Pay levels make it difficult to attract and retain skilled and highly qualified staff, as civil servants (i.e. urban planners) in key cities such as Almaty are paid USD 300 per month, compared to USD 600-800 in the private sector. Kazakhstan requires a clear competence management framework to ensure the skills, knowledge and behaviour that result in good performance at individual and organisational level. Competences should be linked to different elements of human resource management (HRM), in the recruitment and selection of staff, training and development, and succession or career planning. Several models are used in OECD countries, but Kazakhstan may wish to review the French model, known as Employment, Workforce and Competency Planning (Gestion previsionnelle des emplois, des effectifs et des competences or GPEEC), as it shows how recruitment methods may incorporate competences without abandoning the established principle of selection through competitive examination.