Where the solid line falls outside the OECD average, this implies better results than the OECD average. For instance, for Japan, out-of-pocket spending is low, but is shown as being outside the dotted line, because this is good for adequacy. The indicators are presented in standard deviation units. The equity aspect relates to their effect on the distribution of income, after-tax and health care payments, the efficiency aspect relates to the risk pooling, expenditure smoothing and deadweight losses they entail (Table 2).