title: The CONSORT statement: revised recommendations for improving the quality of reports of parallel-group randomised trials Effects of the FITKids Randomized Controlled Trial on Executive Control and Brain Function Effect of strength and endurance training on cognition in older people. Association Between Muscular Strength and Cognition in People With Major Depression or Bipolar Disorder and Healthy Controls Multiple stages of information processing are modulated during acute bouts of exercise Neuroelectric adaptations to cognitive processing in virtual environments: an exercise-related approach The relationship of age and cardiovascular fitness to cognitive and motor processes. Executive function and endocrinological responses to acute resistance exercise Open- and Closed-Skill Exercise Interventions Produce Different Neurocognitive Effects on Executive Functions in the Elderly: A 6-Month Randomized, Controlled Trial Differential influences of exercise intensity on information processing in the central nervous system Tai Chi and meditation-plus-exercise benefit neural substrates of executive function: a cross-sectional, controlled study P300, N400, aerobic fitness, and maximal aerobic exercise. The effects of a school-based exercise program on neurophysiological indices of working memory operations in adolescents. Effect of vitamin e supplementation with exercise on cognitive functions and total antioxidant capacity in older people
abstract: To comprehend the results of a r and omised controlled trial ( RCT ) , readers must underst and its design , conduct , analysis , and interpretation . That goal can be achieved only through total transparency from authors . Despite several decades of educational efforts , the reporting of RCTs needs improvement . Investigators and editors developed the original CONSORT ( Consoli date d St and ards of Reporting Trials ) statement to help authors improve reporting by use of a checklist and flow diagram . The revised CONSORT statement presented here incorporates new evidence and addresses some criticisms of the original statement . The checklist items pertain to the content of the Title , Abstract , Introduction , Methods , Results , and Discussion . The revised checklist includes 22 items selected because empirical evidence indicates that not reporting this information is associated with biased estimates of treatment effect , or because the information is essential to judge the reliability or relevance of the findings . We intended the flow diagram to depict the passage of participants through an RCT . The revised flow diagram depicts information from four stages of a trial ( enrolment , intervention allocation , follow- up , and analysis ) . The diagram explicitly shows the number of participants , for each intervention group , included in the primary data analysis . Inclusion of these numbers allows the reader to judge whether the authors have done an intention- to-treat analysis . In sum , the CONSORT statement is intended to improve the reporting of an RCT , enabling readers to underst and a trial 's conduct and to assess the validity of its results OBJECTIVE : To assess the effect of a physical activity ( PA ) intervention on brain and behavioral indices of executive control in preadolescent children . METHODS : Two hundred twenty-one children ( 7–9 years ) were r and omly assigned to a 9-month  afterschool PA program or a wait-list control . In addition to changes in fitness ( maximal oxygen consumption ) , electrical activity in the brain ( P3-ERP ) and behavioral measures ( accuracy , reaction time ) of executive control were collected by using tasks that modulated attentional inhibition and cognitive flexibility . RESULTS : Fitness improved more among intervention participants from pretest to posttest compared with the wait-list control ( 1.3 mL/kg per minute , 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] : 0.3 to 2.4 ; d = 0.34 for group difference in pre-to-post change score ) . Intervention participants exhibited greater improvements from pretest to posttest in inhibition ( 3.2 % , 95 % CI : 0.0 to 6.5 ; d = 0.27 ) and cognitive flexibility ( 4.8 % , 95 % CI : 1.1 to 8.4 ; d = 0.35 for group difference in pre-to-post change score ) compared with control . Only the intervention group increased attentional re sources from pretest to posttest during tasks requiring increased inhibition ( 1.4 µV , 95 % CI : 0.3 to 2.6 ; d = 0.34 ) and cognitive flexibility ( 1.5 µV , 95 % CI : 0.6 to 2.5 ; d = 0.43 ) . Finally , improvements in brain function on the inhibition task ( r = 0.22 ) and performance on the flexibility task correlated with intervention attendance ( r = 0.24 ) . CONCLUSIONS : The intervention enhanced cognitive performance and brain function during tasks requiring greater executive control . These findings demonstrate a causal effect of a PA program on executive control , and provide support for PA for improving childhood cognition and brain health The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of moderate strength and endurance training on cognition evaluated by event-related potentials ( ERP ) in older people . Thirty-six adults , aged 60 - 85 years , were r and omly divided into three groups : sedentary control ( C ) , strength training ( ST ) , and endurance training ( ET ) . Participants performed functional fitness tests and ERP data were recorded before and after nine weeks of training . Training involved three sessions per week . Functional fitness test performance improved significantly in the ST and ET groups . The latencies of the N1 , N2 , and P2 components and the amplitudes of the N1P2 , P2N2 , and N2P3 components differed significantly between groups ( p < 0.05 ) . After training , the latencies of the P2 and N2 components at the Fz and Cz sites , decreased significantly , and the amplitudes of the N1P2 , P2N2 , and N2P3 components at the Fz site and the N1P2 and N2P3 components at the Cz site , increased significantly in the ST group compared with the ET group . After training , the latencies of N1 , N2 , and P2 components shortened significantly , and the amplitudes of the N1P2 , P2N2 , and N2P3 components increased significantly in the ST group compared with the C group . The latencies of the N2 and P2 components shortened significantly in the ET group compared with the C group , although the amplitudes of the ERP recordings did not differ significantly between groups . These data suggest that strength training might facilitate early sensory processing and cognitive functioning in older individuals . Key PointsStrength training may have facilitating effects on early information processing and cognition in older people . It is interesting that only small improvements in functional fitness affected cognitive performance . More research is needed to determine how the different exercise regimens contribute to discrete changes in CNS functioning and how such changes affect the P3 component of the ERP Importance Objective physical fitness measures , such as h and grip strength , are associated with physical , mental , and cognitive outcomes in the general population . Although people with mental illness experience reduced physical fitness and cognitive impairment , the association between muscular strength and cognition has not been examined to date . Objective To determine associations between maximal h and grip strength and cognitive performance in people with major depression or bipolar disorder and in healthy controls . Design , Setting , and Participants In a multicenter , population -based study conducted between February 13 , 2005 , and October 1 , 2010 , in the United Kingdom , cross-sectional analysis was conducted of baseline data from 110 067 participants in the UK Biobank . Data analysis was performed between August 3 and August 18 , 2017 . Invitations were mailed to approximately 9.2 million UK homes , recruiting 502 664 adults , all aged 37 to 73 years . Clinical ly vali date d measures were used to identify individuals with major recurrent depression ( moderate or severe ) or bipolar disorder ( type I or type II ) and healthy controls ( those with no indication of present or previous mood disorders ) . Main Outcomes and Measures H and grip dynamometry was used to measure muscular function . Cognitive functioning was assessed using computerized tasks of reaction time , visual memory , number memory , reasoning , and prospect i ve memory . Generalized linear mixed models assessed the association between h and grip strength and cognitive performance , controlling for age , educational level , sex , body weight , and geographic region . Results Of the 110 067 participants , analyses included 22 699 individuals with major depression ( mean [ 95 % range ] age , 55.5 [ 41 - 68 ] years ; 7936 [ 35.0 % ] men ) , 1475 with bipolar disorder ( age , 54.4 [ 41 - 68 ] years ; 748 [ 50.7 % ] men ) , and 85 893 healthy controls ( age , 53.7 [ 41 - 69 ] years ; 43 000 [ 50.0 % ] men ) . In those with major depression , significant positive associations ( P < .001 ) between maximal h and grip strength and improved performance on all 5 cognitive tasks were found , including visual memory ( coefficient , −0.146 ; SE , 0.014 ) , reaction time ( coefficient , −0.036 ; SE , 0.002 ) , reasoning ( coefficient , 0.213 ; SE , 0.02 ) , number memory ( coefficient , 0.160 ; SE , 0.023 ) , and prospect i ve memory ( coefficient , 0.341 ; SE , 0.024 ) . Similar results were found in healthy controls . Among participants with bipolar disorder , h and grip strength was positively associated with improved visual memory ( coefficient , −0.129 ; SE , 0.052 ; P = .01 ) , reaction time ( coefficient , −0.047 ; SE , 0.007 ; P < .001 ) , prospect i ve memory ( coefficient , 0.262 ; SE , 0.088 ; P = .003 ) , and reasoning ( coefficient , 0.354 ; SE , 0.08 ; P < .001 ) . Conclusions and Relevance Grip strength may provide a useful indicator of cognitive impairment in people with major depression and bipolar disorder . Future research should investigate causality , assess the functional implication s of h and grip strength in psychiatric population s , and examine how interventions to improve muscular fitness affect neurocognitive status and socio-occupational functioning Acute bouts of aerobic physical exercise can modulate subsequent cognitive task performance and oscillatory brain activity measured with electroencephalography ( EEG ) . Here , we investigated the sequencing of these modulations of perceptual and cognitive processes using scalp recorded EEG acquired during exercise .  Twelve participants viewed pseudo-r and om sequences  of frequent non-target stimuli ( cars ) , infrequent distractors ( obliquely oriented faces ) and infrequent targets that required a simple detection response ( obliquely oriented faces , where the angle was different than the infrequent distractors ) . The sequences were presented while seated on a stationary bike under three conditions during which scalp recorded EEG was also acquired : rest , low-intensity exercise , and high-intensity exercise .  Behavioral target detection was faster during high-intensity exercise compared to both rest and low-intensity exercise . An event-related potential ( ERP ) analysis of the EEG data revealed that the mean amplitude of the visual P1 component evoked by frequent non-targets measured at parietal-occipital electrodes was larger during low-intensity exercise compared to rest . The P1 component evoked by infrequent targets also peaked earlier during low-intensity exercise compared to rest and high-intensity exercise . The P3a ERP component evoked by infrequent distractors measured at parietal electrodes peaked significantly earlier during both low- and high-intensity exercise when compared to rest . The modulation of the visual P1 and the later P3a components is consistent with the conclusion that exercise modulates multiple stages of neural information processing , ranging from early stage sensory processing ( P1 ) to post-perceptual target categorization ( P3a ) Recently , virtual environments ( VEs ) are suggested to encourage users to exercise regularly . The benefits of chronic exercise on cognitive performance are well documented in non-VE neurophysiological and behavioural studies . Based on event-related potentials ( ERP ) such as the N200 and P300 , cognitive processing may be interpreted on a neuronal level . However , exercise-related neuroelectric adaptation in VE remains widely unclear and thus characterizes the primary aim of the present study . Twenty-two healthy participants performed active ( moderate cycling exercise ) and passive ( no exercise ) sessions in three VEs ( control , front , surround ) , each generating a different sense of presence . Within sessions , conditions were r and omly assigned , each lasting 5 min and including a choice reaction-time task to assess cognitive performance . According to the international 10:20 system , EEG with real-time triggered stimulus onset was recorded , and peaks of N200 and P300 components ( amplitude , latency ) were exported for analysis . Heart rate was recorded , and sense of presence assessed prior to and following each session and condition . Results revealed an increase in ERP amplitudes ( N200 : p < 0.001 ; P300 : p < 0.001 ) and latencies ( N200 : p < 0.001 ) that were most pronounced over fronto- central and occipital electrode sites relative to an increased sense of presence ( p < 0.001 ) ; however , ERP were not modulated by exercise ( each p > 0.05 ) . Hypothesized to mirror cognitive processing , decreases of cognitive performance ’s accuracy and reaction time failed significance . With respect to previous research , the present neuroelectric adaptation gives reason to believe in compensative neuronal re sources that balance dem and ing cognitive processing in VE to avoid behavioural inefficiency Older and younger aerobically trained and sedentary adults participated in an S1-S2-S3 paradigm design ed to elicit event-related potential ( ERP ) and behavioral responses to determine the influence of cardiovascular fitness on cognitive and motor processes . The paradigm provided warning ( S1 ) as to the difficulty level of an upcoming decision task ( S2 ) . Participants had to decide the taller of two bars on presentation of S2 but hold their response until S3 , to which they indicated their choice motorically . Results revealed age-related differences for ERP measures as older participants showed increased amplitude of the stimulus preceding negativity ( SPN ) prior to S2 , and longer latencies and equipotentiality of P3 in response to S2 . Fitness effects were also observed for the contingent negative variation ( CNV ) with decreased amplitude for fit relative to sedentary individuals . Age interacted with fitness for P3 latency to S2 as older sedentary individuals showed the longest latency followed by older fit and both younger groups . No significant group differences were observed for reaction time ( RT ) to S3 . Therefore , physical fitness is associated with attenuation of cognitive decline in older individuals and greater economy of motor preparation for both young and older participants This study had the following two aims : First , to explore the effects of acute resistance exercise ( RE , i.e. , using exercise machines to contract and stretch muscles ) on behavioral and electrophysiological performance when performing a cognitive task involving executive functioning in young male adults ; Second , to investigate the potential biochemical mechanisms of such facilitative effects using two neurotrophic factors [ i.e. , growth hormone ( GH ) and insulin-like growth factor-1 ( IGF-1 ) ] and the cortisol levels elicited by such an exercise intervention mode with two different exercise intensities . Sixty young male adults were recruited and r and omly assigned to a high-intensity ( HI ) exercise group , moderate-intensity ( MI ) exercise group , and non-exercise-intervention ( NEI ) group . Blood sample s were taken , and the behavioral and electrophysiological indices were simultaneously measured when individuals performed a Go/No-Go task combined with the Erikson Flanker paradigm at baseline and after either an acute bout of 30 min of moderate- or high-intensity RE or a control period . The results showed that the acute RE could not only benefit the subjects ' behavioral ( i.e. , RTs and accuracy ) performance , as found in previous studies , but also increase the P3 amplitude . Although the serum GH and IGF-1 levels were significantly increased via moderate or high intensity RE in both the MI and HI groups , the increased serum levels of neurotrophic factors were significantly decreased about 20 min after exercise . In addition , such changes were not correlated with the changes in cognitive ( i.e. , behavioral and electrophysiological ) performance . In contrast , the serum levels of cortisol in the HI and MI groups were significantly lower after acute RE , and the changes in cortisol levels were significantly associated with the changes in electrophysiological ( i.e. , P3 amplitude ) performance . The findings suggest the beneficial effects of acute RE on executive functioning could be due to changes in arousal , possibly modulated by the serum cortisol levels This study aim ed to explore the effects of open- and closed-skill exercise interventions on the neurocognitive performance of executive functions in the elderly . Sixty-four healthy elderly males were r and omly assigned to either a closed-skill ( bike riding or brisk walking/jogging , n = 22 ) , open-skill ( table tennis , n = 21 ) , or control ( n = 21 ) group . Various neuropsychological [ e.g. , accuracy rates ( AR ) and reaction time ( RT ) ] and electrophysiological [ e.g. , event-related potential ( ERP ) P3 component ] measures were assessed during a variant of the task-switching paradigm , as well as an N-back task at baseline and after either a 6-month exercise intervention or control period . The results showed that , when performing the task-switching paradigm , the two exercise groups relative to control group showed significantly faster RTs in the switch trials after the exercise intervention . However , the RT facilitation in the non-switch and switch trials post-exercise relative to pre-exercise only emerged in the open-skill group . In terms of the N-back task , the two exercise groups significantly increased ARs in the 1-back condition after the exercise intervention , and the beneficial AR effect on the 2-back condition only emerged in the closed-skill group . In addition , the two exercise groups exhibited significantly larger P3 amplitudes on the frontal-to-parietal cortex areas after the exercise intervention relative to the baseline when performing the two cognitive tasks . These neurocognitive results still remained unchanged even when the confounding factors ( e.g. , cardiorespiratory fitness , social participation , and BMI ) were controlled for . The present study concluded that , although 6-month open- and closed-skill exercise interventions facilitate overall electrophysiological effects ( i.e. , increased ERP P3 amplitudes ) on the frontal-to-parietal cortices in the elderly , the two exercise modes produced different levels of neuropsychologically beneficial effects on RTs of the task-switching paradigm ( i.e. , lessened RTs ) and ARs of the N-back task ( i.e. , enhanced ARs ) . The distinctive neurocognitive changes induced by open- and closed-skill exercise have implication s for task switching and working memory in elderly individuals , especially with such cognitive functioning impairments The influence of exercise intensity on information processing in the central nervous system was investigated using P300 and no-go P300 event-related potentials . Twelve subjects ( 22–33 years ) performed a go/no-go reaction time task in a control condition , and again after high- , medium- , and low-intensity pedaling exercises . Compared to the control condition , P300 amplitude decreased after high-intensity pedaling exercise and increased after medium-intensity pedaling exercise . There was no change after low-intensity pedaling exercise . These results suggested that the amount of attentional re sources devoted to a given task decreased after high-intensity exercise and increased after medium-intensity exercise . The findings also suggest that changes in P300 amplitude are an inverted U-shaped behavior of differences in exercise intensity . In addition , no-go P300 amplitude showed the same changes as P300 amplitude at different exercise intensities . This indicates that differences in exercise intensity influenced not only the intensity of processing the requirement for a go response , but also processing of the need for a no-go response . It is concluded that differences in exercise intensity influenced information processing in the CNS Abstract Background : We report the first controlled study of Tai Chi effects on the P300 event-related potential , a neuroelectric index of human executive function . Tai Chi is a form of exercise and moving meditation . Exercise and meditation have been associated with enhanced executive function . This cross-sectional , controlled study utilized the P300 event-related potential ( ERP ) to compare executive network neural function between self-selected long-term Tai Chi , meditation , aerobic fitness , and sedentary groups . We hypothesized that because Tai Chi requires moderate aerobic and mental exertion , this group would show similar or better executive neural function compared to meditation and aerobic exercise groups . We predicted all health training groups would outperform sedentary controls . Methods : Fifty-four volunteers ( Tai Chi , n=10 ; meditation , n=16 ; aerobic exercise , n=16 ; sedentary , n=12 ) were tested with the Rockport 1-mile walk ( estimated VO2 Max ) , a well-vali date d measure of aerobic capacity , and an ecologically valid visuo-spatial , r and omized , alternating runs Task Switch test during dense-array electroencephalographic ( EEG ) recording . Results : Only Tai Chi and meditation plus exercise groups demonstrated larger P3b ERP switch trial amplitudes compared to sedentary controls . Conclusions : Our results suggest long-term Tai Chi practice , and meditation plus exercise may benefit the neural substrates of executive function Electrophysiological effects of aerobic fitness and maximal aerobic exercise were investigated by comparing P300 and N400 before and after a maximal cycling test . Event-related potentials ( ERPs ) were obtained from 20 students divided into two matched groups defined by their aerobic fitness level ( cyclists vs. sedentary subjects ) . The session of postexercise ERPs was performed immediately after body temperature and heart rate returned to preexercise values . At rest , no significant differences were observed in ERP parameters between cyclists and sedentary subjects . This finding argued against the hypothesis that ERP modifications may be directly assumed by aerobic fitness level . The postexercise session of ERPs showed a significant P300 amplitude increase and a significant P300 latency decrease in all subjects . Similarly , N400 effect increased significantly after the maximal exercise in all subjects . ERP changes were of the same magnitude in the two groups . The present study argues for a general arousing effect of maximal aerobic exercise , independently of the aerobic fitness level OBJECTIVES To examine the effects of a structured exercise program implemented during school break-time on working memory maintenance and neurophysiological indices of task preparation processes in adolescents . DESIGN Using class-wise r and om allocation , participants from four classes were divided into an  exercise ( n=20 ) and a wait-list control group ( n=16 ) . Over a period of eight weeks , the exercise group engaged in 20min of combined aerobic and coordinative exercise on each school day . METHODS Prior to and after the intervention period , participants performed a computer-based Sternberg task for the assessment of working memory performance . Simultaneously , the contingent negative variation ( CNV ) of event-related potentials was measured . RESULTS The exercise group demonstrated a larger decrease in reaction time from pre- to post-test relative to the control group , F(1 , 31)=13.5 , p<0.001 . No changes were found for accuracy on the Sternberg task across groups . Using cluster-based permutation testing , the analysis of event-related potentials revealed a significant increase of the initial CNV from pre- to post-test in the exercise group , cluster value=-2376.2 , p=0.006 , which was most pronounced for the fronto- central region , with no such effect observed for the control group . CONCLUSIONS Daily engagement in a short combined aerobic and coordinative exercise program following the school lunch time break elicits benefits for working memory in adolescents . These changes are accompanied by improvements of task preparation processes , which allow the selection of a more appropriate cognitive control strategy Objective We investigated the effects of six months vitamin E administration on cognition evaluated by event-related potentials in exercising older subjects . Design R and omised controlled trial . Setting Retirement home in Antalya , Turkey . Participants Fifty-seven adults aged 60–85 years were r and omly assigned to one of four groups : sedentary control ( C ) , vitamin E ( V ) , exercise training ( E ) and vitamin E under training (EV).InterventionV and EV groups were received vitamin E at a dose of 900 IU/day P.O. for 6 months . Trained groups were subjected to walking exercise involved 3 sessions per week for 6 months . Walking duration was gradually increased during 8 weeks , and stayed constant until the end of training period . Participants were begun walking at % 70 heart rate reserve for 20 min/day at the first two weeks , and walking duration was increased by 5 minutes/day of each week until subjects were reached a level of 50 min/day by week 8 . Measurements Plasma vitamin E concentration , total antioxidant capacity and two parameters of event-related potentials namely P3 latency and amplitude were performed on all study groups both before and after training . Results Significant improvement in P3 latency was found in exercising groups . However , no significant differences were found between vitamin and other groups for P3 latency . Amplitude measurements were found unaltered among all groups . Conclusion We concluded that although six months training results improvement in P3 latency  , vitamin E supplementation does not affect cognitive function evaluated by event-related potentials in older subjects
target: Conclusions drawn from this systematic review suggest that physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with P3b modulation during cognitive control and attention tasks .
  Acute and chronic physical activity interventions modulate the P3b component , suggesting short- and long-term functional adaptations occurring in the brain to support cognitive processes .
  These summary findings suggest physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness are beneficial to brain function and that P3b may serve as a biomarker of covert attentional processes to better underst and the relationship of physical activity and cognition
background: Given accumulating evidence indicating that acute and chronic physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness are related to modulation of the P3b-ERP component , this systematic review provides an overview of the field across the last 30 + years and discusses future directions as the field continues to develop .