This limits their time availability for income-generating and productive activities. In many rural communities in LDCs, most domestic-related travel (e.g. for water collection) is undertaken by women (ECREEE and NREL, 2015), and the availability of transport using modern fuels can also provide substantial time savings. However, women in LDCs, especially in rural areas, face multiple constraints on accessing land, credit, agricultural inputs, extension services, labour markets and education; and these constraints limit their ability to engage productively in both farm and non-farm activities (UNCTAD, 2015a) and to access the means to upgrade their productivity and diversify their range of economic activities. To the extent that limited productive activity by women reflects differences between men and women in economic opportunities, and hence in the opportunity cost of time, the translation of time savings into productive activities is likely to be limited as well. This makes gender differences in the economic opportunities created by improvements in energy access, supply and reliability at least as important as the gender distribution of time savings that such improvements allow.