
preraka tarkam

preraka tarkam anedi oka saadhaarana suutram pariseelana yokka oka bhaagam nundi udbhavinchina tarkam yokka paddhati. idhi nirdishta pariseelanala aadhaaramgaa vistruta saadhaaraneekaranalanu kaligi untundi. inductive reasoning anedi "deductive" reasoning nundi bhinnamgaa untundi, ikkada deductive argument yokka mugimpu "khachitamgaa" untundi, dheeniki viruddhamgaa, icchina sakshyam aadhaaramgaa inductive argument yokka mugimpu yokka nijam "sambhaavya" gaa untundi.
rakalu.
preraka tarkam yokka rakaalalo saadhaaraneekarana, anchanaa, ganaanka silogism, saaruupyata nundi vaadana mariyu kaarana suuchana unnaayi.
preraka saadhaaraneekarana.
oka saadhaaraneekarana (marinta khachitamgaa, oka "preraka saadhaaraneekarana") oka namuunaa gurinchi oka aavarana nundi janabha gurinchi oka nirdhaaranaku velutundi. eee namuunaa nundi pondina pariseelana vistruta janabhapai anchanaa veyabadindi.
udaaharanaku, oka kundalo nalupu ledhaa telupu-20 bantulu unnayani cheppandi. vaari sankhyalanu anchanaa vaeyadaaniki, meeru naalugu bantula namuunaanu geeyandi mariyu moodu nallaga mariyu okati tellagaa unnatlu kanugonandi. oka preraka saadhaaraneekarana emitante, kalasamlo 15 nalupu mariyu aidu telupu bantulu untaayi.
eee teermaanaaniki aavarana entha maddatu istundo (1) namuunaa samuuhamlooni sankhya, (2) janaabhaalooni sankhya, mariyu (3) janabha yokka namuunaanu soochinche sthaayi (yaadruchchika namuunaanu teesukovadam dwara saadhinchavachchu) paie aadharapadi untundi. janaabhaaku sambandhinchi namuunaa parimaanam entha ekkuvagaa unte, namuunaa janabhanu entha daggaragaa suuchistumdoe, saadhaaraneekarana antha balamgaa untundi. tondaragaa saadhaaraneekarana mariyu pakshapaata namuunaa saadhaaraneekarana porapaatlu.
ganaanka saadhaaraneekarana.
ganaanka saadhaaraneekarana anedi oka rakamaina preraka vaadana, dheenilo janabha gurinchi oka nirdhaarana ganaanka-praatinidhya namuunaanu upayoginchi oohinchabadutundi. udaaharanakuh
namuunaa peddadi mariyu yaadrucchikamgaa unte, porapaatu yokka baga nirvachinchabadina anchulo kolata chaalaa nammadaginadi. idhi sulabhamgaa lekkinchadaginadi. munupati vaadananu eee krindi vaatitho polchandi. "naa pustaka sanghamlooni padhi mandiloo aruguru svaechchaavaadulu. anduvalla, daadaapu 60 saatam mandhi prajalu svaechchaavaadulu."vaadana balaheenamgaa undhi endukante namuunaa yaadrucchikam kaadu mariyu namuunaa parimaanam chaalaa chinnadi.
ganaanka saadhaaraneekaranalanu "ganaanka anchanaalu" mariyu "namuunaa anchanaalu" anie kooda pilustaaru.
kathaatmaka saadhaaraneekarana.
oka vruttaanta saadhaaraneekarana anedi oka rakamaina preraka vaadana, dheenilo janabha gurinchi oka nirdhaarana ganana kaani namuunaanu upayoginchi oohinchabadutundi. maroe maatalo cheppalante, saadhaaraneekarana anedi vruttaanta saakshyaalapai aadharapadi untundi. udaaharanakuh
eee anumanam ganaanka saadhaaraneekarana kante takkuva nammadaginadi (mariyu anduvalla tondaragaa saadhaaraneekarana yokka bhraantini chese avakaasam ekkuva), modatidi, endukante namuunaa sanghatanalu yaadrucchikam kaavu, mariyu rendavadi endukante idhi ganita vyakteekaranaku tagginchabadadu. ganankaparamga cheppalante, bhavishyattulo jarige paniteerunu prabhaavitam chese paristhitulanu telusukovadaaniki, kolavadaniki mariyu lekkinchadaaniki maargam ledhu. taatvika sthaayilo, bhavishyat sanghatanala operation gataanni pratibimbistumdanee oohapai vaadana aadharapadi untundi. maroe maatalo cheppalante, idhi prakruti yokka ekaruupatanu manjuru chestundi, idhi niroopinchabadani suutram, idhi anubhavika dayta nundi udbhavinchadu. eee ekaruupatanu nissabdamgaa oohinche vaadanalanu konnisaarlu taatvika pariseelanaku guraina tatwavetta tarvaata "humin" anie pilustaaru.
anchanaa.
oka preraka anchanaa itara sandarbhaala namuunaa nundi bhavishyattu, prastuta ledhaa gatha udaaharana gurinchi oka nirdhaarananu teesukuntundi. oka preraka saadhaaraneekarana vale, oka preraka anchanaa oka drugvishayam yokka nirdishta sandarbhaalato kuudina dayta setpai aadhaarapadutundi. conny oka saadhaarana prakatanatho muginche badulu, inductive prediction anedi oka udaaharana itara sandarbhaala dwara panchukune (ledhaa panchukooni) lakshanaanni kaligi undagala (ledhaa undakapovachhu) sambhaavyata gurinchi oka nirdishta prakatanatho mugustundi.
ganaanka silogism.
ganaanka silogism anedi oka samuuham gurinchi saadhaaraneekarana nundi oka vyakti gurinchi mugimpuku velutundi.
udaaharanakuh
idhi "ganaanka silogism". baab vishwavidhyaalayaaniki haajaravutaarani evaruu khachitamgaa cheppalenappatiki, eee phalitam yokka khachitamaina sambhaavyata gurinchi memu puurtigaa haamii ivvavacchu (marinta samacharam ivvabadaledu). vaadana chaalaa balamgaa undani, "mosam" chesinatlu aaropinchabadavachu. anni taruvaata, sambhaavyata aavaranalo ivvabadutundi. saadhaaranamgaa, preraka tarkam sambhaavyatanu "suutreekarinchadaaniki" prayatnistundi. ganaanka aksharaalalo rendu dicto symplicitor faalaseelu sambhavinchavachhuh "accident" mariyu "converse accident".
saaruupyata nundi vaadana.
saaruupya anumiti prakriyaloo rendu ledhaa anthakante ekkuva vishayaala bhaagaswaamya lakshanaalanu gamaninchadam mariyu eee aadhaaramgaa avi kooda kontha adanapu aastini panchukuntaayani oohinchadam untundih
saaruupya tarkam anedi saadhaarana ardhamlo, vignaana shaastram, tatvasaastram, chattam mariyu maanaveeya saastraalalo chaalaa tarachugaa untundi, conny konnisaarlu idhi sahayaka paddhatigaa matrame aamodinchabadutundi. suddhi cheyabadina vidhanam anedi cases-aadhaarita tarkam.
idhi "analogical induction", dheeni prakaram konni margallo vishayalu itara margallo okela unde avakaasam ekkuvagaa untundi. prerana yokka eee roopaanni tatwavetta zaan stewart mill thana "tarka vyavastha" loe vivaramgaa anveshinchaaru, ikkada athanu ilaa paerkonnaadu, "[t] ikkada prati saaruupyata [asambaddhamgaa teliyadu] kontha sambhaavyatanu istundi anadamlo sandeham ledhu, lekapothe unikilo unnadaaniki minchi, mugimpuku anukuulamgaa untundi."millu paddhatulanu chudandi.
kontamandi aalochanaaparulu analogical induction anedi inductive generalisation yokka upavargam anie vaadistaaru, endukante idhi mundugaa sthaapinchabadina ekareeti paalaka sanghatanalanu oohistundi. analogical inductionku jantaku saadhaaranamainavigaa perkonna lakshanaala "auchityam" yokka sahayaka pareeksha avasaram. munupati udaaharanalo, prarambha spanish anveshakula recordulalo rendu raallu prastaavinchabaddaayani paerkontuu oka aavarananu jodinchinatlayithe, eee saadhaarana lakshanam raallaku baahyamainadi mariyu vaati sambhaavya anubandhaaniki dohadam cheyadu.
saaruupyata yokka oka aapada emitante, lakshanaalanu cherry-enchukovachhuh vastuvulu adbhutamaina saaruupyatalanu chuupavachchu, rendu vishayalu varusaga saaruupyataloo gurtinchabadani itara lakshanaalanu kaligi undavacchu, avi lakshanaalu padunaina "diss" saaruupyata kaligi untaayi. anduvalla, anni sambandhita poolikalu cheyakapothe saaruupyata tappudova pattinchavachhu.
kaaranaparamaina anumanam.
oka kaaranaparamaina anumanam oka prabhavam sambhavinche paristhitula aadhaaramgaa oka kaarana sambandham gurinchi oka nirdhaarananu teesukuntundi. rendu vishayaala paraspara sambandham gurinchi aavarana vaati madhya kaarana sambandhaanni suuchimchavachchu, conny kaarana sambandham yokka khachitamaina roopaanni sthaapinchadaaniki adanapu kaarakaalanu dhruveekarinchaali.
paddhatulu.
preraka nirdhaaranalaku cherukovadaniki upayoginche rendu pradhana paddhatulu "enumerative induction" mariyu "eleminative induction"."
ganana prerana.
enumerative induction anedi oka preraka paddhati, dheenilo daaniki maddatu ichhe sandarbhaala "sankhya" aadhaaramgaa oka mugimpu nirminchabadutundi. marinta sahayaka sandarbhaalu, marinta balamaina mugimpu.
nirdishta sandarbhaala nundi anni sandarbhaalaku ganana prerana kaaranaala yokka atyanta praathamika roopam, mariyu anduvalla idhi aniyantrita saadhaaraneekarana. 100 swan lanu gamaninchi, 100 swan luu tellagaa unte, "anni swan luu tellagaa untaayi" anae roopam yokka saarvatrika vargeekarana pratipaadananu evarainaa oohinchavachhu. eee tarkam yokka aavarana, nijamainappatikee, mugimpu yokka satyaanni suchinchakapoyina, idhi preraka anumiti yokka oka roopam. mugimpu nijam kaavacchu, mariyu bahusha nijam anie bhaavinchavachchu, ayinappatikee adhi abaddham kaavacchu. shaastreeya paddhati yokka saampradaaya namoonaalo ganana prerana keelaka paatra pooshistunnanduna, ganana preranala yokka samarthana mariyu roopaaniki sambandhinchina prasnalu vignaana shaastra tatvasaastramlo kendramgaa unnaayi.
idhi "enumerative induction", dheenini "simple induction" ledhaa "simple predictive induction" anie kooda pilustaaru. idhi preraka saadhaaraneekarana yokka upavargam. rojuvaaree aacharanalo, idhi bahusha prerana yokka atyanta saadhaarana roopam. munupati vaadana kosam, mugimpu pralobhapettedi, conny sakshyam kante ekkuvagaa anchanaa vestundi. modata, ippati varaku gamaninchina jeevana roopaalu bhavishyat kesulu elaa untayo manaku teliyajestaayani idhi bhaavistundih ekaruupataku vignapti. rendavadi, "annee" anae mugimpu oka saahasopetamaina vaadana. dheeniki viruddhamaina okka udaaharana vaadananu viphalaparustundi. chivaraga, edainaa ganita roopamlo sambhaavyata sthaayini lekkinchadam samasyaatmakamainadi. anni (saadhyamaina) jeevitaalaku vyatiraekamgaa mana bhusambandhamaina jeevita namuunaanu yea pramaanamtho kolavagalam? madhyaavaranamloo telutunna suukshmajeevulu ledhaa grahasakalam vanti konni kotta jeevulanu manam kanugonnamu anukundam-mariyu adhi cellular. eee dhruveekarinche sakshyanni jodinchadam valla vishayam pratipaadana kosam mana sambhaavyata anchanaanu penchaalsina avasaram undaa? eee prasnaku "avunu" anie samadhanam ivvadam saadhaaranamgaa sahetukamainadigaa pariganinchabadutundi, mariyu chaalaa mandiki idhi "avunu" anedi sahetukamainadi matrame kaadu, tirugulenidi kooda. kabatti eee kotta dayta mana sambhaavyata anchanaanu entha marchali? ikkada, ekaabhipraayam karigipotundi, mariyu daani sthaanamlo sankhya parimaanam lekunda sambhaavyata gurinchi pondikagaa matladagalama anae prasna talettutundi.
idhi daani "balaheenamaina roopamlo" ganana prerana. idhi "anni" lanu kevalam oke udaaharanagaa kattiristundi mariyu chaalaa balaheenamaina vaadana cheyadam dwara, daani mugimpu sambhaavyatanu gananeeyamgaa balaparustundi. lekapothe, idhi balamaina roopam vale adhe lopaalanu kaligi untundih daani namuunaa janabha yaadrucchikam kaadu, mariyu parimaanaatmaka paddhatulu antuchikkanivi.
eleminative induction.
eleminative induction, dheenini variative induction anie kooda pilustaaru, idhi oka preraka paddhati, dheenilo daaniki maddatu ichhe "vividha" sandarbhaala aadhaaramgaa oka mugimpu nirminchabadutundi. ganana prerana vale kakunda, oka teermaanaaniki maddatu ichhe vividha rakaala sandarbhaala aadhaaramgaa tolagimpu prerana kaaranaalu, daaniki maddatu ichhe sandarbhaala sankhya kante. vividha rakaala sandarbhaalu perige koddi, aaa sandarbhaala aadhaaramgaa saadhyamayye marinta nirdhaaranalanu ananukuulamainavigaa gurtinchavacchu mariyu tolaginchavacchu. idhi, vividha sandarbhaalaku anugunamgaa unde edainaa teermaanam yokka balaanni penchutundi. eee rakamaina prerana anedi pakshika-pareeksha vanti vividha paddhatulanu upayoginchavacchu, idhi pareekshistundi mariyu saadhyamaina chota pratyarthi parikalpanalanu tolagistundi. vinodabharitamaina avakaasaalanu tolaginchadaaniki vividha saakshya pareekshalanu kooda upayoginchavacchu.
tolagimpu prerana shaastreeya paddhatiki keelakam mariyu pariseelanalu mariyu prayogaalaku viruddhamaina parikalpanalanu tolaginchadaaniki upayoginchabadutundi. idhi kaarana sambandhaala yokka vaastava sandarbhaalaku badulugaa saadhyamayye kaaranaalapai drushti pedutundi.
charitra.
praacheena tatvasaastram.
pratyaekamaina nundi saarvatrikamainadaaniki velladaaniki, cree. puu. 300laloe aristatle greeku padam "epagoge" nuu upayoginchaaru, dheenini sisero latin padam "inductio" loki anuvadinchaaru.
aristatle mariyu peripetetic paatasaala.
aristatle yokka "posterior analytics" sahaja tatvasaastram mariyu saamaajika saastraalalo preraka rujuvu paddhatulanu kaligi untundi. modati pustakam pradarsana yokka swabhaavam mariyu vignaana shaastram mariyu daani amsaalanu vivaristundihi nirvachanam, vibhajana, modati suutraala sahajamaina kaaranam, pratyeka mariyu saarvatrika pradarsana, dhruveekarinche mariyu pratikuula pradarsana, vignaana shaastram mariyu abhiprayam madhya vyatyaasam modalainavi.
pironism.
praacheena pirronistulu prerana samasyanu etthi chuupina modati paaschaatya tatvavettaluh vaari abhiprayam prakaram, prerana anedi saarvatrika prakatanalanu nijamani angeekarinchadaanni samarthinchadu.
praacheena vaidyam.
praacheena greeku vaidyasaastramlo anubhavika paatasaala "upasheershika" nuu oka anumiti paddhatigaa upayoginchindi. 'appelogism' anedi siddhaanta rahita paddhati, idhi pradhana saadhaaraneekarana lekunda vaastavaalanu koodabettadam dwara mariyu kaarana vaadanalu cheyadam valla kalige parinaamaalanu parigananaloki teesukoni charitranu pariseelistundi. upasheershika anedi puurtigaa kanipinche mariyu spashtamaina vishayaala domine lopala kadile oka anumanam, idhi gamanimpabadani vaatini prerepinchakudadani prayatnistundi.
puraatana greeku vaidya shaastram yokka siddhaanta paatasaala "analogismos" nuu oka anumiti paddhatigaa upayoginchindi. eee paddhati gamaninchabadina daani nundi gamanimpabadani saktulaku kaaranaanni polchindi.
prarambha aadhunika tatvasaastram.
1620loe, prarambha aadhunika tatwavetta frances bekan kevalam anubhavam mariyu ganana prerana yokka viluvanu matrame tiraskarinchaaru. athani preranaatmaka paddhati prastuta anubhava paridhiki minchina gnaanaanni kaligi undataaniki sahaja prapancham yokka nirmaanam mariyu kaarana sambandhaalanu velikiteese suukshmamaina mariyu aneka-vibhina pariseelanalu ganana preranatho jatacheyaalsina avasaram undhi. anduvalla inductivism oka bhaagamgaa enumerative induction avasaram.
david hyoom.
anubhavagnudaina david hyoom yokka 1740 vaikhariki taarkikamaina aadharam undadani, daaniki badulugaa, prerana anedi kaaranam kante sahajatvam yokka utpatti, manassu yokka aacharam mariyu jeevinchadaaniki rojuvaaree avasaram anie kanugonnaru. suuryuni kadalika vanti pariseelanalu, khachitamainavigaa anipinche nirdhaaranalanu utpatti cheyadaaniki prakruti yokka ekaruupata suutramtoe jatacheyabadavachhu, prerana samasya anedi prakruti yokka ekaruupata taarkikamgaa chellubaatu ayye suutram kaadani vaastavam nundi udbhavinchindi, anduvalla dheenini oohaatmakamgaa hetubaddhamainadigaa samarthinchalemu, conny prakruti yokka ekaruupata gataanni khachitamgaa vivarinchindani mariyu anduvalla, bhavishyattunu khachitamgaa vivaristundi endukante idhi oka preraka vaadana mariyu anduvalla vruttaakaara prerana anedi samarthinchavalasina avasaram unnanduna, prerana anedi hetubaddhamgaa samarthinchadaginadi.
hyoom modata sahajatvam yokka ekaruupataku maddatugaa deductive vaadanala yokka asamarthatha mariyu inductive vaadanala vruttaakaara madhya sandigdhata gurinchi vraasinappati nundi, kevalam rendu rakaala anumiti, deduction mariyu induction madhya eee dvivibhajana, apaharana ledhaa apaharana tarkam anie piluvabade moodava mode off inference aavishkaranatoe pootii padindi, dheenini 1886loe charless sanders peers roopondinchaaru mariyu abhivruddhi chesaaru, ikkada athanu daanini "parikalpana dwara tarkam" anie paerkonnaadu."uttama vivaranaku sambandhinchina anumitini tarachugaa apaharanaku paryaayapadamgaa pariganistaaru, endukante dheenini modata gilbert herman 1965loe gurtinchaaru, akkada athanu daanini" "apaharana tarkam" "gaa paerkonnaadu, ayinappatikee apaharana yokka nirvachanam piers nirvachanam nundi koddigaa bhinnamgaa untundi". sambandham lekunda, apaharana anedi vaastavaaniki itara rendinti nundi hetubaddhamgaa swatantramgaa unna moodava mode off inference ayithe, appudu prakruti yokka ekaruupatanu apaharana dwara hetubaddhamgaa samarthinchavachhu, ledhaa hyoom yokka gandaragolam anedi oka trayam. lekkimpu prerana yokka anuvartanam mariyu gamanimpabadani vaati gurinchi khachitatvanni cherukovadaniki kaaranam mariyu mukhyamgaa sambandham yokka oka amsaanni savarinchadam anedi oka nirdishta phalitaanni nirodhistundi ledhaa utpatti chestundi anae vaastavam nundi karyakarananni anchanaa veyadam gurinchi kooda hyoom sandehinchaadu.
emmanuel cont.
hyoom rachana yokka german anuvaadam dwara "dagmatic slumber" nundi melkonna cont, adhibhouthika shaastram yokka avakaasaanni vivarinchadaaniki prayatninchaadu. 1781loe, kanth yokka "swachchamaina kaaranampai vimarsha" "anubhaavavaadam" nundi bhinnamaina ghnaanam vaipu maargamgaa "hetubaddhata" nuu pravesapettindi. kanth prakatanalanu rendu rakaluga kramabaddheekarinchaaru. vislaeshanhaatmaka prakatanalu vaati nibandhanalu mariyu ardhaala amarika kaaranamgaa nijamainavi, anduvalla vislaeshanhaatmaka prakatanalu tatologylu, kevalam taarkika satyaalu, avasaram dwara nijam. ayithe krutrima prakatanalu vaastavaala, aakasmika paristhitula sthithulanu suuchimchadaaniki ardhaalanu kaligi untaayi. descartes mariyu leibniz vanti hetuvaada tatvavettalaku vyatiraekamgaa alaage loke mariyu hyoom vanti anubhavagnulaina tatvavettalaku vyatiraekamgaa, cont yokka "swachchamaina kaaranam yokka vimarsha" anedi gnaanaanni kaligi undataaniki mana manassu (bhavanalu) mariyu mana indriyaala (antar drushti) sahakaram rendoo avasaramani sthiramaina vaadana. saraina ghnaanam kaantku matrame, anduvalla manam grahinchagala ("drugvishayam") daaniki parimitam cheyabadindi, ayithe kevalam aalochana yokka vastuvulu ("tamalo taamu vishayalu") suutrapraayamgaa teliyanivi, endukante vaatini eppuduu grahinchalemu.
indriya samacharanni nirvahinchadaaniki, "sthalam" mariyu "samayam (drugvishayam)" loe vastuvula anubhavanni saadhyam cheyadaaniki manassu daani swantha vargaalanu kaligi undaali anie tarkinchadam, prakruti yokka ekaruupata "oka praadhaanyata" satyam anie kanth teelchindi. krutrima prakatanala taragati aakasmikamainadi kaadu conny avasaram prakaram nijam, appudu synthetic "oka praadhaanyata". cont eee vidhamgaa adhibhouthika shaastram mariyu neuton yokka saarvatrika gurutvakarshana niyamam rendintinee kapadadu. mana ghnaanaaniki minchinadi "manaku aemee ledhu" anae vaadana aadhaaramgaa ayana shaastreeya vaastavikatanu tiraskarinchaaru. ghnaanam anedi avagahana sahakaram dwara vastundi mariyu mana aalochanaa saamarthyam (divya aadarsavaadam) german aadarsavaadam yokka udyamaaniki janmanichindi. hegel yokka sampoorna aadarsavaadam taruvaata khandantara airopa mariyu ingland antataa abhivruddhi chendindi.
chivari aadhunika tatvasaastram.
henry dii seyint-saiman abhivruddhi chesina mariyu 1830laloe athani maajee vidyaarthi auguste comte dwara prakatinchabadina pratyakshavaadam, vignaana shaastram yokka modati chivari aadhunika tatvasaastram. french viplavam taruvaata, samajam naasanamavutundane bhayamtho, comte adhibhouthika saastraanni vyatiraekimchaaru. maanava ghnaanam matam nundi adhibhouthika saastraaniki parinaamam chendindi, comte chepparu, idhi ganitam nundi khagola shaastram varaku bhouthika shaastram varaku rasayana shaastram nundi jeevasaastram varaku saamaajika shaastram varaku pravahinchindi-aaa kramamlo-marinta klishtamaina domainlanu vivaristundi. vedaantasaastram mariyu adhibhouthika shaastram yokka prasnalaku samadhanam dorakaka samajam yokka ghnaanam anthaa saastriiyamgaa maarindi. comte andubaatulo unna anubhavamlo daani grounding phalitamgaa enumerative induction nammadaginadigaa kanugonnaru. maanava samajanni meruguparachadaaniki metaphysical satyam kante sainsnu saraina paddhatigaa upayoginchadaanni ayana nokki chepparu.
comte prakaram, shaastreeya paddhati anchanaalanu frame chestundi, vaatini dhruveekaristundi mariyu chattalanu-saanukuula prakatanalu-vedaantasaastram ledhaa adhibhouthika shaastram dwara tirugulenivigaa perkontundi. prakruti yokka ekaruupatanu pradarsinchadam dwara sankhya prerananu samarthinche anubhavaniki sambandhinchi, british tatwavetta zaan stewart mill comte yokka pratyakshavaadaanni swaagatinchaaru, conny shaastreeya chattalu gurthuku ledhaa punarvimarsaku gurayye avakaasam undani bhaavinchaaru mariyu comte yokka maanavatvam yokka matam nundi kooda nilipivesaaru. anni ghnaanaalaku shaastreeya chattanni tiruguleni punaadigaa pariganinchadamlo comte nammakamgaa unnadu, mariyu pramukha saastravettalanu gowravinche charchilu, "paropakaaram" paie praja manastatvaanni kendreekarinchaalani nammadu-comte anae padam srushtinchabadindi-samaja shaastram dwara manavjati yokka saamaajika sankshemam kosam vignaana saastraanni vartimpajeyadaaniki, comte yokka pramukha shaastram.
1830luu mariyu 1840laloe, comte mariyu millu sains yokka pramukha tatvavettalugaa unnappatikee, vilium wewell ganana prerananu daadaapu nammadaginadigaa kanugonaledu, mariyu, preranavaadam yokka aadhipatyam unnappatikee, "superinduction" nuu roopondinchaaru. prerana" anae padam yokka pratyaekamaina praamukhyatanu gurtinchaalani wewell vaadinchaaru "vaastavaalapai" atiprerita "anae bhavana undhi, antey" prati preraka anumatiki kotta bhavana yokka aavishkarana ". bhavanalu srushtinchadam sulabhamgaa vismarinchabadutundi mariyu well mundu arudugaa gurtinchabadindi. wewell vivarinchaaduh
eee "atiprerita" vivaranalu lopabhooyishtamgaa undavacchu, conny avi "sammati" anie piliche vaatini pradarsinchinappudu vaati khachitatvam suuchimchabadutumdi-antey, ekakaalamlo bahula praantaalalo preraka saadhaaraneekaranalanu anchanaa vestundi-idhi oka ghanata, wewell prakaram, vaari satyaanni sthaapinchagaladu. bahusha vignaana shaastram yokka prabalamaina drukpathaanni preranaatmaka paddhatigaa maarchadaaniki, well aneka adhyayalanu "prerana paddhatulaku" ankitam chesaaru mariyu konnisaarlu prerana niyamaalu laenappatikee mariyu sikshana pondalekapoyinappatiki "prerana yokka tarkam" anae padabandhaanni upayoginchaaru.
1870laloe, vyaavahaarikasattaavaadam yokka muulam, cs peers ganita rujuvugaa deductive inference yokka aadharaanni spashtam chese vistaaramaina parisoedhanalanu nirvahinchaadu (swatantramgaa, gaat lobe freeze). peers prerananu gurtinchaadu, conny ellappuduu moodava rakam anumitini nokki cheppadu, dheenini peers vividha rakaluga "apaharana" ledhaa "punarutpatti" ledhaa "parikalpana" ledhaa "ooha" anie pilustaaru. taruvaata tatvavettalu peers apaharana modalaina vaatini pilicharu., uttama vivaranaku anumanam" (ibe).
samakaaleena tatvasaastram.
bertrand russell.
hyoom yokka prerana samasyanu highlight chesina zaan maynard keynes, daani samadhanamga "taarkika sambhaavyata" nii ledhaa athanu cherukogaliginanta parishkaaraaniki daggaragaa unchaadu. bertrand russell keynes yokka "treatise aann probility" nuu prerana yokka uttama pareekshagaa kanugonnadu, mariyu zeane nikode yokka "lae problem lagic dii ell 'induction" thoo paatu aarr bii braithwaite yokka sameekshato chadivinatlayite, "mind" yokka october 1925 sanchikalo keynes yokka pani gurinchi, idhi "prerana gurinchi telisina chaalaa vishayalanu" cover chestundi, ayinappatikee "vishayam saanketikamainadi mariyu kashtam, indulo manchi ganitam untundi". rendu dasaabdaala taruvaata, russell "swatantra taarkika suutram" gaa ganana prerananu pratipaadinchaaru. russell kanugonnaduh
gilbert herman.
1965 patrikalo, gilbert herman, enumerative induction anedi swayampratipatti kaligina drugvishayam kaadani, conny uttama vivarana (ibe) kuu anumanam yokka maaruveshamlo parinaamam anie vivarinchaadu. ib anedi cs peers yokka "apaharana" kii paryaayapadamgaa untundi. shaastreeya vaastavikatanu samarthinche vignaana shaastra tatvavettalu chaalaa mandhi saastravettalu prakruti gurinchi sumaru nijamaina shaastreeya siddhaantaalanu abhivruddhi chese maargam ib anie paerkonnaaru.
deductive reasoning thoo polchandi.
inductive reasoning anedi oka rakamaina vaadana, idhi-deductive reasoning kuu viruddhamgaa-anni aavaranalu nijamainappatikee, oka mugimpu abaddham kaavacchu anae avakaasaanni anumatistundi. deductive mariyu inductive reasoning madhya eee vyatyaasam deductive mariyu inductive aargyumentlanu vivarinchadaaniki upayoginche paribhaashalo pratibimbistumdi. deductive reasoning loe, vaadana yokka aavarana nijamani bhavinchinappudu, oka vaadana "chellubaatu avutundi", mugimpu "tappaka" nijamaina undaali. vaadana chellubaatu ayithe mariyu aavarana "nijamaithe", appudu vaadana "dhwani". dheeniki viruddhamgaa, preraka tarkamlo, oka vaadana yokka aavarana anedi "tappaka" anae mugimpu nijamani eppuduu haamii ivvadu; anduvalla, preraka vaadanalu ennatikee chellubaatu kaavu ledhaa dhwaniga undavu. badulugaa, vaadana yokka aavarana nijamani bhavinchinappudu, mugimpu "bahusha" nijamani bhavinchinappudu oka vaadana "balamgaa" untundi. vaadana balamgaa undi, aavarana "nijamaithe", appudu vaadana "khachitamainadi". takkuva lanchanaprayamga, oka preraka vaadananu "sambhaavya", "aamodayogyamainadi", "sambhaavyamainadi", "sahetukamainadi" ledhaa "samarthaneeyamainadi" anie pilavavacchu, conny eppuduu "nirdishtamainadi" ledhaa "avasaram" kaadu. tarkam sambhaavyata nundi nirdishtamainadaaniki vantenanu andinchadu.
kontha klishtamaina sambhaavyata dwara khachitatvanni saadhinche vyardhatanu naanem-taas vyaayaamtho vivarinchavacchu. oka naanem sarasamainadaa ledhaa rendu talalada anie evarainaa pareekshistaarani anukundam. vaaru naanemnu padhi saarlu tipputaaru, mariyu padhi saarlu adhi talaki vastundi. eee samayamlo, idhi rendu talaladani nammadaniki balamaina kaaranam undhi. anni taruvaata, varusalo padhi talalu unde avakaasam. 000976: veyyiloo okati kante takkuva. appudu, 100 flips tarvaata, prati taas talakindulaindi. naanem rendu talalu galadani ippudu "virtual" khachitatvam undhi. ayinappatikee, tadupari taas thokalanu utpatti chestundani taarkikamgaa ledhaa anubhavapuurvakamgaa tosipuchalemu. varusalo ennisaarlu ayina idhi talettutundi, idhi kesugaane migilipotundi. oka naanemnu nirantaram tippadaaniki oka yantraanni programme chesthe, phalitam 100 headla string avutundi. samayam yokka sampuurnataloo, anni kalayikalu kanipistaayi.
oka sarasamaina naanem nundi padhi thalalalo padhi talalu pondhe sannani avakaasam kosam-naanem pakshapaatamgaa kanipinche phalitam-talalu ledhaa thokala shreni yokka avakaasam samanamga asambhavam anie telusukuni chaalaa mandhi aascharyapovacchu (udhaa.zii., hetch-hetch-tii-tii-hetch-hetch-hetch-tii) inca idhi padhi taas la yokka "prati" trial loe jarugutundi. antey padhi tassku "anni" phalitaalu padhi headlalo padhi pondadaaniki samaana sambhaavyatanu kaligi untaayi, idhi 0.000976. evarainaa heads-tails sequencelanu record chesthe, yea phalitam kosam, aaa khachitamaina sequence kii 0.000976 avakaasam undhi.
oka vaadana anedi, aaa aavaranalo icchinatlugaa, mugimpu avasaramainappudu, teesiveyabadutundi. antey, aaa aadharam nijamaithe mugimpu nijame ayi undaali.
oka deductive conclusion daani aavarana nundi sakramamgaa anusaristhe, adhi chellutundi; lekapothe, adhi chelladu (oka vaadana chelladani cheppadaniki adhi tappu anie kaadu; adhi nijamaina teermaanaanni kaligi undavacchu, kevalam aavarana kaaranamgaa kaadu). eee krindi udaaharanalanu pariseelisthe, aavarana mariyu mugimpu madhya sambandham anedi nirdhaarana yokka nijam ippatike aavaranalo antarleenamgaa undani chooputundi. avivaahitulu avivaahitulu endukante vaaru anie memu "chebutamu"; memu vaarini alaa nirvachinchaamu. socreties martyudu endukante manam atanni martya jeevula samuuhamloo cherchaamu. chellubaatu ayye deductive vaadana yokka mugimpu ippatike praamganamloo undhi, endukante daani nijam khachitamgaa taarkika sambandhaala vishayam. idhi daani aavarana kante ekkuva cheppalemu. marovaipu, preraka aavaranalu, vaastavam mariyu sakshyam nundi vaati padaardhaanni teesukuntaayi, mariyu tadanugunamgaa mugimpu oka vaastavika daavaa ledhaa anchanaanu chestundi. daani viswasaneeyata saakshyaalato nishpattilo maarutuu untundi. prerana prapancham gurinchi "kotta" edho bahirgatam cheyalanukuntundi. induction praamganamloo unna daanikante "ekkuva" anie cheppalanukuntundi anie okaru cheppavacchu.
inductive mariyu deductive argumentla madhya vyatyaasaanni baga chuudataaniki, ilaa cheppadam ardhavantam kaadani pariganinchandih "ippativaraku pariseelinchina anni deerghachaturasraalaku naalugu saraina koonaalu unnaayi, kabatti neenu chuse taduparidaaniki naalugu saraina koonaalu untaayi."idhi taarkika sambandhaalanu vaastavamainavi mariyu kanugonadaginavigaa pariganistundi, tadwara asthiramainavi mariyu anischitamainavigaa pariganistundi. adevidhamgaa, oohaatmakamgaa matladithe manam anumatinchadagina vidhamgaa cheppavacchu. "anni unicornlu egaragalavu; naaku charley anae unicorn undhi; anduvalla charley egaragaladu."eee deductive vaadana chellutundi endukante taarkika sambandhaalu kaligi untaayi; vaati vaastavika drudhatvampai maaku aasakti ledhu.
preraka tarkam anedi swabhavikamga anischitamainadi. idhi konni aadhaaraala siddhaantam prakaram, aavarananu batti, mugimpu "nammadaginadi" anae meraku matrame vyavaharistundi. udaaharanalalo aneka-viluva gala tarkam, dempster-shafer siddhaantam ledhaa bays niyamam vanti anumatiki niyamaalato sambhaavyata siddhaantam unnaayi. deductive reasoning maadirigaa kakunda, idhi teermaanaalanu teesukoovadaaniki sampradimpula yokka closed domainpai vishwavyaapta pattudalapai aadhaarapadadu, kabatti idhi epidemic anischiti sandarbhaallo kooda vartinchavachhu (ayithe dheenitho saanketika samasyalu talettavachhu; udaaharanaku, sambhaavyata yokka rendava suutram closed-varald ooha).
eee rendu rakaala vaadanala madhya maroe keelakamaina vyatyaasam emitante, vaastavikata vanti akshasambandhamaina vyavasthalalo deductive nischitata asadhyam, atuvanti vyavasthala (sambhaavya) ghnaanaaniki preraka tarkaanni praathamika maargamgaa vadilivestundi.
a" anedi nijamaithe adhi "b", "c", mariyu "d" nijamani kaaranamavutundi, taggimpu yokka udaaharana "a" anedi nijam kabatti "b", "c", mariyu "d" nijamani manam oohinchavachhu. preranaku oka udaaharana "bii", "sii", mariyu "dii" nijamani gamaninchabadataayi, anduvalla "eah" nijamani undavacchu. "a" anedi "b", "c", "mariyu" d "nijamani sahetukamaina vivarana.
udaaharanakuh
ayithe, saamuuhika viluptaaniki grahasakalam vivarana tappanisarigaa sarainadi kaadani gamaninchandi. prapancha vaataavaranaanni prabhaavitam chese saamardhyamtho itara sanghatanalu kooda avian kaani dinosaurla viluptamtoe samanamga untaayi. udaaharanaku, bhaaratadesamlo dakkan ucchulu erpadinappudu agniparvata vaayuvula vidudala (mukhyamgaa sulfur dioxide).
preraka vaadanaku maroka udaaharana
eee vaadana pratisaaree oka kotta jeeva roopaanni kanugonna pratisaaree cheyabadi undavacchu, mariyu pratisaaree sarainadi ayi undedi; ayithe, bhavishyattulo drava neeru avasaram laeni jeeva roopaanni kanugonadam ippatikee saadhyame.
phalitamgaa, vaadananu takkuva adhikarikamga ilaa perkonavacchuhu
tappu" preraka vaadanaku shaastreeya udaaharana zaan wickers samarpinchaaruh
saraina mugimpu emitante anni swans tellagaa untaayani memu aasistunnaamu.
kluptamgaa cheppalante taggimpu anedi "khachitatvam/avasaram" gurinchi; prerana anedi "sambhaavyata" gurinchi. edainaa okka vaadana eee rendu pramaanaalalo okadaaniki samadhanam istundi. tarkam yokka vislaeshanhaku maroka vidhanam modal logic, idhi saadhyamani bhaavinche vishayaalalo sambhaavyatatoo sambandham laeni vidhamgaa avasaramaina mariyu "saadhyamayye" madhya vyatyaasamtho vyavaharistundi.
nirdishta/vyaktigata sandarbhaala nundi vistruta saadhaaraneekaranalaku saralamaina purogati kante preraka tarkam yokka taatvika nirvachanam marinta suukshmamgaa untundi. badulugaa, oka preraka taarkika vaadana yokka aavarana mugimpuku kontha maddatu (preraka sambhaavyata) nuu suuchistumdi, conny daanini suuchimchadu; antey, avi satyaanni suuchistaayi conny daanini nirdhaarinchavu. eee paddhatiloo, saadhaarana prakatanala nundi vyaktigata sandarbhaalaku (udaaharanaku, ganaanka aksharakramalu) maare avakaasam undhi.
ikkada vivarinchina "preraka" tarkam yokka nirvachanam ganita prerana nundi bhinnamgaa undani gamaninchandi, idhi vaastavaaniki "deductive" tarkam yokka oka roopam. punaraavrutamgaa nirvachinchina setla lakshanaala yokka kathinamaina rujuvulanu andinchadaaniki ganita prerana upayoginchabadutundi. ganita prerana yokka deductive swabhaavam anedi anantam kaani kesulalo daani aadharam nundi udbhavinchindi, dheeniki viruddhamgaa, extion dwara rujuvu vanti enumerative induction prakriyaloo palgonna parimita sankhyalo kesulu untaayi. ganita prerana mariyu alasata dwara rujuvu rendoo puurti preranaku udaaharanalu. puurti prerana anedi oka musugu rakamaina deductive reasoning.
prerana samasya.
kaneesam pyronist tatwavetta sextus empericus varaku tatvavettalu preraka tarkam yokka asthiratanu etthi chuupinappatikii, prerana samasya yokka classic taatvika vimarsanu scottish tatwavetta david hyoom icchaaru. preraka tarkam yokka upayogam gananeeyamaina vijayanni pradarsinchinappatikii, daani anuvartanaaniki samarthana prasnaarthakam. dheenini gurtistuu, mana manassu tarachugaa sarainadigaa kanipinche, conny vaastavaaniki nirdishtamaina vatiki dhooramgaa unde saapekshamgaa parimita anubhavaala nundi teermaanaalanu teesukuntundi anae vaastavaanni hyoom highlight chesindi. taggimpuloo, mugimpu yokka satya viluva aavarana yokka satyampai aadharapadi untundi. ayithe, preranalo, aavaranapai mugimpu yokka aadharapadatam ellappuduu anischitamgaa untundi. udaaharanaku, anni kaakulu nallaga unnayani anukundam. aneka nalla kaakulu unnayane vaastavam eee oohaku maddatu istundi. ayithe, tella kaakulu unnayani kanugonna tarvaata mana ooha chelladu. anduvalla, "anni ravenlu nallaga untaayi" anae saadhaarana niyamam eppuduu khachitamgaa cheppagala prakatana kaadu. preraka tarkaanni samarthinchadam asadhyam anie hyoom vaadinchaaru endukante dheenini oohaatmakamgaa samarthinchalemu, kabatti mana ekaika empika daanini preranagaa samarthinchadam. eee vaadana vruttakaramga unnanduna, hyoom fork sahayamtho mana prerana upayogam anyayamani ayana nirdhaarinchaaru.
ayinappatikee prerana nammadaganidigaa niroopinchabadinappatiki, manam daanipai aadhaarapadaalsi untundani hyoom paerkonnaadu. kabatti teevramaina samsayavaadaaniki badulugaa, hyoom saadhaarana ghnaanam aadhaaramgaa aacharanaatmaka samsayavaadaanni samardhinchaaru, ikkada prerana yokka anivaaryata aamodinchabadutundi. prati udayam tappaka tinipinche oka kodi gurinchi oka kathalo hyoom yokka samsayavaadaanni bertrand russell vivarinchaadu, athanu prerana chattalanu anusarinchi, chivariki raitu thana gonthu kattirinche varaku eee aaharam ellappuduu konasaagutundani nirdhaarinchaadu.
1963loe, carle popper "induction", anie raasaaru.ii."aneka pariseelanala aadhaaramgaa oohinchadam oka puraanam. idhi manasika vaastavam kaadu, saadhaarana jeevitam yokka vaastavam kaadu, shaastreeya prakriya kaadu."popper yokka 1972 pustakam" "objective naledge" "-dheeni modati adhyayam prerana samasyaku ankitam cheyabadindi-" "neenu oka pradhana taatvika samasyanu parishkarinchaanani anukuntunnanuh prerana samasya". popper yokka schemalo, enumerative induction anedi "samasya maarpu" samayamlo ooha mariyu khandana dasala dwara veyabadina "oka rakamaina optical illution". oka oohaatmakamaina leepu, "taatkaalika parishkaram" anedi meruguparachabadindi, dheeniki maarganirdesam cheyadaaniki preraka niyamaalu laevu. phalitamgaa, aniyantrita saadhaaraneekarana anedi deductive, idhi anni vivaranaatmaka parigananala yokka parinaamam. ayithe, vivaadaalu konasagayi, popper yokka putative parishkaram saadhaaranamgaa aamodinchabadaledu.
donald eah. preraka tarkaaniki sambandhinchina anumitula niyamaalu vignaana saastramlo ekkuvagaa levani gillies vaadinchaaru, mariyu chaalaa shaastreeya anumitulanu "maanava chaaturyam mariyu srujanaatmakata dwara aalochinchabadina oohalu, mariyu yea vidhamgaanainaa yea yaantrika paddhatiloo ledhaa khachitamgaa perkonna niyamaala prakaram oohinchabadaledu" anie vivaristaaru."gillies kooda AI yokka yantra abhyasa karyakramalalo arudaina prati-udaaharananu andistundi"."
pakshapaatam.
inductive reasoningnu hypothesis construction anie kooda pilustaaru, endukante chesina evaina teermaanaalu prastuta ghnaanam mariyu anchanaalapai aadharapadi untaayi. deductive argumentla maadirigaane, pakshapaataalu inductive argumentla yokka saraina anuvartanaanni vakreekarinchagalavu, tadwara aadhaaraala aadhaaramgaa atyanta taarkika mugimpunu yerparuchukokunda nirodhinchavacchu. eee pakshapaataalaku udaaharanalalo labhyata huristic, nirdhaarana pakshapaatam mariyu oohinchadagina prapancha pakshapaatam unnaayi.
labhyata anedi kaaranakarta praathamikamgaa takshaname andubaatulo unna samacharampai aadhaarapadataaniki kaaranamavutundi. prajalu tama chuttoo unna prapanchamlo sulabhamgaa andubaatulo unde samacharampai aadhaarapade dhorani kaligi untaaru. udaaharanaku, sarvelalo, vividha kaaranaala valla maraninchina vyaktula saataanni anchanaa veyamani prajalanu adiginappudu, chaalaa mandhi prativaadulu vyaadhulu mariyu traaphik pramaadaalu vanti kaaranaala kante ugravaadam, hatyalu mariyu vimaana pramaadaalu vanti medialo ekkuvagaa unna kaaranaalanu enchukuntaaru, ivi saanketikamgaa vyaktiki "takkuva andubaatulo" unnaayi, endukante vaari chuttoo unna prapanchamlo vatiki antagaa praadhaanyata ivvabadaledu.
nirdhaarana pakshapaatam anedi oka parikalpananu tiraskarinchadam kante dhruveekarinche sahaja dhorani meeda aadharapadi untundi. aaa parikalpanalanu khandinche prayatnam kante telisina parikalpanalatho marinta sthiramgaa unde samasyalaku parishkaralanu vetakadaaniki prajalu moggu chuuputunnaarani parisoedhanalu niroopinchaayi. tarachugaa, prayogaalalo, vyaktulu sthirapadina parikalpanalaku saripoye samaadhaanaalanu korukune prasnalanu adugutaaru, tadwara eee parikalpanalanu dhruveekaristaaru. udaaharanaku, saalii oka snehaseeliyaina vyakti anie oohinchinatlayithe, vyaktulu sahajamgaane saalii vaastavaaniki snehaseeliyaina vyakti anie dhruveekarinche samaadhaanaalanu andinche prasnalanu adagadam dwara aavarananu dhruveekarinchadaaniki prayatnistaaru.
oohinchadagina prapancha pakshapaatam anedi adhi unikilo ledani niroopinchabadani kramaanni grahinchadaaniki vampu chuttoo tirugutundi, assalu ledhaa oka nirdishta sthaayi sangrahamlo. udaaharanaku, joodam anedi oohinchadagina prapancha pakshapaataaniki atyanta prajaadarana pondina udaaharanalalo okati. judagallu tarachugaa phalitaalalo saralamaina mariyu spashtamaina namuunaalanu chuustaarani aalochinchadam praarambhistaaru, anduvalla vaaru chusina daani aadhaaramgaa phalitaalanu anchanaa veyagalarani nammutaaru. ayithe, vaastavaaniki, eee aatala phalitaalanu anchanaa veyadam kashtam mariyu chaalaa sanklishtamaina swabhaavam kaligi untaayi. saadhaaranamgaa, prajalu tama nammakalu mariyu anubhavalanu vivarinchadaaniki ledhaa samarthinchadaaniki oka rakamaina saralamaina kramaanni korukuntaru, mariyu kramam gurinchi vaari avagahanalu satyaaniki puurtigaa bhinnamgaa undavacchani grahinchadam vaariki tarachugaa kashtam.
beyesian anumanam.
nammaka siddhaantam kante prerana yokka tarkamgaa, biasian anumanam yea nammakalu "mundastu" hetubaddhamainavo nirnayinchadu, conny saakshyaalato samarpinchinappudu manakunna nammakalanu hetubaddhamgaa elaa marchalo nirnayistundi. tarkam ledhaa munupati anubhavam aadhaaramgaa oka parikalpana kosam mundastu sambhaavyataku kattubadi undatam dwara praarambhistaamu mariyu, sakshyalanu edurkonnappudu, aaa parikalpanalo mana nammakam yokka balaanni beyesian tarkaanni upayoginchi khachitamaina paddhatiloo sardubaatu chestaamu.
preraka anumanam.
1960 loe, rae solomonoff saarvatrika preraka anumiti siddhaantaanni sthaapinchaadu, idhi pariseelanala aadhaaramgaa anchanaa vese siddhaantam, udaaharanaku, icchina chihnala shreni aadhaaramgaa tadupari chihnanni anchanaa vestundi. idhi algorithmic information theoryni beyesian frameworktho militam chese adhikaarika preraka framework. saarvatrika preraka anumanam ghana taatvika punaadulapai aadharapadi untundi, mariyu ganitasaastraparamgaa laanchanapraayamaina okaam yokka rejargaa pariganinchavacchu. siddhaantam yokka praathamika amsaalu algorithmic sambhaavyata mariyu kolmogorov sanklishtata yokka bhavanalu.

