The fossil fuel-based energy sectors - oil, gas and coal -generate significant GHG emissions both upstream and downstream (Figure 1.3). By way of comparison, the downstream emissions from mining and metal industry, such as steel, iron or aluminium production, may be up to 30 times higher than the mining sector’s own upstream operational emissions (Soliman et al., For example, the extraction of bauxite ore generates relatively low emissions compared to the electrolysis to aluminium, which is an extremely energy-intensive process (Schlosser et al.,