Mexico’s BANOBRAS (National Bank of Works and Public Services)15 and Turkey’s IlBank (Bank of Provinces)16 are examples of development banks that provide financing to local governments for investment projects and that could be of inspiration to Kazakhstan. These banks finance public investment in infrastructure and public services that contribute to social development and competitiveness. Local authorities are accountable only to higher-level government bodies and do not serve at the will of citizens (Makhmutova, 2006). In 2013, SNGs’ expenditure accounted for 9.4% of GDP (17% average in OECD countries) and 46.3% of public expenditure (40% in OECD countries in 2014) (Table 3.8).