Obligations to partners within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance had to be met before product could be sold to the convertible currency area. Imports had to proceed through an extensive system of quotas and licenses. Additionally, Viet Nam faced a trade embargo with the United States that was only lifted in 1994 (McCaig and Pavcnik, 2013). Permission for private as well as SOEs to establish direct links with foreign markets was given in 1991.