This system has been heavily criticized for creating opportunities for the exploitation of workers and being a de facto slave market, depriving migrants of the most basic rights. See also IOM 2009,2012, World Bank 2012. The title comes from an influential essay on G.C. Spivak (1988). Tacoli and Mabala 2010, Rahman 2009,2012, Semyonov and Gorodzeisky 2005.