For example, they find their ability to protect and provide for their families is frustrated by lack of income. Parents recognise that disciplining their children is particularly difficult when mobility in either generation means that they spend little time together (Ramphele, 2002). Moreover, cultural norms emphasise material care over other forms of care such as social and emotional support (Khunou, 2006), meaning that the contributions fathers make in these spheres are overlooked or diminished in public discourse. ( Bray & Brandt, 2007). Additionally, cultural notions of propriety may restrict paternal communication. Formative research towards an adult-child communication intervention in Botswana, Malawi, and Mozambique found that adolescent girls rarely have close relationships with their fathers (Schwandt & Underwood, 2013).