Nonetheless, it is implausible that remittances have no disincentive effects, although there is remarkably little direct evidence of this. In the case of Tonga, Sturton has argued that ‘The Tongan economy displays all the characteristic markings of the “Dutch disease” where a dominant export activity attracts a disproportionate command over resources, pushes up domestic production costs, and reduces international competitiveness. In the Tongan case the “booming” sector has become development assistance and migrants’ remittances’ (1992: 3).