In France, as in other OECD countries, centralised planning models had largely failed to end regional economic inequality. In the process, while communes have maintained the ultimate responsibility for developing and managing land use plans, these plans have become more constrained by laws, regulations and other actions taken by higher levels of government. The specific process of devolution in France has been seen as analogous to a three act play. The Chevenement law of 1999 established new structures through co-operative institutions (EPCI) and facilitated the pooling of services and projects among communes.