title: Effects of partially hydrogenated fish oil, partially hydrogenated soybean oil, and butter on serum lipoproteins and Lp[a] in men. Differential impact of milk fatty acid profiles on cardiovascular risk biomarkers in healthy men and women Effect of modified dairy fat on postprandial and fasting plasma lipids and lipoproteins in healthy young men Effect of different forms of dietary hydrogenated fats on LDL particle size. Study of the effect of trans fatty acids from ruminants on blood lipids and other risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Dietary fatty acids affect plasma markers of inflammation in healthy men fed controlled diets: a randomized crossover study. Do trans fatty acids from industrially produced sources and from natural sources have the same effect on cardiovascular disease risk factors in healthy subjects? Results of the trans Fatty Acids Collaboration (TRANSFACT) study. Effects of butter high in ruminant trans and monounsaturated fatty acids on lipoproteins, incorporation of fatty acids into lipid classes, plasma C-reactive protein, oxidative stress, hemostatic variables, and insulin in healthy young men. Effects of different forms of dietary hydrogenated fats on serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels. Intake of ruminant trans fatty acids in the Danish population aged 1–80 years A comparison of the effects of cheese and butter on serum lipids, haemostatic variables and homocysteine. Influence of hydrogenated fat and butter on CVD risk factors: remnant-like particles, glucose and insulin, blood pressure and C-reactive protein. Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects. Intake of carbohydrates compared with intake of saturated fatty acids and risk of myocardial infarction: importance of the glycemic index.
abstract: We have compared the effects of partially hydrogenated fish oil ( PHFO-diet ) , partially hydrogenated soybean oil ( PHSO-diet ) , and butterfat ( butter-diet ) on  serum lipids and lipoprotein[a ] in 31 young men . The three test margarines , which contributed 78 % of total fat in the diets , were produced from 70 % of butterfat , PHSO , or PHFO , each with 30 % of soybean oil . Fat provided about 35 % of energy , and trans fatty acids 0.9 % , 8.5 % , and 8.0 % of energy in the butter- , the PHSO- , and the PHFO-diet , respectively . Dietary cholesterol was balanced by the addition of dried egg powder to the PHSO- and the butter-diet ; thus all diets contained 420 mg dietary cholesterol per 10 MJ per day . The subjects consumed all three test diets for 19 - 21 days in a r and om order ( crossover design ) . The serum levels of total and LDL-cholesterol were significantly elevated on the PHFO-diet ( mean values 5.42 and 3.94 mmol/L , respectively ) compared to the PHSO-diet ( 5.11 and 3.58 mmol/L , respectively ) but not different from those on the butter-diet ( 5.32 and 3.81 mmol/L , respectively ) . LDL-cholesterol was significantly reduced on the PHSO-diet compared to the butter-diet . The level of HDL-cholesterol was significantly lower on the PHFO-diet ( 0.98 mmol/L ) when compared to the butter-diet ( 1.05 mmol/L ) and with border-line significance compared to the PHSO-diet ( 1.05 mmol/L ) . The ratio of LDL- to HDL-cholesterol was significantly higher on the PHFO-diet ( 4.20 ) when compared to both other test diets ( 3.85 and 3.65 , respectively ) . No significant differences in triglyceride values were observed . Lp[a ] increased and apoA-I decreased significantly after consumption of both the PHSO-diet and the PHFO-diet , compared to the butter-diet . In conclusion , our results indicate that consumption of PHFO may unfavorably affect lipid risk indicators for coronary heart disease at least to the same extent as butterfat . To what extent the observed effects are due to the content of monoene trans , diene trans , or to the long chain saturated fatty acids in PHFO remains to be eluci date Background / Objectives : The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of three specific ruminant ( R ) milk fats result ing from modification of the cow 's diet on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy volunteers . R-milk fats were characterized by increased content in total trans fatty acids ( R-TFAs ) and parallel decrease in saturated fatty acids (SFAs).Subjects/ Methods : A total of 111 healthy , normolipemic men and women have been recruited for a monocentric , r and omized , double-blind and parallel intervention , 4-week controlled study . Volunteers consumed three experimental products ( butter , dessert cream and cookies ) made with one of the three specific milk fats ( 55 g fat per day ) . During the first week ( run-in period ) , the subjects consumed on a daily basis dairy products containing 72 % SFA/2.85 % R-TFA ( called ‘ L0 ’ ) . For the next 3 weeks of the study ( intervention period ) , the first group continued to consume L0 products . The second group received dairy products containing 63.3 % SFA/4.06 % R-TFA ( called ‘ L4 ’ ) , and the third group received dairy products containing 56.6 % SFA/12.16 % R-TFA ( called ‘ L9 ’ ) . Results : Plasma concentrations of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol were not significantly altered by either diet ( P=0.38 ) . Compared to L0 diet , L4 diet contributed to reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol ( −0.14±0.38 mmol/l , P=0.04 ) , total cholesterol ( −0.13±0.50 mmol/l , P=0.04 ) , LDL-cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ( −0.14±0.36 , P=0.03 ) and total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ( −0.18±0.44 , P=0.02 ) . Conclusions : Different milk fat profiles can change cardiovascular plasma parameters in human healthy volunteers . A limited increase of the R-TFA/SFA ratio in dairy products is associated with an improvement in some cardiovascular risk factors . However , a further increase in R-TFA/SFA ratio has no additional benefit Fatty acid profile of milk fat can be modified by cow feeding strategies . Our aim was postpr and ially and after 4 wk to compare the effect of a modified milk fat ( M diet ) [ with 16 % of the cholesterolemic saturated fatty acid ( C12–16 ) replaced by mainly oleic and stearic acids ] with the effect of D diet , including a conventional Danish milk fat on plasma lipids and lipoproteins . A side effect of the cow feeding regime was a 5 % ( w/w ) increase in trans fatty acid in M diet . Eighteen subjects were fed for two periods of 4 wk strictly controlled isoenergetic test diets with 40 % of energy from total fat and the same content of dietary cholesterol in a r and omized study with cross-over design . Contrary to expectations , fasting low density lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol concentration did not differ after the experimental periods . However , M diet result ed in a higher fasting total triacylglycerol concentration compared to D diet ( P=0.009 ) . Postpr and ial sample s were taken at two different occasions ( i ) at day 21 , after breakfast and lunch and ( ii ) on the last day of the study 2 , 4 , 6 , and 8 h after a fat load . Postpr and ial plasma triacylglycerol and chylomicron triacylglycerol showed higher peak values after D diet than M diet ( interaction effect , diet × times P<0.05 ) . In conclusion , M diet did not lower LDL cholesterol compared to D diet . Thus any cholesterol-lowering effect of oleic and stearic acids may have been obscured by the high content of cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acids in milk fat . A higher content of the trans fatty acids in M diet might have counteracted the cholesterol neutral/decreasing effect and increased plasma triacylglycerol BACKGROUND Dietary trans fatty acids ( FAs ) , which are formed during the process of hydrogenating vegetable oil , are known to increase plasma LDL-cholesterol concentrations . However , their effect on LDL particle size has yet to be investigated . OBJECTIVE We investigated the effect of trans FA consumption on the electrophoretic characteristics of LDL particles . DESIGN Eighteen women and 18 men each consumed 5 experimental diets in r and om order for 35-d periods . Fat represented 30 % of total energy intake in each diet , with two-thirds of the fat in the form of semiliquid margarine ( 0.6 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , soft margarine ( 9.4 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , shortening ( 13.6 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , stick margarine ( 26.1 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , or butter , which was low in trans FAs ( 2.6 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) but rich in saturated fat . LDL particle size and distribution were characterized by nondenaturing , 2 - 16 % polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis . RESULTS Relative to the LDL particle size observed after consumption of the butter-enriched diet , LDL particle size decreased significantly and in a dose-dependent fashion with increasing amounts of dietary trans FAs ( P < 0.001 ) . Cholesterol concentrations in large ( > 260 A ) and medium-sized ( 255 - 260 A ) LDL particles also increased proportionately to the amount of trans FAs in the diet . CONCLUSION Consumption of dietary trans FAs is associated with a deleterious increase in small , dense LDL , which further reinforces the importance of promoting diets low in trans FAs to favorably affect the lipoprotein profile BACKGROUND The intake of trans fatty acids ( TFA ) from industrially hydrogenated vegetable oils ( iTFA ) is known to have a deleterious effect on cardiovascular health , the effects of TFA from ruminants ( rTFA ) are virtually unknown . OBJECTIVE The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of rTFA and iTFA on plasma LDL concentrations and other cardiovascular disease risk factors in healthy subjects . DESIGN In a double-blind , r and omized crossover controlled study , 38 healthy men were fed each of 4 experimental isoenergetic diets lasting 4 wk each . The 4 diets were high in rTFA ( 10.2 g/2500 kcal ) , moderate in rTFA ( 4.2 g/2500 kcal ) , high in iTFA ( 10.2 g/2500 kcal ) , and low in TFA from any source ( 2.2 g/2500 kcal ) ( control diet ) . RESULTS Plasma LDL-cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher after the high- rTFA diet than after the control ( P = 0.03 ) or the moderate- rTFA ( P = 0.002 ) diet . Plasma LDL-cholesterol concentrations also were significantly ( P = 0.02 ) higher after the iTFA diet than after the moderate-rTFA diet . Plasma HDL-cholesterol concentrations were significantly ( P = 0.02 ) lower after the high-rTFA diet than after the moderate-rTFA diet . Finally , all risk factors were comparable between the control and the moderate-rTFA diets . CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that , whereas a high dietary intake of TFA from ruminants may adversely affect cholesterol homeostasis , moderate intakes of rTFA that are well above the upper limit of current human consumption have neutral effects on plasma lipids and other cardiovascular disease risk factors BACKGROUND The effect of individual dietary fatty acids on emerging risk factors for cardiovascular disease that are associated with sub clinical inflammation is unknown . OBJECTIVE The goal was to evaluate the role of dietary fat and specific fatty acids , especially trans fatty acids , in altering concentrations of markers of inflammation in humans fed controlled diets . DESIGN In a r and omized crossover design , 50 men consumed controlled diets for 5 wk that provided 15 % of energy from protein , 39 % of energy from fat , and 46 % of energy from carbohydrate . Eight percent of fat or fatty acids was replaced across diets with the following : cholesterol , oleic acid , trans fatty acids ( TFAs ) , stearic acid ( STE ) , TFA+STE ( 4 % of energy each ) , and 12:0 - 16:0 saturated fatty acids ( LMP ) . RESULTS Fibrinogen concentrations were higher after consumption of the diet enriched in stearic acid than after consumption of the carbohydrate diet . C-reactive protein concentrations were higher after consumption of the TFA diet than after consumption of the carbohydrate diet , but were not significantly different after consumption of the TFA and TFA+STE diets than after consumption of the LMP diet .  Interleukin 6 concentrations were lower after consumption of the oleic acid diet than after consumption of the LMP , TFA , and STE diets .  E-selectin concentrations were higher after consumption of the TFA diet than after consumption of the carbohydrate diet . Consumption of the TFA but not the TFA+STE diet result ed in higher E-selectin concentrations than did the LMP diet . CONCLUSIONS These data provide evidence that dietary fatty acids can modulate markers of inflammation . Although stearic acid minimally affects LDL cholesterol , it does appear to increase fibrinogen concentrations BACKGROUND The consumption of monounsaturated trans fatty acids ( TFAs ) increases the risk of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . Putative differences between the effects of TFAs from industrially produced and natural sources on CVD risk markers were not previously investigated in healthy subjects . OBJECTIVE We aim ed to compare the effects of TFAs from industrially produced and natural sources on HDL and LDL cholesterol , lipoprotein particle size and distribution , apolipoproteins , and other lipids in healthy subjects . DESIGN In a r and omized , double-blind , controlled , crossover design , 46 healthy subjects ( 22 men and 24 women ) consumed food items containing TFAs ( 11 - 12 g/d , representing approximately 5 % of daily energy ) from the 2 sources . RESULTS Forty subjects ( 19 men and 21 women ) completed the study . Compared with TFAs from industrially produced sources , TFAs from natural sources significantly ( P = 0.012 ) increased HDL cholesterol in women but not in men . Significant ( P = 0.001 ) increases in LDL-cholesterol concentrations were observed in women , but not in men , after the consumption of TFAs from natural sources . Apolipoprotein (apo)B and apoA1 concentrations confirmed the changes observed in LDL and HDL cholesterol . Analysis of lipoprotein subclass showed that only large HDL and LDL concentrations were modified by TFAs from natural sources but not by those from industrially produced sources . CONCLUSIONS This study shows that TFAs from industrially produced and from natural sources have different effects on CVD risk factors in women . The HDL cholesterol-lowering property of TFAs seems to be specific to industrial sources . However , it is difficult in the present study to draw a conclusion about the effect of TFAs from either source on absolute CVD risk in these normolipidemic subjects . The mechanism underlying the observed sex- and isomer-specific effects warrants further investigation BACKGROUND Evidence suggests that ruminant trans fatty acids ( FAs ) , such as vaccenic acid , do not increase the risk of ischemic heart disease ( IHD ) . However , the effects of ruminant trans FAs on risk markers of IHD have been poorly investigated . OBJECTIVE The objective was to investigate the effect of butter with a naturally high content of vaccenic acid and a concomitantly higher content of monounsaturated FAs on classic and novel risk markers of IHD . DESIGN In a double-blind , r and omized , 5-wk , parallel intervention study , 42 healthy young men were given 115 g fat/d from test butter that was high in vaccenic acid ( 3.6 g vaccenic acid/d ) or a control butter with a low content of vaccenic acid .  Blood and urine sample s were collected before and after the intervention . RESULTS The intake of the vaccenic acid-rich diet result ed in 6 % and 9 % lower total cholesterol and plasma HDL-cholesterol concentrations , respectively , than did the intake of the control diet ( P = 0.05 and 0.002 , respectively ) , whereas the ratio of total to HDL cholesterol did not differ significantly between the groups . The FA composition of lipid classes reflected the FAs ' proportion of the test butter . No other differences were observed . CONCLUSIONS Butter high in ruminant trans and monounsaturated FAs result ed in significantly lower total and HDL cholesterol than did the control butter with higher amounts of saturated FAs . It may be that the differences were due to the greater content of monounsaturated FAs and the lesser content of saturated FAs in the butter rich in ruminant trans FAs , rather than to the content of vaccenic acid per se BACKGROUND Metabolic studies suggest that fatty acids containing at least one double bond in the trans configuration , which are found in hydrogenated fat , have a detrimental effect on serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels as compared with unsaturated fatty acids containing double bonds only in the cis configuration . We compared the effects of diets with a broad range of trans fatty acids on serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels . METHODS Eighteen women and 18 men consumed each of six diets  in r and om order for 35-day periods . The foods were identical in each diet , and each diet provided 30 percent of calories as fat , with two thirds of the fat contributed as soybean oil ( < 0.5 g of trans fatty acid per 100 g of fat ) , semiliquid margarine ( < 0.5 g per 100 g ) , soft margarine ( 7.4 g per 100 g ) , shortening ( 9.9 g per 100 g ) , or stick margarine ( 20.1 g per 100 g ) . The effects of those diets on serum lipoprotein cholesterol , triglyceride , and apolipoprotein levels were compared with those of a diet enriched with butter , which has a high content of saturated fat . RESULTS The mean ( + /-SD ) serum low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol level was 177+/-32 mg per deciliter ( 4.58+/-0.85 mmol per liter ) and the mean high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol level was 45+/-10 mg per deciliter ( 1.2+/-0.26 mmol per liter ) after subjects consumed the butter-enriched diet . The LDL cholesterol level was reduced on average by 12 percent , 11 percent , 9 percent , 7 percent , and 5 percent , respectively , after subjects consumed the diets enriched with soybean oil , semiliquid margarine , soft margarine , shortening , and stick margarine ; the HDL cholesterol level was reduced by 3 percent , 4 percent , 4 percent , 4 percent , and 6 percent , respectively . Ratios of total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol were lowest after the consumption of the soybean-oil diet and semiliquid-margarine diet and highest after the stick-margarine diet . CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that the consumption of products that are low in trans fatty acids and saturated fat has beneficial effects on serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels Objective : To estimate the intake of ruminant trans fatty acids ( TFA ) in the Danish population aged 1–80 years . Design : Descriptive study .Subjects : A sex- and age-stratified r and om sample drawn from the Danish Civil Registration System . A total of 3098 participants ( 51 % female ) aged 1–80 years were included . The participation was 66%.Dietary information : A 7-day dietary record . Results : The estimated median intake of ruminant TFA was 1.4 g/day with the 80 % central range being from 0.9 to 2.1 among children aged 1–6 years and 1.6 g/day ( 1.0–2.4 ) among children aged 7–14 years . The median TFA intake was 1.8 g/day ( 0.9–2.9 ) among adults aged 15–29 years and among adults aged 30–80 years . The intake expressed as percentage of energy intake was 0.8 , 0.6 , 0.7 , and 0.7 , respectively . Dairy products were the main source of ruminant TFA . Conclusions : The median intake of ruminant TFA in the Danish population aged 1–80 years is estimated to be 1.7 g/day ( 0.9–2.7 ) , corresponding to 0.7 % of energy intake ( 0.5–1.0 ) , with dairy products being the main source of ruminant TFA.Sponsorship : The Danish Heart Foundation ( Grants 02 - 2 - 9 - 8 - 22010 and 03 - 2 - 9 - 4 - 22087 ) and the Female Research ers in Joint Action ( FREJA ) programme from the Danish Medical Research Council Milk fat contains considerable amounts of saturated fatty acids , known to increase serum cholesterol . Little is known , however , about the relative effect of different milk products on risk factors for CHD . The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of Jarlsberg cheese ( a Norwegian variety of Swiss cheese ) with butter on serum lipoproteins , haemostatic variables and homocysteine . A controlled dietary study was performed with twenty-two test individuals ( nine men and thirteen women ) aged 23 - 54 years . The subjects consumed three isoenergetic test diets , with equal amounts of fat and protein , and containing either cheese ( CH diet ) , butter + calcium caseinate ( BC diet ) or butter + egg-white protein ( BE diet ) . The study was a r and omised cross-over study and the subjects consumed each diet for 3 weeks , with 1 week when they consumed their habitual diet in between . Fasting blood sample s were drawn at baseline and at the end of each period . Serum was analysed for lipids and plasma for haemostatic variables and homocysteine . Total cholesterol was significantly lower after the CH diet than after the BC diet ( -0.27 mmol/l ; P=0.03 ) , while the difference in LDL-cholesterol was found to be below significance level ( -0.22 mmol/l ; P=0.06 ) . There were no significant differences in HDL-cholesterol , triacylglycerols , apo A-I , apo B or lipoprotein ( a ) , haemostatic variables and homocysteine between the diets . The results indicate that , at equal fat content , cheese may be less cholesterol increasing than butter Dietary trans fatty acids/partially-hydrogenated fat has been associated with increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) , possibly greater than predicted from changes in lipoprotein levels . To explore this issue further potential risk factors were assessed in subjects provided with each of six diets in r and omized order containing as the major source of fat : soybean oil , semi-liquid margarine , soft margarine , shortening , traditional stick margarine or butter .  Plasma fatty acid profiles reflected diet , with triglyceride and phospholipid subfractions affected to a greater extent than cholesteryl ester . Non-fasting LDL-cholesterol levels were 144+/-27 , 141+/-27 , 146+/-26 , 148+/-30 , 151+/-29 and 165+/-31 mg/dl ( P<0.001 ) and total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratios were 5.50+/-1.25 , 5.54+/-1.50 , 5.69+/-1.29 , 5.82+/-1.40 , 6.11+/-1.30 and 5.94+/-1.43 ( P=0.011 ) , respectively , whereas other lipoprotein levels were not significantly different . Remnant-like particles levels were unaffected by dietary fat , either in the fasting or non-fasting state . Differences in fasting insulin and glucose levels were small and would not be predicted to have a large impact on glucose homeostasis . There was no significant effect of dietary fat type on C-reactive protein levels or blood pressure . These data suggest that , as previously demonstrated , the major CVD risk factor adversely affected by dietary trans fatty acids/partially-hydrogenated fat is LDL-cholesterol levels and total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratios BACKGROUND Fatty acids that contain a trans double bond are consumed in large amounts as hydrogenated oils , but their effects on serum lipoprotein levels are unknown . METHODS We placed 34 women ( mean age , 26 years ) and 25 men ( mean age , 25 years ) on three mixed natural diets of identical nutrient composition , except that 10 percent of the daily energy intake was provided as oleic acid ( which contains one cis double bond ) , trans isomers of oleic acid , or saturated fatty acids . The three diets were consumed for three weeks each , in r and om order . RESULTS On the oleic acid diet , the mean ( + /- SD ) serum values for the entire group for total , low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) , and high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol were 4.46 + /- 0.66 . 2.67 + /- 0.54 , and 1.42 + /- 0.32 mmol per liter ( 172 + /- 26 , 103 + /- 21 , and 55 + /- 12 mg per deciliter ) , respectively . On the trans-fatty-acid diet , the subjects ' mean HDL cholesterol level was 0.17 mmol per liter ( 7 mg per deciliter ) lower than the mean value on the diet high in oleic acid ( P less than 0.0001 ; 95 percent confidence interval , 0.13 to 0.20 mmol per liter ) . The HDL cholesterol level on the saturated-fat diet was the same as on the oleic acid diet . The LDL cholesterol level was 0.37 mmol per liter ( 14 mg per deciliter ) higher on the trans-fatty-acid diet than on the oleic acid diet ( P less than 0.0001 ; 95 percent confidence interval , 0.28 to 0.45 mmol per liter ) and 0.47 mmol per liter ( 18 mg per deciliter ) higher on the saturated-fat diet ( P less than 0.001 ; 95 percent confidence interval , 0.39 to 0.55 mmol per liter ) than on the oleic acid diet . The effects on lipoprotein levels did not differ between women and men . CONCLUSIONS The effect of trans fatty acids on the serum lipoprotein profile is at least as unfavorable as that of the cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acids , because they not only raise LDL cholesterol levels but also lower HDL cholesterol levels BACKGROUND Studies have suggested that replacing saturated fatty acids ( SFAs ) with carbohydrates is modestly associated with a higher risk of ischemic heart disease , whereas replacing SFAs with polyunsaturated fatty acids is associated with a lower risk of ischemic heart disease . The effect of carbohydrates , however , may depend on the type consumed . OBJECTIVES By using substitution models , we aim ed to investigate the risk of myocardial infa rct ion ( MI ) associated with a higher energy intake from carbohydrates and a concomitant lower energy intake from SFAs . Carbohydrates with different glycemic index ( GI ) values were also investigated . DESIGN Our prospect i ve cohort study included 53,644 women and men free of MI at baseline . RESULTS During a median of 12 y of follow-up , 1943 incident MI  cases occurred . There was a nonsignificant inverse association between substitution of carbohydrates with low-GI values for SFAs and risk of MI [ hazard ratio ( HR ) for MI per 5 % increment of energy intake from carbohydrates : 0.88 ; 95 % CI : 0.72 , 1.07 ) . In contrast , there was a statistically significant positive association between substitution of carbohydrates with high-GI values for SFAs and risk of MI ( HR : 1.33 ; 95 % CI : 1.08 , 1.64 ) . There was no association for carbohydrates with medium-GI values ( HR : 0.98 ; 95 % CI : 0.80 , 1.21 ) . No effect modification by sex was observed . CONCLUSION This study suggests that replacing SFAs with carbohydrates with low-GI values is associated with a lower risk of MI , whereas replacing SFAs with carbohydrates with high-GI values is associated with a higher risk of MI
target: We found no relationship between  R-TFA intake levels of up to 4.19 % of daily energy intake ( EI ) and changes in cardiovascular risk factors such as TC : HDL-C and LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C):HDL-C ratios .
  In addition , a multivariate regression analysis that included other dietary variables , as well as subject baseline characteristics , confirmed that doses of R-TFA did not significantly influence the changes in the lipid ratio .
  Our findings showed that doses of R-TFA did not influence the changes in the ratios of plasma TC : HDL-C and LDL-C : HDL-C. These data suggest that TFA from natural sources , at least at the current levels of intake and up to 4.19 % EI , have no adverse effects on these key CVD risk markers in healthy people
background: The effects of ruminant ( R ) trans-fatty acids ( TFA ) on the risk of CVD are still under debate .
  It could be argued that the lack of the effect of R-TFA may be the result of the small amount of their intake .
  Taking into consideration the growing available data from intervention studies , we carried out a systematic review and meta-regression to assess the impact of R-TFA intake levels on changes in the total cholesterol : HDL-cholesterol ( TC : HDL-C ) ratio .