However, the presence of immigrants is negatively related to native-born employment at the regional level, suggesting that in certain provinces, immigrants could reduce the employment rates of South African-bom workers. This relationship is reversed, i.e. becomes positive, when solely considering the effect of the presence of newly-arrived migrants on employment outcomes of South African-bom workers. Yet both positive and negative effects are found at the regional level. Furthermore, the share of newly-arrived immigrants is positively associated with both employment rates and incomes of native-born workers. However, the pooled numbers do not show the considerable changes over time. While average real income increased nationally between 2001 and 2011, South African-bom workers’ incomes increased by an average of 24% while those of foreign-bom workers actually fell by about 32%.