Also, the vast majority of programmes target women in male-headed households as direct beneficiaries.14 As a result, it is often claimed that such programmes have an empowering effect on women based on the assumption that, as the main recipients of the transfers, women gain greater control over financial resources. Nevertheless, available evidence on empowerment outcomes is far from conclusive (de la O Campos, 2015). This is, in part, because outcomes are shaped not only by women's roles within the household and society, but also by existing gender inequalities in knowledge, skills, influence and ownership and control of resources. Similar results were seen in Ethiopia, where female- and male-headed households who were beneficiaries of the PSNP had markedly different spending patterns following the transfers.