title: Neurobiological markers of exercise-related brain plasticity in older adults Motor performance and motor learning as a function of age and fitness. Hippocampal contribution to early and later stages of implicit motor sequence learning Promoting physical activity for elders with compromised function: the lifestyle Interventions and Independence for elders (LIFE) study physical activity intervention A Five-Week Exercise Program Can Reduce Falls and Improve Obstacle Avoidance in the Elderly Acute exercise improves motor memory: Exploring potential biomarkers A Single Bout of Exercise Improves Motor Memory Effects of a physical activity intervention on measures of physical performance: Results of the lifestyle interventions and independence for Elders Pilot (LIFE-P) study. Evolution of Neuroplasticity in Response to Physical Activity in Old Age: The Case for Dancing Exercise Mode Moderates the Relationship Between Mobility and Basal Ganglia Volume in Healthy Older Adults. Not only cardiovascular, but also coordinative exercise increases hippocampal volume in older adults Effect of aerobic exercise on tracking performance in elderly people: a pilot study. Effect of moderate physical exercise on postural control among 65-74 years old men. Effects of a one-year physical activity intervention for older adults at congregate nutrition sites. Functional and Neuromotor Performance in Older Adults: Effect of 12 Wks of Aerobic Exercise The Otago Exercise Program performed as group training versus home training in fall-prone older people: a randomized controlled Trial. The Effect of a Six-Month Dancing Program on Motor-Cognitive Dual-Task Performance in Older Adults. Aerobic Exercise Improves Cognition and Motor Function Poststroke High impact running improves learning
abstract: The current study examined how a r and omized one-year aerobic exercise program for healthy older adults would affect serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) , insulin-like growth factor type 1 ( IGF-1 ) , and vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) - putative markers of exercise-induced benefits on brain function . The study also examined whether ( a ) change in the concentration of these growth factors was associated with alterations in functional connectivity following exercise , and ( b ) the extent to which pre-intervention growth factor levels were associated with training-related changes in functional connectivity . In 65 participants ( mean age=66.4 ) , we found that although there were no group-level changes in growth factors as a function of the intervention , increased temporal lobe connectivity between the bilateral parahippocampus and the bilateral middle temporal gyrus was associated with increased BDNF , IGF-1 , and VEGF for an aerobic walking group but not for a non-aerobic control group , and greater pre-intervention VEGF was associated with greater training-related increases in this functional connection . Results are consistent with animal models of exercise and the brain , but are the first to show in humans that  exercise-induced increases in temporal lobe functional connectivity are associated with changes in growth factors and may be augmented by greater baseline VEGF Past studies have shown that electroencephalographic alpha activity increases as people learn to perform a novel motor task . Additionally , it has been suggested that motor performance and learning decline as people age beyond 60 years , and it has been hypothesized that physical fitness may attenuate this decline through its impact on the cerebral environment . This study was design ed to replicate past research by assessing changes in alpha activity as a function of learning and to extend past research by examining differences in motor performance , motor learning , and alpha activity as a function of age and fitness . VO2max was assessed in 41 older ( ages 60 - 80 years ) and 42 younger ( ages 20 - 30 years ) participants . Participants were r and omly assigned to experimental or control conditions , which differed in the amount of practice received . Participants performed trials on the mirror star trace on both an acquisition and a retention day . Results indicated that younger participants performed better and had greater learning than older participants . Fitness was not found to impact either performance or learning . Participants in the experimental group improved more than those in the control group and maintained this difference at retention , which suggests that learning occurred . Associated with these improvements in performance capabilities was an increase in alpha power Implicit motor sequence learning refers to an important human ability to acquire new motor skills through the repeated performance of a motor sequence . This learning process is characterized by slow , incremental gains of motor performance . The present fMRI study was developed to better delineate the areas supporting these temporal dynamics of learning . By using the serial color matching paradigm , our study focused on the motor level of sequence learning and tracked the time course of learning-related neural changes . Imaging results showed a significant contribution of the left anterior hippocampus in an early sequence acquisition stage ( first scanning session ) as well as during a later stage with stabilized learning effects ( second scanning session ) . Hippocampal activation significantly correlated with the behavioral learning process and was affected by a change of the motor sequence . These results suggest a strong involvement of the hippocampus in implicit motor sequence learning . On the other h and , a very extensive and bilateral neural network of parietal , temporal and frontal cortical areas ( including SMA , pre-SMA ) together with parts of the cerebellum and striatum were found to play a role during r and om visuo-motor task performance The Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders ( LIFE ) Study is a Phase III r and omized controlled clinical trial ( Clinical trials.gov identifier : NCT01072500 ) that will provide definitive evidence regarding the effect of physical activity ( PA ) on major  mobility disability in older adults ( 70–89 years old ) who have compromised physical function . This paper describes the methods employed in the delivery of the LIFE Study PA intervention , providing insight into how we promoted adherence and monitored the fidelity of treatment . Data are presented on participants ’ motives and self-perceptions at the onset of the trial along with accelerometry data on patterns of PA during exercise training . Prior to the onset of training , 31.4 % of participants noted slight conflict with being able to meet the dem and s of the program and 6.4 % indicated that the degree of conflict would be moderate . Accelerometry data collected during PA training revealed that the average intensity – 1,555 counts/minute for men and 1,237 counts/minute for women – was well below the cutoff point used to classify exercise as being of moderate intensity or higher for adults . Also , a sizable subgroup required one or more rest stops . These data illustrate that it is not feasible to have a single exercise prescription for older adults with compromised function . Moreover , the concept of what constitutes “ moderate ” exercise or an appropriate volume of work is dictated by the physical capacities of each individual and the level of comfort/stability in actually executing a specific prescription Background : Falls in the elderly are a major health problem . Although exercise programs have been shown to reduce the risk of falls , the optimal exercise components , as well as the working mechanisms that underlie the effectiveness of these programs , have not yet been established . Objective : To test whether the Nijmegen Falls Prevention Program was effective in reducing falls and improving st and ing balance , balance confidence , and obstacle avoidance performance in community-dwelling elderly people . Methods : A total of 113 elderly with a history of falls participated in this study ( exercise group , n = 79 ; control group , n = 28 ; dropouts before r and omization , n = 6 ) .  Exercise sessions were held twice weekly for 5 weeks . Pre- and post-intervention fall monitoring and quantitative motor control assessment s were performed . The outcome measures were the number of falls , st and ing balance and obstacle avoidance performance , and balance confidence scores . Results : The number of falls in the exercise group decreased by 46 % ( incidence rate ratio ( IRR ) 0.54 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) 0.36–0.79 ) compared to the number of falls during the baseline period and by 46 % ( IRR 0.54 , 95 % CI 0.34–0.86 ) compared to the control group . Obstacle avoidance success rates improved significantly more in the exercise group ( on average 12 % ) compared to the control group ( on average 6 % ) . Quiet stance and weight-shifting measures did not show significant effects of exercise . The exercise group also had a 6 % increase of balance confidence scores . Conclusion : The Nijmegen Falls Prevention Program was effective in reducing the incidence of falls in otherwise healthy elderly . There was no evidence of improved control of posture as a mechanism underlying this result . In contrast , an obstacle avoidance task indicated that subjects improved their performance . Laboratory obstacle avoidance tests may therefore be better instruments to evaluate future fall prevention studies than posturographic balance assessment We have recently shown that a single bout of acute cardiovascular exercise improves motor skill learning through an optimization of long-term motor memory . Here we exp and this previous finding , to explore potential exercise-related biomarkers and their association with measures of motor memory and skill acquisition .  Thirty-two healthy young male subjects were r and omly allocated into either an exercise or control group . Following either an intense bout of cycling or rest subjects practice d a visuomotor tracking task .  Motor skill acquisition was assessed during practice and retention 1 h , 24 h and 7 days after practice . Plasma levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) , vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) , insulin-like growth factor ( IGF-1 ) , epinephrine , norepinephrine , dopamine and lactate were analyzed at baseline , immediately after exercise or rest and during motor practice . The exercise group showed significantly better skill retention 24h and 7 days after acquisition . The concentration of all blood compounds increased significantly immediately after exercise and remained significantly elevated for 15 min following exercise except for BDNF and VEGF . Higher concentrations of norepinephrine and lactate immediately after exercise were associated with better acquisition . Higher concentrations of BDNF correlated with better retention 1 h and 7 days after practice . Similarly , higher concentrations of norepinephrine were associated with better retention 7 days after practice whereas lactate correlated with better retention 1h as well as 24 h and 7 days after practice . Thus , improvements in motor skill acquisition and retention induced by acute cardiovascular exercise are associated with increased concentrations of biomarkers involved in memory and learning processes . More mechanistic studies are required to eluci date the specific role of each biomarker in the formation of motor memory Regular physical activity has a positive impact on cognition and brain function . Here we investigated if a single bout of exercise can improve motor memory and motor skill learning . We also explored if the timing of the exercise bout in relation to the timing of practice has any impact on the acquisition and retention of a motor skill .  Forty-eight young subjects were r and omly allocated into three groups , which practice d a visuomotor accuracy-tracking task either before or after a bout of intense cycling or after rest .  Motor skill acquisition was assessed during practice and retention was measured 1 hour , 24 hours and 7 days after practice . Differences among groups in the rate of motor skill acquisition were not significant . In contrast , both exercise groups showed a significantly better retention of the motor skill 24 hours and 7 days after practice . Furthermore , compared to the subjects that exercised before practice , the subjects that exercised after practice showed a better retention of the motor skill 7 days after practice . These findings indicate that one bout of intense exercise performed immediately before or after practicing a motor task is sufficient to improve the long-term retention of a motor skill . The positive effects of acute exercise on motor memory are maximized when exercise is performed immediately after practice , during the early stages of memory consolidation . Thus , the timing of exercise in relation to practice is possibly an important factor regulating the effects of acute exercise on long-term motor memory BACKGROUND The Short Physical Performance Battery ( SPPB ) , which includes walking , balance , and chair st and s tests , independently predicts mobility disability and activities of daily living disability . To date , however , there is no definitive evidence from r and omized controlled trials that SPPB scores can be improved . Our objective was to assess the effect of a comprehensive physical activity ( PA ) intervention on the SPPB and other physical performance measures . METHODS A total of 424 sedentary persons at risk for disability ( ages 70 - 89 years ) were r and omized to a moderate-intensity PA intervention or a successful aging ( SA ) health education intervention and were followed for an average of 1.2 years . RESULTS The mean baseline SPPB score on a scale of 0 - 12 , with 12 corresponding to highest performance , was 7.5 . At 6 and 12 months , the PA versus SA group adjusted SPPB ( + /- st and ard error ) scores were 8.7 + /- 0.1 versus 8.0 + /- 0.1 , and 8.5 + /- 0.1 versus 7.9 + /- 0.2 , respectively ( p < .001 ) . The 400-meter walking speed was also significantly improved in the PA group . The PA group had a lower incidence of major mobility disability defined as incapacity to complete a 400-meter walk ( hazard ratio = 0.71 , 95 % confidence interval = 0.44 - 1.20 ) . CONCLUSIONS A structured PA intervention improved the SPPB score and other measures of physical performance . An intervention that improves the SPPB performance may also offer benefit on more distal health outcomes , such as mobility disability From animal research , it is known that combining physical activity with sensory enrichment has stronger and longer-lasting effects on the brain than either treatment alone . For humans dancing has been suggested to be analogous to such combined training . Here we assessed whether a newly design ed dance training program that stresses the constant learning of new movement patterns is superior in terms of neuroplasticity to conventional fitness activities with repetitive exercises and whether extending the training duration has additional benefits . Twenty-two healthy seniors ( 63–80 years ) who had been r and omly assigned to either a dance or a sport group completed the entire 18-month study .  MRI , BDNF and neuropsychological tests were performed at baseline and after 6 and 18 months of intervention . After 6 months , we found a significant increase in gray matter volume in the left pre central gyrus in the dancers compared to controls . This neuroplasticity effect may have been mediated by the increased BDNF plasma levels observed in the dancers . Regarding cognitive measures , both groups showed significant improvements in attention after 6 months and in verbal memory after 18 months . In addition , volume increases in the parahippocampal region were observed in the dancers after 18 months . The results of our study suggest that participating in a long-term dance program that requires constant cognitive and motor learning is superior to engaging in repetitive physical exercises in inducing neuroplasticity in the brains of seniors . Therefore , dance is highly promising in its potential to counteract age-related gray matter decline OBJECTIVES To examine whether 12 months of aerobic training ( AT ) moderated the relationship between change in mobility and change in basal ganglia volume than balance and toning ( BAT ) exercises in older adults . DESIGN Secondary analysis of a r and omized controlled trial . SETTING Champaign-Urbana , Illinois . PARTICIPANTS Community-dwelling older adults ( N=101 ; mean age 66.4 ) . INTERVENTION Twelve-month exercise trial with two groups : AT and BAT . MEASUREMENTS Mobility was assessed using the Timed Up and Go test . Basal ganglia ( putamen , cau date nucleus , pallidum ) was segmented from T1-weighted magnetic resonance images using the Oxford Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain Software Library Integrated Registration and Segmentation Tool . Measurements were obtained at baseline and trial completion . Hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to examine whether exercise mode moderates the relationship between change in mobility and change in basal ganglia volume over 12 months . Age , sex , and education were included as covariates . RESULTS Exercise significantly moderated the relationship between change in mobility and change in left putamen volume . Specifically , for the AT group , volume of the left putamen did not change , regardless of change in mobility . Similarly , in the BAT group , those who improved their mobility most over 12 months had no change in left putamen volume , although left putamen volume of those who declined in mobility levels decreased significantly . CONCLUSION The primary finding that older adults who engaged in 12 months of BAT training and improved mobility exhibited maintenance of brain volume in an important region responsible for motor control provides compelling evidence that such exercises can contribute to the promotion of functional independence and healthy aging Cardiovascular activity has been shown to be positively associated with gray and white matter volume of , amongst others , frontal and temporal brain regions in older adults . This is particularly true for the hippocampus , a brain structure that plays an important role in learning and memory , and whose decline has been related to the development of Alzheimer ’s disease . In the current study , we were interested in whether not only cardiovascular activity but also other types of physical activity , i.e. , coordination training , were also positively associated with the volume of the hippocampus in older adults . For this purpose we first collected cross-sectional data on “ metabolic fitness  ” ( cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength ) and “ motor fitness ” ( e.g. , balance , movement speed , fine coordination ) . Second , we performed a 12-month r and omized controlled trial . Results revealed that motor fitness but not metabolic fitness was associated with hippocampal volume . After the 12-month intervention period , both , cardiovascular and coordination training led to increases in hippocampal volume . Our findings suggest that a high motor fitness level as well as different types of physical activity were beneficial to diminish age-related hippocampal volume shrinkage or even increase hippocampal volume BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Although much is known about the benefits of aerobic exercise on cardiovascular health , little research has been done on the effect of aerobic exercise on motor performance . This study examined whether aerobic exercise has an effect on visuospatial information processing during finger-movement tracking in elderly subjects . SUBJECTS Fifteen elderly subjects ( mean age=83.2 years , SD=5.7 , range=72 - 91 ) from a senior housing complex were r and omly assigned to a control group or an experimental ( exercise ) group . Twelve subjects completed the study , and data obtained for 10 subjects were used for data analysis ( 2 control subjects were eliminated to allow for matched-pairs analysis between the experimental and control groups ) . The control group ( n=5 ) had a mean age of 80.2 years ( SD=7.8 ) . Subjects in the experimental group ( n=5 ) had a mean age of 84.8 years ( SD=2.5 ) . METHODS The intervention consisted of group exercise 3 times a week for 8 consecutive weeks , and included calisthenics ( eg , marching in place , side stepping , mock boxing ) , stationary bicycling , and walking . A  finger-movement tracking test  and submaximal grade d exercise tolerance step tests  were performed before and after training to determine changes in finger-movement tracking and any aerobic training effects . RESULTS Matched-pairs t tests showed a difference in tracking from pretest to posttest in the experimental group compared with the control group . Step test performance did not differ between the 2 groups . DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The results of this small-scale study with a limited number of subjects indicate that , for elderly people , finger-movement tracking performance can improve with aerobic exercise , despite the absence of an aerobic training effect . Possible mechanisms for the treatment effect on information processing are discussed The aim of this study was to assess the changes in the  postural control ( PC ) during quiet stance among elderly men with fatigue induced by moderate exercise  , and to assess the relationships between changes in PC and somatic indices ( body mass index ( BMI ) , waist to hip ratio ( WHR ) ) , load during exercise , and post-exercise blood lactate ( BL ) concentration . The study involved 17 elderly men ( 68.4±2.9 years of age , ranging between 65 and 74 years ) . Mean velocity of the center of pressure ( COP ) displacements was measured using a force plate both before and after fatigue induced by a cycle ergometer exercise . Following physical exercise , the mean velocity of the COP and its components , both in the sagittal and frontal plane , increased significantly . It was found that increasing BMI was associated with increasing exercise-induced changes in the mean velocity of the frontal plane . Additionally , BL level was positively correlated with changes in the mean velocity of the sagittal plane . Higher post-exercise values of the mean velocity of the COP may suggest a temporary increase in the risk of falls . Therefore , it seems advisable to caution the elderly men in regards to the increased risk of falling following exercise . Analysis showed that the changes in the PC as indicated by the increase in the COP displacements velocity may be related to the level of fatigue ( as indicated by BL ) . Moreover , elderly men possessing a higher BMI may exhibit a tendency toward the greater increase in the postural sway after exercise-induced fatigue The effects of a physical activity intervention on strength , balance , motor coordination , and mobility were tested in a quasi-experiment at rural congregate nutrition sites . Twice-weekly sessions of low intensity movements were conducted for one year . Logistic regression results showed significant differences between intervention ( n = 61 ) and comparison ( n = 49 ) groups on several performance-based measures . Intervention subjects perceived significantly greater improvements in physical functioning over the previous year than did comparison subjects . A qualitative evaluation revealed perceived program benefits of pain reduction , increased flexibility , muscle strengthening , increased walking speed , and improved mental outlook Kalapotharakos VI , Michalopoulos M , Strimpakos N , Diamantopoulos K , Tokmakidis SP : Functional and neuromotor performance in older adults : Effect of 12 wks of aerobic exercise . Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2006;85:61–67 . Objective : There is little information regarding the effect of aerobic exercise on physical and neuromotor performance in older adults . The aim of this r and omized , controlled trial was to determine the effects of a 12-wk aerobic exercise program on functional and neuromotor performance in inactive healthy older adults . Design : A total of 22 inactive healthy older adults , aged 60–75 yrs , voluntarily participated in the study and were r and omly assigned to a progressively increased high-intensity aerobic exercise group ( n = 12 ) or to a control group ( n = 10 ) . The aerobic exercise group exercised three times per week for 12 wks on nonconsecutive days . Both groups were evaluated before and after the exercise period in the one-repetition maximum of knee extensors and flexors , 6-min walk distance , chair-rising time , and whole-body reaction time . Results : Multivariate analysis of variance repeated measures ( 2 × 2 ) revealed significant ( P < 0.05 ) time by group interaction for one-repetition maximum knee extension and flexion strength , 6-min walk distance , chair-rising time , and whole-body reaction time . For the aerobic exercise group , the following variables improved significantly ( P < 0.05 ) after the exercise period : the one-repetition maximum knee extensors ( 12 % ) and flexors ( 19 % ) muscle strength , 6-min walk distance ( 17 % ) , chair-rising time ( 8 % ) , and whole-body reaction time ( 20 % ) . No significant differences were observed in the control group . Conclusions : The results of the present study show that short-term progressively increased high-intensity aerobic exercise improved the physical and neuromotor performance in inactive healthy older adults . These findings suggest that the participation in a progressively increased high-intensity aerobic exercise program may improve mobility and ability to carry out activities of daily living in older adults BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Exercise programs targeting muscle strength and balance can reduce falls . The study aim ed to compare the Otago Exercise Program ( OEP ) , originally design ed as supervised home training ( HT ) , with the same programme performed as GT , on functional balance and muscle strength , mobility , fall efficacy and self-reported health . METHODS A single-blind r and omized controlled trial with assessment s at baseline ( T1 ) , following the 12-week intervention ( T2 ) , and 3 months following intervention ( T3 ) , was performed . 125 people , mean age 82.5 ( SD = 5.7 ) years , 73 % women , referred to a Falls Outpatient Clinic , participated . 74 % had fallen , and 37 % had a fall-related hospital stay during the previous year .  OEP supervised by physiotherapists was performed as GT twice weekly or as HT three times a week , for 12 weeks . Total exercise time was comparable between groups . The primary outcome was the Berg Balance Scale assessed at T2 . RESULTS From T1-T2 , Berg Balance Scale improved significantly more in the GT group than in the HT group ( mean group difference in change of 3.2 points , 95%CI = 0.7 - 5.8 , p = 0.014 ) . Of the secondary outcomes , the 30-second sit-to-st and test ( p = 0.004 ) , and physical health measured by the Short Form-36 ( p = 0.004 ) , improved significantly more for the GT group . Change in mobility measured by the Timed Up and Go test , mental health by the Short Form-36 , and fall efficacy by the Fall Efficacy Scale International did not differ between groups . The 30-second sit-to-st and test and the Timed Up and Go , but not the Berg Balance Scale , was still better in the GT group at T3 . DISCUSSION In fall-prone home-dwelling older people , the OEP performed as GT is more effective for improving functional balance , muscle strength and physical health , but not fall efficacy and mental health than when performed as HT . The OEP provided as GT should be considered in this population Dancing is a complex sensorimotor activity involving physical and mental elements which have positive effects on cognitive functions and motor control . The present r and omized controlled trial aims to analyze the effects of a dancing program on the performance on a motor-cognitive dual task . Data of 35 older adults , who were assigned to a dancing group or a health-related exercise group , are presented in the study . In pretest and posttest , we assessed cognitive performance and variability of minimum foot clearance , stride time , and stride length while walking . Regarding the cognitive performance and the stride-to-stride variability of minimum foot clearance , interaction effects have been found , indicating that dancing lowers gait variability to a higher extent than conventional health-related exercise . The data show that dancing improves minimum foot clearance variability and cognitive performance in a dual-task situation . Multi-task exercises ( like dancing ) might be a powerful tool to improve motor-cognitive dual-task performance Background . Cognitive deficits impede stroke recovery . Aerobic exercise ( AEX ) improves cognitive executive function ( EF ) processes in healthy individuals , although the learning benefits after stroke are unknown . Objective . To underst and AEX-induced improvements in EF , motor learning , and mobility poststroke . Methods . Following cardiorespiratory testing , 38 chronic stroke survivors were r and omized to 2 different groups that exercised 3 times a week ( 45-minute sessions ) for 8 weeks . The AEX group ( n = 19 ; 9 women ; 10 men ; 64.10 ± 12.30 years ) performed progressive resistive stationary bicycle training at 70 % maximal heart rate , whereas the Stretching Exercise ( SE ) group ( n = 19 ; 12 women ; 7 men ; 58.96 ± 14.68 years ) performed stretches at home . Between-group comparisons were performed on the change in performance at “ Post ” and “ Retention ” ( 8 weeks later ) for neuropsychological and motor function measures . Results . VO2max significantly improved at Post with AEX ( P = .04 ) . AEX also improved motor learning in the less-affected h and , with large effect sizes ( Cohen ’s d calculation ) . Specifically , AEX significantly improved information processing speed on the serial reaction time task ( SRTT ; ie , “ procedural motor learning ” ) compared with the SE group at Post ( P = .024 ) , but not at Retention . Also , at Post ( P = .038 ) , AEX significantly improved predictive force accuracy for a precision grip task requiring attention and conditional motor learning of visual cues . Ambulation and sit-to-st and transfers were significantly faster in the AEX group at Post ( P = .038 ) , with balance control significantly improved at Retention ( P = .041 ) . EF measurements were not significantly different for the AEX group . Conclusion . AEX  improved mobility and selected cognitive domains related to motor learning , which enhances sensorimotor control after stroke Regular physical exercise improves cognitive functions and lowers the risk for  age-related cognitive decline .  Since little is known about the nature and the timing of the underlying mechanisms , we probed whether exercise also has immediate beneficial effects on cognition . Learning performance was assessed directly after high impact anaerobic sprints , low impact aerobic running , or a period of rest in 27 healthy subjects in a r and omized cross-over design . Dependent variables comprised learning speed as well as immediate ( 1 week ) and long-term ( > 8 months ) overall success in acquiring a novel vocabulary . Peripheral levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) and catecholamines ( dopamine , epinephrine , norepinephrine ) were assessed prior to and after the interventions as well as after learning . We found that vocabulary learning was 20 percent faster after intense physical exercise as compared to the other two conditions . This condition also elicited the strongest increases in BDNF and catecholamine levels . More sustained BDNF levels during learning after intense exercise were related to better short-term learning success , whereas absolute dopamine and epinephrine levels were related to better intermediate ( dopamine ) and long-term ( epinephrine ) retentions of the novel vocabulary . Thus , BDNF and two of the catecholamines seem to be mediators by which physical exercise improves learning
target: Results concerning the association of chronic physical activity and motor performance are mixed and seem to be influenced by the study design , kind of exercise , motor task , and exercise intensity .
  Regarding motor learning , a high physical activity or cardiovascular fitness level seems to boost the initial phase of motor learning ; results differ with respect to motor retention .
  Overall , ( motor-coordinative ) intervention studies seem to be more promising than cross-sectional studies
background: Upper extremity motor performance declines with increasing age .
  However , older adults need to maintain , learn new and relearn known motor tasks .
  Research with young adults indicated that regular and acute physical activity might facilitate motor performance and motor learning processes .
  Therefore , this review aim ed to examine the association between chronic physical activity and acute bouts of exercise on motor performance and motor learning in upper extremity motor tasks in older adults .