title: Fish consumption and cognitive decline with age in a large community study. Body mass index and neurocognitive functioning across the adult lifespan. Maternal feeding practices, child eating behaviour and body mass index in preschool-aged children: a prospective analysis A randomised controlled trial of manualized cognitive remediation therapy in adult obesity Breaking bad habits by improving executive function in individuals with obesity Delay or probability discounting in a model of impulsive behavior: effect of alcohol. The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis Improved memory function two years after bariatric surgery. Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: a randomized, controlled trial. Cognitive function after bariatric surgery: evidence for improvement 3 years after surgery. Executive function training with game elements for obese children: a novel treatment to enhance self-regulatory abilities for weight-control. Performance on the Iowa Gambling Task is related to magnitude of weight loss and salivary cortisol in a diet-induced weight loss intervention in overweight women Prefrontal cortex-mediated executive function as assessed by Stroop task performance associates with weight loss among overweight and obese adolescents and young adults Dietary Factors and Cognitive Decline. Effects of aerobic exercise on overweight children's cognitive functioning: a randomized controlled trial. Depressive symptoms and poorer performance on the Stroop Task are associated with weight gain Determinants of weight loss maintenance: a systematic review. Cognitive function predicts weight loss after bariatric surgery. Fasting biases brain reward systems towards high-calorie foods. Forward and backward memory span should not be combined for clinical analysis.
abstract: BACKGROUND Dietary intake of fish and the omega-3 fatty acids have been associated with lower risk of Alzheimer disease and stroke . OBJECTIVE To examine whether intakes of fish and the omega-3 fatty acids protect against  age-related cognitive decline .  DESIGN Prospect i ve cohort study . SETTING Geographically defined Chicago , Ill , community . PARTICIPANTS Residents , 65 years and older , who participated in the Chicago Health and Aging Project . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Change in a global cognitive score estimated from mixed models . The global score was computed by summing scores of 4 st and ardized tests . In-home cognitive assessment  s were performed 3 times over 6 years of follow-up . RESULTS Cognitive scores declined on average at a rate of 0.04 st and ardized units per year ( SU/y ) . Fish intake was associated with a slower rate of cognitive decline in mixed models adjusted for age , sex , race , education , cognitive activity , physical activity , alcohol consumption , and total energy intake . Compared with a decline rate in score of -0.100 SU/y among persons who consumed fish less than weekly , the rate was 10 % slower ( -0.090 SU/y ) among persons who consumed 1 fish meal per week and 13 % slower ( -0.088 SU/y ) among persons who consumed 2 or more fish meals per week . The fish association was not accounted for by cardiovascular-related conditions or fruit and vegetable consumption but was modified after adjustment for intakes of saturated , polyunsaturated , and trans fats . There was little evidence that the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids were associated with cognitive change . CONCLUSIONS Fish consumption may be associated with slower cognitive decline with age . Further study is needed to determine whether fat composition is the relevant dietary constituent OBJECTIVE Cognitive dysfunction and structural brain abnormalities have been observed in obese versus lean individuals , but with variability across age and weight groups . The current study was design ed to clarify the cognitive profile of obesity by examining performance across multiple cognitive domains in adults with wide-ranging age and weight status . METHOD Participants ( N = 732 ; 61 % women ; ages 18 - 88 ; BMI range 19 - 75 ) underwent assessment of cognitive functioning and relevant medical/demographic covariates .  Neuropsychological tests  were grouped by cognitive domain ( via confirmatory factor analysis ) , and st and ardized scores were averaged into composite variables . RESULTS Hierarchical linear regression analyses revealed main effects for BMI on motor ( ΔR2 = .02 , β = -.15 ) and attention/processing speed ( ΔR2 = .01 , β = -.07 ) , whereas a significant interaction between BMI and age was observed ( ΔR2 = .01 , β = -.08 ) for predicting executive functioning ( p < .05 ) . BMI was not independently associated with memory or language functioning and no interaction effects were observed for these variables . Although BMI was not independently related to executive dysfunction , a significant age × BMI interaction suggests that obesity-related executive deficits may increase with age . CONCLUSIONS Overall , these findings may support an independent association between obesity and a frontal-subcortical pathology , though prospect i ve studies are needed to further clarify this possibility Background Previous research has found associations between parental feeding practice s and children 's eating behaviour and weight status .  Prospect i ve research is needed to eluci date these relationships . Methods One hundred and fifty-six mothers of 2- to 4-year-old children completed question naires including measures of maternal feeding practice s ( pressure to eat , restriction , monitoring and modelling of healthy eating )  , child eating behaviour ( food responsiveness , food fussiness and interest in food ) , and mother reported child height and weight . The question naire was repeated 12 months later . Regression analyses were used to find longitudinal associations between maternal feeding practice s , child eating behaviour and child body mass index ( BMI ) . Results Modelling of healthy eating predicted lower child food fussiness and higher interest in food one year later , and pressure to eat predicted lower child interest in food . Restriction did not predict changes in child eating behaviour .  Maternal feeding practice s did not prospect ively predict child food responsiveness or child BMI . Conclusion Maternal feeding practice s appear to influence young children 's  eating behaviour but not weight status in the short term OBJECTIVE Research has indicated that individuals with obesity have neurocognitive deficits , especially in cognitive flexibility that may in turn impact on their weight loss and maintenance . Consequently , we examined the efficacy of a manualised face-to-face cognitive remediation therapy for obesity ( CRT-O ) within a r and omised controlled trial , in terms of improving cognitive flexibility , reducing binge eating behaviour , improving quality of life and helping with weight loss . METHODS 80 adults with obesity ( body mass index > 30 kg/m2 ) , 70 % binge eaters , received three weekly sessions of group Behavioural Weight Loss ( BWL ) and then were r and omised to 8 sessions of individual CRT-O or to a no-treatment control group . RESULTS Mixed-effects model analyses revealed that the CRT-O group had a significant improvement in their cognitive flexibility at post-treatment and 3-month follow-up compared to the control group ( Cohen 's d = 0.96 to 2.1 ) . 68 % of those in the CRT-O group achieved a weight loss of 5 % or more at follow-up compared to only 15 % of the controls ( Cohen 's d = 1.3 ) . Changes in set-shifting predicted changes in weight ( p < .05 ) . Binge eating reduced in the CRT-O group compared to the control ( Cohen 's d = 0.80 ) . DISCUSSION This is the first study showing the efficacy of CRT-O for obesity . Future CRT-O studies with longer follow-ups and pairing it with longer BWL programs are needed . TRIALS REGISTRY ( ANZCTR ) 12613000537752 . DATE OF ANZCTR REGISTRATION 14 May 2013 Background Two primary factors that contribute to obesity are unhealthy eating and sedentary behavior  . These behaviors are particularly difficult to change in the long-term because they are often enacted habitually . Cognitive Remediation Therapy has been modified and applied to the treatment of obesity ( CRT-O ) with preliminary results of a r and omized controlled trial demonstrating significant weight loss and improvements in executive function . The objective of this study was to conduct a secondary data analysis of the CRT-O trial to evaluate whether CRT-O reduces unhealthy habits that contribute to obesity via improvements in executive function . Method Eighty participants with obesity were r and omized to CRT-O or control . Measures of executive function ( Wisconsin Card Sort Task and Trail Making Task ) and unhealthy eating and sedentary behavior habits were administered at baseline , post-intervention and at 3 month follow-up . Results Participants receiving CRT-O demonstrated improvements in both measures of executive function and reductions in both unhealthy habit outcomes compared to control . Mediation analyses revealed that change in one element of executive function performance ( Wisconsin Card Sort Task perseverance errors ) mediated the effect of CRT-O on changes in both habit outcomes . Conclusion These results suggest that the effectiveness of CRT-O may result from the disruption of unhealthy habits made possible by improvements in executive function . In particular , it appears that cognitive flexibility , as measured by the Wisconsin Card Sort task , is a key mechanism in this process . Improving cognitive flexibility may enable individuals to capitalise on interruptions in unhealthy habits by adjusting their behavior in line with their weight loss goals rather than persisting with an unhealthy choice . Trial registration The RCT was registered with the Australian New Zeal and Registry of Clinical Trials ( trial i d : ACTRN12613000537752 ) Little is known about the acute effects of drugs of abuse on impulsivity and self-control . In this study , impulsivity was assessed in humans using a computer task that measured delay and probability discounting . Discounting describes how much the value of a reward ( or punisher ) is decreased when its occurrence is either delayed or uncertain . Twenty-four healthy adult volunteers ingested a moderate dose of ethanol ( 0.5 or 0.8 g/kg ethanol : n = 12 at each dose ) or placebo before completing the discounting task . In the task the participants were given a series of choices between a small , immediate , certain amount of money and $ 10 that was either delayed ( 0 , 2 , 30 , 180 , or 365 days ) or probabilistic ( i.e. , certainty of receipt was 1.0 , .9 , .75 , .5 , or .25 ) . The point at which each individual was indifferent between the smaller immediate or certain reward and the $ 10 delayed or probabilistic reward was identified using an adjusting-amount procedure . The results indicated that ( a ) delay and probability discounting were well described by a hyperbolic function ; ( b ) delay and probability discounting were positively correlated within subjects ; ( c ) delay and probability discounting were moderately correlated with personality measures of impulsivity ; and ( d ) alcohol had no effect on discounting This individual differences study examined the separability of three often postulated executive functions-mental set shifting ( " Shifting " ) , information updating and monitoring ( " Updating " ) , and inhibition of prepotent responses ("Inhibition")- and their roles in complex " frontal lobe " or " executive " tasks . One hundred thirty-seven college students performed a set of relatively simple experimental tasks that are considered to predominantly tap each target executive function as well as a set of frequently used executive tasks : the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test ( WCST ) , Tower of Hanoi ( TOH ) , r and om number generation ( RNG ) , operation span , and dual tasking .  Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the three target executive functions are moderately correlated with one another , but are clearly separable . Moreover , structural equation modeling suggested that the three functions contribute differentially to performance on complex executive tasks . Specifically , WCST performance was related most strongly to Shifting , TOH to Inhibition , RNG to Inhibition and Updating , and operation span to Updating . Dual task performance was not related to any of the three target functions . These results suggest that it is important to recognize both the unity and diversity of executive functions and that latent variable analysis is a useful approach to study ing the organization and roles of executive functions OBJECTIVE Obesity is as an independent risk factor for poor neurocognitive outcomes , including Alzheimer 's disease .  Bariatric surgery has recently been shown to result in improved memory at 12-weeks postoperatively . However , the long-term effects of bariatric surgery on cognitive function remain unclear . DESIGN AND METHODS Eighty-six individuals ( 63 bariatric surgery patients , 23 obese controls ) were recruited from a prospect i ve study examining the neurocognitive effects of bariatric surgery .  All participants completed  self-report measurements and a computerized cognitive test battery  prior to surgery and at 12-week and 24-month follow-up ; obese controls completed measures at equivalent time points . RESULTS Bariatric surgery patients exhibited high rates of pre-operative cognitive impairments in attention , executive function , memory , and language . Relative to obese controls , repeated measures ANOVA showed improvements in memory from baseline to 12-weeks and 24-months postoperatively ( P < 0.05 ) . Regression analyses controlling for baseline factors revealed that a lower BMI at 24-months demonstrated a trend toward significance for improved memory ( β = -.30 , P = 0.075 ) . CONCLUSION These findings suggest that cognitive benefits of bariatric surgery may extend to 24-months postoperatively . Larger prospect i ve studies with extended follow-up periods are needed to eluci date whether bariatric surgery decreases risk for cognitive decline and possibly the development of dementia OBJECTIVE This experiment tested the hypothesis that exercise would improve executive function . DESIGN Sedentary , overweight 7- to 11-year-old children ( N = 171 , 56 % girls , 61 % Black , M ± SD age = 9.3 ± 1.0 years , body mass index [ BMI ] = 26 ± 4.6 kg/m² , BMI z-score = 2.1 ± 0.4 ) were r and omized to 13 ± 1.6 weeks of an exercise program ( 20 or 40 min/day ) , or a control condition . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Blinded , st and ardized psychological evaluations ( Cognitive Assessment System and Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement III ) assessed cognition and academic achievement .  Functional MRI  measured brain activity during executive function tasks . RESULTS Intent to treat analysis revealed dose-response benefits of exercise  on executive function and mathematics achievement . Preliminary evidence of increased bilateral prefrontal cortex activity and reduced bilateral posterior parietal cortex activity attributable to exercise was also observed . CONCLUSION Consistent with results obtained in older adults , a specific improvement on executive function and brain activation changes attributable to exercise were observed . The cognitive and achievement results add evidence of dose-response and extend experimental evidence into childhood . This study provides information on an educational outcome . Besides its importance for maintaining weight and reducing health risks during a childhood obesity epidemic , physical activity may prove to be a simple , important method of enhancing aspects of children 's mental functioning that are central to cognitive development . This information may persuade educators to implement vigorous physical activity BACKGROUND Bariatric surgery is associated with improved cognition , and it is possible that such improvements are found at extended follow-ups . We hypothesized that cognitive improvement would be maintained 3 years after bariatric surgery . METHODS Fifty bariatric patients were recruited from the Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery parent project . Participants completed a computerized cognitive test battery to assess cognitive function  at 12 weeks , 12 months , 24 months , and 36 months after surgery . RESULTS Repeated measures revealed main effects for attention , executive function , and memory . Attention improved up to 24 months and then slightly declined although it still fell within the average range at 36 months . Improvements in executive function reached their peak at 36 months after surgery . Short-term improvements in memory were maintained at 36 months . No main effect emerged for language . CONCLUSIONS Bariatric surgery may lead to lasting improvements in cognition . Prospect i ve studies with extended follow-ups ( eg , 10 years ) should examine whether bariatric surgery can attenuate cognitive decline in severely obese patients For obese children  behavioral treatment results in only small changes in relative weight and frequent relapse . The current study investigated the effects of an Executive Functioning ( EF ) training with game-elements on weight loss maintenance in obese children , over and above the care as usual in an inpatient treatment program . Forty-four children ( aged 8 - 14 years ) who were in the final months of a 10-months inpatient treatment program in a medical paediatric centre were r and omized to either the 6 week EF-training condition or to a  care as usual only control group .  The EF-training consisted of a 25-session training of inhibition and working memory . Treatment outcomes were child performances on cognitive tasks of inhibition and working memory and childcare worker ratings on EF-symptoms as well as weight loss maintenance after leaving the clinic . Children in the EF-training condition showed significantly more improvement than the children in the care as usual only group on the working memory task as well as on the childcare worker reports of working memory and meta-cognition . They were also more capable to maintain their weight loss until 8 weeks post-training . This study shows promising evidence for the efficacy of an EF-training as weight stabilization intervention in obese children The overall objective of this study was to examine the relationship between executive function , specifically decision-making , and weight loss . We used the Iowa Gambling Task ( IGT ) to characterize decision-making and compared performance on this task to weight loss in obese women ( n=29 ) participating in a 12-week controlled , calorie-reduced intervention . We hypothesized that a greater amount of weight loss over the course of the intervention would be associated with better performance on the IGT , assessed at the end of the intervention . The intervention led to significant weight loss of 5.8±3.1 kg ( p<0.05 ) and fat loss of 5.1±3.0 kg ( p<0.05 ) . Body weight and fat mass losses over the 12-week intervention varied widely , ranging from -12.5 kg to 0.0 kg for body weight and -10.4 kg to + 0.8 kg for fat mass . A greater amount of body weight loss was correlated ( r=0.425 ; p<0.01 ) with a higher total score on the IGT . Similarly , the reduction in body fat mass was also correlated with the IGT score ( r=0.408 ; p<0.05 ) . We examined other physiological ( salivary cortisol ) , metabolic ( resting energy expenditure ) , and behavioral ( food intake ; dietary restraint ) factors that might be related to differences in the magnitude of weight loss . Of these variables , ad libitum consumption of energy , fat and protein during a buffet meal was inversely related to weight loss ( r=-0.428 ; p<0.05 ; r=-0.375 ; p<0.05 and r=-0.472 ; p=0.01 , respectively ) . The present study is the first to report an association between diet-induced weight loss and performance on the IGT , and this association was specific to the loss of body fat . Our results suggest that differences in weight loss may be linked to executive function that involves decision-making about events that have emotionally or socially salient ramifications . These findings underscore the need to further investigate higher cognitive and neuroendocrine pathways that may influence or be altered by the process of dieting and weight loss HighlightsWe present associations of executive function with weight loss among overweight and obese adolescents and young adults . We performed a prospect i ve weight loss study with combination of exercise training and food restriction . Greater executive function correlated with better weight loss . ABSTRACT People with cognitive deficits or executive dysfunction are often overweight or obese . Several human neuroimaging studies have found that executive function ( EF ) predicts food intake and weight gain ; however , fewer studies have investigated the relationship between EF and weight loss . The Stroop task is a classic measure of EF that is used in many neuroimaging studies . In the present work , functional near infrared spectroscopy ( fNIRS ) data were collected during performance of the Stroop task from a sample of overweight or obese adolescents and young adults ( n = 31 ) who participated in a summer fitness and weight loss camp . We assessed the Stroop effect by interference in the reaction time ( RT ) to visual challenges , and by alterations in levels of oxygenated hemoglobin , as detected by fNIRS . In line with previous studies , we found that the Stroop effect was successfully induced by different visual task conditions among obese/overweight individuals . Moreover , our results reveal that better Stroop task performance is correlated with greater weight loss over a4‐weekfitness intervention . Indeed , behavioral data demonstrated that reduced RT interference predicted a greater percentage of weight loss . Moreover , overweight/obese individuals with a greater hemodynamic response in the left ventrolateral and bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex due to the Stroop effect lost more weight during the short‐term fitness intervention than participants with lower levels of activation of these neural regions . Overall , our results support a role for prefrontal cortex‐mediated EF in influencing food intake and weight loss outcomes in a population of a previously unstudied age Cognitive decline is an increasingly important public health problem , with more than 100 million adults worldwide projected to develop dementia by 2050 . Accordingly , there has been an increased interest in preventive strategies that diminish this risk . It has been recognized that lifestyle factors including dietary patterns , may be important in the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia in later life . Several dietary components have been examined , including antioxidants , fatty acids , and B vitamins . In addition , whole dietary eating plans , including the Mediterranean diet ( MeDi ) , and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension ( DASH ) diet , with and without weight loss , have become areas of increasing interest . Although prospect i ve epidemiological studies have observed that antioxidants , fatty acids , and B vitamins are associated with better cognitive functioning , r and omized clinical trials have generally failed to confirm the value of any specific dietary component in improving neurocognition . Several r and omized trials have examined the impact of changing ' whole ' diets on cognitive outcomes . The MeDi and DASH diets offer promising preliminary results , but data are limited and more research in this area is needed The study tested the effect of aerobic exercise training on executive function in overweight children . Ninety-four sedentary , overweight but otherwise healthy children ( mean age = 9.2 years , body mass index 85th percentile ) were r and omized to a low-dose ( 20 min/day exercise ) , high-dose ( 40 min/day exercise ) , or control condition . Exercise sessions met 5 days/week for 15 weeks . The Cognitive Assessment System ( CAS ) , a st and ardized test of cognitive processes , was administered individually before and following intervention . Analysis of covariance on posttest scores revealed effects on executive function . Group differences emerged for the CAS Planning scale ( p = .03 ) . Planning scores for the high-dose group were significantly greater than those of the control group . Exercise may prove to be a simple , yet important , method of enhancing aspects of  children 's mental functioning that are central to cognitive and social development OBJECTIVE Executive function impairments and depression are associated with obesity but whether they predict weight gain is unclear . METHODS Forty-six individuals ( 35 m , 37±10y ) completed the  Stroop Task , Iowa Gambling Task ( IGT ) , Wisconsin Card Sorting Task ( WCST ) , Inventory for Depressive Symptomatology ( IDS-SR ) , Physical Anhedonia Scale ( PAS ) , and Perceived Stress Scale ( PSS  ) . Body composition ( DXA ) and fasting glucose were also measured . Data from return visits were used to assess changes in weight . RESULTS Poorer Stroop and WCST performance associated with higher BMI whereas poorer IGT and WCST performance associated with higher body fat ( % ; all p's≤0.05 ) . Stroop interference ( p=0.04 ; p=0.05 ) and IDS-SR ( p=0.06 ; p=0.02 ) associated with increased BMI and weight gain ( % /yr ) . In a multivariate linear model Stroop interference ( β=0.40 , p<0.01 ; β=0.35 , p<0.01 ) and IDS-SR ( β=0.38 , p<0.01 ; β=0.37 , p<0.01 ) independently predicted increased BMI and weight gain ( % /yr ) even after controlling for baseline weight and glucose levels . CONCLUSIONS Poorer response inhibition and depressive symptoms , but not glucose levels , predicted weight gain . Evaluating neurocognitive and mood deficits could improve current treatment strategies for weight loss . Clinical Trial Registration Numbers NCT00523627 , NCT00342732 , NCT01224704 . clinical trials.gov BACKGROUND Discerning the determinants of weight loss maintenance is important in the planning of future interventions and policies regarding overweight and obesity . We have therefore systematic ally synthesized recent literature on determinants of weight loss maintenance for individuals with overweight and obesity . METHODS With the use of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review s and Meta-Analyses statement , prospect i ve studies were identified from search es in PubMed and PsycINFO from 2006 to 2016 . We included articles investigating adults with overweight and obesity undergoing weight loss without surgery or medication .  Included articles were scored on their method ological quality , and a best- evidence synthesis was applied to summarize the results . RESULTS Our search result ed in 8,222 articles of which 67 articles were selected . In total , 124 determinants were identified of which 5 were demographic , 59 were behavioural , 51 were psychological/cognitive and 9 were social and physical environmental determinants . We found consistent evidence that demographic determinants were not predictive of weight loss maintenance . Behavioural and cognitive determinants that promote a reduction in energy intake , an increase in energy expenditure and monitoring of this balance are predictive determinants . CONCLUSION This review identifies key determinants in weight loss maintenance . However , more research regarding cognitive and environmental determinants of weight loss maintenance is needed to advance our knowledge on determinants of weight loss maintenance BACKGROUND Clinical ly significant cognitive impairment is found in a subset of patients undergoing bariatric surgery .  These difficulties could contribute to a reduced adherence to postoperative lifestyle changes and decreased weight loss . The present study is the first to prospect ively examine the independent contribution of cognitive function to weight loss after  bariatric surgery .  Executive function/attention and verbal memory at baseline were expected to negatively predict the percentage of excess weight loss ( % EWL ) and body mass index ( BMI ) at follow-up . Three sites of the Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery parent project were used : Columbia ( New York , NY ) , Cornell ( Princeton , NJ ) , and the Neuropsychiatric Research Institute ( Fargo , ND ) . METHODS A total of 84 individuals enrolled in the Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery project undergoing bariatric surgery  completed a  cognitive evaluation at baseline . The BMI and % EWL were calculated at the 12-week and 12-month postoperative follow-up visits . RESULTS Clinical impairment in task performance was most prominent in tasks associated with verbal recall and recognition ( 14.3 - 15.5 % of the sample ) and perseverative errors ( 15.5 % ) . After accounting for demographic and medical variables , the baseline test results of attention/executive function and memory predicted the BMI and % EWL at 12 months but not at 12 weeks . CONCLUSIONS These results have demonstrated that baseline cognition predicts for greater % EWL and lower BMI 12 months after bariatric surgery . Additional work is needed to clarify the degree to which cognition contributes to adherence and the potential mediation of cognition on the relationship between adherence and weight loss in this group Nutritional state ( e.g. fasted vs. fed ) and different food stimuli ( e.g. high-calorie vs. low-calorie , or appetizing vs. bl and foods ) are both recognized to change activity in brain reward systems . Using functional magnetic resonance imaging , we have studied the interaction between nutritional state and different food stimuli on brain food reward systems . We examined how blood oxygen level-dependent activity within a priori regions of interest varied while viewing pictures of high-calorie and low-calorie foods . Pictures of non-food household objects were included as control stimuli . During scanning , subjects rated the appeal of each picture . Twenty non-obese healthy adults [ body mass index 22.1 + /- 0.5 kg/m(2 ) ( mean + /- SEM ) , age range 19 - 35 years , 10 male ] were scanned on two separate mornings between 11:00 and 12:00 h , once after eating a filling breakfast ( ' fed ' : 1.6 + /- 0.1 h since breakfast ) , and once after an overnight fast but skipping breakfast ( ' fasted ' : 15.9 + /- 0.3 h since supper ) in a r and omized cross-over design . Fasting selectively increased activation to pictures of high-calorie over low-calorie foods in the ventral striatum , amygdala , anterior insula , and medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex ( OFC ) . Furthermore , fasting enhanced the subjective appeal of high-calorie more than low-calorie foods , and the change in appeal bias towards high-calorie foods was positively correlated with medial and lateral OFC activation . These results demonstrate an interaction between homeostatic and hedonic aspects of feeding behaviour , with fasting biasing brain reward systems towards high-calorie foods The practice of combining forward and backward memory span , as represented so prominently on the various Wechsler Scales , to arrive at a composite score for clinical interpretation is examined historically and actuarially using a large ( N = 1,342 ) nationally stratified r and om sample of children from ages 5 years through 19 years . Past literature does not support the additive nature of forward and backward memory span as elements of a common process . Factor analyses of forward  and backward recall using both digits and letters indicate that the two memory processes are distinct as well and should not be combined for clinical interpretation
target: The results confirmed the presence of a relation between executive functions and overweight/obesity , although the directionality of this relation was not clear ; nor did any single executive function emerge as being more involved than others in this relation .
  Despite this , there was evidence of a reciprocal influence between executive functions and overweight/obesity .
  Conclusions : This systematic review underlines the presence of a relationship between executive functions and overweight/obesity .
  Moreover , it seems to suggest a bidirectional trend in this relationship that could be the cause of the failure of interventions for weight reduction .
background: Background : The increasing incidence of people affected by overweight or obesity is a significant health problem .
  The knowledge of the factors which influences the inappropriate eating behaviors causing excessive body fat is an essential goal for the research .
  Overweight and obesity are significant risk factors for many health diseases , such as cardiovascular problems , diabetes .
  Recently , many studies have focused on the relationship between body weight and cognitive processes .
  Objectives : This systematic review is aim ed to investigate the existence and the nature of the relationship between excessive body weight ( overweight/obesity ) and executive functions , analyzing cross-sectional , and longitudinal studies in order to verify the evidence of a possible causality between these variables .