These required attributes are also on occasion expanded to include leadership, motivation, discipline, self-confidence, self awareness, networking, entrepreneurship and capacity to embrace change. These skills are regarded as generic or transferable since they are “seen as having a broad application across a wide range of employment contexts and as transcending individual subjects” and are argued to be the basis for a “flexible” and “multiskilled” workforce (Keep and Payne, 2004: 57). Using average years of schooling as an education measure implicitly assumes that a year of schooling delivers the same increase in knowledge and skills regardless of the education system. For example, a year of schooling in Papua New Guinea is assumed to create the same increase in productive human capital as a year of schooling in Japan.