As a result, wildlife and humans can be chronically exposed to very low doses of drugs and the chemicals used in their illicit manufacture. That results in costs to individuals and to Governments, as they are responsible for ensuring public health. Illicit cultivation of both coca bush and opium poppy has often resulted in the clearance of forests—in the case of illicit cultivation of coca bush, primarily in Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Colombia and Peru. Some devastating effects of illicit cultivation of cannabis plant, coca bush and opium poppy on biodiversity are the loss, degradation and fragmentation of the forests, and the loss of areas where food could be grown.