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+1,"The Project Gutenberg eBook of Manual of Egyptian Archaeology and Guide to the Study of Antiquities in Egypt
+    
+This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
+at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
+you will have to check th"
+2,"e laws of the country where you are located
+before using this eBook.
+
+Title: Manual of Egyptian Archaeology and Guide to the Study of Antiquities in Egypt
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Translator: Amelia B. Edwards
+
+Release date: December 20, 2004 [eBook #14400]
+                Most recently updated: October 28, 2024
+
+Language: English
+
+Credits: Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Robert Connal and the PG Online
+        Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG "
+3,"EBOOK MANUAL OF EGYPTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF ANTIQUITIES IN EGYPT ***
+
+MANUAL OF EGYPTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
+
+AND
+
+Guide to the Study of Antiquities in Egypt.
+
+_FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND TRAVELLERS_.
+
+BY
+G. MASPERO, D.C.L. OXON.
+MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE; PROFESSOR AT THE COLLÈGE DE FRANCE;
+EX-DIRECTOR GENERAL OF EGYPTIAN MUSEUMS.
+
+_TRANSLATED BY_
+
+AMELIA B. EDWARDS.
+
+_NEW EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED BY THE AUTHOR_.
+
+With Three Hundred and Nine Ill"
+4,"ustrations.
+
+
+1895.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE FOURTH AND REVISED EDITION.
+
+Notwithstanding the fact that Egyptology is now recognised as a science, an
+exact and communicable knowledge of whose existence and scope it behoves
+all modern culture to take cognisance, this work of M. Maspero still
+remains the Handbook of Egyptian Archaeology. But Egyptology is as yet in
+its infancy; whatever their age, Egyptologists will long die young. Every
+year, almost every month, fresh material for th"
+5,"e study is found, fresh
+light is thrown upon it by the progress of excavation, exploration, and
+research. Hence it follows that, in the course of a few years, the standard
+text-books require considerable addition and modification if they are to be
+of the greatest value to students, who must always start from the foremost
+vantage-ground.
+
+The increasing demand for the _Egyptian Archaeology_ by English and
+American tourists, as well as students, decided the English publishers to
+issue"
+6," a new edition in as light and portable a form as possible. This
+edition is carefully corrected, and contains the enlarged letterpress and
+many fresh illustrations necessary for incorporating within the book
+adequate accounts of the main archaeological results of recent Egyptian
+excavations. M. Maspero has himself revised the work, indicated all the
+numerous additions, and qualified the expression of any views which he has
+seen reason to modify in the course of his researches during th"
+7,"e past eight
+years. By the headings of the pages, the descriptive titles of the
+illustrations, and a minute revision of the index, much has been done to
+facilitate the use of the volume as a book of reference. In that capacity
+it will be needed by the student long after he first makes acquaintance
+with its instructive and abundant illustrations and its luminous
+condensation of the archaeological facts and conclusions which have been
+elucidated by Egyptology through the devotion of man"
+8,"y an arduous lifetime
+during the present century, and, not least, by the unremitting labours of
+M. Maspero.
+
+_April, 1895_.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
+
+To put this book into English, and thus to hand it on to thousands who
+might not otherwise have enjoyed it, has been to me a very congenial and
+interesting task. It would be difficult, I imagine, to point to any work of
+its scope and character which is better calculated to give lasting delight
+to all classes of readers. "
+9,"For the skilled archaeologist, its pages contain
+not only new facts, but new views and new interpretations; while to those
+who know little, or perhaps nothing, of the subjects under discussion, it
+will open a fresh and fascinating field of study. It is not enough to say
+that a handbook of Egyptian Archaeology was much needed, and that Professor
+Maspero has given us exactly what we required. He has done much more than
+this. He has given us a picturesque, vivacious, and highly original v"
+10,"olume,
+as delightful as if it were not learned, and as instructive as if it were
+dull.
+
+As regards the practical side of Archaeology, it ought to be unnecessary to
+point out that its usefulness is strictly parallel with the usefulness of
+public museums. To collect and exhibit objects of ancient art and industry
+is worse than idle if we do not also endeavour to disseminate some
+knowledge of the history of those arts and industries, and of the processes
+employed by the artists and cra"
+11,"ftsmen of the past. Archaeology, no less
+than love, ""adds a precious seeing to the eye""; and without that gain of
+mental sight, the treasures of our public collections are regarded by the
+general visitor as mere ""curiosities""--flat and stale for the most part,
+and wholly unprofitable.
+
+I am much indebted to Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie, author of _The Pyramids and
+Temples of Gizeh_, for kindly translating the section on ""Pyramids,"" which
+is entirely from his pen. I have also to thank him"
+12," for many valuable notes
+on subjects dealt with in the first three chapters. To avoid confusion, I
+have numbered these notes, and placed them at the end of the volume.
+
+My acknowledgments are likewise due to Professor Maspero for the care with
+which he has read the proof-sheets of this version of his work. In
+departing from his system of orthography (and that of Mr. Petrie) I have
+been solely guided by the necessities of English readers. I foresee that
+_Egyptian Archaeology_ will hen"
+13,"ceforth be the inseparable companion of all
+English-speaking travellers who visit the Valley of the Nile; hence I have
+for the most part adopted the spelling of Egyptian proper names as given by
+the author of ""Murray's Handbook for Egypt.""
+
+Touching my own share in the present volume, I will only say that I have
+tried to present Professor Maspero's inimitable French in the form of
+readable English, rather than in a strictly word-for-word translation; and
+that with the hope of still f"
+14,"urther extending the usefulness of the book, I
+have added some foot-note references.
+
+AMELIA B. EDWARDS.
+
+WESTBURY-ON-TRYM,
+
+_August_, 1887.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ARCHITECTURE--CIVIL AND MILITARY.
+
+    § 1. HOUSES:--Bricks and Brickmaking--Foundations--Materials--Towns--
+    Plans--Decoration
+
+    § 2. FORTRESSES:--Walls--Plans--Migdols, etc.
+
+    § 3. PUBLIC WORKS:--Roads--Bridges--Storehouses--Canals--Lake Moeris--
+    Dams--Reservoirs--Quarries
+
+
+CHAP"
+15,"TER II.
+
+RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.
+
+    § 1. MATERIALS; PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION:--Materials of Temples--
+    Foundations of Temples--Sizes of Blocks--Mortars--Mode of hoisting
+    Blocks--Defective Masonry--Walls--Pavements--Vaultings--Supports--
+    Pillars and Columns--Capitals--Campaniform Capitals--Lotus-bud
+    Capitals--Hathor-headed Capitals
+
+    § 2. TEMPLES:--Temples of the Sphinx--Temples of Elephantine--Temple
+    at El Kab--Temple of Khonsû--Arrangement of Temples--Le"
+16,"vels--Crypts--
+    Temple of Karnak--Temple of Luxor--Philae--The Speos, or Rock-cut
+    Temple--Speos of Horemheb--Rock-cut Temples of Abû Simbel--Temple of
+    Deir el Baharî--Temple of Abydos--Sphinxes--Crio-sphinxes
+
+    § 3. DECORATION:--Principles of Decoration--The Temple a Symbolic
+    Representation of the World--Decoration of Parts nearest the Ground--
+    Dadoes--Bases of Columns--Decoration of Ceilings--Decoration of
+    Architraves--Decoration of Wall-surfaces--Magic Vir"
+17,"tues of Decoration
+    --Decoration of Pylons--Statues--Obelisks--Libation-tables--Altars--
+    Shrines--Sacred Boats--Moving Statues of Deities
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+TOMBS.
+
+    § 1. MASTABAS:--Construction of the Mastaba--The Door of the Living,
+    and the Door of the Dead--The Chapel--Wall Decorations--The Double and
+    his Needs--The _Serdab_--Ka Statues--The Sepulchral Chamber
+
+    § 2. PYRAMIDS:--Plan of the Pyramid comprises three leading features
+    of the Mastaba--Materials"
+18," of Pyramids--Orientation--Pyramid of Khûfû--
+    Pyramids of Khafra and Menkara--Step Pyramid of Sakkarah--Pyramid of
+    Ûnas--Decoration of Pyramid of Ûnas--Group of Dashûr--Pyramid of Medum
+
+    § 3. TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE; THE ROCK-CUT TOMBS:--Pyramid-mastabas
+    of Abydos--Pyramid-mastabas of Drah Abû'l Neggah--Rock-cut Tombs of
+    Beni Hasan and Syene--Rock-cut Tombs of Siût--Wall-decoration of
+    Theban Catacombs--Tombs of the Kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty at
+    The"
+19,"bes--Valley of the Tombs of the Kings--Royal Catacombs--Tomb of
+    Seti I.--Wall-decorations of Royal Catacombs--Funerary Furniture of
+    Catacombs--Ûshabtiû--Amulets--Common Graves of the Poor
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PAINTING AND SCULPTURE.
+
+    § 1. DRAWING AND COMPOSITION:--Supposed Canon of Proportion--Drawing
+    Materials--Sketches--Illustrations to the _Book of the Dead_--
+    Conventional Treatment of Animal and Human Figures--Naturalistic
+    Treatment--Composition--Grouping--Wal"
+20,"l-paintings of Tombs--A Funerary
+    Feast--A Domestic Scene--Military Subjects--Perspective--Parallel
+    between a Wall-painting in a Tomb at Sakkarah and the Mosaic of
+    Palestrina
+
+    § 2. TECHNICAL PROCESSES:--The Preparation of Surfaces--Outline--
+    Sculptors' Tools--Iron and Bronze Tools--Impurity of Iron--Methods of
+    Instruction in Sculpture--Models--Methods of cutting Various Stones--
+    Polish--Painted Sculptures--Pigments--Conventional Scale of Colour--
+    Relat"
+21,"ion of Painting to Sculpture in Ancient Egypt
+
+    § 3. SCULPTURE:--The Great Sphinx--Art of the Memphite School--Wood-
+    panels of Hesi--Funerary Statues--The Portrait-statue and the Double
+    --_Chefs d'oeuvre_ of the Memphite School--The Cross-legged
+    Scribe--Diorite Statue of Khafra--Rahotep and Nefert--The Sheikh el
+    Beled--The Kneeling Scribe--The Dwarf Nemhotep--Royal Statues of the
+    Twelfth Dynasty--Hyksos Sphinxes of Tanis--Theban School of the
+    Eighteenth Dyn"
+22,"asty--Colossi of Amenhotep III.--New School of Tel el
+    Amarna--Its Superior Grace and Truth--Works of Horemheb--School of the
+    Nineteenth Dynasty--Colossi of Rameses II.--Decadence of Art begins
+    with Merenptah--Ethiopian Renaissance--Saïte Renaissance--The
+    Attitudes of Statues--Saïte Innovations--Greek Influence upon Egyptian
+    Art--The Ptolemaic and Roman Periods--The School of Meroë--Extinction
+    of Egyptian Art
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
+
+    § 1. STON"
+23,"E, CLAY, AND GLASS:--Precious Stones--Lapidary Art--Beads and
+    Amulets--Scarabaei--Statuettes--Libation Tables--Perfume Vases--Kohl-
+    pots--Pottery--Clay--Glazes--Red and Painted Wares--Ûshabtiû--Funerary
+    Cones--Painted Vases--""Canopic"" Vases--Clay Sarcophagi--Glass--Its
+    Chemical Constituents--Clear Glass--Coloured Glass--Imitations of
+    Precious Stones in Glass--Glass Mosaics--Miniature Objects in Coloured
+    Glass--Glass Amulets--Coloured Glass Vases--Enamels--The Th"
+24,"eban Blue--
+    The Enamels of Tell el Amarna--Enamelled Ûshabtiû of Amen Ptahmes--
+    Enamelled Tiles of the Step Pyramid at Sakkarah--Enamelled Tiles of
+    Tell el Yahûdeh
+
+    § 2. WOOD, IVORY, LEATHER; TEXTILE FABRICS:--Bone and Ivory--Elephant
+    Tusks--Dyed Ivory--Egyptian Woods--Wooden Statuettes--Statuette of
+    Hori--Statuette of Naï--Wooden Toilet Ornaments--Perfume and Unguent
+    Spoons--Furniture--Chests and Coffers--Mummy-cases--Wooden Effigies on
+    Mummy Cases--"
+25,"Huge Outer Cases of Ahmesnefertari and Aahhotep--Funerary
+    Furniture--Beds--Canopies--Sledges--Chairs--Stools--Thrones--
+    Textiles--Methods of Weaving--Leather--Breast-bands of Mummies--
+    Patchwork Canopy in Coloured Leather of Princess Isiemkheb--
+    Embroideries--Muslins--Celebrated Textiles of Alexandria
+
+    § 3. METALS:--Iron--Lead--Bronze--Constituents of Egyptian Bronze--
+    Domestic Utensils in Bronze--Mirrors--Scissors--Bronze Statuettes--
+    The Stroganoff Bronz"
+26,"e--The Posno Bronzes--The Lion of Apries--Gilding
+    --Gold-plating--Gold-leaf--Statues and Statuettes of Precious Metals
+    --The Silver and Golden Cups of General Tahûti--The Silver Vases of
+    Thmûis--Silver Plate--Goldsmith's Work--Richness of Patterns--
+    Jewellery--Funerary Jewellery--Rings--Seal-rings--Chains--The Jewels
+    of Queen Aahhotep--The Ring of Rameses II.--The Ear-rings of Rameses
+    IX.--The Bracelet of Prince Psar--Conclusion
+
+NOTES
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LI"
+27,"ST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+FIGURE
+
+1. Brickmaking, tomb of Rekhmara, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+2. House with vaulted floors, Medinet Habû
+
+3. Plan of the town of Kahûn, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+4. Plan of house, Medinet Habû, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+5. Plan of house, Medinet Habû, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+6. Façade of house of Second Theban Period
+
+7. Plan of house of Second Theban Period
+
+8. Restoration of hall in Twelfth Dynasty house, Kahûn
+
+9. Box representing a house
+
+10. Wall-painting in Twelf"
+28,"th Dynasty house, Kahûn
+
+11. View of mansion, tomb of Anna, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+12. Porch of mansion of Second Theban Period
+
+13. Porch of mansion of Second Theban Period
+
+14. Plan of Theban house and grounds, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+15. A perspective view of same
+
+16. Part of palace of Aï, El Amarna tomb, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+17. Perspective view of part of palace of Aï
+
+18. Frontage of house, Second Theban Period
+
+19. Frontage of house, Second Theban Period
+
+20. Central pavi"
+29,"lion of house, Second Theban Period
+
+21. Ceiling decoration from house at Medinet Habû, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+22. Ceiling decoration, Twelfth Dynasty style
+
+23. Ceiling decoration, tomb of Aimadûa, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+24. Door of house, Sixth Dynasty tomb
+
+25. Façade of Fourth Dynasty house, sarcophagus of Khûfû Poskhû
+
+26. Plan of second fortress at Abydos, Eleventh or Twelfth Dynasty
+
+27. Walls of same fortress, restored
+
+28. Façade of fort, tomb at Beni Hasan, Twelfth Dynasty
"
+30,"
+
+29. Plan of main gate, second fortress of Abydos
+
+30. Plan of S.E. gate of same
+
+31. Plan of gate, fortress of Kom el Ahmar
+
+32. Plan of walled city at El Kab
+
+33. Plan of walled city at Kom Ombo
+
+34. Plan of fortress of Kûmmeh
+
+35. Plan of fortress of Semneh
+
+36. Section of platform of same
+
+37. Syrian fort, elevation
+
+38. Town walls of Dapûr
+
+39. City of Kaclesh, Ramesseum
+
+40. Plan of pavilion of Medinet Habû, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+41. Elevation of same
+
+42. Cana"
+31,"l and bridge of Zarû, Karnak, Nineteenth Dynasty
+
+43. Cellar with amphorae
+
+44. Granary
+
+45. Plan of Store City of Pithom, Nineteenth Dynasty
+
+46. Store-chambers of the Ramesseum
+
+47. Dike at Wady Gerraweh
+
+48. Section of same dike
+
+49. Quarries of Silsilis
+
+50. Draught of Hathor capital, quarry of Gebel Abûfeydeh
+
+51. Transport of blocks, stela of Ahmes, Tûrrah, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+52. Masonry in temple of Seti I., Abydos
+
+53. Temple wall with cornice
+
+54. Niche and "
+32,"doorway in temple of Seti I., Abydos
+
+55. Pavement in same temple
+
+56. ""Corbelled"" vault in same temple
+
+57. Hathor pillar in temple of Abû Simbel, Nineteenth Dynasty
+
+58. Pillar of Amenhotep III., Karnak
+
+59. Sixteen-sided pillars, Karnak
+
+60. Fluted pillar, Kalabsheh
+
+61. Polygonal Hathor-headed pillar, El Kab
+
+62. Column with square die, Contra Esneh
+
+63. Column with campaniform capital, Ramesseum
+
+64. Inverted campaniform capital, Karnak
+
+65. Palm capital, Bubastis
"
+33,"
+
+66. Compound capital
+
+67. Ornate capitals, Ptolemaic
+
+68. Lotus-bud column, Beni Hasan, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+69. Lotus-bud column, processional hall of Thothmes HI., Karnak
+
+70. Column in aisle of Hypostyle Hall, Karnak
+
+71. Hathor-head capital, Ptolemaic
+
+72. Campaniform and Hathor-headed capital, Philae
+
+73. Section of Hypostyle Hall, Karnak
+
+74. Plan of the temple of the Sphinx
+
+75. South temple of Elephantine
+
+76. Plan of temple of Amenhotep III., El Kab
+
+77. Plan of"
+34," temple of Hathor, Deir el Medineh
+
+78. Plan of temple of Khonsû, Karnak
+
+79. Pylon with masts, wall-scene, temple of Khonsû, Karnak
+
+80. Ramesseum, restored
+
+81. Plan of sanctuary at Denderah
+
+82. Pronaos, temple of Edfû
+
+83. Plan of same temple
+
+84. Plan of temple of Karnak in reign of Amenhotep III
+
+85. Plan of Hypostyle Hall, Karnak
+
+86. Plan of great temple, Luxor
+
+87. Plan of buildings on island of Philae
+
+88. Plan of Speos, Kalaat Addah
+
+89. Plan of Speos, Gebe"
+35,"l Silsileh
+
+90. Plan of Great Speos, Abû Simbel
+
+91. Plan of Speos of Hathor, Abû Simbel
+
+92. Plan of upper portion of temple of Deir el Baharî
+
+93. Plan of temple of Seti I., Abydos
+
+94. Crio-sphinx from temple of Wady Es Sabûah
+
+95. Couchant ram, from Avenue of Sphinxes, Karnak
+
+96-101. Decorative designs from Denderah
+
+102. Decorative group of Nile gods
+
+103. Dado decoration, hall of Thothmes III., Karnak
+
+104. Ceiling decoration, tomb of Bakenrenf, Twenty-sixth Dynast"
+36,"y
+
+105. Zodiacal circle of Denderah
+
+106. Frieze of uraei and cartouches
+
+107. Wall-scene from temple of Denderah
+
+108. Obelisk of Heliopolis, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+109. Obelisk of Begig, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+110. ""Table of offerings"" from Karnak
+
+111. Limestone altar from Menshîyeh
+
+112. Wooden naos, in Turin Museum
+
+113. A mastaba
+
+114. False door in mastaba
+
+115. Plan of forecourt, mastaba of Kaäpir
+
+116. Plan of forecourt, mastaba of Neferhotep
+
+117. Door in mastaba faça"
+37,"de
+
+118. Portico and door of mastaba
+
+119. Plan of chapel, mastaba of Khabiûsokari
+
+120. Plan of chapel, mastaba of Ti
+
+121. Plan of chapel, mastaba of Shepsesptah
+
+122. Plan of chapel, mastaba of Affi
+
+123. Plan of chapel, mastaba of Thenti
+
+124. Plan of chapel, mastaba of Red Scribe
+
+125. Plan of chapel, mastaba of Ptahhotep
+
+126. Stela in mastaba of Merrûka
+
+127. Wall-scene from mastaba of Ptahhotep
+
+128. Wall-scene from mastaba of Ûrkhûû
+
+129. Wall-scene from mast"
+38,"aba of Ptahhotep
+
+130. Plan of serdab in mastaba at Gizeh
+
+131. Plan of serdab and chapel in mastaba of Rahotep
+
+132. Plan of serdab and chapel in mastaba of Thenti
+
+133. Section of mastaba showing shaft and vault, at Gizeh
+
+134. Section of mastaba, at Sakkarah
+
+135. Wall-scene from mastaba of Nenka
+
+136. Section of Great Pyramid
+
+137. The Step Pyramid of Sakkarah
+
+138. Plan and section of pyramid of Ûnas
+
+139. Portcullis and passage, pyramid of Ûnas
+
+140. Section of py"
+39,"ramid of Ûnas
+
+141. Mastabat el Faraûn
+
+142. Pyramid of Medûm
+
+143. Section of passage and vault in pyramid of Medûm
+
+144. Section of ""vaulted"" brick pyramid, Abydos, Eleventh Dynasty
+
+145. Section of ""vaulted"" tomb, Abydos
+
+146. Plan of tomb, Abydos
+
+147. Theban tomb with pyramidion, wall-scene, tomb at Sheikh Abd el Gûrneh
+
+148. Similar tomb
+
+149. Section of Apis tomb, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+150. Tombs in cliff opposite Asûan
+
+151. Façade of rock-cut tomb of Khnûmhotep, "
+40,"Beni Hasan, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+152. Façade of rock-cut tomb, Asûan
+
+153. Plan of tomb of Khnûmhotep, Beni Hasan, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+154. Plan of unfinished tomb, Beni Hasan, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+155. Wall-scene, tomb of Manna, Nineteenth Dynasty
+
+156. Plan of tomb of Rameses IV.
+
+157. Plan of tomb of Rameses IV., from Turin papyrus
+
+158. Plan of tomb of Seti I.
+
+159. Fields of Aalû, wall-scene, tomb of Rameses III.
+
+160. Pestle and mortar for grinding colours
+
+161. Comic sketch o"
+41,"n ostrakon
+
+162. Vignette from _Book of the Dead_, Saïte period
+
+163. Vignette from _Book of the Dead_, papyrus of Hûnefer
+
+164-5. Wall-scenes, tomb of Khnûmhotep, Beni Hasan
+
+166. Wall-scene, tomb, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+167. Wall-scene, tomb of Horemheb
+
+168. Wall-scene, Theban tomb, Ramesside period
+
+169. Wall-scene, tomb of Horemheb
+
+170. Wall-scene, Ramesseum
+
+171. Wall-scene, Medinet Habû
+
+172. Wall-scene, Ramesseum
+
+173. Wall-scene, Ramesseum
+
+174. Wall-scene, tom"
+42,"b of Rekhmara
+
+175. Wall-scene, tomb of Rekhmara
+
+176. Wall-scene, mastaba of Ptahhotep
+
+177. Palestrina mosaic
+
+178. Sculptor's sketch, Ancient Empire tomb
+
+179. Sculptor's sketch, Ancient Empire tomb
+
+180. Sculptor's correction, Medinet Habû, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+181. Bow drill
+
+182. Sculptor's trial-piece, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+183. The Great Sphinx of Gizeh
+
+184. Wooden panel, mastaba of Hesî
+
+185. Cross-legged scribe, in the Louvre, Ancient Empire
+
+186. Cross-legged "
+43,"scribe, at Gizeh, Ancient Empire
+
+187. King Khafra
+
+188. The ""Sheikh el Beled"" (Raemka), Ancient Empire
+
+189. Rahotep, Ancient Empire
+
+190. Nefert, wife of Rahotep, Ancient Empire
+
+191. Head of the ""Sheikh el Beled,"" Ancient Empire
+
+192. Wife of the ""Sheikh el Beled,"" Ancient Empire
+
+193. The kneeling scribe, at Gizeh. Ancient Empire
+
+194. A bread-maker, Ancient Empire
+
+195. The dwarf Nemhotep, Ancient Empire
+
+196. One of the Tanis sphinxes, Hyksos period
+
+197. Bas-reli"
+44,"ef head of Seti I.
+
+198. Amen and Horemheb
+
+199. Head of a queen, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+200. Head of Horemheb
+
+201. Colossal statue of Rameses 11.
+
+202. Queen Ameniritis.
+
+203. Thûeris, Saïte period
+
+204. Hathor cow, Saïte period
+
+205. Pedishashi, Saïte period
+
+206. Head of a scribe, Saïte period
+
+207. Colossus of Alexander II.
+
+208. Hor, Graeco-Egyptian
+
+209. Group from Naga, Ethiopian School
+
+210. _Ta_ amulet
+
+211. Frog amulet
+
+212. _Ûat_ amulet
+
+213. _Ûta_ am"
+45,"ulet
+
+214. A scarab
+
+215-7. Perfume vases, alabaster
+
+218. Perfume vase, alabaster
+
+219. Vase for antimony powder
+
+220. Turin vases, pottery
+
+221-3. Decorated vases, pottery
+
+224. Glass-blowers, wall-scene, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+225-6. Parti-cloured glass vases
+
+227. Parti-coloured glass vase
+
+228. Glass goblets of Nesikhonsû
+
+229. Hippopotamus in blue glaze
+
+230-1. Theban glazed ware
+
+232. Cup, glazed ware
+
+233. Interior decoration of bowl, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+234. "
+46,"Lenticular vase, glazed ware, Saïte period
+
+235. Tiled chamber in Step Pyramid of Sakkarah
+
+236. Tile from same
+
+237. Tile, Tell el Yahûdeh, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+238. Tile, Tell el Yahûdeh, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+239. Inlaid tiles, Tell el Yahûdeh, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+240-1. Relief tiles, Tell el Yahûdeh, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+242. Spoon
+
+243. Wooden statuette of officer, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+244. Wooden statuette of priest, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+245. Wooden statuette of Naï
+
+246-54"
+47,". Wooden perfume and unguent spoons
+
+255. Fire-sticks, bow, and unfinished drill-stock, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+256. Dolls, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+257. Tops, tip-cat, and toy boat, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+258-60. Chests
+
+261. Construction of a mummy-case, wall-scene, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+262. Mask of Twenty-first Dynasty coffin of Rameses II
+
+263. Mummy-case of Queen Ahmesnefertari
+
+264. Panel portrait from the Fayûm, Graeco-Roman
+
+265. Carved and painted mummy-canopy
+
+266. Canopied mummy-cou"
+48,"ch, Graeco-Roman
+
+267. Mummy-sledge and canopy
+
+268. Inlaid chair, Eleventh Dynasty
+
+269. Inlaid stool, Eleventh Dynasty
+
+270. Throne-chair, wall-scene, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+271. Women weaving, wall-scene, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+272. Man weaving carpet or hangings, wall-scene, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+273. Cut leather work, Twenty-first Dynasty
+
+274-5. Barks with cut leather-work sails, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+276-7. Bronze jug
+
+278. Unguent vase, or spoon (lamp for suspension?)
+
+279. Bronz"
+49,"e statuette of Takûshet
+
+280. Bronze statuette of Horus
+
+281. Bronze statuette of Mosû
+
+282. Bronze lion from Horbeit, Saïte period
+
+283. Gold-worker, wall-scene
+
+284. Golden cup of General Tahûti, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+285. Silver vase of Thmûis
+
+286. Silver vase of Thmûis
+
+287. Piece of plate, wall-scene, Twentieth Dynasty
+
+288-95. Plate, wall-scenes, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+296. Signet-ring, with bezel
+
+297. Gold _cloisonné_ pectoral, Dahshur, Twelfth Dynasty
+
+298. Mirro"
+50,"r of Queen Aahhotep, Eighteenth Dynasty
+
+299-300. Bracelets of same
+
+301. Diadem of same
+
+302. Gold _Ûsekh_ of same
+
+303. Gold pectoral of same
+
+304-5. Poignards found with mummy of Queen Aahhotep
+
+306. Battle-axe found with same
+
+307. Model funerary bark found with same
+
+308. Ring of Rameses II
+
+309. Bracelet of Prince Psar
+
+
+
+
+
+
+EGYPTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+
+_ARCHITECTURE--CIVIL AND MILITARY_.
+
+Archaeologists, when visiting Egypt, have so concent"
+51,"rated their attention
+upon temples and tombs, that not one has devoted himself to a careful
+examination of the existing remains of private dwellings and military
+buildings. Few countries, nevertheless, have preserved so many relics of
+their ancient civil architecture. Setting aside towns of Roman or Byzantine
+date, such as are found almost intact at Koft (Coptos), at Kom Ombo, and at
+El Agandiyeh, one-half at least of ancient Thebes still exists on the east
+and south of Karnak. The si"
+52,"te of Memphis is covered with mounds, some of
+which are from fifty to sixty feet in height, each containing a core of
+houses in good preservation. At Kahûn, the ruins and remains of a whole
+provincial Twelfth Dynasty town have been laid bare; at Tell el Mask-hûtah,
+the granaries of Pithom are yet standing; at Sãn (Tanis) and Tell Basta
+(Bubastis), the Ptolemaic and Saïtic cities contain quarters of which plans
+might be made (Note 1), and in many localities which escape the traveller's
"
+53,"
+notice, there may be seen ruins of private dwellings which date back to the
+age of the Ramessides, or to a still earlier period. As regards
+fortresses, there are two in the town of Abydos alone, one of which is at
+least contemporary with the Sixth Dynasty; while the ramparts of El Kab, of
+Kom el Ahmar, of El Hibeh, and of Dakkeh, as well as part of the
+fortifications of Thebes, are still standing, and await the architect who
+shall deign to make them an object of serious study.
+
+    "
+54,"   *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+1.--PRIVATE DWELLINGS.
+
+
+The soil of Egypt, periodically washed by the inundation, is a black,
+compact, homogeneous clay, which becomes of stony hardness when dry. From
+immemorial time, the fellahin have used it for the construction of their
+houses. The hut of the poorest peasant is a mere rudely-shaped mass of this
+clay. A rectangular space, some eight or ten feet in width, by perhaps
+sixteen or eighteen feet in length, is enclosed in a "
+55,"wickerwork of palm-
+branches, coated on both sides with a layer of mud. As this coating cracks
+in the drying the fissures are filled in, and more coats of mud are daubed
+on until the walls attain a thickness of from four inches to a foot.
+Finally, the whole is roofed over with palm-branches and straw, the top
+being covered in with a thin layer of beaten earth. The height varies. In
+most huts, the ceiling is so low that to rise suddenly is dangerous both to
+one's head and to the struct"
+56,"ure, while in others the roof is six or seven
+feet from the floor. Windows, of course, there are none. Sometimes a hole
+is left in the middle of the roof to let the smoke out; but this is a
+refinement undreamed of by many.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Brickmaking, from Eighteenth Dynasty tomb-painting,
+Tomb of Rekhmara.]
+
+At the first glance, it is not always easy to distinguish between these
+huts of wattle and daub and those built with crude bricks. The ordinary
+Egyptian brick is a me"
+57,"re oblong block of mud mixed with chopped straw and a
+little sand, and dried in the sun. At a spot where they are about to build,
+one man is told off to break up the ground; others carry the clods, and
+pile them in a heap, while others again mix them with water, knead the clay
+with their feet, and reduce it to a homogeneous paste. This paste, when
+sufficiently worked (Note 2), is pressed by the head workman in moulds made
+of hard wood, while an assistant carries away the bricks as fast"
+58," as they
+are shaped, and lays them out in rows at a little distance apart, to dry in
+the sun (fig. I). A careful brickmaker will leave them thus for half a day,
+or even for a whole day, after which the bricks are piled in stacks in such
+wise that the air can circulate freely among them; and so they remain for a
+week or two before they are used. More frequently, however, they are
+exposed for only a few hours to the heat of the sun, and the building is
+begun while they are yet damp. The"
+59," mud, however, is so tenacious that,
+notwithstanding this carelessness, they are not readily put out of shape.
+The outer faces of the bricks become disintegrated by the action of the
+weather, but those in the inner part of the wall remain intact, and are
+still separable. A good modern workman will easily mould a thousand bricks
+a day, and after a week's practice he may turn out 1,200, 1,500, or even
+1,800. The ancient workmen, whose appliances in no wise differed from those
+of the pre"
+60,"sent day, produced equally satisfactory results. The dimensions
+they generally adopted were 8.7 x 4.3 x 5.5 inches for ordinary bricks, or
+15.0 x 7.1 x 5.5 for a larger size (Note 3), though both larger and smaller
+are often met with in the ruins. Bricks issued from the royal workshops
+were sometimes stamped with the cartouches of the reigning monarch; while
+those made in private factories bore on the side a trade mark in red ochre,
+a squeeze of the moulder's fingers, or the stamp of t"
+61,"he maker. By far the
+greater number have, however, no distinctive mark. Burnt bricks were not
+often used before the Roman period (Note 4), nor tiles, either flat or
+curved. Glazed bricks appear to have been the fashion in the Delta. The
+finest specimen that I have seen, namely, one in the Gizeh Museum, is
+inscribed in black ink with the cartouches of Rameses III. The glaze of
+this brick is green, but other fragments are coloured blue, red, yellow, or
+white.
+
+The nature of the soil d"
+62,"oes not allow of deep foundations. It consists of a
+thin bed of made earth, which, except in large towns, never reaches any
+degree of thickness; below this comes a very dense humus, permeated by
+slender veins of sand; and below this again--at the level of infiltration--
+comes a bed of mud, more or less soft, according to the season. The native
+builders of the present day are content to remove only the made earth, and
+lay their foundations on the primeval soil; or, if that lies too deep"
+63,", they
+stop at a yard or so below the surface. The old Egyptians did likewise; and
+I have never seen any ancient house of which the foundations were more than
+four feet deep. Even this is exceptional, the depth in most cases being not
+more than two feet. They very often did not trouble themselves to cut
+trenches at all; they merely levelled the space intended to be covered,
+and, having probably watered it to settle the soil, they at once laid the
+bricks upon the surface. When the hous"
+64,"e was finished, the scraps of mortar,
+the broken bricks, and all the accumulated refuse of the work, made a bed
+of eight inches or a foot in depth, and the base of the wall thus buried
+served instead of a foundation. When the new house rose on the ruins of an
+older one decayed by time or ruined by accident, the builders did not even
+take the trouble to raze the old walls to the ground. Levelling the surface
+of the ruins, they-built upon them at a level a few feet higher than
+before: t"
+65,"hus each town stands upon one or several artificial mounds, the
+tops of which may occasionally rise to a height of from sixty to eighty
+feet above the surrounding country. The Greek historians attributed these
+artificial mounds to the wisdom of the kings, and especially to Sesostris,
+who, as they supposed, wished to raise the towns above the inundation. Some
+modern writers have even described the process, which they explain thus:--A
+cellular framework of brick walls, like a huge chess-"
+66,"board, formed the
+substructure, the cells being next filled in with earth, and the houses
+built upon this immense platform (Note 5).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Ancient house with vaulted floors, against the
+northern wall of the great temple of Medinet Habù]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Plan of three-quarters of the town of Hat-Hotep-
+Ûsertesen (Kahûn), built for the accommodation of the officials and workmen
+employed in connection with the pyramid of Ûsertesen II. at Illahûn. The
+workmen"
+67,"'s quarters are principally on the west, and separated from the
+eastern part of the town by a thick wall. At the south-west corner, outside
+the town, stood the pyramid temple, and in front of it the porter's lodge.
+Reproduced from Plate XIV. of _Illahûn, Kahun, and Gurob_, W.M.F. Petrie.]
+
+But where I have excavated, especially at Thebes, I have never found
+anything answering to this conception. The intersecting walls which one
+finds beneath the later houses are nothing but the ruins "
+68,"of older
+dwellings, which in turn rest on others still older. The slightness of the
+foundations did not prevent the builders from boldly running up quite lofty
+structures. In the ruins of Memphis, I have observed walls still standing
+from thirty to forty feet in height. The builders took no precaution beyond
+enlarging the base of the wall, and vaulting the floors (fig. 2).[1] The
+thickness of an ordinary wall was about sixteen inches for a low house; but
+for one of several storeys, it"
+69," was increased to three or four feet. Large
+beams, embedded here and there in the brickwork or masonry, bound the whole
+together, and strengthened the structure. The ground floor was also
+frequently built with dressed stones, while the upper parts were of brick.
+The limestone of the neighbouring hills was the stone commonly used for
+such purposes. The fragments of sandstone, granite, and alabaster, which
+are often found mixed in with it, are generally from some ruined temple;
+the anci"
+70,"ent Egyptians having pulled their neglected monuments to pieces
+quite as unscrupulously as do their modern successors. The houses of an
+ancient Egyptian town were clustered round its temple, and the temple stood
+in a rectangular enclosure to which access was obtained through monumental
+gateways in the surrounding brick wall. The gods dwelt in fortified
+mansions, or at any rate in redoubts to which the people of the place might
+fly for safety in the event of any sudden attack upon their"
+71," town. Such
+towns as were built all at once by prince or king were fairly regular in
+plan, having wide paved streets at right angles to each other, and the
+buildings in line. The older cities, whose growth had been determined by
+the chances and changes of centuries, were characterised by no such
+regularity. Their houses stood in a maze of blind alleys, and narrow, dark,
+and straggling streets, with here and there the branch of a canal, almost
+dried up during the greater part of the ye"
+72,"ar, and a muddy pond where the
+cattle drank and women came for water. Somewhere in each town was an open
+space shaded by sycamores or acacias, and hither on market days came the
+peas-ants of the district two or three times in the month. There were also
+waste places where rubbish and refuse was thrown, to be quarrelled over by
+vultures, hawks, and dogs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Plan of house, Medinet Habû]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Plan of house, Medinet Habû.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. "
+73,"6.--Façade of a house toward the street, second Theban
+period.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Plan of central court of house, second Theban
+period.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Restoration of the hall in a Twelfth Dynasty house.
+In the middle of the floor is a tank surrounded by a covered colonnade.
+Reproduced from Plate XVI. of _Illahûn, Kahun, and Gurob_, W.M.F.
+Petrie.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Box representing a house (British Museum).]
+
+The lower classes lived in mere huts which, t"
+74,"hough built of bricks, were no
+better than those of the present fellahin. At Karnak, in the Pharaonic
+town; at Kom Ombo, in the Roman town; and at Medinet Habû, in the Coptic
+town, the houses in the poorer quarters have seldom more than twelve or
+sixteen feet of frontage. They consist of a ground floor, with sometimes
+one or two living-rooms above. The middle-class folk, as shopkeepers, sub-
+officials, and foremen, were better housed. Their houses were brick-built
+and rather small, ye"
+75,"t contained some half-dozen rooms communicating by
+means of doorways, which were usually arched over, and having vaulted
+roofs in some cases, and in others flat ones. Some few of the houses were
+two or three storeys high, and many were separated from the street by a
+narrow court, beyond which the rooms were ranged on either side of a long
+passage (fig. 4). More frequently, the court was surrounded on three sides
+by chambers (fig. 5); and yet oftener the house fronted close upon the
+st"
+76,"reet. In the latter case the façade consisted of a high wall, whitewashed
+or painted, and surmounted by a cornice. Even in better houses the only
+ornamentation of their outer walls consisted in angular grooving, the
+grooves being surmounted by representations of two lotus flowers, each pair
+with the upper parts of the stalks in contact (see figs. 24, 25). The door
+was the only opening, save perhaps a few small windows pierced at irregular
+intervals (fig. 6). Even in unpretentious house"
+77,"s, the door was often made
+of stone. The doorposts projected slightly beyond the surface of the wall,
+and the lintel supported a painted or sculptured cornice. Having crossed
+the threshold, one passed successively through two dimly-lighted entrance
+chambers, the second of which opened into the central court (fig. 7). The
+best rooms in the houses of wealthier citizens were sometimes lighted
+through a square opening in the centre of a ceiling supported on wooden
+columns. In the Twelfth "
+78,"Dynasty town of Kahûn the shafts of these columns
+rested upon round stone bases; they were octagonal, and about ten inches in
+diameter (fig. 8). Notwithstanding the prevalence of enteric disease and
+ophthalmia, the family crowded together into one or two rooms during the
+winter, and slept out on the roof under the shelter of mosquito nets in
+summer. On the roof also the women gossiped and cooked. The ground floor
+included both store-rooms, barns, and stables. Private granaries were
+ge"
+79,"nerally in pairs (see fig. 11), brick-built in the same long conical
+shape as the state granaries, and carefully plastered with mud inside and
+out. Neither did the people of a house forget to find or to make hiding
+places in the walls or floors of their home, where they could secrete their
+household treasures--such as nuggets of gold and silver, precious stones,
+and jewellery for men and women--from thieves and tax-collectors alike.
+Wherever the upper floors still remain standing, they"
+80," reproduce the ground-
+floor plan with scarcely any differences. These upper rooms were reached by
+an outside staircase, steep and narrow, and divided at short intervals by
+small square landings. The rooms were oblong, and were lighted only from
+the doorway; when it was decided to open windows on the street, they were
+mere air-holes near the ceiling, pierced without regularity or symmetry,
+fitted with a lattice of wooden cross bars, and secured by wooden shutters.
+The floors were bric"
+81,"ked or paved, or consisted still more frequently of
+merely a layer of rammed earth. The rooms were not left undecorated; the
+mud-plaster of the walls, generally in its native grey, although
+whitewashed in some cases, was painted with red or yellow, and ornamented
+with drawings of interior and exterior views of a house, and of household
+vessels and eatables (fig. 10). The roof was flat, and made probably, as at
+the present day, of closely laid rows of palm-branches covered with a
+coati"
+82,"ng of mud thick enough to withstand the effects of rain. Sometimes it
+was surmounted by only one or two of the usual Egyptian ventilators; but
+generally there was a small washhouse on the roof (fig. 9), and a little
+chamber for the slaves or guards to sleep in. The household fire was made
+in a hollow of the earthen floor, usually to one side of the room, and the
+smoke escaped through a hole in the ceiling; branches of trees, charcoal,
+and dried cakes of ass or cow dung were used for fu"
+83,"el.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Wall-painting in a Twelfth Dynasty house. Below is
+a view of the outside, and above a view of the inside of a dwelling.
+Reproduced from Plate XVI. of _Illahûn, Kahun, and Gurob_, W.M.F. Petrie.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--View of mansion from the tomb of Anna, Eighteenth
+Dynasty.]
+
+The mansions of the rich and great covered a large space of ground. They
+most frequently stood in the midst of a garden, or of an enclosed court
+planted with trees; and, lik"
+84,"e the commoner houses, they turned a blank
+front to the street, consisting of bare walls, battlemented like those of a
+fortress (fig. 11). Thus, home-life was strictly secluded, and the pleasure
+of seeing was sacrificed for the advantages of not being seen. The door was
+approached by a flight of two or three steps, or by a porch supported on
+columns (fig. 12) and adorned with statues (fig. 13), which gave it a
+monumental appearance, and indicated the social importance of the family.
+
"
+85,"
+[Illustration: WALL-PAINTINGS, EL AMARNA.
+Fig. 12.--Porch of mansion, second Theban period,
+Fig. 13.--Porch of mansion, second Theban period.]
+
+Sometimes this was preceded by a pylon-gateway, such as usually heralded
+the approach to a temple. Inside the enclosure it was like a small town,
+divided into quarters by irregular walls. The dwelling-house stood at the
+farther end; the granaries, stabling, and open spaces being distributed in
+different parts of the grounds, according to som"
+86,"e system to which we as yet
+possess no clue. These arrangements, however, were infinitely varied. If I
+would convey some idea of the residence of an Egyptian noble,--a residence
+half palace, half villa,--I cannot do better than reproduce two out of the
+many pictorial plans which have come down to us among the tomb-paintings
+of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The first (figs. 14, 15) represent a Theban
+house. The enclosure is square, and surrounded by an embattled wall. The
+main gate opens upo"
+87,"n a road bordered with trees, which runs beside a canal,
+or perhaps an arm of the Nile. Low stone walls divide the garden into
+symmetrical compartments, like those which are seen to this day in the
+great gardens of Ekhmîm or Girgeh.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Plan of a Theban house with garden, from
+Eighteenth Dynasty tomb-painting.]
+
+In the centre is a large trellis supported on four rows of slender pillars.
+Four small ponds, two to the right and two to the left, are stocked with
+d"
+88,"ucks and geese. Two nurseries, two summer-houses, and various avenues of
+sycamores, date-palms, and dôm-palms fill up the intermediate space; while
+at the end, facing the entrance, stands a small three-storied house
+surmounted by a painted cornice.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Perspective view of the Theban house, from
+Eighteenth Dynasty tomb-painting.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Part of the palace of Aï, from tomb-painting,
+Eighteenth Dynasty, El Amarna.]
+
+The second plan is copied f"
+89,"rom one of the rock-cut tombs of Tell el Amarna
+(figs. 16, 17). Here we see a house situate at the end of the gardens of
+the great lord Aï, son-in-law of the Pharaoh Khûenaten, and himself
+afterwards king of Egypt. An oblong stone tank with sloping sides, and two
+descending flights of steps, faces the entrance. The building is
+rectangular, the width being somewhat greater than the depth. A large
+doorway opens in the middle of the front, and gives access to a court
+planted with trees a"
+90,"nd flanked by store-houses fully stocked with
+provisions. Two small courts, placed symmetrically in the two farthest
+corners, contain the staircases which lead up to the roof terrace. This
+first building, however, is but the frame which surrounds the owner's
+dwelling. The two frontages are each adorned with a pillared portico and a
+pylon. Passing the outer door, we enter a sort of long central passage,
+divided by two walls pierced with doorways, so as to form three successive
+courts. "
+91,"The inside court is bordered by chambers; the two others open to
+right and left upon two smaller courts, whence flights of steps lead up to
+the terraced roof. This central building is called the _Akhonûti_, or
+private dwelling of kings or nobles, to which only the family and intimate
+friends had access. The number of storeys and the arrangement of the façade
+varied according to the taste of the owner. The frontage was generally a
+straight wall. Sometimes it was divided into three parts"
+92,", with the middle
+division projecting, in which case the two wings were ornamented with a
+colonnade to each storey (fig. 18), or surmounted by an open gallery (fig.
+19). The central pavilion sometimes presents the appearance of a tower,
+which dominates the rest of the building (fig. 20). The façade is often
+decorated with slender colonnettes of painted wood, which bear no weight,
+and merely serve to lighten the somewhat severe aspect of the exterior. Of
+the internal arrangements, we k"
+93,"now but little. As in the middle-class
+houses, the sleeping rooms were probably small and dark; but, on the other
+hand, the reception rooms must have been nearly as large as those still in
+use in the Arab houses of modern Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Perspective view of the Palace of AT, Eighteenth
+Dynasty, El Amarna.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Frontage of house, second Theban period.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Frontage of house, second Theban period.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20"
+94,".--Central pavilion of house, in form of tower,
+second Theban period.]
+
+The decoration of walls and ceilings in no wise resembled such scenes or
+designs as we find in the tombs. The panels were whitewashed or colour-
+washed, and bordered with a polychrome band. The ceilings were usually left
+white; sometimes, however they were decorated with geometrical patterns,
+which repeated the leading motives employed in the sepulchral wall-
+paintings. Thus we find examples of meanders intersper"
+95,"sed with rosettes
+(fig. 21), parti-coloured squares (fig. 22), ox-heads seen frontwise,
+scrolls, and flights of geese (fig. 23).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Ceiling pattern from behind, Medinet Habû,
+Twentieth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Ceiling pattern similar to one at El Bersheh,
+Twelfth Dynasty.]
+
+I have touched chiefly upon houses of the second Theban period,[2] this
+being in fact the time of which we have most examples. The house-shaped
+lamps which are found in such l"
+96,"arge numbers in the Fayûm date only from
+Roman times; but the Egyptians of that period continued to build according
+to the rules which were in force under the Pharaohs of the Twelfth,
+Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties. As regards the domestic
+architecture of the ancient kingdom, the evidences are few and obscure.
+Nevertheless, the stelae, tombs, and coffins of that period often furnish
+designs which show us the style of the doorways (fig. 24), and one Fourth
+Dynasty sarc"
+97,"ophagus, that of Khûfû Poskhû, is carved in the likeness of a
+house (fig. 25).
+
+
+[1] Many of the rooms at Kahun had vaulted ceilings.
+
+[2] Seventeenth to Twentieth Dynasties.
+
+
+
+
+2.--FORTRESSES.
+
+Most of the towns, and even most of the larger villages, of ancient Egypt
+were walled. This was an almost necessary consequence of the geographical
+characteristics and the political constitution of the country. The mouths
+of the defiles which led into the desert needed to be closed a"
+98,"gainst the
+Bedawîn; while the great feudal nobles fortified their houses, their towns,
+and the villages upon their domains which commanded either the mountain
+passes or the narrow parts of the river, against their king or their
+neighbours.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Ceiling pattern from tomb of Aimadûa, Twentieth
+Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Door of a house of the Ancient Empire, from the
+wall of a tomb of the Sixth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Façade of a Fourth Dyn"
+99,"asty house, from the
+sarcophagus of Khûfû Poskhû.]
+
+The oldest fortresses are those of Abydos, El Kab, and Semneh. Abydos
+contained a sanctuary dedicated to Osiris, and was situate at the entrance
+to one of the roads leading to the Oasis. As the renown of the temple
+attracted pilgrims, so the position of the city caused it to be frequented
+by merchants; hence the prosperity which it derived from the influx of both
+classes of strangers exposed the city to incursions of the Libyan trib"
+100,"es.
+At Abydos there yet remain two almost perfect strongholds. The older forms,
+as it were, the core of that tumulus called by the Arabs ""Kom es Sultan,""
+or ""the Mound of the King."" The interior of this building has been
+excavated to a point some ten or twelve feet above the ground level, but
+the walls outside have not yet been cleared from the surrounding sand and
+rubbish. In its present condition, it forms a parallelogram of crude
+brickwork measuring 410 feet from north to south, an"
+101,"d 223 feet from east to
+west. The main axis of the structure extends, therefore, from north to
+south. The principal gateway opens in the western wall, not far from the
+northwest corner: but there would appear to have been two smaller gates,
+one in the south front, and one in the east. The walls, which now stand
+from twenty-four to thirty-six feet high, have lost somewhat of their
+original height. They are about six feet thick at the top. They were not
+built all together in uniform lay"
+102,"ers, but in huge vertical panels, easily
+distinguished by the arrangement of the brickwork. In one division the
+bedding of the bricks is strictly horizontal; in the next it is slightly
+concave, and forms a very flat reversed arch, of which the extrados rests
+upon the ground. The alternation of these two methods is regularly
+repeated. The object of this arrangement is obscure; but it is said that
+buildings thus constructed are especially fitted to resist earthquake
+shocks. However this"
+103," may be, the fortress is extremely ancient, for in the
+Fifth Dynasty, the nobles of Abydos took possession of the interior, and,
+ultimately, so piled it up with their graves as to deprive it of all
+strategic value. A second stronghold, erected a few hundred yards further
+to the south-east, replaced that of Kom es Sultan about the time of the
+Twelfth Dynasty, and narrowly escaped the fate of the first, under the rule
+of the Ramessides. Nothing, in fact, but the sudden decline of the cit"
+104,"y,
+saved the second from being similarly choked and buried.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Plan of second fortress at Abydos, Eleventh or
+Twelfth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Walls of second fort at Abydos, restored.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Façade of fort, from wall-scene, Beni Hasan,
+Twelfth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Plan of main gate, second fortress of Abydos.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Plan of south-east gate, second fortress of
+Abydos.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig"
+105,". 31.--Plan of gate, fortress of Kom el Ahmar.]
+
+The early Egyptians possessed no engines calculated to make an impression
+on very massive walls. They knew of but three ways of forcing a stronghold;
+namely, scaling the walls, sapping them, or bursting open the gates. The
+plan adopted by their engineers in building the second fort is admirably
+well calculated to resist each of these modes of attack (fig. 26). The
+outer walls are long and straight, without towers or projections of any
+"
+106,"kind; they measure 430 feet in length from north to south, by 255 feet in
+width. The foundations rest on the sand, and do not go down more than a
+foot. The wall (fig. 27) is of crude brick, in horizontal courses. It has a
+slight batter; is solid, without slits or loopholes; and is decorated
+outside with long vertical grooves or panels, like those depicted on the
+stelae of the ancient empire. In its present state, it rises to a height of
+some thirty-six feet above the plain; when perfec"
+107,"t, it would scarcely have
+exceeded forty feet, which height would amply suffice to protect the
+garrison from all danger of scaling by portable ladders. The thickness of
+the wall is about twenty feet at the base, and sixteen feet above. The top
+is destroyed, but the bas-reliefs and mural paintings (fig. 28) show that
+it must have been crowned with a continuous cornice, boldly projecting,
+furnished with a slight low parapet, and surmounted by battlements, which
+were generally rounded, b"
+108,"ut sometimes, though rarely, squared. The walk
+round the top of the ramparts, though diminished by the parapet, was still
+twelve or fifteen feet wide. It ran uninterruptedly along the four sides,
+and was reached by narrow staircases formed in the thickness of the walls,
+but now destroyed. There was no ditch, but in order to protect the base of
+the main wall from sappers, they erected, about ten feet in advance of it,
+a battlemented covering wall, some sixteen feet in height. These
+pre"
+109,"cautions sufficed against sap and scaling; but the gates remained as
+open gaps in the circuit. It was upon these weak points that besiegers and
+besieged alike concentrated their efforts. The fortress of Abydos had two
+gates, the main one being situate at the east end of the north front (fig.
+29). A narrow cutting (A), closed by a massive wooden door, marked the
+place in the covering wall. Behind it was a small _place d'armes_ (B), cut
+partly in the thickness of the wall, and leading to"
+110," a second gate (C) as
+narrow as the first. When, notwithstanding the showers of missiles poured
+upon them from the top of the walls, not only in front, but also from both
+sides, the attacking party had succeeded in carrying this second door, they
+were not yet in the heart of the place. They would still have to traverse
+an oblong court (D), closely hemmed in between the outer walls and the
+cross walls, which last stood at right angles to the first. Finally, they
+must force a last poste"
+111,"rn (E), which was purposely placed in the most
+awkward corner. The leading principle in the construction of fortress-gates
+was always the same, but the details varied according to the taste of the
+engineer. At the south-east gate of the fort of Abydos (fig. 30) the _place
+d'armes_ between the two walls is abolished, and the court is constructed
+entirely in the thickness of the main wall; while at Kom el Ahmar, opposite
+El Kab (fig. 31), the block of brickwork in the midst of which the "
+112,"gate is
+cut projects boldly in front. The posterns opening at various points
+facilitated the movements of the garrison, and enabled them to multiply
+their sorties.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Plan of the walled city at El Kab.]
+
+The same system of fortification which was in use for isolated fortresses
+was also employed for the protection of towns. At Heliopollis, at Sãn, at
+Sais, at Thebes, everywhere in short, we find long straight walls forming
+plain squares or parallelograms, with"
+113,"out towers or bastions, ditches or
+outworks. The thickness of the walls, which varied from thirty to eighty
+feet, made such precautions needless. The gates, or at all events the
+principal ones, had jambs and lintels of stone, decorated with scenes and
+inscriptions; as, for instance, that of Ombos, which Champollion beheld yet
+_in situ_, and which dated from the reign of Thothmes III. The oldest and
+best preserved walled city in Egypt, namely, El Kab, belongs probably to
+the ancient em"
+114,"pire (fig. 32). The Nile washed part of it away some years
+ago; but at the beginning of the present century it formed an irregular
+quadrilateral enclosure, measuring some 2,100 feet in length, by about a
+quarter less in breadth. The south front is constructed on the same
+principles as the wall at Kom es Sultan, the bricks being bedded in
+alternate horizontal and concave sections. Along the north and west fronts
+they are laid in undulating layers from end to end. The thickness is
+thirt"
+115,"y-eight feet, and the average height thirty feet; and spacious ramps
+lead up to the walk upon the walls. The gates are placed irregularly, one
+in each side to north, east, and west, but none in the south face; they
+are, however, in too ruinous a state to admit of any plan being taken of
+them. The enclosure contained a considerable population, whose dwellings
+were unequally distributed, the greater part being concentrated towards the
+north and west, where excavations have disclosed the "
+116,"remains of a large
+number of houses. The temples were grouped together in a square enclosure,
+concentric with the outer wall; and this second enclosure served for a
+keep, where the garrison could hold out long after the rest of the town had
+fallen into the hands of the enemy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Plan of walled city at Kom Ombo.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Plan of fortress of Kùmmeh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Plan of fortress of Semneh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Section of "
+117,"the platform at A B, of the preceding
+plan.]
+
+The rectangular plan, though excellent in a plain, was not always
+available in a hilly country. When the spot to be fortified was situate
+upon a height, the Egyptian engineers knew perfectly well how to adapt
+their lines of defence to the nature of the site. At Kom Ombo (fig. 33) the
+walls exactly followed the outline of the isolated mound on which the town
+was perched, and presented towards the east a front bristling with
+irregular proj"
+118,"ections, the style of which roughly resembles our modern
+bastions. At Kûmmeh and Semneh, in Nubia, where the Nile rushes over the
+rocks of the second cataract, the engineering arrangements are very
+ingenious, and display much real skill. Ûsertesen III. had fixed on this
+pass as the frontier of Egypt, and the fortresses which he there
+constructed were intended to bar the water-way against the vessels of the
+neighbouring negro tribes. At Kûmmeh, on the right bank, the position was
+natur"
+119,"ally strong (fig. 34). Upon a rocky height surrounded by precipices
+was planned an irregular square measuring about 200 feet each way. Two
+elongated bastions, one on the north-east and the other on the south-east,
+guarded respectively the path leading to the gate, and the course of the
+river. The covering wall stood thirteen feet high, and closely followed the
+line of the main wall, except at the north and south corners, where it
+formed two bastion-like projections. At Semneh, on the o"
+120,"pposite bank, the
+site was less favourable. The east side was protected by a belt of cliffs
+going sheer down to the water's edge; but the three other sides were well-
+nigh open (fig. 35). A straight wall, about fifty feet in height, carried
+along the cliffs on the side next the river; but the walls looking towards
+the plain rose to eighty feet, and bristled with bastion-like projections
+(A.B.) jutting out for a distance of fifty feet from the curtain wall,
+measuring thirty feet thick "
+121,"at the base and thirteen feet at the top, and
+irregularly spaced, according to the requirements of the defence. These
+spurs, which are not battlemented, served in place of towers. They added to
+the strength of the walls, protected the walk round the top, and enabled
+the besieged to direct a flank attack against the enemy if any attempt were
+made upon the wall of circuit. The intervals between these spurs are
+accurately calculated as to distance, in order that the archers should be
+abl"
+122,"e to sweep the intervening ground with their arrows. Curtains and
+salients are alike built of crude brick, with beams bedded horizontally in
+the mass. The outer face is in two parts, the lower division being nearly
+vertical, and the upper one inclined at an angle of about seventy degrees,
+which made scaling very difficult, if not impossible. The whole of the
+ground enclosed by the wall of circuit was filled in to nearly the level of
+the ramparts (fig. 36). Externally, the covering wall"
+123," of stone was
+separated from the body of the fortress by a dry ditch, some 100 to 130
+feet in width. This wall closely followed the main outline, and rose to a
+height which varied according to the situation from six to ten feet above
+the level of the plain. On the northward side it was cut by the winding
+road, which led down into the plain. These arrangements, skilful as they
+were, did not prevent the fall of the place. A large breach in the
+southward face, between the two salients ne"
+124,"arest to the river, marks the
+point of attack selected by the enemy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Syrian fort.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--The town-walls of Dapür.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--City of Kadesh, Ramesseum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Plan of the pavilion of Medinet Habu.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Elevation of pavilion, Medinet Habû.]
+
+New methods of fortification were revealed to the Egyptians in the course
+of the great Asiatic wars undertaken by the Pharaohs of the Eig"
+125,"hteenth
+Dynasty. The nomadic tribes of Syria erected small forts in which they took
+refuge when threatened with invasion (fig. 37). The Canaanite and Hittite
+cities, as Ascalon, Dapur, and Merom, were surrounded by strong walls,
+generally built of stone and flanked with towers (fig. 38). Those which
+stood in the open country, as, for instance, Qodshû (Kadesh), were enclosed
+by a double moat (fig. 39). Having proved the efficacy of these new types
+of defensive architecture in the cours"
+126,"e of their campaigns, the Pharaohs
+reproduced them in the valley of the Nile. From the beginning of the
+Nineteenth Dynasty, the eastern frontier of the Delta (always the weakest)
+was protected by a line of forts constructed after the Canaanite model. The
+Egyptians, moreover, not content with appropriating the thing, appropriated
+also the name, and called these frontier towers by the Semitic name of
+_Magdilû_ or Migdols. For these purposes, or at all events for cities which
+were expose"
+127,"d to the incursions of the Asiatic tribes, brick was not deemed
+to be sufficiently strong; hence the walls of Heliopolis, and even those of
+Memphis, were faced with stone. Of these new fortresses no ruins remain;
+and but for a royal caprice which happens to have left us a model Migdol in
+that most unlikely place, the necropolis of Thebes, we should now be
+constrained to attempt a restoration of their probable appearance from the
+representations in certain mural tableaux. When, however,"
+128," Rameses III.
+erected his memorial temple[3] (figs. 40 and 41), he desired, in
+remembrance of his Syrian victories, to give it an outwardly military
+aspect. Along the eastward front of the enclosure there accordingly runs a
+battlemented covering wall of stone, averaging some thirteen feet in
+height. The gate, protected by a large quadrangular bastion, opened in the
+middle of this wall. It was three feet four inches in width, and was
+flanked by two small oblong guard-houses, the flat r"
+129,"oofs of which stood
+about three feet higher than the ramparts. Passing this gate, we stand face
+to face with a real Migdol. Two blocks of building enclose a succession of
+court-yards, which narrow as they recede, and are connected at the lower
+end by a kind of gate-house, consisting of one massive gateway surmounted
+by two storeys of chambers. The eastward faces of the towers rise above an
+inclined basement, which slopes to a height of from fifteen to sixteen feet
+from the ground. Thi"
+130,"s answered two purposes. It increased the strength of
+the wall at the part exposed to sappers; it also caused the rebound of
+projectiles thrown from above, and so helped to keep assailants at a
+distance. The whole height is about seventy-two feet, and the width of each
+tower is thirty-two feet. The buildings situate at the back, to right and
+left of the gate, were destroyed in ancient times. The details of the
+decoration are partly religious, partly triumphal, as befits the character
+"
+131,"of the structure. It is unlikely, however, that actual fortresses were
+adorned with brackets and bas-relief sculptures, such as we here see on
+either side of the fore-court. Such as it is, the so-called ""pavilion"" of
+Medinet Habu offers an unique example of the high degree of perfection to
+which the victorious Pharaohs of this period had carried their military
+architecture.
+
+Material evidence fails us almost entirely, after the reign of Rameses III.
+Towards the close of the eleventh "
+132,"century B.C., the high-priests of Amen
+repaired the walls of Thebes, of Gebeleyn, and of El Hibeh opposite Feshn.
+The territorial subdivision of the country, which took place under the
+successors of Sheshonk, compelled the provincial princes to multiply their
+strongholds. The campaign of Piankhi on the banks of the Nile is a series
+of successful sieges. Nothing, however, leads us to suppose that the art of
+fortification had at that time made any distinct progress; and when the
+Greek r"
+133,"ulers succeeded the native Pharaohs, they most probably found it at
+much the same stage as it was left by the engineers of the Nineteenth and
+Twentieth Dynasties.
+
+
+[3] At Medinet Habû.
+
+
+
+
+3.--PUBLIC WORKS.
+
+
+A permanent network of roads would be useless in a country like Egypt. The
+Nile here is the natural highway for purposes of commerce, and the pathways
+which intersect the fields suffice for foot-passengers, for cattle, and for
+the transport of goods from village to vill"
+134,"age. Ferry-boats for crossing
+the river, fords wherever the canals were shallow enough, and embanked dams
+thrown up here and there where the water was too deep for fordings,
+completed the system of internal communication. Bridges were rare. Up to
+the present time, we know of but one in the whole territory of ancient
+Egypt; and whether that one was long or short, built of stone or of wood,
+supported on arches or boldly flung across the stream from bank to bank, we
+cannot even conjectur"
+135,"e. This bridge, close under the very walls of Zarû,[4]
+crossed the canal which separated the eastern frontier of Egypt from the
+desert regions of Arabia Petraea. A fortified enclosure protected this
+canal on the Asiatic side, as shown in the accompanying illustration (fig.
+42). The maintenance of public highways, which figures as so costly an item
+in the expenses of modern nations, played, therefore, but a very small part
+in the annual disbursements of the Pharaohs, who had only to pro"
+136,"vide for
+the due execution of three great branches of government works,--namely,
+storage, irrigation, mining and quarrying.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Canal and bridge, Zarû, Karnak.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Cellar, with amphorae.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Granary.]
+
+The taxation of ancient Egypt was levied in kind, and government servants
+were paid after the same system. To workmen, there were monthly
+distributions of corn, oil, and wine, wherewith to support their families;
+"
+137,"while from end to end of the social scale, each functionary, in exchange
+for his labour, received cattle, stuffs, manufactured goods, and certain
+quantities of copper or precious metals. Thus it became necessary that the
+treasury officials should have the command of vast storehouses for the safe
+keeping of the various goods collected under the head of taxation. These
+were classified and stored in separate quarters, each storehouse being
+surrounded by walls and guarded by vigilant keepe"
+138,"rs. There was enormous
+stabling for cattle; there were cellars where the amphorae were piled in
+regular layers (fig. 43), or hung in rows upon the walls, each with the
+date written on the side of the jar; there were oven-shaped granaries where
+the corn was poured in through a trap at the top (fig. 44), and taken out
+through a trap at the bottom. At Thûkû, identified with Pithom by M.
+Naville,[5] the store-chambers (A) are rectangular and of different
+dimensions (fig. 45), originally d"
+139,"ivided by floors, and having no
+communication with each other. Here the corn had to be not only put in but
+taken out through the aperture at the top. At the Ramesseum, Thebes,
+thousands of ostraka and jar-stoppers found upon the spot prove that the
+brick-built remains at the back of the temple were the cellars of the local
+deity. The ruins consist of a series of vaulted chambers, originally
+surmounted by a platform or terrace (fig. 46). At Philae, Ombos,
+Daphnae,[6] and most of the fr"
+140,"ontier towns of the Delta, there were
+magazines of this description, and many more will doubtless be discovered
+when made the object of serious exploration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Plan of Pithom.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Store-chambers of the Ramesseum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Dike at Wady Gerraweh.]
+
+The irrigation system of Egypt is but little changed since the olden time.
+Some new canals have been cut, and yet more have been silted up through the
+negligence of those in"
+141," power; but the general scheme, and the methods
+employed, continue much the same, and demand but little engineering skill.
+Wherever I have investigated the remains of ancient canals, I have been
+unable to detect any traces of masonry at the weak points, or at the
+mouths, of these cuttings. They are mere excavated ditches, from twenty to
+sixty or seventy feet in width. The earth flung out during the work was
+thrown to right and left, forming irregular embankments from seven to
+fourteen"
+142," feet in height. The course of the ancient canals was generally
+straight: but that rule was not strictly observed, and enormous curves
+were often described in order to avoid even slight irregularities of
+surface. Dikes thrown up from the foot of the cliffs to the banks of the
+Nile divided the plain at intervals into a series of artificial basins,
+where the overflow formed back-waters at the time of inundation. These
+dikes are generally earth-works, though they are sometimes constructed"
+143," of
+baked brick, as in the province of Girgeh. Very rarely are they built of
+hewn stone, like that great dike of Kosheish which was constructed by Mena
+in primaeval times, in order to divert the course of the Nile from the spot
+on which he founded Memphis.[7] The network of canals began near Silsilis
+and extended to the sea-board, without ever losing touch of the river, save
+at one spot near Beni Sûef, where it throws out a branch in the direction
+of the Fayûm. Here, through a narrow "
+144,"and sinuous gorge, deepened probably
+by the hand of man, it passes the rocky barrier which divides that low-
+lying province from the valley of the Nile, and thence expands into a
+fanlike ramification of innumerable channels. Having thus irrigated the
+district, the waters flow out again; those nearest the Nile returning by
+the same way that they flowed in, while the rest form a series of lakes,
+the largest of which is known as the Birket el Kûrûn. If we are to believe
+Herodotus, the wo"
+145,"rk was not so simply done. A king, named Moeris, desired
+to create a reservoir in the Fayûm which should neutralise the evil effects
+of insufficient or superabundant inundations. This reservoir was named,
+after him, Lake Moeris. If the supply fell below the average, then the
+stored waters were let loose, and Lower Egypt and the Western Delta were
+flooded to the needful height. If next year the inundation came down in too
+great force, Lake Moeris received and stored the surplus till suc"
+146,"h time as
+the waters began to subside. Two pyramids, each surmounted by a sitting
+colossus, one representing the king and the other his queen, were erected
+in the midst of the lake. Such is the tale told by Herodotus, and it is a
+tale which has considerably embarrassed our modern engineers and
+topographers. How, in fact, was it possible to find in the Fayûm a site
+which could have contained a basin measuring at least ninety miles in
+circumference? Linant supposed ""Lake Moeris"" to have"
+147," extended over the
+whole of the low-lying land which skirts the Libyan cliffs between Illahûn
+and Medinet el Fayûm; but recent explorations have proved that the dikes by
+which this pretended reservoir was bounded are modern works, erected
+probably within the last two hundred years. Major Brown has lately shown
+that the nucleus of ""Lake Moeris"" was the Birket el Kûrûn.[8] This was
+known to the Egyptians as _Miri, Mi-ûri,_ the Great Lake, whence the Greeks
+derived their _Moiris_ a name "
+148,"extended also to the inundation of the Fayûm.
+If Herodotus did actually visit this province, it was probably in summer,
+at the time of the high Nile, when the whole district presents the
+appearance of an inland sea. What he took for the shores of this lake were
+the embankments which divided it into basins and acted as highways between
+the various towns. His narrative, repeated by the classic authors, has
+been accepted by the moderns; and Egypt, neither accepting nor rejecting
+it, was "
+149,"gratified long after date with the reputation of a gigantic work
+which would in truth have been the glory of her civil engineers, if it had
+ever existed. I do not believe that ""Lake Moeris"" ever did exist. The only
+works of the kind which the Egyptians undertook were much less pretentious.
+These consist of stone-built dams erected at the mouths of many of those
+lateral ravines, or wadys, which lead down from the mountain ranges into
+the valley of the Nile. One of the most important amo"
+150,"ng them was pointed
+out, in 1885, by Dr. Schweinfurth, at a distance of about six miles and a
+half from the Baths of Helwan, at the mouth of the Wady Gerraweh (fig. 47).
+It answered two purposes, firstly, as a means of storing the water of the
+inundation for the use of the workmen in the neighbouring quarries; and,
+secondly, as a barrier to break the force of the torrents which rush down
+from the desert after the heavy rains of springtime and winter. The ravine
+measures about 240 feet"
+151," in width, the sides being on an average from 40 to
+50 feet in height. The dam, which is 143 feet in thickness, consists of
+three layers of material; at the bottom, a bed of clay and rubble; next, a
+piled mass of limestone blocks (A); lastly, a wall of cut stone built in
+retreating stages, like an enormous flight of steps (B). Thirty-two of the
+original thirty-five stages are yet _in situ_, and about one-fourth part of
+the dam remains piled up against the sides of the ravine to right a"
+152,"nd left;
+but the middle part has been swept away by the force of the torrent (fig.
+48). A similar dike transformed the end of Wady Genneh into a little lake
+which supplied the Sinaitic miners with water.
+
+Most of the localities from which the Egyptians derived their metals and
+choicest materials in hard stone, were difficult of access, and would have
+been useless had roads not been made, and works of this kind carried out,
+so as to make life somewhat less insupportable there.
+
+[Ill"
+153,"ustration: Fig. 48.--Section of dike at Wady Gerraweh.]
+
+In order to reach the diorite and grey granite quarries of the Hammamat
+Valley, the Pharaohs caused a series of rock-cut cisterns to be constructed
+along the line of route. Some few insignificant springs, skilfully
+conducted into these reservoirs, made it possible to plant workmen's
+villages in the neighbourhood of the quarries, and also near the emerald
+mines on the borders of the Red Sea. Hundreds of hired labourers, slaves,
+"
+154,"and condemned criminals here led a wretched existence under the rule of
+some eight or ten overseers, and the brutal surveillance of a company of
+Libyan or negro mercenary troops. The least political disturbance in Egypt,
+an unsuccessful campaign, or any untoward incident of a troubled reign,
+sufficed to break up the precarious stability of these remote
+establishments. The Bedawîn at once attacked the colony; the workmen
+deserted; the guards, weary of exile, hastened back to the valley "
+155,"of the
+Nile, and all was at a standstill.
+
+The choicest materials, as diorite, basalt, black granite, porphyry, and
+red and yellow breccia, which are only found in the desert, were rarely
+used for architectural purposes. In order to procure them, it was necessary
+to organise regular expeditions of soldiers and workmen; therefore they
+were reserved for sarcophagi and important works of art. Those quarries
+which supplied building materials for temples and funerary monuments, such
+as l"
+156,"imestone, sandstone, alabaster, and red granite, were all found in the
+Nile valley, and were, therefore, easy of access. When the vein which it
+was intended to work traversed the lower strata of the rock, the miners
+excavated chambers and passages, which were often prolonged to a
+considerable distance. Square pillars, left standing at intervals,
+supported the superincumbent mass, while tablets sculptured in the most
+conspicuous places commemorated the kings and engineers who began or
+"
+157,"continued the work. Several exhausted or abandoned quarries have been
+transformed into votive chapels; as, for instance, the Speos Artemidos,
+which was consecrated by Hatshepsut, Thothmes III. and Seti I. to the local
+goddess Pakhet.[9]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Quarries of Silsilis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Draught of Hathor capital in quarry of Gebel
+Abûfeydeh.]
+
+The most important limestone quarries are at Tûrah and Massarah, nearly
+opposite Memphis. This stone lends itself a"
+158,"dmirably to the most delicate
+touches of the chisel, hardens when exposed to the air, and acquires a
+creamy tone most restful to the eye. Hence it was much in request by
+architects and sculptors. The most extensive sandstone formations are at
+Silsilis (fig. 49). Here the cliffs were quarried from above, and under the
+open sky. Clean cut and absolutely vertical, they rise to a height of from
+forty to fifty feet, sometimes presenting a smooth surface from top to
+bottom, and sometimes cu"
+159,"t in stages accessible by means of steps scarcely
+large enough for one man at a time. The walls of these cuttings are covered
+with parallel striae, sometimes horizontal, sometimes slanting to the left,
+and sometimes to the right, so forming lines of serried chevrons framed, as
+it were, between grooves an inch, or an inch and a half, in width, by nine
+or ten feet in length. These are the scars left upon the surface by the
+tools of the ancient workmen, and they show the method employed i"
+160,"n
+detaching the blocks. The size was outlined in red ink, and this outline
+sometimes indicated the form which the stone was to take in the projected
+building. The members of the French Commission, when they visited the
+quarries of Gebel Abûfeydeh, copied the diagrams and squared designs of
+several capitals, one being of the campaniform pattern, and others prepared
+for the Hathor-head pattern (fig. 50).[10] The outline made, the vertical
+faces of the block were divided by means of a lo"
+161,"ng iron chisel, which was
+driven in perpendicularly or obliquely by heavy blows of the mallet. In
+order to detach the horizontal faces, they made use of wooden or bronze
+wedges, inserted the way of the natural strata of the stone. Very
+frequently the stone was roughly blocked out before being actually
+extracted from the bed. Thus at Syene (Asûan) we see a couchant obelisk of
+granite, the under side of which is one with the rock itself; and at Tehneh
+there are drums of columns but half"
+162," disengaged. The transport of quarried
+stone was effected in various ways. At Syene, at Silsilis, at Gebel Sheikh
+Herideh, and at Gebel Abûfeydeh, the quarries are literally washed by the
+waters of the Nile, so that the stone was lowered at once into the barges.
+At Kasr es Saîd,[11] at Tûrah, and other localities situate at some
+distance from the river, canals dug expressly for the purpose conveyed the
+transport boats to the foot of the cliffs. When water transit was out of
+the questi"
+163,"on, the stone was placed on sledges drawn by oxen (fig. 51), or
+dragged to its destination by gangs of labourers, and by the help of
+rollers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Bas-relief from one of the stelae of Ahmes, at
+Tûrrah, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+
+[4] The bas-relief sculpture from which the illustration, fig. 42, is taken
+    (outer wall of Hypostyle Hall, Karnak, north end) represents Seti I.
+    returning in triumph from one of his Syrian campaigns. He is met at
+    Zarû by the gr"
+164,"eat officers of his court, who bring bouquets of lotus-
+    blossoms in their hands. Pithom and other frontier forts are depicted
+    in this tableau, and Pithom is apparently not very far from Zarû.
+    Zarû, Zalu, is the Selle of the Roman Itineraries.--A.B.E.
+
+[5] See _The Store City of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus,_ by Ed.
+    Naville, with 13 Plates and 2 Maps; published by the Egypt Exploration
+    Fund. First edition 1885, second edition 1885. Trübner & Co., London.
+    "
+165,"--A.B.E.
+
+[6] For an account of the explorations at Daphnae (the ""Tahpanhes"" of the
+    Bible, the _Tell Defenneh_ of the present day) see Mr. Petrie's
+    memoir, entitled _Tanis, Part II, (including Nebesheh, Gemayemi,
+    Defenneh, etc.)_, published by the Egypt Exploration Fund.--A.B.E.
+
+[7] The remains of this gigantic work may yet be seen about two hours'
+    distance to the southward of Medûm. See Herodotus, book II.; chap.
+    99.--A.B.E.
+
+[8] See _The Fayûm and Lake Moeri"
+166,"s_. Major R.H. Brown, R.E.
+
+[9] Officially, this temple is attributed to Thothmes III., and the
+    dedicatory inscription dates from the first year of his reign; but the
+    work was really that of his aunt and predecessor, Queen Hatshepsût.
+
+[10] See also an exact reduction of this design, to scale, in Mr. Petrie's
+    work _A Season in Egypt_, 1887, Plate XXV.
+
+[11] Chenoboscion.--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+_RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE_.
+
+In the civil and military architecture o"
+167,"f Ancient Egypt brick played the
+principal part; but in the religious architecture of the nation it occupied
+a very secondary position. The Pharaohs were ambitious of building eternal
+dwellings for their deities, and stone was the only material which seemed
+sufficiently durable to withstand the ravages of time and man.
+
+
+I.--MATERIALS AND PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
+
+
+It is an error to suppose that the Egyptians employed only large blocks for
+building purposes. The size of their m"
+168,"aterials varied very considerably
+according to the uses for which they were destined. Architraves, drums of
+columns, lintel-stones, and door-jambs were sometimes of great size. The
+longest architraves known--those, namely, which bridge the nave of the
+hypostyle hall of Karnak--have a mean length of 30 feet. They each contain
+40 cubic yards, and weigh about 65 tons. Ordinarily, however, the blocks
+are not much larger than those now used in Europe. They measure, that is to
+say, about 2-"
+169,"1/2 to 4 feet in height, from 3 to 8 feet in length, and from
+2 to 6 feet in thickness.
+
+Some temples are built of only one kind of stone; but more frequently
+materials of different kinds are put together in unequal proportions. Thus
+the main part of the temples of Abydos consists of very fine limestone; but
+in the temple of Seti I., the columns, architraves, jambs, and lintels,--
+all parts, in short, where it might be feared that the limestone would not
+offer sufficient resistance,-"
+170,"-the architect has had recourse to sandstone;
+while in that of Rameses II., sandstone, granite, and alabaster were used.
+At Karnak, Luxor, Tanis, and Memphis, similar combinations may be seen. At
+the Ramesseum, and in some of the Nubian temples, the columns stand on
+massive supports of crude brick. The stones were dressed more or less
+carefully, according to the positions they were to occupy. When the walls
+were of medium thickness, as in most partition walls, they are well wrought
+on"
+171," all sides. When the wall was thick, the core blocks were roughed out as
+nearly cubic as might be, and piled together without much care, the hollows
+being filled up with smaller flakes, pebbles, or mortar. Casing stones were
+carefully wrought on the faces, and the joints dressed for two-thirds or
+three-quarters of the length, the rest being merely picked with a point
+(Note 6). The largest blocks were reserved for the lower parts of the
+building; and this precaution was the more necessa"
+172,"ry because the architects
+of Pharaonic times sank the foundations of their temples no deeper than
+those of their houses. At Karnak, they are not carried lower than from 7 to
+10 feet; at Luxor, on the side anciently washed by the river, three courses
+of masonry, each measuring about 2-1/2 feet in depth, form a great platform
+on which the walls rest; while at the Ramesseum, the brickwork bed on
+which the colonnade stands does not seem to be more than 10 feet deep.
+These are but slight d"
+173,"epths for the foundations of such great buildings,
+but the experience of ages proves that they are sufficient. The hard and
+compact humus of which the soil of the Nile valley is composed, contracts
+every year after the subsidence of the inundation, and thus becomes almost
+incompressible. As the building progressed, the weight of the
+superincumbent masonry gradually became greater, till the maximum of
+pressure was attained, and a solid basis secured. Wherever I have bared the
+foundatio"
+174,"ns of the walls, I can testify that they have not shifted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Masonry in temple of Seti I. at Abydos.]
+
+The system of construction in force among the ancient Egyptians resembles
+in many respects that of the Greeks. The stones are often placed together
+with dry joints, and without the employment of any binding contrivance, the
+masons relying on the mere weight of the materials to keep them in place.
+Sometimes they are held together by metal cramps, or sometimes-"
+175,"-as in the
+temple of Seti I., at Abydos--by dovetails of sycamore wood bearing the
+cartouche of the founder. Most commonly, they are united by a mortar-joint,
+more or less thick. All the mortars of which I have collected samples are
+thus far of three kinds: the first is white, and easily reduced to an
+impalpable powder, being of lime only; the others are grey, and rough to
+the touch, being mixtures of lime and sand; while some are of a reddish
+colour, owing to the pounded brick powder"
+176," with which they are mixed. A
+judicious use of these various methods enabled the Egyptians to rival the
+Greeks in their treatment of regular courses, equal blocks, and upright
+joints in alternate bond. If they did not always work equally well, their
+shortcomings must be charged to the imperfect mechanical means at their
+disposal. The enclosure walls, partitions, and secondary façades were
+upright; and they raised the materials by means of a rude kind of crane
+planted on the top. The p"
+177,"ylon walls and the principal façades (and
+sometimes even the secondary façades) were sloped at an angle which varied
+according to the taste of the architect. In order to build these, they
+formed inclined planes, the slopes of which were lengthened as the
+structure rose in height. These two methods were equally perilous; for,
+however carefully the blocks might be protected while being raised, they
+were constantly in danger of losing their edges or corners, or of being
+fractured before "
+178,"they reached the top (Note 7). Thus it was almost always
+necessary to re-work them; and the object being to sacrifice as little as
+possible of the stone, the workmen often left them of most abnormal shapes
+(fig. 52). They would level off one of the side faces, and then the joint,
+instead of being vertical, leaned askew. If the block had neither height
+nor length to spare, they made up the loss by means of a supplementary
+slip. Sometimes even they left a projection which fitted into a
+"
+179,"corresponding hollow in the next upper or lower course. Being first of all
+expedients designed to remedy accidents, these methods degenerated into
+habitually careless ways of working. The masons who had inadvertently
+hoisted too large a block, no longer troubled themselves to lower it back
+again, but worked it into the building in one or other of the ways before
+mentioned. The architect neglected to duly supervise the dressing and
+placing of the blocks. He allowed the courses to vary, "
+180,"and the vertical
+joints, two or three deep, to come one over the other. The rough work done,
+the masons dressed down the stone, reworked the joints, and overlaid the
+whole with a coat of cement or stucco, coloured to match the material,
+which concealed the faults of the real work. The walls rarely end with a
+sharp edge. Bordered with a torus, around which a sculptured riband is
+entwined, they are crowned by the _cavetto_ cornice surmounted by a flat
+band (fig. 53); or, as at Semneh, b"
+181,"y a square cornice; or, as at Medinet
+Habu, by a line of battlements. Thus framed in, the walls looked like
+enormous panels, each panel complete in itself, without projections and
+almost without openings. Windows, always rare in Egyptian architecture, are
+mere ventilators when introduced into the walls of temples, being intended
+to light the staircases, as in the second pylon of Horemheb at Karnak, or
+else to support decorative woodwork on festival days. The doorways project
+but sligh"
+182,"tly from the body of the buildings (fig. 54), except where the
+lintel is over-shadowed by a projecting cornice. Real windows occur only in
+the pavilion of Medinet Habu; but that building was constructed on the
+model of a fortress, and must rank as an exception among religious
+monuments.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Temple wall with cornice.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Niche and doorway in temple of Seti I. at Abydos.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Pavement of the portico of Osiris in the t"
+183,"emple of
+Seti I. at Abydos.]
+
+The ground-level of the courts and halls was flagged with rectangular
+paving stones, well enough fitted, except in the intercolumniations, where
+the architects, hopeless of harmonising the lines of the pavement with the
+curved bases of the columns, have filled in the space with small pieces,
+set without order or method (fig. 55). Contrary to their practice when
+house building, they have scarcely ever employed the vault or arch in
+temple architecture. We"
+184," nowhere meet with it, except at Deir el Baharî, and
+in the seven parallel sanctuaries of Abydos. Even in these instances, the
+arch is produced by ""corbelling""; that is to say, the curve is formed by
+three or four superimposed horizontal courses of stone, chiselled out to
+the form required (fig. 56). The ordinary roofing consists of flat paving
+slabs. When the space between the walls was not too wide, these slabs
+bridged it over at a single stretch; otherwise the roof had to be support"
+185,"ed
+at intervals, and the wider the space the more these supports needed to be
+multiplied. The supports were connected by immense stone architraves, on
+which the roofing slabs rested.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--""Corbelled"" arch, temple of Seti I. at Abydos.]
+
+The supports are of two types,--the pillar and the column. Some are cut
+from single blocks. Thus, the monolithic pillars of the temple of the
+sphinx (Note 8), the oldest hitherto found, measure 16 feet in height by 4-
+1/2 feet i"
+186,"n width. Monolithic columns of red granite are also found among
+the ruins of Alexandria, Bubastis,[12] and Memphis, which date from the
+reigns of Horemheb and Rameses II., and measure some 20 to 26 feet in
+height. But columns and pillars are commonly built in courses, which are
+often unequal and irregular, like those of the walls which surround them.
+The great columns of Luxor are not even solid, two-thirds of the diameter
+being filled up with yellow cement, which has lost its strength"
+187,", and
+crumbles between the fingers. The capital of the column of Taharka at
+Karnak contains three courses, each about 48 inches high. The last and most
+projecting course is made up of twenty-six convergent stones, which are
+held in place by merely the weight of the abacus. The same carelessness
+which we have already noted in the workmanship of the walls is found in
+the workmanship of the columns.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Hathor pillar, Abû Simbel.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Pillar"
+188," of Amenhotep III., Karnak.]
+
+The quadrangular pillar, with parallel or slightly inclined sides, and
+generally without either base or capital, frequently occurs in tombs of the
+ancient empire. It reappears later at Medinet Habû, in the temple of
+Thothmes III., and again at Karnak, in what is known as the processional
+hall. The sides of these square pillars are often covered with painted
+scenes, while the front faces were more decoratively treated, being
+sculptured with lotus or papyr"
+189,"us stems in high relief, as on the pillar-
+stelae of Karnak, or adorned with a head of Hathor crowned with the
+sistrum, as in the small speos of Abû Simbel (fig. 57), or sculptured with
+a full-length standing figure of Osiris, as in the second court of Medinet
+Habû; or, as at Denderah and Gebel Barkal, with the figure of the god Bes.
+At Karnak, in an edifice which was probably erected by Horemheb with
+building material taken from the ruins of a sanctuary of Amenhotep II. and
+III., the"
+190," pillar is capped by a cornice, separated from the architrave by a
+thin abacus (fig. 58). By cutting away its four edges, the square pillar
+becomes an octagonal prism, and further, by cutting off the eight new
+edges, it becomes a sixteen-sided prism. Some pillars in the tombs of Asûan
+and Beni Hasan, and in the processional hall at Karnak (fig. 59), as well
+as in the chapels of Deir el Baharî, are of this type. Besides the forms
+thus regularly evolved, there are others of irregular der"
+191,"ivation, with
+six, twelve, fifteen, or twenty sides, or verging almost upon a perfect
+circle. The portico pillars of the temple of Osiris at Abydos come last in
+the series; the drum is curved, but not round, the curve being interrupted
+at both extremities of the same diameter by a flat stripe. More frequently
+the sides are slightly channelled; and sometimes, as at Kalabsheh, the
+flutings are divided into four groups of five each by four vertical flat
+stripes (fig. 60). The polygonal p"
+192,"illar has always a large, shallow plinth,
+in the form of a rounded disc. At El Kab it bears the head of Hathor,
+sculptured in relief upon the front (fig. 61); but almost everywhere else
+it is crowned with a simple square abacus, which joins it to the
+architrave. Thus treated, it bears a certain family likeness to the Doric
+column; and one understands how Jomard and Champollion, in the first ardour
+of discovery, were tempted to give it the scarcely justifiable name of
+""proto-Doric.""
+
"
+193,"
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Sixteen-sided pillars, Karnak.]
+
+The column does not rest immediately upon the soil. It is always furnished
+with a base like that of the polygonal pillar, sometimes square with the
+ground, and sometimes slightly rounded. This base is either plain, or
+ornamented only with a line of hieroglyphs. The principal forms fall into
+three types: (1) the column with campaniform, or lotus-flower capital; (2)
+the column with lotus-bud capital; (3) the column with Hathor-h"
+194,"ead capital.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Fluted pillar, Kalabsheh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Polygonal Hathor-headed pillar, El Kab.]
+
+I. _Columns with Campaniform Capitals_.--The shaft is generally plain, or
+merely engraved with inscriptions or bas-reliefs. Sometimes, however, as at
+Medamot, it is formed of six large and six small colonnettes in
+alternation. In Pharaonic times, it is bulbous, being curved inward at the
+base, and ornamented with triangles one within another, imitati"
+195,"ng the large
+leaves which sheathe the sprouting plant. The curve is so regulated that
+the diameter at the base and the top shall be about equal. In the Ptolemaic
+period, the bulb often disappears, owing probably to Greek influences. The
+columns which surround the first court at Edfû rise straight from their
+plinths. The shaft always tapers towards the top. It is finished by three
+or five flat bands, one above the other. At Medamot, where the shaft is
+clustered, the architect has doubt"
+196,"less thought that one tie at the top
+appeared insufficient to hold in a dozen colonnettes; he has therefore
+marked two other rings of bands at regular intervals. The campaniform
+capital is decorated from the spring of the curve with a row of leaves,
+like those which sheathe the base. Between these are figured shoots of
+lotus and papyrus in flower and bud. The height of the capital, and the
+extent of its projection beyond the line of the shaft, varied with the
+taste of the architect. A"
+197,"t Luxor, the campaniform capitals are eleven and a
+half feet in diameter at the neck, eighteen feet in diameter at the top,
+and eleven and a half feet in height. At Karnak, in the hypostyle hall, the
+height of the capital is twelve and a quarter feet, and the greatest
+diameter twenty-one feet. A square die surmounts the whole. This die is
+almost hidden by the curve of the capital, though occasionally, as at
+Denderah, it is higher, and bears on each face a figure of the god Bes
+(fig. 6"
+198,"2).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Column with square die, Contra Esneh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Column with campaniform capital, Ramesseum.]
+
+The column with campaniform capital is mostly employed in the middle avenue
+of hypostyle halls, as at Karnak, the Ramesseum, and Luxor (fig. 63); but
+it was not restricted to this position, for we also find it in porticoes,
+as at Medinet Habû, Edfû, and Philae. The processional hall[13] of
+Thothmes III., at Karnak, contains one most curious va"
+199,"riety (fig. 64); the
+flower is inverted like a bell, and the shaft is turned upside down, the
+smaller end being sunk in the plinth, while the larger is fitted to the
+wide part of the overturned bell. This ungraceful innovation achieved no
+success, and is found nowhere else. Other novelties were happier,
+especially those which enabled the artist to introduce decorative elements
+taken from the flora of the country. In the earlier examples at Soleb,
+Sesebeh, Bubastis, and Memphis, we fin"
+200,"d a crown of palm branches springing
+from the band, their heads being curved beneath the weight of the abacus
+(fig. 65). Later on, as we approach the Ptolemaic period, the date and the
+half-unfolded lotus were added to the palm-branches (fig. 66).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Inverted campaniform capital, Karnak.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Palm capital, Bubastis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Compound capital.]
+
+Under the Ptolemies and the Caesars the capital became a complete basket of"
+201,"
+flowers and leaves, ranged row above row, and painted in the brightest
+colours (fig. 67.) At Edfû, Ombos, and Philae one would fancy that the
+designer had vowed never to repeat the same pattern in the same portico.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Ornate capitals, Ptolemaic.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Lotus-bud column, Beni Hasan.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Lotus-bud column, processional hall, Thothmes
+III., Karnak.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Column in the aisles of the hypostyle hall "
+202,"at
+Karnak.]
+
+
+II. _Columns with Lotus-bud Capitals_.--Originally these may perhaps have
+represented a bunch of lotus plants, the buds being bound together at the
+neck to form the capital. The columns of Beni Hasan consist of four rounded
+stems (fig. 68). Those of the Labyrinth, of the processional hall of
+Thothmes III., and of Medamot, consist of eight stems, each presenting a
+sharp edge on the outer side (fig. 69). The bottom of the column is
+bulbous, and set round with triangular"
+203," leaves. The top is surrounded by
+three or five bands. A moulding composed of groups of three vertical
+stripes hangs like a fringe from the lowest band in the space between
+every two stems. So varied a surface does not admit of hieroglyphic
+decoration; therefore the projections were by degrees suppressed, and the
+whole shaft was made smooth. In the hypostyle hall at Gûrneh, the shaft is
+divided in three parts, the middle one being smooth and covered with
+sculptures, while the upper an"
+204,"d lower divisions are formed of clustered
+stems. In the temple of Khonsû, in the aisles of the hypostyle hall of
+Karnak, and in the portico of Medinet Habû, the shaft is quite smooth, the
+fringe alone being retained below the top bands, while a slight ridge
+between each of the three bands recalls the original stems (fig. 70). The
+capital underwent a like process of degradation. At Beni Hasan, it is
+finely clustered throughout its height. In the processional hall of
+Thothmes III., at L"
+205,"uxor, and at Medamot, a circle of small pointed leaves
+and channellings around the base lessens the effect, and reduces it to a
+mere grooved and truncated cone. In the hypostyle hall of Karnak, at
+Abydos, at the Ramesseum, and at Medinet Habû, various other ornaments, as
+triangular leaves, hieroglyphic inscriptions, or bands of cartouches
+flanked by uraei, fill the space thus unfortunately obtained. Neither is
+the abacus hidden as in the campaniform capital, but stands out boldly, and
"
+206,"
+displays the cartouche of the royal founder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Hathor-head capital, Ptolemaic.]
+
+
+III. _Columns with Hathor-head Capitals_.--We find examples of the Hathor-
+headed column dating from ancient times, as at Deir el Baharî; but this
+order is best known in buildings of the Ptolemaic period, as at Contra
+Latopolis, Philae, and Denderah. The shaft and the base present no special
+characteristics. They resemble those of the campaniform columns. The
+capital is in two"
+207," divisions. Below we have a square block, bearing on each
+face a woman's head in high relief and crowned with a naos. The woman has
+the ears of a heifer. Her hair, confined over the brow by three vertical
+bands, falls behind the ears, and hangs long on the shoulders. Each head
+supports a fluted cornice, on which stands a naos framed between two
+volutes, and crowned by a slender abacus (fig. 71). Thus each column has
+for its capital four heads of Hathor. Seen from a distance, it at once"
+208,"
+recalls the form of the sistrum, so frequently represented in the bas-
+reliefs as held in the hands of queens and goddesses. It is in fact a
+sistrum, in which the regular proportions of the parts are disregarded. The
+handle is gigantic, while the upper part of the instrument is unduly
+reduced. This notion so pleased the Egyptian fancy that architects did not
+hesitate to combine the sistrum design with elements borrowed from other
+orders. The four heads of Hathor placed above a campan"
+209,"iform capital,
+furnished Nectenebo with a composite type for his pavilion at Philae (fig.
+72). I cannot say that the compound is very satisfactory, but the column is
+in reality less ugly than it appears in engravings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Campaniform and Hathor-headed capital, Philae.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Section of the hypostyle hall at Karnak to show
+the
+arrangement of the two varieties: campaniform and lotus-bud columns.]
+
+Shafts of columns were regulated by no fixed"
+210," rules of proportion or
+arrangement. The architect might, if he chose, make use of equal heights
+with very different diameters, and, regardless of any considerations apart
+from those of general harmony, might design the various parts according to
+whatever scale best suited him. The dimensions of the capital had no
+invariable connection with those of the shaft, nor was the height of the
+shaft dependent on the diameter of the column. At Karnak, the campaniform
+columns of the hypostyle h"
+211,"all measure 10 feet high in the capital, and 55
+feet high in the shaft, with a lower diameter of 11 feet 8 inches. At
+Luxor, the capital measures 11-1/2 feet, the shaft 49 feet, and the
+diameter at the spring of the base 11-1/4 feet. At the Ramesseum, the shaft
+and capital measure 35 feet, and the spring diameter is 6-1/2 feet. The
+lotus-bud or clustered column gives similar results. At Karnak, in the
+aisles of the hypostyle hall, the capital is 10 feet high, the shaft 33
+feet, and th"
+212,"e base diameter 6-3/4 feet. At the Ramesseum, the capital is 5-
+1/2 feet high, the shaft 24-1/2 feet, and the base diameter 5 feet 10
+inches. We find the same irregularity as to architraves. Their height is
+determined only by the taste of the architect or the necessities of the
+building. So also with the spacing of columns. Not only does the inter-
+columnar space vary considerably between temple and temple, or chamber and
+chamber, but sometimes--as in the first court at Medinet Habû--t"
+213,"hey vary in
+the same portico. We have thus far treated separately of each type; but
+when various types were associated in a single building, no fixed relative
+proportions were observed. In the hypostyle hall at Karnak, the campaniform
+columns support the nave, while the lotus-bud variety is relegated to the
+aisles (fig. 73). There are halls in the temple of Khonsû where the lotus-
+bud column is the loftiest, and others where the campaniform dominates the
+rest. In what remains of the M"
+214,"edamot structure, campaniform and lotus-bud
+columns are of equal height. Egypt had no definite orders like those of
+Greece, but tried every combination to which the elements of the column
+could be made to lend themselves; hence, we can never determine the
+dimensions of an Egyptian column from those of one of its parts.
+
+
+[12] For an account of the excavations at Bubastis, see Eighth and Tenth
+    Memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund, by M.E. Naville.
+
+[13] French ""Promenoir""; this"
+215," is perhaps best expressed by ""Processional
+    Hall,"" in accordance with the description of its purpose on p. 67.
+    --A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+2. THE TEMPLE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Plan of temple of the Sphinx.]
+
+Most of the famous sanctuaries--Denderah, Edfû, Abydos--were founded before
+Men a by the _Servants of Hor_.[14] Becoming dilapidated or ruined in the
+course of ages, they have been restored, rebuilt, remodelled, one after the
+other, till nothing remains of the primitive design"
+216," to show us what the
+first Egyptian architecture was like. The funerary temples built by the
+kings of the Fourth Dynasty have left some traces.[15] That of the second
+pyramid of Gizeh was so far preserved at the beginning of the last century,
+that Maillet saw four large pillars standing. It is now almost entirely
+destroyed; but this loss has been more than compensated by the discovery,
+in 1853, of a temple situate about fifty yards to the southward of the
+sphinx (fig. 74). The façade "
+217,"is still hidden by the sand, and the inside is
+but partly uncovered. The core masonry is of fine Tûrah limestone. The
+casing, pillars, architraves, and roof were constructed with immense blocks
+of alabaster or red granite (Note 9). The plan is most simple: In the
+middle (A) is a great hall in shape of the letter T, adorned with sixteen
+square pillars 16 feet in height; at the north-west corner of this hall is
+a narrow passage on an inclined plane (B), by which the building is now
+ente"
+218,"red;[16] at the south-west corner is a recess (C) which contains six
+niches, in pairs one over the other. A long gallery opening at each end
+into a square chamber, now filled with rubbish (E), completes the plan.
+Without any main door, without windows, and entered through a passage too
+long to admit the light of day, the building can only have received light
+and air through slanting air-slits in the roofing, of which traces are yet
+visible on the tops of the walls (_e, e_) on each side"
+219," of the main hall
+(Note 10). Inscriptions, bas-reliefs, paintings, such as we are accustomed
+to find everywhere in Egypt, are all wanting; and yet these bare walls
+produce as great an impression upon the spectator as the most richly
+decorated temples of Thebes. Not only grandeur but sublimity has been
+achieved in the mere juxtaposition of blocks of granite and alabaster, by
+means of purity of line and exactness of proportion.
+
+Some few scattered ruins in Nubia, the Fayûm, and Sinai, "
+220,"do not suffice to
+prove whether the temples of the Twelfth Dynasty merited the praises
+lavished on them in contemporary inscriptions or not. Those of the Theban
+kings, of the Ptolemies, and of the Caesars which are yet standing are in
+some cases nearly perfect, while almost all are easy of restoration to
+those who conscientiously study them upon the spot. At first sight, they
+seem to present an infinite variety as to arrangement; but on a closer view
+they are found to conform to a sin"
+221,"gle type. We will begin with the
+sanctuary. This is a low, small, obscure, rectangular chamber, inaccessible
+to all save Pharaoh and the priests. As a rule it contained neither statue
+nor emblem, but only the sacred bark, or a tabernacle of painted wood
+placed upon a pedestal. A niche in the wall, or an isolated shrine formed
+of a single block of stone, received on certain days the statue, or
+inanimate symbol of the local god, or the living animal, or the image of
+the animal, sacred t"
+222,"o that god. A temple must necessarily contain this one
+chamber; and if it contained but this one chamber, it would be no less a
+temple than the most complex buildings. Very rarely, however, especially in
+large towns, was the service of the gods thus limited to the strictly
+necessary. Around the sanctuary, or ""divine house,"" was grouped a series of
+chambers in which sacrificial and ceremonial objects were stored, as
+flowers, perfumes, stuffs, and precious vessels. In advance of this blo"
+223,"ck
+of buildings were next built one or more halls supported on columns; and in
+advance of these came a courtyard, where the priests and devotees
+assembled. This courtyard was surrounded by a colonnade to which the public
+had access, and was entered through a gateway flanked by two towers, in
+front of which were placed statues, or obelisks; the whole being surrounded
+by an enclosure wall of brickwork, and approached through an avenue of
+sphinxes. Every Pharaoh was free to erect a hall "
+224,"still more sumptuous in
+front of those which his predecessors had built; and what he did, others
+might do after him. Thus, successive series of chambers and courts, of
+pylons and porticoes, were added reign after reign to the original nucleus;
+and--vanity or piety prompting the work--the temple continued to increase
+in every direction, till space or means had failed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.--South Temple of Amenhotep III. at Elephantine.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Plan of temple of"
+225," Amenhotep III., at El Kab.]
+
+The most simple temples were sometimes the most beautiful. This was the
+case as regards the sanctuaries erected by Amenhotep III. in the island of
+Elephantine, which were figured by the members of the French expedition at
+the end of the last century, and destroyed by the Turkish governor of Asûan
+in 1822. The best preserved, namely, the south temple (fig. 75), consisted
+of but a single chamber of sandstone, 14 feet high, 31 feet wide, and 39
+feet long. T"
+226,"he walls, which were straight, and crowned with the usual
+cornice, rested on a platform of masonry some 8 feet above the ground. This
+platform was surrounded by a parapet wall, breast high. All around the
+temple ran a colonnade, the sides each consisting of seven square pillars,
+without capital or base, and the two façades, front and back, being
+supported by two columns with the lotus-bud capital. Both pillars and
+columns rose direct from the parapet; except on the east front, where a
"
+227,"
+flight of ten or twelve steps, enclosed between two walls of the same
+height as the platform, led up to the _cella_. The two columns at the head
+of the steps were wider apart than those of the opposite face, and through
+the space thus opened was seen a richly-decorated door. A second door
+opened at the other end, beneath the portico. Later, in Roman times, this
+feature was utilised in altering the building. The inter-columnar space at
+the end was filled up, and thus was obtained a sec"
+228,"ond hall, rough and bare,
+but useful for the purposes of the temple service. These Elephantine
+sanctuaries bring to mind the peripteral temples of the Greeks, and this
+resemblance to one of the most familiar forms of classical architecture
+explains perhaps the boundless admiration with which they were regarded by
+the French savants. Those of Mesheikh, of El Kab, and of Sharonah are
+somewhat more elaborate. The building at El Kab is in three divisions (fig.
+76); first, a hall of four c"
+229,"olumns (A); next, a chamber (B) supported by
+four Hathor-headed pillars; and in the end wall, opposite the door, a niche
+(C), approached by four steps. Of these small oratories the most complete
+model now remaining belongs to the Ptolemaic period; namely, the temple of
+Hathor at Deir el Medineh (fig. 77). Its length is just double its breadth.
+The walls are built with a batter inclining inwards,[17] and are externally
+bare, save at the door, which is framed in a projecting border cover"
+230,"ed with
+finely-sculptured scenes. The interior is in three parts: A portico (B),
+supported by two lotus flower columns; a pronaos (C), reached by a flight
+of four steps, and separated from the portico by a wall which connects the
+two lotus flower columns with two Hathor-headed pilasters _in antis_;
+lastly, the sanctuary (D), flanked by two small chambers (E, E), which are
+lighted by square openings cut in the ceiling. The ascent to the terrace is
+by way of a staircase, very ingeniousl"
+231,"y placed in the south corner of the
+portico, and furnished with a beautiful open window (F). This is merely a
+temple in miniature; but the parts, though small, are so well proportioned
+that it would be impossible to conceive anything more delicate or graceful.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Plan of temple of Hathor, Deir el Medineh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Plan of temple of Khonsû, Karnak.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Pylon, with masts, from a bas-relief in the temple
+of Khonsû at Karn"
+232,"ak.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.--The Ramesseum restored, to show the rising of the
+ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Crypts in the thickness of the walls, round the
+sanctuary at Denderah.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.--The pronaos of Edfû, as seen from the top of the
+eastern pylon.]
+
+We cannot say as much for the temple which the Pharaohs of the Twentieth
+Dynasty erected to the south of Karnak, in honour of the god Khonsû (fig.
+78); but if the style is not irreproachable, the plan is"
+233," nevertheless so
+clear, that one is tempted to accept it as the type of an Egyptian temple,
+in preference to others more elegant or majestic. On analysis, it resolves
+itself into two parts separated by a thick wall (A, A). In the centre of
+the lesser division is the Holy of Holies (B), open at both ends and
+isolated from the rest of the building by a surrounding passage (C) 10
+feet in width. To the right and left of this sanctuary are small dark
+chambers (D, D), and behind it is a hal"
+234,"l of four columns (E), from which
+open seven other chambers (F, F). Such was the house of the god, having no
+communication with the adjoining parts, except by two doors (G) in the
+southern wall (A, A). These opened into a wide and shallow hypostyle hall
+(H), divided into nave and aisles. The nave is supported by four lotus-
+flower columns, 23 feet in height; the aisles each contain two lotus-bud
+columns 18 feet high. The roof of the nave is, therefore, 5 feet higher
+than that of the s"
+235,"ides. This elevation was made use of for lighting
+purposes, the clerestory being fitted with stone gratings, which admitted
+the daylight. The court (I) was square, and surrounded by a double
+colonnade entered by way of four side-gates and a great central gateway
+flanked by two quadrangular towers with sloping fronts. This pylon (K)
+measures 105 feet in length, 33 feet in width, and 60 feet in height. It
+contains no chambers, but only a narrow staircase, which leads to the top
+of the g"
+236,"ate, and thence up to the towers. Four long grooves in the façade,
+reaching to a third of its height, correspond to four quadrangular openings
+cut through. the whole thickness of the masonry. Here were fixed four
+great wooden masts, formed of joined beams and held in place by a wooden
+framework fixed in the four openings above mentioned. From these masts
+floated long streamers of various colours (fig. 79). Such was the temple of
+Khonsû, and such, in their main features, were the majori"
+237,"ty of the greater
+temples of Theban and Ptolemaic times, as Luxor, the Ramesseum, Medinet
+Habû, Edfû, and Denderah. Though for the most part half in ruins, they
+affect one with a strange and disquieting sense of oppression. As mystery
+was a favourite attribute of the Egyptian gods, even so the plan of their
+temples is in such wise devised as to lead gradually from the full sunshine
+of the outer world to the obscurity of their retreats. At the entrance we
+find large open spaces, where "
+238,"air and light stream freely in. The hypostyle
+hall is pervaded by a sober twilight; the sanctuary is more than half lost
+in a vague darkness; and at the end of the building, in the farthest of the
+chambers, night all but reigns completely. The effect of distance which was
+produced by this gradual diminution of light, was still further heightened
+by various structural artifices. The parts, for instance, are not on the
+same level. The ground rises from the entrance (fig. 80), and there a"
+239,"re
+always a few steps to mount in passing from one part to another. In the
+temple of Khonsû the difference of level is not more than 5-1/4 feet, but
+it is combined with a lowering of the roof, which in most cases is very
+strongly marked. From the pylon to the wall at the farther end, the height
+decreases continuously. The peristyle is loftier than the hypostyle hall,
+and the hypostyle hall is loftier than the sanctuary. The last hall of
+columns and the farthest chamber are lower and l"
+240,"ower still. The architects
+of Ptolemaic times changed certain details of arrangement. They erected
+chapels and oratories on the terraced roofs, and reserved space for the
+construction of secret passages and crypts in the thickness of the walls,
+wherein to hide the treasure of the god (fig. 81). They, however,
+introduced only two important modifications of the original plan. The
+sanctuary was formerly entered by two opposite doors; they left but one.
+Also the colonnade, which was origi"
+241,"nally continued round the upper end of
+the court, or, where there was no court, along the façade of the temple,
+became now the pronaos, so forming an additional chamber. The columns of
+the outer row are retained, but built into a wall reaching to about half
+their height. This connecting wall is surmounted by a cornice, which thus
+forms a screen, and so prevented the outer throng from seeing what took
+place within (fig. 82). The pronaos is supported by two, three, or even
+four rows of "
+242,"columns, according to the size of the edifice. For the rest,
+it is useful to compare the plan of the temple of Edfû (fig. 83) with that
+of the temple of Khonsû, observing how little they differ the one from the
+other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Plan of temple, Edfû.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Plan of the temple of Karnak in the reign of
+Amenhotep III.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Plan of Hypostyle Hall, Karnak.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Plan of great temple, Luxor.]
+
+[Illustratio"
+243,"n: Fig. 87.--Plan of the Isle of Philae.]
+
+Thus designed, the building sufficed for all the needs of worship. If
+enlargement was needed, the sanctuary and surrounding chambers were
+generally left untouched, and only the ceremonial parts of the building, as
+the hypostyle halls, the courts, or pylons, were attacked. The procedure of
+the Egyptians under these circumstances is best illustrated by the history
+of the great temple of Karnak. Founded by Ûsertesen I., probably on the
+site of "
+244,"a still earlier temple, it was but a small building, constructed of
+limestone and sandstone, with granite doorways. The inside was decorated
+with sixteen-sided pillars. The second and third Amenemhats added some work
+to it, and the princes of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties adorned
+it with statues and tables of offerings. It was still unaltered when, in
+the eighteenth century B.C., Thothmes I., enriched with booty of war,
+resolved to enlarge it. In advance of what already stood"
+245," there, he erected
+two chambers, preceded by a court and flanked by two isolated chapels. In
+advance of these again, he erected three successive pylons, one behind the
+other. The whole presented the appearance of a vast rectangle placed
+crosswise at the end of another rectangle. Thothmes II. and Hatshepsût[18]
+covered the walls erected by their father with bas-relief sculptures, but
+added no more buildings. Hatshepsût, however, in order to bring in her
+obelisks between the pylons of T"
+246,"hothmes I., opened a breach in the south
+wall, and overthrew sixteen of the columns which stood in that spot.
+Thothmes III., probably finding certain parts of the structure unworthy of
+the god, rebuilt the first pylon, and also the double sanctuary, which he
+renewed in the red granite of Syene. To the eastward, he rebuilt some old
+chambers, the most important among them being the processional hall, used
+for the starting-point and halting-place of ceremonial processions, and
+these he s"
+247,"urrounded with a stone wall. He also made the lake whereon the
+sacred boats were launched on festival days; and, with a sharp change of
+axis, he built two pylons facing towards the south, thus violating the true
+relative proportion which had till then subsisted between the body and the
+front of the general mass of the building. The outer enclosure was now too
+large for the earlier pylons, and did not properly accord with the later
+ones. Amenhotep III. corrected this defect. He erected "
+248,"a sixth and yet more
+massive pylon, which was, therefore, better suited for the façade. As it
+now stood (fig. 84), the temple surpassed even the boldest architectural
+enterprises hitherto attempted; but the Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty
+succeeded in achieving still more. They added only a hypostyle hall (fig.
+85) and a pylon; but the hypostyle hall measured 170 feet in length by 329
+feet in breadth. Down the centre they carried a main avenue of twelve
+columns, with lotus-flower c"
+249,"apitals, being the loftiest ever erected in the
+interior of a building; while in the aisles, ranged in seven rows on either
+side, they planted 122 columns with lotus-bud capitals. The roof of the
+great nave rose to a height of 75 feet above the level of the ground, and
+the pylon stood some fifty feet higher still. During a whole century, three
+kings laboured to perfect this hypostyle hall. Rameses I. conceived the
+idea; Seti I. finished the bulk of the work, and Rameses II. wrought nea"
+250,"rly
+the whole of the decoration. The Pharaohs of the next following dynasties
+vied with each other for such blank spaces as might be found, wherein to
+engrave their names upon the columns, and so to share the glory of the
+three founders; but farther they did not venture. Left thus, however, the
+monument was still incomplete. It still needed one last pylon and a
+colonnaded court. Nearly three centuries elapsed before the task was again
+taken in hand. At last the Bubastite kings decided"
+251," to begin the colonnades,
+but their work was as feeble as their, resources were limited. Taharkah,
+the Ethiopian, imagined for a moment that he was capable of rivalling the
+great Theban Pharaohs, and planned a hypostyle hall even larger than the
+first; but he made a false start. The columns of the great nave, which were
+all that he had time to erect, were placed too wide apart to admit of being
+roofed over; so they never supported anything, but remained as memorials of
+his failure. Fi"
+252,"nally, the Ptolemies, faithful to the traditions of the
+native monarchy, threw themselves into the work; but their labours were
+interrupted by revolts at Thebes, and the earthquake of the year 27 B.C.
+destroyed part of the temple, so that the pylon remained for ever
+unfinished. The history of Karnak is identical with that of all the great
+Egyptian temples. When closely studied, the reason why they are for the
+most part so irregular becomes evident. The general plan is practically the
+"
+253,"same, and the progress of the building was carried forward in the same
+way; but the architects could not always foresee the future importance of
+their work, and the site was not always favourable to the development of
+the building. At Luxor (fig. 86), the progress went on methodically enough
+under Amenhotep III. and Seti I., but when Rameses II. desired to add to
+the work of his predecessors, a bend in the river compelled him to turn
+eastwards. His pylon is not parallel to that of Amen"
+254,"hotep III., and his
+colonnades make a distinct angle with the general axis of the earlier work.
+At Philae (fig. 87) the deviation is still greater. Not only is the larger
+pylon out of alignment with the smaller, but the two colonnades are not
+parallel with each other. Neither are they attached to the pylon with a due
+regard to symmetry. This arises neither from negligence nor wilfulness, as
+is popularly supposed. The first plan was as regular as the most
+symmetrically-minded designer "
+255,"could wish; but it became necessary to adapt
+it to the requirements of the site, and the architects were thenceforth
+chiefly concerned to make the best of the irregularities to which they were
+condemned by the configuration of the ground. Such difficulties were, in
+fact, a frequent source of inspiration; and Philae shows with what skill
+the Egyptians extracted every element of beauty and picturesqueness from
+enforced disorder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Plan of Speos, Kalaat Addah, Nu"
+256,"bia.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig, 89.--Plan of Speos, Gebel Silsileh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Plan of the Great Speos, Abû Simbel.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Speos of Hathor, Abû Simbel.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Plan of the upper portion of the temple of Deir el
+Baharî, showing the state of the excavations, the Speos of Hathor (A); the
+rock-cut sanctuary (B); the rock-cut funerary chapel of Thothmes I. (C);
+the Speos of Anubis (D); and the excavated niches of the northern
+colonnade"
+257,". Reproduced from Plate III. of the _Archaeological Report of the
+Egypt Exploration Fund_ for 1893-4.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Plan of temple of Seti I., at Abydos.]
+
+The idea of the rock-cut temple must have occurred to the Egyptians at an
+early period. They carved the houses of the dead in the mountain side; why,
+therefore, should they not in like manner carve the houses of the gods? Yet
+the earliest known Speos-sanctuaries date from only the beginning of the
+Eighteenth Dynasty."
+258," They are generally found in those parts of the valley
+where the cultivable land is narrowest, as near Beni Hasan, at Gebel
+Silsileh, and in Nubia. All varieties of the constructed temple are found
+in the rock-cut temple, though more or less modified by local conditions.
+The Speos Artemidos is approached by a pillared portico, but contains only
+a square chamber with a niche at the end for the statue of the goddess
+Pakhet. At Kalaat Addah (fig. 88), a flat narrow façade (A) faces the
+r"
+259,"iver, and is reached by a steep flight of steps; next comes a hypostyle
+hall (B), flanked by two dark chambers (C), and lastly a sanctuary in two
+storeys, one above the other (D). The chapel of Horemheb (fig. 89), at
+Gebel Silsileh, is formed of a gallery parallel to the river (A), supported
+by four massive pillars left in the rock. From this gallery, the sanctuary
+chamber opens at right angles. At Abû Simbel, the two temples are excavated
+entirely in the cliff. The front of the great "
+260,"speos (fig. 90) imitates a
+sloping pylon crowned with a cornice, and guarded as usual by four seated
+colossi flanked by smaller statues. These colossi are sixty-six feet high.
+The doorway passed, there comes a first hall measuring 130 feet in length
+by 60 feet in width, which corresponds to the usual peristyle. Eight
+Osiride statues backed by as many square pillars, seem to bear the
+mountain on their heads. Beyond this come (1) a hypostyle hall; (2) a
+transverse gallery, isolating the"
+261," sanctuary, and (3) the sanctuary itself,
+between two smaller chambers. Eight crypts, sunk at a somewhat lower level
+than that of the main excavation, are unequally distributed to right and
+left of the peristyle. The whole excavation measures 180 feet from the
+doorway to the end of the sanctuary. The small speos of Hathor, about a
+hundred paces to the northward, is of smaller dimensions. The façade is
+adorned with six standing colossi, four representing Rameses II., and two
+his wife, "
+262,"Nefertari. The peristyle and the crypts are lacking (fig. 91),
+and the small chambers are placed at either end of the transverse passage,
+instead of being parallel with the sanctuary. The hypostyle hall, however,
+is supported by six Hathor-headed pillars. Where space permitted, the rock-
+cut temple was but partly excavated in the cliff, the forepart being
+constructed outside with blocks cut and dressed, and becoming half grotto,
+half building. In the hemi-speos at Derr, the peristyle i"
+263,"s external to the
+cliff; at Beit el Wally, the pylon and court are built; at Gerf Husein and
+Wady Sabûah, pylon, court, and hypostyle hall are all outside the mountain,
+The most celebrated and original hemi-speos is that built by Queen
+Hatshepsût, at Deir el Baharî, in the Theban necropolis (fig. 92),[19] The
+sanctuary and chapels which, as usual, accompany it, were cut about 100 ft.
+above the level of the valley. In order to arrive at that height, slopes
+were made and terraces laid o"
+264,"ut according to a plan which was not
+understood until the site was thoroughly excavated.
+
+Between the hemi-speos and the isolated temple, the Egyptians created yet
+another variety, namely, the built temple backed by, but not carried into,
+the cliff. The temple of the sphinx at Gizeh, and the temple of Seti I. at
+Abydos, may be cited as two good examples. I have already described the
+former; the area of the latter (fig. 93) was cleared in a narrow and
+shallow belt of sand, which here "
+265,"divides the plain from the desert. It was
+sunk up to the roof, the tops of the walls but just showing above the level
+of the ground. The staircase which led up to the terraced roof led also to
+the top of the hill. The front, which stood completely out, seemed in
+nowise extraordinary. It was approached by two pylons, two courts, and a
+shallow portico supported on square pillars. The unusual part of the
+building only began beyond this point. First, there were two hypostyle
+halls instead"
+266," of one. These are separated by a wall with seven doorways.
+There is no nave, and the sanctuary opens direct from the second hall.
+This, as usual, consists of an oblong chamber with a door at each end; but
+the rooms by which it is usually surrounded are here placed side by side in
+a line, two to the right and four to the left; further, they are covered by
+""corbelled"" vaults, and are lighted only from the doors. Behind the
+sanctuary are further novelties. Another hypostyle hall (K) abut"
+267,"s on the
+end wall, and its dependencies are unequally distributed to right and left.
+As if this were not enough, the architect also constructed, to the left of
+the main building, a court, five chambers of columns, various passages and
+dark chambers--in short, an entire wing branching off at right angles to
+the axis of the temple proper, with no counterbalancing structures on the
+other side. These irregularities become intelligible when the site is
+examined. The cliff is shallow at thi"
+268,"s part, and the smaller hypostyle hall
+is backed by only a thin partition of rock. If the usual plan had been
+followed, it would have been necessary to cut the cliff entirely away, and
+the structure would have forfeited its special characteristic--that of a
+temple backed by a cliff--as desired by the founder. The architect,
+therefore, distributed in width those portions of the edifice which he
+could not carry out in length; and he even threw out a wing. Some years
+later, when Rameses "
+269,"II. constructed a monument to his own memory, about a
+hundred yards to the northward of the older building, he was careful not to
+follow in his father's footsteps. Built on the top of an elevation, his
+temple had sufficient space for development, and the conventional plan was
+followed in all its strictness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Crio-sphinx from Wady Es Sabûah.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Couchant ram, with statuette of royal founder,
+restored from the Avenue of Sphinxes at Karna"
+270,"k.]
+
+Most temples, even the smallest, should be surrounded by a square
+enclosure or temenos.[20] At Medinet Habu, this enclosure wall is of
+sandstone--low, and embattled. The innovation is due to a whim of Rameses
+III., who, in giving to his monument the outward appearance of a fortress,
+sought to commemorate his Syrian victories. Elsewhere, the doorways are of
+stone, and the walls are built in irregular courses of crude bricks. The
+great enclosure wall was not, as frequently stated,"
+271," intended to isolate the
+temple and screen the priestly ceremonies from eyes profane. It marked the
+limits of the divine dwelling, and served, when needful, to resist the
+attacks of enemies whose cupidity might be excited by the accumulated
+riches of the sanctuary. As at Karnak, avenues of sphinxes and series of
+pylons led up to the various gates, and formed triumphal approaches. The
+rest of the ground was in part occupied by stables, cellarage, granaries,
+and private houses. Just as "
+272,"in Europe during the Middle Ages the population
+crowded most densely round about the churches and abbeys, so in Egypt they
+swarmed around the temples, profiting by that security which the terror of
+his name and the solidity of his ramparts ensured to the local deity. A
+clear space was at first reserved round the pylons and the walls; but in
+course of time the houses encroached upon this ground, and were even built
+up against the boundary wall. Destroyed and rebuilt century after centur"
+273,"y
+upon the self-same spot, the _débris_ of these surrounding dwellings so
+raised the level of the soil, that the temples ended for the most part by
+being gradually buried in a hollow formed by the artificial elevation of
+the surrounding city. Herodotus noticed this at Bubastis, and on
+examination it is seen to have been the same in many other localities. At
+Ombos, at Edfû, at Denderah, the whole city nestled inside the precincts of
+the divine dwelling. At El Kab, where the temple teme"
+274,"nos formed a separate
+enclosure within the boundary of the city walls, it served as a sort of
+donjon, or keep, in which the garrison could seek a last refuge. At Memphis
+and at Thebes, there were as many keeps as there were great temples, and
+these sacred fortresses, each at first standing alone in the midst of
+houses, were, from the time of the Eighteenth Dynasty, connected each with
+each by avenues of sphinxes. These were commonly andro-sphinxes, combining
+the head of a man and the "
+275,"body of a lion; but we also find crio-sphinxes,
+which united a ram's head with a lion's body (fig. 94). Elsewhere, in
+places where the local worship admitted of such substitution, a couchant
+ram, holding a statuette of the royal founder between his bent forelegs,
+takes the place of the conventional sphinx (fig. 95). The avenue leading
+from Luxor to Karnak was composed of these diverse elements. It was one
+mile and a quarter in length, and there were many bends in it; but this
+fact aff"
+276,"ords no fresh proof of Egyptian ""symmetrophobia."" The enclosures of
+the two temples were not oriented alike, and the avenues which started
+squarely from the fronts of each could never have met had they not deviated
+from their first course. Finally, it may be said that the inhabitants of
+Thebes saw about as much of their temples as we see at the present day. The
+sanctuary and its immediate surroundings were closed against them; but they
+had access to the façades, the courts, and even th"
+277,"e hypostyle halls, and
+might admire the masterpieces of their architects as freely as we admire
+them now.
+
+
+[14] _Hor-shesû_, ""followers,"" or ""servants of Horus,"" are mentioned
+    in the Turin papyrus as the predecessors of Mena, and are referred to
+    in monumental inscriptions as representing the pre-historic people of
+    Egypt. It is to the Hor-shesû that Professors Maspero and Mariette
+    attribute the making of the Great Sphinx.--A.B.E.
+
+[15] For a full description of the"
+278," oldest funerary chapel known, that of
+    King Sneferû, see W.M.F. Petrie's _Medum_.
+
+[16] Conf. Mr. Petrie's plan of this temple in _Pyramids and Temples of
+    Gizeh_, Plate VI.--A.B.E.
+
+[17] That is to say, the wall is vertical on the inside; but is
+    built much thicker at the bottom than at the top, so that on the
+    outside it presents a sloping surface, retiring with the height of
+    the wall.--A.B.E.
+
+[18] ""Hatshepsût,"" more commonly known as ""Hatasû;"" the new reading "
+279,"is,
+    however, more correct. Professor Maspero thinks that it was pronounced
+    ""Hatshopsitû.""--A.B.E.
+
+[19] For full illustrated account of the complete excavation of this
+    temple, see the _Deir el Baharî_ publications of the Egypt
+    Exploration Fund.
+
+[20] Temenos, _i.e._, the enclosure wall of the Temple, within which
+    all was holy ground.--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+3.--DECORATION.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 96 to 101.--DECORATIVE DESIGNS, FROM DENDERAH.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96."
+280,"]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Two Nile-gods, bearing lotus flowers and libation
+vases.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Dado decoration, hall of Thothmes III., Karnak.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Ceiling decoration, from tomb of Bakenrenf
+(Bocchoris), Sakkarah, Twenty-sixth Dynasty.]
+
+
+Ancient tradition affirmed that the earliest Egyptian temples "
+281,"contained
+neither sculptured images, inscriptions, nor symbols; and in point of fact,
+the Temple of the Sphinx is bare. But this is a unique example. The
+fragments of architraves and masonry bearing the name of Khafra, which were
+used for building material in the northern pyramid of Lisht, show that this
+primitive simplicity had already been abandoned by the time of the Fourth
+Dynasty. During the Theban period, all smooth surfaces, all pylons, wall-
+faces, and shafts of columns, were "
+282,"covered with figure-groups and
+inscriptions. Under the Ptolemies and the Caesars, figures and hieroglyphs
+became so crowded that the stone on which they are sculptured seems to be
+lost under the masses of ornament with which it is charged. We recognise at
+a glance that these scenes are not placed at random. They follow in
+sequence, are interlinked, and form as it were a great mystic book in which
+the official relations between gods and men, as well as between men and
+gods, are clearly"
+283," set forth for such as are skilled to read them. The
+temple was built in the likeness of the world, as the world was known to
+the Egyptians. The earth, as they believed, was a flat and shallow plane,
+longer than its width. The sky, according to some, extended overhead like
+an immense iron ceiling, and according to others, like a huge shallow
+vault. As it could not remain suspended in space without some support, they
+imagined it to be held in place by four immense props or pillars. The "
+284,"floor
+of the temple naturally represented the earth. The columns, and if needful
+the four corners of the chambers, stood for the pillars. The roof, vaulted
+at Abydos, flat elsewhere, corresponded exactly with the Egyptian idea of
+the sky. Each of these parts was, therefore, decorated in consonance with
+its meaning. Those next to the ground were clothed with vegetation. The
+bases of the columns were surrounded by leaves, and the lower parts of the
+walls were adorned with long stems of "
+285,"lotus or papyrus (fig. 96), in the
+midst of which animals were occasionally depicted. Bouquets of water-plants
+emerging from the water (fig. 97), enlivened the bottom of the wall-space
+in certain chambers. Elsewhere, we find full-blown flowers interspersed
+with buds (fig. 98), or tied together with cords (fig. 99); or those
+emblematic plants which symbolise the union of Upper and Lower Egypt under
+the rule of a single Pharaoh (fig. 100); or birds with human hands and
+arms, perched in "
+286,"an attitude of adoration on the sign which represents a
+solemn festival; or kneeling prisoners tied to the stake in couples, each
+couple consisting of an Asiatic and a negro (fig. 101). Male and female
+Niles (fig. 102), laden with flowers and fruits, either kneel, or advance
+in majestic procession, along the ground level. These are the nomes, lakes,
+and districts of Egypt, bringing offerings of their products to the god.
+In one instance, at Karnak, Thothmes III. caused the fruits, flow"
+287,"ers, and
+animals indigenous to the foreign lands which he had conquered, to be
+sculptured on the lower courses of his walls (fig. 103). The ceilings were
+painted blue, and sprinkled with five-pointed stars painted yellow,
+occasionally interspersed with the cartouches of the royal founder. The
+monotony of this Egyptian heaven was also relieved by long bands of
+hieroglyphic inscriptions. The vultures of Nekheb and Ûati, the goddesses
+of the south and north, crowned and armed with divine"
+288," emblems (fig. 104),
+hovered above the nave of the hypostyle halls, and on the under side of the
+lintels of the great doors, above the head of the king as he passed through
+on his way to the sanctuary. At the Ramesseum, at Edfû, at Philae, at
+Denderah, at Ombos, at Esneh, the depths of the firmament seemed to open to
+the eyes of the faithful, revealing the dwellers therein. There the
+celestial ocean poured forth its floods navigated by the sun and moon with
+their attendant escort of p"
+289,"lanets, constellations, and decani; and there
+also the genii of the months and days marched in long procession. In the
+Ptolemaic age, zodiacs fashioned after Greek models were sculptured side by
+side with astronomical tables of purely native origin (fig. 105). The
+decoration of the architraves which supported the massive roofing slabs was
+entirely independent of that of the ceiling itself. On these were wrought
+nothing save boldly cut inscriptions, in which the beauty of the temple,
+t"
+290,"he names of the builder-kings who had erected it, and the glory of the
+gods to whom it was consecrated, are emphatically celebrated. Finally, the
+decoration of the lowest part of the walls and of the ceiling was
+restricted to a small number of subjects, which were always similar: the
+most important and varied scenes being suspended, as it were, between earth
+and heaven, on the sides of the chambers and the pylons.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Zodiacal circle of Denderah.]
+
+These scene"
+291,"s illustrate the official relations which subsisted between
+Egypt and the gods. The people had no right of direct intercourse with the
+deities. They needed a mediator, who, partaking of both human and divine
+nature, was qualified to communicate with both. The king alone, Son of the
+Sun, was of sufficiently high descent to contemplate the god in his temple,
+to serve him, and to speak with him face to face. Sacrifices could be
+offered only by him, or through him, and in his name. Even th"
+292,"e customary
+offerings to the dead were supposed to pass through his hands, and the
+family availed themselves of his name in the formula _sûten ta hotep_ to
+forward them to the other world. The king is seen, therefore, in all parts
+of the temple, standing, seated, kneeling, slaying the victim, presenting
+the parts, pouring out the wine, the milk, and the oil, and burning the
+incense. All humankind acts through him, and through him performs its duty
+towards the gods. When the ceremonies"
+293," to be performed required the
+assistance of many persons, then alone did mortal subordinates (consisting,
+as much as possible, of his own family) appear by his side. The queen,
+standing behind him like Isis behind Osiris, uplifts her hand to protect
+him, shakes the sistrum, beats the tambourine to dispel evil spirits, or
+holds the libation vase or bouquet. The eldest son carries the net or
+lassoes the bull, and recites the prayer while his father successively
+presents to the god each "
+294,"object prescribed by the ritual. A priest may
+occasionally act as substitute for the prince, but other men perform only
+the most menial offices. They are slaughterers or servants, or they bear
+the boat or canopy of the god. The god, for his part, is not always alone.
+He has his wife and his son by his side; next after them the gods of the
+neighbouring homes, and, in a general way, all the gods of Egypt. From the
+moment that the temple is regarded as representing the world, it must, lik"
+295,"e
+the world, contain all gods, both great and small. They are most frequently
+ranged behind the principal god, seated or standing; and with him they
+share in the homage paid by the king. Sometimes, however, they take an
+active part in the ceremonies. The spirits of On and Khonû[21] kneel before
+the sun, and proclaim his praise. Hor, Set, or Thoth conducts Pharaoh into
+the presence of his father Amen Ra, or performs the functions elsewhere
+assigned to the prince or the priest. They hel"
+296,"p him to overthrow the victim
+or to snare birds for the sacrifice; and in order to wash away his
+impurities, they pour upon his head the waters of youth and life. The
+position and functions of these co-operating gods were strictly defined in
+the theology. The sun, travelling from east to west, divided the universe
+into two worlds, the world of the north and the world of the south. The
+temple, like the universe, was double, and an imaginary line passing
+through the axis of the sanctuar"
+297,"y divided it into two temples--the temple
+of the south on the right hand, and the temple of the north on the left.
+The gods and their various manifestations were divided between these two
+temples, according as they belonged to the northern or southern hemisphere.
+This fiction of duality was carried yet further. Each chamber was divided,
+in imitation of the temple, into two halves, the right half belonging to
+the south, and the left half to the north. The royal homage, to be
+complete, "
+298,"must be rendered in the temples of the south and of the north,
+and to the gods of the south and of the north, and with the products of the
+south and of the north. Each sculptured tableau must, therefore, be
+repeated at least twice in each temple--on a right wall and on a left wall.
+Amen, on the right, receives the corn, the wine, the liquids of the south;
+while on the left he receives the corn, the wine, and the liquids of the
+north. As with Amen, so with Maut, Khonsû, Mentû, and many "
+299,"other gods. Want
+of space frequently frustrated the due execution of this scheme, and we
+often meet with a tableau in which the products of north and south together
+are placed before an Amen who represents both Amen of the south and Amen of
+the north. These departures from decorative usage are, however,
+exceptional, and the dual symmetry is always observed where space permits.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Frieze of uraei and cartouches.]
+
+In Pharaonic times, the tableaux were not over"
+300,"-crowded. The wall-surface
+intended to be covered was marked off below by a line carried just above
+the ground level decoration, and was bounded above by the usual cornice, or
+by a frieze. This frieze might be composed of uraei, or of bunches of
+lotus; or of royal cartouches (fig. 106) supported on either side by divine
+symbols; or of emblems borrowed from the local cult (by heads of Hathor,
+for instance, in a temple dedicated to Hathor); or of a horizontal line of
+dedicatory inscript"
+301,"ion engraved in large and deeply-cut hieroglyphs. The
+wall space thus framed in contained sometimes a single scene and sometimes
+two scenes, one above the other. The wall must be very lofty, if this
+number is exceeded. Figures and inscriptions were widely spaced, and the
+scenes succeeded one another with scarcely a break. The spectator had to
+discover for himself where they began or ended. The head of the king was
+always studied from the life, and the faces of the gods reproduced the
+"
+302,"royal portrait as closely as possible. As Pharaoh was the son of the gods,
+the surest way to obtain portraits of the gods was to model their faces
+after the face of the king. The secondary figures were no less carefully
+wrought; but when these were very numerous, they were arranged on two or
+three levels, the total height of which never exceeded that of the
+principal personages. The offerings, the sceptres, the jewels, the
+vestments, the head-dresses, and all the accessories were treat"
+303,"ed with a
+genuine feeling for elegance and truth. The colours, moreover, were so
+combined as to produce in each tableau the effect of one general and
+prevailing tone; so that in many temples there were chambers which can be
+justly distinguished as the Blue Hall, the Red Hall, or the Golden Hall. So
+much for the classical period of decoration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.--Wall of a chamber at Denderah, to show the
+arrangement of the tableaux.]
+
+As we come down to later times, these ta"
+304,"bleaux are multiplied, and under
+the Greeks and Romans they become so numerous that the smallest wall
+contained not less than four (fig. 107), five, six, or even eight
+registers. The principal figures are, as it were, compressed, so as to
+occupy less room, and all the intermediate space is crowded with thousands
+of tiny hieroglyphs. The gods and kings are no longer portraits of the
+reigning sovereign, but mere conventional types without vigour or life. As
+for the secondary figures and"
+305," accessories, the sculptor's only care is to
+crowd in as many as possible. This was not due to a defect of taste, and to
+the prevalence of a religious idea which decided but enforced these
+changes. The object of decoration was not merely the delight of the eye.
+Applied to a piece of furniture, a coffin, a house, a temple, decoration
+possessed a certain magic property, of which the power and nature were
+determined by each being or action represented, by each word inscribed or
+spoken, a"
+306,"t the moment of consecration. Every subject was, therefore, an
+amulet as well as an ornament. So long as it endured, it ensured to the god
+the continuance of homage rendered, or sacrifices offered, by the king. To
+the king, whether living or dead, it confirmed the favours granted to him
+by the god in recompense for his piety. It also preserved from destruction
+the very wall upon which it was depicted. At the time of the Eighteenth
+Dynasty, it was thought that two or three such amulets "
+307,"sufficed to compass
+the desired effect; but at a later period it was believed that their number
+could not be too freely multiplied, and the walls were covered with as many
+as the surface would contain. An average chamber of Edfû or Denderah yields
+more material for study than the hypostyle hall of Karnak; and the chapel
+of Antoninus Pius at Philae, had it been finished, would have contained
+more scenes than the sanctuary of Luxor and the passages by which it is
+surrounded.
+
+Observin"
+308,"g the variety of subjects treated on the walls of any one temple,
+one might at first be tempted to think that the decoration does not form a
+connected whole, and that, although many series of scenes must undoubtedly
+contain the development of an historic idea or a religious dogma, yet that
+others are merely strung together without any necessary link. At Luxor, and
+again at the Ramesseum, each face of the pylon is a battle-field on which
+may be studied, almost day for day, the campaign "
+309,"of Rameses II. against the
+Kheta, which took place in the fifth year of his reign. There we see the
+Egyptian camp attacked by night; the king's bodyguard surprised during the
+march; the defeat of the enemy; their flight; the garrison of Kadesh
+sallying forth to the relief of the vanquished; and the disasters which
+befell the prince of the Kheta and his generals. Elsewhere, it is not the
+war which is represented, but the human sacrifices which anciently
+celebrated the close of each cam"
+310,"paign. The king is seen in the act of
+seizing his prostrate prisoners by the hair of their heads, and uplifting
+his mace as if about to shatter their heads at a single blow. At Karnak,
+along the whole length of the outer wall, Seti I. pursues the Bedawîn of
+Sinai. At Medinet Habû Rameses III. destroys the fleet of the peoples of
+the great sea, or receives the cut-off hands of the Libyans, which his
+soldiers bring to him as trophies. In the next scene, all is peace; and we
+behold Phara"
+311,"oh pouring out a libation of perfumed water to his father Amen.
+It would seem as if no link could be established between these subjects,
+and yet the one is the necessary consequence of the others. If the god had
+not granted victory to the king, the king in his turn would not have
+performed these ceremonies in the temple. The sculptor has recorded the
+events in their order:--first the victory, then the sacrifice. The favour
+of the god precedes the thank-offering of the king. Thus, on cl"
+312,"oser
+examination, we find this multitude of episodes forming the several links
+of one continuous chain, while every scene, including such as seem at first
+sight to be wholly unexplained, represents one stage in the development of
+a single action which begins at the door, is carried through the various
+halls, and penetrates to the farthest recesses of the sanctuary. The king
+enters the temple. In the courts, he is everywhere confronted by
+reminiscences of his victories; and here the go"
+313,"d comes forth to greet him,
+hidden in his shrine and surrounded by priests. The rites prescribed for
+these occasions are graven on the walls of the hypostyle hall in which they
+were performed. These being over, king and god together take their way to
+the sanctuary. At the door which leads from the public hall to the
+mysterious part of the temple, the escort halts. The king crosses the
+threshold alone, and is welcomed by the gods. He then performs in due order
+all the sacred ceremonies"
+314," enjoined by usage. His merits increase by virtue
+of his prayers; his senses become exalted; he rises to the level of the
+divine type. Finally he enters the sanctuary, where the god reveals himself
+unwitnessed, and speaks to him face to face. The sculptures faithfully
+reproduce the order of this mystic presentation:--the welcoming reception
+on the part of the god; the acts and offerings of the king; the vestments
+which he puts on and off in succession; the various crowns which he place"
+315,"s
+on his head. The prayers which he recites and the favours which are
+conferred upon him are also recorded upon the walls in order of time and
+place. The king, and the few who accompany him, have their backs towards
+the entrance and their faces towards the door of the sanctuary. The gods,
+on the contrary, or at least such as do not make part of the procession,
+face the entrance, and have their backs turned towards the sanctuary. If
+during the ceremony the royal memory failed, the king"
+316," needed but to raise
+his eyes to the wall, whereon his duties were mapped out for him.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Obelisk of Ûsertesen I., of Heliopolis.]
+
+Nor was this all. Each part of the temple had its accessory decoration and
+its furniture. The outer faces of the pylons were ornamented, not only with
+the masts and streamers before mentioned, but with statues and obelisks.
+The statues, four or six in number, were of limestone, granite, or
+sandstone. They invariably represented t"
+317,"he royal founder, and were
+sometimes of prodigious size. The two Memnons seated at the entrance of the
+temple of Amenhotep III., at Thebes, measured about fifty feet in height.
+The colossal Rameses II. of the Ramesseum measured fifty-seven feet, and
+that of Tanis at least seventy feet. The greater number, however, did not
+exceed twenty feet. They mounted guard before the temple, facing outwards,
+as if confronting an approaching enemy. The obelisks of Karnak are mostly
+hidden amid the "
+318,"central courts; and those of Queen Hatshepsut were imbedded
+for seventeen feet of their height in masses of masonry which concealed
+their bases. These are accidental circumstances, and easy of explanation.
+Each of the pylons before which they are stationed had in its turn been the
+entrance to the temple, and was thrown into the rear by the works of
+succeeding Pharaohs. The true place of all obelisks was in front of the
+colossi, on each side of the main entrance.[22] They are always in "
+319,"pairs,
+but often of unequal height. Some have professed to see in them the emblem
+of Amen, the Generator; or a finger of the god; or a ray of the sun. In
+sober truth, they are a more shapely form of the standing stone, or menhir,
+which is raised by semi-civilised peoples in commemoration of their gods or
+their dead. Small obelisks, about three feet in height, are found in tombs
+as early as the Fourth Dynasty. They are placed to right and left of the
+stela; that is to say, on either si"
+320,"de of the door which leads to the
+dwelling of the dead. Erected before the pylon-gates of temples, they are
+made of granite, and their dimensions are considerable. The obelisk of
+Heliopolis (fig. 108) measures sixty-eight feet in the shaft, and the
+obelisks of Luxor stand seventy-seven and seventy-five and a half feet
+high, respectively. The loftiest known is the obelisk of Queen Hatshepsût
+at Karnak, which rises to a height of 109 feet. To convey such masses, and
+to place them in equ"
+321,"ilibrium, was a sufficiently difficult task, and one is
+at a loss to understand how the Egyptians succeeded in erecting them with
+no other appliances than ropes and sacks of sand. Queen Hatshepsût boasts
+that her obelisks were quarried, shaped, transported, and erected in seven
+months; and we have no reason to doubt the truth of her statement.[23]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.--Obelisk of Ûsertesen I., Begig, Fayûm.]
+
+Obelisks were almost always square, with the faces slightly convex, an"
+322,"d a
+slight slope from top to bottom. The pedestal was formed of a single square
+block adorned with inscriptions, or with cynocephali in high relief,
+adoring the sun. The point was cut as a pyramidion, and sometimes covered
+with bronze or gilt copper. Scenes of offerings to Ra Harmakhis, Hor, Tûm,
+or Amen are engraved on the sides of the pyramidion and on the upper part
+of the prism. The four upright faces are generally decorated with only
+vertical lines of inscription in praise of the"
+323," king (Note 11). Such is the
+usual type of obelisk; but we here and there meet with exceptions. That of
+Begig in the Fayûm (fig. 109) is in shape a rectangular oblong, with a
+blunt top. A groove upon it shows that it was surmounted by some emblem in
+metal, perhaps a hawk, like the obelisk represented on a funerary stela in
+the Gizeh Museum. This form, which like the first is a survival of the
+menhir, was in vogue till the last days of Egyptian art. It is even found
+at Axûm, in the mid"
+324,"dle of Ethiopia, dating from about the fourth century of
+our era, at a time when in Egypt the ancient obelisks were being carried
+out of the country, and none dreamed of erecting new ones. Such was the
+accessory decoration of the pylon. The inner courts and hypostyle halls of
+the temple contained more colossi. Some, placed with their backs against
+the outer sides of pillars or walls, were half engaged in the masonry, and
+built up in courses. At Luxor under the peristyle, and at Karnak "
+325,"between
+each column of the great nave, were also placed statues of Pharaoh; but
+these were statues of Pharaoh the victor, clad in his robe of state. The
+right of consecrating a statue in the temple was above all a royal
+prerogative; yet the king sometimes permitted private persons to dedicate
+their statues by the side of his own. This was, however, a special favour,
+and such monuments always bear an inscription stating that it is ""by the
+king's grace"" that they occupy that position. R"
+326,"arely as this privilege was
+granted, it resulted in a vast accumulation of votive statues, so that in
+the course of centuries the courts of some temples became crowded with
+them. At Karnak, the sanctuary enclosure was furnished outside with a kind
+of broad bench, breast high, like a long base. Upon this the statues were
+placed, with their backs to the wall. Attached to each was an oblong block
+of stone, with a projecting spout on one side; these are known as ""tables
+of offerings"" (fig"
+327,". 110). The upper face is more or less hollowed, and is
+often sculptured with bas-relief representations of loaves, joints of beef,
+libation vases, and other objects usually presented to the dead or to the
+gods. Those of King Ameni Entef Amenemhat, at Gizeh, are blocks of red
+granite more than three feet in length, the top of which is hollowed out in
+regular rows of cup-holes, each cup-hole being reserved for one particular
+offering. There was, in fact, an established form of worship p"
+328,"rovided for
+statues, and these tables were really altars upon which were deposited
+sacrificial offerings of meat, cakes, fruits, vegetables, and the like.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Table of offerings, Karnak.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Limestone altar.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig.112.--Naos of wood in the Museum at Turin.]
+
+The sanctuary and the surrounding chambers contained the objects used in
+the ceremonial of worship. The bases of altars varied in shape, some being
+square and mass"
+329,"ive, others polygonal or cylindrical. Some of these last are
+in form not unlike a small cannon, which is the name given to them by the
+Arabs. The most ancient are those of the Fifth Dynasty; the most beautiful
+is one dedicated by Seti I., now in the Gizeh Museum. The only perfect
+specimen of an altar known to me was discovered at Menshîyeh in 1884 (fig.
+111). It is of white limestone, hard and polished like marble. It stands
+upon a pedestal in the form of a long cone, having no other o"
+330,"rnament than a
+torus about half an inch below the top. Upon this pedestal, in a hollow
+specially prepared for its reception, stands a large hemispherical basin.
+The shrines are little chapels of wood or stone (fig. 112), in which the
+spirit of the deity was supposed at all times to dwell, and which, on
+ceremonial occasions, contained his image. The sacred barks were built
+after the model of the Bari, or boat, in which the sun performed his daily
+course. The shrine was placed amidship "
+331,"of the boat, and covered with a
+veil, or curtain, to conceal its contents from all spectators. The crew
+were also represented, each god being at his post of duty, the pilot at the
+helm, the look-out at the prow, the king upon his knees before the door of
+the shrine. We have not as yet discovered any of the statues employed in
+the ceremonial, but we know what they were like, what part they played,
+and of what materials they were made. They were animated, and in addition
+to their bodies"
+332," of stone, metal, or wood, they had each a soul magically
+derived from the soul of the divinity which they represented. They spoke,
+moved, acted--not metaphorically, but actually. The later Ramessides
+ventured upon no enterprises without consulting them. They stated their
+difficulties, and the god replied to each question by a movement of the
+head. According to the Stela of Bakhtan,[24] a statue of Khonsû places its
+hands four times on the nape of the neck of another statue, so transmi"
+333,"tting
+the power of expelling demons. It was after a conversation with the statue
+of Amen in the dusk of the sanctuary, that Queen Hatshepsût despatched her
+squadron to the shores of the Land of Incense.[25] Theoretically, the
+divine soul of the image was understood to be the only miracle worker;
+practically, its speech and motion were the results of a pious fraud.
+Interminable avenues of sphinxes, gigantic obelisks, massive pylons, halls
+of a hundred columns, mysterious chambers of pe"
+334,"rpetual night--in a word,
+the whole Egyptian temple and its dependencies--were built by way of a
+hiding-place for a performing puppet, of which the wires were worked by a
+priest.
+
+
+[21] That is, the spirits of the North, represented by On (Heliopolis), and
+    of the South (Khonû).--A.B.E.
+
+[22] At Tanis there seems to have been a close succession of obelisks and
+    statues along the main avenue leading to the Temple, without the usual
+    corresponding pylons. These were ranged "
+335,"in pairs; _i.e._, a pair
+    of obelisks, a pair of statues; a pair of obelisks, a pair of shrines;
+    and then a third pair of obelisks. See _Tanis_, Part I., by
+    W.M.F. Petrie, published by the Egypt Exploration Fund, 1884.--A.B.E.
+
+[23] This fact is recorded in the hieroglyphic inscription upon the
+    obelisks.--A.B.E.
+
+[24] This celebrated tablet, preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale,
+    Paris, has been frequently translated, and is the subject of a
+    valuable treati"
+336,"se by the late Vicomte de Rougé. It was considered
+    authentic till Dr. Erman, in an admirable paper contributed to the
+    _Zeitschrift,_ 1883, showed it to have been a forgery concocted
+    by the priests of Khonsû during the period of the Persian rule in
+    Egypt, or in early Ptolemaic times. (See Maspero's _Hist. Ancienne
+    des Peuples de l'Orient_, chap, vi., pp. 287, 288. Fourth
+    Edition.)--A.B.E.
+
+[25] The Land of Incense, called also in the inscriptions ""The Land of
+"
+337,"    Pûnt,"" was the country from which the Egyptians imported spices,
+    precious woods, gums, etc. It is supposed to represent the southern
+    coasts of the Red Sea, on either side the Bab el Mandeb. Queen
+    Hatshepsût's famous expedition is represented in a series of coloured
+    bas-relief sculptures on the walls of her great temple at Deir el
+    Baharî, reproduced in Dr. Dümichen's work, _The Fleet of an Egyptian
+    Queen_, and in Mariette's _Deîr el Baharî_. For a full accoun"
+338,"t
+    of this temple, its decoration, and the expedition of Hatshepsût, see
+    the _Deir el Baharî_ publications of the Egypt Exploration Fund.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+_TOMBS_.
+
+The Egyptians regarded man as composed of various different entities, each
+having its separate life and functions. First, there was the body; then the
+_Ka_ or double, which was a less solid duplicate of the corporeal form--a
+coloured but ethereal projection of the individual, reproducing him feature
+f"
+339,"or feature. The double of a child was as a child; the double of a woman
+was as a woman; the double of a man was as a man. After the double (_Ka_)
+came the Soul (_Bi_ or _Ba_), which was popularly represented as a human-
+headed bird; after the Soul came the ""_Khû_,"" or ""the Luminous,"" a spark
+from the divine fire. None of these elements were in their own natures
+imperishable. Left to themselves, they would hasten to dissolution, and the
+man would thus die a second time; that is to say, "
+340,"he would be annihilated.
+The piety of the survivors found means, however, to avert this catastrophe.
+By the process of embalmment, they could for ages suspend the decomposition
+of the body; while by means of prayer and offerings, they saved the Double,
+the Soul, and the ""Luminous"" from the second death, and secured to them all
+that was necessary for the prolongation of their existence. The Double
+never left the place where the mummy reposed: but the Soul and the ""_Khû_""
+went forth to "
+341,"follow the gods. They, however, kept perpetually returning,
+like travellers who come home after an absence. The tomb was therefore a
+dwelling-house, the ""Eternal House"" of the dead, compared with which the
+houses of the living were but wayside inns; and these Eternal Houses were
+built after a plan which exactly corresponded to the Egyptian idea of the
+after-life. The Eternal House must always include the private rooms of the
+Soul, which were closed on the day of burial, and which no li"
+342,"ving being
+could enter without being guilty of sacrilege. It must also contain the
+reception rooms of the Double, where priests and friends brought their
+wishes or their offerings; the two being connected by a passage of more or
+less length. The arrangement of these three parts[26] varied according to
+the period, the place, the nature of the ground, and the caprice of each
+person. The rooms accessible to the living were frequently built above
+ground, and formed a separate edifice. Som"
+343,"etimes they were excavated in the
+mountain side, as well as the tomb itself. Sometimes, again, the vault
+where the mummy lay hidden, and the passages leading to that vault, were in
+one place, while the place of prayer and offering stood far off in the
+plain. But whatever variety there may be found as to detail and
+arrangement, the principle is always the same. The tomb is a dwelling, and
+it is constructed in such wise as may best promote the well-being, and
+ensure the preservation, of"
+344," the dead.
+
+
+[26] These three parts are (l) the chapel, (2) the passage, or shaft, (3)
+    the sepulchral vault. If the latter was below the level of the chapel,
+    as in the time of the Ancient Empire, the communication was by a
+    sloping or vertical shaft.--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+I.--Mastabas.
+
+
+The most ancient monumental tombs are found in the necropolis of Memphis,
+between Abû Roash and Dahshûr, and in that of Medûm;[27] they belong to the
+mastaba type (Note 12). The mastaba (fig"
+345,". 113) is a quadrangular building,
+which from a distance might be taken for a truncated pyramid. Many mastabas
+are from 30 to 40-feet in height, 150 feet in length, and 80 feet in width;
+while others do not exceed 10 feet in height or 15 feet in length. The
+faces are symmetrically inclined and generally smooth, though sometimes the
+courses retreat like steps. The materials employed are stone or brick. The
+stone is limestone, cut in blocks about two and a half feet long, two feet
+high,"
+346," and twenty inches thick. Three sorts of limestone were employed: for
+the best tombs, the fine white limestone of Tûrah, or the compact siliceous
+limestone of Sakkarah; for ordinary tombs, the marly limestone of the
+Libyan hills. This last, impregnated with salt and veined with crystalline
+gypsum, is a friable material, and unsuited for ornamentation. The bricks
+are of two kinds, both being merely sun-dried. The most ancient kind, which
+ceased to be used about the time of the Sixth Dyn"
+347,"asty, is small (8.7 X 4.3
+X 5.5 inches), yellowish, and made of nothing but sand, mixed with a little
+clay and grit.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.--A Mastaba.]
+
+The later kind is of mud mixed with straw, black, compact, carefully
+moulded, and of a fair size (15.0 X 7.1 X 5.5 inches). The style of the
+internal construction differs according to the material employed by the
+architect. In nine cases out of ten, the stone mastabas are but outwardly
+regular in construction. The core is of ro"
+348,"ughly quarried rubble, mixed with
+rubbish and limestone fragments hastily bedded in layers of mud, or piled
+up without any kind of mortar. The brick mastabas are nearly always of
+homogeneous construction. The facing bricks are carefully mortared, and the
+joints inside are filled up with sand. That the mastaba should be
+canonically oriented, the four faces set to the four cardinal points, and
+the longer axis laid from north and south, was indispensable; but,
+practically, the masons too"
+349,"k no special care about finding the true north,
+and the orientation of these structures is seldom exact. At Gizeh, the
+mastabas are distributed according to a symmetrical plan, and ranged in
+regular streets. At Sakkarah, at Abûsîr, and at Dahshûr, they are scattered
+irregularly over the surface of the plateau, crowded in some places, and
+wide apart in others. The Mussulman cemetery at Siût perpetuates the like
+arrangement, and enables us to this day to realise the aspect of the
+Memphi"
+350,"te necropolis towards the close of the ancient empire.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.--False door in mastaba, from Mariette's _Les
+Mastabahs_.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Plan of forecourt of mastaba of Kaâpir.]
+
+A flat, unpaved platform, formed by the top course of the core (Note 13),
+covers the top of the mass of the mastaba. This platform is scattered over
+with terracotta vases, nearly buried in the loose rubbish. These lie
+thickly over the hollow interior, but are more sparsely depo"
+351,"sited
+elsewhere. The walls are bare. The doors face to the eastward side. They
+occasionally face towards the north or south side, but never towards the
+west. In theory, there should be two doors, one for the dead, the other for
+the living. In practice, the entrance for the dead was a mere niche, high
+and narrow, cut in the eastward face, near the north-east corner. At the
+back of this niche are marked vertical lines, framing in a closed space.
+Even this imitation of a door was sometim"
+352,"es omitted, and the soul was left
+to manage as best it might. The door of the living was made more or less
+important, according to the greater or less development of the chamber to
+which it led. The chamber and door are in some cases represented by only a
+shallow recess decorated with a stela and a table of offerings (fig. 114).
+This is sometimes protected by a wall which projects from the façade, thus
+forming a kind of forecourt open to the north. The forecourt is square in
+the tomb "
+353,"of Kaâpir (fig. 114), and irregular in that of Neferhotep at
+Sakkarah (fig. 116). When the plan includes one or more chambers, the door
+sometimes opens in the middle of a small architectural façade (fig. 117),
+or under a little portico supported by two square pillars without either
+base or abacus (fig. 118). The doorway is very simple, the two jambs being
+ornamented with bas-reliefs representing the deceased, and surmounted by a
+cylindrical drum engraved with his name and titles. In th"
+354,"e tomb of Pohûnika
+at Sakkarah the jambs are two pilasters, each crowned with two lotus
+flowers; but this example is, so far, unique.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Plan of forecourt, mastaba of Neferhotep.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Door in façade of mastaba.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Portico and door, from Mariette's _Les
+Mastabahs_.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.--Plan of chapel in mastaba of Khabiûsokari, Fourth
+Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.--Plan of chapel in mastaba of T"
+355,"i, Fifth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.--Plan of chapel in mastaba of Shepsesptah, Fourth
+Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Plan of chapel in mastaba of Affi, Sakkarah,
+Fourth Dynasty.]
+
+The chapel was usually small, and lost in the mass of the building (fig.
+119), but no precise rule determined its size. In the tomb of Ti there is
+first a portico (A), then a square ante-chamber with pillars (B), then a
+passage (C) with a small room (D) on the right, leading to the last ch"
+356,"amber
+(E) (fig. 120). There was room enough in this tomb for many persons, and,
+in point of fact, the wife of Ti reposed by the side of her husband. When
+the monument belonged to only one person, the structure was less
+complicated. A short and narrow passage led to an oblong chamber upon which
+it opened at right angles, so that the place is in shape of a T (fig. 121).
+The end wall is generally smooth; but sometimes it is recessed just
+opposite the entrance passage, and then the plan f"
+357,"orms a cross, of which
+the head is longer or shorter (fig. 122). This was the ordinary
+arrangement, but the architect was free to reject it, if he so pleased.
+Here, a chapel consists of two parallel lobbies connected by a cross
+passage (fig. 123). Elsewhere, the chamber opens from a corner of the
+passage (fig. 124). Again, in the tomb of Ptahhotep, the site was hemmed in
+by older buildings, and was not large enough. The builders therefore joined
+the new mastaba to the older one in suc"
+358,"h wise as to give them one entrance
+in common, and thus the chapel of the one is enlarged by absorbing the
+whole of the space occupied by the other (fig. 125).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Plan of chapel in mastaba of Thenti II., Fourth
+Dynasty, Sakkarah.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Plan of chapel in mastaba of the _Red Scribe_,
+Fourth Dynasty, Sakkarah.]
+
+The chapel was the reception room of the Double. It was there that the
+relations, friends, and priests celebrated the funerary s"
+359,"acrifices on the
+days prescribed by law; that is to say, ""at the feasts of the commencement
+of the seasons; at the feast of Thoth on the first day of the year; at the
+feast of Ûaga; at the great feast of Sothis; on the day of the procession
+of the god Min; at the feast of shew-bread; at the feasts of the months and
+the half months, and the days of the week."" Offerings were placed in the
+principal room, at the foot of the west wall, at the exact spot leading to
+the entrance of the ""ete"
+360,"rnal home"" of the dead. Unlike the _Kiblah_ of the
+mosques, or Mussulman oratories, this point is not always oriented towards
+the same quarter of the compass, though often found to the west. In the
+earliest times it was indicated by a real door, low and narrow, framed and
+decorated like the door of an ordinary house, but not pierced through. An
+inscription graven upon the lintel in large readable characters,
+commemorated the name and rank of the owner. His portrait, either sitting
+or "
+361,"standing, was carved upon the jambs; and a scene, sculptured or painted
+on the space above the door, represented him seated before a small round
+table, stretching out his hand towards the repast placed upon it. A flat
+slab, or offering table, built into the floor between the two uprights of
+the doorway, received the votive meats and drinks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.--Plan of chapel in mastaba of Ptahhotep, Fifth
+Dynasty, Sakkarah.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.--Stela in tomb of Merrûka"
+362," (Fifth Dynasty, Abûsir):
+a false doorway containing the statue of the deceased.]
+
+The general appearance of the recess is that of a somewhat narrow doorway.
+As a rule it was empty, but occasionally it contained a portrait statue of
+the dead standing with one foot forward as though about to cross the gloomy
+threshold of his tomb, descend the few steps before him, advance into his
+reception room or chapel, and pass out into the sunlight (fig. 126). As a
+matter of fact, the stela symbo"
+363,"lised the door leading to the private
+apartments of the dead, a door closed and sealed to the living. It was
+inscribed on door-posts and lintels, and its inscription was no mere
+epitaph for the information of future generations; all the details which it
+gave as to the name, rank, functions, and family of the deceased were
+intended to secure the continuity of his individuality and civil status in
+the life beyond death. A further and essential object of its inscriptions
+was to provide h"
+364,"im with food and drink by means of prayers or magic
+formulae constraining one of the gods of the dead--Osiris or Anubis--to act
+as intermediary between him and his survivors and to set apart for his use
+some portion of the provisions offered for his sake in sacrifice to one or
+other of these deities. By this agency the _Kas_ or Doubles of these
+provisions were supposed to be sent on into the next world to gladden and
+satisfy the human _Ka_ indicated to the divine intermediary. Offering"
+365,"s of
+real provisions were not indispensable to this end; any chance visitor in
+times to come who should simply repeat the formula of the stela aloud would
+thereby secure the immediate enjoyment of all the good things enumerated to
+the unknown dead whom he evoked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.--Wall scene of funerary offerings, from mastaba of
+Ptahhotep, Fifth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Wall-painting, funeral voyage; mastaba of Urkhuû,
+Gizeh, Fourth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration:"
+366," Fig. 129.--Wall-scene from mastaba of Ptahhotep, Fifth
+Dynasty.]
+
+The living having taken their departure, the Double was supposed to come
+out of his house and feed. In principle, this ceremony was bound to be
+renewed year by year, till the end of time; but the Egyptians ere long
+discovered that this could not be. After two or three generations, the dead
+of former days were neglected for the benefit of those more recently
+departed. Even when a pious foundation was established, with "
+367,"a revenue
+payable for the expenses of the funerary repasts and of the priests whose
+duty it was to prepare them, the evil hour of oblivion was put off for only
+a little longer. Sooner or later, there came a time when the Double was
+reduced to seek his food among the town refuse, and amid the ignoble and
+corrupt filth which lay rejected on the ground. Then, in order that the
+offerings consecrated on the day of burial might for ever preserve their
+virtues, the survivors conceived the id"
+368,"ea of drawing and describing them on
+the walls of the chapel (fig. 127). The painted or sculptured reproduction
+of persons and things ensured the reality of those persons and things for
+the benefit of the one on whose account they were executed. Thus the Double
+saw himself depicted upon the walls in the act of eating and drinking, and
+he ate and drank. This notion once accepted, the theologians and artists
+carried it out to the fullest extent. Not content with offering mere
+pictured p"
+369,"rovisions, they added thereto the semblance of the domains which
+produced them, together with the counterfeit presentment of the herds,
+workmen, and slaves belonging to the same. Was a supply of meat required to
+last for eternity? It was enough, no doubt, to represent the several parts
+of an ox or a gazelle--the shoulder, the leg, the ribs, the breast, the
+heart, the liver, the head, properly prepared for the spit; but it was
+equally easy to retrace the whole history of the animal--its"
+370," birth, its
+life in the pasture-lands, its slaughter, the cutting up of the carcass,
+and the presentation of the joints. So also as regarded the cakes and
+bread-offerings, there was no reason why the whole process of tillage,
+harvesting, corn-threshing, storage, and dough-kneading should not be
+rehearsed. Clothing, ornaments, and furniture served in like manner as a
+pretext for the introduction of spinners, weavers, goldsmiths, and cabinet-
+makers. The master is of superhuman proporti"
+371,"ons, and towers above his
+people and his cattle. Some prophetic tableaux show him in his funeral
+bark, speeding before the wind with all sail set, having started on his way
+to the next world the very day that he takes possession of his new abode
+(fig. 128). Elsewhere, we see him as actively superintending his imaginary
+vassals as formerly he superintended his vassals of flesh and blood (fig.
+129). Varied and irregular as they may appear, these scenes are not placed
+at random upon the "
+372,"walls. They all converge towards that semblance of a
+door which was supposed to communicate with the interior of the tomb. Those
+nearest to the door represent the sacrifice and the offering; the earlier
+stages of preparation and preliminary work being depicted in retrograde
+order as that door is left farther and farther behind. At the door itself,
+the figure of the master seems to await his visitors and bid them welcome.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130. Plan of serdab in mastaba at Gizeh, Fo"
+373,"urth
+Dynasty.]
+
+The details are of infinite variety. The inscriptions run to a less or
+greater length according to the caprice of the scribe; the false door loses
+its architectural character, and is frequently replaced by a mere stela
+engraved with the name and rank of the master; yet, whether large or small,
+whether richly decorated or not decorated at all, the chapel is always the
+dining-room--or, rather, the larder--to which the dead man has access when
+he feels hungry.
+
+[Illus"
+374,"tration: Fig. 131.--Plan of serdab and chapel in mastaba of Rahotep
+at Sakkarah, Fourth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Plan of serdab and chapel in mastaba of Thenti I.
+at Sakkarah, Fourth Dynasty.]
+
+On the other side of the wall was constructed a hiding-place in the form of
+either a high and narrow cell, or a passage without outlet. To this hiding-
+place archaeologists have given the Arab name of ""_serdab_."" Most mastabas
+contain but one; others contain three or four (fig. 13"
+375,"0). These _serdabs_
+communicated neither with each other nor with the chapel; and are, as it
+were, buried in the masonry (fig. 131). If connected at all with the outer
+world, it is by means of an aperture in the wall about as high up as a
+man's head (fig. 132), and so small that the hand can with difficulty pass
+through it. To this orifice came the priests, with murmured prayers and
+perfumes of incense. Within lurked the Double, ready to profit by these
+memorial rites, or to accept th"
+376,"em through the medium of his statues. As
+when he lived upon earth, the man needed a body in which to exist. His
+corpse, disfigured by the process of embalmment, bore but a distant
+resemblance to its former self. The mummy, again, was destructible, and
+might easily be burned, dismembered, scattered to the winds. Once it had
+disappeared, what was to become of the Double? The portrait statues walled
+up inside the _serdab_ became, when consecrated, the stone, or wooden,
+bodies of the defu"
+377,"nct. The pious care of his relatives multiplied these
+bodies, and consequently multiplied the supports of the Double. A single
+body represented a single chance of existence for the Double; twenty bodies
+represented twenty such chances. For the same reason, statues also of his
+wife, his children, and his servants were placed with the statues of the
+deceased, the servants being modelled in the act of performing their
+domestic duties, such as grinding corn, kneading dough, and applying a "
+378,"coat
+of pitch to the inside surfaces of wine-jars. As for the figures which were
+merely painted on the walls of the chapel, they detached themselves, and
+assumed material bodies inside the _serdab_. Notwithstanding these
+precautions, all possible means were taken to guard the remains of the
+fleshly body from natural decay and the depredations of the spoiler. In the
+tomb of Ti, an inclined passage, starting from the middle of the first
+hall, leads from the upper world to the sepulchral"
+379," vault; but this is
+almost a solitary exception. Generally, the vault is reached by way of a
+vertical shaft constructed in the centre of the platform (fig. 133), or,
+more rarely, in a corner of the chapel. The depth of this shaft varies from
+10 to 100 feet. It is carried down through the masonry: it pierces the
+rock; and at the bottom, a low passage, in which it is not possible to walk
+upright, leads in a southward direction to the vault. There sleeps the
+mummy in a massive sarcophagu"
+380,"s of limestone, red granite, or basalt.
+Sometimes, though rarely, the sarcophagus bears the name and titles of the
+deceased. Still more rarely, it is decorated with ornamental sculpture.
+Some examples are known which reproduce the architectural decoration of an
+Egyptian house, with its doors and windows.[28] The furniture of the vault
+is of the simplest character,--some alabaster perfume vases; a few cups
+into which the priest had poured drops of the various libation liquids
+offered t"
+381,"o the dead; some large red pottery jars for water; a head-rest of
+wood or alabaster; a scribe's votive palette. Having laid the mummy in the
+sarcophagus and cemented the lid, the workmen strewed the floor of the
+vault with the quarters of oxen and gazelles which had just been
+sacrificed. They next carefully walled up the entrance into the passage,
+and filled the shaft to the top with a mixture of sand, earth, and stone
+chips. Being profusely watered, this mass solidified, and became an"
+382," almost
+impenetrable body of concrete. The corpse, left to itself, received no
+visits now, save from the Soul, which from time to time quitted the
+celestial regions wherein it voyaged with the gods, and came down to re-
+unite itself with the body. The sepulchral vault was the abode of the Soul,
+as the funerary chapel was the abode of the Double.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.--Section showing shaft and vault of mastaba at
+Gizeh, Fourth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.--Section of mas"
+383,"taba, Sakkarah, Sixth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.--Wall painting of funerary offerings, from mastaba
+of Nenka, Sakkarah, Sixth Dynasty.]
+
+Up to the time of the Sixth Dynasty, the walls of the vault are left bare.
+Once only did Mariette find a vault containing half-effaced inscriptions
+from _The Book of the Dead_. In 1881, I however discovered some tombs at
+Sakkarah, in which the vault is decorated in preference to the chapel.
+These tombs are built with large bricks, a niche "
+384,"and a stela sufficing for
+the reception of sacrificial offerings. In place of the shaft, they contain
+a small rectangular court, in the western corner of which was placed the
+sarcophagus. Over the sarcophagus was erected a limestone chamber just as
+long and as wide as the sarcophagus itself, and about three and a half feet
+high. This was roofed in with flat slabs. At the end, or in the wall to the
+right, was a niche, which answered the purpose of a _serdab_; and above the
+flat roof wa"
+385,"s next constructed an arch of about one foot and a half radius,
+the space above the arch being filled in with horizontal courses of
+brickwork up to the level of the platform. The chamber occupies about two-
+thirds of the cavity, and looks like an oven with the mouth open. Sometimes
+the stone walls rest on the lid of the sarcophagus, the chamber having
+evidently been built after the interment had taken place (fig. 134).
+Generally speaking, however, these walls rest on brick supports, so"
+386," that
+the sarcophagus may be opened or closed when required. The decoration,
+which is sometimes painted, sometimes sculptured, is always the same. Each
+wall was a house stocked with the objects depicted or catalogued upon its
+surface, and each was, therefore, carefully provided with a fictitious
+door, through which the Double had access to his goods. On the left wall he
+found a pile of provisions (fig. 135)[29] and a table of offerings; on the
+end wall a store of household utensils, a"
+387,"s well as a supply of linen and
+perfumes, the name and quantity of each being duly registered. These
+paintings more briefly sum up the scenes depicted in the chapels of
+ordinary mastabas. Transferred from their original position to the walls of
+an underground cellar, they were the more surely guaranteed against such
+possible destruction as might befall them in chambers open to all comers;
+while upon their preservation depended the length of time during which the
+dead man would retain "
+388,"possession of the property which they represented.
+
+
+[27] For an account of the necropolis of Medûm, see W.M.F. Petrie's
+    _Medum_.
+
+[28] The sarcophagus of Menkara, unfortunately lost at sea when on its way
+    to England, was of this type. See illustration No. 19, Chapter III.,
+    in Sir E. Wilson's _Egypt of the Past_.--A.B.E.
+
+[29] This wall scene is from the tomb of Nenka, near Sakkarah. For a
+    coloured facsimile on a large scale, see Professor Maspero's article
+    en"
+389,"titled ""Trois Années de Fouilles,"" in _Mémoires de la Mission
+    Archéologique Française du Caire_, Pl. 2. 1884.--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+2.--THE PYRAMIDS.
+
+[For the following translation of this section of Professor Maspero's book
+I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie, whose work on
+_The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh_, published with the assistance of a
+grant from the Royal Society in 1883, constitutes our standard authority on
+the construction of these Pyramids.--A.B.E."
+390,"]
+
+The royal tombs have the form of pyramids with a square base, and are the
+equivalent in stone or brick of the tumulus of heaped earth which was piled
+over the body of the warrior chief in prehistoric times (Note 14). The same
+ideas prevailed as to the souls of kings as about those of private men; the
+plan of the pyramid consists, therefore, of three parts, like the mastaba,
+--the chapel, the passage, and the sepulchral vault.
+
+The chapel is always separate. At Sakkarah no trace o"
+391,"f it has been found;
+it was probably, as later on at Thebes, in a quarter nearer to the town. At
+Medûm, Gizeh, Abûsîr, and Dahshûr, these temples stood at the east or north
+fronts of the pyramids. They were true temples, with chambers, courts, and
+passages. The fragments of bas-reliefs hitherto found show scenes of
+sacrifice, and prove that the decoration was the same as in the public
+halls of the mastabas. The pyramid, properly speaking, contained only the
+passages and sepulchral vau"
+392,"lt. The oldest of which the texts show the
+existence, north of Abydos, is that of Sneferû; the latest belong to the
+princes of the Twelfth Dynasty. The construction of these monuments was,
+therefore, a continuous work, lasting for thirteen or fourteen centuries,
+under government direction. Granite, alabaster, and basalt for the
+sarcophagus and some details were the only materials of which the use and
+the quantity was not regulated in advance, and which had to be brought from
+a distanc"
+393,"e. To obtain them, each king sent one of the great men of his
+court on a mission to the quarries of Upper Egypt; and the quickness with
+which the blocks were brought back was a strong claim upon the sovereign's
+favour. The other material was not so costly. If mainly brick, the bricks
+were moulded on the spot with earth taken from the foot of the hill. If of
+stone, the nearest parts of the plateau provided the common marly limestone
+in abundance (Note 15). The fine limestone of Tûrah wa"
+394,"s usually reserved
+for the chambers and the casing, and this might be had without even sending
+specially for it to the opposite side of the Nile; for at Memphis there
+were stores always full, upon which they continually drew for public
+buildings, and, therefore, also for the royal tombs. The blocks being taken
+from these stores, and borne by boats to close below the hill, were raised
+to their required places along gently sloping causeways. The internal
+arrangement of the pyramids, the"
+395," lengths of the passages and their heights,
+were very variable; the pyramid of Khûfû (Cheops) rose to 475 feet above
+the ground, the smallest was not 30 feet high. The difficulty of imagining
+now what motives determined the Pharaohs to choose such different
+proportions has led some to think that the mass built was in direct
+proportion to the time occupied in building; that is to say, to the length
+of each reign. Thus it was supposed that the king would begin by hastily
+erecting a pyra"
+396,"mid large enough to contain the essential parts of a tomb;
+and then, year by year, would add fresh layers around the first core, until
+the time when his death for ever arrested the growth of the monument. But
+the facts do not justify this hypothesis. The smallest of the pyramids of
+Sakkarah is that of Ûnas, who reigned thirty years; while the two imposing
+pyramids of Gizeh were raised by Khûfû and Khafra (Chephren), who governed
+Egypt, the one for twenty-four, and the other for twenty-"
+397,"three years.
+Merenra, who died very young, had a pyramid as large as that of Pepi II.,
+whose reign lasted more than ninety years (Note 16). The plan of each
+pyramid was laid down, once for all, by the architect, according to the
+instructions which he had received, and the resources placed at his
+disposal. He then followed it out to the end of the work, without
+increasing or reducing the scale (Note 17).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.--Section of the Great Pyramid.[30]]
+
+The pyramids wer"
+398,"e supposed to have their four faces to the four cardinal
+points, like the mastabas; but, either from bad management or neglect, the
+greater part are not oriented exactly, and many vary distinctly from the
+true north (Note 18). Without speaking of the ruins of Abû Roash or Zowyet
+el Aryan, which have not been studied closely enough, they naturally form
+six groups, distributed from north to south on the border of the Libyan
+plateau, from Gizeh to the Fayûm, by Abûsîr, Sakkarah, Dahshûr, "
+399,"and Lisht.
+The Gizeh group contains nine, including those of Khûfû, Khafra, and
+Menkara, which were anciently reckoned among the wonders of the world. The
+ground on which the pyramid of Khûfû stands was very irregular at the time
+of construction. A small rocky height which rose above the surface was
+roughly cut (fig. 136) and enclosed in the masonry, the rest being smoothed
+and covered with large slabs, some of which still remain (Note 19). The
+pyramid itself was 481 feet high and 755"
+400," feet wide, dimensions which the
+injuries of time have reduced to 454 feet and 750 feet respectively. It
+preserved, until the Arab conquest, a casing of stones of different colours
+(Note 20), so skilfully joined as to appear like one block from base to
+summit. The casing work was begun from the top, and the cap placed on
+first, the steps being covered one after the other, until they reached the
+bottom (Note 21). In the inside all was arranged so as to hide the exact
+place of the sarco"
+401,"phagus, and to baffle any spoilers whom chance or
+perseverance had led aright. The first point was to discover the entrance
+under the casing, which masked it. It was nearly in the middle of the north
+face (fig. 136), but at the level of the eighteenth course, at about forty-
+five feet from the ground. When the block which closed it was displaced, an
+inclined passage, 41.2 inches wide and 47.6 inches high, was revealed, the
+lower part of which was cut in the rock. This descended for 317"
+402," feet,
+passed through an unfinished chamber, and ended sixty feet farther in a
+blind passage. This would be a first disappointment to the spoilers. If,
+however, they were not discouraged, but examined the passage with care,
+they would find in the roof, sixty-two feet distant from the door, a block
+of granite (Note 22) among the surrounding limestone. It was so hard that
+the seekers, after having vainly tried to break or remove it, took the
+course of forcing a way through the softer st"
+403,"one around (Note 23). This
+obstacle past, they came into an ascending passage which joins the first at
+an angle of 120° (Note 24), and is divided into two branches. One branch
+runs horizontally into the centre of the pyramid, and ends in a limestone
+chamber with pointed roof, which is called, without any good reason, ""The
+Queen's Chamber."" The other, continuing upward, changes its form and
+appearance. It becomes a gallery 148 feet long and 28 feet high, built of
+Mokattam stone, so pol"
+404,"ished and finely wrought that it is difficult to put
+a ""needle or even a hair"" into the joints (Note 25). The lower courses are
+vertical; the seven others ""corbel"" forwards, until at the roof they are
+only twenty-one inches apart. A fresh obstacle arose at the end of this
+gallery. The passage which led to the chamber of the sarcophagus was closed
+by a slab of granite (Note 26); farther on was a small vestibule divided in
+equal spaces by four portcullises of granite (Note 27), which wou"
+405,"ld need to
+be broken. The royal sepulchre is a granite chamber with a flat roof,
+nineteen feet high, thirty-four feet long, and seventeen feet wide. Here
+are neither figures nor inscriptions; nothing but a granite sarcophagus,
+lidless and mutilated. Such were the precautions taken against invaders;
+and the result showed that they were effectual, for the pyramid guarded its
+deposit during more than four thousand years (Note 28). But the very weight
+of the materials was a more serious d"
+406,"anger. To prevent the sepulchral
+chamber from being crushed by the three hundred feet of stone which stood
+over it, five low hollow spaces, one over the other, were left above it.
+The last is sheltered by a pointed roof, formed of two enormous slabs (Note
+29) leaning one against the other. Thanks to this device, the central
+pressure was thrown almost entirely on the side faces, and the chamber was
+preserved. None of the stones which cover it have been crushed; none have
+yielded a frac"
+407,"tion since the day when the workmen cemented them into their
+places (Note 30).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.--The Step Pyramid of Sakkarah.]
+
+The pyramids of Khafra and Menkara were built on a different plan inside to
+that of Khûfû. Khafra's had two entrances, both to the north, one from the
+platform before the pyramid, the other fifty feet above the ground.
+Menkara's still preserves the remains of its casing of red granite (Note
+31). The entrance passage descends at an angle of twenty-"
+408,"six degrees, and
+soon runs into the rock. The first chamber is decorated with panels
+sculptured in the stone, and was closed at the further end by three
+portcullises of granite. The second chamber appears to be unfinished, but
+this was a trap to deceive the spoilers. A passage cut in the floor, and
+carefully hidden, gave access to a lower chamber. There lay the mummy in a
+sarcophagus of sculptured basalt. The sarcophagus was still perfect at the
+beginning of this century. Removed then"
+409,"ce by Colonel Howard Vyse, it
+foundered on the Spanish coast with the ship which was bearing it to
+England.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Plan and Section of the Pyramid of Ûnas.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.--Portcullis and passage, pyramid of Ûnas.]
+
+The same variety of arrangement prevails in the groups of Abûsîr, and in
+one part of the Sakkarah group. The great pyramid of Sakkarah is not
+oriented with exactness. The north face is turned 4° 21' E. of the true
+north. It is not a perfe"
+410,"ct square, but is elongated from east to west, the
+sides being 395 and 351 feet. It is 196 feet high, and is formed of six
+great steps with inclined faces, each retreating about seven feet; the step
+nearest the ground is thirty-seven and a half feet high, and the top one is
+twenty-nine feet high (fig. 137). It is built entirely of limestone,
+quarried from the neighbouring hills. The blocks are small and badly cut,
+and the courses are concave, according to a plan applied both to quays a"
+411,"nd
+to fortresses. On examining the breaches in the masonry, it is seen that
+the outer face of each step is coated with two layers, each of which has
+its regular casing (Note 32). The mass is solid, the chambers being cut in
+the rock below the pyramid. It has four entrances, the main one being in
+the north; and the passages form a perfect labyrinth, which it is perilous
+to enter. Porticoes with columns, galleries, and chambers, all end in a
+kind of pit, in the bottom of which a hiding "
+412,"place was contrived, doubtless
+intended to contain the most precious objects of the funeral furniture.
+The pyramids which surround this extraordinary monument have been nearly
+all built on one plan, and only differ in their proportions. The door (fig.
+138, A) opens close below the first course, about the middle of the north
+face, and the passage (B) descends by a gentle slope between two walls of
+limestone. It is plugged up all along by large blocks (Note 33), which
+needed to be broke"
+413,"n up before the first chamber could be entered (C).
+Beyond this chamber, it is carried for some way through the limestone rock;
+then it passes between walls, ceiling and floor of polished syenite; after
+which the limestone re-appears, and the passage opens into the vestibule
+(E). The part built of granite is interrupted thrice, at intervals of two
+to two and a half feet, by three enormous portcullises of granite (D).
+Above each of these a hollow is left, in which the portcullis stone c"
+414,"ould
+be held up by props, and thus leave a free passage (fig. 139). The mummy
+once placed inside, the workmen, as they left, removed the supports, and
+the portcullises fell into place, cutting off all communication with the
+outside. The vestibule was flanked on the east by a flat-roofed _serdab_
+(F) divided into three niches, and encumbered with chips of stone swept
+hastily in by the workmen when they cleared the chambers to receive the
+mummy. The pyramid of Ûnas has all three niches "
+415,"preserved; but in the
+pyramids of Teti and of Merenra, the separating walls have been neatly cut
+away in ancient times, without leaving any trace but a line of attachment,
+and a whiter colour in the stone where it had been originally covered. The
+sarcophagus chamber (G) extends west of the vestibule; the sarcophagus was
+placed there along the west wall, feet to the south, head to the north. The
+roof over the two main chambers was pointed (fig. 140). It was formed of
+large beams of lim"
+416,"estone, joined at the upper ends, and supported below
+upon a low bench (1) which surrounded the chamber outside (Note 34). The
+first beams were covered by two others, and these by two more; and the six
+together (J) thoroughly protected the vestibule of the vault.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Section of the Pyramid of Ûnas.]
+
+The pyramids of Gizeh belonged to the Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty, and
+those of Abûsir to the Pharaohs of the Fifth. The five pyramids of
+Sakkarah, of which th"
+417,"e plan is uniform, belonged to Ûnas and to the first
+four kings of the Sixth Dynasty, Teti, Pepi I., Merenra, and Pepi II., and
+are contemporary with the mastabas with painted vaults which I have
+mentioned above (p. 129). It is, therefore, no matter of surprise to find
+them inscribed and decorated. The ceilings are covered with stars, to
+represent the night-sky. The rest of the decoration is very simple. In the
+pyramid of Ûnas, which is the most ornamented, the decoration occupies only"
+418,"
+the end wall of the sepulchral chamber; the part against the sarcophagus
+was lined with alabaster, and engraved to represent great monumental doors,
+through which the deceased was supposed to enter his storerooms of
+provisions. The figures of men and of animals, the scenes of daily life,
+the details of the sacrifice, are not here represented, and, moreover,
+would not be in keeping; they belong to those places where the Double lived
+his public life, and where visitors actually perform"
+419,"ed the rites of
+offering; the passages and the vault in which the soul alone was free to
+wander needed no ornamentation except that which related to the life of the
+soul. The texts are of two kinds. One kind--of which there are the fewest--
+refer to the nourishment of the Double, and are literal transcriptions of
+the formulae by which the priests ensured the transmission of each object
+to the other world; this was a last resource for him, in case the real
+sacrifices should be disconti"
+420,"nued, or the magic scenes upon the chapel
+walls be destroyed. The greater part of the inscriptions were of a
+different kind. They referred to the soul, and were intended to preserve it
+from the dangers which awaited it, in heaven and on earth. They revealed to
+it the sovereign incantations which protected it against the bites of
+serpents and venomous animals, the passwords which enabled it to enter into
+the company of the good gods, and the exorcisms which counteracted the
+influence o"
+421,"f the evil gods. The destiny of the Double was to continue to
+lead the shadow of its terrestrial life, and fulfil it in the chapel; the
+destiny of the Soul was to follow the sun across the sky, and it,
+therefore, needed the instructions which it read on the walls of the vault.
+It was by their virtue that the absorption of the dead into Osiris became
+complete, and that they enjoyed hereafter all the immunity of the divine
+state. Above, in the chapel, they were men, and acted as men; her"
+422,"e they
+were gods, and acted as gods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.--Mastabat el Faraûn.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Pyramid of Medûm.]
+
+The enormous rectangular mass which the Arabs call _Mastabat el Faraûn_,
+""the seat of Pharaoh"" (fig. 141), stands beside the pyramid of Pepi II.
+Some have thought it to be an unfinished pyramid, some a tomb surmounted by
+an obelisk; in reality it is a pyramid which was left unfinished by its
+builder, King Ati of the Sixth Dynasty. Recent excavations h"
+423,"ave, on the
+other hand, shown that the brick pyramids of Dahshûr probably belonged to
+the Twelfth Dynasty. The stone pyramids of that group, which may be older,
+furnish a curious variation from the usual type. One of these stone
+pyramids has the lower half inclined at 54° 41', while the upper part
+changes sharply to 42° 59'; it might be called a mastaba (Note 35) crowned
+by a gigantic attic. At Lisht, where the two pyramids now standing are of
+the same period (one of them was erected "
+424,"by Ûsertesen I.), the structure is
+again changed. The sloping passage ends in a vertical shaft, at the bottom
+of which open chambers now filled by the infiltration of the Nile. The
+pyramids of Illahûn and Hawara, which contained the remains of Ûsertesen
+II. and Amenemhat III., are of the same type as those at Lisht. Their rooms
+are now filled with water. The pyramid of Medûm is empty, having been
+violated before the Ramesside age. It consists of three square towers (Note
+36) with side"
+425,"s slightly sloping, placed in retreating stages one over the
+other (fig. 142). The entrance is on the north, at about 53 feet above the
+sand. After 60 feet, the passage goes into the rock; at 174 feet it runs
+level; at 40 feet farther it stops, and turns perpendicularly towards the
+surface, opening in the floor of a vault twenty-one feet higher (fig. 143).
+A set of beams and ropes still in place above the opening show that the
+spoilers drew the sarcophagus out of the chamber in ancient"
+426," times. Its
+small chapel, built against the eastern slope of the pyramid, with
+courtyard containing a low flat altar between two standing stelae nearly 14
+feet high, was found intact. The walls of the chapel were uninscribed, and
+bare; but the _graffiti_ found there prove that the place was much visited
+during the times of the Eighteenth Dynasty by scribes, who recorded their
+admiration of the beauty of the monument, and believed that King Sneferû
+had raised it for himself and for his"
+427," queen Meresankhû.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.--Section of passage and vault in pyramid of
+Medûm.]
+
+The custom of building pyramids did not end with the Twelfth Dynasty; there
+are later pyramids at Manfalût, at Hekalli to the south of Abydos, and at
+Mohammeriyeh to the south of Esneh. Until the Roman period, the semi-
+barbarous sovereigns of Ethiopia held it as a point of honour to give the
+pyramidal form to their tombs. The oldest, those of Nûrri, where the
+Pharaohs of Napata sleep,"
+428," recall by their style the pyramids of Sakkarah;
+the latest, those of Meroë, present fresh characteristics. They are higher
+than they are wide, are built of small blocks, and are sometimes decorated
+at the angles with rounded borderings. The east face has a false window,
+surmounted by a cornice, and is flanked by a chapel, which is preceded by a
+pylon. These pyramids are not all dumb. As in ordinary tombs, the walls
+contain scenes borrowed from the ""Ritual of Burial,"" or showing the
+v"
+429,"icissitudes of the life beyond the grave.
+
+
+[30] This section is reproduced, by permission of Mr. W.M.F. Petrie, from
+    Plate VII. of his ""_Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh_."" The vertical
+    shaft sunk by Perring is shown going down from the floor of the
+    subterranean unfinished chamber. The lettering along the base of the
+    pyramid, though not bearing upon the work of Professor Maspero, has
+    been preserved for the convenience of readers who may wish to consult
+    Mr. Petr"
+430,"ie's work for more minute details and measurements. This
+    lettering refers to that part of Mr. Petrie's argument which disproves
+    the ""accretion theory"" of previous writers (see ""_Pyramids and
+    Temples of Gizeh_"" chap, xviii., p. 165).--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+3.--THE TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE.
+
+_Excavated Tombs_.
+
+Two subsequent systems replaced the mastaba throughout Egypt. The first
+preserved the chapel constructed above ground, and combined the pyramid
+with the mastaba; the se"
+431,"cond excavated the whole tomb in the rock,
+including the chapel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.--Section of ""vaulted"" brick pyramid, Abydos.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.--Section of ""vaulted"" tomb, Abydos.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.--Plan of tomb, at Abydos.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Theban tomb, with pyramidion, from scene in a
+tomb at Sheikh Abd el Gûrneh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.--Theban tomb with pyramidion, from wall-painting.]
+
+The necropolis quarter of Abydos, in which were"
+432," interred the earlier
+generations of the Theban Empire, furnishes the most ancient examples of
+the first system. The tombs are built of large, black, unbaked bricks, made
+without any mixture of straw or grit. The lower part is a mastaba with a
+square or oblong rectangular base, the greatest length of the latter being
+sometimes forty or fifty feet. The walls are perpendicular, and are seldom
+high enough for a man to stand upright inside the tomb. On this kind of
+pedestal was erected a "
+433,"pointed pyramid of from 12 to 30 feet in height,
+covered externally with a smooth coat of clay painted white. The defective
+nature of the rock below forbade the excavation of the sepulchral chamber;
+there was no resource, therefore, except to hide it in the brickwork. An
+oven-shaped chamber with ""corbel"" vault was constructed in the centre (fig.
+144); but more frequently the sepulchral chamber is found to be half above
+ground in the mastaba and half sunk in the foundations, the vaulted"
+434," space
+above being left only to relieve the weight (fig. 145). In many cases there
+was no external chapel; the stela, placed in the basement, or set in the
+outer face, alone marking the place of offering. In other instances a
+square vestibule was constructed in front of the tomb where the relations
+assembled (fig. 146). Occasionally a breast-high enclosure wall surrounded
+the monument, and defined the boundaries of the ground belonging to the
+tomb. This mixed form was much employed in"
+435," Theban cemeteries from the
+beginning of the Middle Empire. Many kings and nobles of the Eleventh
+Dynasty were buried at Drah Abû'l Neggeh, in tombs like those of Abydos
+(fig. 147). The relative proportion of mastaba and pyramid became modified
+during the succeeding centuries. The mastaba--often a mere insignificant
+substructure--gradually returned to its original height, while the pyramid
+as gradually decreased, and ended by being only an unimportant pyramidion
+(fig. 148). All the mo"
+436,"numents of this type which ornamented the Theban
+necropolis during the Ramesside period have perished, but contemporary
+tomb-paintings show many varieties, and the chapel of an Apis which died
+during the reign of Amenhotep III. still remains to show that this fashion
+extended as far as Memphis. Of the pyramidion, scarcely any traces remain;
+but the mastaba is intact. It is a square mass of limestone, raised on a
+base, supported by four columns at the corners, and surmounted by an
+over"
+437,"hanging cornice; a flight of five steps leads up to the inner chamber
+(fig. 149).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Section of Apis tomb, _tempo_ Amenhotep III.]
+
+The earliest examples of the second kind are those found at Gizeh among the
+mastabas of the Fourth Dynasty, and these are neither large nor much
+ornamented. They begin to be carefully wrought about the time of the Sixth
+Dynasty, and in certain distant places, as at Bersheh, Sheîkh Saîd, Kasr es
+Saîd, Asûan, and Negadeh. The rock-"
+438,"cut tomb did not, however, attain its
+full development until the times of the last Memphite kings and the early
+kings of the Theban line.
+
+In these rock-cut tombs we find all the various parts of the mastaba. The
+designer selected a prominent vein of limestone, high enough in the cliff
+side to risk nothing from the gradual rising of the soil, and yet low
+enough for the funeral procession to reach it without difficulty. The
+feudal lords of Minieh slept at Beni Hasan; those of Khmûnû a"
+439,"t Bersheh;
+those of Siût and Elephantine at Siût and in the cliff opposite Asûan (fig.
+150). Sometimes, as at Siût, Bersheh, and Thebes, the tombs are excavated
+at various levels; sometimes, as at Beni Hasan, they follow the line of the
+stratum, and are ranged in nearly horizontal terraces.[31] A flight of
+steps, rudely constructed in rough-hewn stones, leads up from the plain to
+the entrance of the tomb. At Beni Hasan and Thebes, these steps are either
+destroyed or buried in sand; bu"
+440,"t recent excavations have brought to light a
+well-preserved example leading up to a tomb at Asûan.[32]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Tombs in cliff opposite Asûan.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.--Façade of tomb of Khnûmhotep, at Beni Hasan,
+Twelfth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Façade of tomb, Asûan.]
+
+The funeral procession, having slowly scaled the cliff-side, halted for a
+moment at the entrance to the chapel. The plan was not necessarily uniform
+throughout any one group of tom"
+441,"bs. Several of the Beni Hasan tombs have
+porticoes, the pillars, bases, and entablatures being all cut in the rock;
+those of Ameni and Khnûmhotep have porticoes supported on two polygonal
+columns (fig. 151). At Asûan (fig. 152), the doorway forms a high and
+narrow recess cut in the rock wall, but is divided, at about one-third of
+its height, by a rectangular lintel, thus making a smaller doorway in the
+doorway itself. At Siût, the tomb of Hapizefa was entered by a true porch
+about twe"
+442,"nty-four feet in height, with a ""vaulted"" roof elegantly
+sculptured and painted. More frequently the side of the mountain was merely
+cut away, and the stone dressed over a more or less extent of surface,
+according to the intended dimensions of the tomb. This method ensured the
+twofold advantage of clearing a little platform closed in on three sides in
+front of the tomb, and also of forming an upright façade which could be
+decorated or left plain, according to the taste of the proprieto"
+443,"r. The
+door, sunk in the middle of this façade, has sometimes no framework;
+sometimes, however, it has two jambs and a lintel, all slightly projecting.
+The inscriptions, when any occur, are very simple, consisting of one or two
+horizontal lines above, and one or two vertical lines down each side, with
+the addition perhaps of a sitting or standing figure. These inscriptions
+contain a prayer, as well as the name, titles, and parentage of the
+deceased. The chapel generally consists of a "
+444,"single chamber, either square
+or oblong, with a flat or a slightly vaulted ceiling. Light is admitted
+only through the doorway. Sometimes a few pillars, left standing in the
+rock at the time of excavation, give this chamber the aspect of a little
+hypostyle hall. Four such pillars decorate the chapels of Ameni and
+Khnûmhotep at Beni Hasan (fig. 153). Other chapels there contain six or
+eight, and are very irregular in plan. One tomb, unfinished, was in the
+first instance a simple oblong"
+445," hall, with a barrel roof and six columns.
+Later on, it was enlarged on the right side, the new part forming a kind of
+flat-roofed portico supported on four columns (fig. 154).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Plan of tomb of Khnûmhotep, at Beni Hasan.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154.--Plan of unfinished tomb, Beni Hasan.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155.--Funeral processions and ceremonies from wall-
+painting in tomb of Manna, Thebes, Nineteenth Dynasty.]
+
+To form a _serdab_ in the solid rock was a"
+446,"lmost impossible; while on the
+other hand, movable statues, if left in a room accessible to all comers,
+would be exposed to theft or mutilation. The _serdab_, therefore, was
+transformed, and combined with the stela of the ancient mastabas. The false
+door of the olden time became a niche cut in the end wall, almost always
+facing the entrance. Statues of the deceased and his wife, carved in the
+solid rock, were there enthroned. The walls were decorated with scenes of
+offerings, and the "
+447,"entire decoration of the tomb converged towards the
+niche, as that of the mastaba converged towards the stela. The series of
+tableaux is, on the whole, much the same as of old, though with certain
+noteworthy additions. The funeral procession, and the scene where the
+deceased enters into possession of his tomb, both merely indicated in the
+mastaba, are displayed in full upon the walls of the Theban sepulchre. The
+mournful _cortège_ is there, with the hired mourners, the troops of
+frien"
+448,"ds, the bearers of offerings, the boats for crossing the river, and
+the catafalque drawn by oxen. It arrives at the door of the tomb. The
+mummy, placed upright upon his feet, receives the farewell of his family;
+and the last ceremonies, which are to initiate him into the life beyond the
+grave, are duly represented (fig. 155). The sacrifices, with all the
+preliminary processes, as tillage, seed-growing, harvesting, stock-
+breeding, and the practice of various kinds of handicraft, are ei"
+449,"ther
+sculptured or painted, as before. Many details, however, which are absent
+from tombs of the earlier dynasties are here given, while others which are
+invariably met with in the neighbourhood of the pyramids are lacking.
+Twenty centuries work many changes in the usages of daily life, even in
+conservative Egypt. We look almost in vain for herds of gazelles upon the
+walls of the Theban tombs, for the reason that these animals, in Ramesside
+times, had ceased to be bred in a state of d"
+450,"omestication. The horse, on the
+other hand, had been imported into the valley of the Nile, and is depicted
+pawing the ground where formerly the gazelle was seen cropping the
+pasturage. The trades are also more numerous and complicated; the workmen's
+tools are more elaborate; the actions of the deceased are more varied and
+personal. In former times, when first the rules of tomb decoration were
+formulated, the notion of future retribution either did not exist, or was
+but dimly conceived"
+451,". The deeds which he had done here on earth in no wise
+influenced the fate which awaited the man after death. Whether good or bad,
+from the moment when the funeral rites were performed and the necessary
+prayers recited, he was rich and happy. In order to establish his identity,
+it was enough to record his name, his title, and his parentage; his past
+was taken for granted. But when once a belief in rewards and punishments to
+come had taken possession of men's minds, they bethought them "
+452,"of the
+advisability of giving to each dead man the benefit of his individual
+merits. To the official register of his social status, they now therefore
+added a brief biographical notice. At first, this consisted of only a few
+words; but towards the time of the Sixth Dynasty (as where Ûna recounts his
+public services under four kings), these few words developed into pages of
+contemporary history. With the beginning of the New Empire, tableaux and
+inscriptions combine to immortalise the "
+453,"deeds of the owner of the tomb.
+Khnûmhotep of Beni Hasan records in full the origin and greatness of his
+ancestors. Khetî displays upon his walls all the incidents of a military
+life--parades, war-dances, sieges, and sanguinary battle scenes. In this
+respect, as in all others, the Eighteenth Dynasty perpetuated the tradition
+of preceding ages. Aï, in his fine tomb at Tell el Amarna, recounts the
+episode of his marriage with the daughter of Khûenaten. Neferhotep of
+Thebes, having recei"
+454,"ved from Horemheb the decoration of the Golden Collar,
+complacently reproduces every little incident of his investiture, the words
+spoken by the king, as also the year and the day when this crowning reward
+was conferred upon him. Another, having conducted a survey, is seen
+attended by his subordinates with their measuring chains; elsewhere he
+superintends a census of the population, just as Ti formerly superintended
+the numbering of his cattle. The stela partakes of these new
+characte"
+455,"ristics in wall-decoration. In addition to the usual prayers, it
+now proclaims the praises of the deceased, and gives a summary of his life.
+This is too seldom followed by a list of his honours with their dates.
+
+When space permitted, the vault was excavated immediately below the chapel.
+The shaft was sometimes sunk in a corner of one of the chambers, and
+sometimes outside, in front of the door of the tomb. In the great
+cemeteries, as for instance at Thebes and Memphis, the superposit"
+456,"ion of
+these three parts--the chapel, the shaft, and the vault--was not always
+possible. If the shaft were carried to its accustomed depth, there was
+sometimes the risk of breaking into tombs excavated at a lower level. This
+danger was met either by driving a long passage into the rock, and then
+sinking the shaft at the farther end, or by substituting a slightly sloping
+or horizontal disposition of the parts for the old vertical arrangement of
+the mastaba model. The passage in this ca"
+457,"se opens from the centre of the
+end wall, its average length being from 20 to 130 feet. The sepulchral
+vault is always small and plain, as well as the passage. Under the Theban
+dynasties, as under the Memphite kings, the Soul dispensed with
+decorations; but whenever the walls of the vault are decorated, the figures
+and inscriptions are found to relate chiefly to the life of the Soul, and
+very slightly to the life of the Double. In the tomb of Horhotep, which is
+of the time of the Ûser"
+458,"tesens, and in similar rock-cut sepulchres, the
+walls (except on the side of the door) are divided into two registers. The
+upper row belongs to the Double, and contains, besides the table of
+offerings, pictured representations of the same objects which are seen in
+certain mastabas of the Sixth Dynasty; namely, stuffs, jewels, arms, and
+perfumes, all needful to Horhotep for the purpose of imparting eternal
+youth to his limbs. The lower register belonged to both the Soul and the
+Double,"
+459," and is inscribed with extracts from a variety of liturgical
+writings, such as _The Book of the Dead_, the _Ritual of Embalmment_, and
+the _Funeral Ritual_, all of which were possessed of magic properties which
+protected the Soul and supported the Double. The stone sarcophagus, and
+even the coffin, are also covered with closely-written inscriptions.
+Precisely as the stela epitomised the whole chapel, so did the sarcophagus
+and coffin epitomise the sepulchral chamber, thus forming, as i"
+460,"t were, a
+vault within a vault. Texts, tableaux, all thereon depicted, treat of the
+life of the Soul, and of its salvation in the world to come.
+
+At Thebes, as at Memphis, the royal tombs are those which it is most
+necessary to study, in order to estimate the high degree of perfection to
+which the decoration of passages and sepulchral chambers was now carried.
+The most ancient were situated either in the plain or on the southern
+slopes of the western mountain; and of these, no remain"
+461,"s are extant. The
+mummies of Amenhotep I., and Thothmes III., of Sekenenra, and Aahhotep have
+survived the dwellings of solid stone designed for their protection.
+Towards the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty, however, all the best places
+were taken up, and some unoccupied site in which to establish a new royal
+cemetery had to be sought. At first they went to a considerable distance,
+namely, to the end of the valley (known as the Western Valley), which
+opens from near Drah Abû'l Neggeh"
+462,". Amenhotep III., Aï, and perhaps others,
+were there buried. Somewhat later, they preferred to draw nearer to the
+city of the living. Behind the cliff which forms the northern boundary of
+the plain of Thebes, there lay a kind of rocky hollow closed in on every
+side, and accessible from the outer world by only a few perilous paths. It
+divides into two branches, which cross almost at right angles. One branch
+turns to the south-east, while the other, which again divides into
+secondary br"
+463,"anches, turns to the south-west. Westward rises a mountain
+which recalls upon a gigantic scale the outline of the great step-pyramid
+of Sakkarah (fig. 137). The Egyptian engineers of the time observed that
+this hollow was separated from the ravine of Amenhotep III. by a mere
+barrier some 500 cubits in thickness. In this there was nothing to dismay
+such practised miners. They therefore cut a trench some fifty or sixty
+cubits deep through the solid rock, at the end of which a narrow pass"
+464,"age
+opens like a gateway into the hidden valley beyond. Was it in the time of
+Horemheb, or during the reign of Rameses I., that this gigantic work was
+accomplished? Rameses I. is, at all events, the earliest king whose tomb
+has as yet been found in this spot. His son, Seti I., then his grandson,
+Rameses II., came hither to rest beside him. The Ramesside Pharaohs
+followed one after the other. Herhor may perhaps have been the last of the
+series. These crowded catacombs caused the place "
+465,"to be called ""The Valley
+of the Tombs of the Kings,""--a name which it retains to this day.
+
+These tombs are not complete. Each had its chapel; but those chapels stood
+far away in the plain, at Gûrneh, at the Ramesseum, at Medinet Habû; and
+they have already been described. The Theban rock, like the Memphite
+pyramid, contained only the passages and the sepulchral chamber. During the
+daytime, the pure Soul was in no serious danger; but in the evening, when
+the eternal waters which flow"
+466," along the vaulted heavens fall in vast
+cascades adown the west and are engulfed in the bowels of the earth, the
+Soul follows the bark of the Sun and its escort of luminary gods into a
+lower world bristling with ambuscades and perils. For twelve hours, the
+divine squadron defiles through long and gloomy corridors, where numerous
+genii, some hostile, some friendly, now struggle to bar the way, and now
+aid it in surmounting the difficulties of the journey. Great doors, each
+guarded by a"
+467," gigantic serpent, were stationed at intervals, and led to an
+immense hall full of flame and fire, peopled by hideous monsters and
+executioners whose office it was to torture the damned. Then came more dark
+and narrow passages, more blind gropings in the gloom, more strife with
+malevolent genii, and again the joyful welcoming of the propitious gods. At
+midnight began the upward journey towards the eastern regions of the world;
+and in the morning, having reached the confines of the Land"
+468," of Darkness,
+the sun emerged from the east to light another day. The tombs of the kings
+were constructed upon the model of the world of night. They had their
+passages, their doors, their vaulted halls, which plunged down into the
+depths of the mountain. Their positions in the valley were determined by no
+consideration of dynasty or succession.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156.--Plan of tomb of Rameses IV.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 157.--Plan of tomb of Rameses IV., from Turin papyrus.]
+
+[Ill"
+469,"ustration: Fig. 158.--Plan of tomb of Seti I.]
+
+Each king attacked the rock at any point where he might hope to find a
+suitable bed of stone; and this was done with so little regard for his
+predecessors, that the workmen were sometimes obliged to change the
+direction of the excavation in order not to invade a neighbouring catacomb.
+The designer's plan was a mere sketch, to be modified when necessary, and
+which was by no means intended to be strictly carried out. Hence the plan
+and me"
+470,"asurement of the actual tomb of Rameses IV. (fig. 156) differ in the
+outline of the sides and in the general arrangement from the plan of that
+same tomb which is preserved on a papyrus in the Turin Museum (fig. 153).
+Nothing, however, could be more simple than the ordinary distribution of
+the parts. A square door, very sparingly ornamented, opened upon a passage
+leading to a chamber of more or less extent. From the further end of this
+chamber opened a second passage leading to a second"
+471," chamber, and thence
+sometimes to more chambers, the last of which contained the sarcophagus. In
+some tombs, the whole excavation is carried down a gently inclined plane,
+broken perhaps by only one or two low steps between the entrance and the
+end. In others, the various parts follow each other at lower and lower
+levels. In the catacomb of Seti I. (fig. 158) a long and narrow flight of
+stairs and a sloping corridor (A) lead to a little antechamber and two
+halls (B) supported on pillar"
+472,"s. A second staircase (C) leads through a
+second antechamber to another pillared hall (D), which was the hiding-place
+of the sarcophagus. The tomb did not end here. A third staircase (E)
+opening from the end of the principal hall was in progress, and would no
+doubt have led to more halls and chambers, had not the work been stopped by
+the death of the king.[33] If we go from catacomb to catacomb, we do not
+find many variations from this plan. The entrance passage in the tomb of
+Rameses"
+473," III. is flanked by eight small lateral chambers. In almost every
+other instance, the lesser or greater length of the passages, and the
+degree of finish given to the wall paintings, constitute the only
+differences between one tomb and another. The smallest of these catacombs
+comes to an end at fifty-three feet from the entrance; that of Seti I.,
+which is the longest, descends to a distance of 470 feet, and there remains
+unfinished. The same devices to which the pyramid builders had rec"
+474,"ourse, in
+order to mislead the spoiler, were adopted by the engineers of the Theban
+catacombs. False shafts were sunk which led to nothing, and walls
+sculptured and painted were built across the passages. When the burial was
+over, the entrance was filled up with blocks of rock, and the natural slope
+of the mountain side was restored as skilfully as might be.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159.--Wall-painting of the Fields of Aalû, tomb of
+Rameses III.]
+
+The most complete type of this class o"
+475,"f catacomb is that left to us by Seti
+I.; figures and hieroglyphs alike are models of pure design and elegant
+execution. The tomb of Rameses III. already points to decadence. It is for
+the most part roughly painted. Yellow is freely laid on, and the raw tones
+of the reds and blues are suggestive of the early daubs of our childhood.
+Mediocrity ere long reigned supreme, the outlines becoming more feeble, the
+colour more and more glaring, till the latest tombs are but caricatures of
+thos"
+476,"e of Seti I. and Rameses III. The decoration is always the same, and is
+based on the same principles as the decoration of the pyramids. At Thebes
+as at Memphis, the intention was to secure to the Double the free enjoyment
+of his new abode, and to usher the Soul into the company of the gods of the
+solar cycle and the Osirian cycle, as well as to guide it through the
+labyrinth of the infernal regions. But the Theban priests exercised their
+ingenuity to bring before the eyes of the deceas"
+477,"ed all that which the
+Memphites consigned to his memory by means of writing, thus enabling him to
+see what he had formerly been obliged to read upon the walls of his tomb.
+Where the texts of the pyramid of Ûnas relate how Ûnas, being identified
+with the sun, navigates the celestial waters or enters the Fields of Aalû,
+the pictured walls of the tomb of Seti I. show Seti sailing in the solar
+bark, while a side chamber in the tomb of Rameses III. shows Rameses III.
+in the Fields of Aalû "
+478,"(fig. 159). Where the walls of the pyramid of Ûnas
+give the prayers recited over the mummy to open his mouth, to restore the
+use of his limbs, to clothe, to perfume, to feed him, the walls of Seti's
+catacomb contain representations of the actual mummy, of the Ka statues
+which are the supports of his Double, and of the priests who open their
+mouths, who clothe them, perfume them, and offer them the various meats and
+drinks of the funeral feast. The ceilings of the pyramid chambers were
"
+479,"
+sprinkled over with stars to resemble the face of the heavens; but there
+was nothing to instruct the Soul as to the names of those heavenly bodies.
+On the ceilings of some of the Theban catacombs, we not only find the
+constellations depicted, each with its personified image, but astronomical
+tables giving the aspect of the heavens fortnight by fortnight throughout
+the months of the Egyptian year, so that the Soul had but to lift its eyes
+and see in what part of the firmament its cours"
+480,"e lay night after night.
+Taken as a series, these tableaux form an illustrated narrative of the
+travels of the sun and the Soul throughout the twenty-four hours of the day
+and night. Each hour is represented, as also the domain of each hour with
+its circumscribed boundary, the door of which is guarded by a huge serpent.
+These serpents have their various names, as ""Fire-Face,"" ""Flaming Eye,""
+""Evil Eye,"" etc. The fate of Souls was decided in the third hour of the
+day. They were weighed "
+481,"by the god Thoth, who consigned them to their future
+abode according to the verdict of the scales. The sinful Soul was handed
+over to the cynocephalous-ape assessors of the infernal tribunal, who
+hunted and scourged it, after first changing it into a sow, or some other
+impure animal. The righteous Soul, on the contrary, passed in the fifth
+hour into the company of his fellows, whose task it was to cultivate the
+Fields of Aalû and reap the corn of the celestial harvest, after which they"
+482,"
+took their pleasure under the guardianship of the good genii. After the
+fifth hour, the heavenly ocean became a vast battlefield. The gods  of
+light  pursued,  captured, and bound the serpent Apapi, and at the
+twelfth hour they strangled him. But this triumph was not of long duration.
+Scarcely had the sun achieved this victory when his bark was borne by the
+tide into the realm of the night hours, and from that moment he was
+assailed, like Virgil and Dante at the Gates of Hell, by fri"
+483,"ghtful sounds
+and clamourings. Each circle had its voice, not to be confounded with the
+voices of other circles. Here the sound was as an immense humming of wasps;
+yonder it was as the lamentations of women for their husbands, and the
+howling of she-beasts for their mates; elsewhere it was as the rolling of
+the thunder. The sarcophagus, as well as the walls, was covered with these
+scenes of joyous or sinister import. It was generally of red or black
+granite. As it was put in hand last"
+484," of all, it frequently happened that the
+sculptors had not time to finish it. When finished, however, the scenes and
+texts with which it was covered contained an epitome of the whole
+catacomb.[34] Thus, lying in his sarcophagus, the dead man found his future
+destinies depicted thereon, and learned to understand the blessedness of
+the gods. The tombs of private persons were not often so elaborately
+decorated. Two tombs of the period of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty--that of
+Petamenoph at Th"
+485,"ebes and that of Bakenrenf at Memphis--compete in this
+respect, however, with the royal catacombs. Their walls are not only
+sculptured with the text (more or less complete) of _The Book of the Dead_,
+but also with long extracts from _The Book of the Opening of the Mouth_ and
+the religious formulae found in the pyramids.
+
+As every part of the tomb had its special decoration, so also it had its
+special furniture. Of the chapel furniture few traces have been preserved.
+The table of offe"
+486,"rings, which was of stone, is generally all that remains.
+The objects placed in the _serdab_, in the passages, and in the sepulchral
+chamber, have suffered less from the ravages of time and the hand of man.
+During the Ancient Empire, the funerary portrait statues were always
+immured in the _serdab_. The sepulchral vault contained, besides the
+sarcophagus, head-rests of limestone or alabaster; geese carved in stone;
+sometimes (though rarely) a scribe's palette; generally some terra-cott"
+487,"a
+vases of various shapes: and lastly a store of food-cereals, and the bones
+of the victims sacrificed on the day of burial. Under the Theban Dynasties,
+the household goods of the dead were richer and more numerous. The Ka
+statues of his servants and family, which in former times were placed in
+the _serdab_ with those of the master, were now consigned to the vault, and
+made on a smaller scale. On the other hand, many objects which used to be
+merely depicted on the walls were now repre"
+488,"sented by models, or by actual
+specimens. Thus we find miniature funeral boats, with crew, mummy,
+mourners, and friends complete; imitation bread-offerings of baked clay,
+erroneously called ""funerary cones,"" stamped with the name of the deceased;
+bunches of grapes in glazed ware; and limestone moulds wherewith the
+deceased was supposed to make pottery models of oxen, birds, and fish,
+which should answer the purpose of fish, flesh, and fowl. Toilet and
+kitchen utensils, arms, and instr"
+489,"uments of music abound. These are mostly
+broken--piously slain, in order that their souls should go hence to wait
+upon the soul of the dead man in the next world. Little statuettes in
+stone, wood, and enamel--blue, green, and white--are placed by hundreds,
+and even by thousands, with these piles of furniture, arms, and provisions.
+Properly speaking, they are reduced _serdab_-statues, destined, like their
+larger predecessors, to serve as bodies for the Double, and (by a later
+conceptio"
+490,"n) for the Soul. They were at first represented clothed like the
+individual whose name they bore. As time went on, their importance
+dwindled, and their duties were limited to merely answering for their
+master when called by Thoth to the _corvée_, and acting as his substitutes
+when he was summoned by the gods to work in the Fields of Aalû. Thenceforth
+they were called ""Respondents"" (_Ûshabtiû_), and were represented with
+agricultural implements in their hands. No longer clothed as the m"
+491,"an was
+clothed when living, they were made in the semblance of a mummified corpse,
+with only the face and hands unbandaged. The so-called ""canopic vases,""
+with lids fashioned like heads of hawks, cynocephali, jackals, and men,
+were reserved from the time of the Eleventh Dynasty for the viscera, which
+were extracted from the body by the embalmers. As for the mummy, it
+continued, as time went on, to be more and more enwrapped in _cartonnage_,
+and more liberally provided with papyri and "
+492,"amulets; each amulet forming an
+essential part of its magic armour, and serving to protect its limbs and
+soul from destruction.
+
+Theoretically, every Egyptian was entitled to an eternal dwelling
+constructed after the plan which I have here described with its successive
+modifications; but the poorer folk were fain to do without those things
+which were the necessities of the wealthier dead. They were buried wherever
+it was cheapest--in old tombs which had been ransacked and abandoned; "
+493,"in
+the natural clefts of the rock; or in common pits. At Thebes, in the time
+of the Ramessides, great trenches dug in the sand awaited their remains.
+The funeral rites once performed, the grave-diggers cast a thin covering of
+sand over the day's mummies, sometimes in lots of two or three, and
+sometimes in piles which they did not even take the trouble to lay in
+regular layers. Some were protected only by their bandages; others were
+wrapped about with palm-branches, lashed in the fashi"
+494,"on of a game-basket.
+Those most cared for lie in boxes of rough-hewn wood, neither painted nor
+inscribed. Many are huddled into old coffins which have not even been
+altered to suit the size of the new occupant, or into a composite
+contrivance made of the fragments of three or four broken mummy-cases. As
+to funerary furniture, it was out of the question for such poor souls as
+these. A pair of sandals of painted cardboard or plaited reeds; a staff for
+walking along the heavenly highways"
+495,"; a ring of enamelled ware; a bracelet
+or necklace of little blue beads; a tiny image of Ptah, of Osiris, of
+Anubis, of Hathor, or of Bast; a few mystic eyes or scarabs; and, above
+all, a twist or two of cord round the arm, the neck, the leg, or the body,
+intended to preserve the corpse from magical influences,--are the only
+possessions of the pauper dead.
+
+
+[31] For a full account of the Twelfth Dynasty tombs at Beni Hasan and El
+    Bersheh see the first memoirs of the _Archaeolog"
+496,"ical Survey of the
+    Egypt Exploration Fund_.
+
+[32] The steps are shown in fig. 150. They were discovered by General Sir
+    F. Grenfell in 1885. Noting the remains of two parallel walls running
+    up from the water's edge to a part of the cliff which had evidently
+    been escarped and presented a vertical face, General Grenfell caused
+    the sand to be cleared, thus disclosing the entrances to several rock-
+    cut tombs dating from the Sixth and Twelfth Dynasties, as well as t"
+497,"wo
+    flights of steps on either side of an inclined plane leading from the
+    Nile bank to the door of one of the tombs. The distance between the
+    two walls is ten feet. The steps are eighteen inches deep, and 250 in
+    number. The steps were for the haulers, the mummies and sarcophagi
+    being dragged up the inclined plane. (See p. 209.)--A.B.E.
+
+[33] M. Léfébure has lately produced a superb and elaborate volume on this
+    tomb, with the whole of the texts and the wall deco"
+498,"rations faithfully
+    reproduced: _Mémoires publiés par les Membres de la Mission du
+    Caire_, Vol. II., fasc. I.--A.B.E.
+
+[34] We have in this country two very fine specimens of inscribed
+    sarcophagi; namely, that of Seti I., of beautiful alabaster, in the
+    Soane collection (xixth Dyn.), and that of Queen Ankhnesraneferab
+    (xxvith Dyn.) in the British Museum.--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+
+_PAINTING AND SCULPTURE_.
+
+The statues and bas-reliefs which decorated the t"
+499,"emples and tombs of
+Ancient Egypt were for the most part painted. Coloured stones, such as
+granite, basalt, diorite, serpentine, and alabaster, sometimes escaped this
+law of polychrome; but in the case of sandstone, limestone, or wood it was
+rigorously enforced. If sometimes we meet with uncoloured monuments in
+these materials, we may be sure that the paint has been accidentally rubbed
+off, or that the work is unfinished. The sculptor and the painter were
+therefore inseparably allied."
+500," The first had no sooner finished his share of
+the task than the other took it up; and the same artist was often as
+skilful a master of the brush as of the chisel.
+
+
+
+I.--DRAWING AND COMPOSITION.
+
+Of the system upon which drawing was taught by the Egyptian masters, we
+know nothing. They had learned from experience to determine the general
+proportions of the body, and the invariable relations of the various parts
+one with another; but they never troubled themselves to tabulate thos"
+501,"e
+proportions, or to reduce them to a system. Nothing in what remains to us
+of their works justifies the belief that they ever possessed a canon based
+upon the length of the human finger or foot. Theirs was a teaching of
+routine, and not of theory. Models executed by the master were copied over
+and over again by his pupils, till they could reproduce them with absolute
+exactness. That they also studied from the life is shown by the facility
+with which they seized a likeness, or rendere"
+502,"d the characteristics and
+movements of different kinds of animals. They made their first attempts
+upon slabs of limestone, on drawing boards covered with a coat of red or
+white stucco, or on the backs of old manuscripts of no value. New papyrus
+was too dear to be spoiled by the scrawls of tyros. Having neither pencil
+nor stylus, they made use of the reed, the end of which, when steeped in
+water, opened out into small fibres, and made a more or less fine brush
+according to the size of "
+503,"the stem. The palette was of thin wood, in shape a
+rectangular oblong, with a groove in which to lay the brush at the lower
+end. At the upper end were two or more cup-like hollows, each fitted with a
+cake of ink; black and red being the colours most in use. A tiny pestle and
+mortar for colour-grinding (fig. 160), and a cup of water in which to clip
+and wash the brush, completed the apparatus of the student. Palette in
+hand, he squatted cross-legged before his copy, and, without any kin"
+504,"d of
+support for his wrist, endeavoured to reproduce the outline in black. The
+master looked over his work when done, and corrected the errors in red ink.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160.--Pestle and mortar for grinding colours.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161.--Comic sketch on ostrakon in New York Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.--Vignette from _The Book of the Dead_, Saïte
+period]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.--Vignette from _The Book of the Dead_, from
+the papyrus of Hûnefer.]
+
+The few des"
+505,"igns which have come down to us are drawn on pieces of
+limestone, and are for the most part in sufficiently bad preservation. The
+British Museum possesses two or three subjects in red outline, which may
+perhaps have been used as copies by the decorators of some Theban tomb
+about the time of the Twentieth Dynasty. A fragment in the Museum of Gizeh
+contains studies of ducks or geese in black ink; and at Turin may be seen a
+sketch of a half-nude female figure bending backwards, as about t"
+506,"o turn a
+somersault. The lines are flowing, the movement is graceful, the modelling
+delicate. The draughtsman was not hampered then as now, by the rigidity of
+the instrument between his fingers. The reed brush attacked the surface
+perpendicularly; broadened, diminished, or prolonged the line at will; and
+stopped or turned with the utmost readiness. So supple a medium was
+admirably adapted to the rapid rendering of the humorous or ludicrous
+episodes of daily life. The Egyptians, natura"
+507,"lly laughter-loving and
+satirical, were caricaturists from an early period. One of the Turin papyri
+chronicles the courtship of a shaven priest and a songstress of Amen in a
+series of spirited vignettes; while on the back of the same sheet are
+sketched various serio-comic scenes, in which animals parody the pursuits
+of civilised man. An ass, a lion, a crocodile, and an ape are represented
+in the act of giving a vocal and instrumental concert; a lion and a gazelle
+play at draughts; the"
+508," Pharaoh of all the rats, in a chariot drawn by dogs,
+gallops to the assault of a fortress garrisoned by cats; a cat of fashion,
+with a flower on her head, has come to blows with a goose, and the hapless
+fowl, powerless in so unequal a contest, topples over with terror. Cats, by
+the way, were the favourite animals of Egyptian caricaturists. An ostrakon
+in the New York Museum depicts a cat of rank _en grande toilette_, seated
+in an easy chair, and a miserable Tom, with piteous mien and "
+509,"tail between
+his legs, serving her with refreshments (fig. 161). Our catalogue of comic
+sketches is brief; but the abundance of pen-drawings with which certain
+religious works were illustrated compensates for our poverty in secular
+subjects. These works are _The Book of the Dead_ and _The Book of Knowing
+That which is in Hades_, which were reproduced by hundreds, according to
+standard copies preserved in the temples, or handed down through families
+whose hereditary profession it was t"
+510,"o conduct the services for the dead.
+When making these illustrations, the artist had no occasion to draw upon
+his imagination. He had but to imitate the copy as skilfully as he could.
+Of _The Book of Knowing That which is in Hades_ we have no examples earlier
+than the time of the Twentieth Dynasty, and these are poor enough in point
+of workmanship, the figures being little better than dot-and-line forms,
+badly proportioned and hastily scrawled. The extant specimens of _The Book
+of the"
+511," Dead_ are so numerous that a history of the art of miniature
+painting in ancient Egypt might be compiled from this source alone. The
+earliest date from the Eighteenth Dynasty, the more recent being
+contemporary with the first Caesars. The oldest copies are for the most
+part remarkably fine in execution. Each chapter has its vignette
+representing a god in human or animal form, a sacred emblem, or the
+deceased in adoration before a divinity. These little subjects are
+sometimes ranged h"
+512,"orizontally at the top of the text, which is written in
+vertical columns (fig. 162); sometimes, like the illuminated capitals in
+our mediaeval manuscripts, they are scattered throughout the pages. At
+certain points, large subjects fill the space from top to bottom of the
+papyrus. The burial scene comes at the beginning; the judgment of the soul
+about the middle; and the arrival of the deceased in the Fields of Aalû at
+the end of the work. In these, the artist seized the opportunity to "
+513,"display
+his skill, and show what he could do. We here see the mummy of Hûnefer
+placed upright before his stela and his tomb (fig. 163). The women of his
+family bewail him; the men and the priest present offerings. The papyri of
+the princes and princesses of the family of Pinotem in the Museum of Gizeh
+show that the best traditions of the art were yet in force at Thebes in the
+time of the Twenty-first Dynasty. Under the succeeding dynasties, that art
+fell into rapid decadence, and duri"
+514,"ng some centuries the drawings continue
+to be coarse and valueless. The collapse of the Persian rule produced a
+period of Renaissance. Tombs of the Greek time have yielded papyri with
+vignettes carefully executed in a dry and minute style which offers a
+singular contrast to the breadth and boldness of the Pharaonic ages. The
+broad-tipped reed-pen was thrown aside for the pen with a fine point, and
+the scribes vied with each other as to which should trace the most
+attenuated lines. The"
+515," details with which they overloaded their figures, the
+elaboration of the beard and the hair, and the folds of the garments, are
+sometimes so minute that it is scarcely possible to distinguish them
+without a magnifying glass. Precious as these documents are, they give a
+very insufficient idea of the ability and technical methods of the artists
+of ancient Egypt. It is to the walls of their temples and tombs that we
+must turn, if we desire to study their principles of composition.
+
+[Il"
+516,"lustration: Figs. 164 and 165.--Scenes from the tomb of Khnûmhotep at
+Beni Hasan, Twelfth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166.--From a tomb-painting in the British Museum,
+Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+Their conventional system differed materially from our own. Man or beast,
+the subject was never anything but a profile relieved against a flat
+background. Their object, therefore, was to select forms which presented a
+characteristic outline capable of being reproduced in pure line upon a
+plan"
+517,"e surface. As regarded animal life, the problem was in no wise
+complicated. The profile of the back and body, the head and neck, carried
+in undulating lines parallel with the ground, were outlined at one sweep of
+the pencil. The legs also are well detached from the body. The animals
+themselves are lifelike, each with the gait and action and flexion of the
+limbs peculiar to its species. The slow and measured tread of the ox; the
+short step, the meditative ear, the ironical mouth of the "
+518,"ass; the abrupt
+little trot of the goat, the spring of the hunting greyhound, are all
+rendered with invariable success of outline and expression. Turning from
+domestic animals to wild beasts, the perfection of treatment is the same.
+The calm strength of the lion in repose, the stealthy and sleepy tread of
+the leopard, the grimace of the ape, the slender grace of the gazelle and
+the antelope, have never been better expressed than in Egypt. But it was
+not so easy to project man--the who"
+519,"le man--upon a plane surface without
+some departure from nature. A man cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by
+means of mere lines, and a profile outline necessarily excludes too much of
+his person. The form of the forehead and the nose, the curvature of the
+lips, the cut of the ear, disappear when the head is drawn full face; but,
+on the other hand, it is necessary that the bust should be presented full
+face, in order to give the full development of the shoulders, and that the
+two arm"
+520,"s may be visible to right and left of the body. The contours of the
+trunk are best modelled in a three-quarters view, whereas the legs show to
+most advantage when seen sidewise. The Egyptians did not hesitate to
+combine these contradictory points of view in one single figure. The head
+is almost always given in profile, but is provided with a full-face eye and
+placed upon a full-face bust. The full-face bust adorns a trunk seen from a
+three-quarters point of view, and this trunk is supp"
+521,"orted upon legs
+depicted in profile. Very seldom do we meet with figures treated according
+to our own rules of perspective. Most of the minor personages represented
+in the tomb of Khnûmhotep seem, however, to have made an effort to
+emancipate themselves from the law of malformation. Their bodies are given
+in profile, as well as their heads and legs; but they thrust forward first
+one shoulder and then the other, in order to show both arms (fig. 164), and
+the effect is not happy. Yet, i"
+522,"f we examine the treatment of the farm
+servant who is cramming a goose, and, above all, the figure of the standing
+man who throws his weight upon the neck of a gazelle to make it kneel down
+(fig. 165), we shall see that the action of the arms and hips is correctly
+rendered, that the form of the back is quite right, and that the prominence
+of the chest--thrown forward in proportion as the shoulders and arms are
+thrown back--is drawn without any exaggeration. The wrestlers of the Beni
+H"
+523,"asan tombs, the dancers and servants of the Theban catacombs, attack,
+struggle, posture, and go about their work with perfect naturalness and
+ease (fig. 166). These, however, are exceptions. Tradition, as a rule, was
+stronger than nature, and to the end of the chapter, the Egyptian masters
+continued to deform the human figure. Their men and women are actual
+monsters from the point of view of the anatomist; and yet, after all, they
+are neither so ugly nor so ridiculous as might be suppo"
+524,"sed by those who
+have seen only the wretched copies so often made by our modern artists. The
+wrong parts are joined to the right parts with so much skill that they seem
+to have grown there. The natural lines and the fictitious lines follow and
+complement each other so ingeniously, that the former appear to give rise
+of necessity to the latter. The conventionalities of Egyptian art once
+accepted, we cannot sufficiently admire the technical skill displayed by
+the draughtsman. His line w"
+525,"as pure, firm, boldly begun, and as boldly
+prolonged. Ten or twelve strokes of the brush sufficed to outline a figure
+the size of life. The whole head, from the nape of the neck to the rise of
+the throat above the collar-bone, was executed at one sweep. Two long
+undulating lines gave the external contour of the body from the armpits to
+the ends of the feet. Two more determined the outlines of the legs, and two
+the arms. The details of costume and ornaments, at first but summarily
+indi"
+526,"cated, were afterwards taken up one by one, and minutely finished. We
+may almost count the locks of the hair, the plaits of the linen, the
+inlayings of the girdles and bracelets. This mixture of artless science and
+intentional awkwardness, of rapid execution and patient finish, excludes
+neither elegance of form, nor grace of attitude, nor truth of movement.
+These personages are of strange aspect, but they live; and to those who
+will take the trouble to look at them without prejudice, t"
+527,"heir very
+strangeness has a charm about it which is often lacking to works more
+recent in date and more strictly true to nature.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Funerary repast, tomb of Horemheb, Eighteenth
+Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.--From a wall-painting, Thebes, Ramesside period.]
+
+We admit, then, that the Egyptians could draw. Were they, as it has been
+ofttimes asserted, ignorant of the art of composition? We will take a scene
+at hazard from a Theban tomb--that scene which "
+528,"represents the funerary
+repast offered to Prince Horemheb by the members of his family (fig. 167).
+The subject is half ideal, half real. The dead man, and those belonging to
+him who are no longer of this world, are depicted in the society of the
+living. They are present, yet aloof. They assist at the banquet, but they
+do not actually take part in it. Horemheb sits on a folding stool to the
+left of the spectator. He dandles on his knee a little princess, daughter
+of Amenhotep III., who"
+529,"se foster-father he was, and who died before him. His
+mother, Sûit, sits at his right hand a little way behind, enthroned in a
+large chair. She holds his arm with her left hand, and with the right she
+offers him a lotus blossom and bud. A tiny gazelle which was probably
+buried with her, like the pet gazelle discovered beside Queen Isiemkheb in
+the hiding-place at Deir el Baharî, is tied to one of the legs of the
+chair. This ghostly group is of heroic size, the rule being that gods are
"
+530,"
+bigger than men, kings bigger than their subjects, and the dead bigger than
+the living. Horemheb, his mother, and the women standing before them,
+occupy the front level, or foreground. The relations and friends are ranged
+in line facing their deceased ancestors, and appear to be talking one with
+another. The feast has begun. The jars of wine and beer, placed in rows
+upon wooden stands, are already unsealed. Two young slaves rub the hands
+and necks of the living guests with perfumes ta"
+531,"ken from an alabaster vase.
+Two women dressed in robes of ceremony present offerings to the group of
+dead, consisting of vases filled with flowers, perfumes, and grain. These
+they place in turn upon a square table. Three others dance, sing, and play
+upon the lute, by way of accompaniment to those acts of homage. In the
+picture, as in fact, the tomb is the place of entertainment. There is no
+other background to the scene than the wall covered with hieroglyphs, along
+which the guests we"
+532,"re seated during the ceremony. Elsewhere, the scene of
+action, if in the open country, is distinctly indicated by trees and tufts
+of grass; by red sand, if in the desert; and by a maze of reeds and lotus
+plants, if in the marshes. A lady of quality comes in from a walk (fig.
+168). One of her daughters, being athirst, takes a long draught from a
+""gûllah""; two little naked children with shaven heads, a boy and a girl,
+who ran to meet their mother  at the gate, are made happy with toys
+b"
+533,"rought home and handed to them by a servant. A trellised enclosure covered
+with vines, and trees laden with fruit, are shown above; yonder, therefore,
+is the garden, but the lady and her daughters have passed through it
+without stopping, and are now indoors. The front of the house is half put
+in and half left out, so that we may observe what is going on inside. We
+accordingly see three attendants hastening to serve their mistresses with
+refreshments. The picture is not badly composed, "
+534,"and it would need but
+little alteration if transferred to a modern canvas. The same old
+awkwardness, or rather the same old obstinate custom, which compelled the
+Egyptian artist to put a profile head upon a full-face bust, has, however,
+prevented him from placing his middle distance and background behind his
+foreground. He has, therefore, been reduced to adopt certain more or less
+ingenious contrivances, in order to make up for an almost complete absence
+of perspective.
+
+[Illustrati"
+535,"on: Fig. 169.--From wall-scene in tomb of Horemheb.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.--From wall-scene, Ramesseum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Archers, as represented on walls of Medinet
+Habû.]
+
+Again, when a number of persons engaged in the simultaneous performance of
+any given act were represented on the same level, they were isolated as
+much as possible, so that each man's profile might not cover that of his
+neighbour. When this was not done, they were arranged to overlap each
+other, "
+536,"and this, despite the fact that all stood on the one level; so that
+they have actually but two dimensions and no thickness. A herdsman walking
+in the midst of his oxen plants his feet upon precisely the same ground-
+line as the beast which interposes between his body and the spectator. The
+most distant soldier of a company which advances in good marching order to
+the sound of the trumpet, has his head and feet on exactly the same level;
+as the head and feet of the foremost among his co"
+537,"mrades (fig. 169). When a
+squadron of chariots defiles before Pharaoh, one would declare that their
+wheels all ran in the self-same ruts, were it not that the body of the
+first chariot partly hides the horse by which the second chariot is drawn
+(fig. 170). In these examples the people and objects are, either
+accidentally or naturally, placed so near together, that the anomaly does
+not strike one as too glaring. In taking these liberties, the Egyptian
+artist but anticipated a contrivan"
+538,"ce adopted by the Greek sculptor of a
+later age. Elsewhere, the Egyptian has occasionally approached nearer to
+truth of treatment. The archers of Rameses III. at Medinet Habû make an
+effort, which is almost successful, to present themselves in perspective.
+The row of helmets slopes downwards, and the row of bows slopes upwards,
+with praiseworthy regularity; but the men's feet are all on the same level,
+and do not, therefore, follow the direction of the other lines (fig. 171).
+This mod"
+539,"e of representation is not uncommon during the Theban period. It
+was generally adopted when men or animals, ranged in line, had to be shown
+in the act of doing the same thing; but it was subject to the grave
+drawback (or what was in Egyptian eyes the grave drawback) of showing the
+body of the first man only, and of almost entirely hiding the rest of the
+figures. When, therefore, it was found impossible to range all upon the
+same level without hiding some of their number, the artist fre"
+540,"quently broke
+his masses up into groups, and placed one above the other on the same
+vertical plane. Their height in no wise depends on the place they occupy in
+the perspective of the tableau, but only upon the number of rows required
+by the artist to carry out his idea. If two rows of figures are sufficient,
+he divides his space horizontally into equal parts; if he requires three
+rows, he divides it into three parts; and so on. When, however, it is a
+question of mere accessories, they"
+541," are made out upon a smaller scale.
+Secondary scenes are generally separated by a horizontal line, but this
+line is not indispensable. When masses of figures formed in regular order
+had to be shown, the vertical planes lapped over, so to speak, according to
+the caprice of the limner. At the battle of Kadesh, the files of Egyptian
+infantry rise man above man, waist high, from top to bottom of the phalanx
+(fig. 172); while those of the Kheta, or Hittite battalions, show but one
+head abo"
+542,"ve another (fig. 173).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Phalanx of Egyptian infantry, Ramesseum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Hittite battalion, Ramesseum.]
+
+It was not only in their treatment of men and animals that the
+Egyptians allowed themselves this latitude. Houses, trees, land and
+water, were as freely misrepresented. An oblong rectangle placed upright,
+or on its side, and covered with regular zigzags, represents a canal. Lest
+one should be in doubt as to its meaning, fishes and cr"
+543,"ocodiles are put in,
+to show that it is water, and nothing but water. Boats are seen floating
+upright upon this edgewise surface; the flocks ford it where it is shallow;
+and the angler with his line marks the spot where the water ends and the
+bank begins. Sometimes the rectangle is seen suspended like a framed
+picture, at about half way of the height of several palm trees (fig. 174);
+whereby we are given to understand a tank bordered on both sides by trees.
+Sometimes, again, as in the"
+544," tomb of Rekhmara, the trees are laid down in
+rows round the four sides of a square pond, while a profile boat conveying
+a dead man in his shrine, hauled by slaves also shown in profile, floats on
+the vertical surface of the water (fig. 175). The Theban catacombs of the
+Ramesside period supply abundant examples of contrivances of this kind;
+and, having noted them, we end by not knowing which most to wonder at--the
+obstinacy of the Egyptians in not seeking to discover the natural laws o"
+545,"f
+perspective, or the inexhaustible wealth of resource which enabled them to
+invent so many false relations between the various parts of their subjects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Pond and palm-trees, from wall painting in tomb
+of Rekhmara, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+When employed upon a very large scale, their methods of composition shock
+the eye less than when applied to small subjects. We instinctively feel
+that even the ablest artist must sometimes have played fast and loose with
+th"
+546,"e laws of perspective, if tasked to cover the enormous surfaces of
+Egyptian pylons.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.--Scene from tomb of Rekhmara, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176.--Scene from Mastaba of Ptahhotep, Fifth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177.--Palestrina mosaic.]
+
+Hence the unities of the subject are never strictly observed in these
+enormous bas-reliefs. The main object being to perpetuate the memory of a
+victorious Pharaoh, that Pharaoh necessarily plays the l"
+547,"eading part; but
+instead of selecting from among his striking deeds some one leading episode
+pre-eminently calculated to illustrate his greatness, the Egyptian artist
+delighted to present the successive incidents of his campaigns at a single
+_coup d'oeil_. Thus treated, the pylons of Luxor and the Ramesseum show a
+Syrian night attack upon the Egyptian camp; a seizure of spies sent by the
+prince of the Kheta for the express purpose of being caught and giving
+false intelligence of his m"
+548,"ovements; the king's household troops surprised
+and broken by the Khetan chariots; the battle of Kadesh and its various
+incidents, so furnishing us, as it were, with a series of illustrated
+despatches of the Syrian campaign undertaken by Rameses II. in the fifth
+year of his reign. After this fashion precisely did the painters of the
+earliest Italian schools depict within the one field, and in one
+uninterrupted sequence, the several episodes of a single narrative. The
+scenes are irregu"
+549,"larly dispersed over the surface of the wall, without any
+marked lines of separation, and, as with the bas-reliefs upon the column of
+Trajan, one is often in danger of dividing the groups in the wrong place,
+and of confusing the characters. This method is reserved almost exclusively
+for official art. In the interior decoration of temples and tombs, the
+various parts of the one subject are distributed in rows ranged one above
+the other, from the ground line to the cornice. Thus another "
+550,"difficulty is
+added to the number of those which prevent us from understanding the style
+and intention of Egyptian design. We often imagine that we are looking at a
+series of isolated scenes, when in fact we have before our eyes the
+_disjecta membra_ of a single composition. Take, for example, one wall-side
+of the tomb of Ptahhotep at Sakkarah (fig. 176). If we would discover the
+link which divides these separate scenes, we shall do well to compare this
+wall-subject with the mosaic at"
+551," Palestrina (fig. 177), a monument of
+Graeco-Roman time which represents almost the same scenes, grouped,
+however, after a style more familiar to our ways of seeing and thinking.
+The Nile occupies the immediate foreground of the picture, and extends as
+far as the foot of the mountains in the distance. Towns rise from the
+water's edge; and not only towns, but obelisks, farm-houses, and towers of
+Graeco-Italian style, more like the buildings depicted in Pompeian
+landscapes than the monu"
+552,"ments of the Pharaohs. Of these buildings, only the
+large temple in the middle distance to the right of the picture, with its
+pylon gateway and its four Osirian colossi, recalls the general arrangement
+of Egyptian architecture. To the left, a party of sportsmen in a large boat
+are seen in the act of harpooning the hippopotamus and crocodile. To the
+right, a group of legionaries, drawn up in front of a temple and preceded
+by a priest, salute a passing galley. Towards the middle of the f"
+553,"oreground,
+in the shade of an arched trellis thrown across a small branch of the
+Nile, some half-clad men and women are singing and carousing. Little
+papyrus skiffs, each rowed by a single boatman, and other vessels fill the
+vacant spaces of the composition. Behind the buildings we see the
+commencement of the desert. The water forms large pools at the base of
+overhanging hills, and various animals, real or imaginary, are pursued by
+shaven-headed hunters in the upper part of the pictur"
+554,"e. Now, precisely
+after the manner of the Roman mosaicist, the old Egyptian artist placed
+himself, as it were, on the Nile, and reproduced all that lay between his
+own standpoint and the horizon. In the wall-painting (fig. 176) the river
+flows along the line next the floor, boats come and go, and boatmen fall to
+blows with punting poles and gaffs. In the division next above, we see the
+river bank and the adjoining flats, where a party of slaves, hidden in the
+long grasses, trap and ca"
+555,"tch birds. Higher still, boat-making, rope-making,
+and fish-curing are going on. Finally, in the highest register of all, next
+the ceiling, are depicted the barren hills and undulating plains of the
+desert, where greyhounds chase the gazelle, and hunters trammel big game
+with the lasso. Each longitudinal section corresponds, in fact, with a
+plane of the landscape; but the artist, instead of placing his planes in
+perspective, has treated them separately, and placed them one above the
+o"
+556,"ther. We find the same disposition of the parts in all Egyptian tomb
+paintings. Scenes of inundation and civil life are ranged along the base of
+the wall, mountain subjects and hunting scenes being invariably placed high
+up. Sometimes, interposed between these two extremes, the artist has
+introduced subjects dealing with the pursuits of the herdsman, the field
+labourer, and the craftsman. Elsewhere, he suppresses these intermediary
+episodes, and passes abruptly from the watery to the s"
+557,"andy region. Thus,
+the mosaic of Palestrina and the tomb-paintings of Pharaonic Egypt
+reproduce the same group of subjects, treated after the conventional styles
+and methods of two different schools of art. Like the mosaic, the wall
+scenes of the tomb formed, not a series of independent scenes, but an
+ordinary composition, the unity of which is readily recognised by such as
+are skilled to read the art-language of the period.
+
+
+
+
+2.--TECHNICAL PROCESSES.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17"
+558,"8.--Sculptor's sketch from Ancient Empire tomb.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179.--Sculptor's sketch from Ancient Empire tomb.]
+
+
+The preparation of the surface about to be decorated demanded much time and
+care. Seeing how imperfect were the methods of construction, and how
+impossible it was for the architect to ensure a perfectly level surface for
+the facing stones of his temple-walls and pylons, the decorator had
+perforce to accommodate himself to a surface slightly rounded in some
+plac"
+559,"es and slightly hollowed in others. Even the blocks of which it was
+formed were scarcely homogeneous in texture. The limestone strata in which
+the Theban catacombs were excavated were almost always interspersed with
+flint nodules, fossils, and petrified shells. These faults were variously
+remedied according as the decoration was to be sculptured or painted. If
+painted, the wall was first roughly levelled, and then overlaid with a coat
+of black clay and chopped straw, similar to the mix"
+560,"ture used for brick-
+making. If sculptured, then the artist had to arrange his subject so as to
+avoid the inequalities of the stone as much as possible. When these
+occurred in the midst of the figure subjects, and if they did not offer too
+stubborn a resistance to the chisel, they were simply worked over;
+otherwise the piece was cut out and a new piece fitted in, or the hole was
+filled up with white cement. This mending process was no trifling matter.
+We could point to tomb-chambers w"
+561,"here every wall is thus inlaid to the
+extent of one quarter of its surface. The preliminary work being done, the
+whole was covered with a thin coat of fine plaster mixed with white of
+egg, which hid the mud-wash or the piecing, and prepared a level and
+polished surface for the pencil of the artist. In chambers, or parts of
+chambers, which have been left unfinished, and even in the quarries, we
+constantly find sketches of intended bas-reliefs, outlined in red or black
+ink. The copy was"
+562," generally executed upon a small scale, then squared off,
+and transferred to the wall by the pupils and assistants of the master. As
+in certain scenes carefully copied by Prisse from the walls of Theban
+tombs, the subject is occasionally indicated by only two or three rapid
+strokes of the reed (fig. 178). Elsewhere, the outline is fully made out,
+and the figures only await the arrival of the sculptor. Some designers took
+pains to determine the position of the shoulders, and the centre "
+563,"of gravity
+of the bodies, by vertical and horizontal lines, upon which, by means of a
+dot, they noted the height of the knee, the hips, and other parts (fig.
+179). Others again, more self-reliant, attacked their subject at once, and
+drew in the figures without the aid of guiding points. Such were the
+artists who decorated the catacomb of Seti I., and the southern walls of
+the temple of Abydos. Their outlines are so firm, and their facility is so
+surprising, that they have been suspect"
+564,"ed of stencilling; but no one who
+has closely examined their figures, or who has taken the trouble to measure
+them with a compass, can maintain that opinion. The forms of some are
+slighter than the forms of others; while in some the contours of the chest
+are more accentuated, and the legs farther apart, than in others. The
+master had little to correct in the work of these subordinates. Here and
+there he made a head more erect, accentuated or modified the outline of a
+knee, or improved"
+565," some detail of arrangement. In one instance, however, at
+Kom Ombo, on the ceiling of a Graeco-Roman portico, some of the divinities
+had been falsely oriented, their feet being placed where their arms should
+have been. The master consequently outlined them afresh, and on the same
+squared surface, without effacing the first drawing. Here, at all events,
+the mistake was discovered in time. At Karnak, on the north wall of the
+hypostyle hall, and again at Medinet Habu, the faults of the or"
+566,"iginal
+design were not noticed till the sculptor had finished his part of the
+work. The figures of Seti I. and Rameses III. were thrown too far back, and
+threatened to overbalance themselves; so they were smoothed over with
+cement and cut anew. Now, the cement has flaked off, and the work of the
+first chisel is exposed to view. Seti I. and Rameses III. have each two
+profiles, the one very lightly marked, the other boldly cut into the
+surface of the stone (fig. 180).
+
+[Illustration: "
+567,"Fig. 180.--Sculptor's correction, Medinet Habû, Rameses
+III.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181.--Bow drill.]
+
+The sculptors of ancient Egypt were not so well equipped as those of our
+own day. A kneeling scribe in limestone at the Gizeh Museum has been carved
+with the chisel, the grooves left by the tool being visible on his skin. A
+statue in grey serpentine, in the same collection, bears traces of the use
+of two different tools, the body being spotted all over with point-marks,
+and the unf"
+568,"inished head being blocked out splinter by splinter with a small
+hammer. Similar observations, and the study of the monuments, show that the
+drill (fig. 181), the toothed-chisel, and the gouge were also employed.
+There have been endless discussions as to whether these tools were of iron
+or of bronze. Iron, it is argued, was deemed impure. No one could make use
+of it, even for the basest needs of daily life, without incurring a taint
+prejudicial to the soul both in this world and the ne"
+569,"xt. But the impurity
+of any given object never sufficed to prevent the employment of it when
+required. Pigs also were impure; yet the Egyptians bred them. They bred
+them, indeed, so abundantly in certain districts, that our worthy Herodotus
+tells us how the swine were turned into the fields after seed-sowing, in
+order that they might tread in the grain. So also iron, like many other
+things in Egypt, was pure or impure according to circumstances. If some
+traditions held it up to odium "
+570,"as an evil thing, and stigmatised it as the
+""bones of Typhon,"" other traditions equally venerable affirmed that it was
+the very substance of the canopy of heaven. So authoritative was this view,
+that iron was currently known as ""_Ba-en-pet_,"" or the celestial metal.[35]
+The only fragment of metal found in the great pyramid is a piece of plate-
+iron;[36] and if ancient iron objects are nowadays of exceptional rarity as
+compared with ancient bronze objects, it is because iron differs fro"
+571,"m
+bronze, inasmuch as it is not protected from destruction by its oxide. Rust
+speedily devours it, and it needs a rare combination of favourable
+circumstances to preserve it intact. If, however, it is quite certain that
+the Egyptians were acquainted with, and made use of, iron, it is no less
+certain that they were wholly unacquainted with steel. This being the case,
+one asks how they can possibly have dealt at will upon the hardest rocks,
+even upon such as we ourselves hesitate to att"
+572,"ack, namely, diorite, basalt,
+and the granite of Syene. The manufacturers of antiquities who sculpture
+granite for the benefit of tourists, have found a simple solution of this
+problem. They work with some twenty common iron chisels at hand, which
+after a very few turns are good for nothing. When one is blunted, they take
+up another, and so on till the stock is exhausted. Then they go to the
+forge, and put their tools into working order again. The process is neither
+so long nor so dif"
+573,"ficult as might be supposed. In the Gizeh Museum is a
+life-size head, produced from a block of black and red granite in less than
+a fortnight by one of the best forgers in Luxor. I have no doubt that the
+ancient Egyptians worked in precisely the same way, and mastered the
+hardest stones by the use of iron. Practice soon taught them methods by
+which their labour might be lightened, and their tools made to yield
+results as delicate and subtle as those which we achieve with our own. As
+s"
+574,"oon as the learner knew how to manage the point and the mallet, his master
+set him to copy a series of graduated models representing an animal in
+various stages of completion, or a part of the human body, or the whole
+human body, from the first rough sketch to the finished design (fig. 182).
+Every year, these models are found in sufficient number to establish
+examples of progressive series. Apart from isolated specimens which are
+picked up everywhere, the Gizeh collection contains a se"
+575,"t of fifteen from
+Sakkarah, forty-one from Tanis, and a dozen from Thebes and Medinet Habû.
+They were intended partly for the study of bas-reliefs, partly for the
+study of sculpture proper; and they reveal the method in use for both.[37]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182.--Sculptor's trial-piece, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+The Egyptians treated bas-relief in three ways: either as a simple
+engraving executed by means of incised lines; or by cutting away the
+surface of the stone round the figure, a"
+576,"nd so causing it to stand out in
+relief upon the wall; or by sinking the design below the wall-surface and
+cutting it in relief at the bottom of the hollow. The first method has the
+advantage of being expeditious, and the disadvantage of not being
+sufficiently decorative. Rameses III. made use of it in certain parts of
+his temple at Medinet Habû; but, as a rule, it was preferred for stelae and
+small monuments. The last-named method lessened not only the danger of
+damage to the work, b"
+577,"ut the labour of the workman. It evaded the dressing
+down of the background, which was a distinct economy of time, and it left
+no projecting work on the surface of the walls, the design being thus
+sheltered from accidental blows. The intermediate process was, however,
+generally adopted, and appears to have been taught in the schools by
+preference. The models were little rectangular tablets, squared off in
+order that the scholar might enlarge or reduce the scale of his subject
+without "
+578,"departing from the traditional proportions. Some of these models
+are wrought on both sides; but the greater number are sculptured on one
+side only. Sometimes the design represents a bull; sometimes the head of a
+cynocephalous ape, of a ram, of a lion, of a divinity. Occasionally, we
+find the subject in duplicate, side by side, being roughly blocked out to
+the left, and highly finished to the right. In no instance does the relief
+exceed a quarter of an inch, and it is generally even les"
+579,"s. Not but that
+the Egyptians sometimes cut boldly into the stone. At Medinet Habû and
+Karnak--on the higher parts of these temples, where the work is in granite
+or sandstone, and exposed to full daylight--the bas-relief decoration
+projects full 6-3/8 inches above the surface. Had it been lower, the
+tableaux would have been, as it were, absorbed by the flood of light poured
+upon them, and to the eye of the spectator would have presented only a
+confused network of lines. The models des"
+580,"igned for the study of the round
+are even more instructive than the rest. Some which have come down to us
+are plaster casts of familiar subjects. The head, the arms, the legs, the
+trunk, each part of the body, in short, was separately cast. If a complete
+figure were wanted, the _disjecta membra_ were put together, and the result
+was a statue of a man, or of a woman, kneeling, standing, seated,
+squatting, the arms extended or falling passively by the sides. This
+curious collection was "
+581,"discovered at Tanis, and dates probably from
+Ptolemaic times.[38] Models of the Pharaonic ages are in soft limestone,
+and nearly all represent portraits of reigning sovereigns. These are best
+described as cubes measuring about ten inches each way. The work was begun
+by covering one face of a cube with a network of lines crossing each other
+at right angles; these regulated the relative position of the features.
+Then the opposite side was attacked, the distances being taken from the
+sca"
+582,"le on the reverse face. A mere oval was designed on this first block; a
+projection in the middle and a depression to right and left, vaguely
+indicating the whereabouts of nose and eyes. The forms become more definite
+as we pass from cube to cube, and the face emerges by degrees. The limit of
+the contours is marked off by parallel lines cut vertically from top to
+bottom. The angles were next cut away and smoothed down, so as to bring out
+the forms. Gradually the features become disengag"
+583,"ed from the block, the eye
+looks out, the nose gains refinement, the mouth is developed. When the
+last cube is reached, there remains nothing to finish save the details of
+the head-dress and the basilisk on the brow. No scholar's model in basalt
+has yet been found;[39] but the Egyptians, like our monumental masons,
+always kept a stock of half-finished statues in hard stone, which could be
+turned out complete in a few hours. The hands, feet, and bust needed only a
+few last touches; but"
+584," the heads were merely blocked out, and the clothing
+left in the rough. Half a day's work then sufficed to transform the face
+into a portrait of the purchaser, and to give the last new fashion to the
+kilt. The discovery of some two or three statues of this kind has shown us
+as much of the process as a series of teacher's models might have done.
+Volcanic rocks could not be cut with the continuity and regularity of
+limestone. The point only could make any impression upon these obdurate
+"
+585,"materials. When, by force of time and patience, the work had thus been
+finished to the degree required, there would often remain some little
+irregularities of surface, due, for example, to the presence of nodules and
+heterogeneous substances, which the sculptor had not ventured to attack,
+for fear of splintering away part of the surrounding surface. In order to
+remove these irregularities, another tool was employed; namely, a stone cut
+in the form of an axe. Applying the sharp edge of "
+586,"this instrument to the
+projecting nodule, the artist struck it with a round stone in place of a
+mallet. A succession of carefully calculated blows with these rude tools
+pulverised the obtrusive knob, which disappeared in dust. All minor
+defects being corrected, the monument still looked dull and unfinished. It
+was necessary to polish it, in order to efface the scars of point and
+mallet. This was a most delicate operation, one slip of the hand, or a
+moment's forgetfulness, being enough"
+587," to ruin the labour of many weeks. The
+dexterity of the Egyptian craftsman was, however, so great that accidents
+rarely happened. The Sebekemsaf of Gizeh, the colossal Rameses II. of
+Luxor, challenge the closest examination. The play of light upon the
+surface may at first prevent the eye from apprehending the fineness of the
+work; but, seen under favourable circumstances, the details of knee and
+chest, of shoulder and face, prove to be no less subtly rendered in granite
+than in limest"
+588,"one. Excess of polish has no more spoiled the statues of
+Ancient Egypt than it spoiled those of the sculptors of the Italian
+Renaissance.
+
+A sandstone or limestone statue would have been deemed imperfect if left to
+show the colour of the stone in which it was cut, and was painted from head
+to foot. In bas-relief, the background was left untouched and only the
+figures were coloured. The Egyptians had more pigments at their disposal
+than is commonly supposed. The more ancient painters'"
+589," palettes--and we have
+some which date from the Fifth Dynasty--have compartments for yellow, red,
+blue, brown, white, black, and green.[40] Others, of the time of the
+Eighteenth Dynasty, provide for three varieties of yellow, three of brown,
+two of red, two of blue, and two of green; making in all some fourteen or
+sixteen different tints.
+
+Black was obtained by calcining the bones of animals. The other substances
+employed in painting were indigenous to the country. The white is made "
+590,"of
+gypsum, mixed with albumen or honey; the yellows are ochre, or sulphuret of
+arsenic, the orpiment of our modern artists; the reds are ochre, cinnabar,
+or vermilion; the blues are pulverised lapis-lazuli, or silicate of copper.
+If the substance was rare or costly, a substitute drawn from the products
+of native industry was found. Lapis-lazuli, for instance, was replaced by
+blue frit made with an admixture of silicate of copper, and this was
+reduced to an impalpable powder. The paint"
+591,"ers kept their colours in tiny
+bags, and, as required, mixed them with water containing a little gum
+tragacanth. They laid them on by means of a reed, or a more or less fine
+hair brush. When well prepared, these pigments are remarkably solid, and
+have changed but little during the lapse of ages. The reds have darkened,
+the greens have faded, the blues have turned somewhat green or grey; but
+this is only on the surface. If that surface is scraped off, the colour
+underneath is brilliant"
+592," and unchanged. Before the Theban period, no
+precautions were taken to protect the painter's work from the action of air
+and light. About the time of the Twentieth Dynasty, however, it became
+customary to coat painted surfaces with a transparent varnish which was
+soluble in water, and which was probably made from the gum of some kind of
+acacia. It was not always used in the same manner. Some painters varnished
+the whole surface, while others merely glazed the ornaments and
+accessories"
+593,", without touching the flesh-tints or the clothing. This varnish
+has cracked from the effects of age, or has become so dark as to spoil the
+work it was intended to preserve. Doubtless, the Egyptians discovered the
+bad effects produced by it, as we no longer meet with it after the close of
+the Twentieth Dynasty.
+
+Egyptian painters laid on broad, flat, uniform washes of colour; they did
+not paint in our sense of the term; they illuminated. Just as in drawing
+they reduced everything to "
+594,"lines, and almost wholly suppressed the internal
+modelling, so in adding colour they still further simplified their subject
+by merging all varieties of tone, and all play of light and shadow, in one
+uniform tint. Egyptian painting is never quite true, and never quite false.
+Without pretending to the faithful imitation of nature, it approaches
+nature as nearly as it may; sometimes understating, sometimes exaggerating,
+sometimes substituting ideal or conventional renderings for strict
+r"
+595,"ealities. Water, for instance, is always represented by a flat tint of
+blue, or by blue covered with zigzag lines in black. The buff and bluish
+hues of the vulture are translated into bright red and vivid blue. The
+flesh-tints of men are of a dark reddish brown, and the flesh-tints of
+women are pale yellow. The colours conventionally assigned to each animate
+and inanimate object were taught in the schools, and their use handed on
+unchanged from generation to generation. Now and then it"
+596," happened that a
+painter more daring than his contemporaries ventured to break with
+tradition. In the Sixth Dynasty tombs at Deir el Gebrawî, there are
+instances where the flesh tint of the women is that conventionally devoted
+to the depiction of men. At Sakkarah, under the Fifth Dynasty, and at Abû
+Simbel, under the Nineteenth Dynasty, we find men with skins as yellow as
+those of the women; while in the tombs of Thebes and Abydos, about the time
+of Thothmes IV. and Horemheb, there oc"
+597,"cur figures with flesh-tints of rose-
+colour.[41]
+
+It must not, however, be supposed that the effect produced by this
+artificial system was grating or discordant. Even in works of small size,
+such as illuminated MSS. of _The Book of the Dead_, or the decoration of
+mummy-cases and funerary coffers, there is both sweetness and harmony of
+colour. The most brilliant hues are boldly placed side by side, yet with
+full knowledge of the relations subsisting between these hues, and of the
+ph"
+598,"enomena which must necessarily result from such relations. They neither
+jar together, nor war with each other, nor extinguish each other. On the
+contrary, each maintains its own value, and all, by mere juxtaposition,
+give rise to the half-tones which harmonise them.
+
+Turning from small things to large ones, from the page of papyrus, or the
+panel of sycamore wood, to the walls of tombs and temples, we find the
+skilful employment of flat tints equally soothing and agreeable to the eye.
"
+599,"
+Each wall is treated as a whole, the harmony of colour being carried out
+from bottom to top throughout the various superimposed stages into which
+the surface was divided. Sometimes the colours are distributed according to
+a scale of rhythm, or symmetry, balancing and counterbalancing each other.
+Sometimes one special tint predominates, thus determining the general tone
+and subordinating every other hue. The vividness of the final effect is
+always calculated according to the quality an"
+600,"d quantity of light by which
+the picture is destined to be seen. In very dark halls the force of colour
+is carried as far as it will go, because it would not otherwise have been
+visible by the flickering light of lamps and torches. On outer wall-
+surfaces and on pylon-fronts, it was as vivid as in the darkest depths of
+excavated catacombs; and this because, no matter how extreme it might be,
+the sun would subdue its splendour. But in half-lighted places, such as the
+porticoes of templ"
+601,"es and the ante-chambers of tombs, colour is so dealt
+with as to be soft and discreet. In a word, painting was in Egypt the mere
+humble servant of architecture and sculpture. We must not dream of
+comparing it with our own, or even with that of the Greeks; but if we take
+it simply for what it is, accepting it in the secondary place assigned to
+it, we cannot fail to recognise its unusual merits. Egyptian painting
+excelled in the sense of monumental decoration, and if we ever revert to
+t"
+602,"he fashion of colouring the _façades_ of our houses and our public
+edifices, we shall lose nothing by studying Egyptian methods or reproducing
+Egyptian processes.
+
+
+[35] The late T. Deveria ingeniously conjectured that ""Ba-en-pet"" (iron of
+    heaven) might mean the ferruginous substance of meteoric stones. See
+    _Mélanges d'Archéologie Egyptienne et Assyrienne_, vol. i.--
+    A.B.E.
+
+[36] The traces of tools upon the masonry show the use of bronze and
+    jewel-points.--A.B.E.
"
+603,"
+
+[37] Many such trial-pieces were found by Petrie in the ruins of a
+    sculptor's house at Tell el Amarna.
+
+[38] A similar collection was found by Mr. F. Ll. Griffith at Tell
+    Gemayemi, in 1886, during his excavations for the Egypt Exploration
+    Fund. See Mr. Petrie's _Tanis_. Part II., Egypt Exploration
+    Fund.--A.B.E.
+
+[39] Mr. Loftie's collection contains, however, an interesting piece of
+    trial-work consisting of the head of a Ptolemaic queen in red
+    granite.--A"
+604,".B.E.
+
+[40] For pigments used at the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty, see Petrie's
+    _Medum_.
+
+[41] The rose-coloured, or rather crimson, flesh-tints are also to be seen
+    at El Kab, and in the famous speos at Beit el Wally, both _tempo_
+    Nineteenth Dynasty.--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+3.--WORKS OF SCULPTURE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183.--The Great Sphinx of Gizeh.]
+
+To this day, the most ancient statue known is a colossus--namely, the Great
+Sphinx of Gizeh. It was already in existe"
+605,"nce in the time of Khûfû (Cheops),
+and perhaps we should not be far wrong if we ventured to ascribe it to the
+generations before Mena, called in the priestly chronicles ""the Servants
+of Horus."" Hewn in the living rock at the extreme verge of the Libyan
+plateau, it seems, as the representative of Horus, to uprear its head in
+order to be the first to catch sight of his father, Ra, the rising sun,
+across the valley (fig. 183). For centuries the sands have buried it to the
+chin, yet witho"
+606,"ut protecting it from ruin. Its battered body preserves but
+the general form of a lion's body. The paws and breast, restored by the
+Ptolemies and the Caesars, retain but a part of the stone facing with which
+they were then clothed in order to mask the ravages of time. The lower part
+of the head-dress has fallen, and the diminished neck looks too slender to
+sustain the enormous weight of the head. The nose and beard have been
+broken off by fanatics, and the red hue which formerly enlive"
+607,"ned the
+features is almost wholly effaced. And yet, notwithstanding its fallen
+fortunes, the monster preserves an expression of sovereign strength and
+greatness. The eyes gaze out afar with a look of intense and profound
+thoughtfulness; the mouth still wears a smile; the whole countenance is
+informed with power and repose. The art which conceived and carved this
+prodigious statue was a finished art; an art which had attained self-
+mastery, and was sure of its effects. How many centuri"
+608,"es had it taken to
+arrive at this degree of maturity and perfection? In certain pieces
+belonging to various museums, such as the statues of Sepa and his wife at
+the Louvre, and the bas-reliefs of the tomb of Khabiûsokarî at Gizeh,
+critics have mistakenly recognised the faltering first efforts of an
+unskilled people. The stiffness of attitude and gesture, the exaggerated
+squareness of the shoulders, the line of green paint under the eyes,--in a
+word, all those characteristics which are"
+609," quoted as signs of extreme
+antiquity, are found in certain monuments of the Fifth and Sixth
+Dynasties. The contemporary sculptors of any given period were not all
+equally skilful. If some were capable of doing good work, the greater
+number were mere craftsmen; and we must be careful not to ascribe awkward
+manipulation, or lack of teaching, to the timidity of archaism. The works
+of the primitive dynasties yet sleep undiscovered beneath seventy feet of
+sand at the foot of the Sphinx; t"
+610,"hose of the historic dynasties are daily
+exhumed from the depths of the neighbouring tombs. These have not yielded
+Egyptian art as a whole; but they have familiarised us with one of its
+schools--the school of Memphis. The Delta, Hermopolis, Abydos, the environs
+of Thebes and Asûan[42], do not appear upon the stage earlier than towards
+the Sixth Dynasty; and even so, we know them through but a small number of
+sepulchres long since violated and despoiled. The loss is probably not very
+g"
+611,"reat. Memphis was the capital; and thither the presence of the Pharaohs
+must have attracted all the talent of the vassal principalities. Judging
+from the results of our excavations in the Memphite necropolis alone, it is
+possible to determine the characteristics of both sculpture and painting in
+the time of Seneferû and his successors with as much exactness as if we
+were already in possession of all the monuments which the valley of the
+Nile yet holds in reserve for future explorers.
+"
+612,"
+[Illustration: Fig. 184.--Panel from tomb of Hesi.]
+
+The lesser folk of the art-world excelled in the manipulation of brush and
+chisel, and that their skill was of a high order is testified by the
+thousands of tableaux they have left behind them. The relief is low; the
+colour sober; the composition learned. Architecture, trees, vegetation,
+irregularities of ground, are summarily indicated, and are introduced only
+when necessary to the due interpretation of the scene represented. Men"
+613," and
+animals, on the other hand, are rendered with a wealth of detail, a truth
+of character, and sometimes a force of treatment, to which the later
+schools of Egyptian art rarely attained. Six wooden panels from the tomb of
+Hesi in the Gizeh Museum represent perhaps the finest known specimens of
+this branch of art. Mariette ascribed them to the Third Dynasty, and he may
+perhaps have been right; though for my own part I incline to date them from
+the Fifth Dynasty. In these panels there"
+614," is nothing that can be called a
+""subject."" Hesi either sits or stands (fig. 184), and has four or five
+columns of hieroglyphs above his head; but the firmness of line, the
+subtlety of modelling, the ease of execution, are unequalled. Never has
+wood been cut with a more delicate chisel or a firmer hand.
+
+The variety of attitude and gesture which we so much admire in the Egyptian
+bas-relief is lacking to the statues. A mourner weeping, a woman bruising
+corn for bread, a baker rolling "
+615,"dough, are subjects as rare in the round as
+they are common in bas-relief. In sculpture, the figure is generally
+represented either standing with the feet side by side and quite still, or
+with one leg advanced in the act of walking; or seated upon a chair or a
+cube; or kneeling; or, still more frequently, sitting on the ground cross-
+legged, as the fellahin are wont to sit to this day. This intentional
+monotony of style would be inexplicable if we were ignorant of the purpose
+for whic"
+616,"h such statues were intended. They represent the dead man for whom
+the tomb was made, his family, his servants, his slaves, and his kinsfolk.
+The master is always shown sitting or standing, and he could not
+consistently be seen in any other attitude. The tomb is, in fact, the house
+in which he rests after the labours of life, as once he used to rest in his
+earthly home; and the scenes depicted upon the walls represent the work
+which he was officially credited with performing. Here he s"
+617,"uperintends the
+preliminary operations necessary to raise the food by which he is to be
+nourished in the form of funerary offerings; namely, seed-sowing,
+harvesting, stock-breeding, fishing, hunting, and the like. In short, ""he
+superintends all the labour which is done for the eternal dwelling."" When
+thus engaged, he is always standing upright, his head uplifted, his hands
+pendent, or holding the staff and baton of command. Elsewhere, the diverse
+offerings are brought to him one by on"
+618,"e, and then he sits in a chair of
+state. These are his two attitudes, whether as a bas-relief subject or a
+statue. Standing, he receives the homage of his vassals; sitting, he
+partakes of the family repast. The people of his household comport
+themselves before him as becomes their business and station. His wife
+either stands beside him, sits on the same chair or on a second chair by
+his side, or squats beside his feet as during his lifetime. His son, if a
+child at the time when the st"
+619,"atue was ordered, is represented in the garb
+of infancy; or with the bearing and equipment proper to his position, if a
+man. The slaves bruise the corn, the cellarers tar the wine jars, the hired
+mourners weep and tear their hair. His little social world followed the
+Egyptian to his tomb, the duties of his attendants being prescribed for
+them after death, just as they had been prescribed for them during life.
+And the kind of influence which the religious conception of the soul
+exercis"
+620,"ed over the art of the sculptor did not end here. From the moment
+that the statue is regarded as the support of the Double, it becomes a
+condition of primary importance that the statue shall reproduce, at least
+in the abstract, the proportions and distinctive peculiarities of the
+corporeal body; and this in order that the Double shall more easily adapt
+himself to his new body of stone or wood.[43] The head is therefore always
+a faithful portrait; but the body, on the contrary, is, as i"
+621,"t were, a
+medium kind of body, representing the original at his highest development,
+and consequently able to exert the fulness of his physical powers when
+admitted to the society of the gods. Hence men are always sculptured in the
+prime of life, and women with the delicate proportions of early womanhood.
+This conventional idea was never departed from, unless in cases of very
+marked deformity. The statue of a dwarf reproduced all the ugly
+peculiarities of the dwarf's own body; and it "
+622,"was important that it should
+so reproduce them. If a statue of the ordinary type had been placed in the
+tomb of the dead man, his ""Ka,"" accustomed during life to the deformity of
+his limbs, would not be able to adapt itself to an upright and shapely
+figure, and would therefore be deprived of the conditions necessary to his
+future well-being. The artist was free to vary the details and arrange the
+accessories according to his fancy; but without missing the point of his
+work, he could n"
+623,"ot change the attitude, or depart from the general style of
+the conventional portrait statue. This persistent monotony of pose and
+subject produces a depressing effect upon the spectator,--an effect which
+is augmented by the obtrusive character given to the supports. These
+statues are mostly backed by a kind of rectangular pediment, which is
+either squared off just at the base of the skull, or carried up in a point
+and lost in the head-dress, or rounded at the top and showing above the"
+624,"
+head of the figure. The arms are seldom separated from the body, but are
+generally in one piece with the sides and hips. The whole length of the leg
+which is placed in advance of the other is very often connected with the
+pediment by a band of stone. It has been conjectured that this course was
+imposed upon the sculptor by reason of the imperfection of his tools, and
+the consequent danger of fracturing the statue when cutting away the
+superfluous material--an explanation which may be"
+625," correct as regards the
+earliest schools, but which does not hold good for the time of the Fourth
+Dynasty. We could point to more than one piece of sculpture of that period,
+even in granite, in which all the limbs are free, having been cut away by
+means of either the chisel or the drill. If pediment supports were
+persisted in to the end, their use must have been due, not to helplessness,
+but to routine, or to an exaggerated respect for ancient method.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185.--The C"
+626,"ross-legged Scribe at the Louvre, Old
+Empire.]
+
+Most museums are poor in statues of the Memphite school; France and Egypt
+possess, however, some twenty specimens which suffice to ensure it an
+honourable place in the history of art. At the Louvre we have the ""Cross-
+legged Scribe,""[44] and the statues of Skemka and Pahûrnefer; at Gizeh
+there are the ""Sheikh el Beled""[45] and his wife, Khafra[46], Ranefer, the
+Prince and General Rahotep, and his wife, Nefert, a ""Kneeling Scribe,"" and
+"
+627,"a ""Cross-legged Scribe."" The original of the ""Cross-legged Scribe"" of the
+Louvre was not a handsome man (fig. 185), but the vigour and fidelity of
+his portrait amply compensate for the absence of ideal beauty. His legs are
+crossed and laid flat to the ground in one of those attitudes common among
+Orientals, yet all but impossible to Europeans. The bust is upright, and
+well balanced upon the hips. The head is uplifted. The right hand holds the
+reed pen, which pauses in its place on the "
+628,"open papyrus scroll. Thus, for
+six thousand years he has waited for his master to go on with the long-
+interrupted dictation. The face is square-cut, and the strongly-marked
+features indicate a man in the prime of life. The mouth, wide and thin-
+lipped, rises slightly towards the corners, which are lost in the
+projecting muscles by which it is framed in. The cheeks are bony and lank;
+the ears are thick and heavy, and stand out well from the head; the thick,
+coarse hair is cut close ab"
+629,"ove the brow. The eyes, which are large and well
+open, owe their lifelike vivacity to an ingenious contrivance of the
+ancient artist. The orbit has been cut out from the stone, the hollow being
+filled with an eye composed of enamel, white and black. The edges of the
+eyelids are of bronze, and a small silver nail inserted behind the iris
+receives and reflects the light in such wise as to imitate the light of
+life. The contours of the flesh are somewhat full and wanting in firmness,
+as "
+630,"would be the case in middle life, if the man's occupation debarred him
+from active exercise. The forms of the arm and back are in good relief; the
+hands are hard and bony, with fingers of somewhat unusual length; and the
+knees are sculptured with a minute attention to anatomical details. The
+whole body is, as it were, informed by the expression of the face, and is
+dominated by the attentive suspense which breathes in every feature. The
+muscles of the arm, of the bust, and of the should"
+631,"er are caught in half
+repose, and are ready to return at once to work. This careful observance of
+the professional attitude, or the characteristic gesture, is equally marked
+in the Gizeh Cross-legged Scribe, and in all the Ancient Empire statues
+which I have had an opportunity of studying.
+
+The Cross-legged Scribe of Gizeh (fig. 186) was discovered by M. de Morgan
+at Sakkarah in the beginning of 1893. This statue exhibits a no less
+surprising vigour and certainty of intention and exe"
+632,"cution on the part of
+the sculptor than does its fellow of the Louvre, while representing a
+younger man of full, firm, and supple figure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186.--The Cross-legged Scribe of Gizeh, from Sakkarah.]
+
+Khafra is a king (fig. 187). He sits squarely upon his chair of state, his
+hands upon his knees, his chest thrown forward, his head erect, his gaze
+confident. Had the emblems of his rank been destroyed, and the inscription
+effaced which tells his name, his bearing alone "
+633,"would have revealed the
+Pharaoh. Every trait is characteristic of the man who from childhood
+upwards has known himself to be invested with sovereign authority. Ranefer
+belonged to one of the great feudal families of his time. He stands
+upright, his arms down, his left leg forward, in the attitude of a prince
+inspecting a march-past of his vassals. The countenance is haughty, the
+attitude bold; but Ranefer does not impress us with the almost superhuman
+calm and decision of Khafra.
+
+["
+634,"Illustration: Fig. 187.--King Khafra, Fourth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Sheikh el Beled, Old Empire.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Rahotep, Ancient Empire.]
+
+General Rahotep[47] (fig. 189), despite his title and his high military
+rank, looks as if he were of inferior birth. Stalwart and square-cut, he
+has somewhat of the rustic in his physiognomy. Nefert, on the contrary
+(fig. 190), was a princess of the blood royal; and her whole person is, as
+it were, informed with a cert"
+635,"ain air of resolution and command, which the
+sculptor has expressed very happily. She wears a close-fitting garment,
+opening to a point in front. The shoulders, bosom, and bodily contours are
+modelled under the drapery with a grace and reserve which it is impossible
+to praise too highly. Her face, round and plump, is framed in masses of
+fine black hair, confined by a richly-ornamented bandeau. This wedded pair
+are in limestone, painted; the husband being coloured of a reddish brown
+hu"
+636,"e, and the wife of a tawny buff.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Nefert, wife of Rahotep, Ancient Empire.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Head of the Sheikh el Beled.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Wife of the Sheikh el Beled, Old Empire.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193.--The Kneeling Scribe, Old Empire.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 194.--A Bread-maker, Old Empire.]
+
+Turning to the ""Sheikh el Beled"" (figs. 188, 191), we descend several
+degrees in the social scale. Raemka was a ""superintendent of works,"""
+637," which
+probably means that he was an overseer of corvée labour at the time of
+building the great pyramids. He belonged to the middle class; and his whole
+person expresses vulgar contentment and self-satisfaction. We seem to see
+him in the act of watching his workmen, his staff of acacia wood in his
+hand. The feet of the statue had perished, but have been restored. The body
+is stout and heavy, and the neck thick. The head (fig. 191), despite its
+vulgarity, does not lack energy. The eye"
+638,"s are inserted, like those of the
+""Cross-legged Scribe."" By a curious coincidence, the statue, which was
+found at Sakkarah, happened to be strikingly like the local Sheikh el
+Beled, or head-man, of the village. Always quick to seize upon the amusing
+side of an incident, the Arab diggers at once called it the ""Sheikh el
+Beled,"" and it has retained the name ever since. The statue of his wife,
+interred beside his own, is unfortunately mutilated. It is a mere trunk,
+without legs or arms ("
+639,"fig. 192); yet enough remains to show that the figure
+represented a good type of the Egyptian middle-class matron, commonplace in
+appearance and somewhat acid of temper. The ""Kneeling Scribe"" of the Gizeh
+collection (fig. 193) belongs to the lowest middle-class rank, such as it
+is at the present day. Had he not been dead more than six thousand years, I
+could protest that I had not long ago met him face to face, in one of the
+little towns of Upper Egypt. He has just brought a roll of pa"
+640,"pyrus, or a
+tablet covered with writing, for his master's approval. Kneeling in the
+prescribed attitude of an inferior, his hands crossed, his shoulders
+rounded, his head slightly bent forward, he waits till the great man shall
+have read it through. Of what is he thinking? A scribe might feel some not
+unreasonable apprehensions, when summoned thus into the presence of his
+superior. The stick played a prominent part in official life, and an error
+of addition, a fault in orthography, or"
+641," an order misunderstood, would be
+enough to bring down a shower of blows. The sculptor has, with inimitable
+skill, seized that expression of resigned uncertainty and passive
+gentleness which is the result of a whole life of servitude. There is a
+smile upon his lips, but it is the smile of etiquette, in which there is no
+gladness. The nose and cheeks are puckered up in harmony with the forced
+grimace upon the mouth. His large eyes (again in enamel) have the fixed
+look of one who waits "
+642,"vacantly, without making any effort to concentrate
+his sight or his thoughts upon a definite object. The face lacks both
+intelligence and vivacity; but his work, after all, called for no special
+nimbleness of wit. Khafra is in diorite; Raemka and his wife are carved in
+wood; the other statues named are of limestone; yet, whatever the material
+employed, the play of the chisel is alike free, subtle, and delicate. The
+head of the scribe and the bas-relief portrait of Pharaoh Menkaûhor, in"
+643," the
+Louvre, the dwarf Nemhotep (fig. 195), and the slaves who prepare food-
+offerings at Gizeh, are in no wise inferior to the ""Cross-legged Scribe"" or
+the ""Sheikh el Beled."" The baker kneading his dough (fig. 194) is
+thoroughly in his work. His half-stooping attitude, and the way in which he
+leans upon the kneading-trough, are admirably natural. The dwarf has a
+big, elongated head, balanced by two enormous ears (fig. 195). He has a
+foolish face, an ill-shapen mouth, and narrow slits"
+644," of eyes, inclining
+upwards to the temples. The bust is well developed, but the trunk is out of
+proportion with the rest of his person. The artist has done his best to
+disguise the lower limbs under a fine white tunic; but one feels that it is
+too long for the little man's arms and legs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 195.--The dwarf Nemhotep, Old Empire.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 196.--One of the Tanis Sphinxes.]
+
+The thighs could have existed only in a rudimentary form, and Nemhotep,
+standing"
+645," as best he can upon his misshapen feet, seems to be off his
+balance, and ready to fall forward upon his face. It would be difficult to
+find another work of art in which the characteristics of dwarfdom are more
+cleverly reproduced.
+
+The sculpture of the first Theban empire is in close connection with that
+of Memphis. Methods, materials, design, composition, all are borrowed from
+the elder school; the only new departure being in the proportions assigned
+to the human figure. From the t"
+646,"ime of the Eleventh Dynasty, the legs become
+longer and slighter, the hips smaller, the body and the neck more slender.
+Works of this period are not to be compared with the best productions of
+the earlier centuries. The wall-paintings of Siût, of Bersheh, of Beni
+Hasan, and of Asûan, are not equal to those in the mastabas of Sakkarah and
+Gizeh; nor are the most carefully-executed contemporary statues worthy to
+take a place beside the ""Sheikh el Beled"" or the ""Cross-legged Scribe.""
+Por"
+647,"trait statues of private persons, especially those found at Thebes, are,
+so far as I have seen, decidedly bad, the execution being rude and the
+expression vulgar. The royal statues of this period, which are nearly all
+in black or grey granite, have been for the most part usurped by kings of
+later date. Ûsertesen III., whose head and feet are in the Louvre, was
+appropriated by Amenhotep III., as the sphinx of the Louvre and the colossi
+of Gizeh were appropriated by Rameses II. Many muse"
+648,"ums possess specimens of
+supposed Ramesside Pharaohs which, upon more careful inspection, we are
+compelled to ascribe to the Thirteenth or Fourteenth Dynasty. Those of
+undisputed identity, such as the Sebekhotep III. of the Louvre, the
+Mermashiû of Tanis, the Sebekemsaf of Gizeh, and the colossi of the Isle of
+Argo, though very skilfully executed, are wanting in originality and
+vigour. One would say, indeed, that the sculptors had purposely endeavoured
+to turn them all out after the o"
+649,"ne smiling and commonplace pattern. Great
+is the contrast when we turn from these giant dolls to the black granite
+sphinxes discovered by Mariette at Tanis in 1861, and by him ascribed to
+the Hyksos period. Here energy, at all events, is not lacking. Wiry and
+compact, the lion body is shorter than in sphinxes of the usual type. The
+head, instead of wearing the customary ""klaft,"" or head-gear of folded
+linen, is clothed with an ample mane, which also surrounds the face. The
+eyes are sm"
+650,"all; the nose is aquiline and depressed at the tip; the
+cheekbones are prominent; the lower lip slightly protrudes. The general
+effect of the face is, in short, so unlike the types we are accustomed to
+find in Egypt, that it has been accepted in proof of an Asiatic origin
+(fig. 196). These sphinxes are unquestionably anterior to the Eighteenth
+Dynasty, because one of the kings of Avaris, named Apepi, has cut his name
+upon the shoulder of each. Arguing from this fact, it was, however, t"
+651,"oo
+hastily concluded that they are works of the time of that prince. On a
+closer examination, we see that they had already been dedicated to some
+Pharaoh of a yet earlier period, and that Apepi had merely usurped them;
+and M. Golenischeff has shown that they were made for Amenemhat III., of
+the Twelfth Dynasty, and with his features. Those so-called Hyksos
+monuments may be the products of a local school, the origin of which may
+have been independent, and its traditions quite different"
+652," from the
+traditions of the Memphite workshops. But except at Abydos, El Kab, Asûan,
+and some two or three other places, the provincial art of ancient Egypt is
+so little known to us that I dare not lay too much stress upon this
+hypothesis. Whatever the origin of the Tanite School, it continued to exist
+long after the expulsion of the Hyksos invaders, since one of its best
+examples, a group representing the Nile of the North and the Nile of the
+South, bearing trays laden with flowers a"
+653,"nd fish, was consecrated by
+Pisebkhanû of the Twenty-first Dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Bas-relief head of Seti I.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 198.--The god Amen, and Horemheb.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 199.--Head of a Queen, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+The first three dynasties of the New Empire[48] have bequeathed us more
+monuments than all the others put together. Painted bas-reliefs, statues of
+kings and private persons, colossi, sphinxes, may be counted by hundreds
+between the mouths"
+654," of the Nile and the fourth cataract. The old sacerdotal
+cities, Memphis, Thebes, Abydos, are naturally the richest; but so great
+was the impetus given to art, that even remote provincial towns, such as
+Abû Simbel, Redesîyeh, and Mesheikh, have their _chefs-d'oeuvre_, like the
+great cities. The official portraits of Amenhotep I. at Turin, of Thothmes
+I. and Thothmes III. at the British Museum, at Karnak, at Turin, and at
+Gizeh, are conceived in the style of the Twelfth and Thirteenth D"
+655,"ynasties,
+and are deficient in originality; but the bas-reliefs in temples and tombs
+show a marked advance upon those of the earlier ages. The modelling is
+finer; the figures are more numerous and better grouped; the relief is
+higher; the effects of perspective are more carefully worked out. The wall-
+subjects of Deir el Baharî, the tableaux in the tombs of Hûi, of Rekhmara,
+of Anna, of Khamha, and of twenty more at Thebes, are surprisingly rich,
+brilliant, and varied. Awakening to a "
+656,"sense of the picturesque, artists
+introduced into their compositions all those details of architecture, of
+uneven ground, of foreign plants, and the like, which formerly they
+neglected, or barely indicated. The taste for the colossal, which had
+fallen somewhat into abeyance since the time of the Great Sphinx, came once
+again to the surface, and was developed anew. Amenhotep III. was not
+content with statues of twenty-five or thirty feet in height, such as were
+in favour among his ance"
+657,"stors. Those which he erected in advance of his
+memorial chapel on the left bank of the Nile in Western Thebes, one of
+which is the Vocal Memnon of the classic writers, sit fifty feet high. Each
+was carved from a single block of sandstone, and they are as elaborately
+finished as though they were of ordinary size. The avenues of sphinxes
+which this Pharaoh marshalled before the temples of Luxor and Karnak do not
+come to an end at fifty or a hundred yards from the gateway, but are
+prolo"
+658,"nged for great distances. In one avenue, they have the human head upon
+the lion's body; in another, they are fashioned in the semblance of
+kneeling rams. Khûenaten, the revolutionary successor of Amenhotep III.,
+far from discouraging this movement, did what he could to promote it.
+Never, perhaps, were Egyptian sculptors more unrestricted than by him at
+Tell el Amarna. Military reviews, chariot-driving, popular festivals, state
+receptions, the distribution of honours and rewards by the "
+659,"king in person,
+representations of palaces, villas, and gardens, were among the subjects
+which they were permitted to treat; and these subjects differed in so many
+respects from traditional routine that they could give free play to their
+fancy and to their natural genius. The spirit and gusto with which they
+took advantage of their opportunities would scarcely be believed by one who
+had not seen their works at Tell el Amarna. Some of their bas-reliefs are
+designed in almost correct pe"
+660,"rspective; and in all, the life and stir of
+large crowds are rendered with irreproachable truth. The political and
+religious reaction which followed this reign arrested the evolution of art,
+and condemned sculptors and painters to return to the observance of
+traditional rules. Their personal influence and their teaching continued,
+however, to make themselves felt under Horemheb, under Seti I., and even
+under Rameses II. If, during more than a century, Egyptian art remained
+free, grace"
+661,"ful, and refined, that improvement was due to the school of Tell
+el Amarna. In no instance perhaps did it produce work more perfect than the
+bas-reliefs of the temple of Abydos, or those of the tomb of Seti I. The
+head of the conqueror (fig. 197), always studied _con amore_, is a marvel
+of reserved and sensitive grace. Rameses II. charging the enemy at Abû
+Simbel is as fine as the portraits of Seti I., though in another style. The
+action of the arm which brandishes the lance is somewha"
+662,"t angular, but the
+expression of strength and triumph which animates the whole person of the
+warrior king, and the despairing resignation of the vanquished, compensate
+for this one defect. The group of Horemheb and the god Amen (fig. 198), in
+the Museum of Turin, is a little dry in treatment. The faces of both god
+and king lack expression, and their bodies are heavy and ill-balanced. The
+fine colossi in red granite which Horemheb placed against the uprights of
+the inner door of his fi"
+663,"rst pylon at Karnak, the bas-reliefs on the walls
+of his speos at Silsilis, his own portrait and that of one of the ladies of
+his family now in the museum of Gizeh, are, so to say, spotless and
+faultless. The queen's face (fig. 199) is animated and intelligent; the
+eyes are large and prominent; the mouth is wide, but well shaped. This head
+is carved in hard limestone of a creamy tint which seems to soften the
+somewhat satirical expression of her eyes and smile. The king (fig. 200) is
+"
+664,"in black granite; and the sombre hue of the stone at once produces a
+mournful impression upon the spectator. His youthful face is pervaded by an
+air of melancholy, such as we rarely see depicted in portraits of Pharaohs
+of the great period. The nose is straight and delicate, the eyes are long,
+the lips are large, full, somewhat contracted at the corners, and strongly
+defined at the edges. The chin is overweighted by the traditional false
+beard. Every detail is treated with as much skil"
+665,"l as if the sculptor were
+dealing with a soft stone instead of with a material which resisted the
+chisel. Such, indeed, is the mastery of the execution, that one forgets the
+difficulties of the task in the excellence of the results.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 200.--Head of Horemheb.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 201.--Colossal statue of Rameses II., Luxor.]
+
+It is unfortunate that Egyptian artists never signed their works; for the
+sculptor of this portrait of Horemheb deserves to be remembered. "
+666,"Like the
+Eighteenth Dynasty, the Nineteenth Dynasty delighted in colossi. Those of
+Rameses II. at Luxor measured from eighteen to twenty feet in height (fig.
+201); the colossal Rameses of the Ramesseum sat sixty feet high; and that
+of Tanis about seventy.[49] The colossi of Abû Simbel, without being of
+quite such formidable proportions, face the river in imposing array. To say
+that the decline of Egyptian art began with Rameses II. is a commonplace of
+contemporary criticism; yet nothi"
+667,"ng is less true than an axiom of this
+kind. Many statues and bas-reliefs executed during his reign are no doubt
+inconceivably rude and ugly; but these are chiefly found in provincial
+towns where the schools were indifferent, and where the artists had no
+fine examples before them. At Thebes, at Memphis, at Abydos, at Tanis, in
+those towns of the Delta where the court habitually resided, and even at
+Abû Simbel and Beit el Wally, the sculptors of Rameses II. yield nothing in
+point of exc"
+668,"ellence to those of Seti I. and Horemheb. The decadence did not
+begin till after the reign of Merenptah. When civil war and foreign
+invasion brought Egypt to the brink of destruction, the arts, like all
+else, suffered and rapidly declined. It is sad to follow their downward
+progress under the later Ramessides, whether in the wall-subjects of the
+royal tombs, or in the bas-reliefs of the temple of Khonsû, or on the
+columns of the hypostyle hall at Karnak. Wood carving maintained its lev"
+669,"el
+during a somewhat longer period. The admirable statuettes of priests and
+children at Turin date from the Twentieth Dynasty. The advent of Sheshonk
+and the internecine strife of the provinces at length completed the ruin of
+Thebes, and the school which had produced so many masterpieces perished
+miserably.
+
+[Illustration Fig. 202.--Queen Ameniritis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 203.--The goddess Thûeris. Saïte work.]
+
+The Renaissance did not dawn till near the end of the Ethiopian Dynas"
+670,"ty,
+some three hundred years later. The over-praised statue of Queen
+Ameniritis[50] (fig. 202) already manifests some noteworthy qualities. The
+limbs, somewhat long and fragile, are delicately treated; but the head is
+heavy, being over-weighted by the wig peculiar to goddesses. Psammetichus
+I., when his victories had established him upon the throne, busied himself
+in the restoration of the temples. Under his auspices, the valley of the
+Nile became one vast studio of painting and sculp"
+671,"ture. The art of engraving
+hieroglyphs attained a high degree of excellence, fine statues and bas-
+reliefs were everywhere multiplied, and a new school arose. A marvellous
+command of material, a profound knowledge of detail, and a certain elegance
+tempered by severity, are the leading characteristics of this new school.
+The Memphites preferred limestone; the Thebans selected red or grey
+granite; but the Saïtes especially attacked basalt, breccia, and
+serpentine, and with these fine-gr"
+672,"ained and almost homogeneous substances,
+they achieved extraordinary results. They seem to have sought difficulties
+for the mere pleasure of triumphing over them; and we have proof of the way
+in which artists of real merit bestowed years and years on the chasing of
+sarcophagus lids and the carving of statues in blocks of the hardest
+material. The Thûeris, and the four monuments from the tomb of
+Psammetichus[51] in the Gizeh Museum, are the most remarkable objects
+hitherto discovered i"
+673,"n this class of work. Thûeris[52] (fig. 203) was the
+especial protectress of maternity, and presided over childbirth. Her
+portrait was discovered by some native sebakh diggers[53] in the midst of
+the mounds of the ancient city of Thebes. She was found standing upright in
+a little chapel of white limestone which had been dedicated to her by one
+Pibesa, a priest, in the name of Queen Nitocris, daughter of Psammetichus
+I. This charming hippopotamus, whose figure is perhaps more plump than"
+674,"
+graceful, is a fine example of difficulties overcome; but I do not know
+that she has any other merit. The group belonging to Psammetichus has at
+all events some artistic value. It consists of four pieces of green basalt;
+namely, a table of offerings, a statue of Osiris, a statue of Nephthys, and
+a Hathor-cow supporting a statuette of the deceased (fig. 204). All four
+are somewhat flaccid, somewhat artificial; but the faces of the divinities
+and the deceased are not wanting in sweetne"
+675,"ss; the action of the cow is
+good; and the little figure under her protection falls naturally into its
+place. Certain other pieces, less known than these, are however far
+superior. The Saïte style is easy of recognition. It lacks the breadth and
+learning of the first Memphite school; it also lacks the grand, and
+sometimes rude, manner of the great Theban school. The proportions of the
+human body are reduced and elongated, and the limbs lose in vigour what
+they gain in elegance. A note"
+676,"worthy change in the choice of attitudes will
+also be remarked. Orientals find repose in postures which would be
+inexpressibly fatiguing to ourselves. For hours together they will kneel;
+or sit tailor-wise, with the legs crossed and laid down flat to the ground;
+or squat, sitting upon their heels, with no other support than is afforded
+by that part of the sole of the foot which rests upon the ground; or they
+will sit upon the floor with their legs close together, and their arms
+crosse"
+677,"d upon their knees. These four attitudes were customary among the
+people from the time of the ancient empire.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 204.--Hathor-cow in green basalt. Saïte work.]
+
+This we know from the bas-reliefs. But the Memphite sculptors, deeming the
+two last ungraceful, excluded them from the domain of art, and rarely, if
+ever, reproduced them. The ""Cross-legged Scribe"" of the Louvre and the
+""Kneeling Scribe"" of Gizeh show with what success they could employ the two
+first. The t"
+678,"hird was neglected (doubtless for the same reason) by the
+Theban sculptors. The fourth began to be currently adopted about the time
+of the Eighteenth Dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 205.--Squatting statue of Pedishashi. Saïte work.]
+
+It may be that this position was not in fashion among the moneyed classes,
+which alone could afford to order statues; or it may be that the artists
+themselves objected to an attitude which caused their sitters to look like
+square parcels with a human head"
+679," on the top. The sculptors of the Saïte
+period did not inherit that repugnance. They have at all events combined
+the action of the limbs in such wise as may least offend the eye, and the
+position almost ceases to be ungraceful. The heads also are modelled to
+such perfection that they make up for many shortcomings. That of Pedishashi
+(fig. 205) has an expression of youth and intelligent gentleness such as we
+seldom meet with from an Egyptian hand. Other heads, on the contrary, are
+rema"
+680,"rkable for their almost brutal frankness of treatment. In the small
+head of a scribe (fig. 206), lately purchased for the Louvre, and in
+another belonging to Prince Ibrahim at Cairo, the wrinkled brow, the
+crow's-feet  at the corners of the eyes, the hard lines about the mouth,
+and the knobs upon the skull, are brought out with scrupulous fidelity. The
+Saïte school was, in fact, divided into two parties. One sought inspiration
+in the past, and, by a return to the methods of the old Mem"
+681,"phite school,
+endeavoured to put fresh life into the effeminate style of the day. This it
+accomplished, and so successfully, that its works are sometimes mistaken
+for the best productions of the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties. The other,
+without too openly departing from established tradition, preferred to study
+from the life, and thus drew nearer to nature than in any previous age.
+This school would, perhaps, have prevailed, had Egyptian art not been
+directed into a new channel by the Ma"
+682,"cedonian conquest, and by centuries of
+intercourse with the Greeks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 206.--Head of a scribe. Saïte work.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 207.--Colossus of Alexander II.]
+
+The new departure was of slow development. Sculptors began by clothing the
+successors of Alexander in Egyptian garb and transforming them into
+Pharaohs, just as they had in olden time transformed the Hyksos and the
+Persians. Works dating from the reigns of the first Ptolemies scarcely
+differ from those "
+683,"of the best Saïte period, and it is only here and there
+that we detect traces of Greek influence. Thus, the colossus of Alexander
+II., at Gizeh (fig. 207), wears a flowing head-dress, from beneath which
+his crisp curls have found their way. Soon, however, the sight of Greek
+masterpieces led the Egyptians of Alexandria, of Memphis, and of the cities
+of the Delta to modify their artistic methods. Then arose a mixed school,
+which combined certain elements of the national art with certain "
+684,"other
+elements borrowed from Hellenic art. The Alexandrian Isis of the Gizeh
+Museum is clad as the Isis of Pharaonic times; but she has lost the old
+slender shape and straitened bearing. A mutilated effigy of a Prince of
+Siût, also at Gizeh, would almost pass for an indifferent Greek statue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 208.--Statue of Hor, Graeco-Egyptian.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 209.--Group from Naga.]
+
+The most forcible work of this hybrid class which has come down to us is
+the portrait-"
+685,"statue of one Hor (fig. 208), discovered in 1881 at the foot
+of Kom ed Damas, the site of the tomb of Alexander. The head is good,
+though in a somewhat dry style. The long, pinched nose, the close-set eyes,
+the small mouth with drawn-in corners, the square chin,--every feature, in
+short, contributes to give a hard and obstinate character to the face. The
+hair is closely cropped, yet not so closely as to prevent it from dividing
+naturally into thick, short curls. The body, clothed in th"
+686,"e chlamys, is
+awkwardly shapen, and too narrow for the head. One arm hangs pendent; the
+other is brought round to the front; the feet are lost. All these monuments
+are the results of few excavations; and I do not doubt that the soil of
+Alexandria would yield many such, if it could be methodically explored. The
+school which produced them continued to draw nearer and nearer to the
+schools of Greece, and the stiff manner, which it never wholly lost, was
+scarcely regarded as a defect at a"
+687,"n epoch when certain sculptors in the
+service of Rome especially affected the archaic style. I should not be
+surprised if those statues of priests and priestesses wearing divine
+insignia, with which Hadrian adorned the Egyptian rooms of his villa at
+Tibur, might not be attributed to the artists of this hybrid school. In
+those parts which were remote from the Delta, native art, being left to its
+own resources, languished, and slowly perished. Nor was this because Greek
+models, or even "
+688,"Greek artists, were lacking. In the Thebaid, in the Fayûm,
+at Syene, I have both discovered and purchased statuettes and statues of
+Hellenic style, and of correct and careful execution. One of these, from
+Coptos, is apparently a miniature replica of a Venus analogous to the Venus
+of Milo. But the provincial sculptors were too dull, or too ignorant, to
+take such advantage of these models as was taken by their Alexandrian
+brethren. When they sought to render the Greek suppleness of figur"
+689,"e and
+fulness of limb, they only succeeded in missing the rigid but learned
+precision of their former masters. In place of the fine, delicate, low
+relief of the old school, they adopted a relief which, though very
+prominent, was soft, round, and feebly modelled. The eyes of their
+personages have a foolish leer; the nostrils slant upwards; the corners of
+the mouth, the chin, and indeed all the features, are drawn up as if
+converging towards a central point, which is stationed in the mi"
+690,"ddle of the
+ear. Two schools, each independent of the other, have bequeathed their
+works to us. The least known flourished in Ethiopia, at the court of the
+half-civilised kings who resided at Meroë. A group brought from Naga in
+1882, and now in the Gizeh collection, shows the work of this school during
+the first century of our era (fig. 209). A god and a queen, standing side
+by side, are roughly cut in a block of grey granite. The work is coarse and
+heavy, but not without energy. Isol"
+691,"ated and lost in the midst of savage
+tribes, the school which produced it sank rapidly into barbarism, and
+expired towards the end of the age of the Antonines. The Egyptian school,
+sheltered by the power of Rome, survived a little longer. As sagacious as
+the Ptolemies, the Caesars knew that by flattering the religious prejudices
+of their Egyptian subjects they consolidated their own rule in the valley
+of the Nile. At an enormous cost, they restored and rebuilt the temples of
+the natio"
+692,"nal gods, working after the old plans and in the old spirit of
+Pharaonic times. The great earthquake of B.C. 22 had destroyed Thebes,
+which now became a mere place of pilgrimage, whither devotees repaired to
+listen to the voice of Memnon at the rising of Aurora. But at Denderah and
+Ombos, Tiberius and Claudius finished the decoration of the great temples.
+Caligula worked at Coptos, and the Antonines enriched Esneh and Philae. The
+gangs of workmen employed in their names were still comp"
+693,"etent to cut
+thousands of bas-reliefs according to the rules of the olden time. Their
+work was feeble, ungraceful, absurd, inspired solely by routine; yet it was
+founded on antique tradition--tradition enfeebled and degenerate, but still
+alive. The troubles which convulsed the third century of our era, the
+incursions of barbarians, the progress and triumph of Christianity, caused
+the suspension of the latest works and the dispersion of the last
+craftsmen. With them died all that yet s"
+694,"urvived of the national art.[54]
+
+
+[42] The classic Syene, from all time the southernmost portion of Egypt
+    proper. The Sixth Dynasty is called the Elephantine, from the island
+    immediately facing Syene which was the traditional seat of the
+    Dynasty, and on which the temples stood. The tombs of Elephantine were
+    discovered by General Sir F. Grenfell, K.C.B., in 1885, in the
+    neighbouring cliffs of the Libyan Desert: see foot-note p. 149.--
+    A.B.E.
+
+[43] For an ex"
+695,"planation of the nature of the Double, see Chapter III., pp.
+    111-112, 121 _et seq._
+
+[44] Known as the ""Scribe accroupi,"" literally the ""Squatting Scribe""; but
+    in English, squatting, as applied to Egyptian art, is taken to mean
+    the attitude of sitting with the knees nearly touching the chin.
+    --A.B.E.
+
+[45] ""The Sheikh of the Village."" This statue was best known in England as
+    the ""Wooden Man of Bûlak.""--A.B.E.
+
+[46] The Greek Chephren.
+
+[47] I venture to think"
+696," that the heads of Rahotep and Nefert, engraved from
+    a brilliant photograph in _A Thousand Miles up the Nile_, give a
+    truer and more spirited idea of the originals than the present
+    illustrations,--A.B.E.
+
+[48] That is, the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties.
+    --A.B.E.
+
+[49] According to the measurements given by Mr. Petrie, who discovered the
+    remains of the Tanite colossus, it must have stood ninety feet high
+    without, and one hundred and twenty f"
+697,"eet high with, its pedestal. See
+    _Tanis_, Part I., by W.M.F. Petrie, published by the Egypt
+    Exploration Fund, 1885.--A.B.E.
+
+[50] Ameniritis, daughter of an Ethiopian king named Kashta, was the sister
+    and successor of her brother Shabaka, and wife of Piankhi II., Twenty-
+    fifth Dynasty. The statue is in alabaster.--A.B.E.
+
+[51] A Memphite scribe of the Thirtieth Dynasty.--A.B.E.
+
+[52] In Egyptian _Ta-ûrt_, or ""the Great;"" also called _Apet_.
+    This goddess is alwa"
+698,"ys represented as a hippopotamus walking. She
+    carries in each hand the emblem of protection, called ""_Sa_."" The
+    statuette of the illustration is in green serpentine.--A.B.E.
+
+[53] _Sebakh_, signifying ""salt,"" or ""saltpetre,"" is the general
+    term for that saline dust which accumulates wherever there are mounds
+    of brick or limestone ruins. This dust is much valued as a manure, or
+    ""top-dressing,"" and is so constantly dug out and carried away by the
+    natives, that t"
+699,"he mounds of ancient towns and villages are rapidly
+    undergoing destruction in all parts of Egypt.--A.B.E.
+
+[54] For an example of Graeco-Egyptian portrait painting, _tempo_
+    Hadrian, see p. 291.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+
+_THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS._
+
+I have treated briefly of the Noble Arts; it remains to say something of
+the Industrial Arts. All classes of society in Egypt were, from an early
+period, imbued with the love of luxury, and with a taste for the beautiful.
+Living or dead"
+700,", the Egyptian desired to have jewels and costly amulets upon
+his person, and to be surrounded by choice furniture and elegant utensils.
+The objects of his daily use must be distinguished, if not by richness of
+material, at least by grace of form; and in order to satisfy his
+requirements, the clay, the stone, the metals, the woods, and other
+products of distant lands were laid under contribution.
+
+
+I.--STONE, CLAY, AND GLASS.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 210.--The _Ta_, or girdle-buckle of"
+701," Isis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 211.--Frog amulet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 212.--The _Ûat_, or lotus-column amulet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 213.--An _Ûta_, or sacred eye.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 214.--A scarabaeus.]
+
+It is impossible to pass through a gallery of Egyptian antiquities without
+being surprised by the prodigious number of small objects in _pietra dura_
+which have survived till the present time. As yet we have found neither the
+diamond, the ruby, nor the sapphire; but with the"
+702,"se exceptions, the domain
+of the lapidary was almost as extensive as at the present day. That domain
+included the amethyst, the emerald, the garnet, the aquamarine, the
+chrysoprase, the innumerable varieties of agate and jasper, lapis lazuli,
+felspar, obsidian; also various rocks, such as granite, serpentine, and
+porphyry; certain fossils, as yellow amber and some kinds of turquoise;
+organic remains, as coral, mother-of-pearl, and pearls; metallic ores and
+carbonates, such as hematite"
+703," and malachite, and the calaite, or Oriental
+turquoise. These substances were for the most part cut in the shape of
+round, square, oval, spindle-shaped, pear-shaped, or lozenge-shaped beads.
+Strung and arranged row above row, these beads were made into necklaces,
+and are picked up by myriads in the sands of the great cemeteries at
+Memphis, Erment, Ekhmîm, and Abydos. The perfection with which many are
+cut, the deftness with which they are pierced, and the beauty of the
+polish, do hono"
+704,"ur to the craftsmen who made them. But their skill did not
+end here. With the point, saw, drill, and grindstone, they fashioned these
+materials into an infinity of shapes--hearts, human fingers, serpents,
+animals, images of divinities. All these were amulets; and they were
+probably less valued for the charm of the workmanship than for the
+supernatural virtues which they were supposed to possess. The girdle-buckle
+in carnelian (fig. 210) symbolised the blood of Isis, and washed away the"
+705,"
+sins of the wearer. The frog (fig. 211) was emblematic of renewed birth.
+The little lotus-flower column in green felspar (fig. 212) typified the
+divine gift of eternal youth. The ""Ûat,"" or sacred eye (fig. 213), tied to
+the wrist or the arm by a slender string, protected against the evil eye,
+against words spoken in envy or anger, and against the bites of serpents.
+Commerce dispersed these objects throughout all parts of the ancient world,
+and many of them, especially those which rep"
+706,"resented the sacred beetle,
+were imitated abroad by the Phoenicians and Syrians, and by the craftsmen
+of Greece, Asia Minor, Etruria, and Sardinia. This insect was called
+_kheper_ in Egyptian, and its name was supposed to be derived from the root
+_khepra_, ""to become."" By an obvious play upon words, the beetle was made
+the emblem of terrestrial life, and of the successive ""becomings"" or
+developments of man in the life to come. The scarabaeus amulet (fig. 214)
+is therefore a symbol of "
+707,"duration, present or future; and to wear one was
+to provide against annihilation. A thousand mystic meanings were evolved
+from this first idea, each in some subtle sense connected with one or other
+of the daily acts or usages of life, so that scarabaei were multiplied _ad
+infinitum_. They are found in all materials and sizes; some having hawks'
+heads, some with rams' heads, some with heads of men or bulls. Some are
+wrought or inscribed on the underside; others are left flat and plain
+"
+708,"underneath; and others again but vaguely recall the form of the insect, and
+are called scarabaeoids. These amulets are pierced longwise, the hole being
+large enough to admit the passage of a fine wire of bronze or silver, or of
+a thread, for suspension. The larger sort were regarded as images of the
+heart. These, having outspread wings attached, were fastened to the breast
+of the mummy, and are inscribed on the underside with a prayer adjuring the
+heart not to bear witness against the "
+709,"deceased at the day of judgment. In
+order to be still more efficacious, some scenes of adoration were
+occasionally added to the formula: _e.g._, the disc of the moon adorned by
+two apes upon the shoulder; two squatting figures of Amen upon the wing-
+sheaths; on the flat reverse, a representation of the boat of the Sun; and
+below the boat, Osiris mummified, squatting between Isis and Nephthys, who
+overshadow him with their wings. The small scarabs, having begun as
+phylacteries, ended b"
+710,"y becoming mere ornaments without any kind of
+religious meaning, just as crosses are now worn without thought of
+significance by the women of our own day. They were set as rings, as
+necklace pendants, as earrings, and as bracelets. The underside is often
+plain, but is more commonly ornamented with incised designs which involve
+no kind of modelling. Relief-cutting, properly so called (as in cameo-
+cutting), was unknown to Egyptian lapidaries before the Greek period.
+Scarabaei and the s"
+711,"ubjects engraved on them have not as yet been fully
+classified and catalogued.[55] The subjects consist of simple combinations
+of lines; of scrolls; of interlacings without any precise signification; of
+symbols to which the owner attached a mysterious meaning, unknown to
+everyone but himself; of the names and titles of individuals; of royal
+ovals, which are historically interesting; of good wishes; of pious
+ejaculations; and of magic formulae. The earliest examples known date from
+the"
+712," Fourth Dynasty, and are small and fine. Sometimes Sixth Dynasty scarabs
+are of obsidian and crystal, and early Middle Kingdom scarabs of amethyst,
+emerald, and even garnet. From the time of the Eighteenth Dynasty scarabs
+may be counted by millions, and the execution is more or less fine
+according to the hardness of the stone. This holds good for amulets of all
+kinds. The hippopotamus-heads, the hearts, the _Ba_ birds (p. 111), which
+one picks up at Taûd, to the south of Thebes, are ba"
+713,"rely roughed out, the
+amethyst and green felspar of which they are made having presented an
+almost unconquerable resistance to the point, saw, drill, and wheel. The
+belt-buckles, angles, and head-rests in red jasper, carnelian, and
+hematite, are, on the contrary, finished to the minutest details,
+notwithstanding that carnelian and red jasper are even harder than green
+felspar. Lapis lazuli is insufficiently homogeneous, almost as hard as
+felspar, and seems as if it were incapable of b"
+714,"eing finely worked. Yet the
+Egyptians have used it for images of certain goddesses--Isis, Nephthys,
+Neith, Sekhet,--which are marvels of delicate cutting. The modelling of the
+forms is carried out as boldly as if the material were more trustworthy,
+and the features lose none of their excellence if examined under a
+magnifying glass. For the most part, however, a different treatment was
+adopted. Instead of lavishing high finish upon the relief, it was obtained
+in a more summary way, the"
+715," details of individual parts being sacrificed to
+the general effect. Those features of the face which project, and those
+which retire, are strongly accentuated. The thickness of the neck, the
+swell of the breast and shoulder, the slenderness of the waist, the fulness
+of the hips, are all exaggerated. The feet and hands are also slightly
+enlarged. This treatment is based upon a system, the results being boldly
+and yet judiciously calculated. When the object has to be sculptured in
+mini"
+716,"ature, a mathematical reduction of the model is not so happy in its
+effect as might be supposed. The head loses character; the neck looks too
+weak; the bust is reduced to a cylinder with a slightly uneven surface; the
+feet do not look strong enough to support the weight of the body; the
+principal lines are not sufficiently distinct from the secondary lines. By
+suppressing most of the accessory forms and developing those most essential
+to the expression, the Egyptians steered clear of t"
+717,"he danger of producing
+insignificant statuettes. The eye instinctively tones down whatever is too
+forcible, and supplies what is lacking. Thanks to these subtle devices of
+the ancient craftsman, a tiny statuette of this or that divinity measuring
+scarcely an inch and a quarter in height, has almost the breadth and
+dignity of a colossus.
+
+The earthly goods of the gods and of the dead were mostly in solid stone. I
+have elsewhere described the little funerary obelisks, the altar bases, "
+718,"the
+statues, and the tables of offerings found in tombs of the ancient empire.
+These tables were made of alabaster and limestone during the Pyramid
+period, of granite or red sandstone under the Theban kings, and of basalt
+or serpentine from the time of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. But the fashions
+were not canonical, all stones being found at all periods. Some offering-
+tables are mere flat discs, or discs very slightly hollowed. Others are
+rectangular, and are sculptured in relief with "
+719,"a service of loaves, vases,
+fruits, and quarters of beef and gazelle. In one instance--the offering-
+table of Sitû--the libations, instead of running off, fell into a square
+basin which is marked off in divisions, showing the height of the Nile at
+the different seasons of the year in the reservoirs of Memphis; namely,
+twenty-five cubits in summer during the inundation, twenty-three in autumn
+and early winter, and twenty-two at the close of winter and in spring-time.
+In these various p"
+720,"atterns there was little beauty; yet one offering-table,
+found at Sakkarah, is a real work of art. It is of alabaster. Two lions,
+standing side by side, support a sloping, rectangular tablet, whence the
+libation ran off by a small channel into a vase placed between the tails of
+the lions. The alabaster geese found at Lisht are not without artistic
+merit. They are cut length-wise down the middle, and hollowed out, in the
+fashion of a box. Those which I have seen elsewhere, and, generall"
+721,"y
+speaking, all simulacra of offerings, as loaves, cakes, heads of oxen or
+gazelles, bunches of black grapes, and the like, in carved and painted
+limestone, are of doubtful taste and clumsy execution. They are not very
+common, and I have met with them only in tombs of the Fifth and Twelfth
+Dynasties. ""Canopic"" vases, on the contrary, were always carefully wrought.
+They were generally made in two kinds of stone, limestone and alabaster;
+but the heads which surmounted them were often of"
+722," painted wood. The canopic
+vases of Pepi I. are of alabaster; and those of a king buried in the
+southernmost pyramid at Lisht are also of alabaster, as are the human heads
+upon the lids. One, indeed, is of such fine execution that I can only
+compare it with that of the statue of Khafra. The most ancient funerary
+statuettes yet found--those, namely, of the Eleventh Dynasty--are of
+alabaster, like the canopic vases; but from the time of the Thirteenth
+Dynasty, they were cut in compact l"
+723,"imestone. The workmanship is very
+unequal in quality. Some are real _chefs-d'oeuvre_, and reproduce the
+physiognomy of the deceased as faithfully as a portrait statue. Lastly,
+there are the perfume vases, which complete the list of objects found in
+temples and tombs. The names of these vases are far from being
+satisfactorily established, and most of the special designations furnished
+in the texts remain as yet without equivalents in our language. The greater
+number were of alabaster, "
+724,"turned and polished. Some are heavy, and ugly
+(fig. 215), while others are distinguished by an elegance and diversity of
+form which do honour to the inventive talent of the craftsmen. Many are
+spindle-shaped and pointed at the end (fig. 216), or round in the body,
+narrow in the neck, and flat at the bottom (fig. 217).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 215.--Perfume vase, alabaster.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Perfume vase, alabaster.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 217.--Perfume vase, alabaster.]
+
+They"
+725," are unornamented, except perhaps by two lotus-bud handles, or two
+lions' heads, or perhaps a little female head just at the rise of the neck
+(fig. 218). The smallest of these vases were not intended for liquids, but
+for pomades, medicinal ointments, and salves made with honey. Some of the
+more important series comprise large-bodied flasks, with an upright
+cylindrical neck and a flat cover (fig. 219). In these, the Egyptians kept
+the antimony powder with which they darkened their eyes "
+726,"and eyebrows. The
+Kohl-pot was a universal toilet requisite; perhaps the only one commonly
+used by all classes of society. When designing it, the craftsman gave free
+play to his fancy, borrowing forms of men, plants, and animals for its
+adornment. Now it appears in the guise of a full-blown lotus; now it is a
+hedgehog; a hawk; a monkey clasping a column to his breast, or climbing up
+the side of a jar; a grotesque figure of the god Bes; a kneeling woman,
+whose scooped-out body containe"
+727,"d the powder; a young girl carrying a wine-
+jar. Once started upon this path, the imagination of the artists knew no
+limits. As for materials, everything was made to serve in turn--granite,
+diorite, breccia, red jade, alabaster, and soft limestone, which lent
+itself more readily to caprices of form; finally, a still more plastic and
+facile substance--clay, painted and glazed.
+
+[Ilustration: Fig. 218.--Perfume vase, alabaster.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Vase for antimony powder.]
+
"
+728,"
+It was not for want of material that the art of modelling and baking clays
+failed to be as fully developed in Egypt as in Greece, The valley of the
+Nile is rich in a fine and ductile potter's clay, with which the happiest
+results might have been achieved, had the native craftsman taken the
+trouble to prepare it with due care. Metals and hard stone were, however,
+always preferred for objects of luxury; the potter was fain, therefore, to
+be content with supplying only the commonest need"
+729,"s of household and daily
+life. He was wont to take whatever clay happened to be nearest to the place
+where he was working, and this clay was habitually badly washed, badly
+kneaded, and fashioned with the finger upon a primitive wheel worked by the
+hand. The firing was equally careless. Some pieces were barely heated at
+all, and melted it they came into contact with water, while others were as
+hard as tiles. All tombs of the ancient empire contain vases of a red or
+yellow ware, often m"
+730,"ixed, like the clay of bricks, with finely-chopped
+straw or weeds. These are mostly large solid jars with oval bodies, short
+necks, and wide mouths, but having neither foot nor handles. With them are
+also found pipkins and pots, in which to store the dead man's provisions;
+bowls more or less shallow; and flat plates, such as are still used by the
+fellahin. The poorer folk sometimes buried miniature table and kitchen
+services with their dead, as being less costly than full-sized vessels"
+731,". The
+surface is seldom glazed, seldom smooth and lustrous; but is ordinarily
+covered with a coat of whitish, unbaked paint, which scales off at a touch.
+Upon this surface there is neither incised design, nor ornament in relief,
+nor any kind of inscription, but merely some four or five parallel lines in
+red, black, or yellow, round the neck.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 220.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 221.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 222.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 223.]
+
+The pottery of the earliest "
+732,"Theban dynasties which I have collected at El
+Khozam and Gebeleyn is more carefully wrought than the pottery of the
+Memphite period. It may be classified under two heads. The first comprises
+plain, smooth-bodied vases, black below and dark red above. On examining
+this ware where broken, we see that the colour was mixed with the clay
+during the kneading, and that the two zones were separately prepared,
+roughly joined, and then uniformly glazed. The second class comprises vases
+of vario"
+733,"us and sometimes eccentric forms, moulded of red or tawny clay.
+Some are large cylinders closed at one end; others are flat; others oblong
+and boat-shaped; others, like cruets, joined together two and two, yet with
+no channel of communication[56] (fig. 220). The ornamentation is carried
+over the whole surface, and generally consists of straight parallel lines,
+cross lines, zigzags, dotted lines, or small crosses and lines in
+geometrical combination; all these patterns being in white wh"
+734,"en the ground
+is red, or in reddish brown when the ground is yellow or whitish. Now and
+then we find figures of men and animals interspersed among the geometrical
+combinations. The drawing is rude, almost childish; and it is difficult to
+tell whether the subjects represent herds of antelopes or scenes of
+gazelle-hunting. The craftsmen who produced these rude attempts were
+nevertheless contemporary with the artists who decorated the rock-cut tombs
+at Beni Hasan. As regards the period o"
+735,"f Egypt's great military conquests,
+the Theban tombs of that age have supplied objects enough to stock a museum
+of pottery; but unfortunately the types are very uninteresting. To begin
+with, we find hand-made sepulchral statuettes modelled in summary fashion
+from an oblong lump of clay. A pinch of the craftsman's fingers brought out
+the nose; two tiny knobs and two little stumps, separately modelled and
+stuck on, represented the eyes and arms. The better sort of figures were
+pressed i"
+736,"n moulds of baked clay, of which several specimens have been
+found. They were generally moulded in one piece; then lightly touched up;
+then baked; and lastly, on coming out of the oven, were painted red,
+yellow, or white, and inscribed with the pen. Some are of very good style,
+and almost equal those made in limestone. The _ûshabtiû_ of the scribe
+Hori, and those of the priest Horûta (Saïte) found at Hawara, show what the
+Egyptians could have achieved in this branch of the art if they "
+737,"had cared
+to cultivate it. Funerary cones were objects purely devotional, and the
+most consummate art could have done nothing to make them elegant. A
+funerary cone consists of a long, conical mass of clay, stamped at the
+larger end with a few rows of hieroglyphs stating the name, parentage, and
+titles of the deceased, the whole surface being coated with a whitish wash.
+These are simulacra of votive cakes intended for the eternal nourishment of
+the Double. Many of the vases buried in t"
+738,"ombs of this period are painted to
+imitate alabaster, granite, basalt, bronze, and even gold; and were cheap
+substitutes for those vases made in precious materials which wealthy
+mourners were wont to lavish on their dead. Among those especially intended
+to contain water or flowers, some are covered with designs drawn in red and
+black (fig. 221), such as concentric lines and circles (fig. 222),
+meanders, religious emblems (fig. 223), cross-lines resembling network,
+festoons of flowers "
+739,"and buds, and long leafy stems carried downward from
+the neck to the body of the vase, and upward from the body of the vase to
+the neck. Those in the tomb of Sennetmû were decorated on one side with a
+large necklace, or collar, like the collars found upon mummies, painted in
+very bright colours to simulate natural flowers or enamels. Canopic vases
+in baked clay, though rarely met with under the Eighteenth Dynasty, became
+more and more common as the prosperity of Thebes declined. The he"
+740,"ads upon
+the lids are for the most part prettily turned, especially the human
+heads.[57] Modelled with the hand, scooped out to diminish the weight, and
+then slowly baked, each was finally painted with the colours especially
+pertaining to the genius whose head was represented. Towards the time of
+the Twentieth Dynasty, it became customary to enclose the bodies of sacred
+animals in vases of this type. Those found near Ekhmîm contain jackals and
+hawks; those of Sakkarah are devoted to s"
+741,"erpents, eggs, and mummified rats;
+those of Abydos hold the sacred ibis. These last are by far the finest. On
+the body of the vase, the protecting goddess Khûit is depicted with
+outspread wings, while Horus and Thoth are seen presenting the bandage and
+the unguent vase; the whole subject being painted in blue and red upon a
+white ground. From the time of the Greek domination, the national poverty
+being always on the increase, baked clay was much used for coffins as well
+as for canopic"
+742," vases. In the Isthmus of Suez, at Ahnas el Medineh, in the
+Fayûm, at Asûan, and in Nubia, we find whole cemeteries in which the
+sarcophagi are made of baked clay. Some are like oblong boxes rounded at
+each end, with a saddle-back lid. Some are in human form, but barbarous in
+style, the heads being surmounted by a pudding-shaped imitation of the
+ancient Egyptian head-dress, and the features indicated by two or three
+strokes of the modelling tool or the thumb. Two little lumps of clay s"
+743,"tuck
+awkwardly upon the breast indicate the coffin of a woman. Even in these
+last days of Egyptian civilisation, it was only the coarsest objects which
+were left of the natural hue of the baked clay. As of old, the surfaces
+were, as a rule, overlaid with a coat of colour, or with a richly gilded
+glaze.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 224.--Glass-blowers from Twelfth
+Dynasty tomb.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Parti-coloured glass vase, inscribed Thothmes
+III.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 226.--Part"
+744,"i-coloured glass vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 227.--Parti-coloured glass vase.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 228.--Parti-coloured glass goblets of Nesikhonsû.]
+
+Glass was known to the Egyptians from the remotest period, and glass-
+blowing is represented in tombs which date from some thousands of years
+before our era (fig. 224). The craftsman, seated before the furnace, takes
+up a small quantity of the fused substance upon the end of his cane and
+blows it circumspectly, taking care to keep i"
+745,"t in contact with the flame,
+so that it may not harden during the operation. Chemical analysis shows the
+constituent parts of Egyptian glass to have been nearly identical with our
+own; but it contains, besides silex, lime, alumina, and soda, a relatively
+large proportion of extraneous substances, as copper, oxide of iron, and
+oxide of manganese, which they apparently knew not how to eliminate. Hence
+Egyptian glass is scarcely ever colourless, but inclines to an uncertain
+shade of yell"
+746,"ow or green. Some ill-made pieces are so utterly decomposed
+that they flake away, or fall to iridescent dust, at the lightest touch.
+Others have suffered little from time or damp, but are streaky and full of
+bubbles. A few are, however, perfectly homogenous and limpid. Colourless
+glass was not esteemed by the Egyptians as it is by ourselves; whether
+opaque or transparent, they preferred it coloured. The dyes were obtained
+by mixing metallic oxides with the ordinary ingredients; that is"
+747," to say,
+copper and cobalt for the blues, copperas for the greens, manganese for the
+violets and browns, iron for the yellows, and lead or tin for the whites.
+One variety of red contains 30 per cent of bronze, and becomes coated with
+verdegris if exposed to damp. All this chemistry was empirical, and
+acquired by instinct. Finding the necessary elements at hand, or being
+supplied with them from a distance, they made use of them at hazard, and
+without being too certain of obtaining the "
+748,"effects they sought. Many of
+their most harmonious combinations were due to accident, and they could not
+reproduce them at will. The masses which they obtained by these
+unscientific means were nevertheless of very considerable dimensions. The
+classic authors tell of stelae, sarcophagi, and columns made in one piece.
+Ordinarily, however, glass was used only for small objects, and, above all,
+for counterfeiting precious stones. However cheaply they may have been sold
+in the Egyptian mar"
+749,"ket, these small objects were not accessible to all the
+world. The glass-workers imitated the emerald, jasper, lapis lazuli, and
+carnelian to such perfection that even now we are sometimes embarrassed to
+distinguish the real stones from the false. The glass was pressed into
+moulds made of stone or limestone cut to the forms required, as beads,
+discs, rings, pendants, rods, and plaques covered with figures of men and
+animals, gods and goddesses. Eyes and eyebrows for the faces of statue"
+750,"s in
+stone or bronze were likewise made of glass, as also bracelets. Glass was
+inserted into the hollows of incised hieroglyphs, and hieroglyphs were also
+cut out in glass. In this manner, whole inscriptions were composed, and let
+into wood, stone, or metal. The two mummy-cases which enclosed the body of
+Netemt, mother of the Pharaoh Herhor Seamen, are decorated in this style.
+Except the headdress of the effigy and some minor details, these cases are
+gilded all over; the texts and the"
+751," principal part of the ornamentation
+being formed of glass enamels, which stand out in brilliant contrast with
+the dead gold ground. Many Fayûm mummies were coated with plaster or
+stucco, the texts and religious designs, which are generally painted, being
+formed of glass enamels incrusted upon the surface of the plaster. Some of
+the largest subjects are made of pieces of glass joined together and
+retouched with the chisel, in imitation of bas-relief. Thus the face,
+hands, and feet of "
+752,"the goddess Ma are done in turquoise blue, her headdress
+in dark blue, her feather in alternate stripes of blue and yellow, and her
+raiment in deep red. Upon a wooden shrine recently discovered in the
+neighbourhood of Daphnae,[58] and upon a fragment of mummy-case in the
+Museum of Turin, the hieroglyphic forms of many-coloured glass are inlaid
+upon the sombre ground of the wood, the general effect being inconceivably
+rich and brilliant. Glass filigrees, engraved glass, cut glass, solde"
+753,"red
+glass, glass imitations of wood, of straw, and of string, were all known to
+the Egyptians of old. I have under my hand at this present moment a square
+rod formed of innumerable threads of coloured glass fused into one solid
+body, which gives the royal oval of one of the Amenemhats at the part where
+it is cut through. The design is carried through the whole length of the
+rod, and wherever that rod may be cut, the royal oval reappears.[59] One
+glass case in the Gizeh Museum is entir"
+754,"ely stocked with small objects in
+coloured glass. Here we see an ape on all fours, smelling some large fruit
+which lies upon the ground; yonder, a woman's head, front face, upon a
+white or green ground surrounded by a red border. Most of the plaques
+represent only rosettes, stars, and single flowers or posies. One of the
+smallest represents a black-and-white Apis walking, the work being so
+delicate that it loses none of its effect under the magnifying glass. The
+greater number of thes"
+755,"e objects date from, and after, the first Saïte
+dynasty; but excavations in Thebes and Tell el Amarna have proved that the
+manufacture of coloured glass prevailed in Egypt earlier than the tenth
+century before our era. At Kûrnet Murraee and Sheikh Abd el Gûrneh, there
+have been found, not only amulets for the use of the dead, such as
+colonnettes, hearts, mystic eyes, hippopotami walking erect, and ducks in
+pairs, done in parti-coloured pastes, blue, red, and yellow, but also vases
+of "
+756,"a type which we have been accustomed to regard as of Phoenician and
+Cypriote manufacture.[60] Here, for example, is a little aenochoe, of a
+light blue semi-opaque glass (fig. 225); the inscription in the name of
+Thothmes III., the ovals on the neck, and the palm-fronds on the body of
+the vase being in yellow. Here again is a lenticular phial, three and a
+quarter inches in height (fig. 226), the ground colour of a deep ocean
+blue, admirably pure and intense, upon which a fern-leaf patte"
+757,"rn in yellow
+stands out both boldly and delicately. A yellow thread runs round the rim,
+and two little handles of light green are attached to the neck. A miniature
+amphora of the same height (fig. 227) is of a dark, semi-transparent olive
+green. A zone of blue and yellow zigzags, bounded above and below by yellow
+bands, encircles the body of the vase at the part of its largest
+circumference. The handles are pale green, and the thread round the lip is
+pale blue. Princess Nesikhonsû had"
+758," beside her, in the vault at Deir el
+Baharî, some glass goblets of similar work. Seven were in whole colours,
+light green and blue; four were of black glass spotted with white; one only
+was decorated with many-coloured fronds arranged in two rows (fig. 228).
+The national glass works were therefore in full operation during the time
+of the great Theban dynasties. Huge piles of scoriae mixed with slag yet
+mark the spot where their furnaces were stationed at Tell el Amarna, the
+Ramesseum,"
+759," at El Kab, and at the Tell of Eshmûneyn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 229.--Hippopotamus in blue glaze.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Glazed ware from Thebes.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 231.--Glazed ware from Thebes.]
+
+The Egyptians also enamelled stone. One half at least of the scarabaei,
+cylinders, and amulets contained in our museums are of limestone or schist,
+covered with a coloured glaze. Doubtless the common clay seemed to them
+inappropriate to this kind of decoration, for they substitut"
+760,"ed in its place
+various sorts of earth--some white and sandy; another sort brown and fine,
+which they obtained by the pulverisation of a particular kind of limestone
+found in the neighbourhood of Keneh, Luxor, and Asûan; and a third sort,
+reddish in tone, and mixed with powdered sandstone and brick-dust. These
+various substances are known by the equally inexact names of Egyptian
+porcelain and Egyptian faïence. The oldest specimens, which are hardly
+glazed at all, are coated with an ex"
+761,"cessively thin slip. This vitreous
+matter has, however, generally settled into the hollows of the hieroglyphs
+or figures, where its lustre stands out in strong contrast with the dead
+surface of the surrounding parts. The colour most frequently in use under
+the ancient dynasties was green; but yellow, red, brown, violet, and blue
+were not disdained.[61] Blue predominated in the Theban factories from the
+earliest beginning of the Middle Empire. This blue was brilliant, yet
+tender, in im"
+762,"itation of turquoise or lapis lazuli. The Gizeh Museum
+formerly contained three hippopotamuses of this shade, discovered in the
+tomb of an Entef[62] at Drah Abû'l Neggeh[63] One was lying down, the two
+others were standing in the marshes, their bodies being covered by the
+potter with pen-and-ink sketches of reeds and lotus plants, amid which
+hover birds and butterflies (fig. 229). This was his naïve way of depicting
+the animal amid his natural surroundings. The blue is splendid, and we"
+763," must
+overleap twenty centuries before we again find so pure a colour among the
+funerary statuettes of Deir el Baharî. Green reappears under the Saïte
+dynasties, but paler than that of more ancient times, and it prevailed in
+the north of Egypt, at Memphis, Bubastis, and Sais, without entirely
+banishing the blue. The other colours before mentioned were in current use
+for not more than four or five centuries; that is to say, from the time of
+Ahmes I. to the time of the Ramessides. It wa"
+764,"s then, and only then, that
+_ûshabtiû_ of white or red glaze, rosettes and lotus flowers in yellow,
+red, and violet, and parti-coloured kohl-pots abounded. The potters of the
+time of Amenhotep III. affected greys and violets. The olive-shaped amulets
+which are inscribed with the names of this Pharaoh and the princesses of
+his family are decorated with pale blue hieroglyphs upon a delicate mauve
+ground. The vase of Queen Tii in the Gizeh collection is of grey and blue,
+with ornaments i"
+765,"n two colours round the neck. The fabrication of many-
+coloured enamels seems to have attained its greatest development under
+Khûenaten; at all events, it was at Tell el Amarna that I found the
+brightest and most delicately fashioned specimens, such as yellow, green,
+and violet rings, blue and white fleurettes, fish, lutes, figs, and bunches
+of grapes.[64] One little statuette of Horus has a red face and a blue
+body; a ring bezel bears the name of a king in violet upon a ground of
+lig"
+766,"ht blue. However restricted the space, the various colours are laid in
+with so sure a hand that they never run one into the other, but stand out
+separately and vividly. A vase to contain antimony powder, chased and
+mounted on a pierced stand, is glazed with reddish brown (fig. 230).
+Another, in the shape of a mitred hawk, is blue picked out with black
+spots. It belonged of old to Ahmes I. A third, hollowed out of the body of
+an energetic little hedgehog, is of a changeable green (fig. "
+767,"231). A
+Pharaoh's head in dead blue wears a _klaft_[65] with dark-blue stripes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 232.]
+
+Fine as these pieces are, the _chef-d'oeuvre_ of the series is a statuette
+of one Ptahmes, first Prophet of Amen, now in the Gizeh Museum. The
+hieroglyphic inscriptions as well as the details of the mummy bandages are
+chased in relief upon a white ground of admirable smoothness afterwards
+filled in with enamel. The face and hands are of turquoise blue; the head-
+dress is yell"
+768,"ow, with violet stripes; the hieroglyphic characters of the
+inscription, and the vulture with outspread wings upon the breast of the
+figure, are also violet. The whole is delicate, brilliant, and harmonious;
+not a flaw mars the purity of the contours or the clearness of the lines.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 233.--Interior decoration of cup, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 234.--Lenticular vase, glazed ware, Saïte.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 235.--Chamber decorated with tiles in step "
+769,"pyramid of
+Sakkarah.]
+
+Glazed pottery was common from the earliest times. Cups with a foot (fig.
+232), blue bowls, rounded at the bottom and decorated in black ink with
+mystic eyes, lotus flowers, fishes (fig. 233), and palm-leaves, date, as a
+rule, from the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, or Twentieth Dynasties. Lenticular
+ampullae coated with a greenish glaze, flanked by two crouching monkeys for
+handles, decorated along the edge with pearl or egg-shaped ornaments, and
+round the body with"
+770," elaborate collars (fig. 234), belong almost without
+exception to the reigns of Apries and Amasis.[66] Sistrum handles, saucers,
+drinking-cups in the form of a half-blown lotus, plates, dishes--in short,
+all vessels in common use--were required to be not only easy to keep clean,
+but pleasant to look upon. Did they carry their taste for enamelled ware so
+far as to cover the walls of their houses with glazed tiles? Upon this
+point we can pronounce neither affirmatively nor negatively; th"
+771,"e few
+examples of this kind of decoration which we possess being all from royal
+buildings. Upon a yellow brick, we have the family name and _Ka_ name of
+Pepi I.; upon a green brick, the name of Rameses III.; upon certain red and
+white fragments, the names of Seti I. and Sheshonk.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 236.--Tile from step pyramid of Sakkarah.]
+
+Up to the beginning of the present century, one of the chambers in the step
+pyramid at Sakkarah yet retained its mural decoration of glazed w"
+772,"are (fig.
+235). For three-fourths of the wall-surface it was covered with green
+tiles, oblong in shape, flat at the back, and slightly convex on the face
+(fig. 236). A square tenon, pierced through with a hole large enough to
+receive a wooden rod, served to fix them together in horizontal pyramid of
+rows.[67] The three rows which frame in the doorway are inscribed with the
+titles of an unclassed Pharaoh belonging to one of the first Memphite
+dynasties. The hieroglyphs are relieved in "
+773,"blue, red, green, and yellow,
+upon a tawny ground. Twenty centuries later, Rameses III. originated a new
+style at Tell el Yahûdeh. This time the question of ornamentation
+concerned, not a single chamber, but a whole temple. The mass of the
+building was of limestone and alabaster; but the pictorial subjects,
+instead of being sculptured according to custom, were of a kind of mosaic
+made with almost equal parts of stone tesserae and glazed ware.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 237.--Tile inlay, Te"
+774,"ll el Yahûdeh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 238.--Tile inlay, Tell el Yahûdeh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 239.--Inlaid tiles, Tell el Yahûdeh.]
+
+The most frequent item in the scheme of decoration was a roundel moulded of
+a sandy frit coated with blue or grey slip, upon which is a cream-coloured
+rosette (fig. 237). Some of these rosettes are framed in geometrical
+designs (fig. 238) or spider-web patterns; some represent open flowers. The
+central boss is in relief; the petals and tracery are enc"
+775,"rusted in the
+mass. These roundels, which are of various diameters ranging from three-
+eighths of an inch to four inches, were fixed to the walls by means of a
+very fine cement. They were used to form many different designs, as
+scrolls, foliage, and parallel fillets, such as may be seen on the foot of
+an altar and the base of a column preserved in the Gizeh Museum. The royal
+ovals were mostly in one piece; so also were the figures. The details,
+either incised or modelled upon the clay"
+776," before firing, were afterwards
+painted with such colours as might be suitable. The lotus flowers and
+leaves which were carried along the bottom of the walls or the length of
+the cornices, were, on the contrary, made up of independent pieces; each
+colour being a separate morsel cut to fit exactly into the pieces by which
+it was surrounded (fig. 239). This temple was rifled at the beginning of
+the present century, and some figures of prisoners brought thence have been
+in the Louvre col"
+777,"lection ever since the time of Champollion. All that
+remained of the building and its decoration was demolished a few years ago
+by certain dealers in antiquities, and the _débris_ are now dispersed in
+all directions. Mariette, though with great difficulty, recovered some of
+the more important fragments, such as the name of Rameses III., which dates
+the building; some borderings of lotus flowers and birds with human hands
+(fig. 240); and some heads of Asiatics and negro prisoners (fig. "
+778,"241).[68]
+The destruction of this monument is the more grievous because the Egyptians
+cannot have constructed many after the same type. Glazed bricks, painted
+tiles, and enamelled mosaics are readily injured; and in the judgment of a
+people enamoured of stability and eternity, that would be the gravest of
+radical defects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 240.--Relief tile, Tell el Yahûdeh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 241.--Relief tile, Tell el Yahûdeh.]
+
+
+[55] Works on scarabaei are the Palin coll"
+779,"ection, published in 1828; Mr.
+    Loftie's charming _Essay of Scarabs_, which is in fact a
+    catalogue of his own specimens, admirably illustrated from drawings by
+    Mr. W.M.F. Petrie; and Mr. Petrie's _Historical Scarabs_,
+    published 1889.--A.B.E.
+
+[56] These twin vases are still made at Asûan. I bought a small specimen
+    there in 1874.--A.B.E.
+
+[57] The sepulchral vases commonly called ""canopic"" were four in number,
+    and contained the embalmed viscera of the mummy. T"
+780,"he lids of these
+    vases were fashioned to represent the heads of the four genii of
+    Amenti, Hapi, Tûatmûtf, Kebhsennef, and Amset; i.e. the
+    Ape-head, the Jackal-head, the Hawk-head, and the human head.--A.B.E.
+
+[58] The remains of this shrine, together with many hundreds of beautiful
+    glass hieroglyphs, figures, emblems, etc., for inlaying, besides
+    moulds and other items of the glassworker's stock, were discovered by
+    Mr. F. Ll. Griffith at Tell Gemayemi, about eq"
+781,"uidistant from the
+    mounds of Tanis and Daphnae (Sân and Defenneh) in March 1886. For a
+    fuller account see Mr. Griffith's report, ""_The Antiquities of Tell
+    el Yahudîyeh,"" in Seventh Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund_.
+    --A.B.E.
+
+[59] Some of these beautiful rods were also found at Tell Gemayemi by Mr.
+    F. Ll. Griffith, and in such sound condition that it was possible to
+    cut them in thin slices, for distribution among various museums.--
+    A.B.E.
+
+[60] That"
+782," is, of the kind known as the ""false murrhine.""--A.B.E.
+
+[61] The yellows and browns are frequently altered greens.--A.B.E.
+
+[62] One of the Eleventh Dynasty kings.
+
+[63] There is a fine specimen at the Louvre, and another in the museum at
+    Leydeu.--A.B.E.
+
+[64] For an account of every stage and detail in the glass and glaze
+    manufactures of Tell el Amarna, see W.M.F. Petrie's _Tell el
+    Amarna_.
+
+[65] _Klaft, i.e._, a headdress of folded linen. The beautiful
+    little"
+783," head here referred to is in the Gizeh Museum, and is a portrait
+    of the Pharaoh Necho.--A.B.E.
+
+[66] _Apries_, in Egyptian ""Uahabra,"" the biblical ""Hophra;""
+    _Amasis_, Ahmes II.; both of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty.--A.B.E.
+
+[67] Some specimens of these tiles may be seen in the Egyptian department
+    at the British Museum.--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+2.--WOOD, IVORY, LEATHER, AND TEXTILE FABRICS.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 242.--Spoon.]
+
+Objects in ivory, bone, and horn are among the rarities"
+784," of our museums; but
+we must not for this reason conclude that the Egyptians did not make ample
+use of those substances. Horn is perishable, and is eagerly devoured by
+certain insects, which rapidly destroy it. Bone and ivory soon deteriorate
+and become friable. The elephant was known to the Egyptians from the
+remotest period. They may, perhaps, have found it inhabiting the Thebaid
+when first they established themselves in that part of the Nile Valley, for
+as early as the Fifth Dynast"
+785,"y we find the pictured form of the elephant in
+use as the hieroglyphic name of the island of Elephantine. Ivory in tusks
+and half tusks was imported into Egypt from the regions of the Upper Nile.
+It was sometimes dyed green or red, but was more generally left of its
+natural colour. It was largely employed by cabinet makers for inlaying
+furniture, as chairs, bedsteads, and coffers. Combs, dice, hair-pins,
+toilette ornaments, delicately wrought spoons (fig. 242), Kohl bottles
+hollowed o"
+786,"ut of a miniature column surmounted by a capital, incense-burners
+in the shape of a hand supporting a bronze cup in which the perfumes were
+burned, and boomerangs engraved with figures of gods and fantastic animals,
+were also made of ivory. Some of these objects are works of fine art; as
+for instance at Gizeh, a poignard-handle in the form of a lion; the plaques
+in bas-relief which adorn the draught-box of one Tûaï, who lived towards
+the end of the Seventeenth Dynasty; a Fifth Dynasty "
+787,"figure, unfortunately
+mutilated, which yet retains traces of rose colour; and a miniature statue
+of Abi, who died at the time of the Thirteenth Dynasty. This little
+personage, perched on the top of a lotus-flower column, looks straight
+before him with a majestic air which contrasts somewhat comically with the
+size and prominence of his ears. The modelling of the figure is broad and
+spirited, and will bear comparison with good Italian ivories of the
+Renaissance period.
+
+[Illustration"
+788,": Fig. 243.--Wooden statuette of officer, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 244.--Wooden statuette of priest, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 245.--Wooden statuette of the Lady Naï.]
+
+Egypt produces few trees, and of these few the greater number are useless
+to the sculptor. The two which most abound--namely, the date palm and the
+dôm palm--are of too coarse a fibre for carving, and are too unequal in
+texture. Some varieties of the sycamore and acacia are the only t"
+789,"rees of
+which the grain is sufficiently fine and manageable to be wrought with the
+chisel. Wood was, nevertheless, a favourite material for cheap and rapid
+work. It was even employed at times for subjects of importance, such as Ka
+statues; and the Wooden Man of Gizeh shows with what boldness and amplitude
+of style it could be treated. But the blocks and beams which the Egyptians
+had at command were seldom large enough for a statue. The Wooden Man
+himself, though but half life-size, co"
+790,"nsists of a number of pieces held
+together by square pegs. Hence, wood-carvers were wont to treat their
+subjects upon such a scale as admitted of their being cut in one block, and
+the statues of olden time became statuettes under the Theban dynasties. Art
+lost nothing by the reduction, and more than one of these little figures is
+comparable to the finest works of the ancient empire. The best, perhaps, is
+at the Turin Museum, and dates from the Twentieth Dynasty. It represents a
+young "
+791,"girl whose only garment is a slender girdle. She is of that
+indefinite age when the undeveloped form is almost as much like that of a
+boy as of a girl. The expression of the head is gentle, yet saucy. It is,
+in fact, across thirty centuries of time, a portrait of one of those
+graceful little maidens of Elephantine, who, without immodesty or
+embarrassment, walk unclothed in sight of strangers. Three little wooden
+men in the Gizeh Museum are probably contemporaries of the Turin figure.
+"
+792,"They wear full dress, as, indeed, they should, for one was a king's
+favourite named Hori, and surnamed Ra. They are walking with calm and
+measured tread, the bust thrown forward, and the head high. The expression
+upon their faces is knowing, and somewhat sly. An officer who has retired
+on half-pay at the Louvre (fig. 243) wears an undress uniform of the time
+of Amenhotep III.; that is to say, a small wig, a close-fitting vest with
+short sleeves, and a kilt drawn tightly over the hips, "
+793,"reaching scarcely
+half-way down the thigh, and trimmed in front with a piece of puffing
+plaited longwise. His companion is a priest (fig. 244), who wears his hair
+in rows of little curls one above the other, and is clad in a long
+petticoat falling below the calf of the leg and spreading out in front in a
+kind of plaited apron. He holds a sacred standard consisting of a stout
+staff surmounted by a ram's head crowned with the solar disc. Both officer
+and priest are painted red brown, wi"
+794,"th the exception of the hair, which is
+black; the cornea of the eyes, which is white; and the standard, which is
+yellow. Curiously enough, the little lady Naï, who inhabits the same glass
+case, is also painted reddish brown, instead of buff, which was the
+canonical colour for women (fig. 245). She is taken in a close-fitting
+garment trimmed down the front with a band of white embroidery. Round her
+neck she wears a necklace consisting of a triple row of gold pendants. Two
+golden bracel"
+795,"ets adorn her wrists, and on her head she carries a wig with
+long curls. The right arm hangs by her side, the hand holding some object
+now lost, which was probably a mirror. The left arm is raised, and with the
+left hand she presses a lotus lily to her breast. The body is easy and well
+formed, the figure indicates youth, the face is open, smiling, pleasant,
+and somewhat plebeian. To modify the unwieldy mass of the headdress was
+beyond the skill of the artist, but the bust is delicately"
+796," and elegantly
+modelled, the clinging garment gives discreet emphasis to the shape, and
+the action of the hand which holds the flower is rendered with grace and
+naturalness. All these are portraits, and as the sitters were not persons
+of august rank, we may conclude that they did not employ the most
+fashionable artists. They, doubtless, had recourse to more unpretending
+craftsmen; but that such craftsmen were thus highly trained in knowledge of
+form and accuracy of execution, shows ho"
+797,"w strongly even the artisan was
+influenced by the great school of sculpture which then flourished at
+Thebes.
+
+This influence becomes even more apparent when we study the knick-knacks of
+the toilet table, and such small objects as, properly speaking, come under
+the head of furniture. To pass in review the hundred and one little
+articles of female ornament or luxury to which the fancy of the designer
+gave all kinds of ingenious and novel forms, would be no light task. The
+handles of m"
+798,"irrors, for instance, generally represented a stem of lotus or
+papyrus surmounted by a full-blown flower, from the midst of which rose a
+disk of polished metal. For this design is sometimes substituted the figure
+of a young girl, either nude, or clad in a close-fitting garment, who holds
+the mirror on her head. The tops of hair-pins were carved in the semblance
+of a coiled serpent, or of the head of a jackal, a dog, or a hawk. The pin-
+cushion in which they are placed is a hedgehog or "
+799,"a tortoise, with holes
+pierced in a formal pattern upon the back. The head-rests, which served for
+pillows, were decorated with bas-reliefs of subjects derived from the myths
+of Bes and Sekhet, the grimacing features of the former deity being carved
+on the ends or on the base. But it is in the carving of perfume-spoons and
+kohl-bottles that the inventive skill of the craftsman is most brilliantly
+displayed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 246.--Spoon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 247.--Spoon.]
+
+[I"
+800,"llustration: Fib. 248.--Spoon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 249.--Spoon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 250.--Spoon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 251.--Spoon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 252.--Spoon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 253.--Spoon.]
+
+Not to soil their fingers the Egyptians made use of spoons for essences,
+pomades, and the variously-coloured preparations with which both men and
+women stained their cheeks, lips, eyelids, nails, and palms. The designer
+generally borrowed his subjects from the fauna or flo"
+801,"ra of the Nile valley.
+A little case at Gizeh is carved in the shape of a couchant calf, the body
+being hollowed out, and the head and back forming a removable lid. A spoon
+in the same collection represents a dog running away with an enormous fish
+in his mouth (fig. 246), the body of the fish forming the bowl of the
+spoon. Another shows a cartouche springing from a full-blown lotus;
+another, a lotus fruit laid upon a bouquet of flowers (fig. 247); and here
+is a simple triangular bowl,"
+802," the handle decorated with a stem and two buds
+(fig. 248). The most elaborate specimens combine these subjects with the
+human figure. A young girl, clad in a mere girdle, is represented in the
+act of swimming (fig. 249). Her head is well lifted above the water, and
+her outstretched arms support a duck, the body of which is hollowed out,
+while the wings, being movable, serve as a cover. We have also a young girl
+in the Louvre collection, but she stands in a maze of lotus plants (fig.
+2"
+803,"50), and is in the act of gathering a bud. A bunch of stems, from which
+emerge two full-blown blossoms, unites the handle to the bowl of the spoon,
+which is in reverse position, the larger end being turned outwards and the
+point inwards. Elsewhere, a young girl (fig. 251) playing upon a long-
+necked lute as she trips along, is framed in by two flowering stems.
+Sometimes the fair musician is standing upright in a tiny skiff (fig. 252);
+and sometimes a girl bearing offerings is substitut"
+804,"ed for the lute player.
+Another example represents a slave toiling under the weight of an enormous
+sack. The age and physiognomy of each of these personages is clearly
+indicated. The lotus gatherer is of good birth, as may be seen by her
+carefully plaited hair and tunic. The Theban ladies wore long robes; but
+this damsel has gathered up her skirts that she may thread her way among
+the reeds without wetting her garments. The two musicians and the swimming
+girl belong, on the contrary, "
+805,"to an inferior, or servile, class. Two of
+them wear only a girdle, and the third has a short garment negligently
+fastened. The bearer of offerings (fig. 253) wears the long pendent tresses
+distinctive of childhood, and is one of those slender, growing girls of the
+fellahîn class whom one sees in such numbers on the banks of the Nile. Her
+lack of clothing is, however, no evidence of want of birth, for not even
+the children of nobility were wont to put on the garments of their sex
+befor"
+806,"e the period of adolescence. Lastly, the slave (fig. 254), with his
+thick lips, his high shoulders, his flat nose, his heavy, animal jaw, his
+low brow, and his bare, conical head, is evidently a caricature of some
+foreign prisoner. The dogged sullenness with which he trudges under his
+burden is admirably caught, while the angularities of the body, the type of
+the head, and the general arrangement of the parts, remind one of the
+terra-cotta grotesques of Asia Minor. In these subjects, a"
+807,"ll the minor
+details, the fruits, the flowers, the various kinds of birds, are rendered
+with much truth and cleverness. Of the three ducks which are tied by the
+feet and slung over the arms of the girl bearing offerings, two are
+resigned to their fate, and hang swinging with open eyes and outstretched
+necks; but the third flaps her wings and lifts her head protestingly. The
+two small water-fowl perched upon the lotus flowers listen placidly to the
+lute-player's music, their beaks rest"
+808,"ing on their crops. They have learned
+by experience not to put themselves out of the way for a song, and they
+know that there is nothing to fear from a young girl, unless she is armed.
+They are put to flight in the bas-reliefs by the mere sight of a bow and
+arrows, just as a company of rooks is put to flight nowadays by the sight
+of a gun. The Egyptians were especially familiar with the ways of animals
+and birds, and reproduced them with marvellous exactness. The habit of
+minutely obs"
+809,"erving minor facts became instinctive, and it informed their
+most trifling works with that air of reality which strikes us so forcibly
+at the present day.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 254.--Spoon.]
+
+Household furniture was no more abundant in ancient Egypt than it is in the
+Egypt of to-day. In the time of the Twelfth Dynasty an ordinary house
+contained no bedsteads, but low frameworks like the Nubian _angareb_; or
+mats rolled up by day on which the owners lay down at night in their
+clothes"
+810,", pillowing their heads on earthenware, stone, or wooden head-rests.
+There were also two or three simple stone seats, some wooden chairs or
+stools with carved legs, chests and boxes of various sizes for clothes and
+tools, and a few common vessels of pottery or bronze. For making fire there
+were fire-sticks, and the bow-drill for using them (figs. 255 and 181);
+children's toys were even then found in great variety though of somewhat
+quaint construction. There were dolls with wigs and mo"
+811,"vable limbs, made in
+stone, pottery, and wood (fig. 256); figures of men, and animals, and
+terra-cotta boats, balls of wood and stuffed leather, whip-tops, and tip-
+cats (fig. 257).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 255.--Fire-sticks, bow, and unfinished drill-stock,
+Twelfth Dynasty; _Illahûn, Kahun, and Gurob,_ W.M.F. Petrie, Plate VII., p.
+11.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 256.--Remains of two Twelfth Dynasty dolls; _Kahun,
+Gurob and Hawara,_ W.M.F. Petrie, Plate VIII. p. 30.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. "
+812,"257.--Tops, tip-cat, and a terra-cotta toy boat,
+Twelfth Dynasty; _Kahun, Gurob, and Hawara,_ W.M.F. Petrie, Plates VIII.,
+IX., p. 30.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 258.--Chest]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 259.--Chest.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 260.--Chest.]
+
+The art of the cabinet-maker was nevertheless carried to a high degree of
+perfection, from the time of the ancient dynasties. Planks were dressed
+down with the adze, mortised, glued, joined together by means of pegs cut
+in hard wood, or acaci"
+813,"a thorns (never by metal nails), polished, and
+finally covered with paintings. Chests generally stand upon four straight
+legs, and are occasionally thus raised to some height from the ground. The
+lid is flat, or rounded according to a special curvature (fig. 258) much in
+favour among the Egyptians of all periods. Sometimes, though rarely, it is
+gable-shaped, like our house-roofs (fig. 259). Generally speaking, the lid
+lifts off bodily; but it often turns upon a peg inserted in one of t"
+814,"he
+uprights. Sometimes, also, it turns upon wooden pivots (fig. 260). The
+panels, which are large and admirably suited for decorative art, are
+enriched with paintings, or inlaid with ivory, silver, precious woods, or
+enamelled plaques. It may be that we are scarcely in a position justly to
+appraise the skill of Egyptian cabinet-makers, or the variety of designs
+produced at various periods. Nearly all the furniture which has come down
+to our day has been found in tombs, and, being dest"
+815,"ined for burial in the
+sepulchre, may either be of a character exclusively destined for the use of
+the mummy, or possibly a cheap imitation of a more precious class of
+goods.
+
+The mummy was, in fact, the cabinet-maker's best customer. In other lands,
+man took but a few objects with him into the next world; but the defunct
+Egyptian required nothing short of a complete outfit. The mummy-case alone
+was an actual monument, in the construction of which a whole squad of
+workmen was employ"
+816,"ed (fig. 261). The styles of mummy-cases varied from
+period to period. Under the Memphite and first Theban empires, we find only
+rectangular chests in sycamore wood, flat at top and bottom, and made of
+many pieces joined together by wooden pins. The pattern is not elegant, but
+the decoration is very curious. The lid has no cornice. Outside, it is
+inscribed down the middle with a long column of hieroglyphs, sometimes
+merely written in ink, sometimes laid on in colour, sometimes carved i"
+817,"n
+hollowed-out signs filled in with some kind of bluish paste. The
+inscription records only the name and titles of the deceased, accompanied
+now and then by a short form of prayer in his favour. The inside is covered
+with a thick coat of stucco or whitewash.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 261.--Construction of a mummy-case, wall scene,
+Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 262.--Mask of Twenty-first Dynasty coffin of Rameses
+II.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 263.--Mummy-case of Queen Ahmesnefe"
+818,"rtari.]
+
+Upon this surface, the seventeenth chapter of _The Book of the Dead _was
+generally written in red and black inks, and in fine cursive hieroglyphs.
+The body of the chest is made with three horizontal planks for the bottom,
+and eight vertical planks, placed two and two, for the four sides. The
+outside is sometimes decorated with long strips of various colours ending
+in interlaced lotus-leaves, such as are seen on stone sarcophagi. More
+frequently, it is ornamented on the left "
+819,"side with two wide-open eyes and
+two monumental doors, and on the right with three doors exactly like those
+seen in contemporary catacombs. The sarcophagus is in truth the house of
+the deceased; and, being his house, its four walls were bound to contain an
+epitome of the prayers and _tableaux_ which covered the walls of his tomb.
+The necessary formulae and pictured scenes were, therefore, reproduced
+inside, nearly in the same order in which they appear in the mastabas. Each
+side is di"
+820,"vided in three registers, each register containing a dedication
+in the name of the deceased, or representations of objects belonging to
+him, or such texts from the Ritual as need to be repeated for his benefit.
+Skilfully composed, and painted upon a background made to imitate some
+precious wood, the whole forms a boldly-designed and harmoniously-coloured
+picture. The cabinet-maker's share of the work was the lightest, and the
+long boxes in which the dead of the earliest period were bur"
+821,"ied made no
+great demand upon his skill. This, however, was not the case when in later
+times the sarcophagus came to be fashioned in the likeness of the human
+body. Of this style we have two leading types. In the most ancient, the
+mummy serves as the model for his case. His outstretched feet and legs are
+in one. The form of the knee, the swell of the calf, the contours of the
+thigh and the trunk, are summarily indicated, and are, as it were, vaguely
+modelled under the wood. The head, "
+822,"apparently the only living part of this
+inert body, is wrought out in the round. The dead man is in this wise
+imprisoned in a kind of statue of himself; and this statue is so well
+balanced that it can stand on its feet if required, as upon a pedestal. In
+the other type of sarcophagus, the deceased lies at full length upon his
+tomb, and his figure, sculptured in the round, serves as the lid of his
+mummy-case. On his head is seen the ponderous wig of the period. A white
+linen vest and a"
+823," long petticoat cover his chest and legs. His feet are shod
+with elegant sandals. His arms lie straight along his sides, or are folded
+upon his breast, the hands grasping various emblems, as the _Ankh_, the
+girdle-buckle, the _Tat_;[69] or, as in the case of the wife of Sennetmû at
+Gizeh, a garland of ivy. This mummiform type of sarcophagus is rarely met
+with under the Memphite dynasties, though that of Menkara, the Mycerinus of
+the Greeks, affords a memorable example. Under the Eleven"
+824,"th Dynasty, the
+mummy-case is frequently but a hollowed tree-trunk, roughly sculptured
+outside, with a head at one end and feet at the other. The face is daubed
+with bright colours, yellow, red, and green; the wig and headdress are
+striped with black and blue, and an elaborate collar is depicted on the
+breast. The rest of the case is either covered with the long, gilded wings
+of Isis and Nephthys, or with a uniform tint of white or yellow, and
+sparsely decorated with symbolic figures,"
+825," or columns of hieroglyphs painted
+blue and black. Among the sarcophagi belonging to kings of the Seventeenth
+Dynasty which I recovered from Deir el Baharî, the most highly finished
+belonged to this type, and were only remarkable for the really
+extraordinary skill with which the craftsman had reproduced the features of
+the deceased sovereigns. The mask of Ahmes I., that of Amenhotep I., and
+that of Thothmes II., are masterpieces in their way. The mask of Rameses
+II. shows no sign of p"
+826,"aint, except a black line which accentuates the form
+of the eye. The face is doubtless modelled in the likeness of the Pharaoh
+Herhor, who restored the funerary outfit of his puissant ancestor, and it
+will almost bear comparison with the best works of contemporary sculpture
+(fig. 262). Two mummy-cases found in the same place--namely, those of Queen
+Ahmesnefertari and her daughter, Aahhotep II.--are of gigantic size, and
+measure more than ten and a half feet in height (fig. 263). Standi"
+827,"ng
+upright, they might almost be taken for two of the caryatid statues from
+the first court at Medinet Habû, though on a smaller scale. The bodies are
+represented as bandaged, and but vaguely indicate the contours of the human
+form. The shoulders and bust of each are covered with a kind of network in
+relief, every mesh standing out in blue upon a yellow ground. The hands
+emerge from this mantle, are crossed upon the breast, and grasp the _Ankh_,
+or Tau-cross, symbolic of eternal life."
+828," The heads are portraits. The faces
+are round, the eyes large, the expression mild and characterless. Each is
+crowned with the flat-topped cap and lofty plumes of Amen or Maut. We
+cannot but wonder for what reason these huge receptacles were made. The two
+queens were small of stature, and their mummies--which were well-nigh lost
+in the cases--had to be packed round with an immense quantity of rags, to
+prevent them from shifting, and becoming injured. Apart from their abnormal
+size, th"
+829,"ese cases are characterised by the same simplicity which
+distinguishes other mummy-cases of royal or private persons of the same
+period. Towards the middle of the Nineteenth Dynasty, the fashion changed.
+The single mummy-case, soberly decorated, was superseded by two, three, and
+even four cases, fitting the one into the other, and covered with paintings
+and inscriptions. Sometimes the outer receptacle is a sarcophagus with
+convex lid and square ears, upon which the deceased is pictured"
+830," over and
+over again upon a white ground, in adoration before the gods of the Osirian
+cycle. When, however, it is shaped in human form, it retains somewhat of
+the old simplicity. The face is painted; a collar is represented on the
+chest, a band of hieroglyphs extends down the whole length of the body to
+the feet, and the rest is in one uniform tone of black, brown, or dark
+yellow. The inner cases were extravagantly rich, the hands and faces being
+red, rose-coloured, or gilded; the jew"
+831,"ellery painted, or sometimes imitated
+by means of small morsels of enamel encrusted in the wood-work; the
+surfaces frequently covered with many-coloured scenes and legends, and the
+whole heightened by means of the yellow varnish already mentioned. The
+lavish ornamentation of this period is in striking contrast with the
+sobriety of earlier times; but in order to grasp the reason of this
+change, one must go to Thebes, and visit the actual sepulchres of the dead.
+The kings and private pe"
+832,"rsons of the great conquering dynasties[70] devoted
+their energies, and all the means at their disposal, to the excavation of
+catacombs. The walls of those catacombs were covered with sculptures and
+paintings. The sarcophagus was cut in one enormous block of granite or
+alabaster, and admirably wrought. It was therefore of little moment if the
+wooden coffin in which the mummy reposed were very simply decorated. But
+the Egyptians of the decadence, and their rulers, had not the wealth of
"
+833,"
+Egypt and the spoils of neighbouring countries at command. They were poor;
+and the slenderness of their resources debarred them from great
+undertakings. They for the most part gave up the preparation of magnificent
+tombs, and employed such wealth as remained to them in the fabrication of
+fine mummy-cases carved in sycamore wood. The beauty of their coffins,
+therefore, but affords an additional proof of their weakness and poverty.
+When for a few centuries the Saïte princes had succeede"
+834,"d in re-establishing
+the prosperity of the country, stone sarcophagi came once more into
+requisition, and the wooden coffin reverted to somewhat of the simplicity
+of the great period. But this Renaissance was not destined to last. The
+Macedonian conquest brought back the same revolution in funerary fashions
+which followed the fall of the Ramessides, and double and triple mummy
+cases, over-painted and over-gilded, were again in demand. If the
+craftsmen of Graeco-Roman time who attired "
+835,"the dead of Ekhmîm for their
+last resting places were less skilful than those of earlier date, their bad
+taste was, at all events, not surpassed by the Theban coffin-makers who
+lived and worked under the latest princes of the royal line of Rameses.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 264.--Panel portrait from the Graeco-Roman Cemetery at
+Hawara, now in the National Gallery, London. (_Hawara, Biahmu, and
+Arsinoe_, W.M.F. Petrie, Plate X., page 10.)]
+
+A series of Graeco-Roman examples from the Fayûm"
+836," exhibit the stages by
+which portraiture in the flat there replaced the modelled mask, until
+towards the middle of the second century A.D. it became customary to
+bandage over the face of the mummy a panel-portrait of the dead, as he was
+in life (fig. 264).
+
+The remainder of the funerary outfit supplied the cabinet-maker with as
+much work as the coffin-maker. Boxes of various shapes and sizes were
+required for the wardrobe of the mummy, for his viscera, and for his
+funerary statuette"
+837,"s. He must also have tables for his meals; stools,
+chairs, a bed to lie upon, a boat and sledge to convey him to the tomb, and
+sometimes even a war-chariot and a carriage in which to take the air.[71]
+The boxes for canopic vases, funerary statuettes, and libation-vases, are
+divided in several compartments. A couchant jackal is sometimes placed on
+the top, and serves for a handle by which to take off the lid. Each box was
+provided with its own little sledge, upon which it was drawn in t"
+838,"he funeral
+procession on the day of burial. Beds are not very uncommon. Many are
+identical in structure with the Nubian _angarebs_, and consist merely of
+some coarse fabric, or of interlaced strips of leather, stretched on a
+plain wooden frame. Few exceed fifty-six inches in length; the sleeper,
+therefore, could never lie outstretched, but must perforce assume a
+doubled-up position. The frame is generally horizontal, but sometimes it
+slopes slightly downwards from the head to the foot"
+839,". It was often raised to
+a considerable height above the level of the floor, and a stool, or a
+little portable set of steps, was used in mounting it. These details were
+known to us by the wall-paintings only until I myself discovered two
+perfect specimens in 1884 and 1885; one at Thebes, in a tomb of the
+Thirteenth Dynasty, and the other at Ekhmîm, in the Graeco-Roman
+necropolis. In the former, two accommodating lions have elongated their
+bodies to form the framework, their heads doin"
+840,"g duty for the head of the
+bed, and their tails being curled up under the feet of the sleeper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 265.--Carved and painted mummy canopy.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 266.--Canopied mummy-couch, Graeco-Roman.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 267.--Mummy-sledge and canopy.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 268.--Inlaid-chair, Eleventh Dynasty.]
+
+The bed is surmounted by a kind of canopy, under which the mummy lay in
+state. Rhind had already found a similar canopy, which is now in the Museum
+o"
+841,"f Edinburgh[72] (fig. 265). In shape it is a temple, the rounded roof
+being supported by elegant colonnettes of painted wood. A doorway guarded
+by serpents is supposed to give access to the miniature edifice. Three
+winged discs, each larger than the one below it, adorn three superimposed
+cornices above the door, the whole frontage being surmounted by a row of
+erect uraei, crowned with the solar disc. The canopy belonging to the
+Thirteenth Dynasty bed is much more simple, being a mere b"
+842,"alustrade in cut
+and painted wood, in imitation of the water-plant pattern with which temple
+walls were decorated; the whole is crowned with an ordinary cornice. In the
+bed of Graeco-Roman date (fig. 266), carved and painted figures of the
+goddess Ma, sitting with her feather on her knee, are substituted for the
+customary balustrades. Isis and Nephthys stand with their winged arms
+outstretched at the head and foot. The roof is open, save for a row of
+vultures hovering above the mummy,"
+843," which is wept over by two kneeling
+statuettes of Isis and Nephthys, one at each end. The sledges upon which
+mummies were dragged to the sepulchre were also furnished with canopies,
+but in a totally different style. The sledge canopy is a panelled shrine,
+like those which I discovered in 1886, in the tomb of Sennetmû at Kûrnet
+Murraee. If light was admitted, it came through a square opening, showing
+the head of the mummy within. Wilkinson gives an illustration of a sledge
+canopy of th"
+844,"is kind, from the wall paintings of a Theban tomb (fig. 267).
+The panels were always made to slide. As soon as the mummy was laid upon
+his sledge, the panels were closed, the corniced roof placed over all, and
+the whole closed in. With regard to chairs, many of those in the Louvre and
+the British Museum were made about the time of the Eleventh Dynasty. These
+are not the least beautiful specimens which have come down to us, one in
+particular (fig. 268) having preserved an extraordinary "
+845,"brilliancy of
+colour. The framework, formerly fitted with a seat of strong netting, was
+originally supported on four legs with lions' feet. The back is ornamented
+with two lotus flowers, and with a row of lozenges inlaid in ivory and
+ebony upon a red ground. Stools of similar workmanship (fig. 269), and
+folding stools, the feet of which are in the form of a goose's head, may be
+seen in all museums. Pharaohs and persons of high rank affected more
+elaborate designs. Their seats were som"
+846,"etimes raised very high, the arms
+being carved to resemble running lions, and the lower supports being
+prisoners of war, bound back to back (fig. 270). A foot-board in front
+served as a step to mount by, and as a foot-stool for the sitter. Up to the
+present time, we have found no specimens of this kind of seat.[73]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 269.--Inlaid stool, Eleventh Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 270.--Royal throne-chair, wall-painting Rameses III.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 271.--Women w"
+847,"eaving. From wall-scene in tomb of
+Khnûmhotep, Beni Hasan, Twelfth Dynasty.]
+
+We learn from the tomb paintings that netted or cane-bottomed chairs were
+covered with stuffed seats and richly worked cushions. These cushions and
+stuffed seats have perished, but it is to be concluded that they were
+covered with tapestry. Tapestry was undoubtedly known to the Egyptians, and
+a bas-relief subject at Beni Hasan (fig. 271)[74] shows the process of
+weaving. The frame, which is of the simplest "
+848,"structure, resembles that now
+in use among the weavers of Ekhmîm. It is horizontal, and is formed of two
+slender cylinders, or rather of two rods, about fifty-four inches apart,
+each held in place by two large pegs driven into the ground about three
+feet distant from each other. The warps of the chain were strongly
+fastened, then rolled round the top cylinder till they were stretched
+sufficiently tight. Mill sticks placed at certain distances facilitated the
+insertion of the needles w"
+849,"hich carried the thread. As in the Gobelins
+factory, the work was begun from the bottom. The texture was regulated and
+equalised by means of a coarse comb, and was rolled upon the lower cylinder
+as it increased in length. Hangings and carpets were woven in this manner;
+some with figures, others with geometrical designs, zigzags, and chequers
+(fig. 272). A careful examination of the monuments has, however, convinced
+me that most of the subjects hitherto supposed to represent examples of"
+850,"
+tapestry represent, in fact, examples of cut and painted leather. The
+leather-worker's craft flourished in ancient Egypt. Few museums are without
+a pair of leather sandals, or a specimen of mummy braces with ends of
+stamped leather bearing the effigy of a god, a Pharaoh, a hieroglyphic
+legend, a rosette, or perhaps all combined. These little relics are not
+older than the time of the priest-kings, or the earlier Bubastites. It is
+to the same period that we must attribute the great cut"
+851,"-leather canopy in
+the Gizeh Museum. The catafalque upon which the mummy was laid when
+transported from the mortuary establishment to the tomb, was frequently
+adorned with a covering made of stuff or soft leather. Sometimes the
+sidepieces hung down, and sometimes they were drawn aside with bands, like
+curtains, and showed the coffin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 272.--Man weaving hangings, or carpet. From Beni Hasan,
+Twelfth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 273.--Border pattern of cut leathe"
+852,"r canopy of
+Isiemkheb, Twenty-first Dynasty.]
+
+The canopy of Deir el Baharî was made for the Princess Isiemkheb, daughter
+of the High Priest Masahirti, wife of the High Priest Menkheperra, and
+mother of the High Priest Pinotem III. The centrepiece, in shape an oblong
+square, is divided into three bands of sky-blue leather, now faded to
+pearl-grey. The two side-pieces are sprinkled with yellow stars. Upon the
+middle piece are rows of vultures, whose outspread wings protect the mummy.
"
+853,"
+Four other pieces covered with red and green chequers are attached to the
+ends and sides. The longer pieces which hung over the sides are united to
+the centre-piece by an ornamental bordering. On the right, scarabaei with
+extended wings alternate with the cartouches of King Pinotem II., and are
+surmounted by a lance-head frieze. On the left side, the pattern is more
+complicated (fig. 273). In the centre we see a bunch of lotus lilies
+flanked by royal cartouches. Next come two antelope"
+854,"s, each kneeling upon a
+basket; then two bouquets of papyrus; then two more scarabaei, similar to
+those upon the other border. The lance-head frieze finishes it above, as on
+the opposite side. The technical process is very curious. The hieroglyphs
+and figures were cut out from large pieces of leather; then, under the open
+spaces thus left, were sewn thongs of leather of whatever colour was
+required for those ornaments or hieroglyphs. Finally, in order to hide the
+patchwork effect pres"
+855,"ented at the back, the whole was lined with long
+strips of white, or light yellow, leather. Despite the difficulties of
+treatment which this work presented, the result is most remarkable.[75] The
+outlines of the gazelles, scarabaei, and flowers are as clean-cut and as
+elegant as if drawn with the pen upon a wall-surface or a page of papyrus.
+The choice of subjects is happy, and the colours employed are both lively
+and harmonious.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 274.--Bark with cut leather sail;"
+856," wall-painting tomb of
+Rameses III.]
+
+The craftsmen who designed and executed the canopy of Isiemkheb had
+profited by a long experience of this system of decoration, and of the kind
+of patterns suitable to the material. For my own part, I have not the
+slightest doubt that the cushions of chairs and royal couches, and the
+sails of funeral and sacred boats used for the transport of mummies and
+divine images, were most frequently made in leather-work. The chequer-
+patterned sail repres"
+857,"ented in one of the boat subjects painted on the wall
+of a chamber in the tomb of Rameses III. (fig. 274), might be mistaken for
+one of the side pieces of the canopy at Gizeh. The vultures and fantastic
+birds depicted upon the sails of another boat (fig. 275) are neither more
+strange nor more difficult to make in cut leather than the vultures and
+gazelles of Isiemkheb.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 275.--Bark with cut leather sail; wall-painting tomb of
+Rameses III.]
+
+We have it upon the au"
+858,"thority of ancient writers that the Egyptians of
+olden time embroidered as skilfully as those of the Middle Ages. The
+surcoats given by Amasis, one to the Lacedaemonians, and the other to the
+temple of Athena at Lindos, were of linen embroidered with figures of
+animals in gold thread and purple, each thread consisting of three hundred
+and sixty-five distinct filaments. To go back to a still earlier period,
+the monumental tableaux show portraits of the Pharaohs wearing garments
+with bo"
+859,"rders, either woven or embroidered, or done in _appliqué_ work. The
+most simple patterns consist of one or more stripes of brilliant colour
+parallel with the edge of the material. Elsewhere we see palm patterns, or
+rows of discs and points, leaf-patterns, meanders, and even, here and
+there, figures of men, gods, or animals, worked most probably with the
+needle. None of the textile materials yet found upon royal mummies are thus
+decorated; we are therefore unable to pronounce upon the q"
+860,"uality of this
+work, or the method employed in its production. Once only, upon the body of
+one of the Deir el Baharî princesses, did I find a royal cartouche
+embroidered in pale rose-colour. The Egyptians of the best periods seem to
+have attached special value to plain stuffs, and especially to white ones.
+These they wove with marvellous skill, and upon looms in every respect
+identical with those used in tapestry work. Those portions of the winding
+sheet of Thothmes III. which enfolde"
+861,"d the royal hands and arms, are as fine
+as the finest India muslin, and as fairly merit the name of ""woven air"" as
+the gauzes of the island of Cos. This, of course, is a mere question of
+manufacture, apart from the domain of art. Embroideries and tapestries
+were not commonly used in Egypt till about the end of the Persian period,
+or the beginning of the period of Greek rule. Alexandria became partly
+peopled by Phoenician, Syrian, and Jewish colonists, who brought with them
+the methods"
+862," of manufacture peculiar to their own countries, and founded
+workshops which soon developed into flourishing establishments. It is to
+the Alexandrians that Pliny ascribes the invention of weaving with several
+warps, thus producing the stuff called brocades (_polymita_); and in the
+time of the first Caesars, it was a recognised fact that ""the needle of
+Babylon was henceforth surpassed by the comb of the Nile."" The Alexandrian
+tapestries were not made after exclusively geometrical design"
+863,"s, like the
+products of the old Egyptian looms; but, according to the testimony of the
+ancients, were enriched with figures of animals, and even of men. Of the
+masterpieces which adorned the palaces of the Ptolemies no specimens
+remain. Many fragments which may be attributed to the later Roman time
+have, however, been found in Egypt, such as the piece with the boy and
+goose described by Wilkinson, and a piece representing marine divinities
+bought by myself at Coptos.[76] The numerous "
+864,"embroidered winding sheets
+with woven borders which have recently been discovered near Ekhmîm, and in
+the Fayûm, are nearly all from Coptic tombs, and are more nearly akin to
+Byzantine art than to the art of Egypt.
+
+
+[68] We have a considerable number of specimens of these borderings,
+    cartouches, and painted tiles representing foreign prisoners, in the
+    British Museum; but the finest examples of the latter are in the
+    Ambras Collection, Vienna. For a highly interesting and"
+865," scholarly
+    description of the remains found at Tell el Yahûdeh in 1870, see
+    Professor Hayter Lewis's paper in vol. iii. of the _Transactions_
+    of the Biblical Archaeological Society.--A.B.E.
+
+[69] The _Tat_ amulet was the emblem of stability.--A.B.E.
+
+[70] That is, the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties.
+
+[71] There is a fine specimen of one of these sledges in the Leyden Museum,
+    and the Florentine Museum contains a celebrated Egyptian war-chariot
+    in fine prese"
+866,"rvation.--A.B.E.
+
+[72] See the coloured frontispiece to _Thebes; its Tombs and their
+    Tenants_, by A.H. Rhind. 1862.--A.B.E.
+
+[73] Since the publication of this work in the original French, a very
+    splendid specimen of a royal Egyptian chair of state, the property of
+    Jesse Haworth, Esq., was placed on view at the Manchester Jubilee
+    Exhibition. It is made of dark wood, apparently rosewood; the legs
+    being shaped like bull's legs, having silver hoofs, and a solid gold"
+867,"
+    cobra snake twining round each leg. The arm-pieces are of lightwood
+    with cobra snakes carved upon the flat in low relief, each snake
+    covered with hundreds of small silver annulets, to represent the
+    markings of the reptile. This chair, dated by a fragment of a royal
+    cartouche, belonged to Queen Hatshepsût, of the Eighteenth Dynasty. It
+    is now in the British Museum.--A.B.E.
+
+[74] In this cut, as well as in the next, the loom is represented as if
+    upright; b"
+868,"ut it is supposed to be extended on the ground.--A.B.E.
+
+[75] For a chromolithographic reproduction of this work as a whole, with
+    drawings of the separate parts, facsimiles of the inscriptions, etc.,
+    see _The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen_, by H. Villiers
+    Stuart.--A.B.E.
+
+[76] An unusually fine specimen of carpet, or tapestry work from Ekhmîm,
+    representing Cupids rowing in papyrus skiffs, landscapes, etc., has
+    recently been presented to the British Museum by "
+869,"the Rev. G.J.
+    Chester. The tapestry found at Ekhmîm is, however, mostly of the
+    Christian period, and this specimen probably dates from about A.D. 700
+    or A.D. 600.--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+3.--METALS.
+
+The Egyptians classified metals under two heads--namely, the noble metals,
+as gold, electrum, and silver; and the base metals, as copper, iron, lead,
+and, at a later period, tin. The two lists are divided by the mention of
+certain kinds of precious stones, such as lapis lazuli and m"
+870,"alachite.
+
+Iron was reserved for weapons of war, and tools, in use for hard
+substances, such as sculptors' and masons' chisels, axe and adze heads,
+knife-blades, and saws. Lead was comparatively useless, but was sometimes
+used for inlaying temple-doors, coffers, and furniture. Also small
+statuettes of gods were occasionally made in this metal, especially those
+of Osiris and Anubis. Copper was too yielding to be available for objects
+in current use; bronze, therefore, was the favourit"
+871,"e metal of the
+Egyptians. Though often affirmed, it is not true that they succeeded in
+tempering bronze so that it became as hard as iron or steel; but by varying
+the constituents and their relative proportions, they were able to give it
+a variety of very different qualities. Most of the objects hitherto
+analysed have yielded precisely the same quantities of copper and tin
+commonly used by the bronze founders of the present day. Those analysed by
+Vauquelin in 1825 contained 84 per cen"
+872,"t. of copper 14 per cent. of tin, and
+1 per cent. of iron and other substances. A chisel brought from Egypt by
+Sir Gardner Wilkinson contained only from 5 to 9 per cent. of tin, 1 per
+cent. of iron, and 94 of copper. Certain fragments of statuettes and
+mirrors more recently subjected to analysis have yielded a notable quantity
+of gold and silver, thus corresponding with the bronzes of Corinth. Other
+specimens resemble brass, both in their colour and substance. Many of the
+best Egyptia"
+873,"n bronzes offer a surprising resistance to damp, and oxidise
+with difficulty. While yet hot from the mould, they were rubbed with some
+kind of resinous varnish which filled up the pores and deposited an
+unalterable patina upon the surface. Each kind of bronze had its special
+use. The ordinary bronze was employed for weapons and common amulets; the
+brazen alloys served for household utensils; the bronzes mixed with gold
+and silver were destined only for mirrors, costly weapons, and stat"
+874,"uettes
+of value. In none of the tomb-paintings which I have seen is there any
+representation of bronze-founding or bronze-working; but this omission is
+easily supplemented by the objects themselves. Tools, arms, rings, and
+cheap vases were sometimes forged, and sometimes cast whole in moulds of
+hard clay or stone. Works of art were cast in one or several pieces
+according to circumstances; the parts were then united, soldered, and
+retouched with the burin. The method most frequently em"
+875,"ployed was to
+prepare a core of mixed clay and charcoal, or sand, which roughly
+reproduced the modelling of the mould into which it was introduced. The
+layer of metal between this core and the mould was often so thin that it
+would have yielded to any moderate pressure, had they not taken the
+precaution to consolidate it by having the core for a support.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 276.--Bronze jug.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 277.--Same jug seen from above.]
+
+Domestic utensils and small househ"
+876,"old instruments were mostly made in
+bronze. Such objects are exhibited by thousands in our museums, and
+frequently figure in bas-reliefs and mural paintings. Art and trade were
+not incompatible in Egypt; and even the coppersmith sought to give elegance
+of form, and to add ornaments in a good style, to the humblest of his
+works. The saucepan in which the cook of Rameses III. concocted his
+masterpieces is supported on lions' feet. Here is a hot-water jug which
+looks as if it were precis"
+877,"ely like its modern successors (fig. 276); but on
+a closer examination we shall find that the handle is a full-blown lotus,
+the petals, which are bent over at an angle to the stalk, resting against
+the edge of the neck (fig. 277). The handles of knives and spoons are
+almost always in the form of a duck's or goose's neck, slightly curved. The
+bowl is sometimes fashioned like an animal--as, for instance, a gazelle
+ready bound for the sacrifice (fig. 278). On the hilt of a sabre we find a"
+878,"
+little crouching jackal; and the larger limb of a pair of scissors in the
+Gizeh Museum is made in the likeness of an Asiatic captive, his arms tied
+behind his back. A lotus leaf forms the disk of a mirror, and its stem is
+the handle. One perfume box is a fish, another is a bird, another is a
+grotesque deity. The lustration vases, or _situlae_, carried by priests and
+priestesses for the purpose of sprinkling either the faithful, or the
+ground traversed by religious processions, merit "
+879,"the special consideration
+of connoisseurs. They are ovoid or pointed at the bottom, and decorated
+with subjects either chased or in relief. These sometimes represent
+deities, each in a separate frame, and sometimes scenes of worship. The
+work is generally very minute.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 278.--Spoon (or lamp?).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 279.--Bronze statuette of the Lady Takûshet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 280.--Bronze statuette of Horus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 281.--Bronze statuette of "
+880,"one Mosû.]
+
+Bronze came into use for statuary purposes from a very early period; but
+time unfortunately has preserved none of those idols which peopled the
+temples of the ancient empire. Whatsoever may be said to the contrary, we
+possess no bronze statuettes of any period anterior to the expulsion of the
+Hyksos. Some Theban figures date quite certainly from the Eighteenth and
+Nineteenth Dynasties. The chased lion's head found with the jewels of Queen
+Aahhotep, the Harpocrates of Gize"
+881,"h inscribed with the names of Kames and
+Ahmes I., and several statuettes of Amen, said to have been discovered at
+Medinet Habû and Sheikh Abd el Gûrneh, are of that period. Our most
+important bronzes belong, however, to the Twenty-second Dynasty, or, later
+still, to the time of the Saïte Pharaohs. Many are not older than the first
+Ptolemies. A fragment found in the ruins of Tanis and now in the
+possession of Count Stroganoff, formed part of a votive statue dedicated by
+King Pisebkhanû"
+882,". It was originally two-thirds the size of life, and is the
+largest specimen known. A portrait statuette of the Lady Takûshet, given to
+the Museum of Athens by M. Demetrio, the four statuettes from the Posno
+collection now at the Louvre, and the kneeling genius of Gizeh, are all
+from the site of Bubastis, and date probably from the years which
+immediately preceded the accession of Psammetichus I. The Lady Takûshet is
+standing, the left foot advanced, the right arm hanging down, the lef"
+883,"t
+raised and brought close to the body (fig. 279). She wears a short robe
+embroidered with religious subjects, and has bracelets on her arms and
+wrists. Upon her head she has a wig with flat curls, row above row. The
+details both of her robe and jewels are engraved in incised lines upon the
+surface of the bronze, and inlaid with silver threads. The face is
+evidently a portrait, and represents a woman of mature age. The form,
+according to the traditions of Egyptian art, is that of a yo"
+884,"unger woman,
+slender, firm, and supple. The copper in this bronze is largely intermixed
+with gold, thus producing a chastened lustre which is admirably suited to
+the richness of the embroidered garment. The kneeling genius of Gizeh is as
+rude and repellent as the Lady Takûshet is delicate and harmonious. He has
+a hawk's head, and he worships the sun, as is the duty of the Heliopolitan
+genii. His right arm is uplifted, his left is pressed to his breast. The
+style of the whole is dry, a"
+885,"nd the granulated surface of the skin adds to
+the hard effect of the figure. The action, however, is energetic and
+correct, and the bird's head is adjusted with surprising skill to the man's
+neck and shoulders. The same qualities and the same faults distinguish the
+Horus of the Posno collection (fig. 280). Standing, he uplifted a libation
+vase; now lost, and poured the contents upon a king who once stood face to
+face with him. This roughness of treatment is less apparent in the other
+"
+886,"three Posno figures; above all in that which bears the name of Mosû
+engraved over the place of the heart (fig. 281). Like the Horus, this Mosû
+stands upright, his left foot advanced, and his left arm pendent. His right
+hand is raised, as grasping the wand of office. The trunk is naked, and
+round his loins he wears a striped cloth with a squared end falling in
+front. His head is clad in a short wig covered with short curls piled one
+above the other. The ear is round and large. The eyes "
+887,"are well opened, and
+were originally of silver; but have been stolen by some Arab. The features
+have a remarkable expression of pride and dignity. After these, what can be
+said for the thousands of statuettes of Osiris, of Isis, of Nephthys, of
+Horus, of Nefertûm, which have been found in the sands and ruins of
+Sakkarah, Bubastis, and other cities of the Delta? Many are, without doubt,
+charming objects for glass-cases, and are to be admired for perfection of
+casting and delicacy of ex"
+888,"ecution; but the greater number are mere
+articles of commerce, made upon the same pattern, and perhaps in the self-
+same moulds, century after century, for the delight of devotees and
+pilgrims. They are rounded, vulgar, destitute of originality, and have no
+more distinction than the thousands of coloured statuettes of saints and
+Virgins which stock the shelves of our modern dealers in pious wares. An
+exception must, however, be made in favour of the images of animals, such
+as rams, sp"
+889,"hinxes, and lions, which to the last retained a more pronounced
+stamp of individuality. The Egyptians had a special predilection for the
+feline race. They have represented the lion in every attitude--giving chase
+to the antelope; springing upon the hunter; wounded, and turning to bite
+his wound; couchant, and disdainfully calm--and no people have depicted him
+with a more thorough knowledge of his habits, or with so intense a
+vitality. Several gods and goddesses, as Shû, Anhûr, Bast, Se"
+890,"khet, Tefnût,
+have the form of the lion or of the cat; and inasmuch as the worship of
+these deities was more popular in the Delta than elsewhere, so there never
+passes a year when from amid the ruins of Bubastis, Tanis, Mendes, or some
+less famous city, there is not dug up a store of little figures of lions
+and lionesses, or of men and women with lions' heads, or cats' heads. The
+cats of Bubastis and the lions of Tell es Seba crowd our museums. The lions
+of Horbeit may be reckoned amo"
+891,"ng the _chefs-d'oeuvre_ of Egyptian statuary.
+Upon one of the largest among them is inscribed the name of Apries (fig.
+282); but if even this evidence were lacking, the style of the piece would
+compel us to attribute it to the Saïte period. It formed part of the
+ornamentation of a temple or naos door; and the other side was either built
+into a wall or imbedded in a piece of wood. The lion is caught in a trap,
+or, perhaps, lying down in an oblong cage, with only his head and fore feet
+"
+892,"outside. The lines of the body are simple and full of power; the expression
+of the face is calm and strong. In breadth and majesty he almost equals the
+fine limestone lions of Amenhotep III.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 282.--Bronze lion from Horbeit, Saïte.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 283.--Gold worker.]
+
+The idea of inlaying gold and other precious metals upon the surface of
+bronze, stone, or wood was already ancient in Egypt in the time of Khûfû.
+The gold is often amalgamated with pure silver"
+893,". When amalgamated to the
+extent of 20 per cent, it changes its name, and is called electrum
+(_asimû_). This electrum is of a fine light-yellow colour. It pales as the
+proportion of silver becomes larger, and at 60 per cent. it is nearly
+white. The silver came chiefly from Asia, in rings, sheets, and bricks of
+standard weight. The gold and electrum came partly from Syria in bricks and
+rings; and partly from the Soudan in nuggets and gold-dust. The processes
+of refining and alloying ar"
+894,"e figured on certain monuments of the early
+dynasties. In a bas-relief at Sakkarah, we see the weighed gold entrusted
+to the craftsman for working; in another example (at Beni Hasan) the
+washing and melting down of the ore is represented; and again at Thebes,
+the goldsmith is depicted seated in front of his crucible, holding the
+blow-pipe to his lips with the left hand, and grasping his pincers with the
+right, thus fanning the flame and at the same time making ready to seize
+the ingot"
+895," (fig. 283). The Egyptians struck neither coins nor medals. With
+these exceptions, they made the same use of the precious metals as we do
+ourselves. We gild the crosses and cupolas of our churches; they covered
+the doors of their temples, the lower part of their wall-surfaces, certain
+bas-reliefs, pyramidions of obelisks, and even whole obelisks, with plates
+of gold. The obelisks of Queen Hatshepsût at Karnak were coated with
+electrum. ""They were visible from both banks of the Nile, an"
+896,"d when the sun
+rose between them as he came up from the heavenly horizon, they flooded the
+two Egypts with their dazzling rays.""[77] These plates of metal were forged
+with hammer and anvil. For smaller objects, they made use of little pellets
+beaten flat between two pieces of parchment. In the Museum of the Louvre we
+have a gilder's book, and the gold-leaf which it contains is as thin as
+the gold-leaf used by the German goldsmiths of the past century. Gold was
+applied to bronze surfac"
+897,"es by means of an ammoniacal solvent. If the object
+to be gilt were a wooden statuette, the workman began by sticking a piece
+of fine linen all over the surface, or by covering it with a very thin coat
+of plaster; upon this he laid his gold or silver leaf. It was thus that
+wooden statuettes of Thoth, Horus, and Nefertûm were gilded, from the time
+of Khûfû. The temple of Isis, the ""Lady of the Pyramid,"" contained a dozen
+such images; and this temple was not one of the largest in the Mem"
+898,"phite
+necropolis. There would seem to have been hundreds of gilded statues in the
+Theban temples, at all events in the time of the victorious dynasties of
+the new empire; and as regards wealth, the Ptolemaic sanctuaries were in no
+wise inferior to those of the Theban period.
+
+Bronze and gilded wood were not always good enough for the gods of Egypt.
+They exacted pure gold, and their worshippers gave them as much of it as
+possible. Entire statues of the precious metals were dedicated b"
+899,"y the kings
+of the ancient and middle empires; and the Pharaohs of the Eighteenth and
+Nineteenth Dynasties, who drew at will upon the treasures of Asia,
+transcended all that had been done by their predecessors. Even in times of
+decadence, the feudal lords kept up the traditions of the past, and, like
+Prince Mentûemhat, replaced the images of gold and silver which had been
+carried off from Karnak by the generals of Sardanapalus at the time of the
+Assyrian invasions. The quantity of met"
+900,"al thus consecrated to the service
+of the gods must have been considerable, If many figures were less than an
+inch in height, many others measured three cubits, or more. Some were of
+gold, some of silver; others were part gold and part silver. There were
+even some which combined gold with sculptured ivory, ebony, and precious
+stones, thus closely resembling the chryselephantine statues of the Greeks.
+Aided by the bas-relief subjects of Karnak, Medinet Habû, and Denderah, as
+well as by"
+901," the statues in wood and limestone which have come down to our
+day, we can tell exactly what they were like. However the material might
+vary, the style was always the same. Nothing is more perishable than works
+of this description. They are foredoomed to destruction by the mere value
+of the materials in which they are made. What civil war and foreign
+invasion had spared, and what had chanced to escape the rapacity of Roman
+princes and governors, fell a prey to Christian iconoclasm. A f"
+902,"ew tiny
+statuettes buried as amulets upon the bodies of mummies, a few domestic
+divinities buried in the ruins of private houses, a few ex-votos forgotten,
+perchance, in some dark corner of a fallen sanctuary, have escaped till the
+present day. The Ptah and Amen of Queen Aahhotep, another golden Amen also
+at Gizeh, and the silver vulture found in 1885 at Medinet Habû, are the
+only pieces of this kind which can be attributed with certainty to the
+great period of Egyptian art. The remai"
+903,"nder are of Saïte or Ptolemaic work,
+and are remarkable only for the perfection with which they are wrought. The
+gold and silver vessels used in the service of the temples, and in the
+houses of private persons, shared the fate of the statues. At the beginning
+of the present century, the Louvre acquired some flat-bottomed cups which
+Thothmes III. presented as the reward of valour to one of his generals
+named Tahûti. The silver cup is much mutilated, but the golden cup is
+intact and ele"
+904,"gantly designed (fig. 284). The upright sides are adorned
+with a hieroglyphic legend. A central rosette is engraved at the bottom.
+Six fish are represented in the act of swimming round the rosette; and
+these again are surrounded by a border of lotus-bells united by a curved
+line. The five vases of Thmûis, in the Gizeh Museum, are of silver. They
+formed part of the treasure of the temple, and had been buried in a hiding-
+place, where they remained till our own day. We have no indication"
+905," of their
+probable age; but whether they belong to the Greek or the Theban period,
+the workmanship is purely Egyptian. Of one vessel, only the cover is left,
+the handle being formed of two flowers upon one stem. The others are
+perfect, and are decorated in _repoussé_ work with lotus-lilies in bud and
+blossom (fig. 285).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 284.--Golden cup of General Tahûti, Eighteenth
+Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 285.--Silver vase of Thmûis.]
+
+The form is simple and elegant, "
+906,"the ornamentation sober and delicate; the
+relief low. One is, however, surrounded by a row of ovoid bosses (fig.
+286), which project in high relief, and somewhat alter the shape of the
+body of the vase. These are interesting specimens; but they are so few in
+number that, were it not for the wall-paintings, we should have but a very
+imperfect idea of the skill of the Egyptian goldsmiths.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 286.--Silver vase of Thmûis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 287.--Ornamental basket i"
+907,"n precious metal. From wall-
+painting, Twentieth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 288.--Crater of precious metal, borne by slaves. Wall-
+painting, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 289.--Hydria of precious metal. Wall-painting,
+Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 290.--Enamelled cruet. Wall-painting, Eighteenth
+Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 291.--Enamelled cruet. Wall-painting, Eighteenth
+Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 292.--Gold centre-piece of Amenhotep III. Wal"
+908,"l-
+painting, Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+The Pharaohs had not our commercial resources, and could not circulate the
+gold and silver tribute-offerings of conquered nations in the form of coin.
+When the gods had received their share of the booty, there was no
+alternative but to melt the rest down into ingots, fashion it into personal
+ornaments, or convert it into gold and silver plate. What was true of the
+kings held good also for their subjects. For the space of at least six or
+eight centu"
+909,"ries, dating from the time of Ahmes I., the taste for plate was
+carried to excess. Every good house was not only stocked with all that was
+needful for the service of the table, such as cups, goblets, plates, ewers,
+and ornamental baskets chased with figures of fantastic animals (fig. 287);
+but also with large ornamental vases which were dressed with flowers, and
+displayed to visitors on gala days. Some of these vases were of
+extraordinary richness. Here, for instance, is a crater, the "
+910,"handles
+modelled as two papyrus buds, and the foot as a full-blown papyrus. Two
+Asiatic slaves in sumptuous garments are represented in the act of
+upheaving it with all their strength (fig. 288). Here, again, is a kind of
+hydria with a lid in the form of an inverted lotus flanked by the heads of
+two gazelles (fig. 289). The heads and necks of two horses, bridled and
+fully caparisoned, stand back to back on either side of the foot of the
+vase. The body is divided into a series of horiz"
+911,"ontal zones, the middle
+zone being in the likeness of a marshland, with an antelope coursing at
+full speed among the reeds. Two enamelled cruets (fig. 290) have
+elaborately wrought lids, one fashioned as the head of a plumed eagle, and
+the other as the head of the god Bes flanked by two vipers (fig. 291). But
+foremost among them all is a golden centrepiece offered by a viceroy of
+Ethiopia to Amenhotep III. The design reproduces one of the most popular
+subjects connected with the forei"
+912,"gn conquests of Egypt (fig. 292). Men and
+apes are seen gathering fruits in a forest of dôm palms. Two natives, each
+with a single feather on his head and a striped kilt about his loins, lead
+tame giraffes with halters. Others, apparently of the same nationality,
+kneel with upraised hands, as if begging for quarter. Two negro prisoners
+lying face downwards upon the ground, lift their heads with difficulty. A
+large vase with a short foot and a lofty cone-shaped cover stands amid the
+tr"
+913,"ees.[78] The craftsmen who made this piece evidently valued elegance and
+beauty less than richness. They cared little for the heavy effect and bad
+taste of the whole, provided only that they were praised for their skill,
+and for the quantity of metal which they had succeeded in using. Other
+vases of the same type, pictured in a scene of presentations to Rameses II.
+in the great temple of Abû Simbel, vary the subject by showing buffaloes
+running in and out among the trees, in place of l"
+914,"ed giraffes. These were
+costly playthings wrought in gold, such as the Byzantine emperors of the
+ninth century accumulated in their palace of Magnaura, and which they
+exhibited on state occasions in order to impress foreigners with a profound
+sense of their riches and power. When a victorious Pharaoh returned from a
+distant campaign, the vessels of gold and silver which formed part of his
+booty figured in the triumphal procession, together with his train of
+foreign captives. Vases in "
+915,"daily use were of slighter make and less
+encumbered with inconvenient ornaments. The two leopards which serve as
+handles to a crater of the time of Thothmes III. (fig. 293) are not well
+proportioned, neither do they combine agreeably with the curves of the
+vase; but the accompanying cup (fig. 294), and a cruet belonging to the
+same service (fig. 295), are very happily conceived, and have much purity
+of form. These vessels of engraved and _repoussé_ gold and silver, some
+representing h"
+916,"unting scenes and incidents of battle, were imitated by
+Phoenician craftsmen, and, being exported to Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy,
+carried Egyptian patterns and subjects into distant lands. The passion for
+precious metals was pushed to such extremes under the reigns of the
+Ramessides that it was no longer enough to use them only at table.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 293.--Crater of precious metal. Wall-painting,
+Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 294.--Cup of precious metal. Wall-p"
+917,"ainting, Eighteenth
+Dynasty.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 295.--Cruet of precious metal. Wall-painting,
+Eighteenth Dynasty.]
+
+Rameses II. and Rameses III. had thrones of gold--not merely of wood
+plated with gold, but made of the solid metal and set with precious stones.
+These things were too valuable to escape destruction, and were the first to
+disappear. Their artistic value, however, by no means equalled their
+intrinsic value, and the loss is not one for which we need be inconsolable.
+"
+918,"
+[Illustration: Fig. 296.--Bezel signet-ring.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 297.--Gold _cloisonné_ pectoral bearing cartouche of
+Ûsertesen III. From Dahshûr, found 1894, and now in the Gizeh Museum.]
+
+Orientals, men and women alike, are great lovers of jewellery. The
+Egyptians were no exception to this rule. Not satisfied to adorn themselves
+when living with a profusion of trinkets, they loaded the arms, the
+fingers, the neck, the ears, the brow, and the ankles of their dead with
+more or l"
+919,"ess costly ornaments. The quantity thus buried in tombs was so
+considerable that even now, after thirty centuries of active search, we
+find from time to time mummies which are, so to say, cuirassed in gold.
+Much of this funerary jewellery was made merely for show on the day of the
+funeral, and betrays its purpose by the slightness of the workmanship. The
+favourite jewels of the deceased person were, nevertheless, frequently
+buried with him, and the style and finish of these leave nothi"
+920,"ng to be
+desired. Chains and rings have come down to us in large numbers, as indeed
+might be expected. The ring, in fact, was not a simple ornament, but an
+actual necessary. Official documents were not signed, but sealed; and the
+seal was good in law. Every Egyptian, therefore, had his seal, which he
+kept about his person, ready for use if required. The poor man's seal was a
+simple copper or silver ring; the ring of the rich man was a more or less
+elaborate jewel covered with chasing "
+921,"and relief work. The bezel was
+movable, and turned upon a pivot. It was frequently set with some kind of
+stone engraved with the owner's emblem or device; as, for example, a
+scorpion (fig. 296), a lion, a hawk, or a cynocephalous ape. As in the eyes
+of her husband his ring was the one essential ornament, so was her necklace
+in the estimation of the Egyptian lady. I have seen a chain in silver which
+measured sixty-three inches in length. Others, on the contrary, do not
+exceed two, or t"
+922,"wo and a half inches. They are of all sizes and patterns,
+some consisting of two or three twists, some of large links, some of small
+links, some massive and heavy, others as light and flexible as the finest
+Venetian filigree. The humblest peasant girl, as well as the lady of
+highest rank, might have her necklet; and the woman must be poor indeed
+whose little store comprised no other ornament. No mere catalogue of
+bracelets, diadems, collarettes, or insignia of nobility could give an id"
+923,"ea
+of the number and variety of jewels known to us by pictured representations
+or existing specimens. Pectorals of gold _cloisonné_ work inlaid with
+vitreous paste or precious stones, and which bear the cartouches of
+Amenemhat II., Ûsertesen II., and Ûsertesen III. (fig. 297), exhibit a
+marvellous precision of taste, lightness of touch, and dexterity of fine
+workmanship. So fresh and delicate are they we forget that the royal ladies
+to whom they belonged have been dead, and their bodi"
+924,"es stiffened and
+disfigured into mummies, for nearly five thousand years. At Berlin may be
+seen the _parure_ of an Ethiopian Candace; at the Louvre we have the jewels
+of Prince Psar; at Gizeh are preserved the ornaments of Queen Aahhotep.
+Aahhotep was the wife of Kames, a king of the Seventeenth Dynasty, and she
+was probably the mother of Ahmes I., first king of the Eighteenth Dynasty.
+Her mummy had been stolen by one of the robber bands which infested the
+Theban necropolis towards th"
+925,"e close of the Twentieth Dynasty. They buried
+the royal corpse till such time as they might have leisure to despoil it in
+safety; and they were most likely seized and executed before they could
+carry that pretty little project into effect. The secret of their hiding-
+place perished with them, till discovered in 1860 by some Arab diggers.
+Most of the objects which this queen took with her into the next world were
+exclusively women's gear; as a fan-handle plated with gold, a bronze-gilt
"
+926,"
+mirror mounted upon an ebony handle enriched with a lotus in chased gold
+(fig. 298). Her bracelets are of various types. Some are anklets and
+armlets, and consist merely of plain gold rings, both solid and hollow,
+bordered with plaited chainwork in imitation of filigree. Others are for
+wearing on the wrist, like the bracelets of modern ladies, and are made of
+small beads in gold, lapis lazuli, carnelian, and green felspar. These are
+strung on gold wire in a chequer pattern, each squar"
+927,"e divided diagonally in
+halves of different colours. Two gold plates, very lightly engraved with
+the cartouches of Ahmes I., are connected by means of a gold pin, and form
+the fastening. A fine bracelet in the form of two semicircles joined by a
+hinge (fig. 299), also bears the name of Ahmes I. The make of this jewel
+reminds us of _cloisonné_ enamels. Ahmes kneels in the presence of the god
+Seb and his acolytes, the genii of Sop and Khonû.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 298.--Mirror of Queen A"
+928,"ahhotep.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 299.--Bracelet of Queen Aahhotep, bearing cartouche of
+King Ahmes I.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 300.--Bracelet of Queen Aahhotep.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 301.--Diadem of Queen Aahhotep.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 302.--Gold ""Ûsekh"" of Queen Aahhotep.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 303.--Pectoral of Queen Aahhotep, bearing cartouche of
+King Ahmes I.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 304.--Poignard of Queen Aahhotep, bearing cartouche of
+King Ahmes.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 305.--P"
+929,"oignard of Queen Aahhotep, bearing cartouche of
+King Ahmes.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 306.--Funerary battle-axe of Queen Aahhotep, bearing
+cartouche of King Ahmes I.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 307.--Funerary bark of Queen Aahhotep.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Ring of Rameses II.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 309.--Bracelet of Prince Psar.]
+
+The figures and hieroglyphs are cut out in solid gold, delicately engraved
+with the burin, and stand in relief upon a ground-surface filled in with
+pieces o"
+930,"f blue paste and lapis lazuli artistically cut. A bracelet of more
+complicated workmanship, though of inferior execution, was found on the
+wrist of the queen (fig. 300). It is of massive gold, and consists of three
+parallel bands set with turquoises. On the front a vulture is represented
+with outspread wings, the feathers composed of green enamel, lapis lazuli,
+and carnelian, set in ""cloisons"" of gold. The hair of the mummy was drawn
+through a massive gold diadem, scarcely as large as "
+931,"a bracelet. The name of
+Ahmes is incrusted in blue paste upon an oblong plaque in the centre,
+flanked at each side by two little sphinxes which seem as if in the act of
+keeping watch over the inscription (fig. 301). Round her neck was a large
+flexible gold chain, finished at each end by a goose's head reversed. These
+heads could be linked one in the other, when the chain needed to be
+fastened. The scarabaeus pendant to this chain is incrusted upon the
+shoulder and wing-sheaths with bl"
+932,"ue glass paste rayed with gold, the legs
+and body being in massive gold. The royal _parure_ was completed by a large
+collar of the kind known as the _Ûsekh_ (fig. 302). It is finished at each
+end with a golden hawk's head inlaid with blue enamel, and consists of rows
+of scrolls, four-petalled fleurettes, hawks, vultures, winged uraei,
+crouching jackals, and figures of antelopes pursued by tigers. The whole of
+these ornaments are of gold _repoussé_ work, and they were sewn upon the
+roy"
+933,"al winding sheet by means of a small ring soldered to the back of each.
+Upon the breast, below this collar, hung a square jewel of the kind known
+as ""pectoral ornaments"" (fig. 303). The general form is that of a naos, or
+shrine. Ahmes stands upright in a papyrus-bark, between Amen and Ra, who
+pour the water of purification upon his head and body. Two hawks hover to
+right and left of the king, above the heads of the gods. The figures are
+outlined in _cloisons_ of gold, and these were fi"
+934,"lled in with little
+plaques of precious stones and enamel, many of which have fallen out. The
+effect of this piece is somewhat heavy, and if considered apart from the
+rest of the _parure_, its purpose might seem somewhat obscure. In order to
+form a correct judgment, we have, however, to remember in what fashion the
+women of ancient Egypt were clad. They wore a kind of smock of semi-
+transparent material, which came very little higher than the waist. The
+chest and bosom, neck and shoul"
+935,"ders, were bare; and the one garment was
+kept in place by only a slender pair of braces. The rich clothed these
+uncovered parts with jewellery. The Ûsekh collar half hid the shoulders and
+chest. The pectoral masked the hollow between the breasts. Sometimes even
+the breasts were covered with two golden cups, either painted or enamelled.
+Besides the jewels found upon the mummy of Queen Aahhotep, a number of arms
+and amulets were heaped inside her coffin; namely, three massive gold flies
"
+936,"
+hanging from a slender chain; nine small hatchets, three of gold and six of
+silver; a golden lion's head of very minute workmanship; a wooden sceptre
+set in gold spirals; two anklets; and two poignards. One of these poignards
+(fig. 304) has a golden sheath and a wooden hilt inlaid with triangular
+mosaics of carnelian, lapis lazuli, felspar, and gold. Four female heads in
+gold _repoussé_ form the pommel; and a bull's head reversed covers the
+junction of blade and hilt. The edges of the"
+937," blade are of massive gold; the
+centre of black bronze damascened with gold. On one side is the solar
+cartouche of Ahmes, below which a lion pursues a bull, the remaining space
+being filled in with four grasshoppers in a row. On the other side we have
+the family name of Ahmes and a series of full-blown flowers issuing one
+from another and diminishing towards the point. A poignard found at Mycenae
+by Dr. Schliemann is similarly decorated; the Phoenicians, who were
+industrious copyists "
+938,"of Egyptian models, probably introduced this pattern
+into Greece. The second poignard is of a make not uncommon to this day in
+Persia and India (fig. 305). The blade is of yellowish bronze fixed into a
+disk-shaped hilt of silver. When wielded, this lenticular[79] disk fits to
+the hollow of the hand, the blade coming between the first and second
+fingers. Of what use, it may be asked, were all these weapons to a woman--
+and a dead woman? To this we may reply that the other world was peop"
+939,"led
+with foes--Typhonian genii, serpents, gigantic scorpions, tortoises,
+monsters of every description--against which it was incessantly needful to
+do battle. The poignards placed inside the coffin for the self-defence of
+the soul were useful only for fighting at close quarters; certain weapons
+of a projectile kind were therefore added, such as bows and arrows,
+boomerangs made in hard wood, and a battle-axe. The handle of this axe is
+fashioned of cedar-wood covered with sheet gold (fi"
+940,"g. 306). The legend of
+Ahmes is inlaid thereon in characters of lapis lazuli, carnelian,
+turquoise, and green felspar. The blade is fixed in a cleft of the wood,
+and held in place by a plait-work of gold wire. It is of black bronze,
+formerly gilt. On one side, it is ornamented with lotus flowers upon a gold
+ground; on the other, Ahmes is represented in the act of slaying a
+barbarian, whom he grasps by the hair of the head. Beneath this group,
+Mentû, the Egyptian war-god, is symbolised"
+941," by a griffin with the head of an
+eagle. In addition to all these objects, there were two small boats, one in
+gold and one in silver, emblematic of the bark in which the mummy must
+cross the river to her last home, and of that other bark in which she
+would ultimately navigate the waters of the West, in company with the
+immortal gods. When found, the silver boat rested upon a wooden truck with
+four bronze wheels; but as it was in a very dilapidated state, it has been
+dismounted and rep"
+942,"laced by the golden boat (fig. 307). The hull is long and
+slight, the prow and stem are elevated, and terminate in gracefully-curved
+papyrus blossoms. Two little platforms surrounded by balustrades on a
+panelled ground are at the prow and on the poop, like quarter-decks. The
+pilot stands upon the one, and the steersman before the other, with a large
+oar in his hand. This oar takes the place of the modern helm. Twelve
+boatmen in solid silver are rowing under the orders of these two offi"
+943,"cers;
+Kames himself being seated in the centre, hatchet and sceptre in hand. Such
+were some of the objects buried with one single mummy; and I have even now
+enumerated only the most remarkable among them. The technical processes
+throughout are irreproachable, and the correct taste of the craftsman is in
+no wise inferior to his dexterity of hand. Having arrived at the perfection
+displayed in the _parure_ of Aahhotep, the goldsmith's art did not long
+maintain so high a level. The fashio"
+944,"ns changed, and jewellery became
+heavier in design. The ring of Rameses II., with his horses standing upon
+the bezel (fig. 308), and the bracelet of Prince Psar, with his griffins
+and lotus flowers in _cloisonné_ enamel (fig. 309), both in the Louvre, are
+less happily conceived than the bracelets of Ahmes. The craftsmen who made
+these ornaments were doubtless as skilful as the craftsmen of the time of
+Queen Aahhotep, but they had less taste and less invention. Rameses II. was
+condemne"
+945,"d either to forego the pleasure of wearing his ring, or to see his
+little horses damaged and broken off by the least accident. Already
+noticeable in the time of the Nineteenth Dynasty, this decadence becomes
+more marked as we approach the Christian era. The earrings of Rameses IX.
+in the Gizeh Museum are an ungraceful assemblage of filigree disks, short
+chains, and pendent uraei, such as no human ear could have carried without
+being torn, or pulled out of shape. They were attached to e"
+946,"ach side of the
+wig upon the head of the mummy. The bracelets of the High Priest Pinotem
+III., found upon his mummy, are mere round rings of gold incrusted with
+pieces of coloured glass and carnelian, like those still made by the
+Soudanese blacks. The Greek invasion began by modifying the style of
+Egyptian gold-work, and ended by gradually substituting Greek types for
+native types. The jewels of an Ethiopian queen, purchased from Ferlini by
+the Berlin Museum, contained not only some o"
+947,"rnaments which might readily
+have been attributed to Pharaonic times, but others of a mixed style in
+which Hellenic influences are distinctly traceable. The treasure discovered
+at Zagazig in 1878, at Keneh in 1881, and at Damanhûr in 1882, consisted of
+objects having nothing whatever in common with Egyptian traditions. They
+comprise hairpins supporting statuettes of Venus, zone-buckles, agraffes
+for fastening the peplum, rings and bracelets set with cameos, and caskets
+ornamented at t"
+948,"he four corners with little Ionic columns. The old patterns,
+however, were still in request in remote provincial places, and village
+goldsmiths adhered ""indifferent well"" to the antique traditions of their
+craft. Their city brethren had meanwhile no skill to do aught but make
+clumsy copies of Greek and Roman originals.
+
+In this rapid sketch of the industrial arts there are many lacunae. When
+referring to examples, I have perforce limited myself to such as are
+contained in the best-kn"
+949,"own collections. How many more might not be
+discovered if one had leisure to visit provincial museums, and trace what
+the hazard of sales may have dispersed through private collections! The
+variety of small monuments due to the industry of ancient Egypt is
+infinite, and a methodical study of those monuments has yet to be made. It
+is a task which promises many surprises to whomsoever shall undertake it.
+
+
+[77] From the inscription upon the obelisk of Hatshepsût which is still
+    ere"
+950,"ct at Karnak. For a translation in full see _Records of the
+    Past_, vol. xii., p. 131, _et seqq._--A.B.E.
+
+[78] Mr. Petrie suggests that this curious central object may be a royal
+    umbrella with flaps of ox-hide and tiger-skin.--A.B.E.
+
+[79] That is, lentil-shaped, or a double convex.--A.B.E.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES TO FIRST ENGLISH EDITION.
+
+_For the following notes, to which reference numbers will be found in the
+text, I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie, au"
+951,"thor of_
+""The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh"" (Field & Tuer), ""Tanis"" (_Egypt
+Exploration Fund_), ""Naukratis"" (_Egypt Exploration Fund), etc., etc._
+
+A.B.E.
+
+(1) More striking than these are the towns of Tell Atrib, Kom Baglieh, Kom
+Abû Billû, and Tell Nebesheh, the houses of which may be traced without any
+special excavations.
+
+(2) There is much skill needed in mixing the mud and sand in such
+proportions as to dry properly; when rightly adjusted there is no cracking
+in drying, an"
+952,"d the grains of sand prevent the mud from being washed away in
+the rains.
+
+(3) In the Delta, at least, the sizes of bricks from the Twenty-first
+Dynasty down to Arab times decrease very regularly; under the Twenty-first
+Dynasty they are about 18 x 9 x 5 inches; early in the Twenty-sixth, 16-1/2
+x 8-1/4 x 5; later 15 x 7-1/2; in early Ptolemaic times, 14 x 7; in Roman
+times, 12 x 6, in Byzantine times, 10 x 5; and Arab bricks are 8 x 4, and
+continue so very generally to our times. The"
+953," thickness is always least
+certain, as it depends on the amount placed in the mould, but the length
+and breadth may in most cases be accepted as a very useful chronological
+scale.
+
+(4) They are found of Ramesside age at Nebesheh and Defenneh; even there
+they are rare, and these are the only cases I have yet seen in Egypt
+earlier than about the third century A.D.
+
+(5) This system was sometimes used to raise a fort above the plain, as at
+Defenneh; or the chambers formed store-rooms, "
+954,"as at the fort at Naukratis.
+
+(6) In the fine early work at Gizeh they sawed the paving blocks of basalt,
+and then ground only just the edges flat, while all the inside of the joint
+was picked rough to hold the mortar.
+
+(7) A usual plan in early times was to dress the joint faces of the block
+in the quarry, leaving its outer face with a rough excess of a few inches;
+the excess still remains on the granite casing of the pyramid of Menkara,
+and the result of dressing it away may be se"
+955,"en in the corners of the
+granite temple at Gizeh.
+
+(8) Otherwise called the Granite Temple of Gizeh, or Temple of Khafra, as
+its connection with the Sphinx is much disputed, while it is in direct
+communication with the temple of the pyramid of Khafra, by a causeway in
+line with the entrance passage.
+
+(9) The casing of the open air court on the top of it was of fine
+limestone; only a few blocks of this remain. For full plan and measurements
+see _Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh_.
+
+(1"
+956,"0) One of the air slits, or ventilators, remains complete, opening to the
+upper court, from the top of the niche chamber.
+
+(11) Below these lines, there is often a scene of offering at the bottom of
+the Obelisk.
+
+(12) _Mastaba_ is the Arabic name for a bench or platform, and was applied
+by the natives to such tombs on account of the resemblance in shape.
+
+(13) In the few cases where the top remains perfect at Gizeh, the side ends
+in a parabolic curve which turns over into the top s"
+957,"urface without any
+cornice or moulding; the tops of walls in the courts of mastabas are
+similar.
+
+(14) Another view is that they are derived from the cumulative mastabas,
+such as the so-called step pyramid of Sakkarah.
+
+(15) In the later pyramids; but the Gizeh pyramids are entirely built of
+Tûrah limestone.
+
+(16) Still more conclusive is the fact that in the greatest of the pyramids
+the passages are such that it would have been impossible to build it by
+successive coats of enlar"
+958,"gement.
+
+(17) In only one case (that of Menkara) has a pyramid been clearly
+enlarged, and that was done at one step and not by many stages.
+
+(18) The earliest--at Gizeh--are very accurate.
+
+(19) These slabs of pavement do not extend beneath the pyramid, but only
+around it.
+
+(20) Only fragments of the finest limestone casing have been found; the
+variety of colour was probably due to weathering.
+
+(21) This would be impossible with the exquisitely fine joints of the
+masonry; a tem"
+959,"porary staging of stone built up over part of the finished
+face would easily allow of raising the stones.
+
+(22) There is no evidence that the facing block which covered the granite
+plugs was of granite; it was more probably of limestone.
+
+(23) The entrance to the upper passages was never forced from the entrance
+passage, but was accidentally found by the Arabs, after they had forced a
+long tunnel in the masonry, being in ignorance of the real entrance, which
+was probably concealed b"
+960,"y a hinging block of stone.
+
+(24) Or rather it rose at an angle of 23-1/2°, like the descent of the
+entrance passage, thus making angles of 47° and 133° with it.
+
+(25) This gallery has obtained a great reputation for the fineness of its
+joints, perhaps because they are coarse enough to be easily seen; but some
+joints of the entrance passage, and the joints in the queen's chamber, are
+hardly visible with the closest inspection.
+
+(26) The only signs of portcullises are those in the v"
+961,"estibule or
+antechamber.
+
+(27) No traces of three of the portcullises remain, if they ever existed,
+and the other never could reach the floor or interrupt the passage, so its
+use is enigmatical.
+
+(28) There is some evidence that the pyramid was opened in the early days,
+perhaps before the middle kingdom.
+
+(29) Two rows of beams which rest on the side wall as corbels or
+cantilevers, only touching at the top, without necessarily any thrust. Such
+at least is the case in the queen's "
+962,"chamber, and in the pyramid of Pepi,
+where such a roof is used.
+
+(30) The end walls have sunk throughout a considerable amount, and the side
+walls have separated; thus all the beams of the upper chambers have been
+dragged, and every beam of the roof of the chamber is broken through. This
+is probably the result of earthquakes.
+
+(31) This only covered the lower sixteen courses; the larger part above it
+was of limestone.
+
+(32) Similar finished faces may be seen as far in as near the "
+963,"middle of the
+mass. This is not a true pyramid in form, but a cumulative mastaba, the
+faces of which are at the mastaba angle (75°), and the successive
+enlargements of which are shown by numerous finished facings now within the
+masonry. The step form is the result of carrying upwards the mastaba form,
+at the same time that it was enlarged outwards.
+
+(33) Not in all cases apparently, for the hieroglyphs on the passage of
+Pepi's pyramid are not injured, as they would be if plugs had be"
+964,"en
+withdrawn.
+
+(34) Pepi's roof is formed by a row of large beams which rested
+independently on the side walls as corbels or cantilevers (see Note 29).
+
+(35) The mastaba angle is 75°, and the pyramid angle 50° to 55°.
+
+(36) Its present appearance is an accident of its demolition; it was
+originally, like the ""step-pyramid"" of Sakkarah, a cumulative mastaba, as
+is shown by the remains of the lower steps still in the mounds at its base,
+and by the mediaeval description of it.
+
+
+
+"
+965,"
+INDEX
+
+
+Aahhotep, 157, 323-30.
+Aahhotep II., 288-9.
+Aalû, fields of, 163-4, 167.
+Abacus, 52-4, 58, 61, 116.
+Abi, 273.
+Abû Roash, 113, 134.
+Abû Simbel
+    (see TEMPLES, etc.).
+Abûsîr, 114, 131, 134, 138, 140.
+Abydos
+    (see FORTRESSES, TEMPLES, TOMBS, etc.).
+Acacia, 203, 274.
+Adze, of iron, 283, 304.
+Affi
+    (see TOMB).
+Agate, 247.
+Ahmes I., 267, 307, 317, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329.
+Ahmes II., 269 and note.
+    (see AMASIS).
+Ahmesnefertari, 288-9.
+Ahnas el M"
+966,"edineh, 259.
+Aï, 15, 155, 158.
+Aimadûa
+    (see TOMB).
+Akhonûti, 16.
+Alabaster, 6, 42, 47, 65, 128, 141, 166, 169, 180, 252, 253-4.
+Albumen, 203.
+Alexander, his tomb, 242.
+Alexander II., colossus of, 241.
+Alexandria, 52, 241, 243, 303.
+Alumina, 260.
+Amasis, 269 and note, 302
+    (see AHMES II.).
+Amber, 247.
+Ambras Collection, in Vienna, 272 (note).
+Amen
+    (see GODS).
+Amen Ra
+    (see GODS).
+Amenemhat II., 76, 322.
+Amenemhat III., 76, 143, 228
+    (see MOERIS).
+Amenhot"
+967,"ep I., 157, 229, 287.
+Amenhotep II., 53.
+Amenhotep III., 67, 69, 76, 77, 80, 103, 147, 158, 179, 226, 229, 230, 266,
+        275, 312, 318.
+    (see MEMNON).
+Ameni
+    (see TOMB).
+Ameni Entef Amenemhat, 107.
+Ameniritis, 235 and note.
+Amethyst, 246, 250.
+Amphorae 35, 36, 127, 264.
+Ampullae, 269.
+Amset, genius, 258 (note).
+Amulets, materials and forms of, 100, 167, 246-50, 259, 265, 286.
+Ancient Empire,--
+  art of
+    (see BAS-RELIEF, SCULPTURE, and STATUE).
+  domestic archite"
+968,"cture of, 19.
+  fortress of, 27.
+  tombs of
+    (see MASTABAS and PYRAMIDS).
+Andro-sphinx, 89, 228-9.
+Angareb, or Nubian bed, 281, 292.
+Anhûr
+    (see GODS).
+Ankh, 286, 288.
+Ankhnesraneferab, sarcophagus of, 165 (note).
+Anklets, 321.
+Anna
+    (see TOMB).
+Antelopes, 176, 299, 326.
+Antimony, 254, 267
+    (see KOHL).
+Antonines, 244, 245.
+Antoninus Pius, his chapel at Philae, 100.
+Anubis
+    (see GODS).
+Anvil, 313.
+Apapi, the serpent, 164.
+Ape, 171, 176, 199, 254, 269, 322."
+969,"
+Apepi, King of Avaris, 228.
+Apet
+    (see GODDESSES, TAÛRT, THÛERIS).
+Apis
+    (see GODS).
+Apries, 269 and note, 311
+    (see HOPHRA and UAHABRA).
+Aquamarine, the, 246.
+Arabs,--
+  their destructive conquest, 134.
+  their name for table of offerings, 107.
+Archers, 29, 184.
+Architecture,--
+  military, 24-34.
+  of private dwellings, 1-20.
+  of public works, 34-45.
+  temples, 46-110.
+  tombs, 111-168.
+    (see MASTABAS, PYRAMIDS, etc.).
+Architraves, 46, 52, 53, 54, 63, 65, 9"
+970,"3.
+Argo, colossi of, 227.
+Arms, 157, 166.
+  battle-axe, 329.
+  boomerangs, 273, 329.
+  bows and arrows, 184, 329.
+  bronze, 305.
+  lance, 232.
+  poignards, 273, 327-8.
+Arsenic, sulphuret of, orpiment, 203.
+Ascalon, 31.
+Asia, 91, 312.
+Asia Minor, 248, 280, 320.
+Asimû
+    (see ELECTRUM).
+Ass, in drawings, 171, 175.
+Assyria, invasion of Egypt by, 314.
+Astronomical tables, 92-4, 164.
+Asûan, 45, 53, 67, 148-50, 209 and note, 226, 228, 256 (note),
+        259, 265.
+    (see SYE"
+971,"NE and TOMBS).
+Athena, 302.
+Athens, bronze of the Lady Takûshet at, 308.
+Ati, pyramid of, 142.
+Avaris, 228.
+Avenue of Sphinxes, 67.
+  at Karnak, 87, 88-9, 230.
+Axe,--
+  battle, 327, 329.
+  iron, 304.
+  stone, 201.
+Axûm, obelisk at, 106.
+
+Ba, or Bi, the soul, 111, 112.
+  abode of the, 128.
+  abode of the, its decoration, 142, 156-7, 162-5.
+  following the sun at night, 159.
+  statuettes to serve as body for, 167.
+  transmigration of, 164.
+Bab el Mandeb, 109 (note).
+Ba-en-p"
+972,"et, 196 and note.
+    (see IRON).
+Bakenrenf
+    (see TOMB).
+Bakhtan, stela of, 109 and note.
+Bari, or boat of the Sun, 108.
+Barks, sacred and funerary, 66, 77, 95, 108, 159, 164, 166, 249, 301,
+        329-30.
+Basalt, 42, 127, 169, 196, 236, 237, 252.
+Basilisk, 201
+    (see URAEUS.)
+Bas-relief,--
+  Abû Simbel, 229.
+  Egyptian forms of, 197-9.
+  gems, 249.
+  gilded, 313.
+  ivory, 273.
+  models for study of, 197.
+  New Empire, 228-9.
+  painting of, 205-6.
+  preparation of w"
+973,"alls for, 192-3.
+  Roman period, 245.
+  sketches for, 193-5.
+  speos of Horemheb, 232.
+  Tell el Amarna, 231.
+  Temple of Abydos, 232.
+  Tomb of Seti I., 232.
+    (See PAINTING, SCULPTURE, and WALL-SCENES.)
+Bast
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Bastions, 28, 29, 32.
+Battlements, 14, 24, 25, 32, 50.
+Beads, 168, 247, 261, 324.
+Beams, 6, 30.
+  of stone, 140.
+Beard,--
+  false, of statue of Horemheb, 233.
+  of sphinx, 208.
+Bedawîn, 20, 42, 101.
+Beds, 281, 292.
+  funerary, 292-4.
+Beer, at"
+974," funerary feast, 180.
+Beetles
+    (see SCARABAEI).
+Begig, obelisk of, 105.
+Beit el Wally
+    (see TEMPLES and HEMI-SPEOS).
+Beni Hasan
+    (see TOMBS).
+Beni Sûef, 38.
+Berlin Museum, parure of jewels at, 322.
+Bersheh
+    (see TOMBS).
+Bes
+    (see GODS).
+Bezel, of rings, 321-2, 331.
+Bi
+    (see BA).
+Bird, human-handed, 91.
+Birket el Kûrûn, lake of, 38, 39.
+Blocks, building,--
+  dressing, 47, Notes 6 and 7.
+  in pyramids, 132, Note 15, 139, Note 33.
+  raising, 49.
+  sizes,"
+975," 49.
+  working, 49, Note 7.
+Boats, toy, 282.
+  transport by, 45, 132.
+    (See BARKS.)
+Bonding, 48-9.
+Bone, work in, 272-3.
+Book of Knowing that which is in Hades, 172.
+Book of Ritual of Burial, 157.
+Book of Ritual of Embalmment, 157.
+Book of the Dead, 129, 157, 165, 172-5, 205, 284-5.
+Book of the Opening of the Mouth, 165.
+Bowls, of blue glazed pottery, 268.
+Bracelets, 249, 276, 308, 324-5, 331, 332.
+Braces, 298, 327.
+Bread,--
+  making of, depicted in tombs, etc., 124, 127, "
+976,"224.
+  offerings of, 166.
+Breccia, 42, 236, 254.
+Bricks,--
+  baked, 4.
+  for pyramids, 132.
+  glazed, 4, 270, Note 4.
+  in civil and military architecture, 46.
+  making of, 3-4, Notes 2 and 3.
+  of mud and straw, 3, 114.
+  sun-dried, 3, 21, 113-14, 145.
+  without straw, 113, 145.
+Brickwork,--
+  civil and military architecture, 46.
+  dikes, 38.
+  domestic architecture, 3,5-6.
+  enclosure walls of temples, 67, 87.
+  foundations, 48.
+  mastabas, 113, 114.
+  panels, 22.
+  pyr"
+977,"amid-mastabas, 145-6.
+  undulating courses, 22, 27.
+Bridge of Zarû, 35.
+Bridges, rarity of, 35.
+British Museum, 171, 270 (note), 272 (note), 295, 303.
+Brocade (polymita), 303.
+Bronze, 105, 195, 196, 248, 260, 261, 304 _et seq._, 328.
+Bronzes, 307-12.
+Brush, hair, 203.
+  reed, 170, 171.
+Bubastis, 1, 52, 58, 88, 266, 308, 310
+    (see TELL BASTA).
+Bubastites
+    (see DYNASTY XXII.).
+""Bûlak, Wooden Man of,"" 214 (note).
+    (see RAEMKA and SHEIKH EL BELED).
+Bull, 199.
+    (see G"
+978,"ODS, APIS).
+Burin, 305, 325.
+
+Cabinet-making, 124. 273. 282 _et seq._
+Caesars
+    (see ROMAN PERIOD).
+Calaite, 247.
+Caligula, 245.
+Cameos, 332.
+Canaanites, 31.
+Canal of Zarû, 35.
+Canals, 37, 45.
+Canopic vases, 167, 252-3, 258-9, 292.
+Canopy, funerary, 293-5, 299-301.
+Capitals
+    (see COLUMNS and PILLARS).
+Caricatures, 171-2.
+Carnelian, 247, 250, 324, 325, 328.
+Cartonnage, 167.
+Cartouches, 4, 48, 61, 250, 262, 271, 278, 299, 302, 322, 323, 324, 326,
+        328, 329.
+Car"
+979,"yatid statues, 288.
+Casing stones, 47, 65, Notes 7 and 9, 132, Note 15, 134, Note 20, 138,
+        Note 32.
+Cat, 171, 172, 311.
+Cattle, 13, 25, 155.
+Cedar wood, 329.
+Ceiling decoration, 18-9, 92, 94, 141, 163-4.
+Cella, 58.
+Cellars, 35, 36.
+Cement, 52, 192, 194.
+Census, 155.
+Ceremonies, religious, performed by king, 95-7, 101-3.
+Chains, 155, 325-6.
+  measuring, 155.
+Chairs, 179, 281, 295-6.
+Champollion, 26, 55, 271.
+Chapel,--
+  furniture of, 166.
+  of mastabas, 116 _et pas._"
+980,"
+  of pyramids, 131 _et pas._, 144.
+  painting and sculpture in, 121 _et seq._, 141-2.
+  reception room of Ka, 118 _et seq._
+    (See ABÛSÎR, ABYDOS, AMENHOTEP, AMENI, APIS, DAHSHÛR, GIZEH, GÛRNEH,
+    KHNÛMHOTEP, MEDINET HABÛ, MEROË, RAMESSEUM, THÛERIS.)
+Chariots, 183, 292.
+Chenoboscion, 45 (note).
+    (see KASR ES SAÎD).
+Cheops
+    (see KHÛFÛ).
+Chephren
+    (see KHAFRA).
+Chester, the Rev. G.J., 303 (note).
+Chests, 281, 283.
+Chisels, 45, 195, 214, 304.
+
+Chlamys, 242.
+Chrys"
+981,"oprase, 246.
+Cinnabar, 203.
+Cisterns, 41.
+Claudius, 245.
+Clay, potter's, of Nile valley, 254-5.
+    (see BRICKS, POTTERY).
+Clerestory, 71.
+Coffins, 157, 259
+    (see MUMMY-CASES and SARCOPHAGI).
+Coins and medals, no Egyptian, 313.
+Collar, Order of the Golden, 155.
+Colonnade, 17, 48, 67-8, 75, 79.
+Colossi, 83, 103, 106, 202, 226-30, 232, 241.
+Columns, monolithic, and built in courses, 52.
+  campaniform, 56-9.
+  Hathor-headed, 61-2.
+  lotus-bud, 59-61.
+  types of, 55.
+Concret"
+982,"e, 128.
+Cones, funerary, 166, 257.
+Contra Esneh, 57.
+Contra Latopolis, 61.
+    (see EL KAB).
+Copper, 35, 105, 203, 304, 305, 321.
+Coptic embroidery, 303 and note.
+Coptos (Koft), 1, 243, 245, 303.
+Coral, 247.
+""Corbelling,"" 51, 52.
+Corn, 36-7, 97.
+Cornice, 9, 15, 24, 50, 53, 61, 148.
+Cos, 302.
+Courtyard,--
+  of houses, 9, 16.
+  of temples, 67, 144.
+Covering walls, 25, 29, 30, 32.
+Cramps, metal, 48.
+Crane, machine, 49,
+Crio-sphinx, 88, 89.
+Crocodile, 171, 189.
+Cruets, 318, "
+983,"320.
+Crypts, of temples, 75, 84.
+Crystals, 250.
+Cups,--
+  of glazed pottery, 268.
+  of gold and silver, 316-17.
+Curtain wall, 30.
+Curve, favourite ancient Egyptian, 283.
+Cylinders, of enamelled stone, 265.
+Cynocephali, 164, 167, 199, 322.
+Cyprus, supposed glass of, 263.
+
+Dahshûr, 113, 114, 131, 134, 142, 323.
+Dakkeh, 2.
+Damanhûr, 332.
+Dams,--
+  embanked, 38.
+  of stone, 40-1.
+Dancers, 177, 178.
+Daphnae, 36 and note
+    (see TAHPANHES and TELL DEFENNEH).
+Dapûr, 30, 31.
+D"
+984,"ate palms, 15, 274.
+Decani, 93.
+Decoration, subjects of, 11, 12, 18-20, 21-2.
+  geometrical, 19, 256, 258, 295, 298.
+    (See COLUMNS, PAINTING, SCULPTURE.)
+Deir el Baharî, 51, 53, 61, 83, 85 and note, 109 (note), 180, 229, 264,
+                266, 287, 299, 302.
+Deir el Gebrawî
+    (see TOMBS).
+Deirel Medineh
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Delta, the, 4, 31, 37, 209, 235, 241, 243, 310, 311.
+Denderah
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Derr, 84.
+Deveria, T., 196 (note).
+Dice, of ivory, 273.
+Die, of co"
+985,"lumn, 57.
+Dike,--
+  of Kosheish, 38.
+  Wady Garraweh, 40.
+  Wady Genneh, 41.
+Diorite, 42, 169, 196, 224, 254.
+Disc, winged, 294.
+Dolls, 282.
+Dôm palms, 15, 274, 318.
+Door, 9, 25, 68, 104, 135, 150, 151, 160, 285.
+  false, for KA, 115, 119-21, 125, 130, 141.
+Door-jambs, 26, 46, 47, 116, 119, 151.
+Double, the
+    (see KA).
+Dovetails, 48.
+Drah Abû'l Neggeh, 147, 158, 266.
+Draught-box, 273.
+Drawing, 169-70.
+  conventional system of, 175-9.
+  teaching of, 169-70.
+  want of per"
+986,"spective in, 182-91.
+    (See PAINTING AND SCULPTURE.)
+Dress, 219, 274-6, 327.
+  articles of,--
+    braces, 298, 327.
+    girdle, 178, 274, 278.
+    head-dress, 241, 276, 286.
+    kilt, 201, 275.
+    klaft, 227, 267.
+    petticoat, 276, 286.
+    robe, embroidered, 308.
+    sandals, 168, 286, 298.
+    surcoat, 302.
+    tunic, 225, 279.
+    vest, 275, 286.
+    wig, 236, 275, 286, 308, 310.
+Drill, 195, 247, 250, 282.
+Duality, 96-7.
+Ducks, 15, 20, 306.
+Dümichen, 109 (note).
+D"
+987,"warf, statue of, 224-6.
+Dynasty III. (Memphite),--
+  possible wood panels of, 210.
+Dynasty IV. (Memphite),--
+  decoration, 89-90.
+  funerary temples, 64 and note, 66.
+  mastabas of, 117, 118, 124, 125, 126, 128.
+  obelisks, 104.
+  pigments, 202 (note).
+  pyramids, 134-7, 140.
+  sarcophagus, 19, 20, 21.
+  scarabaei, 250.
+  statuary, 214.
+Dynasty V. (Memphite),--
+  Abydos, 22.
+  elephants, 273.
+  flesh tints, 204.
+  ivory statuette, 273.
+  mastabas, 117, 119, 120, 122.
+  mod"
+988,"els of offerings, 252.
+  monuments, 208-9.
+  painters' palettes, 202.
+  panels, carved wood, 210.
+  pyramids, 139-40.
+  tables of offerings, 107.
+Dynasty VI. (Elephantine),--
+  in Abydos, Asûan, the Delta, Hermopolis, Thebes, 209 and note.
+  bricks, 113.
+  flesh tints, 204.
+  fortress, 2.
+  mastabas, 157.
+  pyramids, 140, 142.
+  scarabaei, 250.
+  tomb-paintings, 21.
+  tombs, 128, 129, 130, 149 (note), 155, 204, 209 (note).
+Dynasty XI. (Theban),--
+  blue glaze, 265-6.
+  cano"
+989,"pic vases, 167.
+  chairs, 295.
+  fortress, 23.
+  funerary statuettes, 253.
+  mummy-cases, 286.
+  statuary, 226.
+  tombs, 147.
+
+Dynasty XII. (Theban),--
+  blue glaze, 266.
+  fortress, 23, 28.
+  houses, 7, 8, 12, 281-2.
+  jewellery 322, 323
+    (see KAHÛN).
+  Karnak, 76.
+  models of offerings, 252.
+  pyramids 132, 142, 143.
+  statuary, 228, 229.
+  temples, 66.
+  tombs 149 (note), 156
+    (see BENI HASAN).
+Dynasty XIII. (Theban),--
+  funerary couch, 293-4.
+  Karnak, 76.
+"
+990,"  statuary, 226-7, 229, 273-4.
+  statuettes, 233, 273.
+Dynasty XIV. (Xoïte),--
+  Karnak, 76.
+  statuary, 226-7.
+Dynasty XVII. (Theban),--
+  draught-box, 273.
+  jewellery, 323 _et seq_.
+  sarcophagi, 287.
+Dynasty XVIII. (Theban),--
+  in Abydos, 22.
+  blue glaze, 268.
+  Book of the Dead, 173.
+  bronzes, 307.
+  canopic vases, 258.
+  chair, 296-7 (note).
+  colossi, 229-30.
+  domestic architecture, 14 _et seq_.
+  gold and silver plate, 316, 318, 319, 320.
+  gold and silver stat"
+991,"ues, 314-15.
+  jewellery, 323 _et seq_.
+  Karnak, 76-7.
+  in Memphis, 88.
+  mummy-cases, 288-9.
+  painters' palettes, 202.
+  scarabaei, 250.
+  sculpture, 229-31.
+  Speos-sanctuaries, 82, 83, 85.
+  stelae, 45.
+  in Thebes, 88-9.
+  tomb-paintings, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17.
+  tombs, 155 _et seq_.
+  wars, 31.
+Dynasty XIX. (Theban),--
+  blue glaze of, 268.
+  bronzes, 307.
+  colossi, 234.
+  domestic architecture, 19.
+  flesh tints, 205.
+  fortifications, 31, 34.
+  gold and silver pl"
+992,"ate, 317, 321.
+  gold and silver statues, 314.
+  jewellery, 331.
+  Karnak, 78.
+  mummy-cases, 289.
+  tombs, 158 _et pas_.
+Dynasty XX. (Theban),--
+  blue glaze, 268.
+  canopic vases, 258.
+  domestic architecture, 19.
+  fortresses 33
+    (see MEDINET HABÛ).
+  gold and silver plate, 317.
+  jewellery, 332.
+  leather-work, 300, 301.
+  sketches, 171.
+  stela of Bakhtan, 109 (note).
+  temple of Khonsû, 70-2.
+  tiles (Tell el Yahûdeh), 270-2.
+  tomb-paintings, 20.
+  tomb-robberie"
+993,"s, 323.
+  tombs, 158 _et pas_..
+  varnish, 203-4.
+  wood-carving, 235, 274.
+Dynasty XXI. (Priest-kings),--
+  papyri, 174.
+  sculpture, 228.
+  tomb 158 (tomb of Herhor).
+Dynasty XXII. (Bubastite),--
+  bronzes, 307.
+  leather-work, 299, 300.
+  Karnak, 79.
+Dynasty XXV. (Ethiopian),--
+  art, 235.
+  Karnak, 79.
+Dynasty XXVI. (Saïte),--
+  ampullae, 268, 269.
+  bronzes, 307, 311-12.
+  glass, 263.
+  gold statuettes, 315.
+  Renaissance, 235 _et seq._
+  sculpture, 236 _et seq._
+ "
+994," table of offerings, 252.
+  tombs, 165.
+Dynasty XXXI. (Persian),--
+  tapestry, 303.
+
+Earrings, 331, 332.
+Earthquake,--
+  building to resist, 22.
+  of B.C. 27, at Karnak, 79.
+  of B.C. 22, at Thebes, 244.
+Ebony, 295, 323.
+Edfû
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Edinburgh Museum, funerary canopy in, 293-4.
+Eggs, 259.
+Egypt Exploration Fund,--
+  at Bersheh, 148 (note).
+  at Bubastis, 52 (note).
+  at Daphnae, 36 (note).
+  at Deir el Baharî, 83, 85.
+  at Pithom, 36 (note).
+  at Tanis, 104 (n"
+995,"ote).
+  at Tell Gemayemi, 200 (note), 262 (note).
+Ekhmîm, 14, 247, 259, 291, 293, 297, 303 and note.
+El Agandiyeh, 1.
+El Hibeh, 2, 33.
+  at Beni Hasan, 148 (note).
+El Kab, 2, 20, 26, 27, 54, 69, 88, 228, 265
+    (see CONTRA LATOPOLIS).
+El Khozam, 256.
+Electrum, 304, 312, 313.
+Elephant, 273.
+Elephantine, 148, 209 (note), 273, 275.
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Embroidery, 276, 302, 303, 308.
+Emerald, 41, 246, 250.
+Enamel, 265-72.
+  in jewellery, 289, 322, 325, 327.
+Erman, on Stela of Ba"
+996,"khtan, 109 (note).
+Erment, 247.
+Esneh, 92, 144, 245.
+Ethiopia, 106, 318.
+Ethiopian Dynasty
+    (see DYNASTY XXV.).
+Etruria, imitated scarabs of, 248.
+Eye,--
+  as amulet, 247-8.
+  in decoration, 268.
+  on sarcophagi, 285.
+  sacred, 168.
+    (See ÛTA).
+Eyes of statues, 261, 310.
+
+Fan, 323.
+Fayûm, the, 19, 38, 39, 66, 105, 134, 243, 259, 261, 304.
+Feast,--
+  funerary, 118, 123, 125, 166.
+  funerary of Horemheb, 179-80.
+Feasts, 118.
+Felspar, 247, 250, 324, 328, 329.
+Ferry, "
+997,"34.
+Feshn, 33.
+Figs, 267.
+Fires, 2, 12.
+Fire-sticks, 282.
+Fish,--
+  in decoration, 268, 278, 316.
+  in enamel, 267.
+  offerings of, 228.
+Florence Museum, Egyptian war-chariot in, 292 (note).
+Flowers
+    (see LOTUS),--
+  in temples, 67.
+  offerings of, 180, 228.
+Fords, 34.
+Fortresses, 20-34.
+  of Abydos, 20-6.
+  of El Kab, 20, 27.
+  of Kom el Ahmar, 25, 26.
+  of Kûmmeh, 28-9.
+  of Semneh, 28-30.
+Foundations, 47, 48.
+Frieze, 97.
+Frog, as amulet, 247.
+Frontier, 28, 31, 3"
+998,"6-7.
+Furnaces, glass, 259, 260.
+Furniture, 281-4.
+  ancient Egyptian love of beautiful, 246.
+  funerary, 128, 166-8, 251 _et seq._, 292 _et seq._
+  funerary, of poor, 167-8, 255.
+
+Galleries,--
+  in houses, 17.
+Garden, of private house, 13, 14, 15.
+Garnet, 246.
+  scarabaei of, 250.
+Gazelle, 123, 128, 153, 171, 176, 180, 252.
+Gebel Abûfeydeh, 44, 45.
+Gebel Barkal
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Gebel Sheikh Herideh, 45.
+Gebel Silsileh
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Gebeleyn, 33, 256.
+Geese, 15, 19,"
+999," 166, 171, 177, 296, 306.
+Genii, 159, 164, 258 (note).
+  of On, Sop, and Khonû, 96, 324.
+Gerf Husein, 85.
+Girgeh, 14, 38.
+Gizeh
+    (see PYRAMIDS, TEMPLES, TOMBS).
+Gizeh, Museum, 4, 106, 107, 171, 174, 195, 214, 216-26, 227, 229, 232-3,
+        237, 239, 241, 242, 244, 262, 265, 267, 268, 271, 273, 274, 275,
+        278, 286, 298, 301, 306, 307, 308, 309, 315, 316, 323-30, 331.
+Glass, 259-65.
+  factories, at El Kab, the Ramesseum, Tell el Amarna, Tell Eshmûneyn, 265.
+  factory at"
+1000," Tell Gemayemi, 262 (note).
+Glazed stone and ware, 165-72
+    (see POTTERY).
+Goat, 176.
+Gods,--
+  Amen, 33, 97, 101, 104, 105, 109, 171, 231, 232, 249, 268, 289, 307, 315,
+        327.
+  Amen Ra, 96.
+  Anhûr, 311.
+  Anubis, 168, 304.
+  Apis, 147, 263.
+  Bes, 53, 57, 254, 277, 318.
+  Harpocrates, 307.
+  Hor (Horus), 96, 105.
+  Horus (Hor), 64, 96, 105, 207, 259, 267, 309-10, 314.
+  Khonsû, 60, 64, 70, 72, 74, 75, 97, 109 and note, 235.
+  Mentû, 97, 329.
+  Min, 118.
+  Nefertû"
+1001,"m, 310, 314.
+  Osiris, 20, 53, 54, 95, 142, 168, 189, 237, 249, 304.
+  Ptah, 168, 315.
+  Ra, 208, 327.
+  Ra Harmakhis, 105.
+  Seb, 324.
+  Set (Typhon), 96, 196.
+  Shû, 311.
+  Thoth, 96, 118, 167, 259, 314.
+  Tûm, 105.
+Goddesses,--
+  Apet, 237 (note).
+  Bast, 168, 311.
+  Hathor, 53, 54, 55, 61, 62, 69, 70, 82, 83, 97, 168, 237.
+  Isis, 95, 241, 247, 249, 250, 287, 294, 310, 314.
+  Khûit, 259.
+  Ma, 262, 294.
+  Maut, 97, 289.
+  Neith, 250.
+  Nekheb, 92.
+  Nephthys, 237, 249"
+1002,", 250, 287, 294, 310.
+  Pakhet, 42, 82.
+  Sekhet, 250, 277, 311.
+  Sothis, 118.
+  Taûrt, 237 (note).
+  Tefnût, 311.
+  Thûeris, 237.
+  Ûati, 92.
+Gold, 11, 304, 312-21.
+Goldsmith, 313.
+Golenischeff, 228.
+Gouge, 195.
+Granaries, 1, 10, 36.
+Granite, 6, 47, 66, 76, 103, 132, 136, 137, 169,196, 197, 199, 214, 247,
+        254, 290.
+  black, 42, 165, 233.
+  grey, 41, 236, 244.
+  red, 42, 52, 65, 77, 107, 127, 165, 232, 236.
+Grapes, models, 166, 267.
+Greeks,--
+  Egyptian fortifica"
+1003,"tion in time of, 34.
+  Egyptian patterns among, 320.
+  their imitation scarabs, 248.
+  their influence on astronomical tables, 93.
+  their influence on columns, 56.
+  their influence on jewellery, 332.
+  their influence on sculpture, 241-4.
+  their peripteral temples, 69.
+  their similar system of building construction, 48.
+  their theory of mounds, 5.
+    (See PTOLEMAIC PERIOD.)
+Grenfell, Major-General Sir F., 149 (note), and 209 (note).
+Greyhound, in drawings, 176.
+Griffith, F"
+1004,". Ll., 200 (note), 262 (note).
+Grindstone, 247.
+Gum tragacanth, 203.
+Gûrneh, 60.
+Gypsum, 203.
+
+Hadrian, 243, 245 (note).
+Hairpins, 277.
+Hammamat, valley of, 41.
+Hammer, 195, 313.
+Hapi, genius, 258 (note).
+Hapizefa
+    (see TOMB).
+Harpocrates
+    (see GODS).
+Hatasû
+    (see HATSHEPSÛT).
+Hathor
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Hatshepsût (Hatasû), 42, 77, 85, 104, 105, 109 and note, 296 (note), 313
+                     and note.
+Hawara, 257, 291.
+Hawk, 254, 259, 267, 322, 326.
+Hawor"
+1005,"th, Mr. Jesse, 296 (note).
+Headrest, 128, 166, 277.
+Hedgehog, 254, 267.
+Hekalli, 144.
+Heliopolis, 26, 32, 103, 104, 309.
+Helwân, dam at baths of, 40.
+Hematite, 247, 250.
+Hemi-speos,--
+  Beit el Wally, 84, 205 (note), 235.
+  Deir el Baharî, 83, 85.
+  Derr, 84.
+  Gerf Husein, 85.
+  Wady Sabûah, 85.
+Herhor, 158, 261, 288.
+Hermopolis, 209.
+Herodotus, 38, 39-40, 88, 195.
+Hesî, 210.
+Hieroglyphs, 55, 60, 180, 236, 257, 261-2 and note, 268, 270, 284, 285,
+        289, 300, 316, 325"
+1006,".
+Hippopotamus, 189, 236.
+Hittites, 31, 185.
+    (see KHETA).
+Honey, 203, 254.
+Hophra, the biblical, 269.
+Hor Horus
+    (see GODS).
+Hor, portrait statue of one, 242.
+Horbeit, 311, 312.
+Horemheb, 50, 52, 53, 82, 155, 158, 179-80, 205, 231, 232, 233.
+Horhotep
+    (see TOMB).
+Hori Ra, wooden statuette of, 275.
+Hori, scribe, ûshabtiû of, 257.
+Horn, objects in, 272.
+Horse, date of introduction of, 153-4.
+Horshesû, 64 and note. 207.
+Horus
+    (see GODS).
+Horûta, 257.
+Houses, 1"
+1007,"-20.
+Hûi
+    (see TOMB).
+Hûnefer, his papyrus, 173-4.
+Huts, 20, 8.
+Hyksos sphinxes
+    (see PERIOD).
+Hypostyle hall, 72, 74, 76, 89, 92, 102, 106.
+  Abû Simbel, 84.
+  Abydos, 60, 85-6.
+  Gûrneh, 60.
+  Kalaat Addah, 82.
+  Karnak, 34 (note), 46, 57, 60, 62-3,76, 78, 79, 100.
+  temple of Khonsû, 71.
+  Medinet Habû, 60.
+  Ramesseum, 57, 60.
+
+Ibis, 259.
+Ibrahim, Prince, 240.
+Illahûn, 39, 143.
+Incense, 95, 126, 273.
+Ink, black, 4, 170, 193, 285.
+  red, 44, 170, 171, 193, 285."
+1008,"
+Inscriptions, absence of in Temple of Sphinx, 66.
+  obelisk, 313 and note.
+  pyramid of Ûnas, 163.
+  sarcophagi, 127, 157, 165.
+  tombs, 141-2, 151, 155-6.
+    (See HIEROGLYPHS).
+Iron, 195-7, 304.
+Irrigation, 35, 37-41.
+Isiemkheb, 180, 299-300.
+Isis
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Italy, Egyptian patterns in, 320.
+Ivory, 272, 273-4, 283.
+
+Jade, 254.
+Jasper, 247, 250.
+Jewellery, 249, 321-33.
+Jews, 303.
+Jomard, 55.
+
+Kaâpir
+    (see TOMB).
+Kadesh (Qodshû), 31, 101, 185, 187.
+Kahûn"
+1009,", Twelfth Dynasty Town, 1, 6 (note), 7, 282.
+Kalaat Addah
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Kalabsheh
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Kames, 323, 330.
+Ka, or Double, 111, 112, 118, 130, 141-2, 156-7, 162, 163, 165-7, 212-14,
+        257.
+Ka-name of Pepi I, 270.
+Karnak
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Kashta, 235 (note).
+Kasr es Saîd
+    (see CHENOBOSCION).
+Kebhsennef, 258 (note).
+Keneh, 265, 332.
+Khabiûsokari
+    (see TOMB).
+Khafra (Chephren), 89, 133, 137, 134, 214, 217-18, 224, 253.
+Khamha
+    (see TOMB).
+Khep"
+1010,"er, or Khepra
+    (see SCARABAEI).
+Kheta, 101, 185, 187-8.
+Khetî
+    (see TOMB).
+Khmûnû, 148.
+Khnûmhotep
+    (see TOMB).
+Khonsû
+    (see GODS).
+Khonû, 96, 324.
+Khû, the, 111, 112.
+Khûenaten (Amenhotep IV.), 15, 155, 230.
+Khûfû (Cheops), 133, 134-7, 206, 312, 314.
+Khûfû Poskhû, 20, 22.
+Khûit
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Klaft, 227, 306.
+Knives, 304, 306.
+Koft, I
+    (see COPTOS).
+Kohl (antimony, collyrium), 254, 266, 273.
+Kom ed Damas, 242.
+Kom el Ahmar, 2, 25, 26.
+Kom es Sult"
+1011,"an, 21, 23, 27.
+Kom Ombo
+    (see OMBOS and TEMPLES).
+Kosheish, 38.
+Kûmmeh, 28.
+Kûrnet Murraee, 263, 294.
+
+Labyrinth, the, 59.
+Lake Moeris, 38-40.
+Lakes, sacred, 77.
+Lamp, 19, 307 (?).
+Lapis-lazuli, 203, 247, 250, 304, 324, 325, 328, 329.
+Lasso, 95.
+Lattice, 11.
+Lead, 304.
+Leather, 292, 298-301.
+Léfébure, M, 161.
+Leopard, 176.
+Lewis, Prof. Hayter, 272 (note).
+Leyden Museum, 266 (note), 292 (note).
+Libations
+    (see OFFERINGS).
+Libyan cliffs and plateau, 39, 113, 207, 2"
+1012,"09 (note).
+Libyans, 21, 207, 209 (note).
+Limestone, 42, 47, 65, 76, 107, 113, 127, 132, 135, 138, 139, 140, 147,
+        148, 166, 169, 192, 195, 200, 224, 232, 236, 252, 253, 254, 265,
+        312.
+Linant, M, 39.
+Lindos, 302.
+Linen, 130, 286, 302, 314.
+Lintels, 9, 26, 46, 47, 150, 151.
+Lion, 171, 176, 199, 293, 295, 322.
+Lisht, 89, 134, 252.
+Loftie, the Rev. W.J., 201 (note). 249 (note).
+Looms, 297, 298.
+Lotus, 34 (note), 57, 58, 60-61, 62, 64, 116, 180, 247, 254, 266, 268, 269"
+1013,",
+        271, 273, 277, 278, 279, 281, 299, 316.
+Louvre Museum, 208, 214, 215, 224, 226, 227, 239, 240, 266 (note), 271,
+        275, 278, 295, 308, 313, 316, 322, 331.
+Luxor
+    (see TEMPLES).
+
+Ma
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Magdilû,
+    (see MIGDOLS).
+Magnaura, 320.
+Maillet, M., 64.
+Malachite, 247, 304.
+Mallet, 45, 197, 202.
+Manfalût, 144.
+Manna
+    (see TOMB).
+Mariette, 64 (note), 129, 210, 227, 271.
+Masahirti, 299.
+Masonry, 48, 49.
+Massarah, 43.
+Mastabas, 113-31, Notes 12"
+1014,"-14.
+    (see TOMB and TOMBS).
+Masts, 72, 103.
+Maut
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Mechanical appliances,--
+  crane, 49.
+  pivots, 283.
+  rollers, 45.
+  wedges, 45.
+Medamot
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Medinet el Fayûm, 39.
+Medinet Habû
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Medûm, 38 (note), 131, 143, 144, 202 (note).
+Memnon, 103, 230, 245.
+    (see AMENHOTEP III.).
+Memphis, 1, 6, 32, 38, 43, 47, 52, 58, 88, 113, 132, 147, 156,
+        157, 162, 165, 209, 226, 228, 235, 241, 252.
+Mena, 38, 64, 206.
+Mendes, 31"
+1015,"1.
+Menkara (Mycerinus), 128 (note), 134, 137, 286 (Notes 7, 17, 31).
+Menkaûhor, 224.
+Menkheperra, 299.
+Menshîyeh, 107.
+Mentû
+    (see GODS).
+Mentûemhat, 314.
+Merenptah, 235.
+Merenra, 133, 140.
+Meresankhû, 144.
+Mermashiû, 227.
+Meroë, 144, 244.
+Merom, 31.
+Merrûka, stela of, 120.
+Mesheikh, 69, 229.
+Metals, ancient Egyptian classification of, 304.
+Migdols, 31-3
+    (see MAGDILÛ).
+Milk, offerings of, 95.
+Min (Khem)
+    (see GODS).
+Minieh, 148.
+Mining, 35, 41.
+Mirrors, 277,"
+1016," 306, 323, 324.
+Moats of Canaanite cities, 31.
+Moeris, 38-9
+    (see AMENEMHAT III.).
+Moeris, Lake, 38-40.
+Mohammeriyeh, 144.
+Mokattam, 136.
+Mortar, 48, 114.
+Mosû, 310.
+Mounds, 1, 5-6.
+Mummies,--
+  animals and eggs, 259.
+  beds and canopies for, 292-5.
+  boats for transport of, 301.
+  burial of, 112, 127-8, 153, 154, 167-8, 173.
+  ""eternal house"" of, 112.
+  furniture for, 284, 292 _et seq._
+    (see FURNITURE).
+  jewellery for, 321.
+    (see JEWELLERY).
+  models of, 166.
"
+1017,"
+  panoply of, 167
+    (see AMULETS).
+  sledges for, 292.
+Mummy,--
+  Aahhotep, 157, 323.
+  Amenhotep I., 157.
+  Menkara, 137.
+  Pinotem III., 332.
+  Sekenenra, 157.
+  Thothmes III., 157.
+Mummy-cases, 259, 261-2, 284-92.
+Murrhine, false, 263 (note)
+Musical instruments, 166.
+  lute, 180, 267, 279.
+  sistrum, 95.
+  tambourine, 95.
+  trumpet, 182.
+Mycerinus, 286
+    (see MENKARA).
+
+Naga, group from, 244.
+Naï, 276.
+Naos, 61, 108, 312, 326.
+    (see SHRINE).
+Napata, 144.
+N"
+1018,"aville, M., 36 and note, 52 (note).
+Necho, 267 and note.
+Necklace, 249, 276, 322, 325.
+    (see ÛSEKH).
+Nectenebo, 62.
+Neferhotep
+    (see TOMB).
+Nefert, 219-20.
+Nefertari, 84.
+Nefertûm
+    (see GODS).
+Negadeh
+    (see TOMBS).
+Negroes, 41, 91.
+Neith
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Nekheb
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Nemhotep, dwarf, 225.
+Nenka
+    (see TOMB).
+Nephthys
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Nesikhonsû, 264.
+Net, 95.
+Netemt, 261.
+New York Museum, 172.
+Niche of tombs, origin of, 152
+   "
+1019," (see DOOR, SERDAB, and STELA).
+Nile, 34, 38, 39, 45, 48, 252, 254, 273.
+Niles, the (deities), 91, 92, 228.
+Nitocris, daughter of Psammetichus I., 237.
+Nomes, represented, 91-2.
+Nubia, 28, 47, 66, 82, 259.
+Nûrri
+    (see PYRAMIDS).
+
+Oasis, the, 20.
+Obelisk, 45, 67, 103-6, 313.
+  Axûm, 106.
+  Begig, 105.
+  Fourth Dynasty, 104.
+  Hatshepsût, 104, 106, 313 and note.
+  Heliopolis, 104.
+  Luxor, 104.
+  Tanis, 104.
+Obsidian, 247, 250.
+Ocean, celestial, 93.
+Ochre, 203.
+OEnochoe"
+1020,", glass, 263.
+Offerings,--
+  corn, 97.
+  milk, 95.
+  oil, 95.
+  wine, 95, 97.
+    (See FEAST, LIBATIONS, TABLES OF OFFERINGS.)
+Oil, 95.
+Ombos, 26, 36, 58, 88, 92, 245,
+    (see KOM OMBO and TEMPLES).
+On, genius of, 96.
+Osiris
+    (see GODS).
+Ostraka, 36.
+Ostrakon, caricature, 172.
+Oxen, 123, 128, 153, 175, 182.
+
+
+Pahûrnefer, 214.
+Painting, 192-3, 202-6, 292-3.
+    (see DRAWING, PERSPECTIVE, WALL-SCENES).
+Pakhet
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Palestrina, mosaic, 189-92.
+Palette,"
+1021,"--
+  painter's, 202.
+  scribe's, 128, 166, 170.
+Palm capital, 58.
+Palms, for roofing, 2, 11
+    (see DATE and DÔM PALMS).
+Papyri, 64 (note), 160, 167, 170, 171, 172-5, 205.
+    (see BOOK).
+Papyrus, 57, 190, 327.
+Pavilion,--
+  of private house, 17.
+  of Medinet Habû, 32.
+  of Nectenebo, Philae, 62.
+Pearl, mother-of-, 247.
+Pearls, 247.
+Pectoral, 322, 323, 326, 327.
+Pedishashi, 239, 240.
+Pegs, 283.
+Pen, 175, 215.
+Pepi I., 140, 253, 270.
+Pepi II., 133, 140, 142.
+Perfumes, 67"
+1022,", 128, 157, 180.
+Period,--
+  Hyksos, 227-8, 307.
+  Persian, 174, 303.
+  Ptolemaic, 56, 58, 61, 66, 69-70, 72, 79, 90, 93, 98, 175, 208, 241-3,
+        249, 290, 303, 315, 332.
+  Roman, 58, 66, 90, 98, 173, 208, 243-5.
+  Theban, second, 19 and note.
+
+Peristyle, 67, 74, 83, 84, 106
+    (see PROCESSIONAL HALL).
+Perspective, 177-92.
+Pestle and mortar, 170.
+Petamenoph
+    (see TOMB).
+Petrie, W.M.F., 7, 10, 12, 45, 64-5, 104, 113, 131, 197, 200, 202, 249,
+        267, 282, 291, 334"
+1023," _et seq._
+Pharaoh, 66, 67, 95-7, 98, 101-3.
+Philae
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Phoenicians, 248, 263, 303, 320.
+Piankhi I., 34.
+Piankhi II., 235 (note).
+Pibesa, 237.
+Pigments, 202-3.
+Pillars, 52, 53-5, 65, 68, 116, 149, 151.
+Pincushion, 277.
+Pinotem II., 299.
+Pinotem III., 299, 332.
+Pisebkhanû, 228.
+Pithom, i, 36 and note.
+Plate, 315-20
+    (see GOLD and SILVER).
+Pliny, 303.
+Pohûnika
+    (see TOMB).
+Poignards, 327, 328.
+Point, 47 (note), 6, 195, 197, 201, 247, 250.
+Polymita, 30"
+1024,"3.
+Ponds, 8, 15, 186.
+Porch, 13
+    (see PORTICO).
+Porphyry, 42, 247.
+Portcullis, in pyramids, 136, Notes 26, 27, 137, 139.
+Portico, 13, 16, 51, 54, 57, 60, 67, 116, 149, 150, 152, 206.
+Portrait, panel-painting, 291-2.
+    (see BAS-RELIEF, MUMMY-CASES, and STATUES).
+Posno collection, 308.
+Pottery, 166,254-9.
+    (see GLAZED WARE and VASES).
+Priests
+    (see PHARAOH and others).
+Prisse, M., 193.
+Processional Hall (promenoir), 53, 58 and note, 60, 77
+    (see PERISTYLE).
+Prona"
+1025,"os, 70, 74-5.
+Psammetichus I., 236.
+Psammetichus, scribe, 237 and note.
+Psar, 322, 331.
+Ptah
+    (see GODS).
+Ptahhotep
+    (see TOMB).
+Ptahmes, 208.
+Pûnt, Land of, 109 and note.
+Pylons, 13, 16, 49, 50, 67, 77, 78, 79, 80, 85, 87, 100-1, 186-8, 189, 232.
+
+Pyramid of,--
+  Amenemhat III. (Hawara), 143.
+  Ati, 142.
+  Khafra (Second Pyramid of Gizeh), 133, 134, 137.
+  Khûfû (Great Pyramid of Gizeh), 133, 134-7.
+  Menkara (Third Pyramid of Gizeh), 134, 137.
+  Merenra, 133, 140.
+"
+1026,"  Pepi I., 140.
+  Pepi II., 133, 140, 142.
+  Sakkarah, Step, or Great, 138-9, Note 32.
+  Sneferû (Medûm), 132,143-4.
+  Teti, 140.
+  Ûnas, 133, 138, 139-40.
+  Ûsertesen I., 143.
+  Ûsertesen II. (Illahûn), 143.
+
+Pyramidion, 105, 147.
+Pyramid-mastaba tombs, 145-8,
+Pyramids, 131-45, and Notes, pp, 334-7.
+  Abûsîr, 131, 134, 138, 140.
+  Abydos (Hekalli), 144.
+  Dahshûr, 131, 134, 142.
+  Esneh (Mohammeriyeh), 144.
+  Ethiopia (Meroë, Napata, Nûrri), 144.
+  Fayûm (Hawara and Illahûn"
+1027,"), 134, 143.
+  Gizeh, 131, 133-7, 140.
+  Lisht, 134, 142.
+  Manfalût, 144.
+  Sakkarah, 133, 134, 137, 138-42.
+Qodshû, 31.
+    (see KADESÛ).
+Quarries, 35, 41-5, 132.
+
+Ra
+    (see GODS).
+Ra Harmakhis
+    (see GODS).
+Raemka, 220
+    (see SHEIKH EL BELED).
+Rahotep, 214, 219.
+Ram, 88, 89, 199.
+Rameses I., 78, 158.
+Rameses II. (Sesostris), 47, 52, 78, 80, 84, 86, 101, 103, 158, 188, 202,
+        226, 231, 232, 234, 235, 287-8, 321, 331.
+Rameses III., 4, 32-3, 87, 101, 184, 194,"
+1028," 195, 270, 272, 301, 306, 321.
+Rameses IV., 160.
+Rameses IX., 331.
+Ramesseum, the, 36, 37, 47, 57, 60, 62, 72, 92, 100, 103, 159, 187, 234,
+        265.
+Ramessides, the, 1, 23, 109, 153, 168, 235, 266, 290, 320.
+Ramparts, 24, 30, 33, 87.
+Ranefer, 214, 218.
+Rats, 171, 259.
+Red Sea, emerald mines, 41.
+Redesîyeh, 229.
+Reed brush, 171.
+Reeds, 180, 266.
+Rekhmara
+    (see TOMB).
+Renaissance, 175, 235-40, 290.
+Repoussé work
+    (see GOLD, JEWELLERY, SILVER).
+Reservoir, 38-41, 252
"
+1029,"
+    (see DAMS, DIKES, IRRIGATION).
+Rhind, A.H., 293 and note.
+Rings, 267, 305, 321-2, 331.
+Roads, 30, 34, 35, 41.
+Rock-cut temples and tombs
+    (see SPEOS and TOMBS).
+Roofs, 2, 9, 10, 11, 32, 51, 90.
+Rougé, M. le Vicomte de, 109 (note).
+
+_Sa_, amulet, 237 (note).
+Sabûah, Wady
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Sacrifices, 95, 97.
+    (see FEAST and OFFERINGS).
+Sails of leather-work, 301.
+Sais, 26, 266.
+Sakkarah, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 126, 129, 130 (note), 133,
+        134, 13"
+1030,"7, 138, 140, 144, 158, 189, 197, 204, 217, 221, 226, 252,
+        259, 269, 270, 310, 313.
+    (see PYRAMIDS and TOMBS).
+Sân, 1, 26.
+    (see TANIS).
+Sanctuaries
+    (see SPEOS and TEMPLES).
+Sanctuary, the essential part of a temple, 66-7.
+Sandals, 168, 286, 298.
+Sandstone, 6, 43, 47, 67, 76, 87, 103, 169, 199, 202, 230, 252.
+Sapping, 23, 25.
+Sarcophagi, 42, 127, 129, 132, 137, 140, 157, 160.
+    (see MUMMY-CASES).
+Sarcophagus of,--
+  Aahhotep II., 288-9.
+  Ahmes I., 287.
+  A"
+1031,"hmesnefertari, 288-9.
+  Amenhotep I., 287.
+  Khûfû, 136.
+  Khûfû Poskhû, 20, 22.
+  Menkara, 128 (note), 137.
+  Rameses II., 287, 288.
+  Seti I., 161, 165 (note).
+  Thothmes II., 287.
+    (See MUMMY-CASES.)
+Sardanapalus, 314.
+Sardinia, 248.
+Saucepan of Rameses III., 306.
+Saw, 247, 250.
+Scaling, as a mode of attack, 23, 25.
+Scarabaei, 248-50.
+  funerary, 168, 265, 325-6.
+Scarabaeoids, 248.
+Schist, 265.
+Schliemann, Dr., 328.
+Schweinfurth, Dr., 40.
+Scissors, of bronze, 306.
+"
+1032,"Scorpion, 322, 329.
+Scribe,--
+  cross-legged, 214-17.
+  kneeling, 214, 222-3, 239.
+Sculpture,--
+  absence of, in chapel of Pyramid of Medûm, 144.
+  absence of, in Temple of Sphinx, 66.
+  Greek influence on, 240-3.
+  Hyksos, school of, 227-8.
+  mastabas, 119 _et seq._, 130.
+  Memphite school of, 209-25.
+  methods of, 200-2.
+  New Empire school of, 228, 235.
+  provincial schools of, 228.
+  pylons, 186-8.
+  pyramids, 137.
+  Renaissance school of, 235-40.
+  Theban (first) school"
+1033," of, 226.
+  XIII. and XIV. dynasties, 226-7.
+    (See BAS-RELIEF and STATUES.)
+Seals, 321-2.
+Seb
+    (see GODS).
+Sebâkh diggers, 237 and note.
+Sebekemsaf, 202, 227.
+Sebekhotep III., 227.
+Sekenenra, 157.
+Sekhet
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Selle
+    (see ZARÛ).
+Semneh, 20, 28-9, 50.
+Sennetmû, mummy-case of wife of, 286.
+    (see TOMB).
+Sepa, 208.
+Serdab, 126-7, 129, 139, 152, 166, 167.
+Serpentine, 169, 195, 236, 247, 252.
+Serpents, 141, 159, 164, 259, 329.
+    (see APAPI).
+Seseb"
+1034,"eh
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Sesostris, 5.
+    (see RAMESES II.).
+Set
+    (see GODS).
+Seti I., King, 34 (note), 42, 47, 48, 49, 51, 78, 85, 101, 107, 158, 161,
+        162, 163, 195, 231, 232, 235, 270.
+Shabaka, 235 (note).
+Sharonah
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Sheikh Abd el Gûrneh,--
+  bronzes from, 307.
+  enamels from, 263.
+Sheikh el Beled, statue of, 214 and note, 220-1, 224, 226
+    (see RAEMKA).
+Sheikh Saîd, 148.
+Sheshonk, 33, 235, 270.
+Shrines, 66, 108
+    (see NAOS).
+Shû
+    (see "
+1035,"GODS).
+Silsilis, 38, 43-5, 232.
+Silver,--
+  bark of, 329-30.
+  chain of, 322.
+  eyes of, 310.
+  hatchets of, 327.
+  nuggets of, 11.
+  poignard hilt of, 328.
+  repoussé work of, 316-17.
+  rings of, 321.
+  sources of, 312.
+  statues of, 314-15.
+  vases and vessels of, 316 _et seq._
+  wire of, 248.
+Sinai, 41, 66, 101.
+Sistrum, 53, 61, 95, 260.
+Sitû, 252.
+Situlae, bronze, 307.
+Siût, 114, 148, 226, 242.
+Skemka, 214.
+Sky, Egyptian idea of, 90.
+Sledges,--
+  for transport of s"
+1036,"tone, 45.
+  funerary, 292, 294.
+Sneferu, 132, 144, 209.
+Soane collection, 165 (note).
+Soil of Egypt, 2, 4, 48.
+Soleb
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Sop, genius, 324.
+Sothis, feast of, 118.
+Soudan, gold from, 313.
+Soul, the
+   (see BA).
+Speos, the, 42, 81-5.
+  Abû Simbel, 53, 82-4.
+  Kalaat Addah, 81, 82.
+  Silsilis, 82, 232.
+    (See HEMI-SPEOS.)
+Speos Artemidos
+    (see TEMPLES).
+Sphinx, the, 64 (note), 65, 206-8.
+Sphinxes, 325.
+  andro-, 89, 230.
+  avenues of, 67, 88-9, 230.
+  c"
+1037,"rio-, 88, 89.
+  Hyksos, 227-8.
+  New Empire, 229.
+Spinners, 124.
+Spoons, 273, 278-81, 306.
+Stabling, 13, 35, 87.
+Staircase,--
+  fortress, 24.
+  house, 11, 16.
+  temple, 70, 71, 85.
+  temple pylons, 50.
+Statue of,--
+  Alexandrian Isis, 241.
+  portrait of Amenhotep I., 229.
+  baker, 224.
+  cross-legged scribe of Gizeh, 217.
+  cross-legged scribe of the Louvre, 214-15.
+  Hor, 242.
+  Horemheb, 232-3.
+  Khafra, 214, 217-18, 253.
+  kneeling scribe, 214, 223.
+  Mermashiû, 227.
"
+1038,"
+  Nefert, 219-20.
+  Nemhotep (dwarf), 225-6.
+  Pahûrnefer, 214.
+  Prince of Siût, 241-2.
+  a queen, 232.
+  Rahotep, 219.
+  Sebekemsaf, 202, 227.
+  Sebekhotep III., 227.
+  Sheikh el Beled (Raemka), 214, 220-1, 224.
+  Sheikh el Beled's wife, 221-2.
+  Skemka, 214.
+  Thothmes I., 229.
+  Thothmes II., 229.
+Statues,--
+  in houses, 13.
+  in temples, 106, 108-10.
+  Ka, 126-7, 152, 163, 166, 211-14.
+Statuette of,--
+  Amen, gold, 315.
+  a girl, 274-5.
+  Hori Ra, wood, 275.
+  Horu"
+1039,"s, bronze, 309-10.
+  Horus, enamelled, 267.
+  kneeling genius, bronze, 309.
+  Mosû, bronze, 310.
+  Naï, wood, 276.
+  officer, wood, 275-6.
+  priest, wood, 275, 276.
+  Ptah, gold, 315.
+  Ptahmes, enamelled, 268.
+  Takûshet, bronze, 308-9.
+Statuettes,--
+  alabaster, 253.
+  bronze, 307-10.
+  clay, 257.
+  Deir el Baharî, 266.
+  gilt, 314.
+  gold, 314-15.
+  ivory, 273-4.
+  limestone, 253.
+  period XVIII. and XIX. dynasties, 307.
+  XXII dynasty, 307.
+  XXVI dynasty, 307.
+  wo"
+1040,"od, Ptolemaic, 307.
+    (See ÛSHABTIÛ.)
+Stela, of Bakhtan, 109 and note.
+  of Merrûka, 120.
+Stelae, 24, 104.
+  of mastabas, 115, 120-1, 125.
+  pyramid-mastabas, 146.
+  rock-cut tombs, 152, 157.
+Step Pyramid
+    (see PYRAMIDS).
+Stone, 46.
+  dikes, 38.
+  grating, 71.
+    (See ALABASTER, etc.)
+Storage, 16, 35, 36, 87, 132.
+Stroganoff, Count, 308.
+Stuart, Villiers, 300 (note).
+Stucco, 50, 170, 261, 284, 314.
+Sûit, mother of Horemheb, 179.
+Swine,--
+  alleged impurity of, 195-6"
+1041,".
+  transmigration into, 164.
+Sycamores, 8, 15.
+  wood of, 205, 274, 284, 290.
+Syene, 45, 77, 196, 209 (note), 243.
+    (see ASÛAN).
+Syenite, 139.
+Syria, 31, 34 (note), 87, 187,
+  248, 303, 312.
+_Ta_, amulet, 247, 286.
+Tabernacle, 66.
+Tables of offerings, 106-7, 115, 119, 130, 157, 166, 237, 251-2.
+Taharka, 52, 79.
+Tahpanhes, 36 (note).
+    (see TELL DEFENNEH and DAPHNAE).
+Tahûti, general, 316.
+Takûshet, 308-9.
+Tambourine, 95.
+Tanis, 1, 47, 103, 104 (note), 197, 200 (note),"
+1042," 227, 228, 234, 235, 307,
+        311.
+    (see SÃN and TEMPLES).
+Tanks, of houses, 16.
+Tapestry, 296-8, 303 and note.
+Tat, amulet, 286 and note.
+Tau-cross
+    (see ANKH).
+Taûd, 250.
+Taûrt
+    (see APET and THÛERIS).
+Taxation, system of, 35.
+Tefnût
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Tehneh, 45.
+Tell Basta, I
+    (see BUBASTIS).
+Tell Defenneh, 36 (note),
+    (see TAPHANHES and DAPHNAE).
+Tell el Amarna, 13, 155, 197 (note), 231-3, 263.
+Tell el Maskûtah, I
+    (see PITHOM and THÛKÛ).
+Te"
+1043,"ll el Yahûdeh, tiles of, 270-2.
+Tell es Seba, 311.
+Tell Eshmûneyn, 265.
+Tell Gemayemi, 200, 262 (note).
+Temenos, 87-9.
+Temples, 46-110.
+  Abû Simbel, 53, 82-4, 319.
+  Abydos, 20, 47, 49, 51, 60, 64, 85-6, 90, 194, 232.
+  Beit el Wally, 84, 205 (note), 235.
+  Bubastis, 52 and note, 58, 88.
+  Coptos, 245.
+  Deir el Baharî, 51, 53, 61, 83, 85 and note, 229.
+  Deir el Medineh, 69-70.
+  Derr, 84.
+  Denderah, 53, 57, 61, 72, 73, 88, 91, 92, 94, 100, 245.
+  Edfû, 56, 57, 58, 64, 72, "
+1044,"74, 75, 88, 92, 100.
+  El Kab, 56, 69, 88.
+  Elephantine, 67-9.
+  Esneh, 92, 245.
+  Gebel Barkal, 53.
+  Gebel Silsileh, 81, 82, 232.
+  Gerf Husein, 85.
+  Gizeh, 64-6, 85.
+  Gûrneh, 60, 159.
+  Kalaat Addah, 81, 82.
+  Kalabsheh, 54, 56.
+  Karnak, 1, 34, 35, 46, 47, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63-4,
+        70-2, 76-9, 87, 88, 89, 92, 100, 101, 103, 104, 106, 107, 194,
+        229, 230, 232, 235, 313, 314, 315.
+  Luxor, 47, 52, 57, 60, 62, 72, 79, 80, 89, 100, 104, 106"
+1045,", 187, 202, 230,
+        234.
+  Medamot, 56, 59, 60, 64.
+  Medinet Habû, 32-3, 50, 53, 60, 63, 72, 87, 101, 159, 184, 194, 199, 288,
+        315.
+  Mesheikh, 69.
+  Nubia, 47, 82.
+  Ombos, 26, 58, 88, 92-3, 245.
+  Philae, 58-9, 62, 80-1, 92, 100, 245.
+  Semneh, 50.
+  Sesebeh, 58.
+  Sharonah, 69.
+  Soleb, 58.
+  Tanis, 47, 104 (note).
+  Wady Sabûah, 85, 88.
+       *       *       *       *       *
+  Amenhotep II, 53.
+  Amenhotep III, 53, 67-8.
+  Antoninus Pius, 100.
+  Caesars"
+1046,", 66.
+  Dynasty IV, 64.
+  Dynasty XII, 66.
+  Hatshepsût
+    (see DEIR EL BAHARÎ and SPEOS ARTEMIDOS).
+  Horemheb
+    (see GEBEL SILSILEH).
+  Khonsû, at Karnak, 60, 70-2, 74, 235.
+  Ptolemies, 66.
+  Rameses III.
+    (see MEDINET HABÛ).
+  Seti I, 42.
+    (See CHAPEL, HEMI-SPEOS, SANCTUARY, SPEOS.)
+Terraces, 16, 36, 74.
+Terra-cotta, vases of, 114, 166.
+Teti, King, pyramid of, 140.
+Textiles, 67, 296-8, 302-4.
+  Alexandrian, 303.
+  brocaded, 303.
+  Ekhmîm, 303-4 and note.
+  Ro"
+1047,"man, 303.
+Thebaid, the, 243, 273.
+Thebes, 1, 2, 6, 26, 32, 33, 36, 66, 79, 85, 88, 89, 103, 131, 147, 148,
+        153, 154, 155, 157-65, 168, 174, 177, 186, 193, 197, 205, 209,
+        226, 229, 235, 237, 244, 250, 277, 290, 293, 313.
+    (See KARNAK, LUXOR.)
+Thmûis, silver vases of, 316-17.
+Thoth
+    (see GODS).
+Thothmes I, 76-7, 229.
+Thothmes II, 77, 287.
+Thothmes III, 26, 42, 53, 58-9, 60, 77, 92, 157, 229, 263, 302, 326, 320.
+Thothmes IV, 205.
+Thûeris
+    (see GODDESSES, A"
+1048,"PET, and TAÛRT).
+Thûkû, 36 and note.
+    (see PITHOM and TELL EL MASKHÛTAH).
+Ti
+    (see TOMB).
+Tiberius, at Denderah and Ombos, 245.
+Tibur, Egyptian rooms in Hadrian's villa at, 243.
+Tii, Oueen, vase of, 267.
+Tiles,--
+  for mural decoration, 269-72.
+  in pyramid of Sakkarah, 270.
+  of Tell el Yahûdeh, 270-2.
+Tipcat, 282.
+Tin, 304.
+Toilet, articles of, 166, 259, 266-7, 273, 277, 281, 306.
+Tomb of,---
+  Affi, 117.
+  Aï, 16, 17, 155, 158.
+  Aimadûa, 20.
+  Amenhotep III, 158."
+1049,"
+  Ameni, 149, 151.
+  Anna, 12, 229.
+  Bakenrenf, 165.
+  an Entef, 265-6.
+  Hapizefa, 150.
+  Hesî, 210.
+  Horemheb, 179-80, 183.
+  Horhotep, 156-7.
+  Hûi, 229,
+  Kaäpir, 115,
+  Khabiûsokari, 117, 208.
+  Khamha, 229.
+  Khetî, 155.
+  Khnûmhotep, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 177, 297.
+  Manna, 154.
+  Merrûka, 120.
+  Neferhotep, 115, 116, 155.
+  Nenka, 130 and note.
+  Petamenoph, 165.
+  Pohûnika, 116.
+  Ptahhotep, 118, 119, 122, 124, 188.
+  Rahotep, 126.
+  Rameses I., 158.
+  "
+1050,"Rameses II., 158.
+  Rameses III., 161-3, 301.
+  Rameses IV., 160.
+  Red Scribe, 118.
+  Rekhmara, 3, 186, 187, 229.
+  Seti I., 158, 161-3, 232.
+  Sennetmû, 258, 294.
+  Shepsesptah, 117.
+  Thenti, 118, 126.
+  Ti, 116, 117, 127, 155.
+  Ûna, 155.
+  Ûrkhûû, 124.
+    (See PYRAMID.)
+Tombs, 111-68.
+  Egyptian idea of, 111-12.
+  mastaba-pyramids, 145-8.
+  mastabas, 113-31.
+  pyramids, 131-45.
+  rock-cut tombs, 146-68.
+       *       *       *       *       *
+  Abydos, 22, 145-7.
+"
+1051,"  Ahnas el Medineh, 259.
+  Asûan, 53, 148, 149, 150, 259.
+  Beni Hasan, 24, 53, 148 and note, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 177,
+        256-7.
+  Bersheh, 148 and note.
+  Coptic period, 303-4.
+  Deir el Gebrawî, 204.
+  El Amarna, 13, 15, 16, 17.
+  Fayûm, 259, 291-2, 303-4.
+  Gizeh, 148.
+  Greek period, 175.
+  Kasr es Saîd, 148.
+  Kûrnet Murraee, 294.
+  Negadeh, 148.
+  Sheikh Saîd, 148.
+  Siût, 148, 150.
+Tools, etc.,--
+  adze, 283, 304.
+  anvil, 313.
+  axe, 201, 304.
+  bur"
+1052,"in, 305, 325.
+  chains, measuring, 155.
+  chisel, 45, 214, 304.
+  drill, 195, 214, 247, 250, 282.
+  gouge, 195.
+  grindstone, 247.
+  hammer, 195, 313.
+  knives, 304, 306.
+  mallet, 45, 197, 202.
+  pegs, 283.
+  point, 47, 195 (note), 197, 201, 202, 247, 250.
+  saw, 247, 250, 304.
+  wedges, 45.
+  wheel, 250
+    (see WHEEL, POTTER'S).
+Tops, 284.
+Torus, 50.
+Towns, 1-2, Note 1, 7-8, 87-8.
+  Coptic, 8.
+  Pharaonic, 1, 7, 8.
+  Ptolemaic, 1.
+  Roman, 8.
+  Saïtic, 1.
+  Twelfth "
+1053,"Dynasty, 1, 7.
+  walled, 20, 26.
+Toys, 182, 282.
+Trees, 274.
+Trellis, 182, 189.
+Tûaï, 273.
+Tûatmûtf, genius, 258 (note).
+Tûm
+    (see GODS).
+Turin Museum, 160, 171, 229, 231, 232, 235, 262, 274, 275.
+Turquoise, 247, 325, 329.
+Typhon (Set)
+    (see GODS).
+
+Ûaga, feast of, 118.
+Ûahabra, 269 (note).
+    (see APRIES and HOPHRA).
+Ûati
+    (see GODDESSES).
+Ûna
+    (see TOMB).
+Ûnas, 133, 138, 139, 163.
+Uraeus (basilisk), 61, 201, 294.
+Ûsekh, 326-7.
+Ûsertesen I, 76, 143.
+Ûse"
+1054,"rtesen II., 7, 143, 322.
+Ûsertesen III., 28, 226, 322, 323.
+Ûshabtiû, 167, 253, 257, 266.
+_Ûta_, amulet, 247-8.
+
+Varnish, 203-4, 305.
+Vases,---
+  Ancient Empire, 255, 256.
+  bronze, 305.
+  canopic, 167, 252-3, 258, 292.
+  decoration of, 256, 257, 258, 259.
+  libation, 292, 310.
+  silver and gold, 316-20.
+  situlae, 307.
+  terra-cotta, 114, 166.
+  toilet, 253-4.
+    (See BRONZE, GLASS, GLAZED WARE, GOLD, POTTERY, SILVER.)
+Vaulting, 6 and note, 36, 51,
+145, 146, 150, 151.
+Va"
+1055,"uquelin, M., 304.
+Venus, 243.
+Vermilion, 203.
+Vienna Museum, 272.
+Vulture, 92, 299, 301, 315, 325.
+Vyse, Col. Howard., 137
+
+Wady Gerraweh, 40.
+  Genneh, 41.
+  Sabûah
+    (see HEMI-SPEOS).
+Wages, 35.
+Wall-scenes, 3, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, 30, 31, 35, 36,
+        91, 92, 97, 99, 120, 122, 124, 130, 152-6, 162-5, 177, 178, 179-
+        92, 193, 194, 195, 260, 284, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 301, 313,
+        318, 319, 320.
+    (see BAS-RELIEF and PAINTING).
+Wa"
+1056,"shhouse, 12.
+Weavers, 124, 297-8.
+Wheel, potter's, 255.
+Wig, 236, 275, 276, 286, 308, 310, 332.
+Wilkinson, Sir Gardner, 295, 303, 305.
+Wilson, Sir E., 128 (note).
+Windows, 9, 11, 50, 65, 70, 144.
+Wine, 35, 36, 97, 180.
+Wood, 25, 50, 66, 169, 205, 210-11, 214 and note, 224, 235, 274-7.
+    (see CABINET-MAKING, MUMMY-CASES, STATUETTES, STATUES).
+
+Zagazig, 332.
+Zarû (Selle), 34 and note.
+Zodiacal circle of Denderah, 93, 94.
+Zowyet el Aryan, 134.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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