title: Replacement of partially hydrogenated soybean oil by palm oil in margarine without unfavorable effects on serum lipoproteins Effects of Partially Hydrogenated, Semi-Saturated, and High Oleate Vegetable Oils on Inflammatory Markers and Lipids Effect of a stearic acid-rich, structured triacylglycerol on plasma lipid concentrations. Trans (elaidic) fatty acids adversely affect the lipoprotein profile relative to specific saturated fatty acids in humans. Fatty acid saturation of the diet and plasma lipid concentrations, lipoprotein particle concentrations, and cholesterol efflux capacity. Fat high in stearic acid favorably affects blood lipids and factor VII coagulant activity in comparison with fats high in palmitic acid or high in myristic and lauric acids. Effect on blood lipids, coagulation, and fibrinolysis of a fat high in myristic acid and a fat high in palmitic acid. Comparison of palmolein and olive oil: effects on plasma lipids and vitamin E in young adults. Dietary palmitic acid results in lower serum cholesterol than does a lauric-myristic acid combination in normolipemic humans. Positional distribution of fatty acids in dietary triglycerides: effects on fasting blood lipoprotein concentrations in humans. The type of oil used for cooking is associated with the risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in costa rica. Comparison of the effects of diets enriched in lauric, palmitic, or oleic acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins in healthy women and men. Dietary fat saturation affects apolipoprotein AII levels and HDL composition in postmenopausal women. Effect on plasma lipids of interesterifying a mix of edible oils. Nonhypercholesterolemic effects of a palm oil diet in Chinese adults. Comparison of the effects of medium-chain triacylglycerols, palm oil, and high oleic acid sunflower oil on plasma triacylglycerol fatty acids and lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in humans. Comparison of effects of lauric acid and palmitic acid on plasma lipids and lipoproteins. EFFECT OF MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS VERSUS COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES ON HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS IN HEALTHY MEN AND WOMEN Role of lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein(a) phenotype in atherogenesis: prospective results from the Bruneck study. Hydrogenation alternatives: effects of trans fatty acids and stearic acid versus linoleic acid on serum lipids and lipoproteins in humans. Palm olein increases plasma cholesterol moderately compared with olive oil in healthy individuals. Plasma lipoprotein lipid and Lp[a] changes with substitution of elaidic acid for oleic acid in the diet. Impact of myristic acid versus palmitic acid on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in healthy women and men. Short-term diets enriched in stearic or palmitic acids do not alter plasma lipids, platelet aggregation or platelet activation status Diet and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. The Ireland-Boston Diet-Heart Study. Milk minerals modify the effect of fat intake on serum lipid profile: results from an animal and a human short-term study. Cholesterolaemic effect of palmitic acid in relation to other dietary fatty acids. Stearic acid-rich interesterified fat and trans-rich fat raise the LDL/HDL ratio and plasma glucose relative to palm olein in humans Dietary patterns and risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Costa Rican adults Different effects of palmitic and stearic acid-enriched diets on serum lipids and lipoproteins and plasma cholesteryl ester transfer protein activity in healthy young women. Effect of fats high in individual saturated fatty acids on plasma lipoprotein[a] levels in young healthy men. The effect of red palm olein and refined palm olein on lipids and haemostatic factors in hyperfibrinogenaemic subjects. Effects of products made from a high-palmitic acid, trans-free semiliquid fat or a high-oleic acid, low-trans semiliquid fat on the serum lipoprotein profile and on C-reactive protein concentrations in humans Effects of red palm oil on serum lipids and plasma carotenoids level in Chinese male adults. Comparison of plasma lipids and vitamin E in young and middle-aged subjects on potato crisps fried in palmolein and highly oleic sunflower oil. Effects of increasing dietary palmitoleic acid compared with palmitic and oleic acids on plasma lipids of hypercholesterolemic men. Replacement of dietary fat with palm oil: effect on human serum lipids, lipoproteins and apolipoproteins. Comparison of a Carbohydrate-Rich Diet and Diets Rich in Stearic or Palmitic Acid in NIDDM Patients: Effects on lipids, glycemic control, and diurnal blood pressure Intake and adipose tissue composition of fatty acids and risk of myocardial infarction in a male Portuguese community sample. Effect of dietary stearic acid on plasma cholesterol and lipoprotein levels. Small Dense Low-Density Lipoprotein Concentration and Oxidative Susceptibility Changes after Consumption of Soybean Oil, Rice Bran Oil, Palm Oil and Mixed Rice Bran/Palm Oil in Hypercholesterolaemic Women 
  Exchanging partially hydrogenated fat
  for palmitic acid in the diet increases
  LDL-cholesterol and endogenous
  cholesterol synthesis in
  normocholesterolemic women
abstract: We have compared the effects of three different margarines , one based on palm oil ( PALM-margarine ) , one based on partially hydrogenated soybean oil ( TRANS-margarine ) and one with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA-margarine ) , on serum lipids in 27 young women . The main purpose of the study was to test if replacement of trans fatty acids in margarine by palmitic acid results in unfavorable effects on serum lipids . The sum of saturated fatty acids ( 12∶0 , 14∶0 , 16∶0 ) was 36.3 % of total fatty acids in the PALM-diet , the same as the sum of saturated ( 12∶0 , 14∶0 , 16∶0 ) ( 12.5 % ) and trans ( 23.1 % ) fatty acids in the TRANS-diet . This sum was 20.7 % in the PUFA-diet . The content of oleic acid was 37.9 , 35.2 , and 38.6 % , respectively , in the three diets , whereas linoleic acid amounted to 16 , 13.5 , and 27.3 % , respectively . Total fat provided 30–31 % and the test margarines 26 % of total energy in all three diets . The subjects consumed each of the diets for 17 d in a Latin-square crossover design . There were no significant differences in total cholesterol , low density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol and apolipoprotein B ( apoB ) between the TRANS- and the PALM-diets . High density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol and apoA-I were significantly higher on the PALM-diet compared to the TRANS-diet whereas the ratio of LDL-cholesterol to HDL-cholesterol was lower , although not significantly ( P=0.077 ) on the PALM-diet . Total cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol , and apoB were significantly lower on the PUFA-diet compared to the two other diets . HDL-cholesterol was not different on the PALM- and the PUFA-diets but it was significantly lower on the TRANS-diet compared to the PUFA diet . Compared to the PUFA-diet  the ratio of LDL-to HDL-cholesterol was higher on both the PALM- and the TRANS-diets whereas apoA-I was not different . Triglycerides and lipoprotein ( a ) were not significantly different among the three diets . We concluded that nutritionally , palmitic acid from palm oil may be a reasonable alternative to trans fatty acids from partially hydrogenated soybean oil in margarine if the aim is to avoid trans fatty acids . A palm oil-based margarine is , however , less favorable than one based on a more polyunsaturated vegetable oil Knowledge about the effects of dietary fats on sub clinical inflammation and cardiovascular disease risk are mainly derived from studies conducted in Western population s. Little information is available on South East Asian countries . This current study investigated the chronic effects on serum inflammatory markers , lipids , and lipoproteins of three vegetable oils . Healthy , normolipidemic subjects ( n = 41 ; 33 females , 8 males ) completed a r and omized , single-blind , crossover study . The subjects consumed high oleic palm olein ( HOPO diet : 15 % of energy 18:1n-9 , 9 % of energy 16:0 ) , partially hydrogenated soybean oil ( PHSO diet : 7 % of energy 18:1n-9 , 10 % of energy 18:1 trans ) and an unhydrogenated palm stearin ( PST diet : 11 % of energy 18:1n-9 , 14 % of energy 16:0 ) . Each dietary period lasted 5 weeks with a 7 days washout period . The PHSO diet significantly increased serum concentrations of high sensitivity C-reactive protein compared to HOPO and PST diets ( by 26 , 23 % , respectively ; P < 0.05 for both ) and significantly decreased interleukin-8 ( IL-8 ) compared to PST diet ( by 12 % ; P < 0.05 ) . In particular PHSO diet , and also PST diet , significantly increased total : HDL cholesterol ratio compared to HOPO diet ( by 23 , 13 % , respectively ; P < 0.05 ) , with the PST diet having a lesser effect than the PHSO diet ( by 8 % ; P < 0.05 ) . The use of vegetable oils in their natural state might be preferred over one that undergoes the process of hydrogenation in modulating blood lipids and inflammation BACKGROUND Structured lipids are being incorporated into foods to reduce their energy value . One such lipid is rich in stearic acid . OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to compare the effects on plasma lipids of a stearic acid-rich triacylglycerol and a fat rich in palmitic acid in hypercholesterolemic subjects . DESIGN Fifteen subjects with an average plasma cholesterol concentration of 6.13 + /- 0.80 mmol/L initially ate a low-fat diet for 2 wk ( run-in period ) , followed in r and om order and blinded fashion by 2 high-fat diets ( for 5 wk each ) containing foods derived from margarines rich either in palmitic acid or in the structured , stearic acid-rich triacylglycerol . RESULTS Plasma cholesterol concentrations with the low-fat , the stearic acid-rich , and the palmitic acid-rich diets were not significantly different ( 5.35 + /- 0.83 , 5.41 + /- 0.78 , and 5.52 + /- 0.68 mmol/L , respectively ) but were significantly lower ( P < 0.001 ) than those measured during the habitual diet period ( ie , 2 wk before the study began ) . Neither HDL cholesterol nor plasma triacylglycerol differed significantly among the 3 study diets . CONCLUSION A similar increase in the intake of stearic and palmitic acids ( differing by approximately 5 % of total energy ) to ensure a high fat intake result ed in plasma total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations that did not differ significantly from concentrations measured during a period of low-fat intake Although dietary trans fatty acids can affect  plasma lipoproteins negatively in humans , no direct comparison with specific saturated fatty acids has been reported , even though trans fatty acids were design ed to replace saturates in foods and food processing . In this study , dietary trans 18:1 [ elaidic acid at 5.5 % energy ( en ) ] was specifically exchanged for cis 18:1 , 16:0 or 12:0 + 14:0 in 27 male and female subjects consuming moderate fat ( 31 % en ) , low cholesterol ( < 225 mg/d ) whole food diets  during 4-wk diet periods in a crossover design . The trans-rich fat significantly elevated total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol relative to the 16:0-rich and 18:1-rich fats and uniquely depressed HDL cholesterol relative to all of the fats tested . Trans fatty acids also elevated lipoprotein ( a ) [ Lp(a ) ] values relative to all dietary treatments . Furthermore , identical effects on lipoproteins were elicited by 16:0 and cis 18:1 in these subjects . The current results suggest that elaidic acid , one of the principal trans isomers produced during industrial hydrogenation of edible oils , adversely affects plasma lipoproteins . Thus , the negative effect of elaidic acid on the lipoprotein profile of humans appears to be unmatched by any other natural fatty acid(s ) BACKGROUND The fatty acid content and saturation degree of the diet can modulate HDL composition and cholesterol efflux . OBJECTIVE We studied the modifications in plasma lipoprotein particles and serum capacity to stimulate cholesterol efflux induced by different fatty acids . DESIGN Seventeen women and 24 men followed in the same sequence 4 diets containing 35 % of total energy as fat . The saturated fat diet contained 17 % palm oil ; the monounsaturated fat diet , 20.9 % olive oil ; the n-6 polyunsaturated fat diet , 12.5 % sunflower oil ; and the n-3 polyunsaturated fat diet , sunflower oil supplemented with 4 - 4.5 g fish oil/d . Each phase lasted 4 - 5 wk . RESULTS In both sexes , apolipoprotein ( apo ) A-I concentrations were significantly lower with unsaturated fat diets than with the saturated fat diet , but concentrations of lipoproteins containing only apo A-I ( Lp A-I ) were lower only in the men . Concentrations of lipoproteins containing both apo A-I and apo A-II ( Lp A-I : A-II ) were lower with both polyunsaturated fat diets in the women but significantly higher in the men . Lp E concentrations were significantly higher with the 2 polyunsaturated fat diets . Lp E non-B particle concentrations were not modified in the men but were significantly higher in the women in both polyunsaturated fat phases . Lp C-III concentrations were higher with the saturated fat diet only in the men . The serum sample s taken after the n-3 polyunsaturated fat phase were the most efficient for extracting cellular cholesterol in both sexes . CONCLUSIONS The monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat diets were healthier , producing a better lipid profile . The n-3 polyunsaturated fat diet increased the capacity of serum to promote the efflux of cholesterol from cells in culture The effect of fats high in individual , prevalent saturated dietary fatty acids on lipoproteins and hemostatic variables in young healthy subjects was evaluated in a r and omized strictly controlled metabolic feeding study . Three experimental diets : shea butter ( S ; 42 % stearic acid ) , palm oil ( P ; 43 % palmitic palmitic acid ) , and palm-kernel oil with high-oleic sunflower oil ( ML ; 10 % myristic acid , 30 % lauric acid ) were served to 15 men for 3 wk each , separated by washout periods . Diet S compared with diet P result ed in significant reduction in plasma cholesterol ( 22 % ) LDL cholesterol ( 26 % ) , apolipoprotein B ( 18 % ) , HDL cholesterol ( 12 % ) , apolipoprotein A-I ( 13 % ) , and a 13 % lower factor VII coagulant activity ( P = 0.001 ) . Similar differences were observed between diets S and ML . In conclusion , intake of shea butter high in stearic acid favorably affects blood lipids and factor VII coagulant activity in young men , compared with fats high in saturated fatty acids with 12 - 16 carbons The hypothesis that myristic acid ( C14:0 ) has a stronger cholesterol-increasing potential than does palmitic acid is based on very few experimental observations . A r and omized , strictly controlled dietary study was therefore design ed to investigate the effect of a synthetic fat that was high in myristic acid , and palm oil , which is high in palmitic acid , on lipoproteins and hemostatic variables . Twelve men were served two diets ( 40 % of energy as fat ) with 41 % of fat as myristic ( diet M ) or palmitic acid ( diet P ) for 3 wk with 1 mo between the two dietary schedules . Plasma HDL cholesterol was 8 % higher with diet M than with diet P : 1.10 + /- 0.06 ( mean + /- SEM ) vs 1.01 + /- 0.05 mmol/L ( P < 0.006 ) . Diet M raised factor VII coagulant ( F VIIc ) activity to 98 % ( 77 - 117 % ) vs 96 % ( 71 - 109 % ) ( medians and ranges ) after diet P ( P = 0.02 ) . Total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations did not differ between the diets . In conclusion , the myristic acid test fat was not more cholesterolemic than was palm oil , but it did induce a minor rise in F VIIc activity Twenty-one healthy normocholesterolemic young adults , men and women , completed a r and omized 30-d/30-d crossover comparison of the effect of palmolein and olive oil on plasma lipids . The subjects were free-living volunteers who changed to low-fat diets  to which one of the test oils was added ( used as a spread , for baking , or for frying ) in turn . Complete food records were kept throughout : the test oils were compared at 17 % of total dietary energy . Under the conditions of this experiment plasma total and low-density-lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol were almost identical with the two oils , so that when the palmitic acid ( 16:0 ) in palm oil replaced oleic acid ( 18:1 ) in olive oil the expected increase in LDL cholesterol was not seen . These results indicate that 16:0 , though saturated , is not always a plasma cholesterol-raising fatty acid . Palmolein is rich in vitamin E , alpha-tocopherol , and especially tocotrienols , but the latter were barely detectable in plasma In a double-blind crossover study , 17 normocholesterolemic male volunteers were fed carefully design ed whole-food diets in which 5 % of energy was exchanged between palmitic ( 16:0 ) and lauric + myristic acids ( 12:0 + 14:0 ) whereas all other fatty acids were held constant . Resident males received each diet during separate 4-wk periods . The test diets supplied approximately 30 % of energy as fat and 200 mg cholesterol/d . Compared with the 12:0 + 14:0-rich diet , the 16:0-rich diet produced a 9 % lower serum cholesterol concentration , reflected primarily by a lower ( 11 % ) low-density-lipoprotein-cholesterol concentration and , to a lesser extent , high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol . No diet-induced changes were noted in the cholesterol content of other lipoproteins , nor did exchange of saturated fatty acids affect the triglyceride concentration in serum or lipoprotein fractions . These data indicate that a dietary 12:0 + 14:0 combination produces a higher serum cholesterol concentration than does 16:0 in healthy normocholesterolemic young men fed a low-cholesterol diet We examined the effect of the positional distribution of fatty acids within dietary triglycerides on  serum lipoproteins . Sixty subjects consumed two diets of equal fatty acid composition for 3 wk each . In the palm oil diet 82 % of palmitic acid was attached to the outer two carbon atoms of glycerol , and 18 % to the middle carbon . In the diet rich in enzymatically modified palm oil these figures were 35 % and 65 % , respectively . On the modified-fat diet , average lipoprotein concentrations showed nonsignificant ( P > 0.13 ) increases of 0.06 mmol/L for total , 0.03 mmol/L for HDL , and 0.04 mmol/L for LDL cholesterol compared with palm oil . The small increases in total and LDL cholesterol were statistically significant in the men ( n = 23 ) but not in the women ( n = 37 ) . The ratio of HDL to LDL cholesterol and serum triglyceride concentrations were unchanged . Thus , a large difference in dietary fatty acid configuration had little effect on lipoprotein concentrations in humans Palm oil and soybean oil are the 2 most widely used cooking oils in the world . Palm oil is consumed mainly in developing countries , where morbidity and mortality due to cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) are on the rise . Although cl aims about adverse or protective effects of these oils are commonly made , there are no epidemiologic studies assessing the association between these oils and cardiovascular disease endpoints . We examined whether consumption of palm oil relative to soybean oil and other unsaturated oils ( predominantly sunflower ) is associated with  myocardial infa rct ion ( MI ) in Costa Rica . The cases ( n = 2111 ) were survivors of a first acute MI and were matched to r and omly selected population controls ( n = 2111 ) .  Dietary intake was assessed with a vali date d semiquantitative FFQ . Adipose tissue profiles of essential fatty acids were assessed to vali date cooking oil intake and found to be consistent with self-reported major oils used for cooking . The data were analyzed using conditional logistic regression . Palm oil users were more likely to have an MI than users of soybean oil [ odds ratio ( OR ) = 1.33 ; 95 % CI : 1.08 - 1.63 ] or other cooking oils ( OR = 1.23 ; CI : 0.99 - 1.52 ) , but they did not differ from users of soybean oil with a high trans-fatty acid content ( OR = 1.14 ; CI : 0.84 - 1.56 ) . These data suggest that as currently used in Costa Rica , and most likely in many other developing countries , the replacement of palm oil with a polyunsaturated nonhydrogenated vegetable oil would reduce the risk of MI The degree to which different saturated fatty acids exert their cholesterol-raising effects is still unknown . Therefore , we studied the effect on serum lipids and lipoproteins of diets rich in lauric , palmitic , or oleic acids .  Eighteen women and 14 men consumed in r and om order three experimental diets , each for 6 wk . The diets consisted of solid foods and contained 40 % of energy as fat , of which 28 % was supplied by the experimental fats . The fat high in lauric acid was a mixture of palm kernel oil ( 75 % ) and a high-oleic acid sunflower oil ( 25 % ) ; the fat high in palmitic acid consisted of dairy fat ( 55 % ) , palmstearin ( 36 % ) , and sunflower oil ( 9 % ) ; and the fat high in oleic acid consisted of dairy fat ( 37 % ) and sunflower oil ( 63 % ) . The calculated nutrient composition was the same in each diet except for approximately equal to 8.5 % of energy , which was provided by lauric , palmitic , or oleic acids . With the lauric acid diet the subjects ' serum total cholesterol concentration increased by 0.22 mmol/L ( P = 0.0121 ; 95 % CI : 0.02 , 0.41 mmol/L ) as compared with the palmitic acid diet and by 0.48 mmol/L ( P < 0.0001 ; 95 % CI : 0.29 , 0.67 mmol/L ) compared with the oleic acid diet .  Total cholesterol concentrations with the palmitic acid diet were 0.26 mmol/L ( P = 0.0012 ; 95 % CI : 0.07 , 0.46 mmol/L ) higher than with the oleic acid diet .  High-density-lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol concentrations increased by 0.12 mmol/L ( P = 0.006 ; 95 % CI : 0.04 , 0.20 mmol/L ) with the lauric acid compared with the palmitic acid diet and by 0.14 mmol/L ( P < 0.001 ; 95 % CI : 0.07 , 0.22 mmol/L ) compared with the oleic acid diet .  HDL-cholesterol concentrations with the palmitic acid and the oleic acid diet were the same . No effects were seen in serum triacylglycerol and lipoprotein(a ) concentrations . We conclude that both lauric and palmitic acids are hypercholesterolemic compared with oleic acid . Lauric acid raises total cholesterol concentrations more than palmitic acid , which is partly due to a stronger rise in HDL cholesterol Increased HDL-cholesterol levels have been associated with lower coronary heart disease ( CHD ) risk . However , HDL are heterogeneous lipoproteins , and particles enriched in apolipoprotein ( Apo ) AII have been associated with increased CHD risk . We examined the effect of dietary intervention on HDL composition in 14 postmenopausal women subjected to two consecutive diet periods , i.e. , an oleic acid sunflower oil diet followed by a palmolein diet , each lasting 4 wk . The linoleic acid was kept at 4 % total energy and the cholesterol intake at 400 mg/d . The palmolein diet increased serum total cholesterol ( TC ) ( P < 0.001 ) , phospholipids ( P < 0.001 ) , Apo AII ( P < 0.001 ) , HDL cholesterol ( P < 0.05 ) , HDL lipids ( P < 0.05 ) , HDL proteins ( P < 0.01 ) and the HDL total mass ( P < 0.05 ) . The HDL cholesterol/Apo AI ratio was increased 22.0 % ( P < 0.05 ) , whereas the HDL cholesterol/Apo AII and the Apo AI/Apo AII ratios were decreased 19.4 % ( P < 0.01 ) and 30.4 % , ( P < 0.001 ) , respectively . When the effects of the dietary intervention were examined according to the cholesterolemia status ( < or > 6.2 mmol/L ) , the most significant changes ( P < 0.001 ) were related to Apo AII levels . Moreover , a significant dietary oil by cholesterol level interaction was found for Apo AII and the HDL cholesterol/Apo AII ratio . In summary , a palmolein diet increased TC and HDL cholesterol compared with oleic acid sunflower oil diet ; however , the increase in Apo AII but not in Apo AI suggests the impairment of reverse cholesterol transport and potentially an increase in CHD risk . This effect was more marked in women with serum TC > 6.2 The aim was to establish whether interesterification of oils , an alternative to the use of trans fatty acids in margarine manufacture , adversely affects plasma lipids .  Twenty-seven hypercholesterolemic men participated in a double-blind , crossover trial of three margarines : 1 ) high-linoleic acid , moderate trans fatty acids ; 2 ) high-palm oil blend ( predominantly lauric , myristic , palmitic , oleic , and linoleic acids ) ; and 3 ) an interesterified form of the high-palm oil margarine . Both high-palm oil margarines led to similar low-density-lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol concentrations ( 4.43 + /- 0.94 and 4.54 + /- 0.88 mmol/L , respectively ) , which were significantly higher than the LDL concentrations after the high-linoleic acid margarine ( 4.02 + /- 0.85 mmol/L , P < 0.001 ) . Interesterification transferred substantial proportions of palmitic acid into the sn-2 position of glycerides and unsaturated fatty acids into the sn-1,3 positions , and this was reflected in plasma chylomicrons . This study shows that interesterification of oils used to harden margarines does not raise plasma cholesterol more than does the margarine 's constituent fatty acids The effects on serum lipids of palm oil ( PA ) used in Chinese diets were compared with those of soybean oil ( SO ) , peanut oil ( PE ) and lard ( LA ) in normocholesterolemic subjects and with that of PE in hypercholesterolemic subjects . Normocholesterolemic subjects [ 120 men , 18 - 25 y , total cholesterol ( TC ) 2.8 - 5.0 mmol/L ] were assigned to four groups to consume test diets for six consecutive weeks after a run-in period of 3 wk . About 30 % of dietary energy was derived from fat , 75 - 80 % of which came from test oils . In comparison with the entry level , the average serum TC and LDL cholesterol ( LDL-C ) were 6.7 and 13.1 % lower , respectively , in the PA group and 22.8 and 30.7 % higher , respectively , ( P < 0.05 ) in the LA group . At the end of the test , serum TC , LDL-C and the ratio of TC/HDL cholesterol ( HDL-C ) in the PA group were significantly lower than those of the LA group . Hypercholesterolemic subjects ( 31 men , 20 women , 32 - 68 y , TC 5.5 - 7.0 mmol/L ) were divided into two groups . For 6 wk , one group ( 15 men , 10 women ) consumed the PA diet ; another group ( 16 men , 9 women ) consumed the PE diet . After a 3-wk interval , the two groups interchanged diets for another 6 wk . The test diets again contained about 30 % energy from fat , 60 - 65 % of which came from test oils . Compared with entry values , the PA diet caused significant reductions in serum TC , LDL-C and TC/HDL-C during the first 6 wk and also a significant reduction in TC/HDL-C during the second 6 wk . The PE diet had no significant influence on serum lipids in either experimental period Although medium-chain triacylglycerols ( MCTs , composed of medium-chain fatty acids 8:0 and 10:0 ) have long been described as having neutral effects on serum cholesterol concentrations , experimental evidence supporting this cl aim is limited . In a r and omized , crossover , metabolic-ward study , we compared the lipid effects of a natural food diet supplemented with either MCTs , palm oil , or high oleic acid sunflower oil in nine middle-aged men with mild hypercholesterolemia . Rather than having a neutral effect , MCT oil produced total cholesterol concentrations that were not significantly different from those produced by palm oil ( MCT oil : 5.87 + /- 0.75 mmol/L ; palm oil : 5.79 + /- 0.72 mmol/L ) but significantly higher than that produced by high oleic acid sunflower oil ( 5.22 + /- 0.52 mmol/L ) . Low-density-lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol concentrations paralleled those of total cholesterol .  MCT oil tended to result in higher triacylglycerol concentrations than either palm oil or high oleic acid sunflower oil , but this difference was not significant . There were no differences in high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations . The palmitic acid and total saturated fatty acid content of plasma triacylglycerols in the MCT-oil diet was not significantly different from that in the palm oil diet . On the basis of percentage of energy , this study suggests that medium-chain fatty acids have one-half the potency that palmitic acid has at raising total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations The effects of lauric acid ( C12:0 ) on plasma lipids and lipoproteins were compared with the effects of palmitic acid ( C16:0 ) and oleic acid ( C18:1 ) in a metabolic-diet study of 14 men by using liquid-formula diets fed for 3 wk each in r and om order . Lauric acid was supplied in a synthetic high-lauric oil , palmitic acid was provided by palm oil and oleic acid in oleic-rich sunflower seed oil . The high-lauric oil result ed in higher concentrations of plasma total cholesterol ( 4.94 + /- 0.75 mmol/L [ mean + /- SE ] ) and LDL cholesterol ( 3.70 + /- 0.57 mmol/L ) when compared with high-oleic sunflower oil ( 4.44 + /- 0.54 and 3.31 + /- 0.44 mmol/L , respectively ) , but did not raise total and LDL cholesterol concentrations as much as did palm oil ( 5.17 + /- 0.65 and 3.93 + /- 0.51 mmol/L , respectively ) . No differences were noted in plasma triglycerides or HDL cholesterol .  Lauric acid raises total and LDL cholesterol concentrations compared with oleic acid , but is not as potent for increasing cholesterol concentrations as is palmitic acid The effects of two strictly controlled diets , one rich in complex carbohydrates , the other rich in olive oil , on serum lipids were studied in healthy men and women .  Serum cholesterol levels fell on average by 0.44 mmol/l in the carbohydrate group and 0.46 mmol/l in the olive oil group . HDL cholesterol levels fell by 0.19 mmol/l in the carbohydrate group and rose by 0.03 mmol/l in the olive oil group . Serum triglycerides rose by 0.19 mmol/l in the carbohydrate group and fell by 0.06 mmol/l in the olive oil group . The changes in both HDL and triglycerides were larger in men than in women . These results clearly show that the olive-oil-rich diet , unlike the complex-carbohydrate-rich diet , caused a specific fall in non-HDL cholesterol while leaving serum triglyceride levels virtually unchanged BACKGROUND Experimental studies have suggested both atherogenic and thrombogenic properties of lipoprotein(a ) [ Lp(a ) ] , depending on Lp(a ) plasma concentrations and varying antifibrinolytic capacity of apolipoprotein(a ) [ apo(a ) ] isoforms . Epidemiological studies may contribute to assessment of the relevance of these findings in the general population . METHODS AND RESULTS This study prospect ively investigated the association between Lp(a ) plasma concentrations , apo(a ) phenotypes , and the  5-year progression of carotid atherosclerosis assessed by high-resolution duplex ultrasound in a r and om sample population of 826 individuals . We differentiated early atherogenesis ( incident nonstenotic atherosclerosis ) from advanced ( stenotic ) stages in atherosclerosis that originate mainly from atherothrombotic mechanisms . Lp(a ) plasma concentrations predicted the risk of early atherogenesis in a dose-dependent fashion , with this association being confined to subjects with LDL cholesterol levels above the population median ( 3.3 mmol/L ) . Apo(a ) phenotypes were distributed similarly in subjects with and without early carotid atherosclerosis . In contrast , apo(a ) phenotypes of low molecular weight emerged as one of the strongest risk predictors of advanced stenotic atherosclerosis , especially when associated with high Lp(a ) plasma concentrations ( odds ratio , 6.4 ; 95 % CI , 2.8 to 14 . 9 ) . CONCLUSIONS Lp(a ) is one of the few risk factors capable of promoting both early and advanced stages of atherogenesis . Lp(a ) plasma concentrations predicted the risk of early atherogenesis synergistically with high LDL cholesterol . Low-molecular-weight apo(a ) phenotypes with a putatively high antifibrinolytic capacity in turn emerged as one of the leading risk conditions of advanced stenotic stages of atherosclerosis The objective of this study was to compare the effects of linoleic acid ( cis , cis-C18:2(n-6 ) ) and its hydrogenation products elaidic ( trans-C18:1(n-9 ) ) and stearic acid ( C18:0 ) on serum lipoprotein levels in humans . Twenty-six men and 30 women , all normolipemic and apparently healthy , completed the trial . Three experimental diets were supplied to every subject for 3 weeks each , in r and om order ( multiple cross-over ) . The Linoleate-diet provided 12.0 % of total energy intake as linoleic acid , 2.8 % as stearic acid , and 0.1 % as trans fatty acids . The Stearate-diet supplied 3.9 energy % as linoleic acid , 11.8 % stearic acid , and 0.3 % trans fatty acids . The Trans-diet provided 3.8 energy % as linoleic acid , 3.0 % stearic acid , and 7.7 % as monounsaturated trans fatty acids , largely elaidic acid ( trans-C18:1(n-9 ) ) . Other nutrients were constant . Fasting blood was sample d at the end of each dietary period . Mean ( + /- SD ) serum LDL cholesterol was 109 + /- 24 mg/dl ( 2.83 + /- 0.63 mmol/l ) on the Linoleate-diet . It rose to 116 + /- 27 mg/dl ( 3.00 + /- 0.71 mmol/l ) on the Stearate-diet ( change , 7 mg/dl or 0.17 mmol/l , P = 0.0008 ) and to 119 + /- 25 mg/dl ( 3.07 + /- 0.65 mmol/l ) on the Trans-diet ( change , 9 mg/dl or 0.24 mmol/l , P less than 0.0001 ) . High density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol decreased by 2 mg/dl ( 0.06 mmol/l , P less than 0.0001 ) on the Stearate-diet and by 4 mg/dl ( 0.10 mmol/l , P less than 0.0001 ) on the Trans-diet , both relative to linoleic acid . Our findings show that 7.7 % of energy ( mean , 24 g/day ) of trans fatty acids in the diet significantly lowered HDL cholesterol and raised LDL cholesterol relative to linoleic acid . Combination with earlier results ( Mensink , R. P. , and M. B. Katan . 1990 . N. Engl . J. Med . 323 : 439 - 445 ) suggests a linear dose-response relation . Replacement of linoleic acid by stearic acid also caused somewhat lower HDL cholesterol and higher LDL cholesterol levels . Hydrogenation of linoleic acid to either stearic or trans fatty acids produces fatty acids that may increase LDL and decrease HDL cholesterol relative to linoleic acid itself BACKGROUND Despite the high content of palmitic acid , palm olein has been shown to have a neutral effect on plasma cholesterol concentrations when compared with olive oil , which is suggested to be attributable to palmitic acid in the sn-1 and sn-3 position . In contrast , palmitic acid is in the sn-2 position in lard . OBJECTIVE The objective was to investigate the effects of a diet rich in palm olein , fractionated palm oil , olive oil , and lard on plasma blood lipids , inflammatory markers , glucose , and insulin . DESIGN A controlled double-blinded , r and omized 3 × 3 wk crossover dietary intervention study included 32 healthy men who daily replaced part of their habitual dietary fat intake with ~ 17 % of energy from palm olein , olive oil , or lard , respectively . RESULTS Compared with intake of olive oil , palm olein and lard  increased total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol ( P < 0.0001 ) . Palm olein result ed in a lower plasma triacylglycerol concentration than did olive oil ( P < 0.01 ) . No difference in effects was observed in plasma HDL-cholesterol , high-sensitivity C-reactive protein , plasminogen activator-1 , insulin , and glucose concentrations . CONCLUSIONS The current study did not support the previous finding that the effect of palm olein on total plasma cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in healthy individuals with normal plasma cholesterol concentrations is neutral compared with that of olive oil . Thus , sn-positioning was not confirmed to be important with regard to the effect on plasma cholesterol . The relatively lower plasma triacylglycerol concentration  after the palm olein diet than after the olive oil diet was unexpected . This trial is registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT00743301 The effect of additional dietary trans fatty acids ( 7 % energy ) on plasma lipids was assessed in a double-blind comparison of four separate diets : 1 , enriched with butter fat ( lauric-myristic-palmitic ) ; 2 , oleic acid-rich ; 3 , elaidic acid-rich ; 4 , palmitic acid-rich . The total dietary period was 11 weeks and comprised normal foods plus specific fat supplements . In 27 mildly hypercholesterolemic men , total and LDL cholesterol were significantly lower during the 3-week oleic acid-rich diet , and were similar during the other three diets . For the four diets LDL cholesterol levels were in mg/dl : 1 , 163 ; 2 , 151 ; 3 , 165 ; 4 , 161 . HDL cholesterol was significantly higher with the palmitic acid-rich diet , 42 mg/dl , compared with elaidic acid , 38 mg/dl , which in turn was not lower than with oleic acid , 38 mg/dl . Plasma elaidic acid concentration rose seven-fold with the trans fatty acid diet but did not increase the vulnerability of LDL to oxidative change . The elaidic acid-rich diet led to significant elevations in the level of Lp[a ] compared to all the other test diets . The Lp[a ] level increased to 296 + /- 220 U/l in the elaidic acid-rich period from 235 + /- 182 ( mean + /- SD ) in the first ( " butter " ) period ( P less than 0.001 ) compared with 249 + /- 204 in the palmitic acid period ( P less than 0.001 ) and 236 + /- 201 in the oleic acid period ( NS ) . ( ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS The cholesterol-raising effect of dietary saturated fatty acids is largely accounted for by lauric , myristic , and palmitic acids . Dairy fat is a major source of myristic acid , and palm oil is especially rich in palmitic acid . Myristic acid is suspected of being much more cholesterolemic than palmitic acid , but direct comparisons have been lacking . We therefore fed 36 women and 23 men three diets that differed from each other in palmitic , oleic , and myristic acid content by about 10 % of total energy . We used palm oil , high-oleic acid sunflower oil , and a specially produced high-myristic acid fat to achieve these differences . Each diet was consumed for 3 weeks in r and om order . Mean serum cholesterol was 4.53 mmol/L on the high-oleic acid diet , 4.96 mmol/L on the palmitic acid diet , and 5.19 mmol/L on the myristic acid diet ( P < .0001 for all comparisons ) . Myristic acid raised low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol by 0.11 mmol/L , high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol by 0.12 mmol/L , and apolipoprotein ( apo ) A-I by 7.2 mg/dL relative to palmitic acid ; increases relative to oleic acid were 0.50 mmol/L for LDL cholesterol , 0.15 mmol/L for HDL cholesterol , 6.0 mg/dL for apoB , and 8.9 mg/dL for apoA-I ( P < .01 for all comparisons ) . The HDL cholesterol and apoA-I levels on the palmitic and oleic acid diets were the same . None of the responses differed significantly between woman and men . Myristic acid and palmitic acid both caused high LDL cholesterol and apoB levels and low HDL to LDL ratios . ( ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS Objective : To determine whether healthy males who consumed increased amounts of dietary stearic acid compared with increased dietary palmitic acid through the consumption of commercially available foods , exhibited any changes in plasma lipids , platelet aggregation or platelet activation status . Design : A r and omised cross-over dietary intervention . Subjects and interventions : Nine free-living healthy males consumed two experimental diets ( stearic acid enriched , diet S , and palmitic acid enriched , diet P ) for 3 weeks in a r and omised cross-over design separated by a 3 week washout phase . The diets consisted of ∼30 % of energy as fat ( 30 % of which was derived from the treatment diets ) providing ∼13 g/day as stearic acid and 17 g/day as palmitic acid on diet S and ∼7 g/day as stearic acid and 22 g/day as palmitic acid on diet P. The dietary ratio of stearic to palmitic acids was 0.76 on diet S compared with 0.31 on diet P. Blood sample s were collected on days 0 and 21 of each dietary period . Results : LDL cholesterol levels and platelet aggregation response to the agonist ADP were significantly decreased ( P<0.025 ) in subjects on diet S compared with day 0 . Apart from that , there were no significant changes in plasma lipids , platelet aggregation , mean platelet volume and platelet reactivity between diets . There were no significant changes in stearic or palmitic acid levels in plasma phospholipid or triacylglycerol . There was a significant difference in palmitic acid levels in platelet phospholipids between the two diets . Conclusions : Use of commonly available foods led to a 27 % increase in stearic acid ( diet S ) and a 19 % increase in palmitic acid ( diet P ) , on diets S and P respectively , and no significant differences between the two diets in plasma lipoprotein concentrations , platelet aggregation or platelet activation status . Sponsorship : Grant and chocolate donated from Effem Foods , Pty Ltd , Australia In a prospect i ve epidemiologic study of 1001 middle-aged men , we examined the relation between dietary information collected approximately 20 years ago and subsequent mortality from coronary heart disease . The men were initially enrolled in three cohorts : one of men born and living in Irel and , another of those born in Irel and who had emigrated to Boston , and the third of those born in the Boston area of Irish immigrants . There were no differences in mortality from coronary heart disease among the three cohorts . In within- population analyses , those who died of coronary heart disease had higher Keys ( P = 0.06 ) and modified Hegsted ( P = 0.02 ) dietary scores than did those who did not ( a high score indicates a high intake of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol and a relatively low intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids ) . These associations were significant ( P = 0.03 for the Keys and P = 0.04 for the modified Hegsted scores ) after adjustment for other risk factors for coronary heart disease . Fiber intake ( P = 0.04 ) and a  vegetable-foods score , which rose with increased intake of fiber , vegetable protein , and starch ( P = 0.02 ) , were lower among those who died from coronary heart disease , though not significantly so after adjustment for other risk factors . A higher Keys score carried an increased risk of coronary heart disease ( relative risk , 1.60 ) , and a higher fiber intake carried a decreased risk ( relative risk , 0.57 ) . Overall , these results tend to support the hypothesis that diet is related , albeit weakly , to the development of coronary heart disease Despite a high content of saturated fat , evidence from observational studies indicates that the consumption of dairy products may have a neutral effect or may be inversely associated with the risk of CVD . We aim ed to examine whether milk minerals modify the effect of saturated fat on serum lipid profile . We present data from two studies . Study I had a r and omised , blinded , parallel design ( n 24 pigs ) with a 10 d adaptation period during which a high-fat diet was fed to the pigs and a 14 d intervention period during which the same diet either enriched with milk minerals ( MM group ) or placebo ( control group ) was fed to the pigs . Study II had a r and omised cross-over design ( n 9 men ) where the subjects were fed either a high-fat diet enriched with milk minerals ( MM period ) or a regular diet ( control period ) . In both the studies , blood variables were measured before and after the intervention and faecal and urine sample s were collected at the end of the dietary periods . The increase in plasma total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations but not in HDL-cholesterol concentration was markedly lowered by milk minerals in both the studies . In the animal study , baseline adjusted total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations in the MM group were 11 % ( P = 0.004 ) and 13 % ( P = 0.03 ) lower compared with those in the control group after the intervention . Similarly in the human study , baseline adjusted total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations were 6 % ( P = 0.002 ) and 9 % ( P = 0.03 ) lower after the MM period compared with those in the control period . HDL-cholesterol concentration was not lowered by milk minerals . These short-term studies indicate that the addition of milk minerals to a high-fat diet to some extent attenuates the increase in total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations , without affecting HDL-cholesterol concentration The effect of dietary intake of high palmitic acid levels in combination with other fatty acids in normal subjects was assessed . Palmitic acid ( 10 % of energy ) was fed in conjunction with decreasing levels of linoleic acid to determine if a threshold level of linoleic acid prevented palmitic acid from being hypercholesterolaemic . Healthy subjects received each of the diet treatments for 21 days , followed by washout periods of 7 days . In a second experiment , the effect of exchanging palmitic acid for trans fatty acids on plasma lipoprotein cholesterol levels and on rates for endogenous synthesis of cholesterol in normal subjects was investigated . Diet treatment lasted for 30 days . On day 30 of each diet treatment , a priming dose of deuterium was consumed , followed by a subsequent blood sample at 24 h. Blood cholesterol fractions were isolated and analysed by isotope ratio mass spectrometry to measure cholesterol fractional synthetic rates . In the first experiment , total plasma cholesterol levels increased as the percentage of linoleic acid decreased . The data indicated that high levels of palmitic acid were not hypercholesterolaemic if intake of linoleic acid was greater than 4.5 % of energy . When the diet contained trans fatty acids plasma total and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol increased and cholesterol synthesis increased with a decrease in high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol Background Dietary trans-rich and interesterified fats were compared to an unmodified saturated fat for their relative impact on blood lipids and plasma glucose . Each fat had melting characteristics , plasticity and solids fat content suitable for use as hardstock in margarine and other solid fat formulations . Methods Thirty human volunteers were fed complete , whole food diets during 4 wk periods , where total fat ( ~31 % daily energy , > 70 % from the test fats ) and fatty acid composition were tightly controlled . A crossover design was used with 3 r and omly-assigned diet rotations and repeated- measures analysis . One test fat rotation was based on palm olein ( POL ) and provided 12.0 percent of energy ( % en ) as palmitic acid ( 16:0 ) ; a second contained trans-rich partially hydrogenated soybean oil ( PHSO ) and provided 3.2 % en as trans fatty acids plus 6.5 % en as 16:0 , while the third used an interesterified fat ( IE ) and provided 12.5 % en as stearic acid ( 18:0 ) . After 4 wk the plasma lipoproteins , fatty acid profile , as well as fasting glucose and insulin were assessed . In addition , after 2 wk into each period an 8 h postpr and ial challenge was initiated in a subset of 19 subjects who consumed a meal containing 53 g of test fat . Results After 4 wk , both PHSO and IE fats significantly elevated both the LDL/HDL ratio and fasting blood glucose , the latter almost 20 % in the IE group relative to POL . Fasting 4 wk insulin was 10 % lower after PHSO ( p > 0.05 ) and 22 % lower after IE ( p < 0.001 ) compared to POL . For the postpr and ial study the glucose incremental area under the curve ( IAUC ) following the IE meal was 40 % greater than after either other meal ( p < 0.001 ) , and was linked to relatively depressed insulin and C-peptide ( p < 0.05 ) . Conclusion Both PHSO and IE fats altered the metabolism of lipoproteins and glucose relative to an unmodified saturated fat when fed to humans under identical circumstances Objective : To investigate the association between dietary patterns and risk of a first nonfatal acute myocardial infa rct ion ( MI ) in Costa Rican adults . Design : Population -based case – control study .Subjects : A total of 496 incident MI cases and 518 population -based r and omly selected controls matched to the cases by age ( ±5 years ) , gender , and county of residence . Subjects were interviewed with a vali date d food frequency question naire . Dietary patterns were identified by factor analysis . Odds ratios ( OR ) and 95 % confidence intervals ( CI ) were obtained using multivariate conditional logistic regression adjusted for several recognized risk factors for MI . Results : Two diet patterns were identified , ‘ vegetable ’ characterized by increased intake of vegetables and fruits , and ‘ staple ’ , characterized by an increased use of palm oil for cooking , and intake of refined grains ( mostly white rice and white bread ) , legumes , coffee , added sugar , and red meat . Compared to the lowest quintile of the staple diet pattern , the highest quintile was associated with an increased risk of MI ( OR : 3.70 , 95 % CI : 2.30–5.97 ) . Adjusting for potential confounders did not change the results ( OR : 3.53 , 95 % CI : 1.98–6.31 ) . Consistently , an increasing staple pattern score was associated with lower HDL cholesterol ( P for trend < 0.02 ) and α-linolenic acid in adipose tissue ( P for trend < 0.0001 ) . The vegetable pattern was not associated with MI . Conclusions : The staple dietary pattern of Costa Rican adults is associated with low plasma HDL cholesterol , low α-linolenic acid in adipose tissue , and increased risk of MI.Sponsorship : This study was funded by grants HL 60692 and HL 49086 from the US National Institutes of Health The effects of palmitic and stearic acid-enriched diets on serum lipids , lipoproteins , apolipoproteins ( apo ) A-I and B , and plasma cholesteryl ester transfer protein ( CETP ) activity were examined in 12 healthy young women . Subjects followed the two experimental diets for 4 weeks according to a r and omized crossover design . Both experimental diet periods were preceded by consumption of a baseline diet for 2 weeks . The diets provided 37 % of total energy intake ( E% ) as fat , and differed only with respect to fatty acid composition . There was a substitution of 5E% of palmitic acid or stearic acid in the experimental diets for 5E% of monounsaturated fatty acids in the baseline diet . After the palmitic acid diet , serum total and high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol and apo A-I concentrations were higher ( 8 % , P = .015 , 9 % , P = .040 , and 11%,P = .011 , respectively ) and mean serum low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol concentration tended to be higher ( 8 % , P = .077 ) as compared with values after the stearic acid diet .  Plasma CETP activity increased in the palmitic acid diet as compared with the stearic acid diet ( 12 % , P = .006 ) . In conclusion , palmitic acid and stearic acid-enriched diets had different effects on serum lipids and lipoproteins and also on plasma CETP activity in young healthy women Plasma lipoprotein[a ] ( Lp[a ] ) is associated with atherogenesis and thrombogenesis . We examined how plasma Lp[a ] in healthy young men was affected by fats high in stearic ( C18 ) , palmitic ( C16 ) , and lauric+myristic ( C12 + C14 ) acid  ( experiment I , 15 subjects ) , and by fats high in myristic ( C14 ) and palmitic ( C16 ) acid  ( experiment II , 12 subjects ) . Strictly controlled isocaloric diets with 36 % of energy from test fats were served in r and om order for 3 weeks separated by wash-out period(s ) . Diets high in C18 gave significantly higher levels of Lp[a ] ( 51(12 - 560 ) mg/L ) than diets high in C16 ( 38(12 - 533 mg/L ) ( P = 0.020 ) and C12 + C14 ( 34(12 - 534 ) mg/L ) ( P = 0.002 ) . These differences were observed in several of the subjects in experiment I. In experiment II we saw no difference in plasma Lp[a ] after diets high in C16 and C14 . Our observations suggest that a fat high in stearic acid might affect Lp[a ] in a different way than fats high in palmitic and myristic+lauric acid . Lp[a ] concentrations were not associate with changes in tissue-plasminogen activator ( t-PA ) activity , factor VII coagualant activity , or plasma LDL cholesterol Little is known about the physiological effects of red palm olein ( RPO ) . The effects of red palm olein and palm olein ( POL ) compared to sunflower oil ( SFO ) , on lipids , haemostatic factors and fibrin network characteristics in hyperfibrinogenaemic volunteers were investigated . Fifty-nine free-living , hyperfibrinogenaemic volunteers participated in this r and omized , controlled , single blind parallel study . After a 4-week run-in , during which subjects received sunflower oil products , they were paired and r and omly assigned to one of three intervention groups receiving products containing 25 g/day ( approximately 12 % of total energy intake ) of either red palm olein , palm olein or sunflower oil for another 4 weeks . Anthropometric measurements , blood sample s and dietary intakes were measured before run-in , and before and after intervention . The differences in changes in total serum cholesterol response between palm olein and red palm olein ( + 0.59 vs. + 0.18 mmol/l ; p=0.053 ) , and between palm olein and sunflower oil ( + 0.59 vs. -0.003 mmol/l ; p < or = 0.01 ) were significant . The low-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( LDLC ) response in the palm olein- and sunflower oil-groups also differed significantly ( + 0.42 vs. -0.11 mmol/l ; p < or = 0.01 ) . Tissue plasminogen activator antigen ( tPA(ag ) ) decreased significantly in the red palm olein group compared to the palm olein- and sunflower oil-groups . No effects were found in other haemostatic variables .  Palm olein and red palm olein had no independent effect on fibrin network characteristics . In conclusion , compared to palm olein , red palm olein had less detrimental effects on the lipid profile and decreased tissue plasminogen activator antigen . Studies in larger groups are advised for confirmation of results , elucidation of mechanisms and effects of nonglyceride constituents of red palm oil ( PO ) Background : Many studies have shown that trans fatty acids have unfavorable effects on the serum lipoprotein profile . In general , however , fats were compared with different functional characteristics , which lower the practical applications of the results . Objective : The major aim of this study was to compare the effects of a high-palmitic acid , trans-free semiliquid fat with those of a high-oleic acid , low-trans semiliquid fat on the serum lipoprotein profile of healthy subjects . Subjects and design : Forty-four subjects ( 33 women and 11 men ) consumed , in r and om order , two experimental diets , each for 3 weeks . Diets provided 40 energy percent ( En% ) from fat , while 15 En% was supplied by the experimental fats . At the end of each intervention period , concentrations of serum lipoproteins , C-reactive protein , glucose and insulin were measured . Results : When subjects consumed the high-oleic acid , low-trans semiliquid fat , intakes of stearic acid ( + 1.3 En% ) , oleic acid ( + 2.9 En% ) , α-linolenic acid ( + 0.1 En% ) and trans fatty acids ( + 0.6 En% ) were higher and that of palmitic acid ( −4.2 En% ) lower . Serum concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol decreased by 0.34±0.39 mmol/l ( mean±s.d . ; 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) , −0.46 to −0.23 mmol/l ; P<0.001 ) and high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol by −0.06±0.17 mmol/l ( 95 % CI , −0.11 to −0.01 mmol/l ; P=0.021 ) . Also , the total to HDL cholesterol ratio was lower ( −0.15±0.34 ; 95 % CI , −0.25 to −0.05 ; P=0.006 ) . Other parameters did not change . Conclusions : A high-oleic acid , low-trans semiliquid fat has a more favorable effect on the serum lipoprotein profile than a trans-free semiliquid fat with comparable functional characteristics , but high in palmitic acid OBJECTIVE Effects of red palm oil on major plasma carotenoids , tocopherol , retinol and serum lipids were evaluated when used in Chinese diet . METHODS Red palm oil group ( RPO ) composed of 20 male subjects(aged 18 - 32 ) and soybean oil group ( SBO ) composed of 22 male subjects ( aged 18 - 32 ) . Dietary fat provided about 28 % of total calories , and the test oil accounted for about 60 % of total dietary fat . In the 3 weeks of pretest period , diets were prepared with soybean oil , and then in the next 6 weeks subjects in each group consumed the diet prepared by test oil . RESULTS Plasma alpha-carotene , beta-carotene and lycopene concentration of RPO group significantly increased at the time of interim ( 21 days ) and of the end ( 42 days ) ( P < 0.05 ) , and alpha-tocopherol concentration significantly increased at the time of the end ( 42 days ) in this study . Though Chinese plasma retinol level was relatively low when compared with that of Westerners , red palm oil diet showed no significant effect on adult Chinese plasma retinol level . Serum concentration of total cholesterol , triglyceride , high density lipoprotein cholesterol , apolipoprotein AI and apolipoprotein B of all subjects showed no significant changes in RPO group during the study . CONCLUSIONS The data in our study suggest that red palm oil is a good source of carotenoids and vitamin E when used in Chinese diet preparation , and it can significantly increase plasma concentration of alpha-carotene , beta-carotene , lycopene and alpha-tocopherol We previously found no difference in healthy young adults '  plasma cholesterols between palmolein and olive oil as the major dietary lipid , although the former is high in palmitic acid ( 16:0 ) but the latter in oleic acid ( 18:1 cis ) . In the experiment reported here we compared the effects of palmolein against another monounsaturated oil , highly oleic sunflower oil ( HOSO ) , on plasma cholesterol in both young and middle-aged healthy adults . The test oils were provided as frying oil of potato crisps ( 150 g/day in men ; 100 g/day in women ) against low-fat background diets in free-living motivated volunteers . The design was a r and omised double-blind 4-week/3-week crossover trial . Compliance was monitored with continuous dietary diaries and by measuring ( fasting ) plasma lipid fatty-acid pattern . Plasma lipids and vitamin-E compounds were measured at the start and twice at the end of each test period . In combined young plus older subjects ( n = 42 )  mean plasma total and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol ( LDL-c ) values were both 7 % ( significantly ) lower on HOSO than on palmolein , but because high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol ( HDL-c ) was also 5 % lower , the LDL-c/HDL-c ratio was only 3 % lower on HOSO than on palmolein . The difference between the present results with HOSO and previous results with olive oil both compared against palmolein suggest that olive oil is associated with higher plasma cholesterols than other monounsaturated oils . In both the young and older subgroup , LDL-c was lower on HOSO but because HDL-c moved down too in the young subgroup , the LDL-c/HDL-c ratio was lower on HOSO only in the older subjects . Palmolein has an unusual pattern of E vitamins , with a high content of tocotrienols , notably the gamma-isomer . Unlike alpha-tocopherol however , there was no sign of these tocotrienols in subjects ' plasmas Palmitoleic acid is a minor monounsaturated fatty acid in the human diet and in blood plasma . Because macadamia oil is at least one potentially large source of palmitoleic acid , we tested its effect on plasma lipid levels against two other dietary fatty acids , oleic acid and palmitic acid . The dietary adjustments , through the use of supplements , provided comparisons of the three test fatty acids in which palmitoleic could be judged as behaving either like a saturated or a monounsaturated acid . Thirty-four hypercholesterolemic men ate the three test diets in r and om order in 3-week periods . Plasma total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol concentrations were similar with palmitic and palmitoleic acids and significantly higher than with oleic acid .  High density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol was significantly lower with palmitoleic than with palmitic acid . The study confirms that , at least in hypercholesterolemic men , a modest increase in palmitic  acid ( + 4 % en ) raises LDL cholesterol relative to oleic acid ( + 3 % en ) , even when dietary cholesterol is low ( < 165 mg/day ) . Palmitoleic acid ( + 4 % en ) behaves like a saturated and not a monounsaturated fatty acid in its effect on LDL cholesterol Thirty-eight male volunteers participated in a double-blind cross-over trial evaluating the effect of replacing the usual sources of saturated fat in the Dutch diet ( animal fats and hydrogenated oils ) by palm oil , which is virtually free of cholesterol and trans-fatty acids , on serum lipids , lipoproteins and apolipoproteins . Maximum ( about 70 % ) replacement had no significant effect on serum total cholesterol or most lipoprotein fractions , but result ed in an 11 % increase in serum high-density-lipoprotein (HDL)2-cholesterol relative to the control ( P2 = 0.01 ) . The palm-oil diet also caused an 8 % decrease in low-density-lipoprotein (LDL):HDL2 + HDL3-cholesterol ratio ( P2 = 0.02 ) as well as a 9 % decrease in triacylglycerols in the low-density-lipoprotein fractions ( P2 = 0.01 ) . Palm oil consumption result ed in a 4 % increase in serum apolipoprotein AI ( P2 = 0.008 ) and a 4 % decrease in apolipoprotein B ( P2 = 0.01 ) relative to the control diet ; the B : AI apolipoprotein ratio was decreased by 8 % ( P2 < 0.0001 ) . These results were not significantly affected by the different lipoprotein E phenotypes of the volunteers . Although the observed differences were relatively modest , the present study , nonetheless , indicates that dietary palm oil , when replacing a major part of the normal fat content in a Dutch diet , may slightly reduce the lipoprotein- and apolipoprotein-associated cardiovascular risk profiles OBJECTIVE To compare the effects on lipid levels , glycemic control , and diurnal blood pressure of two diets rich in one of the two quantitatively most important saturated fatty acids , stearic and palmitic acid , with a carbohydrate-rich diet in NIDDM patients . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS A total of 15 NIDDM patients participated in a r and omized crossover study with three 3-week diet interventions separated by 2-week washout periods . Patients started with a diet rich in stearic acid ( 44 E% [ percent of total energy ] fat [ 13 E% stearic acid ] , 40 E% carbohydrate , 15 E% protein ) , palmitic acid ( 45 E% fat [ 16 E% palmitic acid ] , 40 E% carbohydrate , 15 E% protein ) , or carbohydrate ( 29 E% fat , 51 E% carbohydrate , and 18 E% protein ) , then were shifted to the other two diets in a r and omized block design . At the start and end of each intervention period , fasting blood sample s were drawn for analysis of lipids and blood glucose . In addition , diurnal blood pressure was measured . RESULTS At the end of the 3-week interventions , total cholesterol was significantly higher after the palmitic acid-rich diet than after the stearic acid-rich or carbohydrate-rich diets ( 5.3 ± 1.3 vs. 5.0 ± 1.2 and 4.9 ± 1.2 mmol/l , respectively ; P = 0.03 ) . No significant differences in triglyceride , LDL , or HDL cholesterol levels were seen after the three intervention diets . No difference in effects between the diet periods were seen for fructosamine , HbA1c , fasting blood glucose , or diurnal blood pressure . CONCLUSIONS For the first time , it has been demonstrated that a diet rich in palmitic acid was not as effective in lowering cholesterol levels  as carbohydrate-rich and stearic acid-rich diets in NIDDM patients . No deleterious effects were seen on diurnal blood pressure , triglyceride levels , and glycemic control . Development of foods containing stearic acid rather than the more atherogenic saturated fatty acids may allow a wider choice of acceptable foods to NIDDM patients OBJECTIVE To evaluate the relation between intake and adipose tissue composition of fatty acids and  acute myocardial infa rct ion in Portuguese men . DESIGN Case-control study . Diet was assessed using a semiquantitative food frequency question naire . In 49 case and 49 control subjects , adipose tissue composition was assessed by gas-liquid chromatography . SUBJECTS/ SETTING Population -based ; subjects were 297 consecutively admitted cases of first acute myocardial infa rct ion in a tertiary care hospital who were aged > or=40 years . Three hundred ten community controls were selected by r and om-digit dialing . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Odds ratio ( OR ) . STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PERFORMED Logistic regression , adjusting for age , education , family history of acute myocardial infa rct ion , smoking , physical activity , body mass index , and energy intake . RESULTS Total fat intake ( OR 0.45 , fourth quartile , P=0.02 ) , lauric acid ( OR 0.44 , fourth quartile , P=0.02 ) , palmitic acid ( OR 0.58 , fourth quartile , P=0.03 ) , and oleic acid ( OR 0.42 , fourth quartile , P=0.03 ) were inversely associated with acute myocardial infa rct ion . No significant effects were found for the remaining fatty acids . In the adipose tissue composition data , the adjusted risk estimates of acute myocardial infa rct ion for the highest vs the lowest tertile were 0.16 , 0.14 , and 0.04 for lauric , oleic , and trans-fatty acids , respectively . A significant direct association was found for palmitic and linoleic acids ( adjusted ORs for the highest tertile were 9.02 and 3.63 , respectively ) . CONCLUSIONS Low intake of total fat and lauric acid from dairy products was associated with acute myocardial infa rct ion . The association of polyunsaturated fatty acids with risk of acute myocardial infa rct ion was nonsignificant after adjustment for energy intake and confounders . Recommendations on fatty acid intake should aim for both an upper and lower limit We studied the metabolic effects of stearic acid ( 18:0 ) on  plasma lipoprotein levels in 11 subjects during three dietary periods of three weeks each . The three liquid-formula diets , which were used in r and om order , were high in palmitic acid ( 16:0 ) , stearic acid , and oleic acid ( 18:1 ) , respectively . Caloric intakes were the same during the three periods . As compared with the values observed when the subjects were on the high-palmitic-acid diet , plasma total cholesterol decreased by an average of 14 percent during consumption of the high-stearic-acid diet ( P less than 0.005 ) and by 10 percent during consumption of the high-oleic-acid diet ( P less than 0.02 ) . Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels fell by 21 percent in subjects on the high-stearic-acid diet ( P less than 0.005 ) and by 15 percent in subjects on the high-oleic-acid diet ( P less than 0.005 ) . No significant differences were observed in the plasma levels of triglycerides or high-density lipoprotein cholesterol among the three diets . Measurements of the intestinal absorption of palmitic , stearic , and oleic acids revealed essentially complete absorption of each during the three dietary periods . The oleic acid content of plasma triglycerides and cholesteryl esters increased significantly during the high-stearic-acid period , suggesting that stearic acid is rapidly converted to oleic acid . We conclude that stearic acid appears to be as effective as oleic acid in lowering plasma cholesterol levels when either replaces palmitic acid in the diet The effects of a diet containing soybean oil ( SBO ) , rice bran oil ( RBO ) , palm oil ( PO ) or a RBO/PO ( 3:1 ) mixture on the composition and oxidation of small dense low-density lipoproteins ( sdLDL ) in 16 hypercholesterolaemic women were investigated . During the 8-week control period , participants consumed a free-choice weight-maintaining diet comprising carbohydrate ( 55 % energy ) , protein ( 15 % energy ) and fat ( 30 % energy ) with < 300 mg/day of cholesterol . During each 10-week study period , participants consumed this same diet but with the addition of one of the three test oils or the RBO/PO mixture .  Total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol levels were significantly reduced during SBO , RBO and RBO/PO consumption , while high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was significantly decreased by SBO consumption . There was a significant reduction in sdLDL-cholesterol levels only after using SBO and it tended to be reduced during RBO/PO consumption , whereas it was significantly increased following PO consumption . The sdLDL oxidation lag time was significantly increased during PO , RBO/PO and RBO consumption , but significantly reduced following SBO . The results for the RBO/PO mixture suggest that this oil mixture might further reduce the risk of atherosclerosis Summary . Partial hydrogenation of oil results in fats containing unusual isomeric fatty acids characterized by cis and trans configurations . Hydrogenated fats containing trans fatty acids increase plasma total cholesterol ( TC ) and LDL-cholesterol while depressing HDL-cholesterol levels . Identifying the content of trans fatty acids by food labeling is overshadowed by a reluctance of health authorities to label saturates and trans fatty acids separately . Thus , it is pertinent to compare the effects of trans to saturated fatty acids using stable isotope methodology to establish if the mechanism of increase in TC and LDL-cholesterol is due to the increase in the rate of endogenous synthesis of cholesterol . Ten healthy normocholesterolemic female subjects consumed each of two diets containing approximately 30 % of energy as fat for a fourweek period . One diet was high in palmitic acid ( 10.6 % of energy ) from palm olein and the other diet exchanged 5.6 % of energy as partially hydrogenated fat for palmitic acid . This fat blend result ed in monounsaturated fatty acids decreasing by 4.9 % and polyunsaturated fats increasing by 2.7 % . The hydrogenated fat diet treatment provided 3.1 % of energy as elaidic acid . For each dietary treatment , the fractional synthesis rates for cholesterol were measured using deuterium-labeling procedures and blood sample s were obtained for blood lipid and lipoprotein measurements . Subjects exhibited a higher total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol level when consuming the diet containing trans fatty acids while also depressing the HDL-cholesterol level . Consuming the partially hydrogenated fat diet treatment increased the fractional synthesis rate of free cholesterol . Consumption of hydrogenated fats containing trans fatty acids in comparison to a mixtur e of palmitic and oleic acids increase plasma cholesterol levels apparently by increasing endogenous synthesis of cholesterol
target: Comparison of PO diets with diets rich in stearic acid , monounsaturated fatty acids ( MUFAs ) , and polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) showed significantly higher TC , LDL cholesterol , apolipoprotein B , HDL cholesterol , and apolipoprotein A-I , whereas most of the same biomarkers were significantly lower when compared with diets rich in myristic/lauric acid .
  Comparison of PO-rich diets with diets rich in trans fatty acids showed significantly higher concentrations of HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein A-I and significantly lower apolipoprotein B , triacylglycerols , and TC/HDL cholesterol .
  Stratified and meta-regression analyses showed that the higher concentrations of TC and LDL cholesterol , when PO was substituted for MUFAs and PUFAs , were not significant in young people and in subjects with diets with a lower percentage of energy from fat .
  Both favorable and unfavorable changes in CHD/CVD risk markers occurred when PO was substituted for the primary dietary fats , whereas only favorable changes occurred when PO was substituted for trans fatty acids .
background: BACKGROUND Palm oil ( PO ) may be an unhealthy fat because of its high saturated fatty acid content .
  OBJECTIVE The objective was to assess the effect of substituting PO for other primary dietary fats on blood lipid-related markers of coronary heart disease ( CHD ) and cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) .