For a detailed discussion, see OECD, 2016a.) However, as in OECD countries, gender pay gaps in emerging economies are only partially attributable to observed differences in worker and job characteristics (Chapter 12). Attitudes, social conventions and institutions and discrimination probably play an important role in pay differentials between men and women, though they are hard to measure. And when female workers are employed full time they typically spend a much larger share of their time on additional housework (including childcare) than men who are full-time workers.