title: Long-term dietary compensation for added sugar: effects of supplementary sucrose drinks over a 4-week period. Effects of replacing the habitual consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages with milk in Chilean children. Effect of drinking soda sweetened with aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup on food intake and body weight. Calcium-fortified beverage supplementation on body composition in postmenopausal women Subgroup analysis and other (mis)uses of baseline data in clinical trials The Effect of Caffeinated, Non-Caffeinated, Caloric and Non-Caloric Beverages on Hydration School randomised trial on prevention of excessive weight gain by discouraging students from drinking sodas. Preventing childhood obesity: two year follow-up results from the Christchurch obesity prevention programme in schools (CHOPPS) Selection in Reported Epidemiological Risks: An Empirical Assessment Rehydration after exercise with fresh young coconut water, carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage and plain water. Influence of a carbohydrate drink on nutritional status, body composition and mood during desert training. Liquid versus solid carbohydrate: effects on food intake and body weight Effects of Decreasing Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption on Body Weight in Adolescents: A Randomized, Controlled Pilot Study Effect of cola intake on insulin resistance in moderate fat-fed weaning male rats. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical study of the general effects of a standardized Lycium barbarum (Goji) Juice, GoChi. Influence of repeated consumption of beverages containing sucrose or intense sweeteners on food intake Varied Forms of Bias Due to Nondifferential Error in Measuring Exposure Beverage consumption is not associated with changes in weight and body mass index among low-income preschool children in North Dakota. Weight control among obese adolescents: A pilot study No difference in satiety or in subsequent energy intakes between a beverage and a solid food Relationships of activity and sugar drink intake on fat mass development in youths.
abstract: The long-term physiological effects of refined carbohydrates on appetite and mood remain unclear . Reported effects when subjects are not blind may be due to expectations and have rarely been studied for more than 24 h. The present study compared the effects of supplementary soft drinks added to the diet over 4 weeks on dietary intake , mood and BMI in normal-weight women ( n 133 ) . Subjects were categorised as ' watchers ' or ' non-watchers ' of what they ate then received sucrose or artificially sweetened drinks ( 4 x 250 ml per d ) . Expectancies were varied by labelling drinks ' sugar ' or ' diet ' in a counter-balanced design . Sucrose supplements provided 1800 kJ per d and sweetener supplements provided 67 kJ per d. Food intake was measured with a 7 d diary and mood with ten single Likert scales . By 4 weeks , sucrose supplements significantly reduced total carbohydrate intake ( F(1,129 ) = 53.81 ; P<0.001 ) , fat ( F(2,250 ) = 33.33 ; P<0.001 ) and protein intake ( F(2,250 ) = 28.04 ; P<0 - 001 ) compared with sweetener supplements .  Mean daily energy intake increased by just under 1000 kJ compared with baseline ( t ( 67 df ) = 3.82 ; P < 0.001 ) and was associated with a non-significant trend for those receiving sucrose to gain weight . There were no effects on appetite or mood . Neither dietary restraint status as measured by the Dutch Eating Behaviour Question naire nor the expectancy procedure had effects . Expectancies influenced mood only during baseline week . It is concluded that sucrose satiates , rather than stimulates , appetite or negative mood in normal-weight subjects BACKGROUND During the nutrition transition in Chile , dietary changes were marked by increased consumption of high-energy , nutrient-poor products , including sugar-sweetened beverages ( SSBs ) . Obesity is now the primary nutritional problem in posttransitional Chile . OBJECTIVE We conducted a r and omized controlled trial to examine the effects on body composition of delivering milk beverages to the homes of overweight and obese children to displace SSBs . DESIGN We r and omly assigned 98 children aged 8 - 10 y who regularly consumed SSBs  to intervention and control groups . During a 16-wk intervention , children were instructed to drink 3 servings/d ( approximately 200 g per serving ) of the milk delivered to their homes and to not consume SSBs .  Body composition was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry . Data were analyzed by multiple regression analysis according to the intention-to-treat principle . RESULTS For the intervention group , milk consumption increased by a mean ( + /- SEM ) of 452.5 + /- 37.7 g/d ( P < 0.0001 ) , and consumption of SSBs  decreased by -711.0 + /- 33.7 g/d ( P < 0.0001 ) . For the control group , milk consumption did not change , and consumption of SSBs  increased by 71.9 + /- 33.6 g/d ( P = 0.04 ) . Changes in percentage body fat , the primary endpoint , did not differ between groups . Nevertheless , the mean ( + /- SE ) accretion of lean body mass was greater ( P = 0.04 ) in the intervention ( 0.92 + /- 0.10 kg ) than in the control ( 0.62 + /- 0.11 kg ) group . The increase in height was also greater ( P = 0.01 ) in the intervention group ( 2.50 + /- 0.21 cm ) than in the control group ( 1.77 + /- 0.20 cm ) for boys but not for girls . CONCLUSION Replacing habitual consumption of SSBs with milk may have beneficial effects on lean body mass and growth in children , despite no changes in percentage body fat . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT00149695 To examine whether artificial sweeteners aid in the control of long-term food intake and body weight , we gave free-living , normal-weight subjects 1150 g soda sweetened with aspartame ( APM ) or high-fructose corn syrup ( HFCS ) per day . Relative to when no soda was given , drinking APM-sweetened soda for 3 wk significantly reduced calorie intake of both females ( n = 9 ) and males ( n = 21 ) and decreased the body weight of males but not of females . However , drinking HFCS-sweetened soda for 3 wk significantly increased the calorie intake and body weight of both sexes . Ingesting either type of soda reduced intake of sugar from the diet without affecting intake of other nutrients . Drinking large volumes of APM-sweetened soda , in contrast to drinking HFCS-sweetened soda , reduces sugar intake and thus may facilitate the control of calorie intake and body weight Background We investigated the effects of a calcium-fortified beverage supplemented over 12 months on body composition in postmenopausal women ( n = 37 , age = 48–75 y ) . Methods Body composition ( total-body percent fat , % FatTB ; abdominal percent fat , % FatAB ) was measured with dual energy x-ray absorptiometry . After baseline assessment s , subjects were r and omly assigned to a free-living control group ( CTL ) or the supplement group ( 1,125 mg Ca++/d , CAL ) . Dietary intake was assessed with 3-day diet records taken at baseline and 12 months ( POST ) . Physical activity was measured using the Yale Physical Activity Survey . Results At 12 months , the dietary calcium to protein ratio in the CAL group ( 32.3 ± 15.6 mg/g ) was greater than the CTL group ( 15.2 ± 7.5 mg/g ) . There were no differences from baseline to POST between groups for changes in body weight ( CAL = 0.1 ± 3.0 kg ; CTL = 0.0 ± 2.9 kg ) , % FatTB ( CAL = 0.0 ± 2.4 % ; CTL = 0.5 ± 5.4 % ) , % FatAB ( CAL = -0.4 ± 8.7 % ; CTL = 0.6 ± 8.7 % ) , or fat mass ( CAL = 1.3 ± 2.6 kg ; CTL = 1.3 ± 2.7 kg ) . Conclusion These results indicate that increasing the calcium to protein ratio over two-fold by consuming a calcium-fortified beverage for 12 months did not decrease body weight , body fat , or abdominal fat composition in postmenopausal women BACKGROUND Baseline data collected on each patient at r and omisation in controlled clinical trials can be used to describe the population of patients , to assess comparability of treatment groups , to achieve balanced r and omisation , to adjust treatment comparisons for prognostic factors , and to undertake subgroup analyses . We assessed the extent and quality of such practice s in major clinical trial reports . METHODS A sample of 50 consecutive clinical -trial reports was obtained from four major medical journals during July to September , 1997 . We tabulated the detailed information on uses of baseline data by use of a st and ard form . FINDINGS Most trials presented baseline comparability in a table . These tables were often unduly large , and about half the trials inappropriately used significance tests for baseline comparison . Methods of r and omisation , including possible stratification , were often poorly described . There was little consistency over whether to use covariate adjustment and the criteria for selecting baseline factors for which to adjust were often unclear . Most trials emphasised the simple unadjusted results and covariate adjustment usually made negligible difference . Two-thirds of the reports presented subgroup findings , but mostly without appropriate statistical tests for interaction . Many reports put too much emphasis on subgroup analyses that commonly lacked statistical power . INTERPRETATION Clinical trials need a predefined statistical analysis plan for uses of baseline data , especially covariate-adjusted analyses and subgroup analyses . Investigators and journals need to adopt improved st and ards of statistical reporting , and exercise caution when drawing conclusions from subgroup findings Objective : To examine the effect of various combinations of beverages on hydration status in healthy free-living adult males . Methods : In a counterbalanced , crossover manner , 18 healthy adult males ages 24 to 39 , on four separate occasions , consumed water or water plus varying combinations of beverages . Clinical guidelines were used to determine the fluid allowance for each subject . The beverages were carbonated , caffeinated caloric and non-caloric colas and coffee . Ten of the 18 subjects consumed water and carbonated , non-caffeinated , citrus soft drink during a fifth trial . Body weight , urine and blood assays were measured before and after each treatment . Results : Slight body weight loss was observed on all treatments , with an average of 0.30 % for all treatments . No differences ( p>0.05 ) among treatments were found for body weight changes or any of the biochemical assays . Biochemical assays conducted on first voids and 24-hour urines included electrolytes , creatine , osmolality and specific gravity . Blood sample s were analyzed for hemoglobin , hematocrit , electrolytes , osmolality , urea nitrogen , creatinine and protein . Conclusions : This preliminary study found no significant differences in the effect of various combinations of beverages on hydration status of healthy adult males . Advising people to disregard caffeinated beverages as part of the daily fluid intake is not substantiated by the results of this study . The across-treatment weight loss observed , when combined with data on fluid-disease relationships , suggests that optimal fluid intake may be higher than common recommendations . Further research is needed to confirm these results and to explore optimal fluid intake for healthy individuals OBJECTIVE To determine whether an educational programme aim ed at discouraging students from drinking sugar-sweetened beverages could prevent excessive weight gain . DESIGN Forty-seven classes in twenty-two schools were r and omised as intervention or control . SUBJECTS Participants were 1140 , 9 - 12-year-old fourth grade rs ( 435 in the intervention group and 608 in the control group ) .  Sugar-sweetened beverages and juice intake were measured through one 24 h recall at baseline and another at the end of the trial . The main outcome was the change in BMI ( BMI = weight (kg)/height ( m2 ) ) , measured at the beginning and at the end of the school year . Intention-to-treat analysis was performed taking into account the cluster ( classes ) effect . RESULTS A statistically significant decrease in the daily consumption of carbonated drinks in the intervention compared to control ( mean difference = -56 ml ; 95 % CI -119 , -7 ml ) was followed by a non-significant overall reduction in BMI , P = 0.33 . However , among those students overweight at baseline , the intervention group showed greater BMI reduction ( -0.4 kg/m2 compared with -0.2 kg/m2 in the control group ( P = 0.11 ) ) , and this difference was statistically significant among girls ( P = 0.009 ) . Fruit juice consumption was slightly increased in the intervention group ( P = 0.08 ) , but not among girls . CONCLUSION Decreasing sugar-sweetened beverages intake significantly reduced BMI  among overweight children , and mainly among girls . Efforts to reduce energy intake through liquids need to emphasise overall sweetened beverages and addition of sugar on juices Objective To assess the long term effects of an obesity prevention programme in schools . Design Longitudinal results after a cluster r and omised controlled trial . Setting Schools in southwest Engl and . Participants Of the original sample of 644 children aged 7 - 11 , 511 children were tracked and measurements were obtained from 434 children three years after baseline . Intervention The intervention was conducted over one school year , with four sessions of focused education promoting a healthy diet and discouraging the consumption of carbonated drinks . Main outcome measures Anthropometric measures of height , weight , and waist circumference . Body mass index ( BMI ) converted to z scores ( SD scores ) and to centile values with growth reference curves . Waist circumference was also converted to z scores ( SD scores ) . Results At three years after baseline the age and sex specific BMI z scores ( SD scores ) had increased in the control group by 0.10 ( SD 0.53 ) but decreased in the intervention group by −0.01 ( SD 0.58 ) , with a mean difference of 0.10 ( 95 % confidence interval −0.00 to 0.21 , P=0.06 ) . The prevalence of overweight increased in both the intervention and control group at three years and the significant difference between the groups seen at 12 months was no longer evident . The BMI increased in the control group by 2.14 ( SD 1.64 ) and the intervention group by 1.88 ( SD 1.71 ) , with mean difference of 0.26 ( −0.07 to 0.58 , P= 0.12 ) . The waist circumference increased in both groups after three years with a mean difference of 0.09 ( −0.06 to 0.26 , P=0.25 ) . Conclusions These longitudinal results show that after a simple year long intervention the difference in prevalence of overweight in children seen at 12 months was not sustained at three years Background Epidemiological studies may be subject to selective reporting , but empirical evidence thereof is limited . We empirically evaluated the extent of selection of significant results and large effect sizes in a large sample of recent articles . Methods and Findings We evaluated 389 articles of epidemiological studies that reported , in their respective abstract s , at least one relative risk for a continuous risk factor in contrasts based on median , tertile , quartile , or quintile categorizations . We examined the proportion and correlates of reporting statistically significant and nonsignificant results in the abstract and whether the magnitude of the relative risks presented ( coined to be consistently ≥1.00 ) differs depending on the type of contrast used for the risk factor . In 342 articles ( 87.9 % ) , ≥1 statistically significant relative risk was reported in the abstract , while only 169 articles ( 43.4 % ) reported ≥1 statistically nonsignificant relative risk in the abstract . Reporting of statistically significant results was more common with structured abstract s , and was less common in US-based studies and in cancer outcomes . Among 50 r and omly selected articles in which the full text was examined , a median of nine ( interquartile range 5–16 ) statistically significant and six ( interquartile range 3–16 ) statistically nonsignificant relative risks were presented ( p = 0.25 ) . Paradoxically , the smallest presented relative risks were based on the contrasts of extreme quintiles ; on average , the relative risk magnitude was 1.41- , 1.42- , and 1.36-fold larger in contrasts of extreme quartiles , extreme tertiles , and above-versus-below median values , respectively ( p < 0.001 ) . Conclusions Published epidemiological investigations almost universally highlight significant associations between risk factors and outcomes . For continuous risk factors , investigators selectively present contrasts between more extreme groups , when relative risks are inherently lower This is to cross-over study to assess the effectiveness of fresh young coconut water ( CW ) , and carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage ( CEB ) compared with plain water ( PW ) for whole body rehydration and blood volume ( BV ) restoration during a 2 h rehydration period following exercise-induced dehydration . Eight healthy male volunteers ( mean age and VO2max of 22.4 + /- 3.3 years and 45.8 + /- 1.5 ml min kg-1 respectively ) exercised at 60 % of VO2max in the heat ( 31.1 + /- 0.03 degrees C , 51.4 + /- 0.1 % rh ) until 2.78 + /- 0.06 % ( 1.6 + /- 0.1 kg ) of their body weight ( BW ) was lost . After exercise , the subjects sat for 2 h in a thermoneutral environment ( 22.5 + /- 0.1 degrees C ; 67.0 + /- 1.0 % rh ) and drank a volume of PW , CW and CEB on different occasions representing 120 % of the fluid loss . A blood and urine sample , and the body weight of each subject was taken before and after exercise and at 30 min intervals throughout a rehydration period . Each subject remained fasted throughout rehydration . Each fluid was consumed in three portions in separate trials representing 50 % ( 781 + /- 47 ml ) , 40 % ( 625 + /- 33 ml ) and 30 % ( 469 + /- 28 ml ) of the 120 % fluid loss at 0 , 30 and 60 min of the 2 h rehydration period , respectively . The drinks given were r and omised . In all the trials the subjects were somewhat hypohydrated ( range 0.08 - 0.18 kg BW below euhydrated BW ; p > 0.05 ) after a 2 h rehydration period since additional water and BW were lost as a result of urine formation , respiration , sweat and metabolism . The percent of body weight loss that was regained ( used as index of percent rehydration ) during CW , PW , and CEB trials was 75 + /- 5 % , 73 + /- 5 % and 80 + /- 4 % respectively , but was not statistically different between trials . The rehydration index , which provided an indication of how much of what was actually ingested was used for body weight restoration , was again not different statistically between trials ( 1.56 + /- 0.14 , 1.36 + /- 0.13 and 1.71 + /- 0.21 for CW , CEB and PW respectively ) . Although BV restoration was better with CW , it was not statistically different from CEB and PW . Cumulative urine output was similar in all trials . There were no difference at any time in serum Na+ and Cl- , serum osmolality , and net fluid balance between the three trials . Urine osmolality decreased after 1 h during the rehydration period and it was lowest in the PW trial . Plasma glucose concentrations were significantly higher compared with PW ingestion when CW and CEB were ingested during the rehydration period . CW was significantly sweeter , caused less nausea , fullness and no stomach upset and was also easier to consume in a larger amount compared with CEB and PW ingestion . In conclusion , ingestion of fresh young coconut water , a natural refreshing beverage , could be used for whole body rehydration after exercise BACKGROUND Nutritional intake by military personnel is typically inadequate during field exercises , potentially compromising health and performance . HYPOTHESIS Drinking a supplemental carbohydrate ( CHO ) beverage will increase total caloric intake and maintain nutritional status during military training in the desert . METHODS A total of 63 volunteers were r and omly assigned to one of two groups to receive either a CHO or placebo beverage with military rations during an 11-d desert field exercise . Fluid intake was ad libitum and adequate rations were provided . Blood sample s were collected twice to assess nutritional status , and nutrient intake was determined with consumption data . Mood state was examined by question naire . RESULTS Energy intake was significantly higher in the CHO group ( 3050 kcal x d(-1 ) vs. 2631 kcal x d(-1 ) ) , with additional CHO from the beverage providing energy with some compensation by reduced fat and protein intake . Intakes of energy , folacin , calcium , magnesium , iron , and zinc in both groups were inadequate , with intakes significantly lower ( p<0.05 ) for calcium , magnesium , and zinc in the CHO beverage group . Blood parameters of nutritional status remained within normal ranges with no differences between groups , but significant decreases were seen in pre-albumin . No changes in mood were seen during the training , nor after exposure to desert conditions . CONCLUSIONS The operational ration supplemented with a CHO beverage significantly increases CHO and energy intakes compared with st and ard rations and maintains nutritional status for short exercises . Fortification with micronutrients most at risk for deficient intake from foods may be needed for longer deployments BACKGROUND : Beverages are contributing an increased proportion of energy to the diet . Because they elicit a weak compensatory dietary response , they may increase risk of positive energy balance . OBJECTIVES : This study aim ed to document the differential effects of matched liquid and solid carbohydrate loads on diet and body weight . DESIGN : In a cross-over design , seven males and eight females consumed dietary carbohydrate loads of 1880 kJ/day as a liquid ( soda ) or solid ( jelly beans ) during two 4 week periods separated by a 4 week washout . Subjects were permitted to consume the loads however they chose . In addition to baseline measurements , diet records were obtained on r and om days throughout the study , body composition was measured weekly , physical activity was assessed before and after treatments and hunger was assessed during washout and midway through each treatment . RESULTS : Free-feeding energy intake during the solid period was significantly lower than intake prior to this period . Dietary energy compensation was precise ( 118 % ) . No decrease in free-feeding energy intake occurred during the liquid period . Total daily energy intake increased by an amount equal to the load result ing in dietary compensation of −17 % . Consequently , body weight and BMI increased significantly only during the liquid period . Physical activity and hunger were unchanged . CONCLUSIONS : This study indicates that liquid carbohydrate promotes positive energy balance , whereas a comparable solid carbohydrate elicits precise dietary compensation . Increased consumption of energy-yielding fluids may promote positive energy balance OBJECTIVE . The role of sugar-sweetened beverages ( SSBs ) in promoting obesity is controversial . Observational data link SSB consumption with excessive weight gain ; however , r and omized , controlled trials are lacking and necessary to resolve the debate . We conducted a pilot study to examine the effect of decreasing SSB consumption on body weight . METHODS . We r and omly assigned 103 adolescents aged 13 to 18 years who regularly consumed SSBs to intervention and control groups . The intervention , 25 weeks in duration , relied largely on home deliveries of noncaloric beverages to displace SSBs and thereby decrease consumption . Change in  SSB consumption was the main process measure , and change in body mass index ( BMI ) was the primary end point . RESULTS . All of the r and omly assigned subjects completed the study . Consumption of SSBs  decreased by 82 % in the intervention group and did not change in the control group . Change in BMI , adjusted for gender and age , was 0.07 ± 0.14 kg/m2 ( mean ± SE ) for the intervention group and 0.21 ± 0.15 kg/m2 for the control group . The net difference , −0.14 ± 0.21 kg/m2 , was not significant overall . However , baseline BMI was a significant effect modifier . Among the subjects in the upper baseline- BMI tertile , BMI change differed significantly between the intervention ( −0.63 ± 0.23 kg/m2 ) and control ( + 0.12 ± 0.26 kg/m2 ) groups , a net effect of −0.75 ± 0.34 kg/m2 . The interaction between weight change and baseline BMI was not attributable to baseline consumption of SSBs . CONCLUSIONS . A simple environmental intervention almost completely eliminated SSB consumption in a diverse group of adolescents . The beneficial effect on body weight of reducing SSB consumption increased with increasing baseline body weight , offering additional support for American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines to limit SSB consumption In recent years , the prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus has dramatically increased in Korea as the diet has rapidly become westernized . We determined the effect of a long-term cola intake for insulin resistance in weaning male Sprague Dawley rats consuming a moderate fat diet . Thirty male pubs born from 6 female rats were r and omized into cola or water drinking groups . The rats of the cola group were freely provided with 33 energy percent fat diets and cola for 28 weeks , while the rats of the control group had the same diet with water instead of cola . The daily caloric intake did not differ between groups , while the rats in the cola group consumed more carbohydrates . However , the mean body weight of the cola group was lower than that of the control group from the second week of the study . Whole body glucose disposal rates measured by euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp were higher in the cola group . Compared to the control group , glycogen contents and fraction velocity of glycogen synthase of the quadriceps muscle in the cola group were higher by 39.4 % and 40.3 % , respectively . Uncoupling protein (UCP)-2 and GLUT 4 contents of soleus and quadriceps muscles were higher in the cola group than the control group . In conclusion , insulin action improved with increased peripheral glucose utilization in weaning male rats drinking cola , which was partly due to lower body weight . This latter was possibly as a result of increased thermogenesis in muscles BACKGROUND This r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled clinical trial is the first study reported from outside China that has examined the general effects of the orally consumed goji berry , Lycium barbarum , as a st and ardized juice ( GoChi ; FreeLife International LLC , Phoenix , AZ ) to healthy adults for 14 days . METHODS Based upon the medicinal properties of Lycium barbarum in traditional Asian medicine , we examined by question naire subjective ratings ( 0 - 5 ) of general feelings of well-being , neurologic/psychologic traits , gastrointestinal , musculoskeletal , and cardiovascular complaints as well as any adverse effects . Also , measures of body weight , body-mass index , blood pressure , pulse rate , and visual acuity were assessed before and after consuming 120 mL of GoChi/day or placebo control solution . Data were statistically analyzed for changes between day 1 and day 15 . RESULTS Significant differences between day 1 and day 15 were found in the GoChi group ( N = 16 ) in increased ratings for energy level , athletic performance , quality of sleep , ease of awakening , ability to focus on activities , mental acuity , calmness , and feelings of health , contentment , and happiness . GoChi also significantly reduced fatigue and stress , and improved regularity of gastrointestinal function . In contrast , the  placebo group ( N = 18 ) showed only two significant changes ( heartburn and happiness ) . No significant changes in musculoskeletal or cardiovascular complaints were observed in either group . All parametric data ( body weight , etc . ) were not significantly different between groups or between day 1 and day 15 for either group . CONCLUSIONS These results clearly indicate that daily consumption of GoChi for 14 days increases subjective feelings of general well-being , and improves neurologic/psychologic performance and gastrointestinal functions . The data strongly suggest that further research is indicated to confirm and extend knowledge of the potential effects of Lycium barbarum upon human health Objective : To investigate the influence of ingestion of beverages with sucrose or with intense sweeteners on food intake ( FI ) and on hunger ratings in before and after a month of daily consumption of beverages . Design : Experimental study . Setting : Department of Physiology , University Hospital , Dijon , France . Subjects : In all , 12 men and 12 women , aged 20–25 y. Interventions : Four beverages contained either sucrose ( E+:100 g/l , 1672 kJ ) or intense sweeteners ( E− : null energy content ) and were flavoured with either orange ( O ) or raspberry ( R ) . FI was measured in the lab during two 2-consecutive-day periods , carried out on 2 successive weeks ( session 1 ) . The subjects drank 2 l of either E+ or E− beverages on the first day of both weekly periods , according to a balanced r and omised design . E+ was paired with O for 50 % of subjects and with R for the other 50 % . Subjects were then habituated over a 4-week period to both beverages , consuming 1 l of E+ beverage on odd days and 1 l of E– drink on even days . After this period , the measurements of session 1 were repeated ( session 2 , weeks 7–8 ) . Finally , FI was measured for two more 2-day periods ( weeks 9–10 ) after the association between flavour and energy content was reversed ( session 3 ) . Results : The E– drinks were less palatable than the E+ drinks . Besides , we observed that FI was not reduced in response to a liquid extra caloric load and there was no change in hunger ratings after the beverages in any of the sessions . Conclusion : Ingestion of caloric beverages induced a positive energy balance and the continuous exposure phase to these beverages over 1 month did not improve FI adaptation in response to the extra energy provided by the beverages . Sponsorship : This study was sponsored by SEV , Bourg la Reine , France ; the French Ministère de la Recherche et de la Technologie ( Programme AGROBIO-Aliments Demain ) and the Regional Council of Burgundy ( Dijon , France ) Continuous exposure variables are frequently categorized in epidemiologic data analysis . It has recently been shown that such categorization may transform nondifferential error in measuring continuous exposure variables into differential exposure misclassification . This paper assesses the direction and magnitude of the result ing misclassification bias under a variety of practically relevant forms of nondifferential measurement error . The expected bias of measures of the exposure-disease association is toward the null in the case of purely r and om measurement error with a mean of zero . Systematic nondifferential over- or underestimation of the exposure may bias measures of the exposure-disease association either toward the null or away from the null , depending on the underlying distribution of exposure , the true exposure-disease relation , and the cutpoints employed for categorization . If exposure measurement error has both r and om and systematic components , the direction of the net bias is less predictable than with pure error of either type , but bias toward the null is increasingly likely as the r and om component grows larger . The results indicate the need for careful evaluation of potential effects of nondifferential exposure measurement error in epidemiologic studies in which categories are formed from continuous exposure variables . ( Epidemiology 1994;5:510–517 OBJECTIVE To examine prospect ively the association between beverage consumption ( fruit juice , fruit drinks , milk , soda , and diet soda ) and changes in weight and body mass index  among preschool children . DESIGN A prospect i ve cohort study that collected dietary , anthropometric , and sociodemographic data .Subjects/ Setting The study population included 1,345 children age 2 to 5 years participating in the North Dakota Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women , Infants , and Children ( WIC ) on two visits between 6 to 12 months apart . Statistical analyses We performed linear regression analyses to examine whether beverage consumption was associated with annual change in weight and body mass index . Intakes were measured as continuous ( oz/day ) and we also dichotomized fruit juice , fruit drinks , and milk at high intakes . RESULTS In multivariate regression analyses adjusted for age , sex , energy intake , change in height , and additional sociodemographic variables , weight change was not significantly related to intakes ( per ounce ) of fruit juice ( beta=0.01 lb/year , 95 % CI : -0.01 to 0.20 , P=.28 ) , fruit drinks ( beta=-0.03 lb/year , 95 % CI : -0.07 to 0.01 , P=.28 ) , milk ( beta=0.00 lb/year , 95 % CI : -0.02 to 0.02 , P=.86 ) , soda ( beta=-0.00 lb/year , 95 % CI : -0.08 to 0.08 , P=.95 ) , or diet soda ( beta=0.01 lb/year , 95 % CI : -0.11 to 0.13 , P=.82 ) . Findings remained null when we examined associations with body mass index and when fruit juice , fruit drinks , and milk were dichotomized at high intake levels in both analyses . CONCLUSIONS Our study does not show an association between beverage consumption and changes in weight or body mass index in this population of low-income preschool children in North Dakota Objective The present study evaluated weight loss and compliance outcomes for overweight adolescents assigned to one of two dietary interventions differing in the type of snacks allowed . Methods The study was a 12-week , controlled clinical trial , among otherwise healthy but overweight ( body mass index ≥95th percentile ) 11-year-old to 15-year-old girls who were r and omly assigned to either a 1,500 kcal/day free-snack program or a 1,500 kcal/day restricted-snack program . All subjects were counseled to consume three servings of dairy products per day , and were provided with a 500 mg calcium supplement as well . Subjects in the free-snack group could choose any 150-calorie item as one of their two daily snacks , including regular soda if desired ; however , subjects in the restricted-snack group were limited to diet soda . Results Thirty-two adolescent girls completed the 12-week intervention . Both diets were equally effective in achieving a modest amount of weight loss , and were equally acceptable to the subjects . Significant decreases in weight , body mass index , anthropometric measures , total cholesterol and triglycerides were observed . Conclusions A 1,500 kcal/day diet allowing for a free snack of 150 calories was equally as effective as a more restricted snack policy in achieving a modest amount of weight loss among overweight 11-year-old to 15-year-old girls . In addition , results suggest that some soda may be included in a teen weight control diet , as long as caloric intake is maintained at recommended levels , and care is taken to achieve adequate intake of essential nutrients . Calcium intake among subjects was low at baseline , and , although it increased during the study ( due to supplementation ) , further efforts to increase consumption of naturally calcium-rich and calcium-fortified foods and beverages are needed Energy compensation following the consumption of caloric beverages is said to be imprecise and incomplete . This study compared the relative impact on satiety and energy intakes of the physical form of foods versus the timing of consumption . Thirty-two volunteers ( 16 men and 16 women ) , aged 18 - 35 years , consumed equal-energy preloads ( 1254 kJ , 300 kcal ) of regular cola ( 710 ml , 24 oz ) or fat-free raspberry cookies ( 87 g , 3 oz ) on two occasions each . The preloads were presented either 2 h or 20 min before the test meal . Their principal ingredient was sugar . Participants rated motivational states prior to ingestion and at 30-min intervals . A tray lunch was presented at 12:30 p.m. , and food consumption was measured . Regular cola and cookies suppressed hunger ratings equally and no temporal difference in satiety was observed . Cola , but not cookies , result ed in lower ratings of thirst . Energy intakes at lunch were lower when the preload was consumed closer to the test meal ( 20 min ) but was not affected by physical form ( liquid vs. solid ) . Cola , but not cookies , reduced water intakes at lunch . There was no satiety deficit following the ingestion of a beverage as compared with a solid food . The timing of consumption may be more important than the physical form of energy consumed PURPOSE To determine whether a significant relationship exists between fat mass ( FM ) development and physical activity ( PA ) and /or sugar-sweetened drink ( SD ) consumption in healthy boys and girls aged 8 - 19 yr . METHODS A total of 105 males and 103 females were assessed during childhood and adolescence for a maximum of 7 yr and a median of 5 yr . Height was measured biannually . Fat-free mass ( FFM ) and FM were assessed annually by dual x-ray absorptiometry ( DXA ) . PA  was evaluated two to three times annually using the PAQ-C/A. Energy intake and SD were assessed using a 24-h dietary intake question naire also completed two to three times per year . Years from peak height velocity were used as a biological maturity age indicator . Multilevel r and om effects models were used to test the relationship . RESULTS When controlling for maturation , FFM , and energy intake adjusted for SD ,  PA level was negatively related to FM development in males ( P<0.05 ) but not in females ( P>0.05 ) . In contrast , there was no relationship between SD and FM development of males or females ( P>0.05 ) . There was also no interaction effect between SD and PA  ( P>0.05 ) with FM development . CONCLUSION This finding lends support to the idea that increasing PA in male youths aids in the control of FM development . Models employed showed no relationship between SD and FM in either gender
target: The current evidence does not demonstrate conclusively that NSB consumption has uniquely contributed to obesity or that reducing NSB consumption will reduce BMI levels in general .
background: Nutritively sweetened beverages ( NSBs ) may play a role in the obesity epidemic .