
khanija shaastram

khanija shaastram anedi rasayana shaastram, sphatika nirmaanam mariyu khanijalu mariyu khanija kalakhandala bhouthika (optical) lakshanaala shaastreeya adhyayanamlo pratyekata kaligina bhoogarbha shaastram yokka vishayam. khanija saastramlo nirdishta adhyayanaalalo khanija muulam mariyu nirmaanam, khanijala vargeekarana, vaati bhougolika pampinhee, alaage vaati viniyogam prakriyalu unnaayi.
charitra.
khanija saastrampai, mukhyamgaa ratnaala meeda, puraatana babylonia, puraatana greco-roman prapancham, puraatana mariyu madhyayuga chaina mariyu praacheena bharatadesam mariyu puraatana islaamik prapancham nundi samskruta grandhaala nundi prarambha rachanalu vachayi. eee amsampai raasina pustakaalalo pliny dhi elder yokka "sahaja charitra" undhi, idhi aneka vibhina khanijalanu vivarinchadame kakunda vaati aneka lakshanaalanu kooda vivarinchindi, pertian shaastravetta all-biruni raasina kitab all jawahir (viluvaina raalla pustakam). german punarujjeevana nipunudu georgious agricola "dii rii metallica" ("lohalapai", 1556) mariyu "dii nechura silaajam" ("raalla swabhaavam meeda", 1546) vanti rachanalu raasaaru, ivi eee amsampai shaastreeya vidhananni praarambhinchaayi. punarujjeevanaantara airopalo khanijalu mariyu raallapai kramabaddhamaina shaastreeya adhyayanalu abhivruddhi chendaayi. khanija shaastram yokka aadhunika adhyayanam sphatika shaastram suutraalapai (rekhaganita sphatika shaastram yokka muulaalu, paddenimidava mariyu pantommidava sataabdaalaloo abhyasinchina khanija shaastram varaku gurtinchavacchu) mariyu 17va sataabdamloo suukshmadarshini aavishkaranatoe raathi vibhagala suukshma adhyayanampai sthaapinchabadindi.
nicolus steno mottamodata 1669loe quartz sphatikaalalo antara koonaala sthirathvam (sphatika shaastram yokka modati niyamam anie kooda pilustaaru) niyamanni gamaninchaaru. idhi taruvaata zeane-baptist ell dwara saadhaaraneekarinchabadindi mariyu prayogaatmakamgaa sthaapinchabadindi. 1783loe rome dii ell 'iceley. "aadhunika sphatika shaastra pitamahudu" ayina rene just hay, spatikaalu aavartanamgaa untaayani chuupimchaaru mariyu sphatika mukhaala yokka disalanu hetubaddha sankhyala paramgaa vyakteekarinchavachani sthaapinchaaru, taruvaata miller soochikalalo encode cheyabadindi. 1814loe, zaan jacob bergelius khanijala christal nirmaanam kante vaati rasayana shaastram aadhaaramgaa vargeekarananu pravesapettaadu. vilium nikol nikol prisamnu abhivruddhi chesaaru, idhi 1827-1828 loe shilaja kalapanu adhyayanam chestunnappudu kaantini dhruveekaristundi; henry clifton sorbie khanijala yokka sannani vibhaagaalanu dhruvana suukshmadarshinini upayoginchi vaati optical lakshanaala dwara gurtinchavacchani chuupimchaaru. james dii. dhaana 1837loe thana "khanija shaastra vyavastha" yokka modati sanchikanu prachurinchaadu, taruvaata sanchikalo ippatikee pramaanamgaa unna rasayana vargeekarananu pravesapettaadu. ex-rae vivartanaanni 1912loe maaks vaan laa pradarsinchaaru, mariyu khanijala sphatika nirmaanaanni vislaeshimchadaaniki vilium henry bragg mariyu vilium laurence bragg yokka tandri/koduku brundam oka saadhanamgaa abhivruddhi chesindi.
iteevala, prayogaatmaka saanketikata (neutron vivartana vantivi) mariyu andubaatulo unna ganana saktilo purogathitho nadiche, veetilo rendodi sphatikaala pravartana yokka atyanta khachitamaina anhu-sthaayi anukaranalanu praarambhinchindi, akarbana rasayana shaastram mariyu ghana-sthithi bhouthika shaastra rangaalalo marinta saadhaarana samasyalanu parigananaloki teesukoovadaaniki shaastram saakhalanu roopondinchindi. ayithe, idhi saadhaaranamgaa raathi-erpade khanijaalalo (perovskitelu, bankamatti khanijalu mariyu framework siliketlu vantivi) kanipinche sphatika nirmaanaalapai drushtini kendrikaristundi. mukhyamgaa, khanijala anhu-sthaayi nirmaanam mariyu vaati paniteeru madhya sambandhaanni ardham chesukovadamlo eee kshetram goppa purogati saadhinchindi; prakrutilo, khanijala saage lakshanaala yokka khachitamaina kolata mariyu anchanaa, idhi raalla bhookampa pravartana mariyu bhoomi yokka montil yokka bhookampa namoonaalalo lothu-sambandhita nilipivetalapai kotta antardrushtiki daariteesindi. eee disagaa, anhu-sthaayi drugvishayam mariyu sthuula lakshanaala madhya sambandhaanni kendrikarinchadamlo, "khanija saastraalu" (ippudu saadhaaranamgaa telisinatlugaa) bahusha itara vibhagala kante padaartha shaastramtho ativyaapti chendadaanni pradarsistaayi.
bhouthika lakshanaalu.
 
oka khanijanni gurtinchadamlo prarambha dasha daani bhouthika lakshanaalanu pariseelinchadam, veetilo chaalaa varaku chethi namuunaapai kolavavacchu. veetini saandrata (tarachugaa nirdishta gurutvaakarshanagaa ivvabadutundi); yaantrika samyogam yokka kolatalu (kaatinyam, drudhatvam, cheelika, fracture, vibhajana); sthuula drushya lakshanaalu (merupulu, rangu, strike, prakaasamu, diaphanity); ayaskanta mariyu vidyut lakshanaalu; hydrogen chloridelo rediyodhaarmikata mariyu draavaneeyata ().
"kaatinyam" anedi itara khanijaalato polchadam dwara nirnayinchabadutundi. mohs scalelo, 1 (talk) nundi 10 (diamond) kuu kaatinyam perige kramamlo khanijala praamaanika samitini lekkistaaru. oka kathinamaina khanijam mruduvaina khanijanni geestundi, kabatti teliyani khanijanni eee sthaayilo unchavacchu, yea khanijalu dwara adhi geeyabadutundi mariyu edhi geeyabadutundi. calcit mariyu kayanite vanti konni khanijalu disanu batti gananeeyamgaa kaatinyaanni kaligi untaayi. sclerometernu upayoginchi sampoorna sthaayilo kooda kaatinyaanni kolavavacchu; sampoorna scaletho poliste, mohs scale naan leanier.
"pattudala" anedi oka khanijam viriginapudu, chuurnam cheyabadinappudu, vangi ledhaa chiriginappudu pravartinche vidhananni suuchistumdi. oka khanijam pelusugaa, namyaga, sectile, ductile, flexible ledhaa elastic kaavacchu. sthirathvampai mukhyamaina prabhavam rasayana bandham rakam ("e.zii., ionic ledhaa metallic). 
yaantrika samyogam yokka itara kolatalalo, "cheelika" anedi konni spatikaakaara samatalaala venta vichchinnamayye dhorani. idhi naanhyata dwara vivarinchabadutundi ("e.zii.", paripuurna ledhaa sarasamaina) mariyu sphatikasaastra naamakaranam loe vimanam yokka dhorani. 
"vidipovadam" anedi ottidi, kavalalu ledhaa draavanam kaaranamgaa balaheenata yokka sthaayilanu vichchinnam chese dhorani. eee rendu rakaala viramalu sambhavinchani chota, "fracture" anedi takkuva kramabaddhamaina roopam, idhi "concoidal" (shell lopali bhaganni pooli unde mruduvaina vakratalu kaligi untundi), "fibrus", "splintery", "hackley" (padunaina anchulatho kattirinchabadindi), ledhaa "asamaanamainadi" kaavacchu.
khanijam baga sphatikeekarinchabadinatlayite, adhi sphatika nirmaanam ledhaa anuvula antargata amarikanu pratibimbimchae vilakshanhamaina sphatika alavaatunu (udaaharanaku, shatkona, stambhaakaara, botrioidal) kooda kaligi untundi. idhi sphatika lopaalu mariyu kavalala valla kooda prabhaavitamavutundi. aneka spatikaalu bahuroopamainavi, ottidi mariyu ushnograta vanti kaarakaalanu batti okati kante ekkuva sphatika nirmaanaalanu kaligi untaayi.
christal nirmaanam.
sphatika nirmaanam anedi sphatikamlo anuvula amarika. idhi moodu koonaalaloo unit sell anie piluvabade praathamika namuunaanu punaraavrutam chese paayintla jaalakamtho suuchimchabadutumdi. jalakanni daani samaruupatalu mariyu ekakana kolatala dwara vargeekarinchavachhu. eee kolatalu moodu "miller suuchikala" dwara suuchimchabadataayi. jaalakamlo edainaa icchina binduvu gurinchi konni samaruupata karyakalapala dwara jaalakamlo maarpu undaduh pratibimbam, bhramanam, vilomam mariyu bhramana vilomam, bhramanam mariyu pratibimbam kalayika. avi kalisi "sphatikasaastra binduvu samuuham" ledhaa "sphatika taragati" anie piluvabade ganita vastuvunu yerparustaayi. 32 christal taragatulu saadhyame. adanamgaa, anni paayintlanu sthaanabhramsham chese operations unnaih anuvaadam, screw axis mariyu glide plain. binduvu samaruupatalatoe kalipi, avi 230 saadhyamayye antariksha samuuhaalanu yerparustaayi.
chaalaa bhoogarbha vibhagalalo khanijala sphatika nirmaanaalanu vislaeshimchadaaniki ex-rae pouder vivartana parikaraalu unnaayi. ex-raelu anuvula madhya dhooraala parimaanam yokka adhe kramamlo tarangadairghyaalanu kaligi untaayi. vivartana, vividha anuvula vadda chellacheduruga unna taramgaala madhya nirmaanaatmaka mariyu vidhvamsaka jokyam, christal yokka jyaamiti meeda aadharapadi unde adhika mariyu takkuva teevrata yokka vilakshanhamaina namuunaalaku daariteestundi. oka podigaa pindi veyabadina namoonaalo, ex-raelu anni sphatika dhoranula yaadruchchika pampineeni namoonaga teesukuntaayi. podi vivartana anedi chethi namoonaalo oke vidhamgaa kanipinche khanijala madhya thedaanu gurtinchagaladu, udaaharanaku quartz mariyu daani polymorphlu tridimite mariyu christobalite.
vividha kuurpula isomorphus khanijalu oke vidhamaina podi vivartana namuunaalanu kaligi untaayi, pradhana vyatyaasam rekhala antaram mariyu teevratalo untundi. udaaharanaku, (haalait) sphatika nirmaanam anedi antariksha samuuham "fm3m"; eee nirmaanam sylvite (), periclays (), bansenite (), gelena (), alabandite (), chlorargite (), mariyu osbornite () dwara panchukoobadutundi.
rasayana muulakaalu.
konni khanijalu sulfur, raagi, vendi mariyu bangaaramtho sahaa rasayana muulakaalu, conny ekkuva bhaagam sammelanaalu. kuurpunu gurtinchadaaniki shaastreeya paddhati "tadi rasayana vislaeshanha", indulo hydrochloric aamlam (hcl) vanti aamlamlo khanijanni kariginchadam untundi. draavanamlooni muulakaalanu colorimetry, valumetric vislaeshanha ledhaa gravimetric vislaeshanhanu upayoginchi gurtistaaru.
1960 nundi, chaalaa varaku rasayana shaastra vislaeshanhalu parikaraalanu upayoginchi jarugutaayi. veetilo okati, atamic obsorption spectroscopy, tadi rasayana saastraanni pooli untundi, indulo namuunaa inca karigipovali, conny idhi chaalaa vaegamgaa mariyu choukagaa untundi. draavanam aaviraipotundi mariyu daani shoshana varnapatam kanipinche mariyu atineelalohita paridhiloo kolustaaru. itara paddhatulu ex-rae fluorescence, electron microprobe vislaeshanha autum probe tomography mariyu optical emission spectrography.
optical.
rangu ledhaa prakaasamu vanti sthuula lakshanaalatoo paatu, khanijalu pariseelinchadaaniki dhruvana suukshmadarshini avasaramayye lakshanaalanu kaligi untaayi.
prasaram cheyabadina kaanti.
gaali ledhaa vacuum nundi kaanti paaradarsaka sphatikamloki vellinappudu, daanilo kontha uparitalampai pratibimbistumdi mariyu kontha vakreebhavanam avutundi. rendodi kaanti maargam yokka vampu, endukante kaanti vegam sphatikamloki velletappudu maarutundi; snell yokka chattam vampu koonaanni vakreebhavana suuchikatoe sambandham kaligi untundi, idhi shoonyathaloni vegam mariyu sphatikamlo vegam nishpatti. cubic vyavasthalo binduvu samaruupata samuuham vachhe spatikaalu "isotropic": suuchika disapai aadharapadi undadu. anni itara spatikaalu "anisotropic": vaati gundaa vellae kaanti rendu samatala dhruvana kiranaalugaa vibhajinchabadutundi, ivi ververu vegaalato prayaaninchi ververu koonaalloo vakreebhavanam chestaayi.
dhruvana suukshmadarshini saadhaarana suukshmadarshini maadirigaane untundi, conny dheeniki rendu samatala-dhruvana vadapotalu untaayi, namuunaaku krinda a ("dhruvanakarta") mariyu daani paina oka vislaeshakudu, okadaanikokati lambamgaa dhruvanaparustaaru. kaanti dhruvanakaari, namuunaa mariyu vislaeshakudi gundaa varusaga velutundi. namuunaa lekapothe, vislaeshakudu dhruvana nundi vachhe mottam kaantini nirodhistaadu. ayithe, oka anisotropic namuunaa saadhaaranamgaa dhruveekarananu maarustundi, tadwara kontha kaanti gundaa vellavacchu. sannani bhagalu mariyu podini namoonalugaa upayoginchavacchu.
isotropic spatikaanni chusinappudu, adhi cheekatigaa kanipistundi endukante idhi kaanti yokka dhruveekarananu maarchadu. ayithe, takkuva vakreebhavana suuchikatoe calibrated dravam loe munigi, suukshmadarshini drushti nundi visirinappudu, christal yokka chuttukolata chuttoo "beck line" anie piluvabade prakaasavantamaina rekha kanipistundi. vividha suuchikalatoe dravaalalo ituvanti rekhala unikini ledhaa lekapovadaanni gamaninchadam dwara, christal yokka suuchikanu saadhaaranamgaa lopala anchanaa veyavachu.
kramabaddhamgaa.
kramabaddhamaina khanija shaastram anedi khanijalanu vaati lakshanaala dwara gurtinchadam mariyu vargeekarinchadam. chaaritraatmakamgaa, khanija shaastram raallanu yerparuchukune khanijala vargeekaranaku sambandhinchi ekkuvagaa undedi. 1959loe, antarjaateeya khanija shaastra sangham naamakaranaanni hetubaddheekarinchadaaniki mariyu kotta paerla parichayaanni niyantrinchadaaniki kotta khanijalu mariyu khanija paerla kamishannu erpaatu chesindi. 2006 joolailo, kotta khanijalu, naamakaranaalu mariyu vargeekaranapai kamishannu erpaatu cheyadaaniki khanijala vargeekaranapai commissionlo vileenam cheyabadindi. paeru pettabadina mariyu paerulaeni 6,000 khanijalu unnaayi, mariyu prati samvatsaram sumaru 100 khanijalu kanugonabaddayi. khanija shaastram yokka manueval" khanijalanu eee krindi taragatulalo unchutundihi sthaanika muulakaalu, sulfidelu, sulfosaultlu, oxidelu mariyu hydroxidelu, haalaidlu, carbonatelu, naitretlu mariyu boretlu, sulfatelu, chromatelu, molybdatelu mariyu tungstatelu, phosphatelu, arsenatelu mariyu vanadetlu mariyu siliketlu.
nirmaana vaataavaranaalu.
khanija nirmaanam mariyu perugudala yokka vaataavaranaalu chaalaa vaividhyamgaa untaayi, adhika ushnogratala vadda nemmadigaa sphatikeekarana mariyu bhoomi yokka crust lopala lothugaa karige agniparvata peedanam nundi bhoomi yokka uparitalampai lavaneeya uppuneeti nundi takkuva ushnograta avapaatam varaku untaayi.
erpade vividha saadhyamaina paddhatulu
biomineralogy.
jeevasambandhamaina shaastram anedi khanija shaastram, polyontology mariyu jeevasaastram madhya oka cross-ovar feeled. jeeva niyantranalo mokkalu mariyu jantuvulu khanijalanu elaa sthireekaristaayane daani adhyayanam, mariyu nikshepana tarvaata aaa khanijala khanijala bharti kramam. idhi rasayana khanija shaastram nundi, mukhyamgaa isotopic adhyayanala nundi, jeevulu mariyu jantuvulalo perugudala roopaalu alaage silaajaala yokka asalu khanija padaartham vanti vishayalanu nirnayinchadaaniki saanketikatalanu upayogistundi.
khanija parinaamam anie piluvabade khanija saastraaniki oka kotta vidhanam bhoogolam mariyu jeevaavaranam yokka saha-parinaamaanni anveshistundi, indulo khanija-utpreraka sendriya samshlaeshanhagaa jeevitam mariyu prakriyala moolamlo khanijala paatra mariyu khanija uparitalaalapai sendriya anuvula empika adhishoshanam unnaayi.
khanija paryaavaranam.
2011loe, aneka mandhi parisoedhakulu khanija parinaama databasenu abhivruddhi cheyadam praarambhinchaaru. eee database croud-sourced sait maindatnu anusandhaanistundi.690, 000 khanija-sthaanika jatalatho kuudina org, aamodinchabadina khanijala adhikaarika ima jabita mariyu bhougolika prachuranala nundi vayassu detatho undhi.
eee database kotta prasnalaku samadhanam ivvadaaniki ganaamkaalanu vartimpajeyadaaniki veelu kalpistundi, eee vidhananni "khanija paryaavarana shaastram" anie pilustaaru. atuvanti prasnalalo okati khanija parinaamam entha nirnayaatmakamainadi mariyu avakaasam yokka phalitam entha anedi. khanijam yokka rasayana swabhaavam mariyu daani sthirathvaaniki paristhitulu vanti konni amsaalu nirnayaatmakamainavi; conny khanija shaastram kooda graham yokka kuurpunu nirnayinche prakriyala dwara prabhaavitamavutundi. 2015loe robbert hazen mariyu itarulu oka vyaasamlo prati moolakam daani samruddhi yokka vidhiga unde khanijala sankhyanu vislaeshimchaaru. 4800 kii paiga telisina khanijalu mariyu 72 muulakaalatoe bhoomiki shakti chattam sambandham undani vaaru kanugonnaru. kevalam 63 khanijalu mariyu 24 muulakaalatoe (chaalaa chinna namuunaa aadhaaramgaa) chandrudu tappanisarigaa oke sambandhaanni kaligi unnadu. graham yokka rasayana kuurpunu batti, marinta saadhaarana khanijalanu anchanaa veyavachani idhi suuchistumdi. ayithe, eee pampinhee podavaina thokanu kaligi undhi, 34 saatam khanijalu okati ledhaa rendu pradaesaalaloo matrame kanugonabaddayi. vaelaadi khanija jaatulu aavishkarana kosam vechi undavacchani ledhaa erpadi, kotha, khananam ledhaa itara prakriyala kaaranamgaa kolpovachani eee namuunaa anchanaa vesindi. arudaina khanijala erpadatamlo avakaasam yokka paatranu idhi suuchistumdi.
pedda dayta setla yokka maroka upayogamlo, network siddhaantam carbon khanijala detasetku vartinchabadindi, vaati vaividhyam mariyu pampinheelo kotta namuunaalanu velladistundi. yea khanijalu sahajeevanam chestayo mariyu vatiki sambandhinchina paristhitulu (bhougolika, bhouthika, rasayana mariyu jeeva) emito vislaeshanha chuupagaladu. kotta niksheepaalu mariyu kotta khanija jaatula kosam ekkada vetakaalo anchanaa vaeyadaaniki eee samacharanni upayoginchavacchu.
upayoginchandi.
vividha vastuvulu mariyu yantraalalo upayoginche loha utpattula yokka avasaramaina bhagalaku khanijaluga upayoginche khanijalu, sunnapurayi, palarayi, granite, kankara, gaaju, plaastar, cement modalaina nirmaana samagri kosam avasaramaina bhagalu vanti maanava samaajamlooni vividha avasaralaku khanijalu chaalaa avasaram. vyavasaya pantala perugudalanu susampannam cheyadaaniki eruvulalo kooda khanijalanu upayogistaaru.
sekarana.
khanijala sekarana kooda oka vinoda adhyayanam mariyu sekarana abhiruchi, eee rangaaniki praatinidhyam vahistunna clubbulu mariyu sanghaalu. smithsonian national museum off natural history haall off geology, james und minerals, laas angels county yokka natural history museum, carnegie museum off natural history, landanlooni natural history museum, mariyu lebananloni beirut looni private mim mineral museum vanti museumlalo khanija namuunaala sekaranalu saasvatamgaa pradarsinchabadutunnaayi.

