title: Replacement of linoleic acid with alpha-linolenic acid does not alter blood lipids in normolipidaemic men. Daily flaxseed consumption improves glycemic control in obese men and women with pre-diabetes: a randomized study. Impact of weight loss diet associated with flaxseed on inflammatory markers in men with cardiovascular risk factors: a clinical study Benefits of foods supplemented with vegetable oils rich in α-linolenic, stearidonic or docosahexaenoic acid in hypertriglyceridemic subjects: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trail Flaxseed dietary fibers lower cholesterol and increase fecal fat excretion, but magnitude of effect depend on food type Additive effect of linseed oil supplementation on the lipid profiles of older adults Decreasing the Linoleic Acid to α-Linolenic Acid Diet Ratio Increases Eicosapentaenoic Acid in Erythrocytes in Adults Flaxseed oil and fish-oil capsule consumption alters human red blood cell n-3 fatty acid composition: a multiple-dosing trial comparing 2 sources of n-3 fatty acid. Health aspects of partially defatted flaxseed, including effects on serum lipids, oxidative measures, and ex vivo androgen and progestin activity: a controlled crossover trial. A lignan complex isolated from flaxseed does not affect plasma lipid concentrations or antioxidant capacity in healthy postmenopausal women. Dietary substitution with an alpha-linolenic acid-rich vegetable oil increases eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations in tissues. Effect of high-oleic canola and flaxseed oils on energy expenditure and body composition in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Effect of flaxseed oil on serum systemic and vascular inflammation markers and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients: a randomized controlled trial Flaxseed Supplementation (Not Dietary Fat Restriction) Reduces Prostate Cancer Proliferation Rates in Men Presurgery The effects of flaxseed dietary supplement on lipid profile, bone mineral density, and symptoms in menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, wheat germ placebo-controlled clinical trial. Flaxseed supplementation improved insulin resistance in obese glucose intolerant people: a randomized crossover design Lignan Content of the Flaxseed Influences Its Biological Effects in Healthy Men and Women A Comparison of the Effects of n-3 Fatty Acids From Linseed Oil and Fish Oil in Well-Controlled Type II Diabetes A randomized trial of the effects of ezetimibe on the absorption of omega-3 fatty acids in cardiac disease patients: A pilot study. Potent Antihypertensive Action of Dietary Flaxseed in Hypertensive Patients Flaxseed Lignan Complex Administration in Older Human Type 2 Diabetics Manages Central Obesity and Prothrombosis—An Invitation to Further Investigation into Polypharmacy Reduction Flaxseed oil intake reduces serum small dense low-density lipoprotein concentrations in Japanese men: a randomized, double blind, crossover study Effects of a Flaxseed-Derived Lignan Supplement in Type 2 Diabetic Patients: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Cross-Over Trial Effects of flaxseed oil supplementation on plasma adiponectin levels in dyslipidemic men Dietary alpha-linolenic acid decreases C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A and interleukin-6 in dyslipidaemic patients. Dietary Milled Flaxseed and Flaxseed Oil Improve N-3 Fatty Acid Status and Do Not Affect Glycemic Control in Individuals with Well-Controlled Type 2 Diabetes Evaluation of flaxseed formulation as a potential therapeutic agent in mitigation of dyslipidemia Effects of flaxseed consumption on systemic inflammation and serum lipid profile in hemodialysis patients with lipid abnormalities Omega-3 fatty acids and lipoprotein associated phospholipase A2 in healthy older adult males and females Effect of flaxseed on blood lipid level in hyperlipidemic patients. Flaxseed oil supplementation increases plasma F1-phytoprostanes in healthy men. Flaxseed oil does not affect inflammatory markers and lipid profile compared to olive oil, in young, healthy, normal weight adults. Flaxseed supplementation in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a pilot randomized, open labeled, controlled study Systemic inflammation and carotid diameter in obese patients: pilot comparative study with flaxseed powder and cassava powder. Systemic Inflammation in Morbidly Obese Subjects: Response to Oral Supplementation with Alpha-Linolenic Acid Evaluation of the efficacy of flaxseed meal and flaxseed extract in reducing menopausal symptoms. Effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements on glycemic traits in Chinese type 2 diabetic patients: A double-blind randomized controlled trial.
abstract: The effect of partial dietary replacement of linoleic acid ( 18:2n-6 ; linoleic acid-rich diet ) with alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3n-3 ; alpha-linolenic acid-rich diet ) on plasma lipids was investigated in twenty-nine healthy young men . After a 2-week stabilization period subjects were r and omly assigned to either the alpha-linolenic acid-rich diet group ( n 15 ) , receiving a mean of 10.1 g of alpha-linolenic acid and 12.1 g of linoleic acid/d , or the linoleic acid-rich diet group ( n 14 ) , receiving a mean of 1.0 g of alpha-linolenic acid and 21.0 g of linoleic acid/d , for a 6-week test period . Blood sample s were taken at the commencement of the stabilization period and at the start ( week 0 ) , midpoint ( week 3 ) and endpoint ( week 6 ) of the test period and plasma lipids analysed . The changes occurring on the linoleic acid-rich diet and alpha-linolenic acid-rich diet were compared but no significant differences in the changes in plasma total cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol , HDL-cholesterol , the subfractions HDL2 and HDL3 or triacylglycerols were found . These results indicate that dietary replacement of linoleic acid with alpha-linolenic acid in the diet of healthy male subjects offers similar cardioprotective benefits with respect to lipid metabolism The study hypothesis was that fasting glucose , insulin , fructosamine , C-reactive protein , and interleukin-6 decrease and adiponectin increases with daily flaxseed consumption in overweight or obese individuals with pre-diabetes . In this r and omized , cross-over study overweight or obese men and postmenopausal women ( n = 25 ) with pre-diabetes consumed 0 , 13 , or 26 g ground flaxseed for 12 weeks . Glucose , insulin , homeostatic model assessment ( HOMA-IR ) , and normalized percent of α-linolenic fatty acid ( ALA ) were significantly different by treatment ( multiple analysis of variance , P = .036 , P = .013 , P = .008 , P = .024 respectively ) . Paired t tests showed glucose decreased on the 13 g intervention compared to the 0 g period [ 13 g = -2.10 ± 1.66 mg/L ( mean ± SEM ) , 0 g = 9.22 ± 4.44 mg/L , P = .036 ] . Insulin decreased on the 13 g intervention but not the 26 g ( P = .021 ) and 0 g ( P = .013 ) periods ( 13 g = -2.12 ± 1.00 mU/L , 26 g = 0.67 ± 0.84 mU/L , 0 g = 1.20 ± 1.16 mU/L ) . HOMA-IR decreased on the 13 g period but not on the 26 g ( P = .012 ) and 0 g ( P = .008 ) periods ( 13 g = -0.71 ± 0.31 , 26 g = 0.27 ± 0.24 , 0 g = 0.51 ± 0.35 ) . The α-linolenic fatty acid decrease for the 0 g period was different than the 13 g ( P = .024 ) and 26 g ( P = .000 ) periods ( 13 g = 0.20 ± 0.04 , 26 g = 0.35 ± 0.07 , 0 g = -0.01 ± 0.07 ) . Fructosamine , high sensitivity C-reactive protein , adiponectin , and high-sensitivity interleukin-6 had no significant  differences . Flaxseed intake  decreased glucose and insulin and improved insulin sensitivity as part of a habitual diet in overweight or obese individuals with pre-diabetes Background Flaxseed has received attention for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant role . The present study hypothesizes if flaxseed added to a weight loss diet could improve the lipid and metabolic profiles and decrease risk factors related to cardiovascular disease . Methods In a prospect i ve , single blinded 42 days protocol , subjects were allocated into two groups with low carbohydrates intake : GriceLC ( 35 % of carbohydrate and 60 g of raw rice powder per day ) and GflaxLC ( 32 % of carbohydrate and 60 g of flaxseed powder per day ) . Blood pressure , anthropometric measures and serum levels of isoprostane , C-reactive protein , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha , glucose , lipidic profile , uric acid , adiponectin , leptin and insulin were measured at baseline and at the end of interventions . Serum and urinary enterodiol and enterolactione were also measured . Results A total of 27 men with cardiovascular risk factors were evaluated , with mean age of 33 ± 10 years to GriceLC and 40 ± 9 years to GflaxLC . Both groups experienced weight loss and systolic blood pressure reduction . A decrease in inflammatory markers ( CRP and TNF-α ) was observed after flaxseed intake ( mean decrease of 25 % and 46 % for GflaxLC respectively ) . All groups also showed improvement in levels of total cholesterol , LDL-c , uric acid and adiponectin . Only GflaxLC group showed a decrease in triglyceride levels . Conclusion This study suggests that flaxseed added to a weight loss diet could be an important nutritional strategy to reduce inflammation markers such as CRP and TNF-α . Trial registration Clinical Trials.gov NCT02132728 Abstract Purpose The aim of the study was to investigate the influence of foods enriched with vegetable oils varying in their n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids profile on  cardiovascular risk factors for hypertriglyceridemic subjects . Methods Fifty-nine hypertriglyceridemic subjects ( triglycerides ≥ 1.5 mmol/L ) were included in the r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , crossover study . The placebo group received sunflower oil [ linoleic acid ( LA ) group ; 10 g LA/day ] . The intervention groups received linseed oil [ α-linolenic acid ( ALA ) group ; 7 g ALA/day ] , echium oil [ stearidonic acid ( SDA ) group ; 2 g SDA/day ] or microalgae oil [ docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) group ; 2 g DHA/day ] over 10 weeks . Blood sample s were collected at baseline and at the end of each period . Results Total cholesterol ( TC ) and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol decreased significantly in the LA and ALA groups ( LA : P ≤ 0.01 , ALA : P ≤ 0.05 ) . No changes in blood lipids were observed in the SDA group . Significant increases in TC and high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol occurred in the DHA group ( P ≤ 0.05 ) . In the ALA and SDA groups , the content of eicosapentaenoic acid in erythrocyte lipids increased significantly ( P ≤ 0.05 ) after 10 weeks ( ALA group : 38 ± 37 % , SDA group : 73 ± 59 % ) . Conclusion Foods enriched with different vegetable oils rich in ALA or SDA are able to increase the n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids content in erythrocyte lipids ; echium oil is more potent in comparison with linseed oil . Blood lipids were beneficially modified through the consumption of food products enriched with sunflower , linseed and microalgae oils , whereas echium oil did not affect blood lipids . Clinical Trials.gov : NCT01437930 Background Dietary fibers have been proposed to play a role in cardiovascular risk as well as body weight management . Flaxseeds are a good source of dietary fibers , and a large proportion of these are water-soluble viscous fibers . Method Here , we examine the effect of flaxseed dietary fibers in different food matrices on blood lipids and fecal excretion of fat and energy in a double-blind r and omized crossover study with 17 subjects . Three different 7-d diets were tested : a low-fiber control diet ( Control ) , a diet with flaxseed fiber drink ( 3/day ) ( Flax drink ) , and a diet with flaxseed fiber bread ( 3/day ) ( Flax bread ) . Total fat and energy excretion was measured in feces , blood sample s were collected before and after each period , and appetite sensation registered 3 times daily before main meals . Results Compared to control , Flax drink lowered fasting total-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol by 12 and 15 % , respectively , ( p < 0.01 ) , whereas Flax bread only produced a reduction of 7 and 9 % , respectively ( p < 0.05 ) . Fecal fat and energy excretion increased by 50 and 23 % with Flax drink consumption compared to control ( p < 0.05 ) , but only fecal fat excretion was increased with Flax bread compared to control ( p < 0.05 ) . Conclusion Both Flax drink and Flax bread result ed in decreased plasma total and LDL-cholesterol and increased fat excretion , but the food matrix and /or processing may be of importance . Viscous flaxseed dietary fibers may be a useful tool for lowering blood cholesterol and potentially play a role in energy balance . Trial Registration Clinical Trials.gov : Background Linseed oil has been investigated as a rich source of n-3 series polyunsaturated fatty acids , which mainly produce a non-atherogenic lipid profile . The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of linseed oil supplementation associated with nutritional guidelines on the lipid profiles of older adults , according to the intake of saturated fatty acids ( SFA ) . Methods We conducted a double-blind , placebo-controlled clinical trial with 110 older adults r and omized in two groups : placebo and linseed oil .  The linseed oil group received supplementation with 3 g of linseed oil . Both groups received nutritional guidance and were supplemented for 90 days with monthly blood collection for biochemical analysis . The dietary intake of saturated fat was subdivided into low ( < 7 % SFA/day of the total energy value ) and high consumption groups ( > 7 % SFA/day of the total energy value ) . Results Low SFA ( < 7 % SFA/day of total energy value ) consumption was associated with lower total cholesterol concentrations . However , we observed that the linseed oil group , including older adults who consumed > 7 % SFA/day , had a greater reduction in total cholesterol than the placebo group ( P=0.020 ) . The same was observed for low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol ( P<0.050 ) , suggesting an additive effect of linseed oil and diet . High-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol concentrations were increased significantly in only the linseed group , suggesting that the nutritional intervention alone did not improve HDL cholesterol . Conclusion The results suggest that the nutritional intervention was effective , but linseed oil showed notable effects by increasing the HDL cholesterol concentration . In addition , consumption of < 7 % SFA/day of the total energy value increased the effect of linseed oil , demonstrating the importance of reducing the consumption of saturated fat The n-6/n-3 fatty acid ( FA ) ratio has increased in the Western-style diet to ~10–15:1 during the last century , which may have contributed to the rise in cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . Prior studies have evaluated the effects on CVD risk factors of manipulating the levels of n-6 and n-3 FA using food and supplements or investigated the metabolic fate of linoleic acid ( LNA ) and α-linolenic acid ( ALA ) by varying the n-6/n-3 ratios . However , no previous studies have investigated the potential interaction between diet ratios and supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA , 20:5n-3 ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , 22:6n-3 ) . We used a factorial design approach with adults ( n = 24 ) in a controlled feeding trial to compare the accretion of EPA and DHA into red blood cell membranes ( RBC ) by adding a direct source ( algal oil supplement ) of EPA and DHA in a diet with a 10:1 versus 2:1 ratio of n-6/n-3 FA . Subjects were r and omized into 8-week crossover diet sequences and each subject consumed three of four diets [ 10:1 , 10:1 plus supplement ( 10:1 + S ) , 2:1 and 2:1 + S ] . LNA and ALA intakes were 9.4 and 7.7 % , and 1.0 and 3.0 % during the low and high ALA diets , respectively . Compared to the Western-style 10:1 diet , the 2:1 diet increased EPA by 60 % ( P < 0.0001 ) in RBC membranes without the direct EPA source and a 34 % increase ( P = 0.027 ) was observed with the 10:1 + S diet ; however , DHA levels increased in both diet ratios only with a direct DHA source . Shifting towards a 2:1 diet is a valid alternative to taking EPA-containing supplements BACKGROUND An increase in plasma n-3 fatty acid content , particularly eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5n-3 ; EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( 22:6n-3 ; DHA ) , is observed after consumption of fish oil-enriched supplements . Because alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3n-3 ; ALA ) is the direct precursor of EPA and DHA , ALA-enriched supplements such as flax may have a similar effect , although this hypothesis has been challenged because of reported low conversion of ALA into DHA . OBJECTIVE To address this question , we design ed a clinical trial in which flax oil , fish-oil , and sunflower oil ( placebo group ) capsules were given to firefighters ( n = 62 ) , a group traditionally exposed to cardiovascular disease risk factors . DESIGN Firefighters were r and omly divided into 6 experimental groups receiving 1.2 , 2.4 , or 3.6 g flax oil/d ; 0.6 or 1.2 g fish oil/d ; or 1 g sunflower oil/d for 12 wk . Blood was drawn every 2 wk , and the total phospholipid fatty acid composition of red blood cells was determined . RESULTS As expected , fish oil produced a rapid increase in erythrocyte DHA and total n-3 fatty acids . The consumption of either 2.4 or 3.6 g flax oil/d ( in capsules ) was sufficient to significantly increase erythrocyte total phospholipid ALA , EPA , and docosapentaenoic acid ( 22:5n-3 ) fatty acid content . There were no differences among groups in plasma inflammatory markers or lipid profile . CONCLUSIONS The consumption of ALA-enriched supplements for 12 wk was sufficient to elevate erythrocyte EPA and docosapentaenoic acid content , which shows the effectiveness of ALA conversion and accretion into erythrocytes . The amounts of ALA required to obtain these effects are amounts that are easily achieved in the general population by dietary modification BACKGROUND Currently there is considerable interest in the potential health benefits of oil seeds , such as soy and flaxseed , especially in relation to cardiovascular disease and cancer . OBJECTIVE We therefore evaluated health aspects of partially defatted flaxseed in relation to serum lipids , indicators of oxidative stress , and ex vivo sex hormone activities . DESIGN Twenty-nine hyperlipidemic subjects ( 22 men and 7 postmenopausal women ) completed two 3-wk treatment periods in a r and omized , crossover trial . Subjects were given muffins that contributed approximately 20 g fiber/d from either flaxseed ( approximately 50 g partially defatted flaxseed/d ) or wheat bran ( control ) while they consumed self-selected National Cholesterol Education Program Step II diets . Both muffins had similar macronutrient profiles . Treatment phases were separated by > or = 2 wk . RESULTS Partially defatted flaxseed reduced total cholesterol ( 4.6+/-1.2 % ; P = 0.001 ) , LDL cholesterol ( 7.6+/-1.8 % ; P < 0.001 ) , apolipoprotein B ( 5.4+/-1.4 % ; P = 0.001 ) , and apolipoprotein A-I ( 5.8+/-1.9 % ; P = 0.005 ) , but had no effect on serum lipoprotein ratios at week 3 compared with the control . There were no significant effects on serum HDL cholesterol , serum protein carbonyl content , or ex vivo and rogen or progestin activity after either treatment . Unexpectedly , serum protein thiol groups were significantly lower ( 10.8+/-3.6 % ; P = 0.007 ) at week 3 after the flaxseed treatment than after the control , suggesting increased oxidation . CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that partially defatted flaxseed is effective in lowering LDL cholesterol . No effects on lipoprotein ratios , ex vivo serum and rogen or progestin activity , or protein carbonyl content were observed . The significance of increased oxidation of protein thiol groups with flaxseed consumption requires further investigation A lignan complex rich in the plant lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside ( SDG ) was isolated from flaxseed . SDG is metabolized by the colonic microflora to the mammalian lignans enterodiol ( END ) and enterolactone ( ENL ) , and was hypothesized to reduce plasma lipid concentrations and improve antioxidant capacity . The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a lignan complex , providing 500 mg/d of SDG , on serum concentration and urinary excretion of ENL , plasma lipids , serum lipoprotein oxidation resistance , and markers of antioxidant capacity .  Healthy postmenopausal women ( n = 22 ) completed a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , crossover study . Women consumed daily a low-fat muffin , with or without a lignan complex , for 6 wk , separated by a 6-wk washout period . Serum ENL concentration , urinary ENL excretion , plasma concentrations of total cholesterol ( TC ) , LDL cholesterol ( LDL-C ) , HDL cholesterol ( HDL-C ) , triacylglycerol ( TAG ) , serum lipoprotein oxidation lag time , plasma Trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity ( TEAC ) , and ferric reducing ability of plasma ( FRAP ) were measured at the beginning and end of each intervention period . ENL concentrations in serum ( P < 0.001 ) and ENL urinary excretion ( P < 0.001 ) were significantly higher after the lignan complex intervention period compared with placebo . Plasma concentrations of TC , LDL-C , HDL-C , TAG , lipoprotein oxidation lag time , TEAC and FRAP were not affected . Daily consumption for 6 wk of a low-fat muffin enriched with a lignan complex significantly increased serum ENL concentrations and urinary ENL excretion in healthy postmenopausal women , but had no effect on plasma lipid concentrations , serum lipoprotein oxidation resistance , or plasma antioxidant capacity Thirty healthy male volunteers were r and omly allocated into two dietary treatment groups . The  flaxseed group ( n = 15 ) maintained a diet high in alpha-linolenic acid ( alpha-LA ; 18:3n-3 ) and low in linoleic acid ( LA ; 18:2n-6 ) by using a flaxseed oil and spread that are high in alpha-LA . The  control group ( n = 15 ) maintained a diet high in LA and low in alpha-LA , typifying a Western diet . Both groups maintained their diets for 4 wk , followed by another 4-wk period in which they supplemented the diets with fish oil [ 1.62 g eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA , 20:5n-3 ) daily and 1.08 g docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , 22:6n-3 ) daily ] in a triglyceride form . The flaxseed oil-containing diet result ed in significant increases in alpha-LA concentrations in the plasma phospholipid , cholesteryl ester , and triglyceride fractions ( eightfold increase ) and neutrophil phospholipids ( 50 % increase ) . EPA concentrations increased by 2.5-fold in the plasma lipid fractions and neutrophil phospholipids . After fish-oil supplementation  EPA concentrations increased in parallel in both dietary groups , remaining higher in the flaxseed group for both the plasma lipid fractions and neutrophil phospholipids . The results indicate that alpha-LA-rich vegetable oils can be used in a domestic setting ( in conjunction with a background diet low in LA ) to elevate EPA in tissues to concentrations comparable with those associated with fish-oil supplementation OBJECTIVE The fatty acid profile of dietary fats may contribute to its channelling toward oxidation versus storage , influencing energy and weight balance . Our objective was to compare the effects of diets enriched with high-oleic canola oil ( HOCO ) , alone or blended with flaxseed oil ( FXCO ) , on energy expenditure , substrate utilization , and body composition versus a typical Western diet ( WD ) . MATERIAL S/ METHODS Using a r and omized crossover design , 34 hypercholesterolemic subjects ( n=22 females ) consumed 3 controlled diets for 28 days containing ~49 % energy from carbohydrate , 14 % energy from protein , and 37 % energy from fat , of which 70 % of fat was provided by HOCO rich in oleic acid , FXCO rich in alpha-linolenic acid , or WD rich in saturated fat . Indirect calorimetry measured energy expenditure and substrate oxidation . Body composition was analyzed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry . RESULT After 28 days , resting and postpr and ial energy expenditure and substrate oxidation were not different after consumption of the HOCO or FXCO diets compared with a typical Western diet . No significant changes in body composition measures were observed between diets . However , the and roid-to-gynoid ratio tended to increase ( P=.055 ) after the FXCO diet compared with the HOCO diet . CONCLUSIONS The data suggest that substituting a typical Western dietary fatty acid profile with HOCO or FXCO does not significantly modulate energy expenditure , substrate oxidation or body composition in hypercholesterolemic males and females Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of flaxseed oil consumption on serum systemic and vascular inflammation markers , and oxidative stress in hemodialysis ( HD ) patients . Methods In this r and omized , double-blind , clinical trial , 34 HD patients were r and omly assigned to either the flaxseed oil or the control group . The patients in the flaxseed oil group received 6 g/day flaxseed oil for 8 week , whereas the control group received 6 g/day medium-chain triglycerides ( MCT ) oil . At baseline and the end of week 8 , serum concentrations of high-sensitive C-reactive protein ( hs-CRP ) , soluble intercellular adhesion molecule type 1 ( sICAM-1 ) , soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule type 1 ( sVCAM-1 ) , sE-selectin , and malondialdehyde ( MDA ) were measured after a 12- to 14-h fast . Results Serum hs-CRP , a systemic inflammation marker , and sVCAM-1 , a vascular inflammation marker , reduced significantly in the flaxseed oil group at the end of week 8 compared to baseline ( P < 0.05 ) , and the reductions were significant in comparison with the MCT oil group ( P < 0.05 ) . There were no significant differences between the two groups in mean changes in serum sICAM-1 , sE-selectin , and MDA . Conclusion This study indicates that daily consumption of 6 g flaxseed oil reduces serum hs-CRP and sVCAM-1 , which are two risk factors for CVD . Therefore , the inclusion of flaxseed oil in the usual diet of HD patients can be considered as a strategy for reducing CVD risk factors Background : Prostate cancer affects one of six men during their lifetime . Dietary factors are postulated to influence the development and progression of prostate cancer . Low-fat diets and flaxseed supplementation may offer potentially protective strategies . Methods : We undertook a multisite , r and omized controlled trial to test the effects of low-fat and /or flaxseed-supplemented diets on the biology of the prostate and other biomarkers . Prostate cancer patients ( n = 161 ) scheduled at least 21 days before prostatectomy were r and omly assigned to one of the following arms : ( a ) control ( usual diet ) , ( b ) flaxseed-supplemented diet ( 30 g/d ) , ( c ) low-fat diet ( < 20 % total energy ) , or ( d ) flaxseed-supplemented , low-fat diet . Blood was drawn at baseline and before surgery and analyzed for prostate-specific antigen , sex hormone-binding globulin , testosterone , insulin-like growth factor-I and binding protein-3 , C-reactive protein , and total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol . Tumors were assessed for proliferation ( Ki-67 , the primary endpoint ) and apoptosis . Results : Men were on protocol an average of 30 days . Proliferation rates were significantly lower ( P < 0.002 ) among men assigned to the flaxseed arms . Median Ki-67-positive cells/total nuclei ratios ( ×100 ) were 1.66 ( flaxseed-supplemented diet ) and 1.50 ( flaxseed-supplemented , low-fat diet ) versus 3.23 ( control ) and 2.56 ( low-fat diet ) . No differences were observed between arms with regard to side effects , apoptosis , and most serologic endpoints ; however , men on low-fat diets experienced significant decreases in serum cholesterol ( P = 0.048 ) . Conclusions : Findings suggest that flaxseed is safe and associated with biological alterations that may be protective for prostate cancer . Data also further support low-fat diets to manage serum cholesterol . ( Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008;17(12):3577–87 Phytoestrogens are increasingly incorporated into the diet of menopausal women . However , there are limited data on the efficacy of flaxseed on the consequences of estrogen deficiency in menopausal women . The purpose of the study was to assess the effects of flaxseed incorporation into the diet of healthy menopausal women . One hundred and ninety-nine menopausal women were r and omly assigned to consume 40 g flaxseed/d ( n = 101 ) or wheat germ placebo ( n = 98 ) for 12 months . At baseline and at month 12 , serum levels of lipids , bone mineral density ( BMD ) , and menopausal symptoms were evaluated . Statistical analysis was performed under the intention to treat principle . Flaxseed reduced serum total ( -0.20 + /- 0.51 mmol/liter ; P = 0.012 ) and high-density lipoprotein ( -0.08 + /- 0.24 mmol/liter ; P = 0.031 ) cholesterol concentrations compared with wheat germ placebo .  BMD did not differ significantly between the two arms . Both flaxseed and wheat germ reduced ( P < 0.0001 ) the severity scores of menopausal symptoms , but no statistical difference was found between the two arms . Our findings suggest that 1-yr incorporation of flaxseed into the diet produced a favorable , but not clinical ly significant , effect on blood cholesterol and caused no significant change in BMD or symptoms in healthy menopausal women Background Obesity leads to an increase in inflammation and insulin resistance . This study determined antioxidant activity of flaxseed and its role in inflammation and insulin resistance in obese glucose intolerant people . Methods Using a r and omized crossover design , nine obese glucose intolerant people consumed 40 g ground flaxseed or 40 g wheat bran daily for 12 weeks with a 4-week washout period . Plasma inflammation biomarkers ( CRP , TNF-α , and IL-6 ) , glucose , insulin , and thiobaribituric acid reactive substance ( TBARS ) were measured before and after of each supplementation . Results Flaxseed supplementation  decreased TBARS ( p = 0.0215 ) and HOMA-IR ( p = 0.0382 ) . Flaxseed or wheat bran supplementation did not change plasma inflammatory biomarkers . A positive relationship was found between TBARS and HOMA-IR ( r = 0.62 , p = 0.0003 ) . Conclusions The results of the study weakly support that decreased insulin resistance might have been secondary to antioxidant activity of flaxseed . However , the mechanism(s ) of decreased insulin resistance by flaxseed should be further determined using flaxseed lignan Objective : The omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( n-3 PUFA ) as well as lignan components of flaxseed ( FLX ) can have beneficial effects . In this 6-week-long , r and omized , double-blinded , placebo-controlled study , we investigated the effects of FLX lignans on cardiovascular risk factors . Methods : Thirty-seven subjects ( 13 men and 24 women , age : 54 ± 7 years , body mass index [ BMI ] : 29.7 ± 1 kg/m2 ) consumed nutrition bars  with similar macronutrient contents . The fatty acid composition and the lignan contents of the bars differed significantly . Two FLX bars both contained 3.0 g of alpha linolenic acid ( ALA : 18:3 n-3 ) but different amount of lignans ( 0.15 g vs. 0.41 g ) . Results : High-lignan FLX  decreased total cholesterol ( C ) by 12 % ( p = 0.044 ) , LDL-C by 15 % ( p = 0.022 ) , and oxidized (Ox)-LDL by 25 % ( p = 0.035 ) . Regular FLX tended to increase Ox-LDL by 13 % ( p = 0.051 ) . The difference between the effects of high-lignan vs. regular lignan FLX  on Ox-LDL was highly significant ( p = 0.004 ) . Conclusion : High-lignan FLX has the unique property of decreasing Ox-LDL , which is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease OBJECTIVE Supplementation of type II diabetic diets with n-3 fatty acids ( FAs ) from fish oil ( FO ) has been associated with lowered triglyceride and VLDL levels , although reports of impaired glycemic control have limited their use . Effects of n-3FAs from nonmarine sources are less well documented . Therefore , an investigation comparing the effects of linseed oil ( LO ) with FO supplementation was undertaken in subjects with type II diabetes . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Eleven subjects with type II diabetes were given supplements with LO and FO for 3 months each in a r and omized double-blind crossover fashion after 3 months of olive oil placebo . Oils were given as 35 mg FA · kg body wt−1 · day−1 . After each 3-month period , fasting glucose and insulin levels , HbA1c , lipid profiles , insulin sensitivity ( SI ) , glucose effectiveness ( SG ) , and acute insulin response to glucose ( AIRG ) were evaluated . RESULTS HbA1c and lipid values were within the normal range at r and omization . Repeated measures analysis of variance testing found no significant differences in weight ; fasting glucose and insulin levels ; HbA1c ; total , LDL , and HDL cholesterol levels ; SI ; SG ; or AIRG with either active oil . FO was associated with significant reductions in triglycerides and a trend toward decreased SI . CONCLUSIONS In a population with well-controlled type II diabetes , 3 months of FO but not LO result ed in lowered triglyceride levels . Neither LO nor FO significantly affected glycemic control , cholesterol values , SG , or insulin secretion , while a nonsignificant trend toward decreased insulin sensitivity was found with FO BACKGROUND AND AIMS Elevated levels of circulating omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids like alpha linolenic acid ( ALA ) may be beneficial for cardiovascular health . Circulating ALA concentrations are elevated dramatically by a cholesterol supplemented diet which increases ALA bioavailability through enhanced micelle formation in the intestines . Conversely , it is possible that drugs which inhibit cholesterol metabolism in the intestine may also inhibit fatty acid absorption . The purpose of this study is to determine if a cholesterol absorption inhibitor , ezetimibe , will decrease circulating levels of ALA . METHODS AND RESULTS Cardiac patients ( n = 34 ) between 44 and 80 years old , requiring statin therapy to regulate blood cholesterol levels , were r and omly assigned to one of four groups for a 6 week trial : 1 ) placebo ; 2 ) ezetimibe therapy ; 3 ) a supplement of flaxseed oil ( containing 1.0 g ALA in 2.0 g of flaxseed oil ) ; or 4 ) ezetimibe and flaxseed oil supplementation . Ingestion of flaxseed oil result ed in a significant increase in circulating ALA levels ( 6 ug/dl ) in patients who were not given ezetimibe . However , in the presence of ezetimibe , circulating ALA levels did not increase significantly even in the presence of flax oil supplementation ( a decrease of 4 ug/dl ) . There were no significant differences amongst the groups in terms of circulating total cholesterol , LDL , HDL , triglyceride levels in the blood . CONCLUSION Ezetimibe therapy inhibited the absorption of omega-3 fatty acids . Patients receiving ezetimibe therapy may not receive the expected cardiovascular benefits from dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids . CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NCT00955227 Flaxseed contains & ohgr;-3 fatty acids , lignans , and fiber that together may provide benefits to patients with cardiovascular disease . Animal work identified that patients with peripheral artery disease may particularly benefit from dietary supplementation with flaxseed .  Hypertension is commonly associated with peripheral artery disease . The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of daily ingestion of flaxseed on systolic ( SBP ) and diastolic blood pressure ( DBP ) in peripheral artery disease patients . In this prospect i ve , double-blinded , placebo-controlled , r and omized trial , patients ( 110 in total ) ingested a variety of foods that contained 30 g of milled flaxseed or placebo each day over 6 months . Plasma levels of the & ohgr;-3 fatty acid & agr;-linolenic acid and enterolignans increased 2- to 50-fold in the flaxseed-fed group but did not increase significantly in the placebo group . Patient body weights were not significantly different between the 2 groups at any time . SBP was ≈10 mm Hg lower , and DBP was ≈7 mm Hg lower in the flaxseed group compared with placebo after 6 months . Patients who entered the trial with  a SBP ≥140 mm Hg at baseline obtained a significant reduction of 15 mm Hg in SBP and 7 mm Hg in DBP  from flaxseed ingestion . The antihypertensive effect was achieved selectively in hypertensive patients . Circulating & agr;-linolenic acid levels correlated with SBP and DBP , and lignan levels correlated with changes in DBP . In summary , flaxseed induced one of the most potent antihypertensive effects achieved by a dietary intervention Aim . Animal and human study evidence supports the hypothesis that flaxseed lignan complex ( FLC ) at a dose of 600 mg secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG)/day for three months would combat hyperglycaemia , dyslipidemia , blood pressure , central obesity , prothrombotic state , inflammation , and low density lipoprotein ( LDL ) oxidation . Methods . Sixteen type 2 diabetic patients completed this double-blind , r and omised crossover placebo-controlled study . A univariate repeated measures analysis of covariance ( significance P < 0.05 ) was followed by a mixed linear model effects analysis corrected for multiple comparisons ( MCC ) . Results . Prior to MCC , FLC caused decreased fasting plasma glucose , A1c , inflammation ( c-reactive protein ( CRP ) and interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) ) , and increased bleeding time . After correction for multiple comparisons , FLC induced a statistically significant increase in bleeding time and smaller waist circumference gain . No treatment effect occurred in the other variables before or after adjustment . Conclusions . It is concluded that FLC significantly increased bleeding time thus reducing the prothrombotic state , reduced central obesity gain as measured by waist circumference , and did not affect significantly the other dependent variables measured after adjustment for multiple comparisons . These findings , not yet published in human type 2 diabetes , suggest that this FLC dose over at least three months , may , subject to further investigation , reduce polypharmacy Background The effects of alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) on cardiovascular risk factors considerably vary between published reports . Therefore , we investigated the effects of 12-week supplementation with flaxseed oil ( FO ) , which is a rich source of ALA , on  cardiovascular risk factors such as serum small dense low-density lipoprotein ( sd-LDL ) concentrations .  Methods In a r and omized , double blind , crossover study , 15 subjects ingested 10 g of FO or corn oil ( CO ) , containing 5.49 g and 0.09 g of ALA , respectively , once daily with dinner . Blood sample s were collected at 0 , 4 and 12 weeks , and were used for analysis of serum lipid , lipid-related proteins , serum fatty acids and serum sd-LDL cholesterol . Differences during the test period were identified using a repeated- measures analysis of variance ( ANOVA ) for within-group effects . Group differences were identified using paired t-test at each blood sampling time point . Results ALA and eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations were significantly higher in the FO period at 4 and 12 weeks than in the CO period . No significant differences in docosahexaenoic acid concentrations were observed between two periods , and cholesteryl ester transfer protein and apolipoprotein B concentrations were significantly lower in the FO period than in the CO period at 12 weeks . FO supplementation was associated with a significant decrease in sd-LDL concentrations at 4 and 12 weeks , and CO supplementation had no effect . Moreover , sd-LDL concentrations were significantly lower in the FO period than in the CO period at 4 weeks . Among subjects with triglyceride ( TG ) concentrations  of > 100 mg/dl , FO supplementation markedly reduced sd-LDL concentrations at 4 and 12 weeks compared with baseline . Sd-LDL concentrations significantly differed between the periods at both 4 and 12 weeks . Conclusion This study indicates that the FO , which is a rich source of ALA , leads to lower sd-LDL cholesterol concentrations Background Flaxseed consumption has been shown to improve blood lipids in humans and flaxseed-derived lignan has been shown to enhance glycemic control in animals . The study aim ed to investigate the effect of a flaxseed-derived lignan supplement on glycemic control , lipid profiles and insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patients . Methodology /Principal Findings This was a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , cross-over trial and it was conducted between April and December 2006 in Shanghai , China . Seventy-three type 2 diabetic patients with mild hypercholesterolemia were enrolled into the study . Patients were r and omized to supplementation with flaxseed-derived lignan capsules ( 360 mg lignan per day ) or placebo for 12 weeks , separated by an 8-week wash-out period . HbA1c , lipid profiles , insulin resistance index and inflammatory factors were measured . Sixty-eight completed the study and were included in the analyses . The lignan supplement significantly improved glycemic control as measured by HbA1c ( -0.10±0.65 % vs. 0.09±0.52 % , P = 0.001 ) compared to placebo ; however , no significant changes were observed in fasting glucose and insulin concentrations , insulin resistance and blood lipid profiles . Urinary excretion of lignan metabolites ( enterodiol and enterolactone ) was significantly higher after the lignan supplement intervention compared to baseline ( 14.2±18.1 vs. 1.2±2.4 µg/mL , P<0.001 ) . Data also suggested minimal competition between lignan and isoflavones for bioavailability when measured by the excretion concentrations . Conclusions / Significance Daily lignan supplementation result ed in modest , yet statistically significant improvements in glycemic control in type 2 diabetic patients without apparently affecting fasting glucose , lipid profiles and insulin sensitivity . Further studies are needed to vali date these findings and explore the efficacy of lignans on type 2 diabetes . Trial Registration Clinical Trials.gov Background Dietary alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) has been associated with reduced risk of development of atherosclerosis . Adiponectin is a hormone specifically secreted by adipocytes and considered to have anti-atherogenic properties . Aim of the study We examined the effect of increased dietary intake of ALA on plasma concentration of adiponectin . Methods Thirty-five non-diabetic , dyslipidemic men , 38–71 years old , were r and omly allocated to take either 15 ml of flaxseed oil rich in ALA ( 8.1 g/day ; n = 18 ) , or 15 ml of safflower oil per day , containing the equivalent n-6 fatty acid ( 11.2 g/day linoleic acid , LA ; n = 17 ) ( control group ) . The intervention period lasted for 12 weeks . Results Plasma levels of adiponectin did not change after the increase in dietary intake of ALA in the flaxseed oil supplementation group , compared to the control group . No changes in body mass index , serum lipid concentrations , LDL density , or plasma TNF-α were found in the flaxseed oil versus the control group . Conclusions Dietary ALA has no effect on plasma adiponectin concentration in dyslipidemic men BACKGROUND Inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of coronary artery disease . We examined whether dietary supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA , 18:3n-3 ) affects the levels of inflammatory markers in dyslipidaemic patients . METHODS We recruited 76 male dyslipidaemic patients ( mean age=51+/-8 years ) following a typical Greek diet . They were r and omly assigned either to 15 ml of linseed oil ( rich in ALA ) per day ( n=50 ) or to 15 ml of safflower oil ( rich in linoleic acid ( LA , 18:2n-6 ) ) per day ( n=26 ) . The ratio of n-6:n-3 in linseed oil supplemented group was 1.3:1 and in safflower oil supplemented group 13.2:1 . Dietary intervention lasted for 3 months . Blood lipids and C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , serum amyloid A ( SAA ) , and interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) levels were determined prior and after intervention . CRP and SAA were measured by nephelometry and IL-6 by immunoassay . RESULTS Dietary supplementation with ALA decreased significantly CRP , SAA and IL-6 levels . The median decrease of CRP was 38 % ( 1.24 vs. 0.93 mg/l , P=0.0008 ) , of SAA 23.1 % ( 3.24 vs. 2.39 mg/l , P=0.0001 ) and of IL-6 10.5 % ( 2.18 vs. 1.7 pg/ml , P=0.01 ) . The decrease of inflammatory markers was independent of lipid changes . Dietary supplementation with LA did not affect significantly CRP , SAA and IL-6 concentrations but decreased cholesterol levels . CONCLUSIONS Dietary supplementation with ALA for 3 months decreases significantly CRP , SAA and IL-6 levels  in dyslipidaemic patients . This anti-inflammatory effect may provide a possible additional mechanism for the beneficial effect of plant n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in primary and secondary prevention of coronary artery disease Objective : To determine the effects of dietary consumption of milled flaxseed or flaxseed oil on glycemic control , n-3 fatty acid status , anthropometrics , and adipokines in individuals with type 2 diabetes . Design : Thirty-four participants were r and omized into a parallel , controlled trial . Subjects : The participants were adults with type 2 diabetes ( age 52.4 ± 1.5 years , body mass index 32.4 ± 1.0 kg/m2 , n = 17 men and 17 women ) . Interventions : Participants consumed a selection of bakery products containing no flax ( control group [ CTL ] , n = 9 ) , milled flaxseed ( FXS , n = 13 ; 32 g/d ) , or flaxseed oil ( FXO , n = 12 ; 13 g/d ) daily for 12 weeks . The FXS and FXO groups received equivalent amounts of alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ; 7.4 g/day ) . Measures of Outcome : The primary outcome measures were fasting plasma hemoglobin A1c , glucose , insulin , and phospholipid fatty acid composition . The secondary outcome measures were fasting circulating leptin and adiponectin , as well as body weight , body mass index , and waist circumference . Dietary intake assessment and calculations for homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance and quantified insulin sensitivity check were also completed . Results : The FXS and FXO groups had increases in plasma phospholipid n-3 fatty acids ( ALA , eicosapentaenoic acid [ EPA ] , or decosapentaenoic acid [ DPA ] , but not docosahexaenoic acid ) , and the FXO group had more EPA and DPA in plasma phospholipids compared to the FXS group . All groups had similar caloric intakes ; however , the CTL group experienced a 4 % weight gain compared to baseline ( p < 0.05 ) , while both flax groups had constant body weights during the study period . All other parameters , including glycemic control , were unchanged by dietary treatment . Conclusions : Milled FXS and FXO intake does not affect glycemic control in adults with well-controlled type 2 diabetes . Possible prevention of weight gain by flax consumption warrants further investigation Background : Cardiovascular diseases ( CVDs ) are an increasing health problem all over the world . The search for natural hypolipidemic agents that can be used besides the synthetic drugs is still in its experimental stage . Plant seeds , particularly flaxseed ( Linum usitatissimum ) , which is a rich source of n-3 fatty acids , lignans and phenolic compounds , have also received increasing attention for their potential role in preventing lipid disorders . The present study was undertaken to evaluate the therapeutic potential of flaxseeds in dyslipidemia . Methods : The study included 50 dyslipidemic subjects selected by purposive r and om sampling and were divided into two groups , a control and an experimental group . Both the groups were prescribed similar dietary guidelines . Subjects in the experimental group received 30 g of roasted flaxseed powder for 3 months . Anthropometric parameters , blood pressure , and blood lipid profile were estimated before the study and after completion of the study . Results : Flaxseed supplementation result ed in a remarkable improvement in anthropometric measurements , blood pressure , and lipid profile in the experimental group . Body weight and body mass index ( BMI ) of the experimental group were significantly reduced ( p < 0.01 ) . A lowering of systolic and diastolic blood pressure ( p < 0.05 ) was also recorded in the dyslipidemic subjects . Concomitantly , a highly significant reduction ( p < 0.01 ) in total cholesterol , triglycerides , low density lipoprotein-cholesterol ( LDL-C ) , and very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol ( VLDL-C ) levels , with simultaneous elevation ( p < 0.01 ) in high density lipoprotein-cholesterol ( HDL-C ) levels was observed . Improvement in lipid levels result ed in reduction of atherogenic indices . Conclusions : The supplementation of roasted flaxseed powder for 3 months improved the BMI , blood pressure , and lipid profile of dyslipidemic subjects , thus exhibiting cardio protective effect Inflammation and lipid abnormalities are two important risk factors for cardiovascular disease in hemodialysis ( HD ) patients . The present study was design ed to investigate the effects of flaxseed consumption on systemic inflammation and serum lipid profile in HD patients with lipid abnormalities . This was an unblinded , r and omized clinical trial . Thirty HD patients with dyslipidemia ( triglyceride > 200 mg/dL and /or high‐density lipoprotein‐cholesterol ( HDL‐C ) < 40 mg/dL ) were r and omly assigned to either a flaxseed or control group . Patients in the flaxseed group received 40 g/day ground flaxseed for 8 weeks , whereas patients in the control group received their usual diet , without any flaxseed . At baseline and at the end of week 8 , 7 mL of blood was collected after a 12‐ to 14‐hour fast and serum concentrations of triglyceride , total cholesterol , low‐density lipoprotein‐cholesterol ( LDL‐C ) , HDL‐C , and C‐reactive protein ( CRP ) were measured . Serum concentrations of triglyceride ( P < 0.01 ) , total cholesterol ( P < 0.01 ) , LDL‐C ( P < 0.01 ) , and CRP ( P < 0.05 ) decreased significantly in the flaxseed group at the end of week 8 compared with baseline , whereas serum HDL‐C showed a significant increase ( P < 0.01 ) . These changes in the flaxseed group were significant in comparison with the control group . The study indicates that flaxseed consumption improves lipid abnormalities and reduces systemic inflammation in HD patients with lipid abnormalities Purpose Lipoprotein associated phospholipase A2 ( Lp-PLA2 ) is a novel inflammatory factor that has been independently associated with stroke and cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . Omega-3 fats have been implicated in reducing inflammation associated with CVD . The aim of this study was to determine if an 8-week isocaloric diet supplemented with eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic ( DHA ) in the form of fish oil or α-linolenic acid ( ALA ) in the form of flaxseed oil would alter Lp-PLA2 among healthy adults ages 50 years and older . Methods Fifty-nine healthy adults ( ~75 % female , average age 61 years ) were r and omized to one of three groups with equal amounts of total fat intake . All capsules contained ~1 g of fat . The control group ( n = 19 ) consumed olive oil capsules ( ~11 g/day ) ; the ALA group ( n = 20 ) consumed flaxseed oil capsules ( ~11 g/day ) and the EPA/DHA group ( n = 20 ) consumed fish oil capsules ( ~2 g/day + 9 g/day of olive oil ) . Fasting blood sample s were obtained before and after the 8-week intervention for determination of Lp-PLA2 mass and activity as well as lipid values . Results We did not find any significant changes in Lp-PLA2 mass or activity after the intervention in any of the groups ; however , change in oxidized LDL was associated with change in Lp-PLA2 mass ( r = 0.37 , p < 0.01 ) . ConclusionS upplementing the diet with omega-3 fatty acids for 8-weeks did not influence Lp-PLA2 activity or mass among older adults ; altering oxidized LDL may be necessary to see changes in Lp-PLA2 levels INTRODUCTION Hyperlipidemia is one of the most important risk factors of ischemic heart disease . Previous studies showed that flaxseed has the potential to improve lipid profiles . In this study we investigated the effects of flaxseed powder intake on lipid profiles of patients with hyperlipidemia . MATERIAL S AND METHODS This study was a r and omized controlled clinical trial . Seventy patients with hyperlipidemia participated in the research . After detailed diet and lifestyle education , blood sample s were collected from the participants . Patients with hyperlipidemia were r and omly divided in to two intervention and control groups . The intervention group received 30 g of raw flaxseed powder every day for 40 days . Serum lipids were measured again in two groups after that time . Activity and food intakes of two groups were recorded . RESULTS In the intervention group , weight and body mass index were considerably reduced . Total cholesterol was reduced in the intervention group and increased in the control group , both of which were significant . Low density lipoprotein significantly increased in the control group and reduced in intervention group ; also , triglyceride was increased in the control group and reduced in the intervention group , which were significant Table 1 . CONCLUSION Based on the findings obtained in this research , flaxseed powder intake desirably reduced serum lipids . The differences between two groups on the basis of analysis of covariance test were significant . In all cases except for the HDL-c , this is an effective intervention . Therefore , flaxseed may be regarded as a useful therapeutic food for reducing hyperlipidemia Supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) has been reported to reduce lipid peroxidation products formed from arachidonic acid ( F(2)-isoprostanes ) in healthy humans , as well as in those under oxidative stress . alpha-Linolenic acid ( ALA ) is a precursor to EPA and DHA ; however , its conversion in humans is thought to be inefficient . ALA can also undergo free radical oxidation , forming compounds known as F(1)-phytoprostanes , which are found in all plants and are in high concentrations in plant pollens . In this study , we examined the effect of ALA supplementation on plasma and urine F(1)-phytoprostane and F(2)-isoprostane concentrations in men . Thirty-six nonsmoking men , aged 20 - 65 y , were recruited from the general population and r and omly allocated to consume 9 g/d of either flaxseed oil ( 62 % ALA , 5.4 g/d ) or olive oil ( placebo ) for 4 wk in a parallel design . At baseline and after 4 wk of supplementation , blood sample s and a 24-h urine sample were collected for measurement of plasma and urinary F(1)-phytoprostanes and F(2)-isoprostanes and plasma fatty acids . Compared with the olive oil group , plasma phospholipid ALA was greater ( P < 0.0001 ) , as were F(1)-phytoprostanes in plasma ( P = 0.049 ) and urine ( P = 0.06 ) in the flaxseed oil group after 4 wk supplementation . Flaxseed oil did not affect plasma or urinary F(2)-isoprostanes . The greater plasma F(1)-phytoprostane concentration in the flaxseed oil group most likely result ed from the increased plasma concentration of the ALA substrate and /or the F(1)-phytoprostane content of the flaxseed oil . Future studies are needed to determine the physiological importance of increased plasma and urine F(1)-phytoprostanes and their relevance to heart disease prevention OBJECTIVE Olive oil ( OO ) is a rich source of monounsaturated fat and bioactive components that exert strong anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties . Flaxseed oil ( FO ) is rich in α-linolenic n-3 fatty acid ( ALA ) , which also exhibits anti-inflammatory effects . This r and omized , cross-over study aim ed at exploring whether diet 's enrichment with FO could beneficially alter inflammatory markers and lipid profile , compared to OO , in a sample of normal weight , apparently healthy young adults . MATERIAL S AND METHODS Participants were supplied with 15 mL/day of either FO or OO . Each intervention and the wash-out period lasted 6 weeks . Dietary , anthropometric and physical activity variables were recorded at the beginning and the end of each intervention . Serum biochemical and inflammatory markers were measured . Compliance to the intervention was evaluated by fatty acid analysis in erythrocytes . Repeated Measures ANOVA was used to assess the effect of the treatment . RESULTS Thirty seven participants completed the study . No difference between the two interventions was observed in adiponectin , TNF-α , high sensitivity-CRP or glucose levels and lipid profile . At the end of the FO period , participants exhibited significant reductions in total ( -5.0 % ) and LDL-cholesterol ( -6.7 % ) levels ( all P<0.01 ) . During the FO and the OO period serum adiponectin changes were significantly correlated with changes in erythrocyte % ALA ( rs=0.34 , P=0.007 ) and in erythrocyte % EPA ( r(s)=0.47 , P=0.01 ) , respectively . CONCLUSIONS Daily consumption of FO did not confer any benefit in inflammatory or biochemical markers in normal weight young adults , who traditionally use olive oil as the main edible oil Abstract A two-arm r and omized open labeled controlled clinical trial was conducted on 50 patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease ( NAFLD ) . Participants were assigned to take either a lifestyle modification ( LM ) , or LM + 30 g/day brown milled flaxseed for 12 weeks . At the end of the study , body weight , liver enzymes , insulin resistance and hepatic fibrosis and steatosis decreased significantly in both groups ( p < 0.05 ) ; however , this reduction was significantly greater in those who took flaxseed supplementation ( p < 0.05 ) . The significant mean differences were reached in hepatic markers  between flaxseed and control group , respectively : ALT [ −11.12 compared with −3.7 U/L ; P < 0.001 ] , AST [ −8.29 compared with −4 U/L ; p < 0.001 ] , GGT [ −15.7 compared with −2.62 U/L ; p < 0.001 ] , fibrosis score [ −1.26 compared with −0.77 kPa ; p = 0.013 ] and steatosis score [ −47 compared with −15.45 dB/m ; p = 0.022 ] . In conclusion , flaxseed supplementation plus lifestyle modification  is more effective than lifestyle modification alone for NAFLD management BACKGROUND Botanical omega-3 fatty acid ( alphalinolenic acid/ALA ) has been shown to alleviate the prothrombotic and proinflammatory profile of metabolic syndrome , however clinical protocol s are still scarce . Aim ing to focus an obese population , a pilot study was design ed . METHODS Morbidly obese c and i date s for bariatric surgery ( n = 29 , age 46.3 ± 5.2 years ) , 82.8 % females ( 24/29 ) , BMI 44.9 ± 5.2 kg/m² , with C-reactive protein/CRP > 5 mg/L were recruited . Twenty were r and omized and after exclusions , 16 were available for analysis . Flaxseed powder ( 60 g/day , 10 g ALA ) and isocaloric roasted cassava powder ( 60 g/day , fat-free ) were administered in a double-blind routine for 12 weeks . RESULTS During flaxseed consumption neutrophil count decreased and fibrinogen , complement C4 , prothrombin time and carotid diameter remained stable , whereas placebo ( cassava powder ) was associated with further elevation of those measurements . CONCLUSIONS Inflammatory and coagulatory markers tended to exhibit a better outlook in the flaxseed group . Also large-artery diameter stabilized whereas further increase was noticed in controls . These findings raise the hypothesis of a less deleterious cardiovascular course in seriously obese subjects receiving a flaxseed supplement Background Morbidly obese patients frequently display asymptomatic chronic activation of acute phase response , with potentially adverse metabolic and cardiovascular consequences . Nutritional preparations to improve this phenomenon have rarely been administered . Aim ing to investigate the supplementation of flaxseed flour , a source of omega-3 fatty acids , a prospect i ve r and omized double-blind cross-over study was design ed . Methods Outpatient obese subjects ( n = 41 ) were clinical ly and biochemically screened , and results for 24 r and omized subjects are shown . Age was 40.8 ± 11.6 years ( 83.3 % females ) and body mass index ( BMI ) was 47.1 ± 7.2 kg/m2 . Flaxseed flour ( Farinha de Linhaca Dourada LinoLive , Cisbra , Brazil ) in the amount of 30 g/day ( 5 g of alpha-linolenic acid – omega-3 ) and an equal mass of placebo ( manioc flour ) were administered for 2 weeks each . Variables included general biochemical investigation , white blood cell count ( WBC ) , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , serum amyloid A ( SAA ) and fibronectin . Results No intolerance was registered . Body weight and general biochemical indices remained stable . Initial CRP and SAA were elevated ( 13.7 ± 9.9 and 17.4 ± 8.0 ) . WBC ( 8100 ± 2100/mm3 ) and fibronectin ( 463.2 ± 61.3 mg/dL ) were acceptable but in the upper normal range . Corresponding findings after supplementation of flaxseed were 10.6 ± 6.2 mg/L , 14.3 ± 9.2 mg/L , 7300 ± 1800/mm3 and 412.8 ± 38.6 respectively ( P < 0.05 ) . No change during the control period regarding baseline occurred when placebo was r and omized to be given first ; however , when it followed omega-3 supplementation , CRP and SAA recovered , whereas WBC and fibronection remained depressed during those 2 weeks ( 7500 ± 2100/mm3 and 393.2 ± 75.8 mg/dL , P < 0.05 ) . Conclusions 1 ) Various inflammatory markers were elevated in the studied population , although not necessarily exceeding the normal range ; 2 ) Significant reduction could be demonstrated ; 3 ) Some persistent effects of flaxseed supplement 2 weeks after discontinuation were observed The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of flaxseed meal and flaxseed extract in reducing climacteric symptoms of menopausal women . Ninety menopausal women were r and omly distributed into three study groups : group I received 1 g per day of flaxseed extract containing at least 100 mg of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside ( SDG ) , group II received 90 g per day of flaxseed meal containing at least 270 mg of SDG , and group III received 1 g per day of collagen ( placebo group ) . Subjects were assessed for menopausal symptoms by the Kupperman index at the beginning and at the end of the 6 months of treatment . Subjects were also assessed for endometrial thickness and vaginal cytology . The Kupperman index values at the beginning and end of the treatments were analyzed using the paired t-test . Both the flaxseed extract ( P=.007 ) and the flaxseed meal ( P=.005 ) were effective in reducing the menopausal symptoms when compared with the placebo control ( P=.082 ) . Alternatively , the changes in Kupperman index were also computed and su bmi tted to analysis of variance . In this case , no significant differences were found ( P=.084 ) although the data indicate a decreasing tendency for the Kupperman index by both the flaxseed extract and the flaxseed meal groups . Neither the flaxseed extract nor the flaxseed meal exerted clinical ly important estrogenic effects on the vaginal epithelium or endometrium as revealed by the absence of changes in the blood levels of follicle stimulating hormone and estradiol , as well as in the endometrial thickness , and vaginal epithelial maturation value . No serious adverse events related to the treatments were reported . Although the results of the present study do not allow an unequivocal conclusion about the action of flaxseed on the menopausal symptoms , they suggest that it could be premature to conclude that no such action exists . Clearly the matter still deserves further experimental attention SCOPE To investigate the effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements , both marine and plant-based , on glycemic traits in Chinese type 2 diabetes patients . METHOD AND RESULTS In a double-blind r and omized controlled trial , 185 recruited Chinese type 2 diabetes patients were r and omized to either fish oil ( FO , n = 63 ) , flaxseed oil ( FSO , n = 61 ) , or corn oil group ( served as control group , n = 61 ) for 180 days . The patients were asked to take corresponding oil capsules ( four capsules/day ) , which totally provided 2 g/day of eicosapentaenoic acid + docosahexaenoic acid in FO group and 2.5 g/day of alpha-linolenic acid in FSO group . No group × time interaction was observed for homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance , fasting insulin , or glucose . Significant group × time interaction ( P = 0.035 ) was observed for glycated hemoglobin A1c ( HbA1c ) , with HbA1c decreased in FO group compared with corn oil group ( P = 0.037 ) . We also found significant group × time interactions for lipid traits , including LDL cholesterol ( P = 0.043 ) , total cholesterol ( P = 0.021 ) , total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol ( P = 0.009 ) , and triacylglycerol ( P = 0.003 ) , with the lipid profiles improved in FO group . No significant effects of FSO on glycemic traits or blood lipids were observed . CONCLUSIONS Marine n-3 PUFA supplements may improve glycemic control and lipid profiles among Chinese type 2 diabetic patients
target: Subgroup analyses showed that using whole flaxseed in doses ≥30 g d-1 , longer-term interventions ( ≥12 weeks ) and studies including participants with higher BMI ( ≥ 27 kg m-2 ) had positive effects on body composition  .
  Whole flaxseed is a good choice for weight management particularly for weight reduction in overweight and obese participants
background: Flaxseed consumption may be inversely associated with obesity ; however , findings of available r and omized controlled trials ( RCTs ) are conflicting .
  The present study aim ed to systematic ally review and analyse RCTs assessing the effects of flaxseed consumption on body weight and body composition .