They are unable to determine, however, whether the effect of equity on the distribution of growth stems from the boost given to earnings by the relatively low wages paid to women (whose entry into the workforce may lower average wages and, hence, reduce what is known as the “efficiency wage"). Whether or not increases in women workers' productivity will actually translate into unbiased wage increases will depend on structural aspects of the economy and its institutions which may reduce or heighten women's wage bargaining power. Employment gaps, in the presence of lower wages for women, can reduce growth because the opportunity for using cheaper labour as a competitive advantage is lost (Seguino, 2000).