Welfare-state spending on cash benefits typically takes two forms: spending, which redistributes income horizontally over the life course with the aim of smoothing consumption rather than redistributing from rich to poor; and vertical redistribution, which targets the poor. Horizontal expenditure makes up the largest share of spending varying from around two-thirds of spending on transfers in the United Kingdom to 82% in Sweden (Esping Andersen and Myles, ibid). This “paradox of redistribution” says that policies that heavily target the poor tend to be ungenerous and stigmatising, often with little electoral support.