
medadu

medadu anedi anni sakasheruka mariyu chaalaa akasheruka jantuvulalo naadii vyavasthaku kendramgaa panichese oka avayavam. idhi saadhaaranamgaa drushti vanti indriyaala kosam indriya avayavalaku daggaragaa thalalo untundi. idhi sakasheruka sareeramlo atyanta sanklishtamaina avayavam. maanavulalo, mastishka valkalam sumaruga 14-16 billion neuronlanu kaligi untundi, mariyu cerebellumlo neuronla sankhya 55-70 billionga anchanaa veyabadindi. prati neuron aneka vaela itara neuranlatho synapses dwara anusandhaaninchabadi untundi. eee neuronlu saadhaaranamgaa oxanlu anie piluvabade podavaina fibers dwara okadaanitoe okati communicate chestaayi, ivi action potentials anie piluvabade signal pulls yokka raillanu medadulooni suduura bhagalaku ledhaa nirdishta graheeta kanaalanu lakshyamgaa chesukuni sariiraaniki teesukuvelataayi.
saareerakamgaa, medadulu sariiramlooni itara avayavaalapai kendrikruta niyantrananu kaligi untaayi. avi kandaraala karyakalapala namuunaalanu utpatti cheyadam dwara mariyu harmonelu anie piluvabade rasaayanaala sraavamnu nadapadam dwara sariiramlooni migilina bhagalapai panicheestaayi. eee kendrikruta niyantrana paryaavaranamloo maarpulaku vegavantamaina mariyu samanvaya pratispandanalanu anumatistundi. reflexes vanti konni praathamika rakaala pratispandananu vennupamu ledhaa paridheeya ganglia dwara madhyavartitvam cheyavachu, conny sanklishta indriya input aadhaaramgaa pravartana yokka adhunaatana uddesapurvaka niyantranaku kendrikruta medadu yokka saamardhyaalanu ekikrutam chese samacharam avasaram.
vyaktigata medadu kanaala karyakalapalu ippudu gananeeyamaina vivaramgaa ardham chesukobaddayi, conny avi lakshalaadi samoohaalalo sahakarinche vidhanam inca parishkarinchabadaledu. aadhunika neurosciencelo iteevali namuunaalu medadunu oka jeevasambandhamaina computerga pariganistaayi, idhi digital computer nundi yantraamgamlo chaalaa bhinnamgaa untundi, conny idhi chuttupakkala prapancham nundi samacharanni pondutundi, nilva chestundi mariyu vividha margallo proses chestundi anae ardhamlo samanamga untundi.
eee vyaasam sakasherukaalapai atyadhika shraddhatho, janthu jaatula mottam shrenilo medadu yokka lakshanaalanu polchi chustundi. idhi itara medadula lakshanaalanu panchukune varaku maanava medadutho vyavaharistundi. maanava medadu itara medadulaku bhinnamgaa unde margalu maanava medadu vyaasamlo untaayi. ikkada cover cheyagala aneka vishayalu akkada cover cheyabadataayi endukante vaati gurinchi maanava sandarbhamlo chaalaa ekkuva cheppavacchu. maanava medadu vyaasamlo cover cheyabadina atyanta mukhyamainavi medadu vyaadhi mariyu medadu debbatinna prabhavalu.
shareera nirmaana shaastram.
medadu yokka aakaram mariyu parimaanam jaatula madhya chaalaa maarutuu untundi, mariyu saadhaarana lakshanaalanu gurtinchadam tarachugaa kashtam. ayinappatikee, medadu nirmaanaaniki sambandhinchina aneka suutraalu vistruta shreni jaatulaku vartistaayi. medadu nirmaanam yokka konni amsaalu daadaapu mottam janthu jaatulaku saadhaaranam; itarulu "adhunaatana" medadulanu marinta aadimamaina vaati nundi vaeru chestaaru ledhaa sakasherukaalanu akasherukaala nundi vaeru chestaaru.
medadu shareera nirmaana shaastram gurinchi samacharanni pondadaaniki saralamaina maargam drushya tanikhi, conny aneka adhunaatana paddhatulu abhivruddhi cheyabaddaayi. medadu kanajaalam daani sahaja sthithilo panicheyadaaniki chaalaa mruduvainadi, conny madyam ledhaa itara fixativelalo nimajjanam cheyadam dwara gattipadavachu, aapai lopali bhaganni pareekshinchadaaniki mukkaluga mukkaluga cheyavachu. drushyaparamgaa, medadu lopali bhaagamlo buudida rangu padaartham anie pilavabade praantaalu untaayi, muduru rangutho, tellati padaartham yokka praantaalatoo vaeru cheyabadi, telikapati rangutho untaayi. adhika saandrataloo nirdishta rakaala anuvulu unna praantaalanu bayataku techhe vividha rakaala rasaayanaalato medadu kanajaalam mukkalanu maraka cheyadam dwara marinta samacharanni pondavacchu. suukshmadarshini upayoginchi medadu kanajaalam yokka suukshma nirmaanaanni pariseelinchadam mariyu oka medadu praantam nundi maroka medaduku anusandhaanaala namuunaanu gurtinchadam kooda saadhyame.
cellular nirmaanam.
anni jaatula medadulu pradhanamgaa rendu vistruta vargaala kanaalatoe koodi untayih neuronlu mariyu glial kanaalu. glial kanaalu (glia ledhaa neuroglia anie kooda pilustaaru) aneka rakaluga vastaayi, mariyu nirmaanaatmaka maddatu, jeevakriya maddatu, insulation mariyu abhivruddhi maargadarshakatvamto sahaa aneka klishtamaina vidhulanu nirvahistaayi. ayithe, neuronlu saadhaaranamgaa medadulooni atyanta mukhyamaina kanaalugaa pariganinchabadataayi.
neuronlanu pratyaekamainavigaa chese lakshanam emitante, nirdishta lakshya kanaalaku suduuraalaku sankethaalanu pampagala saamarthyam. avi eee sankethaalanu oxon dwara pamputaayi, idhi oka sannani protoplasmic fiber, idhi kana sareeram nundi mariyu prajectula nundi, saadhaaranamgaa aneka shaakhalatho, itara praantaalaku, konnisaarlu sameepamloni, konnisaarlu medadu ledhaa sariiramlooni suduura bhagalaku vistarinchi untundi. oka akshatantu yokka podavu asaadhaaranamainadi kaavachuh udaaharanaku, mastishka valkalam yokka pyramid kanam (oka uttejakaramaina neuron) peddadigaa unte, daani kana sareeram maanava sareeram yokka parimaanamgaa maarutundi, daani akshatantu, samanamga peddadi, oka kilometre kante ekkuva vistarinchi, vyaasamlo konni centimeters unna cable avutundi. eee akshatantuvulu charya sambhaavyata anie piluvabade electrochemical pulls roopamlo sankethaalanu prasaram chestaayi, ivi sekanulo veyyi vanthu kante takkuvagaa untaayi mariyu sekanuku 1-100 meterla vegamtho akshatantu venta prayaanistaayi. konni neuronlu sekanuku 10-100 raetla vadda nirantaram charya saamarthyaanni vidudala chestaayi, saadhaaranamgaa kramarahita namoonaalalo; itara neuronlu chaalaa samayam nissabdamgaa untaayi, conny appudappudu charya saamarthyaanni vidudala chestaayi.
akshatantuvulu synapses anie piluvabade pratyeka junctionla dwara itara neuronlaku sankethaalanu prasaram chestaayi. oka akshatantu itara kanaalatoe aneka vaela synaptic connectionlanu tayaaru cheyavachu. oka axon venta prayaaninchae charya sambhaavyata, synaps vaddaku vachinappudu, adhi neurotransmitter anae rasayananni vidudala chestundi. neurotransmitter lakshya kanam yokka poralooni grahaka anuvulatho bandhistundi.
synapses medadulooni keelaka kriyaatmaka amsaalu. medadu yokka mukhyamaina pani sell-tuu-sell communication, mariyu synapses anevi communication jarige paayintlu. maanava medadulo sumaru 100 trillion synapses unnayani anchanaa veyabadindi; oka pandla fly medadulo kooda aneka millionlu untaayi. eee synapses yokka vidhulu chaalaa vaividhyamgaa untayih konni uttejakaramainavi (lakshya kanaanni uttejaparichevi); marikonni nirodhakata kaligi untaayi; marikonni vaati lakshya kanaala antargata rasayana saastraanni sanklishtamaina margallo marche rendava sandesha vyavasthalanu sakriyam cheyadam dwara panicheestaayi. pedda sankhyalo synapses dynamicga savarinchadaginavi; antey, avi vaati gundaa vellae sankethaala namuunaala dwara niyantrinchabade vidhamgaa balaanni marchagala saamarthyaanni kaligi untaayi. synapses yokka kaaryaacharana-aadhaarita maarpu anedi neerchukoevadam mariyu ghnaapakasakti kosam medadu yokka praathamika yantraangam anie vistrutamgaa nammutaaru.
medadulooni chaalaa sthalaanni akshatantuvulu teesukuntaayi, ivi tarachugaa "naraala fiber tractlu" anie piluvabade vaatilo kalisi untaayi. myelinated axon mylin yokka kovvu insulating sheet loe chutti untundi, idhi signal pracharam yokka vegaanni baga penchutundi. (unmilinated oxanlu kooda unnaayi). mylin tellagaa untundi, naraala fibersto pratyaekamgaa nindina medadulooni bhagalu laetha rangu tella padaarthamgaa kanipistaayi, dheeniki viruddhamgaa muduru rangu buudida padaartham, idhi neuron kanaala sareeraala adhika saandratalatoe unna praantaalanu gurtistundi.
parinaamam.
saadhaarana dwaipaakshika naadii vyavastha.
spongelu (naadii vyavastha laenivi) mariyu cinedarianlu (diffuse naraala valatho kuudina naadii vyavastha kaliginavi) vanti konni aadima jeevulu minaha, jeevinchi unna bahula kana jantuvulannee dwaipaakshikamainavi, antey dwaipaakshikamgaa samaroopa shareera aakaram kaligina jantuvulu (antey, edama mariyu kudi vaipula okadaanikokati sumaru addam chitraalu). anni dwaipaakshikulu cryogenian kaalamlo, 700-650 million samvatsaraala kritam kanipinchina oka saadhaarana puurveekudu nundi vachinatlu bhaavistunnaaru, mariyu eee saadhaarana puurveekudu oka vibhaagamaina shareeramtho saadhaarana gottapu purugu aakaraanni kaligi unnaadani oohinchabadindi. oka kramabaddhamaina sthaayilo, aaa praathamika purugu-aakaram sakasherukaalato sahaa anni aadhunika dwaipaakshikula sareeram mariyu naadii vyavastha nirmaanamloo pratibimbistuunee undhi. praathamika dwaipaakshika shareera roopam noti nundi payuvu varaku pravahinche bolu gut kuharamtho kuudina gottam, mariyu prati shareera vibhaagaaniki oka vistarana (oka ganglian) thoo kuudina naraala taadu, mukhyamgaa mundu bhaagamlo pedda gangliantho, medadu anie pilustaaru. nematode purugulu vanti konni jaatulalo medadu chinnadi mariyu saralamainadi; sakasherukaalato sahaa itara jaatulalo, idhi sareeramlo atyanta sanklishtamaina avayavam. jatala vanti konni rakaala purugulu kooda naraala taadu venuka bhaagamlo vistarinchina gonthu kaligi untaayi, dheenini "thoka medadu" anie pilustaaru.
echinoderms mariyu tunicatelatho sahaa gurtinchadagina medadu laeni konni rakaala dwaipaakshikulu unnaaru. eee medadu laeni jaatula uniki prarambha dwaipaakshikulaku medadu ledani suuchistumdaa ledhaa vaari puurveekulu gatamlo unna medadu nirmaanam adrushyam kaavadaaniki daariteesina vidhamgaa parinaamam chendara anedi khachitamgaa sthaapinchabadaledu.
akasherukaalu.
eee vargamlo tardigrades, arthropods, molasklu mariyu aneka rakaala purugulu unnaayi. akasheruka shareera pranaalikala vaividhyam medadu nirmaanaalalo samaana vaividhyam thoo saripolutundi.
akasherukaala yokka rendu samuuhaalu mukhyamgaa sanklishtamaina medadulanu kaligi untayih keetakaalu (keetakaalu, crustatianlu, araaknidlu mariyu itarulu), mariyu sephalopodlu (octopus, squids mariyu ilanti molasklu). keellanoppulu mariyu sephalopodla medadulu jantuvu yokka sareeram gundaa vistarinche janta samaantara naraala teegala nundi utpannamavutaayi. aarthropodlu drushya prosessing kosam prati kannu venuka moodu vibhagalu mariyu pedda optical loblatho kuudina central medadu, suprasophagial gangliyannu kaligi untaayi. octopus mariyu squid vanti sephalopodlu akasherukaalalo atipedda medadulanu kaligi untaayi.
aneka akasheruka jaatulu unnaayi, vaati medadulanu teevramgaa adhyayanam chesaaru, endukante avi prayogaatmaka paniki soukaryavantamgaa unde lakshanaalanu kaligi unnaih
sakasherukaalu.
modati sakasherukaalu 500 million samvatsaraala kritam (miah), cambrian kaalamlo kanipinchaayi, mariyu aadhunika hogg fish roopaanni pooli undavacchu. davada chepalu 445 miah, ubhayacharaalu 350 miah, sareesrupaalu 310 miah mariyu ksheeradaalu 200 miah (sumaru) kanipinchaayi. prati jaatiki samaanamaina sudeergha parinaamaatmaka charitra undhi, conny aadhunika hugfishlu, lampress, sorachepalu, ubhayacharaalu, sareesrupaalu mariyu ksheeradaala medadulu parimaanam mariyu sanklishtata yokka pravanatanu chuuputaayi, idhi sumaruga parinaama kramaanni anusaristundi. eee medadulannee oke praathamika shareera nirmaana bhaagaalanu kaligi untaayi, conny chaalaa varaku hugfishlo muulaadhaaramgaa untaayi, ayithe ksheeradaalalo agrabhaagamlo (telensephalone) chaalaa vistrutamgaa mariyu vistarinchabadindi.
medadulanu vaati parimaanam paramgaa saadhaaranamgaa poolchutaaru. medadu parimaanam, shareera parimaanam mariyu itara chararaasula madhya sambandhaanni vistruta shreni sakasheruka jaatulalo adhyayanam chesaaru. oka niyamam prakaram, medadu parimaanam shareera parimaanamtho perugutundi, conny sarala sarala nishpattilo kaadu. saadhaaranamgaa, chinna jantuvulu pedda medadulanu kaligi untaayi, ivi shareera parimaanamlo oka bhaagamgaa kolustaaru. ksheeradaalaku, medadu parimaanam mariyu shareera dravyarashi madhya sambandham tappanisarigaa 0.75 yokka ghaataamkamtoo oka shakti chattanni anusaristundi. eee suutram kendra dhoranini vivaristundi, conny ksheeradaala prati kutumbam daani nundi kontavaraku bayaludaerutumdi, idhi vaari pravartana yokka sanklishtatanu kontavaraku pratibimbistumdi. udaaharanaku, primatelu suutram anchanaa vesina daanikante 5 nundi 10 retlu pedda medadulanu kaligi untaayi. maamsaahaarulu shareera parimaanaaniki sambandhinchi vaati aaharam kante pedda medadulanu kaligi untaayi.
anni sakasheruka medadulu oka saadhaarana antarleena roopaanni panchukuntaayi, idhi pinda abhivruddhi prarambha dasalalo chaalaa spashtamgaa kanipistundi. daani prarambha roopamlo, medadu neural tube yokka mundu chivaralo moodu vapuluga kanipistundi; eee vaapulu chivariki forbrain, midbrine mariyu hind brain (varusaga prosensephalone, messencephalone mariyu rombensefalone) avtayi. medadu abhivruddhi prarambha dasallo, moodu praantaalu parimaanamlo daadaapu samanamga untaayi. chepalu mariyu ubhayacharaalu vanti aneka rakaala sakasherukaalalo, moodu bhagalu vayojanulalo parimaanamlo okela untaayi, conny ksheeradaalalo mundari medadu itara bhagala kante chaalaa peddadigaa maarutundi mariyu madhya medadu chaalaa chinnadigaa maarutundi.
sakasherukaala medadulu chaalaa mruduvaina kanajaalamtho tayaaravutaayi. jeevinchi unna medadu kanajaalam velupala gulabi rangulo untundi mariyu lopala ekkuvagaa tellagaa untundi, rangulo suukshma vaividhyaalu untaayi. sakasheruka medadulu medadu nundi purrenu vaeru chese meninges anie piluvabade bandhana kanajaala pora vyavasthatho chuttumuttabadi untaayi. meningeal poralaloni randhraala dwara rakta naalaalu kendra naadii vyavasthaloki pravesistaayi. raktanaala godalaloni kanaalu okadaanitoe okati patishtamgaa jatacheyabadi, rakta-medadu avarodhaanni yerparustaayi, idhi aneka vishapadaardhaalu mariyu vyadhikaaraka kaarakaala marganni addukuntundi (adhe samayamlo pratiroedhakaalu mariyu konni aushadhaalanu nirodhistundi, tadwara medadu vyaadhula chikitsalo pratyeka savaallanu andistundi).
neuroanatamistlu saadhaaranamgaa sakasheruka medadunu aaru pradhana praantalugaa vibhajistaaruh telensephalone (mastishka ardhagolaalu), dainsfalon (thalamus mariyu hypothalamous), messencephalone (madhya medadu), cerebellum, pones mariyu medullah oblangata. eee praantaalalo prati okkati sanklishtamaina antargata nirmaanaanni kaligi untundi. cerebral cartex mariyu cerebellar cartex vanti konni bhagalu, andubaatulo unna sthalamlo saripoyela madathapette ledhaa vankaragaa unde poralanu kaligi untaayi. thalamus mariyu hypothalamous vanti itara bhagalu aneka chinna kendrakaala samuuhaalanu kaligi untaayi. naadii nirmaanam, rasayana shaastram mariyu anusandhanam yokka suukshma vyatyaasaala aadhaaramgaa sakasheruka medadulo vaelaadi pratyeka praantaalanu gurtinchavacchu.
anni sakasheruka medadulalo oke praathamika bhagalu unnappatikee, sakasheruka parinaamam yokka konni saakhalu medadu jyaamiti yokka gananeeyamaina vakreekaranalaku daariteesaayi, mukhyamgaa mundari medadu praantamloo. sorachepa medadu praathamika bhaagaalanu suutigaa chooputundi, conny teleost chepalalo (ippatike unna chepala jaatulalo ekkuva bhaagam), mundu medadu "everted" gaa maarindi, oka saak lopaliki marinatluga. pakshulalo, mundari medadu nirmaanamloo kooda pedda maarpulu untaayi. eee vakreekaranalu oka jaathi nundi medadu bhaagaalanu maroka jaathi bhaagaalato saripolchadam kashtataram chestaayi.
prastutam ardham chesukunna vidhamgaa vaati vidhula sankshipta vivaranhatho paatu, atyanta mukhyamaina sakasheruka medadu bhagala jabita ikkada undih
ksheeradaalu.
ksheeradaalu mariyu itara sakasherukaala medadula madhya atyanta spashtamaina vyatyaasam parimaanam paramgaa untundi. sagatuna, oka ksheeradam medadu oke shareera parimaanam gala pakshi kante daadaapu rendu retlu peddadigaa mariyu adhe shareera parimaanam gala sareesrupam kante padhi retlu peddadigaa untundi.
ayithe, parimaanam matrame thedaa kaaduh aakaaramlo kooda gananeeyamaina thedaalu unnaayi. ksheeradaala yokka venuka medadu mariyu madhya medadu saadhaaranamgaa itara sakasherukaala maadirigaane untaayi, conny mundari medadulo naatakeeya thedaalu kanipistaayi, idhi chaalaa peddadigaa untundi mariyu nirmaanamloo kooda maarchabadutundi. mastishka valkalam anedi ksheeradaalanu atyanta balamgaa vaeru chese medadulooni bhaagam. ksheeradaalu kaani sakasherukaalalo, cerebrum yokka uparitalam palium anie piluvabade saapekshamgaa saralamaina moodu porala nirmaanamtho kappabadi untundi. ksheeradaalalo, palium neocartex ledhaa "isocartex" anie piluvabade sanklishta aaru-porala nirmaanamgaa parinaamam chendutundi. hippocompus mariyu amigdalatho sahaa neocourtex anchuna unna aneka praantaalu kooda itara sakasherukaala kante ksheeradaalalo chaalaa vistrutamgaa abhivruddhi chendaayi.
mastishka valkalam yokka vistarana daanitoe paatu itara medadu praantaalaku maarpulanu teesukuvelutundi. chaalaa sakasherukaalalo pravartana yokka drushya niyantranalo pradhana paatra poeshinchae unnatamaina colliculus, ksheeradaalalo chinna parimaanaaniki kudinchabadutundi mariyu daani aneka vidhulu mastishka valkalam yokka drushya praantaala dwara teesukobadataayi. ksheeradaala cerebellumlo pedda bhaagam (neoserabellum) untundi, idhi itara sakasherukaalalo pratiroopam laeni cerebral cartexku maddatu ivvadaaniki ankitam cheyabadindi.
primates.
maanavulu mariyu itara praimaetla medadulu itara ksheeradaala medadula maadirigaane nirmaanaalanu kaligi untaayi, conny saadhaaranamgaa shareera parimaanaaniki anugunamgaa peddavigaa untaayi. encephalisation coashant (eq) anedi vividha jaatula medadu parimaanaalanu poolchadaaniki upayoginchabadutundi. idhi medadu-shareera sambandham yokka naan linearityni parigananaloki teesukuntundi. maanavulu 7 nundi 8 paridhiloo sagatu eekyooni kaligi untaaru, ayithe chaalaa itara primatelu 2 nundi 3 paridhiloo eekyooni kaligi untaayi. dolphinlu maanavula kante itara praimaetla kante ekkuva viluvalanu kaligi untaayi, conny daadaapu anni itara ksheeradaalu gananeeyamgaa takkuva viluvalanu kaligi untaayi.
primate medadu yokka vistaranalo ekkuva bhaagam mastishka valkalam yokka bhaarii vistarana nundi vastundi, mukhyamgaa prefrontal valkalam mariyu drushtilo unna valkalam yokka bhagalu. praimaetla drushya prosessing networklo kaneesam 30 pratyaekamaina medadu praantaalu untaayi, oka sanklishtamaina interconnectionla webto. primate neocartex yokka mottam uparitalamlo drushya prosessing praantaalu sagaaniki paiga aakraminchaayani anchanaa veyabadindi. prefrontal cartex pranaalika, pani ghnaapakasakti, prerana, shraddha mariyu karyanirvahaka niyantrana vanti vidhulanu nirvahistundi. idhi itara jaatula kante praimaetla kosam medadulo chaalaa pedda nishpattini teesukuntundi, mariyu mukhyamgaa maanava medadulo pedda bhaganni teesukuntundi.
abhivruddhi.
medadu klishtamaina kramabaddhamaina dasalalo abhivruddhi chendutundi. idhi prarambha pinda dasalalo naraala taadu mundu bhaagamlo saadhaarana vaapu nundi, sanklishtamaina praantaalu mariyu anusandhaanaalaku aakaaramlo maarutundi. muula kanaalanu kaligi unna pratyeka mandalaalo neuronlu srushtinchabadataayi, aapai kanajaalam dwara vaati antima sthaanaalaku cherukovadaniki valasapothayi. neuronlu tamanu taamu unchukunna tarvaata, vaati akshatantuvulu molakettutaayi mariyu medadu gundaa prayaanistaayi, avi kommaluga mariyu vistaristuu, chitkaalu vaati lakshyalanu cherukune varaku mariyu synaptic connectionlanu yerparustaayi. naadii vyavasthalooni aneka bhagalalo, neuronlu mariyu synapses prarambha dasallo adhika sankhyalo utpatti avtayi, aapai anavasaramaina vaatini kattiristaaru.
sakasherukaalaku, naadii abhivruddhi yokka prarambha dasalu anni jaatulalo okela untaayi. pindam oka gundrani kanaala nundi purugu lanty nirmaanamgaa maarutunnappudu, venuka madhya rekha venta nadustunna ectoderm yokka irukaina patti naadii vyavasthaku puurvagaami ayina naadii phalakamgaa maaradaaniki prerepinchabadutundi. neural plate neural grovenu roopondinchadaaniki lopaliki madatapedutundi, aapai grovenu line chese pedavulu neural tubenu chuttumuttadaaniki vileenam avtayi, idhi madhyalo dravam nindina jatarikato kanaala bolu taadu. mundu chivaralo, jatarikalu mariyu taadu moodu vesicalsga tayaaravutaayi, ivi prosensephalone (forbrain), messencephalone (midbrine) mariyu rombensefalone (hindbrain) yokka puurvagaamulu. tadupari dasalo, mundari medadu telensephalone (idhi mastishka valkalam, besal ganglia mariyu sambandhita nirmaanaalanu kaligi untundi) mariyu dainsfalon (idhi thalamus mariyu hypothalamasnu kaligi untundi) anie piluvabade rendu vesicalsga vidipotundi. daadaapu adhe samayamlo, hind brain metensephalone (idhi cerebellum mariyu pones kaligi untundi) mariyu myelencephalone (idhi medullah ablangatanu kaligi untundi) loki vidipotundi. eee praantaalalo prati okkati neuronlu mariyu glial kanaalu utpatti ayye vistarana mandalaalanu kaligi untaayi; phalitamgaa vachhe kanaalu konnisaarlu chaalaa dhooram varaku, vaati tudi sthaanaalaku valasapothayi.
okasari oka neuron sthaanamlo unte, adhi daani chuttoo unna praantamloki dendraitlanu mariyu oka axannu vistaristundi. akshatantuvulu, endukante avi saadhaaranamgaa kana sareeram nundi chaalaa dhooram vistarinchi untaayi mariyu nirdishta lakshyalanu cherukovalsina avasaram undhi, mukhyamgaa sanklishtamaina reetilo perugutaayi. perugutunna akshatantu yokka konalo rasayana graahakaalato nindi unna groth cone anie piluvabade protoplasm yokka blab untundi. eee grahakaalu sthaanika vaataavaranaanni grahistaayi, deenivalla perugudala cone vividha cellular moolakaalache aakarshinchabadutundi ledhaa tippikottabadutundi, tadwara daani maargamlo prati binduvu vadda oka nirdishta disalo laagabadutundi. eee maarganirdhaarana prakriya phalitamgaa, perugudala cone medadu dwara daani gamya praantaaniki cherukune varaku navigate chestundi, itara rasayana sankethaalu synapsesnu utpatti cheyadam praarambhistaayi. mottam medadunu parigananaloki teesukunte, vaelaadi janyuvulu akshatantu marganni prabhaavitam chese utpattulanu srushtistaayi.
chivaraku udbhavinche synaptic network paakshikamgaa janyuvula dwara matrame nirnayinchabadutundi. medadulooni aneka bhagalalo, akshatantuvulu praarambhamlo "atigaa perugutaayi", aapai naadii karyakalapalapai aadhaarapade yantraamgaala dwara "kattirinchabadataayi". udaaharanaku, kanti nundi madhya medadu varaku projectionlo, vayojanulalo nirmaanam chaalaa khachitamaina mappingnu kaligi untundi, idhi retina uparitalampai prati binduvunu madhya medadu poralo sambandhita binduvuku anusandhaanistundi. abhivruddhi yokka modati dasalalo, retina nundi prati oxon rasayana suuchanala dwara madhya medadulooni kudi saadhaarana parisaraalaku maarganirdesam cheyabadutundi, conny taruvaata chaalaa samruddhiga saakhalu mariyu madhya medadu neuronla vistruta samuuhamtoe prarambha sambandham kaligi untundi. retina, puttukaku mundu, yaadruchchika binduvu vadda aakasmikamgaa udbhavinchi, aapai retina pora antataa nemmadigaa vyaapti chendhe kaaryaacharana taramgaalanu utpatti cheyadaaniki kaaranamayye pratyeka yantraamgaalanu kaligi untundi. eee taramgaalu upayogakaramgaa untaayi endukante avi porugu neuronlanu adhe samayamlo churukuga undela chestaayi; antey, avi neuronla praadaesika amarika gurinchi samacharanni kaligi unna naadii karyakalapala namuunaanu utpatti chestaayi. eee samacharam madhya medadulo synapses balaheenapadataaniki kaaranamayye oka yantraangam dwara upayoginchabadutundi, mariyu lakshya kanam yokka kaaryaacharananu anusarinchakapothe, akshatantudiloni karyakalapalu chivariki adrusyamavutaayi. eee adhunaatana prakriya phalitamgaa myapnu kramamga tuning cheyadam mariyu biginchadam jarugutundi, chivaraku daani khachitamaina vayojana roopamlo vadiliveyabadutundi.
ilantivi itara medadu praantaalalo jarugutaih janyuparamgaa nirnayinchabadina rasayana maargadarsakatvam phalitamgaa prarambha synaptic matricks utpatti avutundi, conny kramamga kaaryaacharana-aadhaarita yantraamgaala dwara suddhi cheyabadutundi, paakshikamgaa antargata dynamics dwara nadapabadutundi, paakshikamgaa bahya indriya inputla dwara. konni sandarbhaallo, retina-mid brain vyavastha maadirigaa, kaaryaacharana namuunaalu abhivruddhi chendutunna medadulo matrame panichese yantraamgaalapai aadharapadi untaayi mariyu spashtamgaa abhivruddhiki maarganirdesam cheyadaaniki matrame untaayi.
maanavulalo mariyu aneka itara ksheeradaalalo, kotta neuronlu pradhanamgaa puttukaku mundhe srushtinchabadataayi, mariyu sisuvu medadulo vayojana medadu kante gananeeyamgaa ekkuva neuronlu untaayi. ayithe, jeevitaantam kotta neuronlu utpatti avutuu unde konni praantaalu unnaayi. vayojana neurogenesis baga sthaapinchabadina rendu praantaalu vaasana yokka bhaavamlo palgone ghraana bulb, mariyu hippocompus yokka dentate gyrus, ikkada kotta neuronlu kottagaa pondina ghnaapakaalanu nilva cheyadamlo paatra poeshistaayani aadharalu unnaayi. ayithe, eee minahaayimpulato, baalyamlo unde neuronla samiti jeevitaaniki unde samiti. glial kanaalu bhinnamgaa untayih sariiramlooni chaalaa rakaala kanaala maadirigaane, avi jeevitakaalam antataa utpatti avtayi.
manassu, vyaktitvam mariyu telivitaetala lakshanaalanu vamsapaaramparyamgaa ledhaa pempakaaniki aapaadinchavachaa anae daanipai chaalaa kaalamgaa charcha jarugutondi-idhi swabhaavam mariyu poeshanha vivaadam. aneka vivaralu inca parishkarinchabadavalasi unnappatikee, neurosines parisoedhana rendu amsaalu mukhyamainavani spashtamgaa choopinchindi. janyuvulu medadu yokka saadhaarana roopaanni nirnayistaayi, mariyu medadu anubhavaniki elaa spandistundo janyuvulu nirnayistaayi. ayithe, synaptic connectionla maatrukanu meruguparachadaaniki anubhavam avasaram, idhi daani abhivruddhi chendina roopamlo janyuvu kante chaalaa ekkuva samacharanni kaligi untundi. konni vishayaalalo, abhivruddhi yokka klishtamaina kalalalo anubhavam undatam ledhaa lekapovadam matrame mukhyam. itara vishayaalalo, anubhavam yokka parimaanam mariyu naanhyata mukhyamainavi; udaaharanaku, susampannamaina vaataavaranamloo perigina jantuvulu mandapati mastishka valkalam kaligi unnayani gananeeyamaina aadharalu unnaayi, idhi prerana sthaayilu parimitam cheyabadina jantuvula kante synaptic connectionla adhika saandratanu suuchistumdi.
sariiradharmasaastram.
medadu yokka vidhulu itara kanaalaku electrochemical sankethaalanu prasaram chese neuronla saamarthyam mariyu itara kanaala nundi andukunna electrochemical sankethaalaku tagina vidhamgaa pratispandinche vaati saamardhyampai aadharapadi untaayi. neuronla yokka vidyut lakshanaalu aneka rakaala jeevarasaayana mariyu jeevakriya prakriyala dwara niyantrinchabadataayi, mukhyamgaa synapses vadda jarige neurotransmitterlu mariyu graahakaala madhya paraspara charyalu.
neurotransmitterlu mariyu grahakaalu.
neurotransmitterlu anevi sthaanika pora depolarise ayinappudu synapses vadda vidudalayye rasayanalu mariyu saadhaaranamgaa synaps vadda oka charya sambhaavyata vachinappudu, CA2 + kanamloki pravesistundi-neurotransmitterlu synaps yokka lakshya kanam (ledhaa kanaalu) yokka porapai grahaka anuvulaku tamanu taamu jodinchukuntaayi, tadwara grahaka anuvula vidyut ledhaa rasayana lakshanaalanu maarustaayi.
konni minahaayimpulato, medadulooni prati neuron adhe rasayana neurotransmitternu ledhaa neurotransmitterla kalayikanu vidudala chestundi, idhi itara neuranlatho chese anni synaptic connectionlalo; eee niyamanni dayle suutram antaaru. anduvalla, oka neuronnu vidudala chese neurotransmitterla dwara vargeekarinchavachhu. psychoactive aushadhaalalo ekkuva bhaagam nirdishta neurotransmitter vyavasthalanu marchadam dwara vaati prabhavalanu chuuputaayi. idhi canabinoids, nikotin, heraine, kokain, alkahal, flukesetine, chloropromagin mariyu aneka itara maadakadravyaalaku vartistundi.
sakasheruka medadulo atyanta vistrutamgaa kanipinche rendu neurotransmitterlu glutamate, ivi daadaapu ellappuduu lakshya neuranlapy uttejakaramaina prabhavalanu chuuputaayi, mariyu gaama-aminobutric aamlam (gaba), ivi daadaapu ellappuduu nirodhakatanu kaligi untaayi. eee transmitterlanu upayoginche neuronlu medadulooni daadaapu prati bhaagamlo kanipistaayi. vaati sarvavyaaptata kaaranamgaa, glutamate ledhaa gaba meeda panichese mandulu vistruta mariyu saktivantamaina prabhavalanu kaligi untaayi. konni saadhaarana mattumandulu glutamate prabhavalanu tagginchadam dwara panicheestaayi; chaalaa varaku prasaantata kaliginchevi gaba prabhavalanu penchadam dwara vaati upasamana prabhavalanu chuuputaayi.
medadulooni marinta parimita praantaalalo, tarachugaa oka nirdishta paniki ankitamaina praantaalalo upayoginche dozenla koddi itara rasayana neurotransmitterlu unnaayi. udaaharanaku, serotonin-aneka antidepressant mandulu mariyu aneka aahara sahayala praathamika lakshyam-pratyaekamgaa raap nucleus anie piluvabade chinna medadu bhaagam nundi vastundi. udrekam loe palgone norpinephrine, locus koerulius anie piluvabade sameepamloni chinna praantam nundi pratyaekamgaa vastundi. acetylcholine mariyu dopamine vanti itara neurotransmitterlu medadulo bahula vanarulanu kaligi untaayi, conny glutamate mariyu gaba vale sarvavyaaptamgaa pampinhee cheyabadavu.
vidyut karyakalapalu.
signalling kosam neuronlu upayoginche electrochemical prakriyala yokka side effectga, medadu kanajaalam churukuga unnappudu vidyut kshetraalanu utpatti chestundi. pedda sankhyalo neuronlu samakaaleekarinchina karyakalapalanu choopinchinappudu, avi utpatti chese vidyut kshetraalu electroencephalography (eejee) ledhaa magnetoencephalography (mega) upayoginchi purre velupala gurtinchenta peddavigaa untaayi. elukalu vanti jantuvula medadula lopala amarchina electrodela nundi chesina recordinglatho paatu, nidralo kooda sajeeva jantuvu medadu nirantaram churukuga undani eejee recordinglu chuuputaayi. medadulooni prati bhaagam layabaddhamaina mariyu layabaddham kaani karyakalapala misramaanni chooputundi, idhi pravartanaa sthithini batti maaravacchu. ksheeradaalalo, mastishka valkalam nidralo pedda nemmadigaa delta taramgaalanu choopistundi, jantuvu melakuvagaa unnappudu vaegamgaa alfa taramgaalu, conny nirlakshyamgaa unnappudu, mariyu jantuvu beata mariyu gaama taramgaalu anie piluvabade paniloo churukuga nimagnamainappudu astavyastamgaa kanipinche kramarahita karyakalapalanu chooputundi. muurcha vyaadhi nirdhaarana samayamlo, medadu yokka nirodhaka niyantrana yantraamgaalu panicheyadamlo viphalamavutaayi mariyu vidyut karyakalapalu rogalakshana sthaayilaku perugutaayi, ivi aarogyakaramaina medadulo kanipinchani pedda taramgaalu mariyu spike namuunaalanu choopinche eeg jadalanu utpatti chestaayi. eee janabha-sthaayi namuunaalanu vyaktigata neuronla ganana vidhulaku sambandhinchinadi neurophysiology prastuta parisoedhana yokka pradhana drushti.
jeevakriya.
anni sakasherukaalu rakta-medadu addankini kaligi untaayi, idhi medadu lopala jeevakriyanu sariiramlooni itara bhagalalo jeevakriya nundi bhinnamgaa panicheyadaaniki anumatistundi. neurovascular unit mastishka rakta pravahanni niyantristundi, tadwara sakriyam cheyabadina neuronlaku saktini sarafara cheyavachu. ayanlu mariyu poeshakaala sthaayilatho sahaa neuronla chuttoo unna dravam yokka rasayana kuurpunu niyantrinchadam dwara medadu gvakriyalo glial kanaalu pradhana paatra poeshistaayi.
medadu kanajaalam daani parimaanaaniki anugunamgaa pedda mottamlo saktini viniyogistundi, kabatti pedda medadulu jantuvulapai teevramaina jeevakriya avasaralanu kaligistaayi. shareera baruvunu parimitam cheyavalasina avasaram, udaaharanaku, egaradaaniki, gabbilalu vanti konni jaatulalo medadu parimaanaanni tagginchadaaniki empikaku daariteesindi. medadu yokka shakti viniyogam chaalaa varaku neuronla vidyut chaarj (pora sambhaavyata) nuu konasaaginchadaaniki velutundi. chaalaa sakasheruka jaatulu medaduku besal metabolismlo 2 saatam nundi 8 saatam madhya ketayistayi. ayithe, primatelalo, saatam chaalaa ekkuvagaa untundi-maanavulalo idhi 20-25% kuu perugutundi. medadu yokka shakti viniyogam kalakramena chaalaa maaradu, conny mastishka valkalam yokka kriyaaseela praantaalu kriyaarahita praantaala kante kontha ekkuva saktini viniyogistaayi; idhi pempudu jantuvulu, fmri mariyu nirla yokka kriyaatmaka medadu imaging paddhatulaku aadharam. medadu saadhaaranamgaa daani saktini glucose yokka oxygen-aadhaarita jeevakriya nundi pondutundi (i.ii.raktamlo chakkera), conny keatonelu medium chain fatty ausids (caprillic mariyu heptanoic ausids), lactate, acetate mariyu bahusha amaino ausids nundi sahakaaramtho kalisi pradhana pratyaamnaaya vanarunu andistaayi.
function.
indriya avayavaala nundi samacharam medadulo sekarinchabadutundi. akkada jeevi yea charyalu teesukovalo nirnayinchadaaniki idhi upayoginchabadutundi. medadu paryaavaranam yokka nirmaanam gurinchi samacharanni sekarinchadaaniki mudi daetaanu proses chestundi. taduparidi, jantuvu yokka prastuta avasaraala gurinchi mariyu gatha paristhitula ghnaapakasaktitoo proses chesina samacharanni militam chestundi. chivaraku, phalitaala aadhaaramgaa, idhi motaru pratispandana namuunaalanu utpatti chestundi. eee signal-prosessing panulaku vividha rakaala kriyaatmaka upavyavasthala madhya klishtamaina paraspara charya avasaram.
oka jantuvu yokka charyalapai pondikaina niyantrananu andinchadam medadu yokka pani. kendrikruta medadu kandaraala samuuhaalanu sanklishta namoonaalalo saha-kriyasilakamga cheyadaaniki anumatistundi; idhi sariiramlooni oka bhaagamlo itara bhagalalo pratispandanalanu prerepinchadaaniki uddeepanalanu kooda anumatistundi, mariyu idhi sariiramlooni vividha bhagalu okadaanikokati cross-purposes vadda panicheyadaanni nirodhinchagaladu.
avagahana.
maanava medaduku kaanti, dhwani, vaataavaranam yokka rasayana kuurpu, ushnograta, antarikshamlo sareeram yokka sthaanam (propreoception), raktapravaaham yokka rasayana kuurpu mariyu marinninti gurinchi samacharam andinchabadutundi. itara jantuvulalo adanapu indriyaalu untaayi, antey paamula paraaruna ushna-bhaavam, konni pakshula ayaskanta kshetra bhaavam ledhaa pradhanamgaa jala jantuvulalo kanipinche vidyut kshetra bhaavam.
prati indriya vyavastha kanti retiinaalooni photoreceptor kanaalu ledhaa chevi kokliyaaloni kampanam-sunnitamaina juttu kanaalu vanti pratyeka grahaka kanaalatoe praarambhamavutundi. indriya grahaka kanaala akshatantuvulu vennupamu ledhaa medaduloki prayaanistaayi, akkada avi oka nirdishta indriya vidhaanaaniki ankitamaina modati-krama indriya kendrakaaniki tama sankethaalanu prasaram chestaayi. eee praadhamika indriya kendrakam adhe vidhaanaaniki ankitamaina unnata-krama indriya praantaalaku samacharanni pamputundi. chivariki, thalamus looni oka maargam-station dwara, sankethaalu mastishka valkalanku pampabadataayi, akkada avi sambandhita lakshanaalanu velikiteese prakriyaloo untaayi mariyu itara indriya vyavasthala nundi vachhe sanketaalato anusandhaaninchabadataayi.
motaru niyantrana.
motaru vyavasthalu anevi shareera kadalikalanu praarambhinchadamlo, antey kandaraalanu sakriyam cheyadamlo palgone medadulooni praantaalu. medadu madhyalo kendrakaala dwara nadiche kannu niyantrinche kandaraalu minaha, sariiramlooni anni swachchanda kandaraalu vennupamu mariyu venuka medadulooni motaru neuronla dwara neerugaa naadeeni kaligi untaayi. vennemuka motor neuronlu vennupaamuku antargatamgaa unde neural circuitla dwara mariyu medadu nundi vachhe inputla dwara niyantrinchabadataayi. antargata vennemuka circuitlu aneka praticharya pratispandanalanu amalu chestaayi, mariyu nadaka ledhaa eetha vanti layabaddha kadalikala kosam namuunaa generatorlanu kaligi untaayi. medadu nundi avarohana anusandhaanaalu marinta adhunaatana niyantranaku anumatistaayi.
medadulo vennupaamuku neerugaa pravahinche aneka motaru praantaalu untaayi. athi takkuva sthaayilo medullah mariyu pones looni motaru praantaalu untaayi, ivi nadaka, swaasa ledhaa mingadam vanti moosa kadalikalanu niyantristaayi. adhika sthaayilo medadu madhyalo unna erra kendrakam vanti praantaalu untaayi, ivi chetulu mariyu kaalla kadalikalanu samanvayam cheyadaaniki baadhyata vahistaayi. inca adhika sthaayilo praadhamika motaru valkalam, mundu bhaagam yokka prushtha anchuna unna kanajaalam yokka oka strip. praadhamika motaru valkalam subcartical motaru praantaalaku anchanaalanu pamputundi, conny pyramid maargam dwara neerugaa vennupaamuku bhaarii projectionnu kooda pamputundi. eee pratyaksha carticospinal projection kadalikala yokka chakkati vivaraala yokka khachitamaina swachchanda niyantranaku anumatistundi. itara motaru-sambandhita medadu praantaalu praadhamika motaru praantaalaku project cheyadam dwara dviteeya prabhavalanu chuuputaayi. atyanta mukhyamaina dviteeya praantaalalo premoter cartex, anubandha motaru praantam, besal ganglia mariyu cerebellum unnaayi. paina perkonna annintitho paatu, medadu mariyu vennupamu sariiramlooni mruduvaina kandaraala kadalikanu niyantrinche swayampratipatti naadii vyavasthanu niyantrinchadaaniki vistrutamaina circutrini kaligi untaayi.
nidrapotadu.
aneka jantuvulu rojuvaaree chakramlo nidrapovadam mariyu melkonadam madhya maarutuu untaayi. medadu praantaala network dwara udvegam mariyu apramattata kooda chakkati samaya sthaayilo modulate cheyabadataayi. nidra vyavasthalo oka mukhya bhaagam suprachiasamatic nucleus (scn), idhi rendu kalla nundi vachhe optic naraalu daate binduvu paina neerugaa unna hypothalamous yokka oka chinna bhaagam. scn shareera kendra jeeva gadiyaranni kaligi untundi. akkada neuronlu sumaru 24 gantala vyavadhilo, syrcadian layatho perige mariyu padee kaaryaacharana sthaayilanu chuputai eee kaaryaacharana hecchutaggulu "gadiyara janyuvula" samiti yokka vyakteekaranalo layabaddhamaina maarpula dwara nadapabadataayi. medadu nundi tolaginchi, vecchani poeshaka draavanam yokka vantakamlo unchinappatikee, SCN samayanni konasaagistundi, conny idhi saadhaaranamgaa optic naraala nundi, retinohypothalomic track (rht) dwara inputnu pondutundi, idhi rojuvaaree kaanti-dark chakralanu gadiyaranni kramaankanam cheyadaaniki anumatistundi.
nidra-melkone chakralanu amalu cheyadamlo palgone hypothalamous, medadu, mariyu madhya medadulooni praantaala samitiki scn prajectulu. vyavasthalo oka mukhyamaina bhaagam reticular nirmaanam, idhi neuron-clusterla samuuham, idhi medadu diguva bhaagam gundaa chellacheduruga vyaapistundi. reticular neuronlu thaalamasku sankethaalanu pamputaayi, idhi valkalam yokka prati bhaagaaniki kaaryaacharana-sthaayi-niyantrana sankethaalanu pamputundi. reticular erpadataaniki nashtam anedi coma yokka shaashwata sthithini utpatti chestundi.
nidralo medadu karyakalapalalo goppa maarpulu untaayi. 1950la varaku saadhaaranamgaa nidra samayamlo medadu tappanisarigaa moosukupotundani nammutaaru, conny idhi ippudu nijam kaadani telisindi; kaaryaacharana konasaagutundi, conny namuunaalu chaalaa bhinnamgaa untaayi. nidralo rendu rakalu unnaih "rem sleep" (kalalu kanadamtho) mariyu "nrem" (naan-rem, saadhaaranamgaa kalalu kanakunda) nidra, idhi nidra episode antataa koddigaa bhinnamaina namoonaalalo punaraavrutamavutundi. moodu vistruta rakaala medadu karyakalapala namuunaalanu kolavavachuhu rem, light nrem mariyu deep nrem. lothaina nrem nidra samayamlo, dheenini sloe wave sleep anie kooda pilustaaru, valkalamloni karyakalapalu pedda samakaaleekarinchina taramgaala roopaanni teesukuntaayi, ayithe melkone sthithilo idhi sabdam mariyu samakaaleekarinchabadadu. neurotransmitterla sthaayilu norpinefrine mariyu serotonin nemmadigaa nidrapoye samayamlo padipothayi, mariyu rime nidra samayamlo daadaapu sunnaki padipothayi; acetylcholine sthaayilu riverse namuunaanu chuuputaayi.
homeostasis.
edainaa jantuvu manugadaku, parimita shreni vaividhyam lopala saareeraka sthithi yokka vividha paaraamitulanu nirvahinchadam avasaramh veetilo ushnograta, neeti content, raktapravaahamlo uppu saandrata, raktamlo glucose sthaayilu, raktamlo oxygen sthaayi mariyu itarulu untaayi. oka jantuvu thana sareeram yokka antargata vaataavaranaanni niyantrinche saamarthyam-parisara interior, maargadarsaka sareeradharma shaastravetta claud bernard dheenini pilichinatlugaa-homeostasis ("sthiramgaa nilabadataaniki" greeku) anie pilustaaru. homeostasisnu nirvahinchadam anedi medaduku keelakamaina pani. homeostasis kinda unna praathamika suutram pratikuula pratispandanah yea samayamloonainaa oka paramiti daani sett-point nundi vaidoliginappudu, sensorlu oka error signalnu utpatti chestaayi, idhi pratispandananu prerepistundi, idhi paramiti daani vaanchaneeya viluva vaipu tirigi maaradaaniki kaaranamavutundi. (eee suutram injaneeringlo vistrutamgaa upayoginchabadutundi, udaaharanaku thermostatnu upayoginchi ushnograta niyantranalo.)
sakasherukaalalo, medadulooni athi pedda paatra poeshinchae bhaagam hypothalamous, idhi mundari medadu yokka adugubhaagamlo unna oka chinna praantam, dheeni parimaanam daani sanklishtatanu ledhaa daani paniteeru yokka praamukhyatanu pratibimbimchadu. hypothalamous anedi chinna kendrakaala sekarana, veetilo ekkuva bhaagam praathamika jeevasambandhamaina vidhullo palgontayi. eee vidhullo konni udrekaaniki ledhaa laingikata, dookudu ledhaa talli pravartana vanti saamaajika paraspara charyalaku sambandhinchinavi; conny vaatilo chaalaa varaku homeostasisto sambandham kaligi untaayi. aneka hypotholomic kendrakaalu rakta naalaala poralo unna sensorla nundi inputnu andukuntaayi, ushnograta, sodiyam sthaayi, glucose sthaayi, rakta oxygen sthaayi mariyu itara paaraamitula gurinchi samacharanni teliyajestaayi. eee hypotholomic kendrakaalu lopaalanu saricheyadaaniki charyalanu utpatti cheyagala motaru praantaalaku avtput sankethaalanu pamputaayi. konni avutputlu petutory grandhiki kooda veltaayi, idhi hypothalamous krinda neerugaa medaduku jodinchabadina oka chinna grandhi. petutory grandhi raktapravaahamloki harmonelanu sravistundi, akkada avi sareeram antataa vyaapistaayi mariyu cellular karyakalapalalo maarpulanu prerepistaayi.
prerana.
aaharam, neeru, aasrayam mariyu sahacharudini korukovadam vanti manugadanu prothsahinche pravartanalanu vyaktigata jantuvulu vyaktam cheyali. medadulooni prerana vyavastha eee lakshyaala prastuta santrupti sthithini paryaveekshistundi mariyu talette evaina avasaralanu teerchadaaniki pravartanalanu sakriyam chestundi. preranaatmaka vyavastha ekkuvagaa bahumati-siksha yantraangam dwara panichestundi. oka nirdishta pravartananu anusarinchi anukuulamaina parinaamaalu vachinappudu, medadulooni reward mechanism sakriyam cheyabadutundi, idhi medadu lopala nirmaanaatmaka maarpulanu prerepistundi, adhe pravartananu taruvaata punaraavrutam chestundi, ilanti paristhiti talettinappudalla. dheeniki viruddhamgaa, oka pravartana pratikuula parinaamaalanu anusarinchinappudu, medadu yokka siksha yantraangam sakriyam cheyabadutundi, bhavishyattulo ilanti paristhitulu talettinappudu pravartananu anachiveyadaaniki kaaranamayye nirmaanaatmaka maarpulanu prerepistundi.
ippati varaku adhyayanam chesina chaalaa jeevulu reward-siksha yantraamgaanni upayogistaayih udaaharanaku, purugulu mariyu keetakaalu aahara vanarulanu vetakadaaniki ledhaa pramaadaalanu nivaarinchadaaniki vaari pravartananu marchagalavu. sakasherukaalalo, reward-siksha vyavastha medadu nirmaanaala yokka nirdishta samiti dwara amalu cheyabadutundi, dheeni gunde vadda besal ganglia untundi, idhi mundari medadu yokka adugubhaagamlo parasparam anusandhaaninchabadina praantaala samiti. besal ganglia anedi nirnayaalu teesukune kendra pradaesamha besal ganglia medadulooni chaalaa motaru vyavasthalapai nirantara nirodhaka niyantrananu kaligi untundi; eee nirodham vidudalainappudu, amalu cheyadaaniki programme cheyabadina charyanu amalu cheyadaaniki motaru vyavastha anumatinchabadutundi. besal ganglia sweekarinche inputlu mariyu vidudalayye nirnayam-sankethaala madhya sambandhaanni marchadam dwara bahumatulu mariyu sikshalu panicheestaayi. siksha yantraangam kante bahumati yantraangam baga ardham chesukobadindi, endukante maadakadravyaala durviniyogamlo daani paatra daanini chaalaa teevramgaa adhyayanam cheyadaaniki kaaranamaindi. neurotransmitter dopamine pradhana paatra pooshistundani parisoedhanaloo telindih kokain, amphetamine mariyu nikotin vanti vyasanaparudaina mandulu dopamine sthaayilanu penchutaayi ledhaa medadu lopala dopamine prabhavalanu penchutaayi.
neerchukoevadam mariyu ghnaapakasakti.
daadaapu anni jantuvulu anubhava phalitamgaa vaari pravartananu savarinchagala saamarthyaanni kaligi untaayi-atyanta aadima rakaala purugulu kooda. pravartana medadu karyakalapala dwara nadapabadutundi kabatti, pravartanalo maarpulu edho okavidhamgaa medadu lopala maarpulaku anugunamgaa undaali. ippatike 19va sataabdam chivaralo santiago ramon vai kajal vanti siddhaantakartalu atyanta aamodayogyamaina vivarana emitante, neerchukoevadam mariyu ghnaapakasakti neuronla madhya synaptic connectionlalo marpuluga vyakteekarinchabadataayi. ayithe, 1970 varaku, synaptic plasticity parikalpanaku maddatu ivvadaaniki prayogaatmaka aadharalu laevu. 1971loe tim bliss mariyu terze lomo ippudu deerghakaalika saamarthyamu anie piluvabade oka drugvishayampai oka kaagitaanni prachurinchaaruh kaneesam aneka rojula paatu konasagina kaaryaacharana-prerita synaptic maarpulaku kaagitam spashtamaina sakshyalanu choopinchindi. appati nundi saanketika purogatulu eee rakamaina prayogaalanu nirvahinchadaaniki chaalaa sulabhataram chesaayi, mariyu synaptic maarpu yokka yantraamgaanni spashtam chesina vaelaadi adhyayanalu cheyabaddaayi, mariyu mastishka valkalam, hippocompus, basal ganglia mariyu cerebellum vanti vividha medadu praantaalalo itara rakaala karyakalapala aadhaarita synaptic maarpulanu kanugonnayi. medadu nundi utpannamaina neurotrophic karakam (bdnf) mariyu saareeraka shrama eee prakriyaloo prayojanakaramaina paatra pooshistunnatlu kanipistundi.
naadii saastravettalu prastutam medadu dwara amalu cheyabade aneka rakaala abhyasam mariyu ghnaapakasaktini vibhina margallo vaeru chestaru
parisoedhana.
neurosines rangam medadunu mariyu migilina naadii vyavasthanu ardham chesukovadaniki prayatninche anni vidhaanaalanu kaligi untundi. manastatvasaastram manassu mariyu pravartananu ardham chesukovadaniki prayatnistundi, mariyu naraala shaastram anedi naadii vyavastha yokka vyaadhulanu nirdhaarinchi, chikitsa chese vaidya kramasikshana. manasika rugmatalanu adhyayanam cheyadaaniki, nivaarinchadaaniki mariyu chikitsa cheyadaaniki panichese aushadha saakha ayina manorogachikitsalo adhyayanam cheyabadina atyanta mukhyamaina avayavam kooda medadu. cognitive sains neurosines mariyu manastatvasaastraanni medadutho sambandham unna computer sains (artificial intelligence mariyu saaruupya rangaalu) mariyu tatvasaastram vanti itara rangaalato ekikrutam cheyadaaniki prayatnistundi.
medadunu adhyayanam chese puraatana paddhati shareera nirmaana shaastram, mariyu 20va sataabdam madhyakaalam varaku, naadii saastramlo chaalaa purogati merugaina kana marakalu mariyu merugaina suukshmadarshinula abhivruddhi nundi vachindi. neuroanatamistlu medadu yokka pedda ettuna nirmaanaanni alaage neuronla suukshmadarshini nirmaanaanni mariyu vaati bhaagaalanu, mukhyamgaa synapsesnu adhyayanam chestaaru. itara sadhanalalo, avi naadii nirmaanam, rasayana shaastram mariyu anusandhaanatanu bahirgatam chese aneka marakalu upayogistaayi. iteevali samvatsaraalalo, roganirodhaka saktini penche paddhatula abhivruddhi nirdishta janyuvula samuuhaalanu vyakteekarinchae neuronla parisoedhanaku anumatinchindi. alaage, "functional neuroanatomy" anedi maanava medadu nirmaanamloo vaividhyaalanu ghnaanam ledhaa pravartanalo vyatyaasaalato anusandhaaninchadaaniki vaidya imaging paddhatulanu upayogistundi.
neurophysiologistlu medadu yokka rasayana, aushadha mariyu vidyut lakshanaalanu adhyayanam chestaru vaari praathamika sadhanalu mandulu mariyu recording parikaraalu. prayogaatmakamgaa abhivruddhi cheyabadina vaelaadi mandulu naadii vyavasthanu prabhaavitam chestaayi, konni atyanta nirdishta margallo. medadu karyakalapala recordinglanu electrodelanu upayoginchi cheyavachu, ivi eejee adhyayanala maadirigaa talaku antabadi untaayi ledhaa extra cellular recordingla kosam jantuvula medadula lopala amarchabadataayi, ivi vyaktigata neuronla dwara utpatti cheyabadina charya saamardhyaalanu gurtinchagalavu. medadulo noppi grahakaalu lenanduna, melakuvagaa unna mariyu baadha kaliginchakundaa pravartinche jantuvula nundi medadu karyakalapalanu namodu cheyadaaniki eee paddhatulanu upayoginchadam saadhyamavutundi. muurchaku kaaranamayye medadu praantaanni sthaanikeekarinchadaaniki electrodelanu amarchadam vaidyaparamaina avasaram unna sandarbhaallo, apasmaraka muurcha unna maanava rogulalo medadu karyakalapalanu adhyayanam cheyadaaniki appudappudu adhe paddhatulu upayoginchabaddaayi. fmri vanti functional imaging paddhatulu medadu karyakalapalanu adhyayanam cheyadaaniki kooda upayoginchabadataayi; eee paddhatulu pradhanamgaa maanava vishayaalatoe upayoginchabadutunnaayi, endukante vatiki ekkuva kaalam kadalika laeni chetana vishayam avasaram, conny avi noninvasivga undatam valla goppa prayojanam kaligi untaayi.
medadu paniteeruku maroka vidhanam emitante, nirdishta medadu praantaalaku nashtam kaliginche parinaamaalanu pariseelinchadam. idhi purre mariyu meninges dwara rakshinchabadinappatiki, cerebrospinal dravam chuttoo, mariyu raktapravaaham nundi rakta-medadu avarodham dwara verucheyabadinappatiki, medadu yokka sunnitamaina swabhaavam aneka vyaadhulu mariyu aneka rakaala nashtalaku gurayye avakaasam undhi. maanavulalo, strokes mariyu itara rakaala medadu nashtam yokka prabhavalu medadu paniteeru gurinchi samaachaaraaniki keelaka vanarugaa unnaayi. nashtam yokka swabhaavaanni prayogaatmakamgaa niyantrinche saamarthyam lenanduna, eee samacharanni ardham chesukovadam tarachugaa kashtam. jantuvula adhyayanaalalo, saadhaaranamgaa elukalatho kuudina, electrodelu ledhaa sthaanikamgaa inject cheyabadina rasayanalanu upayoginchi khachitamaina nashtam yokka namuunaalanu utpatti cheyadam mariyu pravartanaku sambandhinchina parinaamaalanu pariseelinchadam saadhyamavutundi.
ganana naadii shaastram rendu vidhaanaalanu kaligi untundih modatidi, medadunu adhyayanam cheyadaaniki computerlanu upayoginchadam; rendavadi, medadulu ganananu elaa nirvahistaayane adhyayanam. oka vaipu, neuronla samuuha karyakalapalanu anukarinchadaaniki computer prograamnu vrayadam saadhyamavutundi, vaati electrochemical kaaryaacharananu vivarinche sameekaranaala vyavasthalanu upayoginchadam dwara; atuvanti anukaranalanu "jeevasaastraparamgaa vaastavika neural netvarklu" anie pilustaaru. marovaipu, neuronla yokka konni lakshanaalanu kaligi unna saralikruta "unitla" karyakalapalanu anukarinchadam dwara ledhaa ganitasaastraparamgaa vislaeshimchadam dwara neural ganana kosam algorithamlanu adhyayanam cheyadam saadhyamavutundi, conny vaati jeeva sanklishtata nundi chaalaa varaku sangrahamgaa untundi. medadu yokka ganana vidhulanu computer saastravettalu mariyu neuro scientistlu rendoo adhyayanam chestaaru.
ganana neurogenetic modeling anedi janyuvulu mariyu janyuvula madhya dynamic paraspara charyalaku sambandhinchi medadu vidhulanu modeling cheyadaaniki dynamic neuronal namuunaala adhyayanam mariyu abhivruddhiki sambandhinchinadi.
iteevali samvatsaraalalo medadu adhyayanaaniki janyu mariyu janyu paddhatula yokka anuvartanaalu perugutunnaayi mariyu neuroplasticitylo neurotrophic karakalu mariyu saareeraka karyakalapala paatralapai drushti saarinchaayi. saanketika saadhanaala labhyata kaaranamgaa elukalu atyanta saadhaaranamainavi. ippudu saapekshamgaa sulabhamgaa "nock avt" ledhaa aneka rakaala janyuvulanu utparivartana cheyadam saadhyamavutundi, aapai medadu paniteerupai prabhavalanu pariseelinchavacchu. marinta adhunaatana vidhanalu kooda upayoginchabadutunnaayih udaaharanaku, cree-locks recombination upayoginchi, nirdishta samayaallo medadulooni nirdishta bhagalalo janyuvulanu sakriyam cheyadam ledhaa nishkriyam cheyadam saadhyamavutundi.
charitra.
kanugonabadina athi puraatana medadu aareni-1 guha samudaayamlooni armeniyaalo undhi. 5, 000 samvatsaraalaku paiga paatadani anchanaa veyabadina medadu, 12 nundi 14 yella baalika purrelo kanugonabadindi. medadulu padainappatiki, guha lopala kanipinche vaataavaranam kaaranamgaa avi baga samrakshinchabaddaayi.
aatma yokka sthaanam medadulo undaa ledhaa hrudayamlo undaa anae daanipai prarambha tatvavettalu vibhajinchabaddaaru. aristatle hrudayaanni ishtapaddadu, mariyu medadu yokka pani kevalam raktaanni challabarachadam anie anukunnadu. dravyam yokka anhu siddhaantam yokka aavishkarta ayina democritus, thalalo telivi, hrudayamlo bhavodvegam mariyu kaaleyaaniki sameepamlo kaamamtho moodu bhagala aatma kosam vaadinchaaru. aann dhi pavitra vyaadhi" anae teliyani rachayita, hippocratic corpus loe oka vaidya grandham, medaduku anukuulamgaa nissandehamgaa krindiki vachindi, ilaa vraasaaru
roman vaidyudu gallen kooda medadu yokka praamukhyata kosam vaadinchaaru, mariyu adhi elaa panichestundane daani gurinchi kontha lothugaa siddhaantam chesaaru. medadu, naraalu mariyu kandaraala madhya shareera nirmaana sambandhaalanu gallen gurtinchindi, sariiramlooni anni kandaraalu naraala saakhala network dwara medadutho anusandhaaninchabadi unnayani niroopistundi. naraalu "neumata cycicon" anie piluvabade oka marmamaina padaarthaanni mosukelladam dwara kandaraalanu yaantrikamgaa sakriyam chestayani ayana pratipaadinchaaru, dheenini saadhaaranamgaa "janthu aatmalu" anie anuvadistaaru. gallen aalochanalu madhya yugaalalo vistrutamgaa telisinavi, conny punarujjeevanam varaku ekkuva purogati raaledu, vivaranaatmaka shareera nirmaana shaastra adhyayanam tirigi prarambhamainappudu, rene decartes mariyu atanini anusarinchina vaari saiddhaantika oohaagaanaalato kalipi. descartes, gallen laaga, naadii vyavastha gurinchi hydraulic paramgaa aalochinchaaru. atyadhika abhignaa vidhulu bhouthikam kaani "res kogitans" dwara nirvahinchabadataayani, conny maanavula yokka chaalaa pravartanalu mariyu jantuvula yokka anni pravartanalanu yaantrikamgaa vivarinchavacchani ayana viswasinchaadu.
naadii paniteeru gurinchi aadhunika avagahana disagaa modati nijamaina purogati, ayithe, luigi galwani (1737-1798) parisoedhanala nundi vachindi, athanu chanipoyina kappa yokka bahirgata naralaku vartinche sthira vidyut yokka shock daani kaalu kudinchadaaniki kaaranamavutundani kanugonnadu. appati nundi, avagaahanalo prati pradhana purogati anedi kotta daryaaptu saanketikata abhivruddhi nundi ekkuva ledhaa takkuva neerugaa anusarinchindi. 20va sataabdam prarambha samvatsaraala varaku, atyanta mukhyamaina purogati kanaalanu maraka cheyadaaniki kotta paddhatula nundi teesukobadindi. mukhyamgaa golgi steyn aavishkarana keelakamainadi, idhi (sarigga upayoginchinappudu) neuronla yokka chinna bhaganni matrame marakalu chestundi, conny sell boddy, dendrites mariyu oxon thoo sahaa vaatini puurtigaa marakalu chestundi. atuvanti maraka lekunda, suukshmadarshini krinda medadu kanajaalam protoplasmic fibers yokka abhedyamaina chikkuga kanipistundi, dheenilo yea nirmaanaanni nirnayinchadam asadhyam. kaamillo golgi chetilo, mariyu mukhyamgaa spanish neuroanatomist santiago ramon vai kajal chetilo, kotta maraka vandalaadi vibhina rakaala neuronlanu velladinchindi, prati okkati daani swantha pratyaekamaina dendritic nirmaanam mariyu connectivity namuunaatoe.
20va sataabdam modati ardhabhaagamlo, electronicslo purogati naraala kanaala vidyut lakshanaala parisoedhanaku veelu kalpinchindi, alon hodgkin, andrew huxley mariyu itarulu charya sambhaavyata yokka jeevabhouthika shaastram mariyu synaps yokka electrochemistrypy bernard cotz mariyu itarula pani dwara pani cheyadamlo mugisindi. eee adhyayanalu medadunu oka dynamic entiteegaa bhaavinche shareera nirmaana chitraanni puurti chesaayi. kotta avagahananu pratibimbistuu, 1942loe charless sherington nidra nundi melkone medadu paniteerunu drushyamaanam chesaru
1940laloe electronic computerla aavishkarana, ganita samachara siddhaantam abhivruddhitho paatu, medadulanu samachara prosessing vyavasthalugaa ardham chesukogalamane avagahanaku daariteesindi. eee bhavana cybernetics rangaaniki aadharam ayyindi, chivariki ippudu ganana naadii shaastram anie piluvabade rangaaniki daariteesindi. cybernetics vadda prarambha prayatnaalu kontavaraku mudivi, avi medadunu tappanisarigaa maaruveshamlo digital computerga pariganinchaayi, udaaharanaku zaan vaan neuman yokka 1958 pustakam, "computer und dhi brain" loe. ayithe, samvatsaraalugaa, pravartana jantuvula nundi namodu cheyabadina medadu kanaala vidyut pratispandanala gurinchi samacharanni sekarinchadam anedi perugutunna vaastavikata disalo saiddhaantika bhaavanalanu kramamga kadilinchindi.
atyanta prabhaavavantamaina prarambha rachanalalo okati 1959loe "kappa kannu kappa medaduku emi chebutundi" anae sheershikato raasina oka kagitamh aaa kaagitam retiinaalooni neuronla drushya pratispandanalanu mariyu kappala optic tectumnu pariseelinchindi, mariyu kappa yokka tektamlooni konni neuronlu praathamika pratispandanalanu "bugg grahinchevaaru" gaa panichese vidhamgaa militam cheyadaaniki vairdu cheyabadi unnayani nirdhaaranaku vachindi. konni samvatsaraala taruvaata david habul mariyu tarsten vicel kotula praadhamika drushya valkalam loe kanaalanu kanugonnaru, ivi chuupu rangamlo nirdishta paayintla gundaa padunaina anchulu kadulutunnappudu churukuga marutayi-eee aavishkaranaku vaaru nobel bahumatini geluchukunnaru. unnata-krama drushya praantaalalo tadupari adhyayanalu binacular asamaanata, rangu, kadalika mariyu aakaram yokka amsaalanu gurtinche kanaalanu kanugonnayi, praadhamika drushya valkalam nundi perugutunna dooraalalo unna praantaalu marinta sanklishtamaina pratispandanalanu chuuputunnaayi. drushtiki sambandham laeni medadu praantaala yokka itara parisoedhanalu aneka rakaala pratispandana sahasambandhaalatho kanaalanu velladinchaayi, konni ghnaapakasaktiki sambandhinchinavi, konni antariksham vanti nairoopya rakaala ghnaanaaniki sambandhinchinavi.
siddhaantakartalu neuronlu mariyu neural networkla ganita namuunaalanu nirminchadam dwara eee pratispandana namuunaalanu ardham chesukovadaniki krushi chesaaru, veetini computerlanu upayoginchi anukarinchavacchu. konni upayogakaramaina namuunaalu nairoopyamainavi, avi medadulo elaa amalu cheyabadataayi anae vivaraala kante naadii algorithamla sambhaavita nirmaanampai drushti pedataayi; itara namuunaalu nijamaina neuronla yokka jeevabhouthika lakshanaala gurinchi daetaanu ponduparachadaaniki prayatnistaayi. yea sthaayiloonuu yea namuunaa inca medadu paniteeru yokka puurtigaa chellubaatu ayye vivaranagaa pariganinchabadaledu. avasaramaina kashtam emitante, neural networkla dwara adhunaatana gananaku pampinhee cheyabadina prosessing avasaram, dheenilo vandala ledhaa vaelaadi neuronlu sahakaaramtho panicheestaayi-medadu kaaryaacharana recording yokka prastuta paddhatulu oka samayamlo konni dozenla neuronla nundi charya saamarthyaanni vaeru cheyagalavu.
inca, oke neuronlu kooda sanklishtamgaa mariyu gananalanu cheyagala saamarthyaanni kaligi unnatlu kanipistaayi. kabatti, dheenini pratibimbimchani medadu namuunaalu medadu operationku praatinidhyam vahinchadaaniki chaalaa nairoopyamainavi; dheenini sangrahinchadaaniki prayatninche namuunaalu chaalaa gananaparamgaa khareedainavi mariyu prastuta ganana vanarulatho vaadayogyamgaa asaadhyamainavi. ayithe, maanava medadu project mottam maanava medadu yokka vaastavika, vivaranaatmaka ganana namuunaanu nirminchadaaniki prayatnistondi. eee vidhanam yokka ghnaanam bahirangamgaa pootii cheyabadindi, vaadanaku rendu vaipula unnata sthaayi saastravettalu unnaaru.
20va sataabdam rendava bhaagamlo, rasayana shaastram, electron microscopy, janyusaastram, computer sains, functional brain imaging mariyu itara rangaalalo parinaamaalu kramamga medadu nirmaanam mariyu paniteeruloki kotta kitikeelanu terichaayi. united stateslo, 1990lanu medadu parisoedhanaloo saadhinchina purogatini gurthuchesukovadaaniki mariyu atuvanti parisoedhanaku nidhulanu prothsahinchadaaniki "medadu dasaabdam" gaa adhikarikamga niyaminchaaru.
21va sataabdamloo, eee pokadalu konasagayi, mariyu aneka kotta vidhanalu praamukhyataloki vachayi, veetilo multielectrode recording, idhi aneka medadu kanaala karyakalapalanu oke samayamlo namodu cheyadaaniki anumatistundi; janyu injaneering, idhi medadu yokka paramaanu bhaagaalanu prayogaatmakamgaa maarchadaaniki anumatistundi; janyusaastram, idhi medadu nirmaanamloo vaividhyaalanu dna lakshanaalu mariyu neuroimagingloni vaividhyaalatoe sambandham kaligi undataaniki anumatistundi.
samajam mariyu samskruti.
aaharamgaa.
aneka vantakaalalo janthu medadulanu aaharamgaa upayogistaaru.
acharalalo.
european neanderthals yokka santaapa acharalalo medadu viniyogam kooda undani konni puraavastu aadharalu suuchistunnaayi.
papuva nyuu ginia yokka agra prajalu maanava medadulanu tintaaru. antyakriyalalo, chanipoyinavaariki daggaragaa unnavaaru amaratva bhavanni srushtinchadaaniki maraninchina vaari medadunu tintaaru. dheeniki kuru anae priyan vyaadhini gurtinchaaru.

