Moreover, the provision of subsidies relied heavily on public borrowing. Instead of being seen as a powerful engine of development, subsidies and social transfers were judged too costly, regarded as having caused unsustainable fiscal deficits and undermined efficiency. Low growth and pressure to reduce fiscal deficits severely restricted new investments in health and education. However, social spending as a proportion of the budget did not decline in most countries, as the political pressure to sustain civil service jobs and wages was considerable.