A large percentage of the middle management staff lacked planning and management knowledge, experience and training. In 1990, with IMTA support, CONAGUA started a postgraduate training programme to develop in-house expertise, and by June 1992, more than 100 professionals had graduated. At the time, the programme’s focus was on technical supply-driven management rather than the consolidation of a system-wide, long-term capacity building programme that goes beyond ad hoc initiatives (Tortajada, 2001).