
naitika pramaadam

aardhika saastramlo, naitika pramaadam anedi oka aardhikavetta aaa pramaadaaniki puurti kharchulanu bharinchananduna pramaadaaniki gurikavadanni penchadaaniki prothsaaham kaligi unna paristhiti. udaaharanaku, oka corporation beema cheyabadinappudu, daani beema sambandhita kharchulanu chellistundani telusukovadam valla adhi ekkuva pramaadaanni edurkovachhu. aardhika lavadevi jarigina tarvaata risk teesukune paksham yokka charyalu kharchu mose paksham yokka haniga marinappudu naitika pramaadam sambhavinchavachhu.
oka rakamaina samachara asamaanatalo naitika pramaadam sambhavinchavachhu, ikkada lavadeviki risk teesukune paarteeki risk yokka parinaamaalanu chellinche party kante daani uddeshaala gurinchi ekkuva telusu mariyu party konam nundi ekkuva risk teesukune dhorani ledhaa prothsaahaanni kaligi untundi. oka udaaharana pradhana-agent vidhanam (agency siddhaantam anie kooda pilustaaru), ikkada oka paksham, agent anie piluvabadutundi, maroka paksham tarapuna panichestundi, principal anie pilustaaru. ayithe, agent mariyu principal madhya prayojanaala sangharshana unnappudu pradhana-agent samasya talettavachhu. pradhaanoopaadhyaayudi kante agentku athani ledhaa aame charyalu ledhaa uddeshaala gurinchi ekkuva samacharam unte, agent mariyu pradhaanopaadhyaayula prayojanaalanu samalekhanam cheyakapothe agent chaalaa pramaadakaramgaa (pradhaanopaadhyaayula drukkonam nundi) vyavaharinchadaaniki prothsaaham kaligi undavacchu.
charitra.
demb mariyu boden chesina parisoedhana prakaram, eee padam 17va sataabdaaniki chendinadi mariyu 19va sataabdam chivari natiki aangla beema companylu vistrutamgaa upayoginchaayi. eee padaanni praarambhamlo upayoginchadam valla mosam ledhaa anaitika pravartananu (saadhaaranamgaa beema chesina paksham vaipu nundi) soochinche pratikuula ardhaalu undevi. ayithe, 18va sataabdamloo nirnayam teesukoovadaanni adhyayanam chesina pramukha ganita saastravettalu "naitika" antey "aatmaasraya" anie ardham anie upayoginchaarani, idhi eee padaaniki nijamaina naitika praamukhyatanu masakabaarchavacchani dembe mariyu boden etthi chuupaaru.
naitika pramaadam anae bhavana 1960laloe aardhikavettalache punaruddharinchabadina adhyayanaaniki sambandhinchina amsamgaa maarindi, idhi aardhikavetta kenn baanamtho praarambhamaindi, mariyu anaitika pravartana ledhaa moesaanni soochinchaledu. aardhikavettalu eee padaanni pramaadaalu sthaanabhramsham chendinappudu ledhaa puurtigaa anchanaa veyalenappudu sambhavinche asamarthathalanu vivarinchadaaniki upayogistaaru, palgone paarteela naitikata ledhaa naitikata yokka vivarana kakunda.
madhyayuga vedaanta mariyu sambhaavyata saahityamlo gurtinchabadina aardhika aalochanalo pradhana maarpulanu gurtinchadam dwara, naitika pramaadam anae padam yokka puttuka gurinchi rowell mariyu connelly vivaranaatmaka vivarananu andistaaru. naitika pramaadam" anae bhavananu ardham chesukovadamlo aardhikasaastram mariyu tatvasaastram teesukunna vibhina vidhaanaala kaaranamgaa, daani antarleena kaaranaala gurinchi vaari avagaahanalo gananeeyamaina thedaalu unnaayi. aardhika saastramlo, "naitika pramaadam" tarachugaa upayogitaavaadam yokka praanaantakamaina abhivruddhiki aapaadinchabadutundi. dheeniki viruddhamgaa, tatvasaastram mariyu naitikata "naitika pramaadaanni" vistruta konam nundi chustayi, indulo vyaktulu mariyu mottam samajam yokka naitika pravartana untundi. saamaajika konam nundi aardhika agentla anaitika pravartana "naitika pramaadam" kuu muula kaaranam. vaari kaagitam beema-parisrama saahityamlo kanipinche naitika pramaadam yokka pradhanamgaa pramaana bhavananu aardhika saahityamlo kanipinche ekkuvagaa saanukuula vivaranalatoe polchi, viruddhamgaa chooputundi. beema saahityamlo tarachugaa "naitika pramaadam [luu]" gaa varninchabadinadi, daggari patanam, daggari sambandham unna bhavana, pratikuula empika yokka vivarana.
aardhika.
1998loe, vilium zhe. newyork federal reserve adhipati mcdono, samsthanu swaadheenam chesukovadam dwara deerghakaalika muuladhana nirvahana yokka prati-pakshalu nashtalanu nivaarinchadaaniki sahayapaddaru. eee charyanu maajee feed chair paal volkar mariyu itarulu perugutunna naitika pramaadamgaa vimarsinchaaru. tailor couven ilaa muginchaaru, "aaa samsthala patanam prapancha runa vyavasthaku muppu kaliginche varaku, balaheenamaina aardhika samsthalaku tama runaalu andinchevaaru manchigaa chestaarani runadaatalu vishwasinchaaru."naitika pramaada pramaadaanni angeekaristuu, alon greenspan, prapancha aardhika vyavastha pramaadamloo undani cheppi deerghakaalika muuladhanaanni kramabaddhamgaa vippinche vidhananni samarthinchaaru. green spaan putnu upayoginchadam dwara marketlalo vistruta naitika pramaadaanni srushtinchaarani green spaan swayamgaa aaropinchabadindi.
aardhikavetta paal krugman naitika pramaadaanni "oka vyakti entha pramaadam teesukovalo nirnayinche yea paristhitiloonainaa, paristhitulu chedugaa jarigithe marokaru kharchu bharistaaru" anie abhivarninchaaru."prabhutvaalu, kendra byaankulu ledhaa itara samsthala dwara runa samsthalu aardhika beyiloutlu bhavishyattulo pramaadakara runaalanu prothsahinchavachhu, risk teesukune vaaru sambhaavya nashtaala puurti bharanni moyalsina avasaram ledani vishwasisthe. runa samsthalu runaalu ivvadam dwara risk teesukoovaali, mariyu atyanta pramaadakaramaina runaalu saadhaaranamgaa atyadhika raabadini pondhe saamarthyaanni kaligi untaayi.
pannu chellimpudaarulu, depositorlu mariyu itara runadaatalu tarachugaa runa samsthalu teesukune pramaadakara aardhika nirnayaala bhaaramlo kaneesam kontha bhaganni bhujam meeda moyavalasi untundi.
konni rakaala tanakha securitykaranalu naitika pramaadaaniki dohadam chestayani chaalaa mandhi vaadinchaaru. tanakha securitization anedi tanakha srushtikartalu vaaru udbhavinchina tanakhaalanu default cheyagala pramaadaanni daataveyadaaniki mariyu tama balance sheetlalo tanakhaalanu unchukokunda pramaadaanni sweekarinchadaaniki veelu kalpistundi. agency securitisations" anie piluvabade oka rakamaina tanakha securitizationlo, default risknu securitising agency konasaagistundi, idhi muulam nundi tanakhaalanu konugolu chestundi. eee agencylu muulam chesevaarini paryaveekshinchadaaniki mariyu runa naanhyatanu tanikhi cheyadaaniki prothsaahaanni kaligi untaayi. "agency securitisations" anedi ginnie mae, oka prabhutva agency ledhaa fennie mae mariyu freddy maak, labhapeksha kosam prabhutva praayojita samsthala dwara securitisations suuchistumdi. avi paschima airopalo saadhaaranamgaa upayoginche "cover cheyabadina baandlanu" pooli untaayi, endukante securising agency default pramaadaanni kaligi untundi. rendu namuunaala kinda, pettubadidaarulu vaddii raetu pramaadaanni matrame teesukuntaaru, default pramaadaanni kaadu.
private label" securitization anie piluvabade maroka rakamaina securitizationlo, default risk saadhaaranamgaa securitising entity chetha nilupukobadadu. badulugaa, securising entity default risk nuu pettubadidaarulaku badilee chestundi. anduvalla, securising samsthaku, moolakartalanu paryaveekshinchadaaniki mariyu runa naanhyatanu nirvahinchadaaniki chaalaa takkuva prothsaaham untundi. "private label" securitization anedi pettubadi byaankulu, vaanijya byaankulu mariyu byaankaetara tanakha runadaatala vanti aardhika samsthalachae roopondinchabadina securitisations suuchistumdi.
subprime tanakha sankshobhaaniki daariteesina samvatsaraallo, private label securitylu takkuva-naanhyata, adhika-pramaadakara tanakhaalanu konugolu cheyadam mariyu surakshitam cheyadam dwara mottam tanakha securitykaranalo bhaagamgaa perigayi. agency securitylu vaati pramaanaalanu kontavaraku tagginchinatlu kanipistaayi, ayithe agency tanakha private-label securitylalo tanakhaala kante gananeeyamgaa surakshitamgaa undindi mariyu default raetla paramgaa chaalaa merugga panichesindi.
moodys analytics yokka aardhikavetta maark jandy subprime tanakha sankshobhaaniki naitika pramaadamae muula kaaranamani abhivarninchaaru. tanakha runamlo antarleenamgaa unna nashtalu entha vistrutamgaa vyaapinchaayante, okka runa naanhyata gurinchi evaruu aandolana chendaalsina avasaram raaledu" anie ayana raasaaru. asthiramaina tanakhaalanu kalapadam valla, edainaa samasyalanu pedda pool loki paluchana cheyadam valla, baadhyata kosam prothsaaham balaheenapadindi."aardhika samsthalu byaankula maadirigaane niyantrana paryaveekshanhaku lobadi undavu" anie kooda ayana raasaaru. sankshobhaaniki mundu pannu chellimpudaarulu boddugaa unte, vaari vaataadaarulu mariyu itara runadaatalu matrame unnaaru. aardhika samsthalu veelainanta dookudugaa vruddhi chendakunda nirutsaahaparachadaaniki chaalaa takkuva, antey saampradaaya runa pramaanaalanu tagginchadam ledhaa kallu chitlinchadam."
runagraheetalaku naitika pramaadam kooda sambhavinchavachhu. runagraheetalu nirlakshyamgaa pettubadi pettinappudu ledhaa nidhulanu kharchu chesinappudu (runadaata drushtilo) vivaekavamtamgaa vyavaharinchakapovachhu. udaaharanaku, credit card companylu tarachugaa runagraheetalu tama kaardulatoe kharchu cheyagala mottaanni parimitam chestaayi, endukante atuvanti parimitulu lekunda, runagraheetalu appu teesukunna nidhulanu nirlakshyamgaa kharchu cheyavachu, idhi defaultku daariteestundi.
americalo tanakhaala securitization 1983loe saloman brothers vadda praarambhamaindi, ikkada prati tanakha yokka pramaadam asalu tanakha samsthalo undataaniki badulugaa tadupari konugoludaarudiki badilee cheyabadindi. eee tanakha mariyu itara runa saadhanaalanu pedda mottamlo runaala pool loe unchaaru, aapai pool looni sherlanu chaalaa mandhi runadaatalaku vikrayinchaaru.
anduvalla, edainaa oka nirdishta runam sarainadani, oka nirdishta runam pondadaaniki aastulu vaati viluvaku taginavani, runam chellinchadaaniki baadhyata vahinche runagraheeta athanu/aame santakam chesina patraalu vraasina bhashanu chadavagaladani, vraayagaladani, ledhaa vraatapani undani, manchi kramamlo undani dhruveekarinchadaaniki baadhyata vahinche vyakti evaruu laeru. idhi subprime tanakha sankshobhaaniki kaaranamai undavacchani soochinchabadindi.
tama sonta dabbunu appuga ivvani brokerlu runadaatalapai pramaadaanni moparu. runadaatalu, tamakha patraalanu haamii icchina ventane vaatini vikrayinchi, pettubadidaarulapai pramaadaanni moparu. pettubadi byaankulu tanakhaalanu konugolu chesi, tanakha-maddatugala securitylanu mukkaluga vibhajinchaayi, konni itarulakanna pramaadakaramainavi. pettubadidaarulu securitylanu konugolu chesi, default mariyu mundastu chellimpu pramaadaaniki vyatiraekamgaa rakshana kalpinchaaru, aaa pramaadaalanu marinta munduku nettaru. puurtigaa pettubadidaarii drushtaamtamlo, chivariga pramaadaanni (sangeeta kurcheela aata vantidi) kaligi unna vyakti sambhaavya nashtalanu edurkontaadu. ayithe, sub-prime sankshobhamlo, jaateeya runa adhikarulu (samyukta raashtraalloni federal reserve) pourula tarapuna antima pramaadaanni sweekarinchaaru.
runa samsthala aardhika beyiloutlu pramaadakara runa pravartananu prothsahinchavani itarulu nammutaaru, endukante runa samsthalaku bailout jarugutundani haamii ledhu. edainaa bailout mundu corporation yokka viluva taggadam valla vaari vyapara lavadevilalo saraina shraddha vahinchadamlo viphalamaina kaaryanirvahakulu pramaadakaramaina, oohaajanita vyapara nirnayaalanu nivaarinchavacchu. bailout nundi prayojanam pondani lehmann sodarulaku, mariyu itara aardhika samsthalu mariyu citybank mariyu desavyaaptamgaa unna aardhika samsthalaku, dheeni viluva subprime tanakha sankshobham samayamlo padipoyindi, dheeni valla vachhe nashtam mariyu bhaaram spashtamgaa kanipinchindi.
accounting niyamaalalo naitika pramaadaaniki prothsaahakaalu.
banking rangaaniki antarjaateeya niyantrana samstha ayina banking paryaveekshanhapai basel kamitee 2017 nivedika prakaram, accounting niyamaalu (mukhyamgaa ifrs #9 mariyu 13) aardhika sadhanam yokka sarasamaina viluvanu nirnayinchadamlo samsthalaku gananeeyamaina abheeshtaanusaaram vadilivestaayani mariyu eee abheeshtaanusaaram naitika pramaadaaniki sambhaavya vanarugaa gurtinchaayani perkondih "naitika pramaada pravartanaku dohadapadatam vanti accounting abheeshtaanusaaram sthiramaina sakshyam (adanapu) vivekavantamaina madimpu avasaralu samarthinchabadathaayani suuchistumdi."
banking regulatorlu abheeshtaanusaaram parimitam cheyadaaniki mariyu madimpu pramaadaanni tagginchadaaniki charyalu teesukunnaru.ii. aardhika saadhanaala madimpu anischitula nundi talette byaankula balance sheetlaku pramaadam. accounting niyamaalato aneka parichayaalanu kaligi unna vivaranaatmaka vivekavantamaina avasaralanu andinche niyantrana patraala varusa jaarii cheyabadindi mariyu aardhika saadhanaala viluva nirnayamlo byaankulaku migili unna abheeshtaanusaaram parimitam cheyadam dwara naitika pramaadaaniki prothsaahakaalanu arikattadam yokka paroksha prabhavanni kaligi untundi.
2007-08 aardhika sankshobhaaniki sambandhinchinadi.
2008 aardhika sankshobhamlo naitika pramaadam paatra pooshinchindani chaalaa mandhi panditulu mariyu paatrikeyulu vaadinchaaru, endukante aardhika marketlo aneka mandhi natulu pramaadaaniki gurikavadanni penchadaaniki prothsaaham kaligi undavacchu. saadhaaranamgaa, aardhika sankshobhaaniki daariteesinappudu naitika pramaadam moodu margallo vyaktamai undavacchu.
mukhyamgaa, aardhika sankshobhaaniki gala kaaranaalanu parisoedhimchae baadhyata congress chetha appaginchabadina aardhika sankshobha vichaarana commission (eff. sii. ii. sii), sankshobhamlo naitika pramaadaanni oka bhaagamgaa perkondi, 2000loe utpanna marketlo niyantrananu tagginchadam, samakhya paryaveekshanhanu tagginchadam, mariyu "viphalam kaavadaaniki chaalaa pedda" samsthala prabhutva bailout sambhaavyata vanti aneka amsaalu pathanaaniki daariteesina samvatsaraallo naitika pramaadaanni penchadamlo paatra pooshinchaayani vaadinchindi.
aardhika sankshobhamlo moodu pradhana kaaranaala valla naitika pramaadam paatra pooshinchaleedani itarulu vaadinchaaru. modatidi, vipattu vaiphalyam sambhavinchina sandarbhamlo, companyki pedda nashtalu sambhavinchina tarwate prabhutva bailout vastundi. kabatti bailout aasinchinappatikii adhi samstha nashtalanu pondakunda nirodhinchadu. rendavadi, pedda byaankulu sankshobhaanni oohinchaledani, anduvalla prabhutva beyilvutlanu aasinchaledani konni aadharalu unnaayi, ayithe fcic eee aalochananu vyatirekinchadaaniki teevramgaa prayatninchindi. moodavadi, corporate paalana nundi pratikuula baahyatvaalu marinta mukhyamaina kaaranamani kondaru vaadinchaaru, endukante konni pramaadakara pettubadulu samsthaku sanukoolamgaa aasinchina pratiphalaanni kaligi undavacchu, conny samaajaaniki pratikuulamgaa aasinchina pratiphalaanni kaligi undavacchu.
beema parisrama.
kenneth baanam, tomm baker mariyu zaan naiman vanti beema samsthalu mariyu vidyaavaettalu naitika pramaadaanni adhyayanam chesaaru.
eee paeru modata beema parisrama nundi vachindi. pramaadaala nundi (agni ledhaa kaaru pramaadaalu vantivi) tama khaataadaarulanu rakshinchadam valla aaa khaataadaarulu pramaadakaramaina margallo (mancham meeda dhumapanam cheyadam ledhaa seat beltulu dharinchakapovadam vantivi) pravartinchamani prothsahinchavacchani beema companylu aandolana chendaayi. eee samasya aaa companylu tama khaataadaarulanu rakshinchukoevaalanukunnanta varaku vaari khaataadaarulanu rakshinchakundaa asamarthamgaa nirutsaahaparachavachchu.
samachara asamaanata kaaranamgaa asamarthatha erpadutundani aardhikavettalu vaadistunnaaru. beema companylu tama khaataadaarula charyalanu sampuurnamgaa gamaninchagaligithe, pramaadakara pravartananu prothsahinchakundaa pramaadakara charyalanu (mancham meeda dhumapanam cheyadam ledhaa seat beltulu dharinchakapovadam vantivi) enchukune khaataadaarulaku kavarejeeni niraakarinchavacchu, idhi pramaadakara pravartananu prothsahinchakundaa pramaadaaniki (agni ledhaa pramaadaalu) vyatiraekamgaa samagra rakshananu andinchadaaniki veelu kalpistundi. ayithe, beema companylu tama khaataadaarula charyalanu sampuurnamgaa gamaninchalevu kabatti, khachitamaina samaachaaramtho prapanchamlo andinchabadutunna rakshana mottaanni andinchakundaa vaaru nirutsaahaparustaaru.
aardhikavettalu naitika pramaadaanni pratikuula empika nundi vaeru chestaaru, beema parisramalo talette maroka samasya, idhi "daachina charyalu" kakunda "daachina samacharam" valla sambhavistundi.
gamaninchaleni charyala yokka adhe antarleena samasya beema parisramatho paatu itara sandarbhaalanu kooda prabhaavitam chestundi. idhi banking mariyu financelo kooda talettutundihi oka aardhika samsthaku chivari prayatnam chesina runadaata dwara rakshinchabadutundani teliste, adhi rakshana lenappudu kante pramaadakaramaina pettubadulu pettavacchu.
beema marketlalo, beema chesina paksham yokka pravartana beema samsthaku kharchulanu penche vidhamgaa marinappudu naitika pramaadam sambhavistundi, endukante beema chesina paksham aaa pravartana yokka puurti kharchulanu bharinchadu. vyaktulu ikapai vaidya sevala kharchunu bharincharu kabatti, vaariki khareedaina mariyu marinta vistrutamaina vaidya seva kosam adagadaniki adanapu prothsaaham untundi, lekapothe adhi avasaram undadu. aaa sandarbhaallo, vyaktulu vaidya sevala puurti kharchunu bharincharu kabatti, atigaa tinadaaniki vaariki prothsaaham untundi.
rendu rakaala pravartanalu maaravacchu. oka rakam pramaadakaramaina pravartana, dheeni phalitamgaa "sanghatanaku mundu" naitika pramaadam erpadutundi. beema chesina paarteelu appudu marinta pramaadakaramaina paddhatiloo pravartistaayi, phalitamgaa beema samstha chellinchaalsina marinta pratikuula parinaamaalaku daariteestundi. udaaharanaku, vaahana beemaanu konugolu chesina tarvaata, kondaru vahananni lock cheyadam gurinchi takkuva jagrattagaa undavacchu ledhaa ekkuva drive cheyadam enchukovachhu, tadwara beema samsthaku dongatanam ledhaa pramaadam jarige pramaadam perugutundi. agni beemaanu konugolu chesina tarvaata, kondaru mantalanu nivaarinchadamlo takkuva jaagratta vahinchavachhu (udaaharanaku, mancham meeda dhumapanam cheyadam dwara ledhaa agni heccharikalalo byaatareelanu bharti cheyadamlo nirlakshyam cheyadam dwara). varada pramaada nirvahanalo maroe udaaharana gurtinchabadindi, dheenilo beema kaligi undatam anedi varadalaku guraina aastulalo varada rakshana mariyu sthitisthaapakata charyalanu ekikrutam cheyadaaniki prajalanu prothsahinche prayatnaalanu balaheenaparustundani pratipaadinchabadindi.
maragala rendava rakam pravartana, pramaadam sambhavinchina tarvaata pratikuula parinaamaalaku pratispandana mariyu vaari kharchulanu teerchadaaniki beema andinchabadutundi. daanini "ex post" (sanghatana tarvaata) naitika pramaadam anie pilavavacchu. beema chesina paarteelu marinta pratikuula parinaamaalaku daariteese marinta pramaadakaramaina paddhatiloo pravartinchavu, conny beema coverage perige koddi pramaadam nundi vachhe pratikuula parinaamaalaku ekkuva chellinchamani vaaru beema samsthanu adugutaaru. udaaharanaku, vaidya beema lekunda, kondaru daani kharchula kaaranamgaa vaidya chikitsanu vadulukovacchu mariyu kevalam takkuva naanhyata gala aarogyaanni edurkovachhu. ayithe, vaidya beema andubaatuloki vacchina tarvaata, lekapothe jarige vaidya chikitsa kharchunu chellinchamani kondaru beema pradaatanu adagavacchu.
konnisaarlu naitika pramaadam entha teevramgaa untundante adhi beema paalaseelanu asadhyam chestundi. saha beema, saha chellimpulu mariyu taggimpulu viniyogadaarula jebu kharchunu penchadam dwara naitika pramaada pramaadaanni taggistaayi, idhi viniyoginchadaaniki vaari prothsaahaanni taggistundi. eee paddhatulu viniyogadaarula kosam jebu kharchulanu penchadam dwara panicheestaayi, tadwara beema chesinavaariki adhika viniyogamlo paalgonadaaniki prothsaahakaanni taggistaayi. udaaharanaku, vyaktulu tama aarogya samrakshana kharchulalo kontha bhaganni saha beema, saha chellimpu ledhaa taggimpula dwara chellinchavalasi ravadam dwara, beema providerlu takkuva aarogya samrakshananu viniyoginchadaaniki mariyu anavasaramaina claimlanu nivaarinchadaaniki prajalaku prothsaahaanni ivvavacchu. beema chesina vyakti mariyu beema samstha yokka prayojanaalanu samalekhanam cheyadam dwara naitika pramaadaanni tagginchadaaniki idhi sahaayapadutundi.
sankhyaaparamaina udaaharana.
aarogya beema konugolu valla aarogya samrakshana marketlo naitika pramaadam sambhavinche avakaasaanni pariganinchandi. aarogya samrakshanaku sthiramaina upanta vyayam unitku $10 anie mariyu vyakti yokka demand "q" = 20 − "p" dwara ivvabadutundi. sampoorna potitatva marketnu oohisthe, samatulyata vadda, dhara unitku $10 avutundi mariyu vyakti 10 unitla aarogya samrakshananu viniyogistaadu. ippudu, aarogya beema unna adhe vyaktini pariganinchandi. eee aarogya beema aaa vyaktiki aarogya samrakshananu uchitamgaa istundani anukundam. eee sandarbhamlo, aaa vyakti aarogya samrakshana kosam $0 dharanu kaligi untaaru, tadwara 20 unitlanu viniyogistaaru. dhara ippatikee $10 untundi, conny beema samstha kharchulanu bharistundi.
aarogya beemaatho naitika pramaadam elaa sambhavinchavachho eee udaaharana sankhyaaparamgaa choopistundi. vyakti samathoulya parimaanam kante ekkuva aarogya samrakshananu viniyogistaadu endukante vaaru adanapu samrakshana kharchunu bharincharu.
aardhika siddhaantam.
aardhika siddhaantamlo, naitika pramaadam anedi lavadevi jarigina tarvaata oka paksham yokka pravartana maroka paksham yokka haniga maragala paristhiti. udaaharanaku, vaahana dongatanaaniki vyatiraekamgaa beema unna vyakti tama kaarunu lock cheyadam gurinchi takkuva jagrattagaa undavacchu, endukante vaahana dongatanam yokka pratikuula parinaamaalu ippudu (paakshikamgaa) beema samstha baadhyata. oka paksham entha pramaadaanni teesukovalo nirnayinchukuntundi, ayithe vishayalu chedugaa jarigithe maroka paksham kharchulanu bharistundi, mariyu pramaadam nundi rakshinchabadina paksham puurtigaa pramaadaaniki gurainatlayite elaa pravartistundo daaniki bhinnamgaa pravartistundi.
suukshma aardhika saastramlo, agency siddhaantam principal, nirnayam teesukune adhikaranni pratinidhulugaa ichhe party mariyu sevanu amalu chese agent madhya sambandhaanni vislaeshistumdi. eee siddhaantam agentlu mariyu pradhaanula sambandhamlo talettina samasyalanu anveshinchadaaniki mariyu parishkarinchadaaniki upayoginche keelaka bhavana, dheenini pradhana-agent samasya anie pilustaaru. eee siddhaantam rendu vargaluga vibhajinchabadindih (1) naitika pramaada namuunaa mariyu (2) pratikuula empika namuunaa. rendodi sankshiptamgaa cheppalante, rendu paarteelu asamaana ledhaa asamaana samacharanni kaligi unnappudu pratikuula empika talettutundi. contract theory" (idhi agency siddhaantaanni kaligi untundi) udaaharanalo, pratikuula empika namoonaalo agent principal thoo oppandam srushtinche mundu private samacharanni kaligi untaadu, ayithe naitika pramaada namoonaalo principal thoo oppandam srushtinchabadina tarvaata agentku gopyamgaa nilipivesina samacharam gurinchi teliyajeyabadutundi. 
oppanda siddhaantam prakaram, oka daachina charya sambhavinche paristhiti nundi naitika pramaadam erpadutundi. beng holmstrome ilaa annadu
yaadruchchika sanghatana yokka phalitam yokka asamaana samacharam (ledhaa dhruvikarana lekapovadam) unnappudu naitika pramaadaanni rendu rakaluga vibhajinchavachhu. puurvapu" naitika pramaadam anedi yaadruchchika sanghatana phalitaaniki mundu pravartanalo maarpu, ayithe "puurvapu post" anedi phalitam tarvaata pravartananu kaligi untundi. udaaharanaku, oka nirdishta vyavadhilo oka vyaktiki beema chese aarogya beema samstha vishayamlo, vyakti yokka tudi aarogyaanni phalitamgaa bhaavinchavachchu. eee kaalamlo ekkuva pramaadaalu teesukune vyakti naitika pramaadaaniki guravutaadu, ayithe beema samsthanu mosam cheyadaaniki kalpita aarogya samasya gurinchi abaddham cheppadam naitika pramaadaaniki daari teestundi. rendava udaaharana oka byaanku pramaadakara vyapara venture kosam oka vyavasthaapakudiki runam icchina sandarbham. vyavasthaapakudu atigaa pramaadaaniki gurikavadam anedi puurvapu naitika pramaadamgaa untundi, conny uddeshapoorvakamgaa viphalamavadam (labhadayakamga unnappudu venture viphalamaindani tappugaa cheppukovadam) anedi naitika pramaadaaniki mundu untundi.
haart mariyu holmstrome (1987) prakaram, naitika pramaada namuunaalanu daachina charyatho namoonalugaa mariyu daachina samaachaaramtho namoonalugaa upavibhajana cheyavachu. munupati sandarbhamlo, oppandam santakam cheyabadina tarvaata agent principal gamaninchaleni charyanu (prayatna sthaayi vantivi) enchukuntaadu. taruvaati sandarbhamlo, oppandam santakam cheyabadina tarvaata agent rakanni nirnayinche yaadruchchika dra untundi (oka vastuvu kosam athani viluva ledhaa athani prayatna kharchulu vantivi). saahityamlo, naitika pramaadam modati-uttama parishkaram (puurti samacharam kinda saadhinchabade parishkaram) saadhinchabadaledani enduku suuchistumdoe rendu kaaranaalu charchinchabaddaayi.
modata, agent pramaadaaniki vyatiraekamgaa undavacchu, kabatti agentku prothsaahakaalanu andinchadam mariyu agentku beema cheyadam madhya oka marpidi untundi. rendavadi, agent pramaada-tatasthamgaa conny sampada-parimititoe undavacchu, anduvalla agent asalu chellimpu cheyaledu mariyu prothsaahakaalanu andinchadam mariyu agent yokka parimita-baadhyata addenu tagginchadam madhya oka marpidi untundi. naitika pramaadampai oppanda-siddhaanta saahityaaniki prarambha sahakaarulalo olivar haart mariyu sanford zhe. grossman. eelogaa, naitika pramaada namuunaa pramaada-vyatiraeka mariyu pramaada-tatastha agentlatho bahula kaalalu mariyu bahula panula kesulaku vistarinchabadindi.
daachina charya mariyu daachina samacharanni militam chese namuunaalu kooda unnaayi. pariseelinchaleni chararaasulapai dayta lenanduna, contract-theoretic naitika pramaada namuunaanu neerugaa pareekshinchadam chaalaa kashtam, ayithe kshetra detatho konni vijayavantamaina paroksha pareekshalu jarigaayi. prayogaatmaka aardhika shaastra saadhanaalanu upayoginchi prayogasaala amarikalalo naitika pramaada siddhaantam yokka pratyaksha pareekshalu saadhyamavutaayi. atuvanti setaplo, hope mariyu schmitz (2018) naitika pramaada siddhaantam yokka kendra antardrushtulanu dhruvikarinchayi.
nirvaahaka aardhika shaastra rangam.
nirvaahaka aardhika shaastra rangamlo, naitika pramaadam anedi oka vyakti ledhaa samstha atuvanti pravartanaku sambandhinchina kharchulanu maroka paksham bharistundani telisinanduna pramaadakara pravartanalo nimagnamayye paristhitini suuchistumdi. eee drugvishayam tarachugaa samachara asamaanata samakshamlo talettutundi, ikkada oka paksham maroka paksham kante ekkuva samacharanni kaligi untundi. udaaharanaku, upaadhi sambandhamlo, oka udyogi edainaa pratikuula parinaamaalu vaari yajamani grahinchagaladane avagaahanato pramaadakara pravartanalo paalgonavacchu. naitika pramaadaanni tagginchadaaniki, samsthalu rendu paarteela prayojanaalanu samalekhanam cheyadaaniki mariyu pramaadakara pravartana yokka sambhaavyatanu tagginchadaaniki paniteeru aadhaarita prothsaahakaalu, paryaveekshanha mariyu screening vanti vividha yantraamgaalanu amalu cheyavachu.