In addition to being a key obstacle to the modernisation of the municipal utility networks, low tariffs on heat and water do not incentivise domestic consumers to save energy and water. The share of household income spent on heating is higher in Shymkent, Taraz and Kyzylorda (Table 1.7 above). In Astana and Almaty, the percentage of income spent on heating appears to be relatively low. Emissions relative to GDP have been fairly stable in recent years. However, Kazakhstan has demonstrated a strong commitment to tackling climate change: in 2009, Kazakhstan ratified the Kyoto Protocol and in the same year announced its voluntary commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 15% by 2020 from the 1990 base year as part of the UN Framework Convention on Climate change (UNFCC).