title: Placebo expectancy effects in the relationship between glucose and cognition. Acute hyperglycemia alters von Willebrand factor but not the fibrinolytic system in elderly subjects with normal or impaired glucose tolerance Caloric beverages consumed freely at meal-time add calories to an ad libitum meal Ingestion of Diet Soda Before a Glucose Load Augments Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion Effects of aspartame-, monk fruit-, stevia- and sucrose-sweetened beverages on postprandial glucose, insulin and energy intake Effects of different sweet preloads on incretin hormone secretion, gastric emptying, and postprandial glycemia in healthy humans. Impact of time since last caloric intake on blood glucose levels Effects of Diet Soda on Gut Hormones in Youths With Diabetes Effects of a d-Xylose Preload With or Without Sitagliptin on Gastric Emptying, Glucagon-Like Peptide-1, and Postprandial Glycemia in Type 2 Diabetes Glucose effects on a continuous performance test of attention in adults Consumption of Low-Calorie Sweeteners among Children and Adults in the United States. Cephalic phase insulin release in healthy humans after taste stimulation? Glucose-induced increase in memory performance in patients with schizophrenia. Glucose and memory: fractionation of enhancement effects? Response to Single Dose of Aspartame or Saccharin by NIDDM Patients Effect of glucose, glucose regulation, and word imagery value on human memory. Short-term consumption of sucralose, a nonnutritive sweetener, is similar to water with regard to select markers of hunger signaling and short-term glucose homeostasis in women. Effect of glucose on tobacco craving. Is it mediated by tryptophan and serotonin? Hunger Games Effect of Glucose and Peripheral Glucose Regulation on Memory in the Elderly Aspartame and sucrose produce a similar increase in the plasma phenylalanine to large neutral amino acid ratio in healthy subjects.
abstract: The present study investigated the extent of expectancy in the ability of glucose to affect cognitive performance . Using a within-subjects design , subjects ( n 26 ) completed four experimental sessions ( in counterbalanced order and after an initial practice session ) during which they were given a 500 ml drink 30 min prior to completing a cognitive assessment battery . In addition , all subjects completed a baseline practice session during which they were given no drink . During two of the sessions , subjects were given a drink containing 50 g glucose and on the other two they were given a drink containing aspartame . A balanced placebo design was used , such that for half the sessions subjects were accurately informed as to the content of the drink ( glucose or aspartame ) , whereas in the other two sessions they were misinformed as to the content of the drink . The task battery comprised a 6 min visual analogue of the  Bakan vigilance task  , an immediate verbal free-recall task , an immediate verbal recognition memory task and a measure of motor speed ( two-finger tapping ) . Blood glucose and self-reported mood were also recorded at several time points during each session . Glucose administration was found to improve recognition memory times , in direct contrast to previous findings in the literature . Glucose administration also improved performance on the Bakan task ( relative to the control drink ) , but only in sessions where subjects were informed that they would receive glucose and not when they were told that they would receive aspartame . There were no effects either of the nature of the drink or expectancy on the other measures . These results are interpreted in terms of there being some contribution of expectancy concerning the positive effects of glucose on cognition in studies which have not used an equi-sweet dose of aspartame as a control drink To assess whether acute hyperglycemia affects fibrinolytic balance in elderly subjects with normal glucose tolerance ( NGT ) or impaired glucose tolerance ( IGT ) , 40 non-obese elderly subjects ( 20 NGT , age 68 ± 8 years ; and 20 IGT , age 69 ± 11 years ) were studied . On two experimental days , r and omly allocated and spaced 1 week apart , plasma concentrations of glucose , insulin , fibrinogen , tissue plasminogen activator , plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 and von Willebr and factor ( vWF ) were measured in each subject at baseline ( 0 ) and 30 , 60 , 90 , 120 min after the ingestion of 75 g glucose or a similarly sweet dose of aspartame ( 250 mg ) ( control test ) . In both NGT and IGT elderly subjects , tissue plasminogen activator , plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 and fibrinogen plasma levels did not significantly change after both oral aspartame and glucose load . In IGT subjects , vWF plasmatic levels decreased after glucose ( not aspartame ) oral load , reaching the minimum level at 90 min after load ( 82.7 ± 7.8 versus 93.7 ± 10.2 , P < 0.01 ) . These results demonstrate that acute hyperglycemia does not modify plasma fibrinolysis in elderly subjects . The decrease of plasma concentration of vWF in IGT elderly subjects requires cautious interpretation and further extensive investigations The objective was to compare the effects of ad libitum consumption of commonly consumed meal-time beverages on energy and fluid intakes and post-meal average subjective appetite and blood glucose in healthy adults . In a r and omized controlled design , 29 males and females consumed to satiation an ad libitum pizza meal with one of five beverages in unlimited amount including water ( 0 kcal ) , 1 % milk ( 44 kcal/100 ml ) , regular cola ( 44 kcal/100 ml ) , orange juice ( 44 kcal/100 ml ) and diet cola ( 0 kcal ) . Food and fluid intakes were measured at the meal . Average subjective appetite and blood glucose were measured before and for 2h after the meal . Although energy intake from pizza was similar among all beverage treatments , the amount of fluid consumed ( g ) varied among the beverages with intake of orange juice higher than regular and diet cola , but not different from water or milk . Meal-time ingestion of caloric beverages , milk , orange juice and regular cola , led to higher total meal-time energy intakes compared to either water or diet cola .  Post-meal blood glucose area under the curve ( AUC ) was lower after milk than after meals with water , orange juice and regular cola and post-meal average subjective appetite AUC was lower after milk than after meals with water . Meal intakes of nutrients including protein , calcium , phosphorus , zinc , vitamins B12 , A and D were higher at the meal with milk compared to the other beverages . Thus , caloric beverages consumed ad libitum during a meal add to total meal-time energy intake , but 1 % milk favors a lower post-meal blood glucose and average subjective appetite score and adds to nutrient intake OBJECTIVE The goal of this study was to determine the effect of artificial sweeteners on glucose , insulin , and glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 in humans . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS For this study , 22 healthy volunteers ( mean age 18.5 ± 4.2 years ) underwent two 75-g oral glucose tolerance tests with frequent measurements of glucose , insulin , and GLP-1 for 180 min . Subjects drank 240 ml of diet soda or carbonated water , in r and omized order , 10 min prior to the glucose load . RESULTS Glucose excursions were similar after ingestion of carbonated water and diet soda  . Serum insulin levels tended to be higher after diet soda , without statistical significance . GLP-1 peak and area under the curve ( AUC ) were significantly higher with diet soda ( AUC 24.0 ± 15.2 pmol/l per 180 min ) versus carbonated water ( AUC 16.2 ± 9.0 pmol/l per 180 min ; P = 0.003 ) . CONCLUSIONS Artificial sweeteners synergize with glucose to enhance GLP-1 release in humans . This increase in GLP-1 secretion may be mediated via stimulation of sweet-taste receptors on L-cells by artificial sweetener Background : Substituting sweeteners with non-nutritive sweeteners ( NNS ) may aid in glycaemic control and body weight management . Limited studies have investigated energy compensation , glycaemic and insulinaemic responses to artificial and natural NNS . Objectives : This study compared the effects of consuming NNS ( artificial versus natural ) and sucrose ( 65 g ) on energy intake , blood glucose and insulin responses . Methods : Thirty healthy male subjects took part in this r and omised , crossover study with four treatments : aspartame- , monk fruit- , stevia- and sucrose-sweetened beverages . On each test day , participants were asked to consume a st and ardised breakfast in the morning , and they were provided with test beverage as a preload in mid-morning and ad libitum lunch was provided an hour after test beverage consumption . Blood glucose and insulin concentrations were measured every 15 min within the first hour of preload consumption and every 30 min for the subsequent 2 h. Participants left the study site 3 h after preload consumption and completed a food diary for the rest of the day . Results : Ad libitum lunch intake was significantly higher for the NNS treatments compared with sucrose ( P=0.010 ) . The energy ' saved ' from replacing sucrose with NNS was fully compensated for at subsequent meals ; hence , no difference in total daily energy intake was found between the treatments ( P=0.831 ) . The sucrose-sweetened beverage led to large spikes in blood glucose and insulin responses within the first hour , whereas these responses were higher for all three NNS beverages following the test lunch . Thus , there were no differences in total area under the curve ( AUC ) for glucose ( P=0.960 ) and insulin ( P=0.216 ) over 3 h between the four test beverages . Conclusions : The consumption of calorie-free beverages sweetened with artificial and natural NNS have minimal influences on total daily energy intake , postpr and ial glucose and insulin compared with a sucrose-sweetened beverage BACKGROUND Macronutrient " preloads " can stimulate glucagon-like peptide 1 ( GLP-1 ) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide ( GIP ) , slow gastric emptying , and reduce postpr and ial glycemic excursions . After sweet preloads , these effects may be signaled by sodium-glucose cotransporter-1 ( SGLT1 ) , sweet taste receptors , or both . OBJECTIVE We determined the effects of 4 sweet preloads on GIP and GLP-1 release , gastric emptying , and postpr and ial glycemia . DESIGN Ten healthy subjects were studied on 4 separate occasions each . A preload drink containing 40 g glucose , 40 g tagatose/isomalt mixture ( TIM ) , 40 g 3-O-methylglucose ( 3OMG ; a nonmetabolized substrate of SGLT1 ) , or 60 mg sucralose was consumed 15 min before a (13)C-octanoic acid-labeled mashed potato meal .  Blood glucose , plasma total GLP-1 and GIP , serum insulin , and gastric emptying were determined . RESULTS Both glucose and 3OMG stimulated GLP-1 and GIP release in advance of the meal ( each P < 0.05 ) , whereas TIM and sucralose did not . The overall postpr and ial GLP-1 response was greater after glucose , 3OMG , and TIM than after sucralose ( P < 0.05 ) , albeit later after TIM than the other preloads . The blood glucose and insulin responses in the first 30 min after the meal were greatest after glucose ( each P < 0.05 ) . Gastric emptying was slower after both 3OMG and TIM than after sucralose ( each P < 0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS In healthy humans , SGLT1 substrates stimulate GLP-1 and GIP and slow gastric emptying , regardless of whether they are metabolized , whereas the artificial sweetener sucralose does not . Poorly absorbed sweet tastants ( TIM ) , which probably expose a greater length of gut to nutrients , result in delayed GLP-1 secretion but not in delayed GIP release . These observations have the potential to optimize the use of preloads for glycemic control . This trial was registered at www.actr.org.au as ACTRN12611000775910 Blood glucose ( BG ) is usually measured after a caloric restriction of at least 8 h ; however evidence -based recommendations for the duration of a fasting status are missing . Here we analyze the effect of fasting duration on levels of BG to determine the minimal fasting duration to achieve comparable BG levels to conventional fasting measurements . We used data of a cross-sectional study on primary care patients , performed in October 2005 . We included 28,024 individuals ( age-range 18–99 years ; 63 % women ) without known diabetes mellitus and without missing data for BG and fasting status . We computed general linear models , adjusting for age , sex , time of blood withdrawal , systolic blood pressure , waist circumference , total- and HDL-cholesterol , physical activity , smoking , intake of beta-blocker and alcohol . We tested the intra-individual variability with respect to fasting status . Overall , the mean BG differed only slightly between individuals fasting ≥8 h and those fasting < 8 h ( men : 5.1 ± 0.8 mmol/L versus 5.2 ± 1.2 mmol/L ; women : 4.9 ± 0.7 mmol/L , 5.0 ± 1.0 mmol/L ) . After 3 h of fasting differences of BG diminished in men to −0.08 mmol/L ( 95%-CI : −0.15 ; −0.01 mmol/L ) , in women to −0.07 mmol/L ( −0.12 ; −0.03 mmol/L ) compared to individuals fasting ≥8 h. Noteworthy , age , time of day of blood withdrawal , physical activity , and intake of hard liquor influenced BG levels considerably . Our data challenge the necessity for a fasting duration of ≥8 h when measuring blood glucose , suggesting a r and om sampling or a fasting duration of 3 h as sufficient . Rather , our study indicates that essentially more effort on the assessment of additional external/internal factors on BG levels is necessary OBJECTIVE In patients with type 2 diabetes , but not type 1 diabetes , abnormal secretion of incretins in response to oral nutrients has been described . In healthy youths , we recently reported accentuated glucagon-like peptide 1 ( GLP-1 ) secretion in response to a diet soda sweetened with sucralose and acesulfame-K. In this study , we examined the effect of diet soda on gut hormones in youths with diabetes . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Subjects aged 12–25 years with type 1 diabetes ( n = 9 ) or type 2 diabetes ( n = 10 ) , or healthy control participants ( n = 25 ) drank 240 mL cola-flavored caffeine-free diet soda or carbonated water , followed by a 75-g glucose load , in a r and omized , cross-over design . Glucose , C-peptide , GLP-1 , glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide ( GIP ) , and peptide Tyr-Tyr ( PYY ) were measured for 180 min . Glucose and GLP-1 have previously been reported for the healthy control subjects . RESULTS GLP-1 area under the curve ( AUC ) was 43 % higher after ingestion of diet soda versus carbonated water in individuals with type 1 diabetes ( P = 0.020 ) , similar to control subjects ( 34 % higher , P = 0.029 ) , but was unaffected by diet soda in patients with type 2 diabetes ( P = 0.92 ) . Glucose , C-peptide , GIP , and PYY AUC were not statistically different between the two conditions in any group . CONCLUSIONS Ingestion of diet soda before a glucose load augmented GLP-1 secretion in type 1 diabetic and control subjects but not type 2 diabetic subjects . GIP and PYY secretion were not affected by diet soda . The clinical significance of this increased GLP-1 secretion , and its absence in youths with type 2 diabetes , needs to be determined OBJECTIVE Macronutrient “ preloads ” can reduce postpr and ial glycemia by slowing gastric emptying and stimulating glucagon-like peptide-1 ( GLP-1 ) secretion . An ideal preload would entail minimal additional energy intake and might be optimized by concurrent inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 ( DPP-4 ) . We evaluated the effects of a low-energy d-xylose preload , with or without sitagliptin , on gastric emptying , plasma intact GLP-1 concentrations , and postpr and ial glycemia in type 2 diabetes . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Twelve type 2 diabetic patients were studied on four occasions each . After 100 mg sitagliptin ( S ) or placebo ( P ) and an overnight fast , patients consumed a preload drink containing either 50 g d-xylose ( X ) or 80 mg sucralose ( control [ C ] ) , followed after 40 min by a mashed potato meal labeled with 13C-octanoate . Blood was sample d at intervals . Gastric emptying was determined . RESULTS Both peak blood glucose and the amplitude of glycemic excursion were lower after PX and SC than PC ( P < 0.01 for each ) and were lowest after SX ( P < 0.05 for each ) , while overall blood glucose was lower after SX than PC ( P < 0.05 ) . The postpr and ial insulin-to-glucose ratio was attenuated ( P < 0.05 ) and gastric emptying was slower ( P < 0.01 ) after d-xylose , without any effect of sitagliptin . Plasma GLP-1 concentrations were higher after d-xylose than control only before the meal ( P < 0.05 ) but were sustained postpr and ially when combined with sitagliptin ( P < 0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS In type 2 diabetes , acute administration of a d-xylose preload reduces postpr and ial glycemia and enhances the effect of a DPP-4 inhibitor Increases in plasma blood glucose levels modulate memory , mood , and , to some extent , attention in adults . Participants in the present study were administered glucose ( 10 , 100 , and 500 mg/kg , or 50 g ) or placebo ( 23.7 mg saccharin ) shortly prior to completing the test of variables of attention ( TOVA ) , a continuous performance test ( CPT ) commonly used to assess attention for diagnostic purpose s. There were significant increases in blood glucose levels for the 500 mg/kg and 50 g groups , but only the 100 mg/kg group showed significant changes in behavior in comparison to the saccharin group . Specifically , the 100 mg/kg group performed worse on measures of commission errors , post-commission responses , and post-commission response time variability . There were no differences among the groups on other major variables of attention , including omission errors , response time , and response time variability . The results of this study demonstrate that large doses of glucose which increase blood glucose levels do not influence attention , but that a moderate dose ( 100 mg/kg ) selectively impairs measures of impulsivity or disinhibition . Practitioners and research ers should maintain an awareness of dietary effects on attention and continue to examine micronutrients as potential confounds on diagnostic tests of cognition and behavior BACKGROUND Consumption of low-calorie sweeteners ( LCSs ) has increased markedly during the past several decades , yet the prevalence of LCS consumption in recent years is currently unknown . OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to describe LCS consumption in the United States and to characterize consumption by sociodemographic subgroups , source , frequency , eating occasion , and location . DESIGN Cross-sectional study using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data from 2009 to 2012 . The prevalence of LCS consumption was assessed using two 24-hour dietary recalls , while the frequency ( number of times per day ) , occasion ( meal vs snack vs alone ) , and location of LCS consumption ( at home vs away from home ) was assessed using data from the one , in-person , 24-hour dietary recall . PARTICIPANTS National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey participants ( 2 years old or older ) either in 2009 - 2010 ( n=9,047 ) or in 2011 - 2012 ( n=7,939 ) . After excluding participants with implausible energy intake ( n=44 ) , the final sample size was 16,942 . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The primary outcome was the proportion of individuals consuming one or more foods , beverages , or packets containing LCSs  during at least one of their two dietary recalls . STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED Data were weighted to provide national estimates and Stata frequency procedures for complex survey design were used for all analyses . RESULTS Our findings were that 25.1 % of children and 41.4 % adults reported consuming LCSs . Most LCS consumers reported use once daily ( 80 % of children , 56 % of adults ) and frequency of consumption increased with body weight in adults . LCS consumption was higher in females compared with males among adults , and in obese individuals , compared with overweight and normal-weight individuals . Individuals of non-Hispanic white race/ethnicity also had higher prevalence of consumption compared with non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics and those in the highest tertile of income had higher LCS consumption compared with individuals of middle or low income across LCS product categories in adults , and for LCS beverages and LCS foods in children . Most LCS consumers reported consuming  LCS  with meals ( 64 % of adults , 62 % of children ) and the majority of LCS consumption occurred at home ( 71 % and 72 % among adults and children , respectively ) . CONCLUSIONS LCS consumption is highly prevalent in the United States , among both children and adults . Well-controlled , prospect i ve trials are required to underst and the health impact of this widespread LCS exposure In humans little is known as to whether taste solutions applied to the tongue elicit cephalic phase insulin release ( CPIR ) . The aim of this study was to re-examine if any effect of different taste solutions on CPIR occurs . Under fasting conditions healthy human subjects sipped , and washed out their mouths with eight taste solutions ( sucrose , saccharin , acetic acid , sodium chloride , quinine hydrochloride , distilled water , starch , and sodium glutamate ) for 45 s and spat them out again . The taste stimuli were not swallowed ; they were applied in a r and omized order , each on a separate day . Blood collection for determination of plasma glucose and plasma insulin concentrations was performed 3 min before and 3 , 5 , 7 and 10 min after taste stimulation . Ratings of quality , intensity and hedonic characteristics were also obtained . A significant increase of plasma insulin concentration was apparent after stimulation with sucrose and saccharin . In conclusion , the current data suggest that the sweeteners sucrose and saccharin activate a CPIR even when applied to the oral cavity only Previous investigations have found that increasing circulating glucose availability can increase memory performance in rodents , healthy humans , and individuals with dementia of the Alzheimer 's type . In this study , patients with schizophrenia , healthy control subjects , and controls with bipolar affective disorder were tested using double-blind treatment with either 50 g anhydrous dextrose plus 4 mg sodium saccharin ( for " taste " ) or 23.7 mg saccharin alone , followed by cognitive testing on a complex battery . At this glucose dose , verbal memory performance on a paragraph recall task was increased during the glucose condition relative to the saccharin condition in the patients with schizophrenia ; this effect was not detected in either the psychiatric or normal controls . The results provide preliminary support for the hypothesis that memory performance can be improved in patients with schizophrenia by increasing circulating glucose availability and suggest the importance of further evaluation of therapeutic manipulations of glucose availability Abstract Recent research findings indicate that glucose administration enhances some aspects of cognitive functioning . To date , those studies which have investigated the effects of glucose on memory in human participants have concentrated on its apparent ability to attenuate memory impairment . Relatively little research has been done in humans investigating the effects of glucose on memory performance in young healthy participants in whom no memory deficits exist . Moreover , the work which has been conducted in this population has produced somewhat equivocal findings . In this study , after overnight fasting the influence of a 25 g oral dosage of glucose on a range of measures of memory performance was investigated in healthy young female participants . Two control treatments ( saccharin and water ) were also administered . There was a significant glucose facilitation effect upon performance of long-term verbal free and cued recall tasks which did not vary with test delay . Performance on these free and cued verbal recall measures correlated significantly with blood glucose levels across all participants . No glucose-related facilitation was observed on either a test of short-term verbal memory ( forwards/backwards digit recall ) or a test of long-term non-verbal memory ( complex figure reproduction ) . However , the significant glucose-related effects observed with long-term free and cued recall remained after controlling for participants ’ differential baseline blood glucose levels and individual levels of immediate memory performance . Therefore , memory improvement after glucose ingestion was not merely a consequence of lower baseline blood glucose or lower immediate memory performance in the glucose treatment group . These findings indicate that there may be some fractionation in the memory facilitation effects of glucose : the memory enhancing effect of glucose administration in healthy young adults may be greatest on tests of long-term verbal recall . The results suggest that glucose may enhance retention in and /or retrieval from long-term verbal memory Twelve normal subjects and 10 subjects with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus were given , in r and om order at intervals of ≥ 1 wk , three drinks of the same beverage : one unsweetened , one sweetened with 400 mg aspartame , and one sweetened with 135 mg saccharin . The amount of sweetener approximated that in 1 L of sugar-free soft drink . Plasma glucose , insulin , and glucagon were measured for 3 h after ingestion of the test beverage . Plasma glucose declined slightly throughout the test period , probably due to fasting , with no differences between the three treatments . Neither sweetener affected peak insulin levels in subjects with or without diabetes . Analysis of area under the curve showed that mean insulin levels were statistically significantly higher after aspartame than after saccharin or unsweetened beverage in normal subjects only , but the magnitude of the difference was small and unlikely to be of physiological importance in the absence of differences in glucose levels . Furthermore , the differences could largely be accounted for by a decrease in insulin values after both unsweetened beverage and saccharin , with no change from baseline after aspartame . Glucagon levels showed time-to-time variation but no overall differences . We conclude that ingestion of aspartame- or saccharin-sweetened beverages by fasting subjects , with or without diabetes , did not affect blood glucose homeostasis Changes in memory performance were examined after intake of a glucose ( 50 g ) or saccharin ( 50 mg ) solution in fasted men and women . Glucoregulation was estimated by using a recovery index to categorize participants within each gender as having poor or good recovery . Memory was assessed with word-learning tasks in which the imagery-evoking value of the words was systematic ally manipulated to yield high- and low-imagery lists . The results showed that men and women characterized as having poor glucose regulation had significantly worse memory performance under the saccharin condition . This decrement was reversed by glucose ingestion . These effects were observed for both low- and high-imagery words . This study supports the hypothesis that poor glucoregulation is associated with poor memory performance even in young healthy participants and that the ingestion of glucose can improve their memory Nonnutritive sweeteners have been used to lower the energy density of foods with the intention of affecting weight loss or weight maintenance . However , some epidemiological and animal evidence indicates an association between weight gain or insulin resistance and artificial sweetener consumption . In the present study , we hypothesized that the nonnutritive sweetener sucralose , a trichlorinated sucrose molecule , would elicit responses similar to water but different from sucrose and sucrose combined with sucralose on subjective and hormonal indications of hunger and short-term glucose homeostasis . Eight female volunteers ( body mass index , 22.16 ± 1.71 kg/m(2 ) ; age , 21.75 ± 2.25 years )  consumed sucrose and /or sucralose in water in a factorial design . Blood sample s were taken at fasting and 30 and 60 minutes after treatment followed by a st and ardized breakfast across treatments , and blood sample s were taken 30 , 60 , 90 , and 120 minutes after breakfast . Plasma was analyzed for glucose , insulin , glucagon , triacylglycerols ( TAG ) , and acylated ghrelin . Perceptions of hunger and other subjective measurements were assessed before each blood sample . No differences were detected in subjective responses , circulating triacylglycerol , or glucagon concentrations among treatments over time . Significant differences were observed in insulin , glucose , and acylated ghrelin concentrations over time only between sucrose-containing treatments and non-sucrose-containing treatments regardless of sucralose consumption . Therefore , sucralose may be a relatively inert nonnutritive sweetener with regard to hunger signaling and short-term glucose homeostasis Rationale Oral glucose has been shown to decrease tobacco craving in many but not all previous studies . Glucose ingestion may facilitates entry of tryptophan ( TRP ) , the unique source of brain serotonin , into the brain , glucose ’s action seems to be opposite of rapid TRP depletion . Therefore , the aim was to assess the effect of high doses of oral glucose on tobacco craving , withdrawal symptoms , plasma TRP and blood serotonin concentrations in temporarily abstinent smokers . Methods Aspartame 0.6 g/200 ml ( A , placebo ) , glucose 32.5 g/200 ml ( G32.5 ) and 75 g/200 ml water ( G75 ) were administered to 12 healthy smokers after an overnight abstinence in a crossover , double blind study . Tobacco craving ( short version of the Tobacco Craving Question naire , TCQ ) , withdrawal symptoms , choice reaction time , affect , blood glucose , plasma insulin , nicotine , cotinine , free and total TRP , and blood serotonin concentrations were assessed during a period of 5 h after administration . Results Blood glucose and plasma insulin increased after G32.5 , G75 and remained unchanged after A. TCQ score increased with A and remained almost unchanged with both doses of glucose ( condition × time interaction : P=0.023 ) . Total withdrawal score increased differently according to sex and condition ( P<0.05 ) . Motor reaction time increased with A and decreased with glucose ( P=0.016 ) . The overall decrease in plasma TRP was 0.31±17 , 0.49±0.19 and 1.44±0.24 mg/l with A , G32.5 and G75 , respectively ( P<0.001 ) . Baseline blood serotonin was lower in women ( n=5 ) than in men ; it showed a condition by time ( P=0.007 ) and a condition by time by sex interaction ( P=0.023 ) . Conclusions Glucose attenuates tobacco craving and withdrawal symptoms in temporarily abstinent smokers . This is accompanied by a decrease in plasma TRP and a sex dependent increase in blood serotonin . Further studies assessing the direct effect of glucose on brain serotonin are needed to ascertain whether a glucose induced reduction in craving is associated with an increase in brain serotonin Social-welfare  policies  are a modern instantiation of a phenomenon that has pervaded human evolutionary history : re source sharing . Ancestrally , food was a key shared re source in situations of temporary hunger . If evolved human psychology continues to shape how individuals think about current , evolutionarily novel conditions , this invites the prediction that attitudes regarding welfare politics are influenced by short-term fluctuations in hunger . Using blood glucose levels as a physiological indicator of hunger , we tested this prediction in a study in which  participants were r and omly assigned to conditions in which they consumed soft drinks containing either carbohydrates or an artificial sweetener . Analyses showed that participants with experimentally induced low blood glucose levels  expressed stronger support for social welfare . Using an incentivized measure of actual sharing behavior ( the dictator game ) , we further demonstrated that this increased support for social welfare does not translate into genuinely increased sharing motivations . Rather , we suggest that it is “ cheap talk ” aim ed at increasing the sharing efforts of other individuals We examined changes in cognitive performance following the intake of a glucose ( 50 g ) or saccharin solution ( 50 mg ) in fasted elderly male and female subjects . Glucoregulation was estimated using a recovery index that was used to categorize subjects within each sex as having poor or good recovery . Elderly males with poor recovery performed worse on the Logical Memory subtest of the Wechsler Memory Scale and on the free recall or recognition parts of a work list task . The item analysis of the Logical Memory subtest showed that male subjects with poor recovery remembered less of the last items of the paragraphs after drinking saccharin while the first items were equally remembered by both groups . Glucose improved the performance of the males with good regulation for the first seven items while the performance of males with poor regulation decreased for those items under glucose . The present study support the notion that peripheral glucoregulation can influence memory performance and that the ingestion of glucose can influence certain aspects of memory functioning Aspartame ( L-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine methyl ester ) consumption has been postulated to increase brain phenylalanine levels by increasing the molar ratio of the plasma phenylalanine concentration to the sum of the plasma concentrations of the other large neutral amino acids ( Phe/LNAA ) . Dietary manipulations with carbohydrate or protein can also produce changes in the Phe/LNAA value . To compare the effects of aspartame and carbohydrate on Phe/LNAA , beverages sweetened with aspartame , sucrose , and aspartame plus sucrose , and unsweetened beverage were ingested by 8 healthy , fasted subjects in a r and omized , four-way crossover design . The beverages were sweetened with an amount of aspartame ( 500 mg ) and /or sucrose ( 100 g ) approximately equivalent to that used to sweeten 1 liter of soft drink . The baseline-corrected plasma Phe/LNAA values did not differ significantly following ingestion of aspartame or sucrose . Following aspartame alone , the high mean ratio increased 26 % over baseline 1 h after ingestion . Following sucrose alone , the high mean ratio increased 19 % at 2.5 h. Sucrose increased the Phe/LNAA value due to an insulin-mediated decrease in the plasma LNAA , while aspartame increased the ratio by increasing the plasma Phe concentration . These findings indicate that similar increases in plasma Phe/LNAA occur when healthy , fasting subjects ingest amounts of equivalent sweetness of sucrose or aspartame
target: In comparison with the baseline , NNS consumption was not found to increase blood glucose level , and its concentration gradually declined over the course of observation following NNS consumption .
  The glycemic impact of NNS consumption did not differ by type of NNS but to some extent varied by participants ’ age , body weight , and diabetic status .
  Conclusions NNS consumption was not found to elevate blood glucose level .
background: Background / objectives Nonnutritive sweeteners ( NNSs ) are zero- or low-calorie alternatives to nutritive sweeteners , such as table sugars .
  A systematic review and meta- analysis of r and omized controlled trials was conducted to quantitatively synthesize existing scientific evidence on the glycemic impact of NNSs .