Available data shows that Europe and North America - the two regions that represent the majority of developed countries - account for 11 per cent and 25 per cent respectively of SPS measures in force in 2013 (Figure 7.15). Conversely, Latin America and the Caribbean, and East Asia - two developing regions - together account for 49 per cent of all SPS measures, and each applies more such measures than Europe. More generally, NTMs are often perceived as beyond-the-border constraints imposed by the importing country. In reality, a whole range of ‘behind-the-border’ measures, such as pre-shipment export inspection, certification required by local authorities, export licensing (or prohibitions), export taxes and charges, and foreign exchange regulation, tend to constrain LDC exports and raise the cost of exporting. For example, the ITC survey of Malawian exporters registered 58 NTM cases applied by the government of Malawi compared with 48 by importing partners (ITC 2012). Indeed, to the extent that domestic NTMs affect exports to all countries (perhaps some more than others), they are a more serious concern for exporters than are NTMs applied by importing countries.