Rapid income growth has been concentrated in coastal areas which benefited from deep trade integration as a result of policies promoting openness pursued since the mid-1980s. These effects are magnified when structural change occurs in economies that undergo significant ownership changes, such as land ownership reform and the dismantling of State-owned enterprises (SOEs). In China, for example, the acceleration of land ownership and labour-market reforms in the late 1990s was followed by a decline of employment in manufacturing in most provinces.