
parvanagi

vidyutchumbakiyatemadhye, paripoorn pargamyata, jyala anekada fakt pargamyata mhanatat aanee greek akshar "ε" (epsilon) dware darshavile jaate, heey astarak vidyut vidyut dhruvikaranache eka mojmap aahe. qamee pargamyata asalelya padarthapeksha uchch pargamyata asaleli samagri lagoo kelelya vidyut kshetrala pratisad mhanoon adhik dhruvikaran karate, jyamule samgrimadhye adhik urja sathate. vidyutsthiratemadhye, sandharkache kshamata nirdharan karnyat pargamyata mahattvachi bhoomika bajavate.
sarvat sopya prakaranat, vidyut kshetra e chaa parinam mhanoon vidyut visthapan kshetra d aahe
adhik samanyatah, pargamyata heey avastheche thermodynamic karya aahe. heey lagoo kelelya kshetrachi varanvarta, pariman aanee disha yavar avalambun asoo shakate. anumatisathi ess. aay. ekak farrad prati meater (eff/emm) aahe.
pargamyata anekada sapeksh pargamyata "ε" r dware darshavili jaate jee paripoorn pargamyata "ε" aanee vacuum pargamyata "ε" 0 chey gunottar aahe.
yaa parimanahin pramanala anekada aanee sandigdhapane 'pargamyata' asehi sambodhale jaate. nirpeksh aanee sapeksh pargamyata yaa donhisathi aadhalanari aanakhi eka samanya sandnya mhanje 'astarak sthirank' joou bhautikshastra aanee abhiyantriki tasech rasayanshastrat qamee keela gela aahe.
vyakhyenusar, paripoorn nirvatamadhye sapeksh anumatikshamata achook 1 asate tarr manak tapman aanee dabavar havechi sapeksh anumatikshamata "κ" havah ± 1.0006 asate.
sapeksh pargamyata thet vidyut sanvedansheelata (χ) shhee sambandhit aahe
anyatha asey lihile
pargamyata' haah shabd 1880 chya dashakat oliver havicidene thomsonchya (1872) 'pargamyata' laa purak mhanoon aanala hota. purvi 'pii' mhanoon lihilele, 'ε' asalele padnam 1950 chya dashakapasun samanya vaparat aahe.
ekake.
pargamyatesathi manak ess. aay. ekak farrad prati meater (eff/emm kinwa eff·emm−1) aahe.
spashtikaran.
vidyutchumbakiyatemadhye, vidyut visthapan kshetra heey vidyut kshetrachya upasthitimule dilelya madhyamat vidyut prabharanche vitaran darshavate. yaa vitaranat charge sthalantar aanee vidyut dvidhruv punarnirdharan samavisht aahe. vidyut kshetratil badalanna 'tatkal' pratisad denanya 'rekheey, sajatiy, samasthanik' samgrichya agadi sopya babatit pargamyateshi tyacha sambandh aaheh
jethe pargamyata hii eka scalar aahe. jarr madhyam anisotropic asel tarr pargamyata haah dusya kramankacha tensor aahe.
sarvasadharanpane, pargamyata sthir nasate, kaaran tee madhyamatil sthitee, lagoo kelelya kshetrachi varanvarta, aadrata, tapman aanee itar mapdandannusar badaloo shakate. araikhik madhyamat, pargamyata vidyut kshetrachya samarthyavar avalambun asoo shakate. varanvarteche karya mhanoon anumatitva vastavik kinwa jatil moolye gheu shakate.
ess. aay. ekkanmadhye, anumatikshamata prati meater farradmadhye (eff/emm kinwa aii2·ess4kji1·emm−3) mojali jaate. visthapan kshetra heey cullomb prati chauras meater (see/emm 2) chya ekkanmadhye mojale jaate, tarr vidyut kshetra heey volt prati meater (vhee/emm) madhye mojale jaate. aanee charge kelelya vastunmadhil parasparsanvadache varnan qaraa. yaa parasparsanvadashi sambandhit 'charge ghanata' shhee sambandhit aahe, tarr 'shakti' aanee 'sambhavya farak' shhee sambandhit aahe.
nirvat anumati.
nirvat pargamyata (jyala mokalya jaagechi pargamyata kinwa vidyut sthirank dekhil mhanatat) heey mokalya jagetil gunottar aahe. teey cullomb force sthirankamadhye dekhil disate,
tyache moolya aahe
kuthe?
sthirank aanee donhi ess. aay. aadhar ekkanchya 2019 chya punarnirdharnaparyant achook sankhyatmak moolye thevanyasathi ess. aay. ekkanmadhye paribhashit kele gele hote. mhanoon, tyaa tarkheparyant, agadi apurnank mhanoon dekhil mhatale jaau shakate, sootra _ 9
jaree parinam atarkik asala (kaaran ansh samavisht aahe). yaulat, 2019 purvi ampere mojale gelele praman hote, parantu tevhapasoon ampere aata tantotant paribhashit kele gele aahe aanee teey prayogikdrushtya mojale gelele praman aahe (parinami anishchitatesah) aanee mhanunach 2019 chee naveen vyakhya dekhil (2019 purvi aanee tevhapasoon agadi tantotant paribhashit aahe).
sapeksh anumati.
eksandh samagrichi resheey anumati sahasa mokalya jageshi sambandhit sapeksh anumati mhanoon dilee jaate (jyala astarak sthirank dekhil mhanatat, jaree hii sandnya avmoolyan keleli asali aanee kahivela keval sthir, shoonya-varanvarta sapeksh anumati darshavate). anisotropic samgrimadhye, sapeksh pargamyata hii eka tensor asoo shakate, jyamule birefringence hoto. tyanantar sapeksh pargamyatecha gunakar karoon vastavik pargamyatechi ganana kelee jaateh
jethe (varanvar lihilele) mhanje samagrichi vidyut sanvedansheelata.
vidyut kshetracha sambandhit, prerit astarak dhruvikaran ghanateshi sambandhit, pramanbaddhatecha sthirank (joou eka tensor asoo shakato) mhanoon sanvedansheelata paribhashit kelee jaate, jase qee
mokalya jaagechi vidyut anumati kuthe aahe?
madhyamachi sanvedansheelata tyachya sapeksh anumatishi sambandhit aahe
tyamule nirvat jhalyas,
closius-mosoti sambandhadvare madhyamatil vaiyaktik kananchya dhruvikaranashi dekhil sanvedansheelata sambandhit aahe.
vidyut visthapan heey dhruvikaranachya ghanateshi sambandhit aahe
madhyamachi pargamyata aanee pargamyata ektritpane tyaa madhyamadvare vidyutchumbakiy kiranotsargacha tappyacha veg nirdharit karatatah
vyavharik anuprayog.
kshamata nirdharit karane.
capacitorchi capacitance tyachya rachana aanee sanrachanevar aadharit asate, mhanje tee charging aanee discharges badalanar nahee. samantar plate capacitormadhye capacitance sootra asey lihile jaate
jethe sootra 17 heey eka plateache kshetrafal aahe, sootra 18 heey platemadhil antar aahe aanee sootra 19 heey done platemadhil madhyamachi anumati aahe. sapeksh pargamyata sootra _ 20 asalelya capacitorsathi asey mhatale jaau shakate qee
gosscha kayada.
pargamyata hii gosschya niyamadvare vidyut pravahashi (aanee vistar vidyut kshetradvare) jodaleli asate. gosscha niyam sangato qee bund gossian prushthbhagasathi,
jethe sootra _ 23 heey prushthbhagatun jaanara nivval vidyut pravah aahe, sootra _ 24 heey gossian prushthbhagavar veshtalele shulk aahe, sootra _ 25 heey prushthbhagavaril dilelya binduvaril vidyut kshetra sadish aahe aanee sootra _ 26 heey gossian prushthbhagavaril vibhedak kshetra sadish aahe.
jarr gossian prushthbhag eksamanpane insulated, samamiteey charge vyavastha gherat asel tarr sootra sope kele jaau shakate
jethe sootra _ 28 vidyut kshetra resha aanee samanya (lumb) teey vidyut kshetra resha yanchyatil coone darshavate.
jarr serve vidyut kshetra resha 90° varr prushthbhag olandalya tarr sootra aanakhi sope kele jaau shakate
kaaran golakache prushthbhagache kshetrafal sootra 30 aahe, vidyut kshetra eksaman, golakar prabhar vyavasthepasun door asalele antar sootra 31 aahe
heey sootra vidyut kshetrala, vahak goal kinwa kavchabaher, eksaman charge kelelya insulating golyachya baher kinwa golakar capacitorchya plateschya darmyan, bindu charjmule lagoo hote.
prasaran aanee karanatmakata.
sarvasadharanpane, ekhadya lagoo kelelya kshetrala pratisad mhanoon samagri twarit dhruvikaran karoo shakat nahee aanee tyamule veleche karya mhanoon adhik samanya rachana mhanje
mhanjech, dhruvikaran heey purvichya velee vidyut kshetrache eka abhisaran aahe, jyachi vel-avalambun sanvedansheelata hii tyadvare dilee jaate. jarr konee paribhashit kele tarr yaa avibhajyatechi varchi maryada anantaparyant dekhil vadhavali jaau shakate. tatkal pratisad haah diarac delta karya sanvedanshilatashi sambandhit asel.
velechya sandarbhat forier transform ghene aanee haah sambandh frequencyche karya mhanoon lihine soyiche aahe. convolution prameyamule, avibhajya eka sadhe utpadan banate,
sanvedansheelatechya yaa varanvartevaril avalambitvamule pargamyatechya varanvartevar avalambitva hote. varanvartechya sandarbhat sanvedanshilatecha aakar samgrichya prasaran gunadharmanche vaishishtya darshavito.
shivay, dhruvikaran heey mageel velee keval vidyut kshetravar avalambun asoo shakate (i.eae. prabhavipane), karanatmakatecha parinam, sanvedanshilatevar crammer-cronig nirbandh ladato.
jatil anumati.
nirvat pratisadapeksha, bahya kshetranna samanya samagricha pratisad samanyatah kshetrachya varanvartevar avalambun asato. heey varanvarta avalambitva heey vastusthiti pratibimbit karate qee jevha vidyut kshetra lagoo kele jaate tevha samagriche dhruvikaran twarit badalat nahee. pratisad nehmi 'karanatmak' (lagoo kelelya kshetranantar udbhavnara) asala pahije, joou tappyatil farkanam darshavala jaau shakato. yaa karanastav, anumatila anekada lagoo kelelya kshetrachya (koneey) varanvarteche eka jatil karya manale jaateh
(kaaran jatil sankhya pariman aanee tappyache tapshilvar varnan karnyas anumati detat). tyamule permitivitychi vyakhya ashee aahe qee
kuthe?
madhyam teey sthir vidyut kshetranchya pratisadache varnan pargamyatechya qamee-varanvarta maryadedware kele jaate, jyala sthir pargamyata (dekhil) mhanatatah
uchch-varanvarta maryadet (mhanje optical frequency), jatil anumatila samanyatah (kinwa kadhikadhi) mhanoon sambodhale jaate. plazma frequenciver aanee tyakhali, astarak electron vayoo vartanasah aadarsh dhatoo mhanoon vagatat. qamee frequencichya paryayi kshetransathi sthir anumati haah eka changla andaj aahe aanee frequency jasjashi vadhate tasatasa aanee darmyan mojata yenyajoga tappa farak udbhavato. jyaa varanvartevar tappyatil badal lakshat yeto, teey tapman aanee madhyamachya tapashilanvar avalambun asate. madhyam kshetra shaktisathi (), aanee pramanbaddh rahnyasathi, aanee
paryayi kshetranna samagricha pratisad haah eka jatil anumatitva darshavito, tyamule tyache vastavik aanee kalpanik bhag vegale karane swabhavik aahe, jeey khaleel prakare paramparenusar kele jaateh
kuthe?
velevar avalambun rahnyasathi chinhachi nivad, pargamyatechya kalpanik bhagasathi chinhache niyam tharavate. yethe vaparleli chinhe bhautikshastrat samanyatah vaparlya jaanarya chinhanshi sambandhit aahet, tarr abhiyantriki paramparesathi serve kalpanik praman ulatale pahije.
jatil pargamyata heey sahasa varanvarteche eka klisht karya asate, kaaran teey anek varanvartevar honanya prasaran ghatananche adhimulit varnan asate. astarak karyamadhye keval sakaratmak kalpanik bhag asalelya varanvartesathi dhruv asane aavashyak aahe aanee tyamule crammer-cronig sambandhanche samadhan hote. tathapi, vyavharat anekada abhyasalya jaananya arund varanvartechya shrenimadhye, anumatikshamata hii varanvarta-swatantra kinwa pratikruti karyandvare andaje mojali jaau shakate.
dilelya varanvartevar, kalpanik bhag, jarr sakaratmak asel tarr shoshanat tota hoto (vareel chinh paramparenusar) aanee nakaratmak asel tarr too vadhato. adhik samanyatah, anisotropic astarak tensorchya eigenvaluesche kalpanik bhag vicharat ghetale pahijet.
ghan padarthanchya babatit, jatil astarak karya band sanrachaneshi jawalun jodalele asate. konatyahi sfatikeey samgrichya electronic sanrachaneche vaishishtya darshavinare prathamik praman mhanje photon shoshanachi sambhavyata, jee thet optical astarak karyachya kalpanik bhagashi sambandhit aahe. optical astarak karya moolbhut abhivyaktidvare dile jaateh
yaa abhivyaktimadhye, avasthanchya sanyukt ghanatesah urjevar brilloin kshetra-sarasari sankraman sambhavyateche utpadan darshavate; heey eka vistrut karya aahe, jeey urjechya patalila dhundit taknyat vikhuranyachi bhoomika darshavate. sarvasadharanpane, vistar haah laurentzian aanee gaushian darmyancha madhyavarti asato; nanometer scaleveryl sthanik rachneteel sankhyikeey chadhautaranmule tivra vikhurlyamule mishradhatusathi too gaushiyanchya kahee pramanat jawal asato.
tensorial permit.
chumbakeey plasmachya kathor pratimananusar, eka adhik samanya abhivyakti jee millimetervar paryayi vidyut kshetrasah vahakancha parasparkriya aanee aksheey chumbakeey ardhchalakatil sookshm tarang frequency lakshat ghete, tyasathi pargamyata hii eka karnaheen tensor mhanoon vyakt karane aavashyak aahe. (vidyut-nirgaman dekhil pahaa).
jarr nahisa jhaala tarr tensor karn aahe parantu olakhichya pramanat nahee aanee madhyam eka eka aksheey madhyam asalyache mhatale jaate, jyache gunadharm eka aksheey sphatikasarkhech aahet.
samagriche vargikaran.
samagriche vargikaran tyanchya vastavik aanee kalpanik ghatakanchya (kinwa, samatulya, chalakata, jevha nantarchya bhagat ganale jaate) tulanet, tyanchya jatil-moolya anumatatenusar kele jaau shakate. paripoorn vahak" madhye anant chalakata asate, tarr "paripoorn astarak" hii eka ashee samagri aahe jyamadhye ajibat chalakata nasate; vastavik-moolya asalelya pargamyateche (kinwa shoonya kalpanik ghatkansah jatil-moolya asalelya pargamyateche) heey nantarche prakaran dekhil "dosharahit madhyam" yaa navane sambandhit aahe. samanyatah, jevha aapan samagreela 'qamee-nuksan astarak' (jaree agadi dosharahit nasale taree) manato, tarr tee 'changlya vahkashi' sambandhit asate; gair-nagany chalakata asalelya asha samagrimule mothya pramanat nuksan hote jeey vidyutchumbakiy laharinchya prasarala pratibandh karate, mhanoon tyanna 'nukasankarak madhyam' dekhil mhatale jaate. jeey sahitya konatyahi maryadet yet nahee teey samanya madhyam manale jaate.
nukasandayak madhyam.
nukasandayak madhyamachya babatit, i.eae. jevha pravahit pravah nagany nasato, tevha vahana vahanachi ekoon ghanata ashee asateh
kuthe?
lakshat ghya qee heey jatil sanyugma sandigdhateche vidyut abhiyantriki sampraday vaparat aahe; bhautikshastra/rasayanshastra sammelanat yaa samikarananche jatil sanyojan samavisht aahe.
visthapan pravahacha aakar lagoo kelelya kshetrachya frequency ω varr avalambun asato; sthir kshetrat visthapan pravah nasato.
yaa aupchariktet, jatil anumatichi vyakhya ashee kelee aaheh
sarvasadharanpane, astarkadvare vidyutchumbakiy urjeche shoshan kahee vegvegalya yantranandvare kele jaate jeey varanvarteche karya mhanoon pargamyatechya aakaravar prabhav taktatah
vareel parinam anekada ektrit houn capacitormadhye naun-linier prabhav nirman karatat. udaharanarth, astarak shoshan mhanje dirghkal charge kelelya capacitorchi, jevha kahee kalasathi discharge hoto tevha purnapane discharge honyachi asamarthata hoy. jaree aadarsh capacitor sodalyanantar shoonya voltver raheel, taree vastavik capacitormadhye eka lahan voltage vikasit hoil, hii eka ghatana aahe jyala 'socage' kinwa 'battery action' dekhil mhanatat. anek polymer filmsarkhya kahee astarak vidyutkramansathi parinami voltage mool voltage 1-2% peksha qamee asoo shakate. tathapi, electrolytic capacitors kinwa super capacitors babatit teey 15-25% itake asoo shakate.
quantum-yantrik vyakhya.
quantum yantrikichya sandarbhat, pargamyata hii anoo aanee aanvik parasparsanvadvare spasht kelee jaate.
qamee varanvartevar, dhruviy astarkatil renu heey lagoo kelelya vidyut kshetradvare dhruvikrut kele jaatat, jyamule niyatkalik paribhraman hote. udaharanarth, microwave frequenciver, microwave kshetramule panyachya renunche niyatkalik paribhraman hote, jeey hydrogen bandh todanyasathi purese asate. kshetra bandhanchya viruddha karya karate aanee urja ushnata mhanoon samgridvare shoshali jaate. mhanunach paanee asalelya samagrisathi microwave oven khoop changle kaam karatat. panyachya kalpanik ghatakache (shoshak nirdeshank) done kamal aahet, eka sookshm tarang varanvartevar aanee dusare durchya atinil (yuu. vhee.) varanvartevar. heey donhi anunad sookshmavev ovhanchya karyarat varanvartepeksha jaast varanvartevar aahet.
madhyam varanvartemadhye, urja khoop jaast asate jyamule firane shakya hott nahee, tarihi electronavar thet parinam karane khoop qamee asate aanee anunad aanvik compananchya swarupat shoshali jaate. panyat, yethech shoshak nirdeshank zapatyane qamee houu lagato aanee kalpanik anumatichi kiman sankhya nilya prakashachya varanvartevar (optical vyavastha) asate.
uchch varanvartevar (jase qee yuu. vhee. aanee tyahoon adhik), renu shithil houu shakat naheet aanee urja purnapane anoondvare, romanchak electron urja patalidvare shoshali jaate. asha prakare, yaa varanvarta aayanikaran kiranotsarg mhanoon vargikrut kelya jaatat.
sampoorn 'abb initio' (mhanje, pahili tattve) modelling karane aata sangankiyadrushtya shakya aahe, parantu teey adyap mothya pramanat lagoo kele gele nahee. asha prakare, ghatanashastriy pratiman hii prayogik vartane pakadanyachi pureshi paddhat mhanoon sweekarli jaate. db model aanee laurentz model pratham-kram aanee dviteey-kram (anukrame) lumped system parameter resheey pratinidhitva (jase qee aar. see. aanee ell. aar. see. anunad circuit) vapartat.
mapan.
vividh sthir vidyut mojamapanni samagrichi sapeksh anumati shodhali jaau shakate. 10−6 teey 1015 hertzparyantchya parimanachya sumare 21 kramancha samavesh asalelya astarak spectroscopy vividh prakarancha vapar karoon jatil anumatiche moolyankan varanvartechya vistrut shrenivar kele jaate. tasech, cryostats aanee ovhancha vapar karoon, madhyamachya astarak gunadharmanche tapmananchya shrenivar varnan kele jaau shakate. asha vividh uttejana kshetransathi pranalincha abhyas karnyasathi, anek mapan mandani vaparlya jaatat, pratyek vishisht varanvarta shrenisathi pureshi asate.
vividh microwave mapan tantre cheen aanee itaranmadhye darshavili aahet.". vahak vimananmadhye samagricha eka bhag vaparnyachya haqqi-coleman paddhatitil vishisht truti sumare 0.3% aahet.
infrared aanee optical frequencymadhye, eka samanya tantra mhanje lambvartuliy samikarane. optical frequenciver atishay patal chitrapatansathi jatil apavartak nirdeshank mojanyasathi duheri dhruvikaran interferometry dekhil vaparali jaate.
optical frequenciver dialectric tensorchya 3dii mojamapasathi, dialectric tensor tomography vaparali jaau shakate.