During the 1990s Ireland also bene fitted from net EU transfers of about 4% of GDP, although EU funding significantly decreased in the 2000s, down to 0.4% of GDP in 2007. Membership in the European Monetary Union (since 2001) brought stable, low interest rates, which spurred the retail and housing markets. Significant investment in infrastructure and education enabled Ireland to take advantage of the growth opportunities made possible by the opening of its economy. The structure of the economy has changed dramatically since 1990. However, the co-operation between environmental institutions and other sectoral authorities appears more effective for some sectors, such as energy, than for others, such as transport, land use and agriculture. Co-ordination between central government departments and local authorities has proved difficult, few resources are allocated to communities to participate in policy-making and implementation.