Welfare-state spending on cash benefits typically takes two forms: spending, which redistributes income horizontally over the life course with the aim of smoothing consumption rather than redistributing from rich to poor, and vertical redistribution, which targets the poor. Horizontal expenditure makes up the largest share of spending varying from around two-thirds of spending on transfers in the United Kingdom to 82% in Sweden (Esping Andersen and Myles, ibid). This “paradox of redistribution” says that policies that heavily target the poor tend to be ungenerous and stigmatising, often with little electoral support.