This system has been heavily criticized for creating opportunities for the exploitation of workers and being a de facto slave market, depriving migrants of the most basic rights. See also IOM 2009,2012; World Bank 2012. The title comes from an influential essay on G.C. Spivak (1988). Tacoli and Mabala 2010; Rahman 2009,2012; Semyonov and Gorodzeisky 2005.