Public (government) school systems did not begin until considerably later than this; first primary schools, then expanding into the secondary level around the 1880s. Australian universities were first established in the middle of the nineteenth century, while early childhood education (apart from services offered by community kindergartens and private providers) is a relatively recent enhancement to Australian education offerings. In Year 12, the final year of secondary school, studies are usually directed towards attaining a state- or territory-based government-endorsed certificate that is recognised by all Australian universities and vocational education and training institutions, and by international universities.