However, an earlier study (Gilligan eta/., 2009) found that the programme sometimes replaced private transfers when payments were regular, and reduced private transfers when payments were irregular. On the other hand, there is no evidence that food aid and food-for-work crowded out private transfers among pastoralists in Ethiopia and Kenya (Lentz and Barrett, 2005). In South Africa, old-age pensioners experienced a 25-30 percent decline in private transfers from their children once they began to receive their pensions (Jensen 2003, IEG 2011). Thus, the (now discontinued) Red de Proteccion Social programme in Nicaragua did not replace private transfers such as gifts and loans (Maluccio and Flores, 2005).