore submission is required to the IRB.
Case series usually contain demographic information about the patient(s), for example, age, gender, ethnic origin. etc. Case series have a descriptive study design; unlike studies that employ an analytic design (e.g. cohort studies, case-control studies or randomized controlled trials), case series do not, in themselves, involve hypothesis testing to look for evidence of cause and effect (though case-only analyses are sometimes performed in genetic epidemiology to investigate the association between an exposure and a genotype). Case series are especially vulnerable to selection bias; for example, studies that report on a series of patients with a certain illness and/or a suspected linked exposure draw their patients from a particular population (such as a hospital or clinic) which may not appropriately represent the wider population.
Internal validity of case series studies is usually very low, due to the lack of a comparator group exposed to the same array of intervening variables. For example, the effects seen may be wholly or partly due to intervening effects such as the placebo effect, Hawthorne effect, Rosenthal effect, time effects, practice effects or the natural history effect. Calculating the difference in effects between two treatment groups assumed to be exposed to a very similar array of such intervening effects allows the effects of these intervening variables to cancel out. Hence only the presence of a comparator group, which is not a feature of case-series studies, will allow a valid estimate of the true treatment effect.
See also Case report Consecutive case series Consecutive controlled case series  References  External links  Study Design Tutorial Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine  Category:Clinical research
A cause of action, in law, is a set of facts sufficient to justify a right to sue to  obtain money, property, or the enforcement of a right against another party. The term also refers to the legal theory upon which a plaintiff brings suit (such as breach of contract, battery, or false imprisonment). The legal document which carries a claim is often called a 'statement of claim' in English law, or a 'complaint' in U.S. federal practice and in many U.S. states. It can be any communication notifying the party to whom it is addressed of an alleged fault which resulted in damages, often expressed in amount of money the receiving party should pay/reimburse.
To pursue a cause of action, a plaintiff pleads or alleges facts in a complaint, the pleading that initiates a lawsuit. A cause of action generally encompasses both the legal theory (the legal wrong the plaintiff claims to have suffered) and the remedy (the relief a court is asked to grant). Often the facts or circumstances that entitle a person to seek judicial relief may create multiple causes of action. Although it is fairly straightforward to file a Statement of Claim in most jurisdictions, if it is not done properly, then the filing party may lose his case due to simple technicalities.
There are a number of specific causes of action, including: contract-based actions; statutory causes of action; torts such as assault, battery, invasion of privacy, fraud, slander, negligence, intentional infliction of emotional distress; and suits in equity such as unjust enrichment and quantum meruit. The points a plaintiff must prove to win a given type of case are called the "elements" of that cause of action. For example, for a claim of negligence, the elements are: the (existence of a) duty, breach (of that duty), proximate cause (by that breach), and damages. If a complaint does not allege facts sufficient to support every element of a claim, the court, upon motion by the opposing party, may dismiss the complaint for failure to state a claim for which relief can be granted.
The defendant to a cause of action must file an "Answer" to the complaint in which the claims can be admitted or denied (including denial on the basis of insufficient information in the complaint to form a response). The answer may also contain counterclaims in which the "Counterclaim Plaintiff" states its own causes of action. Finally, the answer may contain affirmative defenses. Most defenses must be raised at the first possible opportunity either in the answer or by motion or are deemed waived. A few defenses, in particular a court's lack of subject matter jurisdiction, need not be pleaded and may be raised at any time.
See also Form of action  References  Category:Civil procedure  es:Acción jurisdiccional it:Azione (diritto)
Sohra (temporarily called Cherrapunjee or Cherrapunji) is a subdivisional town in the East Khasi Hills district in the Indian state of Meghalaya. It is the traditional capital of ka hima Nongkhlaw (Khasi tribal kingdom)  Sohra has often been credited as being the wettest place on Earth, but for now nearby Mawsynram currently holds that distinction. Sohra still holds the all-time record for the most rainfall in a calendar month and in a year, however: it received  in July 1861 and  between 1 August 1860 and 31 July 1861. History  The history of the Khasi people – native inhabitants of Sohra – may be traced from the early part of the 16th century.
Between the 16th and 18th centuries, these people were ruled by their tribal 'Syiems (rajas or chiefs) of Khyriem' in the Khasi Hills. The Khasi hills came under British authority in 1883 with the submission of the last of the important Syiem, Tirot Sing Syiem. The main pivot on which the entire superstructure of Khasi society rests is the matrilineal system. The original name for this town was Sohra (soh-ra), which was pronounced "Cherra" by the British. This name eventually evolved into a temporary name, Cherrapunji, meaning 'land of oranges', which was first used by tourists from other parts of India.
It has again been renamed to its original form, Sohra. Despite abundant rainfall, Sohra faces an acute water shortage and the inhabitants often have to trek very long distances to obtain potable water. Irrigation is hampered due to excessive rain washing away the topsoil as a result of human encroachment into the forests. Recent developments of rain-water harvesting techniques in the area have greatly helped the town and its neighbouring villages. There is a monument to David Scott (British Administrator in NE India, 1802–31) in the Sohra cemetery. Geography   It has an average elevation of  and sits on a plateau in the southern part of the Khasi Hills, facing the plains of Bangladesh.
The plateau rises 660 meters above the surrounding valleys. Soils on the plateau are poor owing to deforestation and washout caused by heavy rainfall. Owing to winter droughts, the vegetation in this location is even xerophytic in spite of the fame of Sohra as an extremely wet place. Additional pressure on local ecosystems is created by the rapid increase of the population — from a Sohra-area population of 7,000 in 1960, it grew to over 10,000 by 2000. Valleys around Sohra, however, are covered with lush and very diverse vegetation, containing numerous endemic species of plants, including Meghalaya subtropical forests.
There are some interesting living root bridges in villages near Sohra like the Umshiang root bridge, Mawsaw root bridge, Ritymmen root bridge and the Double Decker woot bridge at Nongriat village. The Shillong Plateau is an uplifted horst-like feature, bounded by the E-W Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) to the North, the N-S Jamuna fault in the west, and the NW-SE kopilli fracture zone in the east. Climate  Sohra has a mild subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb), with monsoonal influences typical of India. The city's annual rainfall average stands at . This figure places it behind only nearby Mawsynram, Meghalaya, whose average is .
Sohra receives both the southwest and northeast monsoonal winds, giving it a single monsoon season. It lies on the windward side of the Khasi Hills, so the resulting orographic lift enhances precipitation. In the winter months it receives the northeast monsoon showers that travel down the Brahmaputra valley. The driest months are November, December, January and February. Temperatures average  in January and  in August, and the annual mean is   Sohra holds two Guinness world records for receiving the maximum amount of rainfall in a single year:  of rainfall between August 1860 and July 1861 and for receiving the maximum amount of rainfall in a single month:  in July 1861.
Causes of high rainfall  Sohra receives rains from the Bay of Bengal arm of the Indian summer monsoon. The monsoon clouds fly unhindered over the plains of Bangladesh for about 400 km. Thereafter, they hit the Khasi Hills which rise abruptly from the plains to a height of about 1,370 m above mean sea level within 2 to 5 km. The geography of the hills with many deep valley channels encompassing the low-flying (150–300 m) moisture-laden clouds from a wide area converges over Sohra. The winds push the rain clouds through these gorges and up the steep slopes. The rapid ascent of the clouds into the upper atmosphere hastens the cooling and helps vapours to condense.
Most of Sohra’s rain is the result of air being lifted as a large body of water vapour. The extreme amount of rainfall at Sohra is perhaps the best-known feature of orographic rain in northeast India. Occasionally, cloudbursts can occur in one part of Sohra while other areas may be totally or relatively dry, reflecting the high spatial variability of the rainfall. Atmospheric humidity is extremely high during the peak monsoon period. The major part of the rainfall at Sohra can be attributed to the orographic features. When the clouds are blown over the hills from the south, they are funneled through the valley.
The clouds strike Sohra perpendicularly and the low flying clouds are pushed up the steep slopes. It is not surprising to find that the heaviest rainfalls occur when the winds blow directly on the Khasi Hills. A notable feature of monsoon rain at Sohra is that most of it falls in the morning. This could be partly due to two air masses coming together. During the monsoon months, the prevailing winds along the Brahmaputra valley generally blow from the east or the northeast, but the winds over Meghalaya are from the south. These two winds systems usually come together in the vicinity of the Khasi Hills.
Apparently, the winds that are trapped in the valley at night begin their upward ascent only after they are warmed during the day. This partially explains the frequency of morning rainfall. Apart from orographic features, atmospheric convection plays an important role during the monsoon and the period just preceding it. Demographics  India census, Sohra had a population of 10,086, with males 48.75% of the total population and females 51.25%. Sohra has an average literacy rate of 74%, higher than the national average of 59.5%, with a male literacy rate of 72.4% and a female one of 73.9%. Culture The locals living in and around Sohra are known as Khasis.
It is a matrilineal culture. After the wedding, the husband of the youngest daughter goes to live with his wife's family, who own the property of the family, while others live on their own getting a bit of the share. The children take on the surname of the mother. Sohra is also famous for its living bridges. Over hundreds of years the people in Sohra have developed techniques for growing roots of trees into large bridges. The process takes 10 to 15 years and the bridges typically last hundreds of years, the oldest ones in use being over 500 years old.
Education Sohra Government College is the only general degree college in Sohra. Most students move to the state capital for college degrees. Schools, like the Ramkrishna Mission which are independent and government-run schools like the Thomas Jones School have been set up in and around Sohra. Media Sohra has an All India Radio relay station known as Akashvani Cherrapunji. It broadcasts on FM frequencies. See also   Wettest places on Earth  Lloró  Big Bog, Maui  Quibdó  Villa Puerto Edén  References  Sources and external links   cherrapunjee.com  Interactive Film Documentary by Geox - Testing A New Waterproof Shoe In The Rainiest Place On Earth  'For a Rainy Day', The Indian Express, 20 April 2008, by Arjun Razdan  Category:East Khasi Hills district Category:Cities and towns in East Khasi Hills district Category:Weather extremes of Earth Category:Geography of Meghalaya
Ridolfo Capoferro or Capo Ferro of Cagli was a fencing master in the city of Siena best known for his rapier fencing treatise published in 1610. He hailed from Cagli in the Province of Pesaro e Urbino, but was active as a fencing master in Siena, Tuscany. Some think he may have studied with masters of the German school, it is much more likely that the reference in his book means he was teaching in the Germanic area of Siena. His teachings are in the Italian tradition. Art and Use of Fencing Capoferro's treatise Great Representation of the Art and Use of Fencing was printed by Salvestro Marchetti and Camillo Turi in Siena, and is divided into two parts: Art and Practice.
In the first part, he gives the general principles of swordsmanship and fencing, with the second part of his book covering actual techniques, described in text with accompanying illustrations. His work is interesting in that some methods that he denigrates in his theory he uses in his actions; most notably, he dismisses feints as dangerous or useless (depending upon the situation) and then uses them liberally in various actions in the second part of his book. The sword that Capo Ferro recommends should be "twice as long as the arm, and as much as my extraordinary pace (ie the lunge), which length corresponds equally to that which is from my armpit down to the sole of my foot."
For a 6' tall man this would equate to a 4 1/2' long sword. The book covers the use of single rapier, including basic sword grappling, as well as rapier and dagger, rapier and cloak, and rapier and rotella, a most unusual combination for the period, though far more common in the tradition of swordsmanship of the 16th century which preceded it. The rotella is a medium size concave round shield of approximately 60 cm in diameter with two straps to hold it. Similar metal shields survive, particularly from Spain in this period, though very few from Italy, implying that these shields were made of a perishable material such as wood or leather or a composite of such materials.
The manual also includes techniques for fighting against a left-handed opponent. Reputation Ridolfo's book must have been reasonably popular, as it was reprinted several times, although not many of the fencing treatises written in the next generation mention him and those that do are not necessarily complimentary. However, he was strongly praised by later notable swordsmen such as Egerton Castle who says in his 'Schools and Masters of Fence (1893)', "...but of all the Italian works on fencing none ever had such a share in fixing the principals of the science as 'Great Simulacrum of the Use of the Sword', by Ridolfo Capoferro", later adding "for once the title of the book fully represented its contents."
A later edition of Capoferro's work also incorporated Biblical scenes drawn into the backgrounds of the plates. While many modern reference books state that rapiers were either blunt on their edges, or only had sharp edges in order to discourage blade grabs because they were not suitable for the cut, nearly 30% of the techniques included in Capoferro's treatise use the cut as a primary or secondary option. In the fictional work The Princess Bride by William Goldman, Inigo Montoya and The Man in Black duel atop the Cliffs of Insanity where they mention various fencing techniques they have studied, including those of Capoferro.
Influence  Capoferro is sometimes called the grandfather of modern fencing. While the style of fencing and techniques covered do vary greatly from the modern sport of fencing, Capoferro laid down excellent key principles and structure in which to learn, as well as in one single outline the perfect lunge, which characterises the modern sport, being one of the earliest sources to do so and certainly the most clearly laid out. An extensive German rapier manual published in 1615 by Huesller clearly draws many concepts from Capoferro and Salvatore Fabris, combining their teachings into one system. Huesller even uses one plate (plate 9) out of Capoferro without a single attempt to change it.
Revival  Since the middle of the 1990s there has been a huge revival in Historical European Swordsmanship, sometimes called HEMA, WMA or historical fencing, and numerous clubs are teaching a variety of styles from the earliest known manuscript (i.33, teaching sword and buckler), through the high medieval and renaissance periods up to the western traditions of the early 20th century such as Bartitsu. Many different styles of rapier tradition are studied today, from the Spanish school of Carranza and Thibault, to the early German rapier works of Meyer and the most popular of styles, the Italian rapier. Of all the treatises written on Italian rapier combat, by far the two most commonly used by modern practitioners are those of Salvator Fabris and Ridolfo Capoferro.
Spelling of name Because there is an apparent space in the name of the author in the original publication, Capoferro is often spelled as two words: Capo Ferro. However, a look at some sources where he is named or listed, such as in the works of other fencing masters (for example, see page 6 of Giuseppe Morsicato-Pallavicini's 1670 fencing treatise), Jacopo Gelli's fencing bibliography, Dr Anglo's book The Martial Arts of Renaissance Europe, the listing of his books in the US Library of Congress, the Latin form of his name over his portrait (Rodulphus Capoferrus), and the spelling of the surname in modern Italy does support that it is one word.
Despite this, other sources of the time such as "Prima [e secundi] parte dell'Historia siciliana (1606)" clearly show the name spelt as two words. Other works such as "Bibliotheca Stoschiana sive Catalogus selectissimorum librorum quos Collegerat Philippvs Liber Baro De Stosch" (1759), have the name hyphenated (Capo-Ferro). See also Salvator Fabris Francesco Alfieri  References  Literature Jared Kirby (ed. ), Italian Rapier Combat - Ridolfo Capo Ferro, Greenhill Books, London (2004). Nick Thomas, "Rapier The Art and Use of Fencing by Ridolfo Capo Ferro", Swordworks, UK (2007)  Tom Leoni, "Ridolfo Capoferro's The Art and Practice of Fencing", Freelance Academy Press, Inc, USA (2011)  External links English Translation of Capoferro's treatise, Edited by Roger Kay, Translation by Jherek Swanger and William E. Wilson ARMA facsimile Practical Capoferro Call to Arms: The Italian Rapier (myArmoury.com article)  Capo Ferro, Ridolfo Capo Ferro, Ridolfo Capo Ferro, Ridolfo
Honky (also spelled honkie or sometimes honkey) is an insult for white people, predominantly heard in the United States. The term was popularized by black activist H. Rap Brown in the late 1960s. The first recorded use of "honky" in this context may date back to 1946, although the use of "honky-tonk" occurred in films well before that time. The exact origins of the word are generally unknown and postulations about the subject vary. Etymology The exact origins of the word are generally unknown and postulations about the subject vary. Hungarian Honky may be a variant of hunky, which was a derivative of Bohunk, a slur for various Slavic and Hungarian immigrants who moved to America from the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the early 1900s.
Wolof Honky may also derive from the term "xonq nopp" which, in the West African language Wolof, literally means "red-eared person". The term may have originated with Wolof-speaking people brought to the U.S. It has been used by black Americans as a pejorative for white people. Other The phrase honky-tonk refers to a particular type of country music, most commonly provided at bars for its patrons, or more commonly, may even refer to the bar itself. Honky may have come from coal miners in Oak Hill, West Virginia. The miners were segregated; blacks in one section, Anglo-whites in another. Foreigners who could not speak English, mostly whites, were separated from both groups into an area known as "Hunk Hill".
These male laborers were known as "Hunkies". The term may have begun in the meat packing plants of Chicago. According to Robert Hendrickson, author of the Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins, black workers in Chicago meatpacking plants picked up the term from white workers and began applying it indiscriminately to all whites. Notable uses  Honky was adopted as a pejorative in 1967 by Black Power militants within Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) seeking a rebuttal for the term nigger. The Department of Defense stated in 1967 that National Chairman of the SNCC, H. Rap Brown, told an audience of blacks in Cambridge that "You should burn that school down and then go take over the honkie's school" on June 24, 1967.
Brown went on to say: "[I]f America don't come 'round, we got to burn it down. You better get some guns, brother. The only thing the honky respects is a gun. You give me a gun and tell me to shoot my enemy, I might shoot Lady Bird." Honky has occasionally been used even for whites supportive of African-Americans, as seen in the 1968 trial of Black Panther Party member Huey Newton, when fellow Panther Eldridge Cleaver created pins for Newton's white supporters stating "Honkies for Huey". "Father of the Blues" W.C. Handy wrote of "Negroes and hunkies" in his autobiography.
Use in music and entertainment  Country musicians such as David Allan Coe and other successful artists have used the words honky and honky-tonk in popular songs such as: "It Wasn't God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels" (Kitty Wells), "Honky Tonk Women" (The Rolling Stones), "Honky Cat" (Elton John), "Honky Tonk Blues" (Hank Williams), "Chasin' That Neon Rainbow" (Alan Jackson), "I'm a Honky Tonk Girl" (Loretta Lynn), "Just Another Honky" (Faces) and "Honky Tonk Man" (Johnny Horton). The phrase "Honky Tonk Man" has also been used for popular culture purposes including The Honky Tonk Man (a ring name and persona for professional wrestler Roy Wayne Farris) and Honky Tonk Man (an album by innovating country rock musician Steve Young).
Other uses of honky in music include Honky (an album by Melvins), Honky Reduction (an album by Agoraphobic Nosebleed), The Chicago Honky (a style of polka music), MC Honky (DJ stage persona), Honky Château (an album by Elton John, the first track on which is "Honky Cat"), Talkin' Honky Blues (an album by Buck 65) and Honky (an album by Keith Emerson). Honky's Ladder is a 1996 EP by The Afghan Whigs. The uncensored version of the 1976 disco/funk hit "Play That Funky Music", by Wild Cherry, uses "honky" in the final chorus of the song. "Brain Damage", a song by the rapper Eminem, uses the line "He looked at me and said, "You gonna die honkey!"".
The 2012 rap song "Thrift Shop" by Macklemore & Ryan Lewis uses the line "The people like 'Damn, that's a cold ass honky!'" to refer to Macklemore who is white. Use in television and film  In film, there were some movies using "honky" without any derogatory connotation. Honky Tonk is a 1929 American musical film starring Sophie Tucker. And Honky Tonk is also a 1941 black-and-white Western film starring Clark Gable and Lana Turner. In the 1958 movie The Defiant Ones, Tony Curtis' character John "Joker" Jackson refers to himself as "a honky". Honky is a 1971 movie based on an interracial relationship, starring Brenda Sykes as Sheila Smith and John Neilson as Wayne "Honky" Devine.
Honky Tonk is also a 1974 Western film starring Richard Crenna and Margot Kidder. Additionally, Honkytonk Man is a 1982 drama film set in the Great Depression. Clint Eastwood, who produced and directed the film, stars in the film with his son, Kyle Eastwood. In the 1973 James Bond movie Live and Let Die, Bond is referred to as "the honky" on three occasions when captured by exclusively black adversaries. In a sketch on Saturday Night Live (SNL), Chevy Chase and Richard Pryor used both nigger (Chase) and honky (Pryor) in reference to one another during a "racist word association interview".
During this period, Steve Martin (as musical guest and stand-up regular on SNL) performed a rendition of "King Tut" which contained the word honky in its lyrics. In the movie National Lampoon's Vacation when the Griswolds visit East St. Louis, a local gang removes the wheel covers and write "Honky Lips" in black paint on the right side of the vehicle. On the TV series The Jeffersons, George Jefferson regularly referred to a white person as a honky (or whitey) as did Redd Foxx on Sanford and Son. This word would later be popularized in episodes of Mork & Mindy by Robin Williams and Jonathan Winters.
The neighbor on the British sitcom Love Thy Neighbour, played by Rudolph Walker, would often refer to his bigoted white neighbor (Jack Smethurst) as "honky". In the Family Guy episode "Brian Sings and Swings", Peter Griffin uses the word to try to get out of jury duty. These and other shows, as exemplified by the controversial All in the Family, attempted to expose racism and prejudice as an issue in society using the subversive weapon of humor. However, the effect that this theme had on television created both negative and positive criticism and the use of anti-racist messages actually escalates the use of racial slurs.
The presence of higher education may countermand this effect. In Season 2, Episode 1 of Da Ali G Show ("Law"), Ali G uses the term to refer to a white male while radioing the dispatcher at the Philadelphia Police Academy, while he uses the term "brother" to refer to a black person, despite being white himself. On the TV series Barney Miller, Season 5, Episode 8, "Loan Shark", Arthur Dietrich gives an etymology of the word "honky", claiming it was "coined by blacks in the 1950s in reference to the nasal tone of Caucasians". One of the Harlem Globetrotters refers to the robot Bender as "silver honky" in the episode "Time Keeps On Slippin' of the cartoon series Futurama.
The animated television series Black Dynamite extensively uses the word "honky" as reference to white people, especially the Man. In Episode 4 of Season 1, 10-year-old Black Dynamite is competing in a spelling bee, when he is asked to spell the word "white" he spells it out as "H-O-N-K-Y". In Episode 8 of Season 1, a giant albino ape is referred to as "Honky Kong". See also  Buckra  Cracker  Hillbilly  List of ethnic slurs  Redneck  Whitey (slang)  References  Category:Pejorative terms for white people
Neal Edelstein is an independent film producer and is known as an early technology adopter. Biography  Early life Neal Edelstein was born in Winnetka, Illinois, USA. He graduated from the New Trier High School. Career He began his film career in Los Angeles, California in the early 1990s. In 1997, he produced David Lynch's segment in the French film Lumiere and Company, shot with the original Lumiere brothers's camera. After completion of the film, Edelstein and Lynch became partners in The Picture Factory, where Edelstein produced The Straight Story and Mulholland Drive, as well as worked with Lynch to conceive and launch DavidLynch.com.
Later, he formed Macari/Edelstein Filmed Entertainment with New Line Cinema executive Mike Macari. Their first project was the American remake of the Japanese horror film The Ring, followed by The Ring Two. Edelstein was instrumental in creating the viral marketing campaign for The Ring with director Gore Verbinski. Other credits include Disney-distributed The Invisible, directed by David Goyer, and 6 Souls, starring Julianne Moore and Jonathan Rhyes Meyers. Additionally, he is the founder of Hooked Digital Media, a production company that delivers filmed stories for the mobile and tablet generation. In 2013 they released Haunting Melissa, a storytelling iOS app that rolls out new chapters and content of varying duration.
References  Category:Living people Category:People from Winnetka, Illinois Category:People from Los Angeles Category:Film producers from California Category:Film producers from Illinois Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Paul Guihard (1931 – 30 September 1962) was a French-British journalist for Agence France-Press. He was murdered in the 1962 riot at the University of Mississippi while covering the events surrounding James Meredith's attempts to enroll at the all-white university. The only journalist known to have been killed in the backlash to the Civil Rights Movement, his murder remains unsolved. Early life Guihard was born in London in 1931, the son of an English mother and a French father, both of whom worked in the hotel industry. He had a brother, Alain Guihard. He was a dual citizen of France and the United Kingdom.
In 1935, his parents purchased London's Rhodesia Court Hotel, and sent the three-year-old Guihard to stay with his grandparents in France while they attended to the new business. He remained in Saint-Malo until the end of World War II, and at fourteen returned to his parents in London. There he attended the French Lycée and the University of London, where he earned a degree in international affairs. Guihard was always interested in writing and found part-time work with Agence France-Presse (AFP) while in his teens, covering the 1948 London Olympics for the agency. His dedication to his work earned him the nickname "Flash".
At 19 he joined the British Army, serving at the Suez Canal. He joined Agence France-Presse full time in 1953 after his discharge. AFP transferred him to its English-speaking desk in Paris in 1959 and assigned him to the New York office the following year. In New York Guihard chiefly worked as an editor, also occasionally contributing stories for AFP and freelancing for London's Daily Sketch. He also wrote plays, including "The Deck Chair", which was performed in New York and later adapted into French for several performances in France. University of Mississippi assignment and death On 30 September 1962, AFP assigned Guihard to cover the developing story of James Meredith's enrollment at the University of Mississippi, the first time an African-American enrolled at the school.
As an editor, Guihard infrequently went out on assignment, and did not regularly cover the Civil Rights beat; in fact Guihard had the day off. However, the agency was short staffed and felt the story needed to be covered, and so called in Guihard and photographer Sammy Schulman to go to Mississippi. That morning, Guihard and Schulman flew from New York to Jackson, Mississippi via Atlanta. They found a tense atmosphere in which the federal government was prepared to use force to ensure Meredith's enrollment despite the attempts of governor Ross Barnett and local segregationists to keep him out. Guihard and Schulman visited the governor's office, where the Citizens' Council had organized a segregationist rally.
They then visited the local Citizens' Council headquarters to interview executive director Louis Hollis. The meeting was friendly and Guihard received Hollis' permission to file a story from the office; this 198-word piece, Guihard's last, called the situation "the gravest Constitutional crisis that the United States has known since the War of Secession" and asserted that the "Civil War never came to an end". Guihard and Schulman then drove north to Oxford, Mississippi, home of the University of Mississippi. While en route, they heard President John F. Kennedy's speech indicating that federal agents had already escorted Meredith to campus. Assuming the story was over, they continued on to Oxford to clear up the details.
When they arrived, at around 8:40 p.m., however, they learned that rioting had started on campus. Parking near The Grove, Guihard and Shulman split up to avoid being identified as journalists and targeted by the mob, agreeing to meet back up an hour later. Guihard headed toward the riot gathering at the Lyceum and Circle areas of campus, while Shulman circled the Grove. Life photographer Flip Schulke saw Guihard heading toward the riot and tried to stop him, but Guihard refused, saying, "I'm not worried, I was in Cyprus." This may have been the last time anyone spoke to Guihard.
Guihard was shot in an unlit area at the southeast corner of the Ward Dormitory between 8 and 9 p.m. His body was found by students just east of the dormitory at 9 p.m. The students attempted to revive him and sought help, but were not immediately certain what had happened to him; they initially believed he had suffered cardiac arrest from the tear gas. The riot exacerbated matters, as ambulances could not get through the crowd to assist. Eventually, the students were able to get a car to the area and took Guihard to Oxford Hospital, where he was pronounced dead on arrival.
The hospital determined that he had been killed by "a gunshot wound to the back that penetrated the heart". The hospital sent Guihard's body to a nearby funeral home, where Schulman made the identification. He was the only journalist murdered during the Civil Rights Era. The Federal Bureau of Investigation handled the initial investigation with assistance from local authorities. Sheriff Joe Ford surmised that the shooter had attacked Guihard either knowing he was a journalist, or mistaking him as a protester, and had certainly intended to kill him. Guihard may have stood out from the crowd due to his large frame, red hair and distinctive red goatee, and potentially his foreign accent.
The investigation never identified a suspect and the case remained unsolved. Memorials  in 1989, Paul Guihard's name was included in the Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, Alabama, memorializing 40 people who lost their lives in the struggle for civil rights. Twenty years later a memorial plaque was unveiled by representatives of the University of Mississippi and from AFP, a short distance from where his body was found. Some 150 students and teachers from the school of journalism participated in the ceremony. See also  List of journalists killed in the United States  List of unsolved murders  Footnotes  References  Further reading  Paul L. Guihard - Notice to Close File, United States Department of Justice, July 16, 2011.
Comprehensive description of crime and federal civil rights investigation, and determination to close file and reasons therefor (including expiration of civil rights statute of limitations). Wickham, Kathleen (2017). We Believed We Were Immortal: Twelve Reporters Who Covered the 1962 Integration Crisis at Ole Miss. Oxford, MS: Yoknapatawpha Press. Category:1931 births Category:1962 deaths Category:1962 in Mississippi Category:1962 murders in the United States Category:Deaths by firearm in Mississippi Category:French journalists Category:French male non-fiction writers Category:French people murdered abroad Category:History of civil rights in the United States Category:Murdered French journalists Category:Murdered British journalists Category:People murdered in Mississippi Category:September 1962 events Category:Unsolved murders in the United States
PAR1 may refer to:  PAR1 (gene), Prader–Willi/Angelman region-1 gene  PAR-1, a serine/threonine-protein kinase of the KIN2/PAR-1/MARK kinase family  Coagulation factor II receptor  Parchive, a data archive format  PAR1, one of the pseudoautosomal regions of the X or Y chromosome
Taekwondo, Tae Kwon Do or Taekwon-Do (Korean  ,  ,  ) is a Korean martial art, characterized by its emphasis on head-height kicks, jumping and spinning kicks, and fast kicking techniques. Taekwondo is a combative sport and was developed during the 1940s and 1950s by Korean martial artists with experience in martial arts such as karate, Chinese martial arts, and indigenous Korean martial arts traditions such as Taekkyon, Subak, and Gwonbeop. The oldest governing body for Taekwondo is the Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA), formed in 1959 through a collaborative effort by representatives from the nine original kwans, or martial arts schools, in Korea.
The main international organisational bodies for Taekwondo today are the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF), founded by Choi Hong Hi in 1966, and the partnership of the Kukkiwon and World Taekwondo (WT, formerly WTF), founded in 1972 and 1973 respectively by the Korea Taekwondo Association. Gyeorugi (), a type of full-contact sparring, has been an Olympic event since 2000. The governing body for Taekwondo in the Olympics and Paralympics is World Taekwondo. History     Beginning in 1945, shortly after the end of World War II and Japanese Occupation, new martial arts schools called kwans opened in Seoul. These schools were established by Korean martial artists with backgrounds in (mostly) Japanese and Chinese martial arts.
At the time, indigenous disciplines (such as Taekkyeon) were all but forgotten, due to years of decline and repression by the Japanese colonial government. The umbrella term traditional Taekwondo typically refers to the martial arts practiced by the kwans during the 1940s and 1950s, though in reality the term "Taekwondo" had not yet been coined at that time, and indeed each kwan (school) was practicing its own unique fighting style. In 1952, South Korean President Syngman Rhee witnessed a  martial arts demonstration by ROK Officer Choi Hong-hi and Nam Tae-hi from the 29th Infantry Division. He misrecognized the technique on display as Taekkyeon, and urged martial arts to be introduced to the army under a single system.
Beginning in 1955 the leaders of the kwans began discussing in earnest the possibility of creating a unified Korean martial art. Until then, Tang Soo Do was used to name Korean Karate, using the Korean hanja pronunciation of the Japanese kanji (唐手道). The name Tae Soo Do (跆手道) was also used to describe a unified style Korean martial arts. This name consists of the hanja  tae "to stomp, trample",  su "hand" and  do "way, discipline". Choi Hong Hi advocated the use of the name Tae Kwon Do, i.e. replacing su "hand" by  kwon (Revised Romanization: gwon; McCune–Reischauer: kkwŏn) "fist", the term also used for "martial arts" in Chinese (pinyin quán).
The name was also the closest to the pronunciation of Taekkyeon, in accordance with the views of the president. The new name was initially slow to catch on among the leaders of the kwans. During this time Taekwondo was also adopted for use by the South Korean military, which increased its popularity among civilian martial arts schools. In 1959 the Korea Taekwondo Association (then-Korea Tang Soo Do Association) was established to facilitate the unification of Korean martial arts. General Choi, of the Oh Do Kwan, wanted all the other member kwans of the KTA to adopt his own Chan Hon-style of Taekwondo, as a unified style.
This was, however, met with resistance as the other kwans instead wanted a unified style to be created based on inputs from all the kwans, to serve as a way to bring on the heritage and characteristics of all of the styles, not just the style of a single kwan. As a response to this, along with disagreements about teaching Taekwondo in North Korea and unifying the whole Korean Peninsula, Choi broke with the KTA in 1966, in order to establish the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF)— a separate governing body devoted to institutionalizing his own style of Taekwondo in Canada.
Initially, the South Korean president, having close ties to General Choi, gave General Choi's ITF limited support. However, the South Korean government wished to avoid North Korean influence on the martial art. Conversely, ITF president Choi Hong Hi sought support for his style of Taekwondo from all quarters, including North Korea. In response, in 1972 South Korea withdrew its support for the ITF. The ITF continued to function as an independent federation, then headquartered in Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Choi continued to develop the ITF-style, notably with the 1983 publication of his Encyclopedia of Taekwondo. After Choi's retirement, the ITF split in 2001 and then again in 2002 to create three separate federations each of which continues to operate today under the same name.
In 1972 the KTA and the South Korean government's Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism established the Kukkiwon as the new national academy for Taekwondo. Kukkiwon now serves many of the functions previously served by the KTA, in terms of defining a government-sponsored unified style of Taekwondo. In 1973 the KTA and Kukkiwon supported the establishment of the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF, renamed to World Taekwondo in 2017 due to confusion with the initialism) to promote the sportive side of Kukki-Taekwondo. WT competitions employ Kukkiwon-style Taekwondo. For this reason, Kukkiwon-style Taekwondo is often referred to as WT-style Taekwondo, sport-style Taekwondo, or Olympic-style Taekwondo, though in reality the style is defined by the Kukkiwon, not the WT.
Since 2000, Taekwondo has been one of only two Asian martial arts (the other being judo) that are included in the Olympic Games. It started as a demonstration event at the 1988 games in Seoul, a year after becoming a medal event at the Pan Am Games, and became an official medal event at the 2000 games in Sydney. In 2010, Taekwondo was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport. Features   Taekwondo is characterized by its emphasis on head-height kicks, jumping and spinning kicks, and fast kicking techniques. In fact, World Taekwondo sparring competitions award additional points for strikes that incorporate spinning kicks, kicks to the head, or both.
To facilitate fast, turning kicks, Taekwondo generally adopts stances that are narrower and taller than the broader, wide stances used by martial arts such as karate. The tradeoff of decreased stability is believed to be worth the commensurate increase in agility, particularly in Kukkiwon-style Taekwondo. Theory of power  The emphasis on speed and agility is a defining characteristic of Taekwondo and has its origins in analyses undertaken by Choi Hong Hi. The results of that analysis are known by ITF practitioners as Choi's Theory of Power. Choi based his understanding of power on biomechanics and Newtonian physics as well as Chinese martial arts.
For example, Choi observed that the kinetic energy of a strike increases quadratically with the speed of the strike, but increases only linearly with the mass of the striking object. In other words, speed is more important than size in terms of generating power. This principle was incorporated into the early design of Taekwondo and is still used. Choi also advocated a relax/strike principle for Taekwondo; in other words, between blocks, kicks, and strikes the practitioner should relax the body, then tense the muscles only while performing the technique. It is believed that the relax/strike principle increases the power of the technique, by conserving the body's energy.
He expanded on this principle with his advocacy of the sine wave technique. This involves raising one's centre of gravity between techniques, then lowering it as the technique is performed, producing the up-and-down movement from which the term "sine wave" is derived. The sine wave is generally practiced, however, only in schools that follow ITF-style Taekwondo. Kukkiwon-style Taekwondo, for example, does not employ the sine wave and advocates a more uniform height during movements, drawing power mainly from the rotation of the hip. The components of the Theory of Power include:   Reaction Force: the principle that as the striking limb is brought forward, other parts of the body should be brought backwards in order to provide more power to the striking limb.
As an example, if the right leg is brought forward in a roundhouse kick, the right arm is brought backwards to provide the reaction force. Concentration: the principle of bringing as many muscles as possible to bear on a strike, concentrating the area of impact into as small an area as possible. Equilibrium: maintaining a correct centre-of-balance throughout a technique. Breath Control: the idea that during a strike one should exhale, with the exhalation concluding at the moment of impact. Mass: the principle of bringing as much of the body to bear on a strike as possible; again using the turning kick as an example, the idea would be to rotate the hip as well as the leg during the kick in order to take advantage of the hip's additional mass in terms of providing power to the kick.
Speed: as previously noted, the speed of execution of a technique in Taekwondo is deemed to be even more important than mass in terms of providing power. Typical curriculum   While organizations such as ITF or Kukkiwon define the general style of Taekwondo, individual clubs and schools tend to tailor their Taekwondo practices.
Although each Taekwondo club or school is different, a student typically takes part in most or all of the following:   Forms (pumsae / poomsae 품새, hyeong / hyung 형/型 or teul / tul 틀): these serve the same function as kata in the study of karate  Sparring (gyeorugi 겨루기 or matseogi 맞서기): sparring includes variations such as freestyle sparring (in which competitors spar without interruption for several minutes); seven-, three-, two-, and one-step sparring (in which students practice pre-arranged sparring combinations); and point sparring (in which sparring is interrupted and then resumed after each point is scored)  Breaking (gyeokpa 격파/擊破 or weerok): the breaking of boards is used for testing, training, and martial arts demonstrations.
Demonstrations often also incorporate bricks, tiles, and blocks of ice or other materials.
These techniques can be separated into three types:  Power breaking – using straightforward techniques to break as many boards as possible  Speed breaking – boards are held loosely by one edge, putting special focus on the speed required to perform the break  Special techniques – breaking fewer boards but by using jumping or flying techniques to attain greater height, distance, or to clear obstacles  Self-defense techniques (hosinsul 호신술/護身術)  Learning the fundamental techniques of Taekwondo; these generally include kicks, blocks, punches, and strikes, with somewhat less emphasis on grappling and holds  Throwing and/or falling techniques (deonjigi 던지기 or tteoreojigi 떨어지기)  Both anaerobic and aerobic workout, including stretching  Relaxation and meditation exercises, as well as breathing control  A focus on mental and ethical discipline, etiquette, justice, respect, and self-confidence  Examinations to progress to the next rank  Development of personal success and leadership skills  Though weapons training is not a formal part of most Taekwondo federation curricula, individual schools will often incorporate additional training with staffs, knives, sticks, etc.
Equipment and facilities   A Taekwondo practitioner typically wears a uniform (dobok 도복/道服), often white but sometimes black (or other colors), with a belt tied around the waist. White uniforms are considered the traditional color and are usually encouraged for use at formal ceremonies such as belt tests and promotions. Colored uniforms are often reserved for special teams (such as demonstration teams or leadership teams) or higher-level instructors. There are at least three major styles of dobok, with the most obvious differences being in the style of jacket:   The cross-over front jacket (usually seen in ITF style), in which the opening of the jacket is vertical.
The cross-over Y-neck jacket (usually seen in the Kukkiwon/WT style, especially for poomsae competitions), in which the opening of the jacket crosses the torso diagonally. The pull-over V-neck jacket (usually seen in Kukkiwon/WT style, especially for sparring competitions). White uniforms in the Kukkiwon/WT tradition will typically be white throughout the jacket (black trim along the collars only for dan grades), while ITF-style uniforms are usually trimmed with a black border along the collar and bottom of the jacket (for dan grades). The belt color and any insignia thereon indicate the student's rank. Different clubs and schools use different color schemes for belts.
In general, the darker the color, the higher the rank. Taekwondo is traditionally performed in bare feet, although martial arts training shoes may sometimes be worn. When sparring, padded equipment is usually worn. In the ITF tradition, typically only the hands and feet are padded. For this reason, ITF sparring often employs only light-contact sparring. In the Kukkiwon/WT tradition, full-contact sparring is facilitated by the employment of more extensive equipment: padded helmets called homyun are always worn, as are padded torso protectors called hogu; feet, shins, groins, hands, and forearms protectors are also worn. The school or place where instruction is given is called the dojang (도장, 道場).
Specifically, the term dojang refers to the area within the school in which martial arts instruction takes place; the word dojang is sometimes translated as gymnasium. In common usage, the term dojang is often used to refer to the school as a whole. Modern dojangs often incorporate padded flooring, often incorporating red-and-blue patterns in the flooring to reflect the colors of the taegeuk symbol. Some dojangs have wooden flooring instead. The dojang is usually decorated with items such as flags, banners, belts, instructional materials, and traditional Korean calligraphy. Styles and organizations   There are a number of major Taekwondo styles as well as a few niche styles.
Most styles are associated with a governing body or federation that defines the style. The major technical differences among Taekwondo styles and organizations generally revolve around:  the patterns practiced by each style (called hyeong 형, pumsae 품새, or tul 틀, depending on the style); these are sets of prescribed formal sequences of movements that demonstrate mastery of posture, positioning, and technique  differences in the sparring rules for competition. martial arts philosophy. 1946: Traditional Taekwondo  The term traditional Taekwondo typically refers to martial arts practised in Korea during the 1940s and 1950s by the nine original kwans, or martial arts schools, after the conclusion of the Japanese occupation of Korea at the end of World War II.
The term Taekwondo had not yet been coined, and in reality, each of the nine original kwans practised its own style of martial art. The term traditional Taekwondo serves mostly as an umbrella term for these various styles, as they themselves used various other names such as Tang Soo Do (Chinese Hand Way), Kong Soo Do (Empty Hand Way) and Tae Soo Do (Foot Hand Way). Traditional Taekwondo is still practised today but generally under other names, such as Tang Soo Do and Soo Bahk Do. In 1959, the name Taekwondo was agreed upon by the nine original kwans as a common term for their martial arts.
As part of the unification process, The Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) was formed through a collaborative effort by representatives from all the kwans, and the work began on a common curriculum, which eventually resulted in the Kukkiwon and the Kukki Style of Taekwondo. The original kwans that formed KTA continues to exist today, but as independent fraternal membership organizations that support the World Taekwondo and Kukkiwon. The kwans also function as a channel for the issuing of Kukkiwon dan and poom certification (black belt ranks) for their members. The official curriculum of those kwans that joined the unification is that of the Kukkiwon, with the notable exception of half the Oh Do Kwan which joined the ITF instead and therefore uses the Chan Hon curriculum.
1966: ITF/Chang Hon-style Taekwondo  International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF)-style Taekwondo, more accurately known as Chang Hon-style Taekwondo, is defined by Choi Hong Hi's Encyclopedia of Taekwon-Do published in 1983. In 1990, the Global Taekwondo Federation (GTF) split from the ITF due to the political controversies surrounding the ITF; the GTF continues to practice ITF-style Taekwondo, however, with additional elements incorporated into the style. Likewise, the ITF itself split in 2001 and again in 2002 into three separate federations, headquartered in Austria, the United Kingdom, and Spain respectively. The GTF and all three ITFs practice Choi's ITF-style Taekwondo. In ITF-style Taekwondo, the word used for "forms" is tul; the specific set of tul used by the ITF is called Chang Hon.
Choi defined 24 Chang Hon tul. The names and symbolism of the Chang Hon tul refer to elements of Korean history, culture and religious philosophy. The GTF-variant of ITF practices an additional six tul. Within the ITF Taekwondo tradition there are two sub-styles:  The style of Taekwondo practised by the ITF before its 1973 split with the KTA is sometimes called by ITF practitioners "traditional Taekwondo", though a more accurate term would be traditional ITF Taekwondo. After the 1973 split, Choi Hong Hi continued to develop and refine the style, ultimately publishing his work in his 1983 Encyclopedia of Taekwondo.
Among the refinements incorporated into this new sub-style is the "sine wave"; one of Choi Hong Hi's later principles of Taekwondo is that the body's centre of gravity should be raised-and-lowered throughout a movement. Some ITF schools adopt the sine wave style, while others do not. Essentially all ITF schools do, however, use the patterns (tul) defined in the Encyclopedia, with some exceptions related to the forms Juche and Ko-Dang. 1969: ATA/Songahm-style Taekwondo  In 1969, Haeng Ung Lee, a former Taekwondo instructor in the South Korean military, relocated to Omaha, Nebraska and established a chain of martial arts schools in the United States under the banner of the American Taekwondo Association (ATA).
Like Jhoon Rhee Taekwondo, ATA Taekwondo has its roots in traditional Taekwondo. The style of Taekwondo practised by the ATA is called Songahm Taekwondo. The ATA went on to become one of the largest chains of Taekwondo schools in the United States. The ATA established international spin-offs called the Songahm Taekwondo Federation (STF) and the World Traditional Taekwondo Union (WTTU) to promote the practice of Songahm Taekwondo internationally. In 2015, all the spin-offs were reunited under the umbrella of ATA International. 1970s: Jhoon Rhee-style Taekwondo  In 1962 Jhoon Rhee relocated to the United States and established a chain of martial arts schools primarily in the Washington, D.C. area that practised traditional Taekwondo.
In the 1970s, at the urging of Choi Hong Hi, Rhee adopted ITF-style Taekwondo within his chain of schools, but like the GTF later departed from the ITF due to the political controversies surrounding Choi and the ITF. Rhee went on to develop his own style of Taekwondo called Jhoon Rhee-style Taekwondo, incorporating elements of both traditional and ITF-style Taekwondo as well as original elements. (Note that Jhoon Rhee-style Taekwondo is distinct from the similarly named Rhee Taekwon-Do, based in Australia and New Zealand). Jhoon Rhee-style Taekwondo is still practised primarily in the United States and eastern Europe. 1972: Kukki-style / WT-Taekwondo   In 1972 the Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) Central Dojang opened in Seoul; in 1973 the name was changed to Kukkiwon.
Under the sponsorship of the South Korean government's Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism the Kukkiwon became the new national academy for Taekwondo, thereby establishing a new "unified" style of Taekwondo. In 1973 the KTA established the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF, now called World Taekwondo, WT) to promote the sportive side of Kukki-Taekwondo. The International Olympic Committee recognized the WT and Taekwondo sparring in 1980. For this reason, the Kukkiwon-defined style of Taekwondo is sometimes referred to as Sport-style Taekwondo, Olympic-style Taekwondo, or WT-style Taekwondo, but the style itself is defined by the Kukkiwon, not by the WT, and the WT competition ruleset itself only allows the use of a very small number of the total number of techniques included in the style.
Therefore, the correct term for the South Korean government sponsored style of Taekwondo associated with the Kukkiwon, is Kukki Taekwondo, meaning "national Taekwondo" in Korean. The color belts range from white to junior black belt (half black, half red) or plain red. The order and colours used may vary between schools, but a common order is white, yellow, green, blue, red, black. However, other variations with a higher number of colours is also commonly seen. A usual practice, when employing only four coloured belts, is to stay at each belt color for the duration of two gup ranks, making a total of eight gup ranks between white belt and 1st.
dan black belt. In order to make a visual difference between the first and second gup rank of given belt color, a stripe in the same color as the next belt color is added to the second cup rank in some schools. In Kukki-style Taekwondo, the word used for "forms" is poomsae. In 1967 the KTA established a new set of forms called the Palgwae poomsae, named after the eight trigrams of the I Ching. In 1971 however (after additional kwans had joined the KTA), the KTA and Kukkiwon adopted a new set of color-belt forms instead, called the Taegeuk poomsae.
Black belt forms are called yudanja poomsae. While ITF-style forms refer to key elements of Korean history, Kukki-style forms refer instead to elements of sino-Korean philosophy such as the I Ching and the taegeuk. WT-sanctioned tournaments allow any person, regardless of school affiliation or martial arts style, to compete in WT events as long as he or she is a member of the WT Member National Association in his or her nation; this allows essentially anyone to compete in WT-sanctioned competitions. Other styles and hybrids  As previously mentioned, in 1990 the Global Taekwondo Federation (GTF) split from the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF) to form its own style of Taekwondo based on ITF-style.
Essentially this can be considered a variation of ITF-style. Also in 1990, martial artist and actor Chuck Norris, an alumnus of Hwang Kee's Moo Duk Kwan organization, established a hybrid martial art system called Chun Kuk Do. Chun Kuk Do shares many techniques, forms and names with Tang Soo Do and Taekwondo, and so can be considered a variation of traditional Taekwondo. Similarly, Lim Ching Sing's Hup Kwon Do and Kwang-jo Choi's Choi Kwang Do also derive from Taekwondo. Additionally, there are hybrid martial arts that combine Taekwondo with other styles. These include:   Extreme Taekwondo: a complex version of World Taekwondo Federation, which combines elements from all Taekwondo styles, Tricking (martial arts), similarities from other martial arts  Kun Gek Do (also Gwon Gyokdo): combines Taekwondo and muay thai.
Han Moo Do: Scandinavian martial art that combines Taekwondo, hapkido, and hoi jeon moo sool. Han Mu Do: Korean martial art that combines Taekwondo and hapkido. Teukgong Moosool: Korean martial art that combines elements of Taekwondo, hapkido, judo, kyuk too ki, and Chinese martial arts. Yongmudo: developed at Korea's Yong-In University, combines Taekwondo, hapkido, judo, and ssireum. Forms (patterns)  Three Korean terms may be used with reference to Taekwondo forms or patterns. These forms are equivalent to kata in karate. Hyeong (sometimes romanized as hyung) is the term usually used in traditional Taekwondo (i.e., 1950s–1960s styles of Korean martial arts).
Poomsae (sometimes romanized as pumsae or poomse) is the term officially used by Kukkiwon/WT-style and ATA-style Taekwondo. Teul (officially romanized as tul) is the term usually used in ITF/Chang Hon-style Taekwondo. A hyeong is a systematic, prearranged sequence of martial techniques that is performed either with or without the use of a weapon. In dojangs (Taekwondo training gymnasiums) hyeong are used primarily as a form of interval training that is useful in developing mushin, proper kinetics and mental and physical fortitude. Hyeong may resemble combat, but are artistically non-combative and woven together so as to be an effective conditioning tool.
One's aptitude for a particular hyeong may be evaluated in competition. In such competitions, hyeong are evaluated by a panel of judges who base the score on many factors including energy, precision, speed, and control. In Western competitions, there are two general classes of hyeong: creative and standard. Creative hyeong are created by the performer and are generally acrobatic in nature and do not necessarily reflect the kinetic principles intrinsic in any martial system. Different Taekwondo styles and associations (ATA, ITF, GTF, WT, etc.) use different Taekwondo forms. Even within a single association, different schools in the association may use slightly different variations on the forms or use different names for the same form (especially in older styles of Taekwondo).
This is especially true for beginner forms, which tend to be less standardized than mainstream forms. Ranks, belts, and promotion   Taekwondo ranks vary from style to style and are not standardized. Typically, these ranks are separated into "junior" and "senior" sections, colloquially referred to as "color belts" and "black belts":   The junior section of ranks—the "color belt" ranks—are indicated by the Korean word geup  (also Romanized as gup or kup). Practitioners in these ranks generally wear belts ranging in color from white (the lowest rank) to red or brown  (higher ranks, depending on the style of Taekwondo). Belt colors may be solid or may include a colored stripe on a solid background.
The number of geup ranks varies depending on the style, typically ranging between 8 and 12 geup ranks. The numbering sequence for geup ranks usually begins at the larger number of white belts, and then counts down to "1st geup" as the highest color-belt rank. The senior section of ranks—the "black belt" ranks—is typically made up of nine ranks. Each rank is called a dan  or "degree" (as in "third dan" or "third-degree black belt"). The numbering sequence for dan ranks is opposite that of geup ranks: numbering begins at 1st dan (the lowest black-belt rank) and counts upward for higher ranks.
A practitioner's degree is sometimes indicated on the belt itself with stripes, Roman numerals, or other methods. Some styles incorporate an additional rank between the geup and dan levels, called the "bo-dan" rank—essentially, a candidate rank for black belt promotion. Additionally, the Kukkiwon/WT-style of Taekwondo recognizes a "poom" rank for practitioners under the age of 15: these practitioners have passed dan-level tests but will not receive dan-level rank until age 15. At age 15, their poom rank is considered to transition to equivalent dan rank automatically. In some schools, holders of the poom rank wear a half-red/half-black belt rather than a solid black belt.
To advance from one rank to the next, students typically complete promotion tests in which they demonstrate their proficiency in the various aspects of the art before their teacher or a panel of judges. Promotion tests vary from school to school, but may include such elements as the execution of patterns, which combine various techniques in specific sequences; the breaking of boards to demonstrate the ability to use techniques with both power and control; sparring and self-defense to demonstrate the practical application and control of techniques; physical fitness usually with push-ups and sit-ups; and answering questions on terminology, concepts, and history to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the art.
For higher dan tests, students are sometimes required to take a written test or submit a research paper in addition to taking the practical test. Promotion from one geup to the next can proceed rapidly in some schools since schools often allow geup promotions every two, three, or four months. Students of geup rank learn the most basic techniques first, and then move on to more advanced techniques as they approach first dan. Many of the older and more traditional schools often take longer to allow students to test for higher ranks than newer, more contemporary schools, as they may not have the required testing intervals.
In contrast, promotion from one dan to the next can take years. In fact, some styles impose age or time-in-rank limits on dan promotions. For example, the number of years between one dan promotion to the next may be limited to a minimum of the practitioner's current dan-rank, so that (for example) a 5th dan practitioner must wait 5 years to test for 6th dan. Black belt ranks may have titles associated with them, such as "master" and "instructor", but Taekwondo organizations vary widely in rules and standards when it comes to ranks and titles. What holds true in one organization may not hold true in another, as is the case in many martial art systems.
For example, achieving first dan ( black belt) ranking with three years' training might be typical in one organization but considered too quick in another organization, and likewise for other ranks. Similarly, the title for a given dan rank in one organization might not be the same as the title for that dan rank in another organization. In the International Taekwon-Do Federation, instructors holding 1st to 3rd dan are called Boosabum (assistant instructor), those holding 4th to 6th dan are called Sabum (instructor), those holding 7th to 8th dan are called Sahyun (master), and those holding 9th dan are called Saseong (grandmaster).
This system does not, however, necessarily apply to other Taekwondo organizations. In the American Taekwondo Association, instructor designations are separate from rank. Black belts may be designated as an instructor trainee (red, white and blue collar), specialty trainer (red and black collar), certified trainer (black-red-black collar) and certified instructor (black collar). After a one-year waiting period, instructors who hold the sixth dan are eligible for the title of Master. Seventh dan black belts are eligible for the title Senior Master and eighth dan black belts are eligible for the title Chief Master. In WT/Kukki-Taekwondo, instructors holding 1st. to 3rd. dan are considered assistant instructors (kyosa-nim), are not yet allowed to issue ranks, and are generally thought of as still having much to learn.
Instructors who hold a 4th. to 6th. dan are considered master instructors (sabum-nim), and is allowed to grade students to color belt ranks from 4th. dan, and to black belt/dan-ranks from 6th. dan. Those who hold a 7th–9th dan are considered Grandmasters. These ranks also holds an age requirement of 40+. In this style, a 10th dan rank is sometimes awarded posthumously for practitioners with a lifetime of demonstrable contributions to the practice of Taekwondo. Historical influences   The oldest Korean martial arts were an amalgamation of unarmed combat styles developed by the three rival Korean Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje, where young men were trained in unarmed combat techniques to develop strength, speed, and survival skills.
The most popular of these techniques were ssireum, subak, and Taekkyon. The Northern Goguryeo kingdom was a dominant force in Northern Korea and North Eastern China prior to the 1st century CE, and again from the 3rd century to the 6th century. Before the fall of the Goguryeo Dynasty in the 6th century, the Silla Kingdom asked for help in training its people for defence against pirate invasions. During this time a few select Silla warriors were given training in Taekkyon by the early masters from Goguryeo. These Silla warriors then became known as Hwarang or "blossoming knights." The Hwarang set up a military academy for the sons of royalty in Silla called Hwarang-do {花郎徒}, which means "flower-youth corps."
The Hwarang studied Taekkyon, history, Confucian philosophy, ethics, Buddhist morality, social skills, and military tactics. The guiding principles of the Hwarang warriors were based on Won Gwang's five codes of human conduct and included loyalty, filial duty, trustworthiness, valour, and justice. In spite of Korea's rich history of ancient and martial arts, Korean martial arts faded during the late Joseon Dynasty. Korean society became highly centralized under Korean Confucianism, and martial arts were poorly regarded in a society whose ideals were epitomized by its scholar-kings. Formal practices of traditional martial arts such as subak and Taekkyon were reserved for sanctioned military uses.
However, Taekkyon persisted into the 19th century as a folk game during the May-Dano festival, and was still taught as the formal military martial art throughout the Joseon Dynasty. Early progenitors of Taekwondo—the founders of the nine original kwans—who were able to study in Japan were exposed to Japanese martial arts, including karate, judo, and kendo, while others were exposed to the martial arts of China and Manchuria, as well as to the indigenous Korean martial art of Taekkyon. Hwang Kee founder of Moo Duk Kwan, further incorporated elements of Korean Gwonbeop from the Muye Dobo Tongji into the style that eventually became Tang Soo Do.
The historical influences of Taekwondo is controversial with a split between two schools of thought: traditionalism and revisionism. Traditionalism holds that the origins of Taekwondo can be traced through Korean martial arts while revisionism, which has become the prevailing theory, argues that Taekwondo is rooted in Karate. Philosophy  Different styles of Taekwondo adopt different philosophical underpinnings. Many of these underpinnings however refer back to the Five Commandments of the Hwarang as a historical referent.
For example, Choi Hong Hi expressed his philosophical basis for Taekwondo as the Five Tenets of Taekwondo:  Courtesy (yeui / 예의, 禮儀)  Integrity (yeomchi / 염치, 廉恥)  Perseverance (innae / 인내, 忍耐)  Self-control (geukgi / 극기, 克己)  Indomitable spirit (baekjeolbulgul / 백절불굴, 百折不屈)  These tenets are further articulated in a Taekwondo oath, also authored by Choi:  I shall observe the tenets of Taekwondo  I shall respect the instructor and seniors  I shall never misuse Taekwondo  I shall be a champion of freedom and justice  I shall build a more peaceful world Modern ITF organizations have continued to update and expand upon this philosophy.
The World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) also refers to the commandments of the Hwarang in the articulation of its Taekwondo philosophy. Like the ITF philosophy, it centers on the development of a peaceful society as one of the overarching goals for the practice of Taekwondo. The WT's stated philosophy is that this goal can be furthered by adoption of the Hwarang spirit, by behaving rationally ("education in accordance with the reason of heaven"), and by recognition of the philosophies embodied in the taegeuk (the yin and the yang, i.e., "the unity of opposites") and the sam taegeuk (understanding change in the world as the interactions of the heavens, the Earth, and Man).
The philosophical position articulated by the Kukkiwon is likewise based on the Hwarang tradition. Competition   Taekwondo competition typically involves sparring, breaking, and patterns; some tournaments also include special events such as demonstration teams and self-defense (hosinsul). In Olympic Taekwondo competition, however, only sparring (using WT competition rules) is performed. There are two kinds of competition sparring: point sparring, in which all strikes are light contact and the clock is stopped when a point is scored; and Olympic sparring, where all strikes are full contact and the clock continues when points are scored. Sparring involves a Hogu, or a chest protector, which muffles any kick's damage to avoid serious injuries.
Helmets and other gear are provided as well. Though other systems may vary, a common point system works like this: One point for a regular kick to the Hogu, two for a turning behind the kick, three for a back kick, and four for a spinning kick to the head. World Taekwondo (WT) Competition   Under World Taekwondo (WT, formerly WTF) and Olympic rules, sparring is a full-contact event, employing a continuous scoring system where the fighters are allowed to continue after scoring each technique, taking place between two competitors in either an area measuring 8  meters square or an octagon of similar size.
Competitors are matched within gender and weight division—eight divisions for World Championships that are condensed to four for the Olympics. A win can occur by points, or if one competitor is unable to continue (knockout). However, there are several decisions that can lead to a win, as well, including superiority, withdrawal, disqualification, or even a referee's punitive declaration. Each match consists of three two-minute rounds, with one minute rest between rounds, though these are often abbreviated or shortened for some junior and regional tournaments. Competitors must wear a hogu, head protector, shin pads, foot socks, forearm guards, hand gloves, a mouthpiece, and a groin cup.
Tournaments sanctioned by national governing bodies or the WT, including the Olympics and World Championship, use electronic hogus, electronic foot socks, and electronic head protectors to register and determine scoring techniques, with human judges used to assess and score technical (spinning) techniques and score punches. Points are awarded for permitted techniques delivered to the legal scoring areas as determined by an electronic scoring system, which assesses the strength and location of the contact. The only techniques allowed are kicks (delivering a strike using an area of the foot below the ankle), punches (delivering a strike using the closed fist), and pushes.
In some smaller tournaments, and in the past, points were awarded by three corner judges using electronic scoring tallies. All major national and international tournaments have moved fully (as of 2017) to electronic scoring, including the use of electronic headgear. This limits corner judges to scoring only technical points and punches. Some believe that the new electronic scoring system reduces controversy concerning judging decisions, but this technology is still not universally accepted., In particular, the move to electronic headgear has replaced controversy over judging with controversy over how the technology has changed the sport.
Because the headgear is not able to determine if a kick was a correct Taekwondo technique, and the pressure threshold for sensor activation for headgear is kept low for safety reasons, athletes who improvised ways of placing their foot on their opponents head were able to score points, regardless of how true to Taekwondo those techniques were. Techniques are divided into three categories: scoring techniques (such as a kick to the hogu), permitted but non-scoring techniques (such as a kick that strikes an arm), and not-permitted techniques (such as a kick below the waist). A punch that makes strong contact with the opponent's hogu scores 1 point.
The punch must be a straight punch with arm extended; jabs, hooks, uppercuts, etc. are permitted but do not score. Punches to the head are not allowed. A regular kick (no turning or spinning) to the hogu scores 2 points. A regular kick (no turning or spinning) to the head scores 3 points  A technical kick (a kick that involves turning or spinning) to the hogu scores 4 points. A technical kick to the head scores 5 points. As of October 2010, 4 points were awarded if a turning kick was used to execute this attack. As of June 2018, this was changed to 5 points.
The referee can give penalties at any time for rule-breaking, such as hitting an area not recognized as a target, usually the legs or neck. Penalties, called "Gam-jeom" are counted as an addition of one point for the opposing contestant. Following 10 "Gam-jeom" a player is declared the loser by referee's punitive declaration  At the end of three rounds, the competitor with most points wins the match. In the event of a tie, a fourth "sudden death" overtime round, sometimes called a "Golden Point", is held to determine the winner after a one-minute rest period. In this round, the first competitor to score a point wins the match.
If there is no score in the additional round, the winner is decided by superiority, as determined by the refereeing officials or number of fouls committed during that round. If a competitor has a 20-point lead at the end of the second round or achieves a 20-point lead at any point in the third round, then the match is over and that competitor is declared the winner. In addition to sparring competition, World Taekwondo sanctions competition in poomsae or forms, although this is not an Olympic event. Single competitors perform a designated pattern of movements, and are assessed by judges for accuracy (accuracy of movements, balance, precision of details) and presentation (speed and power, rhythm, energy), both of which receive numerical scores, with deductions made for errors.
Pair and team competition is also recognized, where two or more competitors perform the same form at the same time. In addition to competition with the traditional forms, there is experimentation with freestyle forms that allow more creativity. The World Taekwondo Federation directly sanctions the following competitions:  World Taekwondo Poomsae Championships  World Taekwondo Championships  World Para Taekwondo Championships (since 2009)  World Taekwondo Cadet Championships  World Taekwondo Junior Championships  World Taekwondo Team Championships  World Taekwondo Para Championships  World Taekwondo Grand Prix  World Taekwondo Beach Championships  Olympic Games  Paralympic Games (debut in 2020 Tokyo Paralympics)  International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF) Competition   The International Taekwon-Do Federation's sparring rules are similar to the WT's rules but differ in several aspects.
Hand attacks to the head are allowed. The competition is not full contact, and excessive contact is not allowed. Competitors are penalized with disqualification if they injure their opponent and he can no longer continue (knockout). The scoring system is:  1 point for Punch to the body or head. 2 points for Jumping kick to the body or kick to the head, or a jumping punch to the head  3 points for Jumping kick to the head  The competition area is 9×9 meters for international events. Competitors do not wear the hogu (although they are required to wear approved foot and hand protection equipment, as well as optional head guards).
This scoring system varies between individual organisations within the ITF; for example, in the TAGB, punches to the head or body score 1 point, kicks to the body score 2 points, and kicks to the head score 3 points. A continuous point system is utilized in ITF competition, where the fighters are allowed to continue after scoring a technique. Excessive contact is generally not allowed according to the official ruleset, and judges penalize any competitor with disqualification if they injure their opponent and he can no longer continue (although these rules vary between ITF organizations). At the end of two minutes (or some other specified time), the competitor with more scoring techniques wins.
Fouls in ITF sparring include: attacking a fallen opponent, leg sweeping, holding/grabbing, or intentional attack to a target other than the opponent. ITF competitions also feature performances of patterns, breaking, and 'special techniques' (where competitors perform prescribed board breaks at great heights). Multi-discipline competition  Some organizations deliver multi-discipline competitions, for example the British Student Taekwondo Federation's inter-university competitions, which have included separate WT rules sparring, ITF rules sparring, Kukkiwon patterns and Chang-Hon patterns events run in parallel since 1992. Other organizations  American Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) competitions are very similar, except that different styles of pads and gear are allowed.
Apart from WT and ITF tournaments, major Taekwondo competitions (all featuring WT Taekwondo only) include:  Universiade   Asian Games  African Games  European Games  Pan American Games  Pacific Games  Taekwondo is also an optional sport at the Commonwealth Games. Weight divisions  The following weight divisions are in effect due to the WTF and ITF tournament rules and regulations:  Korean Taekwondo vocabulary   In Taekwondo schools—even outside Korea—Korean language commands and vocabulary are often used. Korean numerals may be used as prompts for commands or for counting repetition exercises. Different schools and associations will use different vocabulary, however, and may even refer to entirely different techniques by the same name.
As one example, in Kukkiwon/WT-style Taekwondo, the term ap seogi refers to an upright walking stance, while in ITF/Chang Hon-style Taekwondo ap seogi refers to a long, low, front stance. Korean vocabulary commonly used in Taekwondo schools includes:  See also    Para Taekwondo  Taekwondo student oath  World Taekwondo Championships Taekkyon Taekwondo Life Magazine  References  External links    Kukkiwon's Guide to Technical Terminology in Taekwondo    Category:Combat sports Category:Games and sports introduced in 1955 Category:Korean culture Category:Korean martial arts Category:Mixed martial arts styles Category:Sports originating in Korea Category:Summer Olympic sports
Vǫlsa þáttr is a short story which is only extant in the Flateyjarbók codex, where it is found in a chapter of Óláfs saga helga. It is probably from the fourteenth century but takes place in 1029, when Scandinavia was still largely pagan, and it appears to preserve traditions of a pagan phallos cult, the vǫlsi (see also blót). The worship It relates that an old man and an old woman lived with their brisk son and intelligent daughter on a promontory far from other people. They also had a male and a female thrall. When the thrall had butchered a horse and was to throw away the horse's penis, the boy ran past, took it, and went to the place where his mother, sister, and the slave woman were sitting.
There he joked at the slave woman, telling her the organ would not be dull between her legs, whereupon the slave woman laughed. The daughter asked her brother to throw away the disgusting object, but her old mother rose and said it was a useful thing that should not be thrown away. She wrapped it in a cloth of linen together with onions and herbs to conserve it and put it in her coffer. Every evening in the autumn, she took it out of the coffer and prayed to it as to her god and had the rest of the household take part.
She recited a verse over it, handed it to her husband who did the same, and so on until every one had taken part. Enter King Olaf One day, when king Olaf II of Norway was fleeing king Canute the Great, he came by their promontory. He had heard of their worship and wanted to convert them to the Christian faith. He went to their abode and only brought with him Finnr Árnason and Þormóðr Kolbrúnarskáld, and they were all wearing grey cloaks to hide their identities. They entered the house and, when it was dark, they met the daughter who asked them who they were.
They all answered that their name was Grímr (hooded). The girl was not fooled and said she recognized King Olaf; he asked her to keep quiet about it. They then met the rest of the household and were invited for dinner. The old woman came last and carried the vǫlsi (the penis). She put it in her husband's lap and read a poem, saying: "May the giantess (Mǫrnir) accept this holy object". The husband accepted it and read a poem including the same phrase, and this continued until everybody in the company, but the king, had recited a poem with this phrase.
When it was the king's turn, he revealed himself and preached about Christianity, but the old woman was very skeptical, whereas her husband was very interested. Finally, they all agreed to be baptized by the king's chaplain and they remained Christian ever since. See also Ashvamedha Blót  References  External links Völsa þáttr from «Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad» Norway. Site with the original text and an English translation back to back German translation of the þáttr Völsa þáttr  Category:Germanic paganism Category:Sources of Norse mythology Category:Þættir Category:Legendary sagas
Various sour soups,  characterized by their sour taste, are known in various East Asian, Southeast Asian, and Slavic cuisines. Asian origin  Samlar machu, a generic Khmer term for sour soup (Cambodian sour soup). Canh chua (literally "sour soup")  is a sour soup indigenous to the Mekong River region of southern Vietnam. Sinigang, Philippine sour soup Hot and sour soup Tom kha kai Tom yum Lemon rasam - an Indian sour soup made with lemon juices Dunt dalun chin-yei - drumstick sour soup (cuisine of Burma)  Slavic origin   Borscht cooked in Eastern Europe has appreciable sour taste due to adding (sour) tomatoes, sour beet (or fermented beet juice) and sour cream.
Kapusniak, Ukrainian and Polish soup made from sour cabbage (sauerkraut), millet and potatoes in meat broth  Sour shchi, a sour cabbage soup in Russian cuisine  Rassolnik, traditional Russian soup made with pickled cucumbers  Sorrel soup  Solyanka, thick, spicy and sour soup in the Russian and Ukrainian cuisine  Okroshka, cold Russian soup traditionally made with kvass  Sour rye soup, known as żur in Belarus and Poland, or kyselo in Slovakia and the Czech Republic. Jota (Slovenian cuisine)  Styrian sour soup (Slovenian cuisine)  Vipava sour soup (Slovenian cuisine)  Romania and Moldova Borș, term from the historic region of Moldavia for sour soups or fermented wheat bran, essential ingredient to cook Ciorbă.
See also  List of soups    Category:Soup-related lists
Moritz Eduard Pechuël-Loesche, (26 July 1840, Zöschen – 29 May 1913, Munich), was a German naturalist, geographer, ethnologist, painter, traveler, author, plant collector and Professor of Geography in Jena and Erlangen. Eduard was the eldest son of Ferdinand Moritz Pechuël, an innkeeper and mill owner, and Wilhelmine Lösche. After school he joined the merchant navy and travelled widely during the 1860s including the Azores, Cape Verde Islands, the West Indies, the Americas and the seaboards and islands of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. He also visited the northern and southern polar regions and the Bering Strait. Thereafter he enrolled at Leipzig University, studying natural history and geography, and gaining a Ph.D. in 1872.
He accompanied Paul Güssfeldt on the Loango Expedition of 1873–76, playing a role in the founding of the Congo state and later writing a two-volume account of the expedition in 1882 and 1907, Die Loango-Expedition, ausgesandt von der Deutschen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung Aequatorial-Afrikas 1873–1876. Between 1884–85 he acted as Henry Morton Stanley's agent. Following a further period of study at Leipzig University, he was commissioned by Leopold II to make a second trip to the Congo in 1882, whereafter he was employed by a Rhenish company and despatched to Hereroland via the Cape in 1884–85. Elsbeth von Leubnitz, his young wife whom he had married on 27 October 1881, travelled with him and they made a joint collection of plants.
Their botanising was interrupted by a trip to Okahandja where they tried unsuccessfully to obtain a concession from the chief Kamaherero. On Pechuël-Loesche's return to Europe he accepted an appointment as lecturer at Leipzig University in 1886, and Professor of Geography at Erlangen University in 1895. During his travels he painted some 400 aquarelles, currently housed with the Geography Department of the University of Hamburg. He is commemorated in the Asteraceae genus Pechuel-loeschea O.Hoffm., Adenia pechuelii of the Passifloraceae and Aerva pechuelii of the Amaranthaceae, having to make way for the older Calicorema capitata. Pechuel-loeschea leubnitziae was named after Elsbeth, and is quite possibly a unique case of genus and species honouring a husband and wife respectively.
References  External links     Category:German naturalists Category:German geographers Category:19th-century German painters Category:German male painters Category:20th-century German painters Category:German ethnologists Category:1913 deaths Category:1840 births Category:German male writers Category:19th-century male artists
Colombia ( ,  ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia (), is a country largely situated in the north of South America, with territories in North America. Colombia is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, the northwest by Panama, the south by both Ecuador and Peru, the east by Venezuela, the southeast by Brazil, and the west by the Pacific. It comprises thirty-two departments, with the capital in Bogotá. Colombia is ethnically and linguistically diverse, with its rich cultural heritage reflecting influences by various Amerindian civilizations, European settlement, forced African labor, and immigration from Europe and the greater Middle East.
Urban centres are concentrated in the Andean highlands and the Caribbean coast. Colombia has been inhabited by various American Indian peoples since at least 12,000 BCE, including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and the Tairona. Spaniards arrived in 1499 and by the mid-16th century annexed part of the region, establishing the New Kingdom of Granada, with Santafé de Bogotá as its capital. Independence from Spain was achieved in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved, with what is now Colombia and Panama emerging as the Republic of New Granada. The new sovereign state experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886.
Panama seceded in 1903, leading to Colombia's present borders. Beginning in the 1960s, the country suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict and political violence, both of which escalated in the 1990s. Since 2005, there has been significant improvement in security, stability, and rule of law. Colombia has the second-highest biodiversity in the world and is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries; its territory encompasses Amazon rainforest, highlands, grasslands, deserts, and islands and coastlines along both the Atlantic and Pacific (the only country in South America). Colombia is the only NATO Global Partner in Latin America. It is part of the CIVETS group of leading emerging markets and a member of the OECD, the UN, the WTO,  the OAS, the Pacific Alliance, an associate member of Mercosur and other international organizations.
Colombia's diversified economy is the third largest in South America, with macroeconomic stability and favorable long-term growth prospects. Etymology   The name "Colombia" is derived from the last name of the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus (, ). It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish law (by then from the Mississippi River to Patagonia). The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).
When Venezuela, Ecuador, and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name "Republic of New Granada". New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886. To refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms  and . History  Pre-Columbian era   Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human civilization from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin.
The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley  southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE. Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley.
Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Zenú, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of cacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) where they formed the Muisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa, and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes. The Incas expanded their empire onto the southwest part of the country. European annexation   Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499. Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500.
Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent. Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed "New Kingdom of Granada". In August 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it "Santa Fe".
The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá. Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period. Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the "city of gold". The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.
The conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities. Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire. Indigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity. Regarding the land as deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonised territories, creating large farms and possession of mines. In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.
Colonial exchange  In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital in Lima. In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of New Granada within the viceroyalty. In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena. But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.
In the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa. Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves; therefore, the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from Portugal, France, England, and the Dutch Empire) the license to trade enslaved people to their overseas territories. Some people defended the human rights and freedoms of oppressed peoples. The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown. To protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established: resguardos, encomiendas and haciendas.
The Viceroyalty of New Granada was created in 1717, then temporarily removed, and then re-established in 1739. Its capital was Santa Fé de Bogotá. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America that had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways. After Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, Cartagena quickly became the British forces' top target, but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenkins' Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control of the Caribbean, cemented Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War.
The 18th-century priest, botanist and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada. It classified plants and wildlife, and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá. In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.
Independence   Since the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810 and culminated in the Colombian Declaration of Independence, issued on 20 July 1810, the day that is now celebrated as the nation's Independence Day. This movement followed the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar. Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.
A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty. Cartagena became independent in November 1811. In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio. The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability. Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas.
The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela. The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River. The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic. Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President.
However, the new republic was unstable and three countries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela). Colombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849, respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851. Internal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830. The so-called "Department of Cundinamarca" adopted the name "New Granada", which it kept until 1858 when it became the "Confederación Granadina" (Granadine Confederation).
After a two-year civil war in 1863, the "United States of Colombia" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902). 20th century  The United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty.
Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin. The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations. The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934. Soon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as La Violencia ("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948.
The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians. Colombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president. It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy. The violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París.
After Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the National Front, a coalition that would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.
Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between government forces, leftist guerrilla groups and right wing paramilitaries. The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas. Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition. Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994. The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism.
Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict. On 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society. 21st century  The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign. The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors. As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function. In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.
After peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and guerrilla of FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict. However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved. In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict. Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW. A Special Jurisdiction of Peace has been created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice.
During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis paid tribute to the victims of the conflict. Colombia's relations with Venezuela have fluctuated due to ideological differences between both governments. Colombia has offered humanitarian support with food and medicines to mitigate the shortage of supplies in Venezuela. Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful. Colombia proposed the idea of the Sustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations.
Geography   The geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama, to the east by Venezuela and Brazil, and to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean.
It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S and between longitudes 67° and 79°W. Part of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, in the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the southwestern departments of Cauca and Nariño), these are divided into three branches known as cordilleras (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east, respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira, and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending northeast to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga, and Cúcuta.
Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed , and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach . At , Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world. East of the Andes lies the savanna of the Llanos, part of the Orinoco River basin, and in the far southeast, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert.
By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura. The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively. Protected areas and the "National Park System" cover an area of about  and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory. Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low.
Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater. Climate   The climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall. The diversity of climate zones in Colombia is characterized for having tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts and mountain climate. Mountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation. Below  in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above .
About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone. The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between  is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between . The cold climate is present between  and the temperatures vary between . Beyond lies the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos. Above , where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice. Biodiversity   Colombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species. As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, which is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size.
Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger. Colombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world's mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.
Colombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. Colombia is the country with more endemic species of butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and approximately 7,000 species of beetles. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms. There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems. Government and politics   The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991.
In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch. As the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year term (In 2015, Colombia's Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that changed the one-term limit for presidents to a two-term limit). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as corregimientos or comunas.
All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election. The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate. The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts. Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote. The judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch.
Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system. Despite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009. However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes.
Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%. Iván Duque won in the second round with 54% of the vote, against 42% for his left-wing rival, Gustavo Petro. His term as Colombia's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2018. Foreign affairs   The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents. Colombia was one of the 4 founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries.
Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization,  the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Union of South American Nations, and the Andean Community of Nations. Colombia is a global partner of NATO. Military   The executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and the Colombian National Police. Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel. And in 2016 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world.
Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil. In 2018, Colombia signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. The Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air Force; and the Colombian Navy. The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish).
The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades, and special units, the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation, and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia and the Air Force by 15 air units. The National Police has a presence in all municipalities. Administrative divisions   Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca).
Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into corregimientos in rural areas and into comunas in urban areas. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the corregimientos or comunas. In addition to the capital four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura.
Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example, in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as "department corregimientos", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a corregimiento. Click on a department on the map below to go to its article. Largest cities and towns  Colombia is a highly urbanized country with 77.1% of the population living in urban areas. The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with 7,387,400 inhabitants, Medellín, with 2,382,399 inhabitants, Cali, with 2,172,527 inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with 1,205,284 inhabitants.
Economy   Historically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.6% of GDP; 19.6% of the workforce were employed in industry and 64.6% in services, responsible for 33.4% and 59.9% of GDP respectively. The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand. Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP. Colombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998.
The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America. According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012, Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America). Total government expenditures account for 27.9 percent of the domestic economy. External debt equals 39.9 percent of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings.
Annual inflation closed 2017 at 4.09% YoY (vs. 5.75% YoY in 2016). The average national unemployment rate in 2017 was 9.4%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%). Colombia has free-trade zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment. The financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy.
The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities. Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank. The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from renewable energy sources. 69.93% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation. Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI), ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.
Colombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipments, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others. Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries. Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.
In 2017, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 26.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 7.4% in "extreme poverty". The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.0 percent of the population. The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population. Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US$1 billion. The contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was US$5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016. Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016.
Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 4 million in 2017. Science and technology   Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology. iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions like Apps.co provide. Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small. Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia. The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security.
Important inventions related to the medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure. Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of Hydrocephalus, among others. Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar.
Some leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the "Paisa Mutation" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by the Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, among other scientists.
Transportation  Transportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport. The road network in Colombia has a length of about 215,000 km of which 23,000 are paved.
Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails. Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines. The target of Colombia's government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent. A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá's airport.
Demographics   With an estimated 50 million people in 2020, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million. Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. The population growth rate for 2016 is estimated to be 0.9%. About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old. The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially.
Colombia is projected to have a population of 55.3 million by 2050. The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population. Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%.
The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today. In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people. The life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.1 per thousand in 2016. In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP in education. Languages  More than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also used in the country.
English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today – most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families. There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages. Ethnic groups   Colombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage.
The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history. Whites tend to live mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali, and the burgeoning highland cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos. Mestizo campesinos (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades. The 2018 census reported that the "non-ethnic population", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 87.58% of the national population.
6.68% is of African ancestry. Indigenous Amerindians comprise 4.31% of the population. Raizal people comprise 0.06% of the population. Palenquero people comprise 0.02% of the population. 0.01% of the population are Roma. An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49% of the Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37% is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; in some sectors of society there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry. Many of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures.
Reserves (resguardos) established for indigenous peoples occupy  (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people. Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú. The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations. The Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia. In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989. Black Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century.
Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is 73.8% black. British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War. Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs.
There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews. There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela. In August 2019, Colombia offered citizenship to more than 24,000 children of Venezuelan refugees who were born in Colombia. Religion   The National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%–79%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism).
Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. 1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as the Bahá’í Faith, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively. While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.
Culture   Colombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression. Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.
Literature   Colombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the Legend of Yurupary. In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón, Juan Rodríguez Freyle (El Carnero), Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita, and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism. Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea. In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as costumbrismo became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature).
Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement. In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas. Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking Cantos Populares de mi Tierra (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author. Between 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name Stone and Sky in the city of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas. In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of "nothingness" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa.
During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, One Hundred Years of Solitude, Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters. Other leading contemporary authors are Fernando Vallejo, William Ospina (Rómulo Gallegos Prize) and Germán Castro Caycedo. Visual arts   Colombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.
The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its "classical period". They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone. Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown.
More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco. Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century. Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes. Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic "Naturaleza muerta en silencio" (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism. Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor).
Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt, Oscar Murillo, Doris Salcedo and Oscar Muñoz are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level. The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture. During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend. During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.
Colombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype. Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin America's largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005. The Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists. In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia. Architecture   Throughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.Ancient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples.
Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila, Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads, and several circular plazas), and the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane, and mud. Architecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen.
When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation. The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers that represented the English, French, and Dutch pirates and the hostile indigenous groups. Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders cause a great urban impact. Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces. Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture. The National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism.
Wood was extensively used in doors, windows, railings, and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia. The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence. The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century. The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches. Deco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period.
Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence. The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria. The contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses. The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years. Music     Colombia has a vibrant collage of talent that touches a full spectrum of rhythms.
Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others. Colombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment. Guillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music. The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.
Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the "vallenato", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion). The music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao, is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum, and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle).
An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows due to the striking colours of the costumes). Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Important musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian "danza", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast).
Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'. The instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working). The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices.
Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes. The music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas. Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento. Popular culture   Theater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations.
The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world. Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture "Cultural Invasion" (Bogotá). Although the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003. Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival.
Some important national circulation newspapers are El Tiempo and El Espectador. Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated. The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas. Colombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates. There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo.
Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications. Cuisine   Colombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood. Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit.
Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices. Among the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas. Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice).
Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh. Representative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba. Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají. Some representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).
Sports  Tejo is Colombia's national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target. But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular. Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Colombia has been awarded "mover of the year" twice. Colombia is a hub for roller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships. Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.
Baseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta. Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in Major League Baseball. Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965. Boxing is one of the sports that more world champions has produced for Colombia. Motorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events. Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling.
Health  The overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 74.8 years (71.2 years for males and 78.4 years for females). Healthcare reforms have led to massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country, with health standards in Colombia improving very much since the 1980s. Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012, health disparities persist. Through health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to other countries in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the countries visited.
Colombia is projected as one of Latin America's main destinations in terms of health tourism due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense inventory of natural and architectural sites. Cities such as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treatments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint replacements because of the quality of medical treatment. A study conducted by América Economía magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.
A cancer research and treatment centre was declared as a Project of National Strategic Interest. Education   The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (Educación preescolar). Basic education (Educación básica) is compulsory by law. It has two stages: Primary basic education (Educación básica primaria) which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (Educación básica secundaria), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (Educación media vocacional) that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades.
It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school. After the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded. The high-school graduate is known as a bachiller, because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called bachillerato (sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (Educación superior). This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies.
Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum. Bachilleres (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title.
Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education. Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%. This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure. The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively. School-life expectancy was 14.42 years. A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.
See also    Index of Colombia-related articles  Outline of Colombia  Notes  References  External links  General information  Colombia at Encyclopædia Britannica  Colombia at UCB Libraries GovPubs      Key Development Forecasts for Colombia from International Futures  Official investment portal  Official Colombia Tourism Website  Study Spanish in Colombia   National Administrative Department of Statistics  Government   Colombia Online Government website  Culture   Ministry of Culture  Geography   National parks of Colombia      Category:Andean Community Category:Countries in South America Category:Constitutional republics Category:Former Spanish colonies Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:Republics Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories Category:States and territories established in 1810
State Farm Arena (formerly Philips Arena) is a multi-purpose indoor arena located in Atlanta, Georgia. The arena serves as the home venue for the National Basketball Association (NBA)'s Atlanta Hawks. It also served as home to the National Hockey League's Atlanta Thrashers from 1999 to 2011, before the team moved to Winnipeg, as well as the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA)'s Atlanta Dream from 2008 to 2016 and 2019. It opened in 1999 at a cost of $213.5 million, replacing the Omni Coliseum. It is owned by the Atlanta Fulton County Recreation Authority and operated by the Hawks, owned by Tony Ressler along with a group of investors including Grant Hill.
Layout  The arena seats 19,050 for basketball and 17,624 for ice hockey. The largest crowd ever for an Atlanta Hawks basketball game at the arena was Game 6 of the 2008 Eastern Conference Quarterfinals on May 2, 2008 (against the Boston Celtics), where there was an announced attendance of 20,425. The arena includes 92 luxury suites, 9 party suites, and 1,866 club seats. For concerts and other entertainment events, the arena can seat 21,000. The arena was originally laid out in a rather unusual manner, with the club seats and luxury boxes aligned solely along one side of the playing surface, and the general admission seating along the other three sides (the arrangement was later emulated in Ford Field, UCF Arena, Soldier Field, Levi's Stadium, and other venues).
This layout was a vast contrast to many of its contemporaries, which have their revenue-generating luxury boxes and club seats located in the 'belly' of the arena, thus causing the upper deck to be 2–4 stories higher. The layout at Philips was done so as to be able to bring the bulk of the seats closer to the playing surface while still making available a sufficient number of revenue-raising club seats and loges; however, the 2017–18 renovations had removed the upper levels of the suite wall in favor of premium seating spread throughout the arena. On the exterior, angled steel columns supporting the roof facing downtown spell out "ATLANTA."
The side facing the Georgia World Congress Center originally spelled out "CNN" (whose headquarters adjoins the arena), but that section has since been altered to accommodate a Taco Mac restaurant. The Dome/GWCC/Philips Arena/CNN Center rail station below the arena provides access to MARTA public transportation. Amsterdam-based technology company Philips purchased the initial naming rights to the arena in February 1999 for $185 million over 20 years. In February 2018, it was reported that Philips would not renew its naming rights agreement for the arena when it expired in June 2019, primarily due to Philips' withdrawal from the consumer electronics market in 2013.
On August 29, 2018, State Farm purchased the naming rights to the arena, in a deal that will last for 20 years and cost $175 million. For the 2007–2008 season, State Farm Arena utilized the new "see-through" shot clock units which allow spectators seated behind the basket to see the action without having the clocks interfere with their view, joining FedExForum, Wells Fargo Center, TD Garden, United Center, Talking Stick Resort Arena and the Spectrum Center. Video advertising panels replaced the traditional scrolling panels.
Banners  Atlanta Hawks  Title banners 1958 NBA championship 1970 Western Division Champions 1980, 1987, 1994 Central Division Champions 2015 Southeast Division Champions  Atlanta Dream  2010, 2011, 2013 Eastern Conference Champions  Atlanta Thrashers (1999–2011)  2006–07 Southeast Division Champions  Widespread Panic 20 Sold Out Shows; 1999–2013  History  During the late 1980s and early 1990s, many cities started building new state-of-the-art sporting venues for their NBA and/or NHL franchises, or in hopes of attaining one. Many of these arenas had modern amenities for their high-end customers, such as luxury boxes, club seats, and large, posh club-level concourses; some even had practice facilities on-site.
These attractions were rarely found in arenas constructed in the early 1970s, when the Omni Coliseum was built. However, it was likely that the Omni would have had to be replaced in any event. It had been built using Cor-Ten weathering steel that was intended to seal itself, ensuring it would last for decades. However, the Omni's designers didn't account for Atlanta's humid climate. The Cor-Ten steel never stopped rusting, causing the arena to deteriorate faster than anticipated. Ted Turner, owner of the Hawks at the time, wanted to bring the NHL back to Atlanta; the city's first NHL team, the Atlanta Flames, had moved to Calgary in 1980.
However, the NHL determined that the Omni was not suitable even as a temporary facility due to its structural problems and lack of amenities. The league told Turner that it would only grant an expansion team on condition that a new arena be in place for the prospective team's inaugural season. After much consideration of possible other sites both in Downtown Atlanta and in the suburbs, it was decided that the Omni would be demolished in 1997, and a new arena would be built in the same location; the Omni was demolished on July 26, 1997. The Hawks split their games between the Georgia Dome and Alexander Memorial Coliseum for the next two seasons while Philips Arena was under construction.
Philips Arena held its first event with a September 1999 concert by the musician Sir Elton John. The Omni's "center-hung scoreboard" now hangs in the lobby of Philips Arena, where it still displays the Omni's logo along with those of Philips Arena, the Hawks, and the Thrashers (who never played in The Omni). The scoreboard still functions and displays information relevant to the game taking place in the arena. On April 2, 2009, Philips Arena achieved LEED for Existing Building: Operations and Maintenance certification as specified by the United States Green Building Council (USGBC). It was the world's first LEED certified NBA/NHL arena.
It has been nicknamed the "Highlight Factory", due to the number of exciting plays, or highlights, that occur and Philips' history with lights and electronics. Events  The arena hosted the NBA All-Star Game in 2003 and the Atlantic Coast Conference Men's Basketball Tournament in 2012. The first playoff game in any professional league played in Philips Arena was in 2005, when the Georgia Force of the Arena Football League hosted, and won, its first home playoff game. The first NHL playoff game in Philips Arena was in 2007, the Thrashers' only appearance in the Stanley Cup Playoffs. The first NBA playoff game in Philips Arena was in 2008, when the Hawks made the 2008 NBA Playoffs after an eight-season drought of missing the playoffs.
On April 10, 2011, the Thrashers lost to the Pittsburgh Penguins, 5–2, in their final game. Tim Stapleton scored the final goal for the Thrashers in team history. The venue had been named the site of the 2005 Southeastern Conference Women's Basketball Tournament; however, when the NHL announced in early 2004 that the 55th NHL All-Star Game, scheduled for February 2005 would be held in Atlanta, arena officials withdrew the Southeastern Conference Women's Basketball Tournament – which was then moved 140 miles to the northeast along Interstate 85 to the BI-LO Center in Greenville, South Carolina. Oddly, the arena would not even be the host of that planned All-Star Game due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout.
As a result, Atlanta became the second (San Jose being the first) city to lose a planned All-Star Game because of a labor dispute. Philips Arena would later be announced as home to the 56th NHL All-Star Game in 2008. Also, Philips Arena hosted game three of the 2010 WNBA Finals, where the Seattle Storm defeated the Atlanta Dream. In 2013, Philips Arena hosted the finals of the men's NCAA Division II and Division III college basketball championships. The events were held as an undercard to the 2013 NCAA Final Four held at the Georgia Dome, in celebration of the 75th edition of the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship.
MMA & Wrestling The arena hosted UFC 88, UFC 145, UFC 201, and UFC 236 in 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2019 respectively. Philips Arena also hosted the 2011 WWE Hall of Fame induction ceremony, the night before WrestleMania XXVII which was held at the Georgia Dome. Philips Arena also hosted Royal Rumble (2002), Backlash (2007), Royal Rumble (2010), Hell in a Cell (2012), and Survivor Series (2015). An edition of WCW Monday Nitro was also held when the arena was known as 'The Philips Arena' on June 5, 2000. The arena hosted the February 19, 2020 episode of AEW Dynamite featuring All Elite Wrestling's first-ever Steel cage match.
Concerts State Farm Arena is among the busiest arenas for concerts in the world, having sold well over 550,000 concert tickets in 2007 and ranked as the third-busiest arena in the U.S. in 2011. Other events The arena hosted the 2004 US Figure Skating Championships. Every year in January, the State Farm Arena hosts one of the largest Christian college aged conferences: Passion Conference. The conference typically takes place over the first weekend in the new year and features big names in the Christian world such as Louie Gigilio, Chris Tomlin, Matt Redman, Kristian Stanfill, John Piper, rap artist Lecrae and many more.
The conference is typically sold out. Renovations Shortly after acquiring the Hawks and the operating rights to Philips Arena on June 24, 2015, Tony Ressler announced his intentions of remodeling the arena to keep the Hawks in Downtown Atlanta at a cost between $150 million and $250 million. The proposed renovation would rebuild the entire seating bowl to optimize its sightlines for basketball and remove the wall of suites which dominate one side of the arena and replace them with a more traditional suite configuration. The Hawks are also in discussions with the city about building a mixed-use entertainment district similar to L.A. Live around Philips Arena, to better connect it to other nearby attractions such as Centennial Olympic Park and Mercedes-Benz Stadium.
On November 1, 2016, the Hawks and the city of Atlanta reached a financing agreement on renovating Philips Arena, with the city contributing $142.5 million and the Hawks $50 million plus cost overruns to the project. With the renovation, the Hawks signed a lease extension lasting through June 30, 2046, with an early termination penalty of $200 million plus the remaining balance of the arena's bonds. The first phase of renovations, completed during the Hawks' 2017 off-season, removed the upper levels of the suite wall, reducing the total number of suites from 90 to 40, and added the Courtside Club behind one of the baskets.
Renovations for 2018 were described by Hawks chief operating officer Thad Sheely as a "gut rehab". The arena renovations brought new premium seating areas, connected 360-degree concourses, a new center-hung videoboard three times larger than its predecessor as well as additional videoboards in the corners of the upper decks, new dining options including a bar and grill operated by country group Zac Brown Band and other unique features including an in-arena barber shop operated by Atlanta rapper Killer Mike and Topgolf suites. Over  of former office and storage space within the arena was repurposed as "fan space". The first ticketed event at the renovated State Farm Arena was So So Def's 25th anniversary concert on October 21, 2018, while the Hawks' first regular season home game took place on October 24 against the Dallas Mavericks.
Due to the renovations conflicting with the WNBA schedule, the Dream announced that they would move their 2017 and 2018 home schedules to McCamish Pavilion on the campus of Georgia Tech, mirroring the Hawks' move to the same venue (then known as Alexander Memorial Coliseum) between the time the Omni was razed and State Farm Arena was built. With the release of the 2019 WNBA schedule on December 18, 2018, the Dream confirmed that they would be returning to State Farm Arena. However, following the conclusion of the 2019 WNBA regular season, team officials indicated that the Dream would not be returning to State Farm Arena for the 2020 season, citing disagreements with the Hawks' management.
On October 18, 2019, the Dream announced that they would move to the Gateway Center Arena in suburban College Park, sharing the venue with the Hawks' NBA G League affiliate, the College Park Skyhawks. Tornado  On March 14, 2008, an EF2 Tornado struck near the Arena. The arena only received minor exterior damage.
References  External links     Category:1999 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Arena football venues Category:Atlanta Dream venues Category:Atlanta Hawks venues Category:Atlanta Thrashers arenas Category:Basketball venues in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:College basketball venues in the United States Category:Defunct National Hockey League venues Category:Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets basketball venues Category:Indoor arenas in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Indoor ice hockey venues in the United States Category:Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design certified buildings Category:Music venues completed in 1999 Category:Music venues in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:National Basketball Association venues Category:Professional wrestling venues in the United States Category:State Farm Insurance Category:Sports venues completed in 1999 Category:Sports venues in Atlanta