Christie, Wagner, and Winter (Peace, conflict, and violence: Peace psychology for the 21st century, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1–14, 2001) have described a four-way model of peace psychology that focuses on not only on direct violence, but also on structural violence, not only on peacekeeping, but deep and lasting peacemaking. Whereas direct violence is action with the intent of physical or psychological harm, structural violence is harm as the result of inequality and injustice. Peacekeeping focuses on conflict resolution and ending direct violence, while peacemaking is intended to address the structure-based inequalities that perpetuate structural violence.