Unlike most Asian economies (especially China), which have benefited from this global dispersion of production, African economies have reaped these benefits far less. The World Trade Organization estimated that a quarter ($5 trillion out of $19 trillion) of global trade in 2010 involved double-counting, that is, the value of intermediate products traded directly across national borders and indirectly, through subsequent incorporation in final products (UNCTAD, 2013; UNECA, 2014). As Chang (2015) notes, this flow of resources and revenue within GVCs represents a huge concentration of profits and power within the large multinational firms that can accrue technological dominance, brand recognition and access to low-cost capital because of the large scale at which they operate.