All of this needs to be linked to a more open and consultative approach to the development of policy, and to public services and their delivery (OECD, 2015a, 2016a). Rising education investment is vital to meet the needs of a fast-modernising economy, but, as described in the earlier part of this chapter, despite large spending increases, Costa Rica has not seen significant improvements in school completion and student learning. Other indicators where one might expect to see the benefits of education investment are not encouraging: productivity has barely increased, the labour market is fragmented by duality and a large informal subsector, skills shortages are apparent and inequality is grow'ing (OECD, 2016a).