For all exports destined to China, these costs are estimated to be USD 30.4 per tonne, or triple those for other destinations as China applies phytosanitary barriers on Kazakh grain transported through its territory and which affects the competitiveness of Kazakh exports on Asian markets, such as Japan and Korea, as well as China itself. In addition to official costs, exporters also incur informal charges, for example, to receive railway cars. See Table 3.4 for details.