Includes respondents living in a dwelling owned by a third individual (not a household member, but possibly a relative of family member) and not paying rent. In the Soviet era, these networks were based on inflated demand forecasts, and in single-industry towns (monotowns) utility networks were reliant on financial support and technical expertise from the town’s dominant industrial facility (ADB, 2012a). During the transition period, little or no investment was made in maintenance and repair of municipal networks. However, this recently changed, and repair and maintenance of municipal utility networks is prominent in the State Programme of Infrastructure Development (Nurly Zhol).29 Through this programme, municipal utility companies can benefit from heavily subsidised loans for which they apply through their local administrations. There are often no alternative heating options for urban households, since there is no natural gas supply infrastructure (except in urban centres in southern Kazakhstan, including Almaty City).