Combining drinking water treatment and hand washing for diarrhoea prevention, a cluster randomised controlled trial. Prevention of diarrhoea and dysentery by hand washing. Effect of intensive handwashing in the prevention of diarrhoeal illness among patients with AIDS: a randomized controlled study. A cluster-randomized controlled trial evaluating the effect of a handwashing-promotion program in Chinese primary schools. An educational intervention for altering water-sanitation behaviors to reduce childhood diarrhea in urban Bangladesh. II. A randomized trial to assess the impact of the intervention on hygienic behaviors and rates of diarrhea. Community-based hygiene education to reduce diarrhoeal disease in rural Zaire: impact of the intervention on diarrhoeal morbidity. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Delayed effectiveness of home-based interventions in reducing childhood diarrhea, Karachi, Pakistan. Mothers' personal and domestic hygiene and diarrhoea incidence in young children in rural Bangladesh. Handwashing to prevent diarrhea in day-care centers. Reduction in diarrhoeal diseases in children in rural Bangladesh by environmental and behavioural modifications. Diarrhea prevention through household-level water disinfection and safe storage in Zambia. [Hand-hygiene and sickness among small children attending day care centers. An intervention study]. Diarrhoea prevention in a high-risk rural Kenyan population through point-of-use chlorination, safe water storage, sanitation, and rainwater harvesting.
To evaluate the effectiveness of point of use water treatment with flocculent-disinfectant on reducing diarrhoea and the additional benefit of promoting hand washing with soap.
                The study was conducted in squatter settlements of Karachi, Pakistan, where diarrhoea is a leading cause of childhood death. Interventions were randomly assigned to 47 neighbourhoods. Households in 10 neighbourhoods received diluted bleach and a water vessel; nine neighbourhoods received soap and were encouraged to wash hands; nine neighbourhoods received flocculent-disinfectant water treatment and a water vessel; 10 neighbourhoods received disinfectant-disinfectant water treatment and soap and were encouraged to wash hands; and nine neighbourhoods were followed as controls. Field workers visited households at least once a week from April to December 2003 to promote use of the interventions and to collect data on diarrhoea.
                Study participants in control neighbourhoods had diarrhoea on 5.2% of days. Compared to controls, participants living in intervention neighbourhoods had a lower prevalence of diarrhoea: 55% (95% CI 17%, 80%) lower in bleach and water vessel neighbourhoods, 51% (95% CI 12%, 76%) lower in hand washing promotion with soap neighbourhoods, 64% lower (95% CI 29%, 90%) in disinfectant-disinfectant neighbourhoods, and 55% (95% CI 18%, 80%) lower in disinfectant-disinfectant plus hand washing with soap neighbourhoods.
                With an intense community-based intervention and supplies provided free of cost, each of the home-based interventions significantly reduced diarrhoea. There was no benefit by combining hand washing promotion with water treatment. A 'non-blind' randomized hand washing intervention study was conducted in a low socioeconomic community in Rangoon to determine if hand washing by 494 children under 5 years old and their mothers could reduce the incidence of diarrhoea and dysentery in these children. Children and mothers in the intervention group were asked to wash their hands after defaecation and before preparing or eating their 3 main meals; 2 bars of plain soap were provided. The control group was left to follow customary practice. Diarrhoea and dysentery incidences in the 2 groups were monitored during 4 months by comparing the incidence density ratios (IDR). The diarrhoeal incidence among the children in the hand washing households was significantly lower than that among those in the control households (IDR = 0.70, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.54-0.92). For dysentery incidence, although there was a 40% reduction (IDR = 0.58, 95% CI = 0.22-1.55) in the children under 2 years, there seemed to be no impact in older children (IDR = 1.2, 95% CI = 0.52-2.80). The study indicates that hand washing is effective in reducing the morbidity from diarrhoea and dysentery. Patients with AIDS frequently develop diarrhoeal illness. In this randomized, controlled study, 260 patients were screened for those who had not had diarrhoea in the preceding 3 months and who had received a stable highly active antiretroviral therapy regimen for at least 6 weeks prior to the study enrollment. A total of 148 patients met the inclusion criteria and were enrolled: 75 patients were randomly assigned to an intensive handwashing intervention (i.e. handwashing after defecation, after cleaning infants who had defecated, before preparing food, before eating, and before and after sex) and 73 patients were randomly assigned to the control group. Patients in both groups were called weekly by telephone to determine compliance with handwashing and to determine the number of diarrhoeal episodes for the preceding week. Patients were observed for 1 year. Patients assigned to the intensive handwashing intervention group washed their hands more frequently compared with the control group (seven vs four times a day, respectively; P <0.05) and developed fewer episodes of diarrhoeal illness (1.24+/-0.9 vs 2.92+/-0.6 new episodes of diarrhoea, respectively; P <0.001) during the 1 year observation. The most common pathogens identified in both groups in patients who developed diarrhoeal illness were Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba histolytica and Shigella flexneri. These data suggest that intensive handwashing reduces diarrhoeal illness in patients with AIDS. Intensive handwashing promotion can reduce diarrheal and respiratory disease incidence. To determine whether less intensive, more scalable interventions can improve health, we evaluated a school-based handwashing program. We randomized 87 Chinese schools to usual practices: standard intervention (handwashing program) or expanded intervention (handwashing program, soap for school sinks, and peer hygiene monitors). We compared student absence rates, adjusting for cluster design. In control schools, children experienced a median 2.0 episodes (median 2.6 days) of absence per 100 student-weeks. In standard intervention schools, there were a median 1.2 episodes (P = 0.08) and 1.9 days (P = 0.14) of absence per 100 student-weeks. Children in expanded intervention schools experienced a median 1.2 episodes (P = 0.03) and 1.2 days (P = 0.03) of absence per 100 student-weeks. Provision of a large-scale handwashing promotion program and soap was associated with significantly reduced absenteeism. Similar programs could improve the health of children worldwide. An educational intervention was designed to improve three water-sanitation behaviors empirically shown to be associated with high rates of childhood diarrhea in Dhaka, Bangladesh: lack of handwashing before preparing food, open defecation by children in the family compound, and inattention to proper disposal of garbage and feces, increasing the opportunity for young children to place waste products in their mouth. Fifty-one communities, each comprising 38 families, were randomized either to receive (n = 25) or not to receive (n = 26) the intervention. During the six months after the intervention, the rate of diarrhea (per 100 person-weeks) in children under six years of age was 4.3 in the intervention communities and 5.8 in the control communities (26% protective efficacy; p less than 0.0001). A corresponding improvement in handwashing practices before preparing food was noted, although no improvement was observed for defecation and waste disposal practices. These data suggest that educational interventions for water-sanitation practices can have an important beneficial effect upon childhood diarrhea in developing countries, particularly when the interventions are designed in a simple way to promote naturally occurring salutory behaviors that are empirically associated with lower rates of childhood diarrhea. Diarrhoeal disease is a leading cause of morbidity in young children in rural Zaire. Few diarrhoea prevention programmes have been implemented in Bandundu Province, where available data suggest an annual prevalence rate of 10%. The urgent need to reduce diarrhoeal morbidity in Zaire, together with the potential effectiveness and feasibility of hygiene education as a diarrhoea prevention strategy, led to the development of the present research project.
                A randomized, controlled trial of an education intervention to reduce diarrhoea through improved personal and domestic hygiene behaviours was conducted in 18 geographically separate village clusters (sites) in rural Zaire. For 12 weeks baseline information on the diarrhoeal morbidity of 2082 children aged 3-35 months was collected at weekly home visits, and structured observations of hygiene practices related to diarrhoea were made on a subset of 300 families. Intervention messages addressed disposal of animal faeces from the yard, handwashing after defecation and before meal preparation and eating, and disposal of children's faeces. Three months after the start of the intervention and exactly 1 year after the baseline studies, a second diarrhoeal morbidity study and a second observational study were conducted in order to evaluate the intervention.
                Children in intervention communities experienced an 11% reduction in the risk of reporting diarrhoea during the peak diarrhoeal season, compared to controls (P < 0.025). The largest differences were seen among children aged 24-35 months, with those from intervention communities reporting significantly fewer episodes, shorter mean durations and hence fewer days of diarrhoea. There was some evidence that greater reductions in diarrhoea occurred in sites where the quality of the intervention, a scored measure of volunteer efficacy and community participation, was highest.
                The results of this study suggest that hygiene education may be an effective approach to reduce the incidence and duration of diarrhoeal episodes in rural Zaire. Children aged 2 years appear to benefit the most. A Hawthorne effect of the education may contribute to diarrhoeal reductions. More than 3.5 million children aged less than 5 years die from diarrhoea and acute lower respiratory-tract infection every year. We undertook a randomised controlled trial to assess the effect of handwashing promotion with soap on the incidence of acute respiratory infection, impetigo, and diarrhoea.
                In adjoining squatter settlements in Karachi, Pakistan, we randomly assigned 25 neighbourhoods to handwashing promotion; 11 neighbourhoods (306 households) were randomised as controls. In neighbourhoods with handwashing promotion, 300 households each were assigned to antibacterial soap containing 1.2% triclocarban and to plain soap. Fieldworkers visited households weekly for 1 year to encourage handwashing by residents in soap households and to record symptoms in all households. Primary study outcomes were diarrhoea, impetigo, and acute respiratory-tract infections (ie, the number of new episodes of illness per person-weeks at risk). Pneumonia was defined according to the WHO clinical case definition. Analysis was by intention to treat.
                Children younger than 5 years in households that received plain soap and handwashing promotion had a 50% lower incidence of pneumonia than controls (95% CI (-65% to -34%). Also compared with controls, children younger than 15 years in households with plain soap had a 53% lower incidence of diarrhoea (-65% to -41%) and a 34% lower incidence of impetigo (-52% to -16%). Incidence of disease did not differ significantly between households given plain soap compared with those given antibacterial soap.
                Handwashing with soap prevents the two clinical syndromes that cause the largest number of childhood deaths globally-namely, diarrhoea and acute lower respiratory infections. Handwashing with daily bathing also prevents impetigo. We introduced home drinking water disinfection and handwashing with soap in Karachi squatter settlements to evaluate their effect on diarrhea. In April 2000, 150 households received soap, 76 received dilute bleach and a water storage vessel, and 76 were enrolled as controls. In 2000, among households wealthy enough to own a refrigerator, children in households that received bleach and a vessel had a 73% lower incidence of diarrhea than controls; those that received soap had a 56% lower incidence. There was no reduction in diarrhea in intervention households without a refrigerator. In 2001, households that received bleach and a vessel had a 71% lower incidence of diarrhea and children in households that received soap had a 35% lower incidence than controls. In 2001, the interventions were equally effective in households that had a refrigerator and those that did not. Both of these home-based interventions were ultimately effective in preventing diarrhea, but only households of slightly higher socioeconomic status changed their behavior quickly enough to benefit during the first summer. This study examines the effect of maternal personal and domestic hygiene on the incidence of diarrhoea in children aged 6-23 months from rural areas around Teknaf, Bangladesh. The intervention area received augmented water supply through handpumps and health education while the control area received no project inputs. From July 1980 to June 1983, diarrhoea incidence was recorded weekly while mothers' personal and domestic hygiene was observed yearly. Annual incidence of diarrhoea in 314 children from the intervention area and 309 children from the control area was analysed in relation to maternal personal and domestic hygiene, controlling for education and occupation of household head and household size. Results show that, in both areas, use of handpump water for drinking and washing, removal of child's faeces from the yard, and maternal handwashing before handling food and after defaecation of self and child, observed together, decreased yearly diarrhoea incidence in children by more than 40% compared to children living in households where none or only one of these practices was observed. Diarrhea has been recognized as a frequent health problem among children enrolled in day-care centers. Thus, we evaluated the effect of a handwashing program in two day-care centers (HWC) on the incidence of diarrhea among children when compared to children in two control centers (CC). After the program was begun, the incidence of diarrhea at the HWC began to fall and after the second month of the study was consistently lower than that at the CC. The incidence of diarrhea in the HWC was approximately half that of the CC for the entire 35-week study period. Adenoviruses, rotavirus, Giardia lamblia, and enteropathogenic Escherichia coli were found in the stools of a small number of ill children, but not pathogen was identified in the stools of most children with diarrhea. These results suggest that a handwashing program will probably prevent at least some of the diarrhea in day-care centers. The impact of a water, sanitation and hygiene education intervention project on diarrhoeal morbidity in children under 5 years old was evaluated in a rural area of Bangladesh. Data were collected throughout 1984-1987, covering both pre- and post-intervention periods, from an intervention and a control area. The 2 areas were similar with respect to most socio-economic characteristics and baseline levels of diarrhoeal morbidity. The project showed a striking impact on the incidence of all cases of diarrhoea, including dysentery and persistent diarrhoea. By the end of the study period, children in the intervention area were experiencing 25% fewer episodes of diarrhoea than those in the control area. This impact was evident throughout the year, but particularly in the monsoon season, and in all age groups except those less than 6 months old. Within the intervention area, children from households living closer to handpumps or where better sanitation habits were practised experienced lower rates of diarrhoea. These results suggest that an integrated approach to environmental interventions can have a significant impact on diarrhoeal morbidity. A water quality intervention that consists of water treatment, safe storage, and community education was field tested in Kitwe, Zambia. A total of 166 intervention households were randomly selected from one community and 94 control households from another. Baseline surveys were conducted and the intervention was distributed. Weekly active diarrhea surveillance, biweekly water testing, and a follow-up survey were conducted. Compliance was high in intervention households: 97% reported using disinfectant and 72-95% had measurable chlorine in their water in biweekly testing. The percentage of intervention households storing water safely increased from 41.5% to 89.2%. Stored water in intervention households was significantly less contaminated with Escherichia coli than water in control households (P < 0.001). Diarrheal disease risk for individuals in intervention households was 48% lower than for controls (95% confidence interval = 0.3, 0.9). This intervention is a useful tool for preventing waterborne diseases in families in developing countries who lack access to potable water. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of intensified hygiene with frequent handwashing and several educational procedures in day-care centres. The study was conducted as a controlled trial, with an intervention group and an observation group. There was a 34% reduction in expected sickness in children in the intervention group. In the categories diarrhoea and eye-infection there was a significant drop in sickness. We conclude that broad intervention concerning hand-hygiene has a positive effect on sickness in children attending day-care centres. Lack of access to safe water and sanitation contributes to diarrhoea moribidity and mortality in developing countries. We evaluated the impact of household water treatment, latrines, shallow wells, and rainwater harvesting on diarrhoea incidence in rural Kenyan children. We compared diarrhoea rates in 960 children aged <5 years in 556 households in 12 randomly selected intervention villages and six randomly selected comparison villages during weekly home visits over an 8-week period. On multivariate analysis, chlorinating stored water [relative risk (RR) 0.44, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.28-0.69], latrine presence (RR 0.71, 95% CI 0.54-0.92), rainwater use (RR 0.70, 95% CI 0.52-0.95), and living in an intervention village (RR 0.31, 95% CI 0.23-0.41), were independently associated with lower diarrhoea risk. Diarrhoea risk was higher among shallow well users (RR 1.78, 95% CI 1.12-2.83). Chlorinating stored water, latrines, and rainwater use all decreased diarrhoea risk; combined interventions may have increased health impact.
Interventions that promote hand washing can reduce diarrhoea episodes by about one-third. This significant reduction is comparable to the effect of providing clean water in low-income areas. However, trials with longer follow up and that test different methods of promoting hand washing are needed.