Taken together, the incentive programmes - at a relatively modest fiscal outlay, and with clear benefits both fiscal and environmental - have substantially increased the proportion of e-bike usage throughout Austria. It is estimated that traffic congestion in Ho Chi Minh City is costing the city about VND14 billion a year which is roughly 6.25% of the city’s GDP (ESMAP, 2014). Fiscal measures such as vehicle licencing fees, parking charges and congestion charges are effective to shifting the cost of car usage more fully to vehicle owners.