Transforming high-carbon, resource-wasteful societies and econom ies requires such measures. At the centre of these measures is the adoption of national GHG reduction targets and the preparation of an emissions trading system to take effect in 2015, as well as consideration of a carbon tax. The OECD/ European Environment Agency database on environmental instruments lists more than 1 500 exemptions to environmentally related taxes in OECD countries and about 200 tax refund mechanisms.