Such cultural change takes time, and while the central level can establish policies, plans and programmes, central-level institutions have to provide a behavioural example and embody the practice. Meanwhile, the local level must also be an active player in encouraging a transformation to more open and inclusive government. A report undertaken for SUBDERE and the Ministry of Foreign Relations focusing on the status of citizen participation at the sub-national level17 was highly critical of Antofagasta’s approach, characterising it as narrow, paternalistic and traditional, with little recognition of social or community actors in the management of local development; citizens taking a passive role; and CSOs facing capacity challenges. The report also indicated no systematic identification was made of needs or programme design in areas of interest to citizens and civic organisations.