
gunasutranche yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran

gunasutranche yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran heey ardhasutranadarmyan, mhanje vanshasutranmadhye genomeche pruthakkaran kartana gunasutranchya nehamichya vitaranapasun honare vichalan aahe. samanyatah 2yyaa mendelian niyamanusar ("janukanchya pruthakkaran niyam") samaroop gunasutra heey yadruchchikpane dotter nucleusmadhye vitarit kele jaatat, parantu sambandhit vargamadhye "samanya" asalelya anek jivanmadhye yapasoon bhinn vividh paddhati aahet. tyat eka gunasutra jodya (dvigunit) kinwa sanyog bhagidaranshivay (atulaneey) eka gunasutra kinwa gunasutranche sampoorn sanch samavisht asoo shakatat, jyamadhye heey tyanchya palakanchya moodanusar vegale kele jaatat aanee eka niyam mhanoon, keval matechya moodatilach sanyuganna hastantarit kele jaatat. asey dekhil ghadate qee samaroop nasalele gunasutra samanvit paddhatine vegale hotat. parinami, haah eka prakarcha naun-mendelian varsa aahe.
yaa lekhat asha prakarananche varnan kele aahe jethe yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran heey vishisht jivansathi samanya prakaran aahe kinwa khoop varanvar ghadate. sambandhit ghatanela myotic drive kinwa pruthakkaran vikrutee mhanatat. heey varshatil samaroop gunasutrachya sapeksh ekach gunasutrache sarasari sankraman aahe. heey ardhasutranadarmyan yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran, parantu ardhasutranantarchya prakriyanmule dekhil asoo shakate jyamule samaroop gunasutrache sankraman qamee hote.
yavyatirikt, ashee kahee pathological prakarane aahet jee enupliedymadhye parinami hotat aanee jawaljawal nehmich pranghatak asatat.
sanshodhanachi parshvabhoomi aanee prarambhik itihas.
1904 madhye theoder boverine tayar kelelya varshachya gunasutra siddhantanusar, ardhasutranadarmyan dotter nucleusmadhye samaroop gunasutra yadruchchikpane vitarit hone apekshit hote. yaa prashnavarche pahile abhyas 1908 aanee 1909 madhye prakashit jhaale. heey shodhanibandh effidsmadhil shukranunmadhye honanya utpattivar aadharit hote, mhanje.eae. purush lingamadhye ardhasutran. effidsmadhye, ling nirdharan bahutek vela XX/X0 prakaranusar kele jaateh mahilanmadhye done X gunasutra asatat, purushanmadhye fakt eka. tathapi, varshachya akheris narr keval eka pidhimadhye disatat, tarr anyatha keval maadee asatat, jyaa parthenogenesisdware punarutpadit hotat. aata prashna assa hota qee laingik punarutpadanatil serve santati mahila aahet heey kase sadhya kele jaate. ardhasutran i asman aahe, asey nishpann jhaale.eae. parinami done asman aakarachya peshi tayar hotat aanee ex gunasutra nehmich mothya dotter peshimadhye sampato. ardhasutran II nantar keval yaa peshitoon done shukranu peshi baher yetat, tarr lahan peshi ksheen hotat. asha prakare, pratyek shukranumadhye-andyasarkhe-eka ex gunasutra asate aanee keval maadee santati (XX) tayar hote.
1909 madhye dekhil corius marginatuschya shukranunvar eka pepper prakashit karnyat aala. done bhinn ex gunasutra aahet aanee vaay gunasutra (x1x20) naheet aanee ardhasutranamadhye donhi ex gunasutra ekach kanya kendrakala niyukt kele jaatat. heey samanyatah kolee yanchya babatitahi kharey aahe, jyapaiki anek prajatincha abhyas tyanantarchya varshant keela gela aahe, tasech vividh sutrakrumi aanee kahee affidsmadhyehi. american moll crickett "neocurtila hexadactila" madhye paristhiti kahishi adhik klisht aahe, jyache varnan fernands paynene 1916 madhye kele hoteh yethe, teen ling gunasutra aahet (x1x2y), tyapaiki done jodidar aahet, tarr x1 eka atulaneey (jodee nasalela) mhanoon aahe. jaree, alikadil abhyasanni pushti kelee aahe qee, konatahi yantrik sambandh nahee, taree atulaneey ex gunasutra tyach dotter nucleusmadhye pravesh karato jyala itar ex gunasutra prapt hote. 
yaa serve prati-udaharanantarach eleanor carothers yanni toldhadinvar kelela abhyas 1917 madhye-payanechya pepper (journal auph morphology) sarkhyach niyatkalikat-apekshit yadruchchik vitaranacha spasht purava mhanoon pahila gela. purviche abhyas laingik gunasutranparyant maryadit hote kaaran samaroop autosomes vegale karata yet navhate, tarr carothersna prayogik prani sapadale hote jyamadhye samaroop autosomes dekhil anshatah vegale kele jaau shakatat. payanechya bhinn nishkarshankade nantar durlaksh karnyat aale, visheshtah european teel cricketmadhye tyanchi pushti houu shakali nahee. thomas hunt morgan, jyane aanuvanshiktechya gunasutra siddhantachya sthapanet nirnayak yogdan dile, jeey adyap tyaa velee samanyatah sweekarle gele navhate, agadi tyachya 'aanuvanshiktecha bhautik aadhar' (1919) yaa pustakat spashtapane lihile aahe qee matru aanee pitru gunasutranchya yadruchchik pruthakkaranaviruddha konatahi parasparvirodhi purava nahee ("matru aanee pitru gunasutranchya mukt vargikaranala virodh karnare ekahi peshishastriy tathya nahee"), jaree tyala tyachya majee sahyogi payanechya karyabaddal nihsanshaypane mahitee hotee. 1951 paryant michael jeey. dii. pandhyane tyacha punha shodh lavala aanee swatachya tapasatoon yachee pushti kelee.
yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran, jyamadhye matru aanee pitru mool gunasutranche sampoorn sanch ekmekanpasun vegale kele jaatat, yacha abhyas charles doubleu. yanni 1920 aanee 30 chya dashakat keela hota. burshijanya gandanmadhye metz aanee sahkari. tevhapasoon, yadruchchik pruthakkaranasathi itar anek prati-udaharane atishay bhinn pranyanmadhye varnan kelee gelee aahet. tathapi, 2001 paryant pahila punaravalokan pepper prakashit jhaala joou tantotant yaa vishayasathi samarpit hota aanee vishisht prakarananparyant maryadit navhata. lekhakanni sangitale qee bahutek janukshastradnyanna yadruchchik nasalelya pruthakkarananchi mahitee nasate kinwa teey durmil apavad manatat. dnyat prakarananchya vyapak vargikaran vitaranamule, yaa ghatananche mahatva aataparyant qamee lekhale gele aahe assa tyancha yuktivad aahe.
eka gunasutra kinwa gunasutra jodya.
sambandhit vargikaranatil pahilya varnanachya kramane, aapan pratham asha prakaranancha vichar karato jethe keval ekach gunasutra jodee kinwa ekach jodee nasalela gunasutra (atulaneey) prabhavit hoto.
ephids.
namood kelyapramane, 1908 salapasoon varnan kelele yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran heey pahile udaharan mhanje effidsmadhil shukranujanan darmyan ex gunasutrache vartan. heey keetak varshabharat bahutansh kaal keval maadee mhanoon astitvat asatat aanee parthenogenetically punarutpadit karatat.eae. purushanchya sahbhagashivay. konatehi garbhadhan kinwa ardhasutran nahee aanee tyanantarchya pidhya anuvanshikdrushtya samaan aahet. kahee vishisht paristhitinmadhye, mukhytah yazman vanaspatinchya vanaspatichya kalavadhichya shevati divas qamee hott asalyamule, 'eka' pidhi udbhavate jyamadhye narr dekhil upasthit asatat. ardhasutranapramanech mahilanchya sanyogat upasthit asalelya done x gunasutrandware heey sadhya kele jaate aanee tyanchi sankhya 1 paryant qamee kelee jaate, parinami purush (x0) hotat.
yaa eka ubhayalingi pidhinantar, fakt striya punha tayar hotat hii vastusthiti, varr darshavilyapramane, shukranunchya utpattidarmyan, ex gunasutra nehmi kanya peshila niyukt kele jaate jyatoon shukranu tayar hotat. hans risne 1942 madhye ardhasutranachya achook kramache varnan keleh tyanusar, ex gunasutra anafage darmyan spindle upkarananchya dhruvanchya dishene halchal karnyat sahbhagi hott nahee, parantu bhinn dhruvanchya darmyan pasarlela asato. tyanantarchya peshi vibhajanadarmyanahi, gunasutra yaa sthiteet rahate. keval furringchya shevatchya tappyavarach furroring khamb eka bajula sarakato aanee ex gunasutra viruddha, mothya dotter peshila vatap kele jaate. yamulech done shukranu tayar hotat, serve shukranunmadhye tasech andyanmadhye ex gunasutra asate. garbhadhananantar, undy dilee jaatat, jee pudhil vadhichya hangamachya suruvatiparyant tikatat aanee nantar keval maadee (XX) tayar karatat, jee punha parthenogenetically punarutpadit karatat.
phulpakhare.
fulpakharanmadhye, santatiche ling manavansah pranyanmadhye sarvat samanya prakaranapramane nirdharit kele jaat nahee, tarr andyachya rachnedware nirdharit kele jaate. yaa prakarananmadhye, stree ling heterogametic aahe, purush samalingi aahe. asha paristhitit, x aanee y gunasutrambaddal navhe tarr z aanee w gunasutrambaddal bolatat. purushanmadhye done zed gunasutra (zedzed) asatat, mahilanmadhye ektar eka zed aanee eka doubleu gunasutra (zeddablue) kinwa fakt eka zed gunasutra (zed0) asate. zedzed/zed0 prakarache udaharan mhanje taleporiya tubulosa. yaa prajatimadhye, jeey. richard goldsmidtcha sahyogi sealer (1920) yane laingik varsa aanee uujenesis darmyanchya atulaneey zed gunasutrachya vartanacha abhyas keela. tyala aadhalale qee santatitil ling gunottar heey aaichya tapmanavar aanee vayavar avalambun asate. thund tapmanat ("sadharan kholiche tapman sumare 12-16 °"), ardhasutran 1 madhye abhyas kelelya 57 takke prakarananmadhye zed gunasutra dhruviy sharirat pravesh karato aanee bhavishyatil andyachya kendrakanmadhye keval 43 takke. tyanusar, sealerla santatimadhye maadee jaast aadhalalya. yaulat, jevha gunasutrala pradhanyane incubatormadhil andyala 30-37 ° varr vatap kele gele, tevha 62 takke narr santati atirikt hotee. tyachpramane, undy futalyanantar kahee divasanni aanee asha prakare maadee imagochya alpayushyachya shevati sambhog jhaala tevha adhik narr tayar jhaale. (ardhasutran bahutek aksherukanpramanech yethe, metafage I madhye thambate aanee garbhadhananantar purn hott nahee. see. eff. maadee ardhasutran). zedzed/zeddablue prakarchya fulpakharanmadhyehi maadee ardhasutranamadhye yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran aadhalale aahe. danos" aanee "akriya" yaa vanshanchya kahee prajatinmadhye asha maadee aahet jyaa keval maadee santati (zeddablue) nirman karatat. heey varvar pahata doubleu gunasutra nehmich andakoshat pravesh karato, dhruviy peshimadhye nahee yaa vastusthitimule aahe. ardh-pratijaivik gunasutra vitaranacha haah badal aanuvanshik aahe aanee doubleu gunasutrashi jodalela aahe.
burshijanya gandool.
burashiche kutre, jyanche shukranujanan kahee vaishishthye aahet (burshi gnat#genetics chaa saransh), tyancha ullekh aadhich karnyat aala aahe. ardhasutran II madhye, ex gunasutramadhye eka vaishishtya aadhalate. samanyatah ardhasutran II madhye (mitosyspramane), serve gunasutra done chromatidsmadhye vibhagale jaatat jeey tyanna tayar karatat aanee heey done dotter nucleusna vatap kele jaatat. dusarikade, burshijanya granthimadhye, ex gunasutra eka spindle polmadhye akali pravas karato aanee tethe kinwa tithe jaatana fakt vibhajit hoto. tethe tayar jhalelya peshitunach shukranu tayar hoto, tyamule tyat nantar done ex gunasutra asatat aanee garbhadharana jhalyanantar zaigot tyanusar teen asatat. yapaiki eka ex gunasutra prarambhik garbh avasthemadhye kadhoon takale jaate, jyamule samanya stree gunasutra rachana (XX) purvavat hote.
fulanchi zaade.
vanaspatichya eka gunasutranchya yadruchchik nasalelya pruthakkaranatil pahilya prakaranache varnan marcus morton roads yanni 1942 madhye makyamadhye kele hote. jevha gunasutra kra. chey asamanya swaroop asate tevha hii yadruchchikta udbhavate. 10 jyamadhye atirikt vibhag aahe. haah atirikt bhag ardh-pratijaivik profesachya patchitinemadhye eka nock rachana mhanoon olakhala jaau shakato, tyamule gunasutrala keey10 asey sambodhale jaate. heey visheshtah kahee pracheen uttar american bharatiy makyachya prakaranmadhye aadhalate. jarr fakt eka keey10 aanee eka samanya gunasutra 10 asel aanee maadee ardhasutran 1 madhye chromatids vegvegalya lambiche asateel asha prakare crossing-over hott asel, tarr ardhasutran 2 madhye noob kelela atirikt bhag asalela chromated garbhachya pishavit pravesh karanyachi shakyata sumare 70 takke asate aanee tyamule und peshinmadhye pravesh hoto. tyamule haah vibhag varshamadhye uchch staravar jamaa hoto; too eka ardh-sakriy chaal darshavito. itar gunasutranmadhye haah bhag asel, parantu kiman eka keey10 asel tarach heey lagoo hote.
itar kahee vanaspati prajatinmadhye dekhil atirikt gunasutranchya sambandhit sanchayanache varnan kele gele aahe, parantu tyacha tapshilvar abhyas keela gelela nahee. atirikt gunasutranvar, bii gunasutranvar barech abhyas kele jaatat, jeey niyamit gunasutransaha samarupata darshavat naheet aanee loksankhyechya kahee vyaktinmadhyech aadhaltat, mhanje.eae. konatihi aavashyak karye naheet. bii gunasutranchya yadruchchik nasalelya pruthakkaranas pratham 1950 madhye guyulmadhye catchsideware varnan kele gele. yaa zudupyukt sanyugmamadhye, bii gunasutra, jarr bahuvachan asel tarr, ardhasutran i, i darmyanach kshanikpane sangati karat naheet kinwa sangati karat naheet.eae. teey bahutek vela eksaman mhanoon upasthit asatat. tathapi, teey anafage I madhye tyach dhruvavar sthalantarit honyachi shakyata aahe.
catchsidemadhye keval purush ardhasutranacha abhyas keela jaat asalyane, jeey sahasa chaar supic dotter peshinna janm dete, assa nishkarsh kadhala jaau shakat nahee qee yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran varshamadhye sanchay karnyas hatbhar lavte jeey sarvasadharanpane bii gunasutranche vaishishtya aahe. maadee ardhasutranamadhye paristhiti vegali asate, jithe charpaiki teen kanya kendrak ksheen hotat. 1957 madhye, hiroshi kayanone japani lilly prajati lillium calosummadhye maadee ardhasutranamadhye aii bii gunasutrachya vartanache varnan kele, jeey bahutekda keval ekvachanat asate aanee mhanoon eka atulaneey mhanoon astitvat aahe. tyanna aadhalale qee gunasutra bhavishyatil sumare 80 takke und peshinna vatap kele jaate aanee tyanusar 80 takke santatila hastantarit kele jaate.
bhrun pishavichya matru peshitil ardhasutranadarmyan yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran parinami bii gunasutranche sanchay darshavinare kayanoche heey kaam aataparyant ekmev asalyache disate. yaulat, ardhasutranachya aadhi kinwa nantar mitosemadhye dishatmak nondisjunctiondware vanaspatinmadhye bii gunasutranche sanchay anek prakarananmadhye disun aale aahe, jase qee 1960 madhye prathamach crapis panonicamadhil sune frostney pahile. donhi chromatids bahutekda ekach dotter selmadhye (nondisjunction) sampatat aanee heey asha prakare nirdeshit kele jaate qee varshamadhye sanchay parinam hoto. ardhasutranamadhye yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran keval tevhach kele jaau shakate jevha mitosemadhil dishatmak gair-sanyog vagalala jaau shakato. bhoomadhya sagari soffly kelyanchya "plantago cereria" chya babatit heey mothya pramanat nishchit aahe. aanee hypocaris mcculata. aanakhi eka prakaran bahudha flium nodosammadhye aahe.
udatat.
makyapramanech, maadee ardhasutranadarmyan phal mashee "drosophila melanogaster" madhye dekhil yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran hote, jevha samaroop gunasutra vegvegalya lambiche asatat aanee ardhasutran II darmyan crass-ovharcha parinam mhanoon vegvegalya lambichya chromatids gunasutra upasthit asatat. tyanantar, sumare 70 takke sambhavyatesah, lahan chromated andyachya kendrakat pravesh karato. yacha shodh eae. yanni lavala. 1951 madhye novitsky. nantar too lucilia serikata aanee hailemiyamadhyehi sapadala. tyamule mashanmadhye hii eka vyapak ghatana aahe.
drosophila melanogaster" madhye, purush ardhasutranadarmyan yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran dekhil houu shakate. ardhasutran I darmyan laingik gunasutra (x aanee y) jodale jaat naheet tevha heey ghadate. yaa prakaranat, jode naan kelele gunasutra sahasa tyach kanya peshimadhye sampatat. mug jode naan kelele gunasutra sahasa tyach kanya peshimadhye sampatat. tyanusar, santatimadhye anek x0-prakarche narr asatat, parantu aashcharyakarakpane xy-prakarche narr qamee asatat. nantarche kaaran mhanje xy rachana asalelya kanya peshi tyanchya vikasat vyatyay aanatat. dusarikade, x0 purush vandhya asatat. mukhya gosht mhanje tyat samavisht asalele ex gunasutra varshamadhye (myotic drive) samruddha aahe.
melibug.
bii gunasutra heey pranyanchya samrajyatahi samanya aahet. melibagmadhye, uzi noorne 1962 madhye donhi linganmadhil yadruchchik nasalelya pruthakkaranche varnan kele. ujenesismadhye, bii gunasutranche pruthakkaran vartan upasthit bii. ess. chya sankhyevar avalambun asate. jarr done bii. ess. upasthit asateel tarr teey qamee vibhajanadarmyan sangopan karatat (jeey yethe ardhasutran II aahe, kaaran teey samanyatah melibug, scale keetak aanee effidsmadhye asate) aanee samanya paddhatine vegale hotat. tathapi, jarr fakt eka asel tarr done trutiyansh prakarananmadhye too dhruviy sharirat pravesh karato aanee urvarit trutiyansh prakarananmadhyech too andashayat pravesh karato. aanee jarr 3 kinwa 5 bii. ess. upasthit asateel tarr jode nasalele atirikt bii gunasutra tyach prakare vagatat, tarr jodalele samanyatah vegale hotat. ekandarit, mhanoon, yadruchchik nasalele vibhajan karoon, bii gunasutranna varshatoon vagalanyachi stree lingamadhye pravrutti aahe, jee visheshtah jevha fakt eka upasthit asate tevha amalat yete. tathapi, purush lingamadhye bii gunasutra jamaa karnyachya tivra pravruttimule yachya ulat aahe. yache kaaran heey aahe qee yaa prajatimadhye (itar anek melibugs aanee scale kitkanpramanech) ardhasutran utpadananpaiki ardhe niyamitpane ksheen hotat. qamee vibhajanadarmyan (yethe ardhasutran II dekhil), serve bii gunasutra bhavishyatil shukranunchya kendrakala sumare 90 takke sambhavyatesah vatap kele jaatat.
tiddya.
vividh tiddyanmadhye bii gunasutranchya sankramanacha dekhil abhyas keela gela aahe. vanaspatinpramanech, mytotic nondisjunctionmule ardhasutran honyapurvich bii gunasutranchi sankhya vadhu shakate asey aadhalun aale. yaulat, zipora lukov aanee uzi noor yanna 1973 madhye uttar american prajati 'melanoplus femurbrum' madhye augenesismadhye yadruchchik pruthakkaran naan honyache udaharan sapadale. kaaran kadhihi ekapeksha jaast bii gunasutra navhate, yaa prakaranat ardhasutranapurvi sanchay nakarla gela. tathapi, heey gunasutra sumare 80 takke santatimadhye hastantarit kele gele. hevitcha (1976) myermeliotetics mcculatuscha abhyas aanakhi mahitipurn hota. hevitala aadhalale qee jevha undy metafage I (undy ghalanyachi vel) madhye nishchit kelee gelee hotee, tevha bii gunasutra bahutek vibhajan spindlechya aateel ardhya bhagat, mhanje bhavishyatil andyachya kendrakajaval aadhich aadhalale hote. sumare 75 takke prasar darr yachyashi susangat hota. anyatha tiddyanmadhye bii gunasutranche asey yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran kitee vela hote yacha andaj adyap lavala jaau shakat nahee. toldhadichya anek prajatinmadhye bii gunasutra asatat heey kharey aahe. tathapi, keval kahee prakarananmadhye tyanchya sankramanacha abhyas keela gela aahe aanee ardhasutranamadhye yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran heey anek marganpaiki eka aahe jyamadhye naun-mendelian sankraman houu shakate.
toldhadanmadhye samanya asaleli aanakhi eka gunasutra visangati mhanje vaiyaktik gunasutranvaril atirikt vibhag. asey atirikt bhag agadi yadruchchikpane vegale houu shakatat aanee kharey tarr teey asman lambichya samaroop gunasutransaha toldhade hote jyamadhye 1917 madhye carothersna yadruchchik pruthakkaran jhalyache purave pahilyanda midale. yaulat, lopez-leone aanee itar. (1991,1992) toldhadichya done prajatinmadhye yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran asalyache paristhitijanya purave aadhalaleh 'iprepochnemis plorence' madhye, jarr bii gunasutra dekhil asel tarr samanya samaroop gunasutrapeksha stree lingatil atirikt bhag sankramit honyachi shakyata qamee asate. asha prakare, bii gunasutra niyamit gunasutra jodichya sankramanavar prabhav takte, tarr yaa prakaranat dekhil teey mendelian niyamanche palan karate. atirikt vibhagacha qamee jhalela prasar bahudha uujenesis darmyan yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran asalyamule hoto, kaaran zygotschya bhinn mrutyuchi paryayi shakyata vagalali jaau shakate. chorthippas jacobsy", lopez-leone aanee itar. teen vegvegalya gunasutranvar vegvegalya atirikt vibhaganchya sankramanacha abhyas keela. emm5 aanee emm6 gunasutranvaril serve atirikt vibhag samanyatah sankramit hott asale taree, jevha lahan gunasutra ess8 varr atirikt vibhag asato tevha donhi linganmadhye sanchay satatyane hoto. jaree donhi ess8 gunasutranmadhye bhinn aakarache atirikt vibhag asale taree, teey mendelian niyamanche palan karat naheet, parantu lahan vibhag pradhanyane prasarit hoto. punha, uujenesis darmyan yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran uchch sambhavyatesah anuman lavale jaau shakate. yaulat, purush lingadware naun-mendelian sankraman kase hote heey aspasht aahe.
kruntak.
sastan pranyanmadhye yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran 1977 madhye pahile varnan jhaale aanee tyat lakadachya lemingcha samavesh hota. yaa prajatichya kahee loksankhyemadhye 80 takkyanparyant prani maadee aahet. tyach velee, kahee striyanmadhye 'purush' gunasutra rachana xy asate. heey prani jaree vaay gunasutra asale taree, teey mahilanmadhye vikasit hotat, heey x gunasutravaril utparivartanamule aahe. ardhasutranadarmyan, heey utparivartit gunasutra (x *) vaay gunasutrapeksha adhik vela andyachya kendrakat pravesh karate aanee tyamule teey santatimadhye sankramit honyachi shakyata jaast asate. dusare udaharan cyberian collard laming "dichrostonics torquets" madheel bii gunasutrashi sambandhit aahe. yaa prajatichya maadee ardhasutran 1 madhye, jodee naan kelele bii gunasutra bhavishyatil andyachya kendrakala pradhanya dile jaatat aanee asha prakare varshamadhye jamaa hotat.
gharguti undaranchya cyberian loksankhyemadhye, done antarbhavansah gunasutra 1 chaa eka bhinn prakar udbhavato. haah vistarit prakar samanya gunasutra 1 peksha khoop jaast sambhavyata asalelya vishamjaivik mahilandware prasarit keela jaato. heey nishpann jhaale qee, heey donhi ardh-pratijaivik vibhaganmadhye samaroop gunasutra kinwa chromatidschya yadruchchik pruthakkaranadvare ghadate. parinami, vishamjaivik madichya 85 takkyanparyant santatila pravesh miloo shakato. tathapi, crassing prayoganmadhye vaparlele purush dekhil yaa antarbhutinche vahak nastil tarach nantarche prakaran aahe. tyaeivaji jarr yaa antarbhutinche samaroop vahak vaparale gele, tarr i.eae. pratyek shukranula antarbhav prapt jhaala, nantar maadee ardhasutranatil yadruchchikta ulatali geleeh yaa prakaranat, vishamjaivik aaichya santatipaiki keval eka trutiyansh mulanna yaa aaikadoon antarbhav prapt jhaala. andakoshatil ardhasutranavar shukranuncha haah aashcharyakarak prabhav shakya aahe kaaran undaranmadhye, sarvasadharanpane prushthavanshiy pranyanpramanech, garbhadhan hoiparyant maadee ardhasutran metafage II madhye thambate. 
1962 pasoon heey dnyat aahe qee keval eka ex gunasutra (exo) asalelya maadee under supic asatat, parantu tyanchya mulinmadhye pramukhyane done ex gunasutra asatat. heey kase ghadate heey byanch kalapasoon aspasht hote, parantu alikadil abhyasannusar heey varvar pahata yaa vastusthitimule aahe qee ardhasutran i darmyan bhavishyatil andyachya kendrakala atulaneey x gunasutra pradhanyane vatap kele jaate.
samaroop nasalelya gunasutranche samanvit pruthakkaran.
yantrikaritya jodalele atulaneey.
ardhasutranadarmyan done samaroop nasalele gunasutra samanvit paddhatine vegale hotat yache varnan pratham 1909 madhye corius marginatusmadhye karnyat aale hote. tyat, purushanmadhye done bhinn ex gunasutre (x1x20) asatat aanee heey donhi ardhasutran i madhye ekach kanya kendrakala niyukt kele jaatat. itar bagmadhil nantarchya abhyasatoon asey disun aale qee ex gunasutra jodalele aahet aanee tyanche cossegregation varvar pahata yavar aadharit hote. tyamule, paach bhinn ex gunasutra upasthit asoo shakatat aanee bahutek prajatinmadhye vaay gunasutra dekhil asate jeey viruddha spindle polmadhye sthalantarit hote. yantrikaritya jodalelya laingik gunasutranchya asha cossegregation varnan kolee, sutrakrumi, stonefly, austracod, scale keetak aanee bhrunganmadhye dekhil kele gele aahe. 
mofat atulaneey.
kahee ephid prajatinmadhye, purushanmadhye done bhinn ex gunasutra (x1x20) asatat, jeey yantrikdrushtya jodalele nasatat aanee tarihi ardhasutran I darmyan tyach spindle polparyant pohochatat. heey varr varnan kelelya ekach ex gunasutrachya dishatmak pruthakkaran paddhatishi susangat aahe. itar ephid prajatinmadhye, chaar bhinn gunasutra bahudha asha prakare ekatra yetat. vishal khekade kolee "delena karkaroganashakanmadhye" mukt eksaman padarthanchya samoohache varnan dekhil kele gele aahe. tethe, purushanmadhye teen bhinn ex gunasutra asatat jeey itar kolipramanech yantrikdrushtya jodalele nasatat, parantu tarihi tyach spindle polala niyukt kele jaatat.
adhik manoranjak ashee prakarane aahet jyat vividh prajatinche mukt pratispardhi viruddha firki khambanmadhye niyantrit paddhatine vegale hotat. vividh neuroptera, kahee alticini, crickett "anioptera surinamensis" aanee "mesostoma ehrenbergy" (turbelleria) yanchya shukranunmadhye haah ardhasutranachya samanya prakriyecha eka bhag aahe. jaalichya pankhanmadhye bahutek eka x aanee eka y gunasutra asatat. jeey ardhasutranachya darmyan sangopan karat naheet. tathapi, kahee prajatinmadhye anek atulaneey laingik gunasutra asatat aanee atulaneey bii gunasutra jodale jaau shakatat. teey serve susthitit firki khambanpasun vegale hotat. yala "antar vibhajan" mhanatat."anek laingik pratispardhyanshi asalele samaan sambandh kahee pisu bhrunganmadhye dekhil varnan kele gele aahet. crickett "anioptera surinamensis" madhye, teen mukt atulaneey laingik rangdravye (x1x2y) astitvat aahet, jee aadhich spindle dhruvankade sthalantarit hott aahet, tarr autosomes spindle vishuvavruttavar ekatra yetat. verl varmmadhye "mesostoma ehrenbergy" paach gunasutra jodyanpaiki keval teen ardhasutranadarmyan sangopan karatat. asha prakare, teen dvigunit aanee chaar eksaman upasthit aahet aanee dvigunitanchya aadhi eksaman dekhil yethe vegale hotat. nishchit tayareet, eksaman anekada yogyaritya vitarit kele jaat naheet. hiilarii aaa. okalila yache kaaran tevha samajale jevha tine eka jiwant vastumadhye hii prakriya pahili. tyanusar, metafage i, i madheel dhruvandarmyan eksaman pudhe aanee mage sarakatat.eae. jevha dwibhuj bhoomadhyareshevar asatat. sahasa keval ekach atulaneey chaal, aanee dirgh viramanantar (paach teey daha minite) dusari haloo lagate. charahi yogya prakare vitarit hoiparyant heey suru rahate. yanantar anaphase, i.eae. jodidar gunasutranche pruthakkaran.
suruvatila aadhich namood kelelya uttar moll crickett neocurtila hexadactilamadhye dekhil ardhasutranachi thet nirikshane atishay mahitipurn hotee. tethe, "anioptera" pramane, teen ling gunasutra (x1x2y) upasthit aahet, parantu keval x1 eka atulaneey mhanoon upasthit aahe. yaa prakaranat, laingik gunasutranche pruthakkaran dekhil autosomeschya aadhi hote, jyamadhye x2y bivalent aadhich metafage i madhye metafage platemadhun eka spindle polkade asha prakare halavale gele aahe qee vaay gunasutra tyachya jawal sthit aahe, tarr atulaneey x1 dusya dhruvavar sthit aahe. sookshm manipulation prayogandware jyamadhye tyanni spindlemadhil dvigunit kinwa atulaneey, rene camenzind aanee aar halavale. broos niklas (1968) laa aadhalale qee x1 haah sakriy ghatak aahe aanee too dvigunakchya abhimukhata varr avalambun asato. shivay, lekhakanna aadhalale qee doghanmadhye konatahi yantrik sambandh nahee. tathapi, electron sukshmadarshak tapasanimadhye kahee sookshm nalikancha khulasa jhaala, jee spindle fiber dekhil tayar karatat aanee jeey yethe x1 aanee y darmyan eka sookshm sambandh tayar kartana disatat. yaa sukshmanalikanchya sanyugmala yuu. vhee. sookshm kiranansah lakshyit kiranotsarg anekada (sumare eka trutiyansh prakarananmadhye) x1 spindlechya dusya ardhya bhagakade halavanyat parinam hoto. ling gunasutra jethe hote tyaa teen spindle fiberpacky ekachya vikirananehi haach parinam aashcharyakarakpane disun aala, tarr autosomal spindle fiberchya vikiranane konatahi parinam jhaala nahee. dwayne wise aanee itar. haah nishkarsh kadhala qee heey chaar sukshmanalikanche bundle eka 'parasparsanvadi jaale' tayar karatat jeey laingik gunasutranche samanvit pruthakkaran saksham karate, i.eae., x1 chey yogya vatap.
gunasutranche sampoorn sanch.
burshijanya gandool.
burshi granet shukranunmadhye gunasutranche vartan anek babatint atishay asamanya aahe. ardhasutran II chaa tapasheel aadhich varr charcha karnyat aala hota; tathapi, ardhasutran I adhik ullekhaneey aahe. tethe samaroop gunasutranchi anivarya jodee purnapane vagalali jaate aanee tee tyanchya moodanusar ekmekanpasun vegali kelee jaatat-matru kinwa pitru. tyanche pruthakkaran anubhattiche vighatan jhalyanantar lagechach suru hote, metafage vagalale jaate aanee pitrutvache gunasutra eka lahan kanya peshimadhye pravesh karatat, jeey dhruviy avayavanpramanech, uujenesis darmyan nighun jaatat. asha prakare, serve shukranunna keval matechya gunasutrancha laabh midato aanee purush keval keval stree vanshamadhye madhyasth mhanoon kaam karatat. yaa vibhagat spindle upkaranache bandhkam dekhil asamanya aahe. haah dvidhruvi kanaa nahee, tarr keval ekach khamb asalela ardha kanaa aahe. mateche gunasutra yaa dhruvakade jaatat, tarr pityache gunasutra tyapasoon door jaatat.
kahee burshijanya gratsmadhye, niyamit gunasutranvyatirikt, germline-maryadit kinwa ell-gunasutra ("maryadit" pasoon) asatat, jeey keval germalinechya peshinmadhye asatat aanee sharirik peshinmadhun kadhoon takale jaatat. heey shukranunmadhye shukranujanan darmyan matechya niyamit gunasutransaha vegale hotat, asha prakare shukranunmadhye qamee naan karata pravesh karatat. tyanchya sankhyechya yaa duppat honyachya bharpaichi bharpai, garbhachya vikasachya suruvatichya tappyat, kendrakamadhun atirikt ell gunasutra kadhoon taknyat yete, jenekarun nehmi nemke donach urtil.
sacidomidae.
sacidomydemadhye, shukranumadhye keval matechya mool gunasutrancha sanch dekhil asato, tarr ardhasutran I darmyan pitrutvachya gunasutrancha sanch kadhoon takala jaato. punha, samaroop gunasutranchi jodee vagalali jaate, peshi vibhajan ayogya asate aanee keval mateche gunasutra spindle polmadhye jaatat, jyamule dotter selmadhye pravesh hoto, jyatoon ardhasutran II nantar done shukranu baher padatat, tarr dusari dotter seela nasht hote. yavyatirikt, anek rogjantu-maryadit gunasutra aahet, jeey burshijanya gratspramanech, pityachya niyamit gunasutranmadhye rahatat aanee asha prakare nasht hotat.
scale keetak.
bahutek pramanatil kitkanmadhye, narr heey parahaplied asatatah jaree tyanchyat gunasutranche done sanch asale taree, keval matechya moodatil gunasutra sakriy asatat aanee keval teey santatimadhye sankramit hotat. jevha gunasutra atyant ghanroop hotat (vishamvarniy) tevha, pityachya gunasutranche nishkriy hone heey garbhasth avasthechya suruvatichya kalat (blastula) hote. (heey manavanmadhyehi ghadate, jethe stree lingamadhye done ex gunasutranpaiki eka vishamvarniy banate). varshatoon nirmulan anek prakare houu shakate; ardhasutranadarmyan fakt eka udbhavate. yala lechnoid gunasutra pranali mhanatat. scale kitkanmadhye ardhasutri vibhajanacha ulate parinam hoto, varr charcha kelelya effidsmadhye, mhanje ardhasutri vibhajanacha vastavik khand mhanje ardhasutri vibhajanacha dusra bhag. lechnoid modmadhye, gunasutra eka bajula serve matechya gunasutransaha aanee dusya bajula serve pityachya gunasutransaha 'duheri metafage plate' tayar karatat. (samanya babatit, yethe sandhiche niyam aahet.) enafesmadhye, done purn sanch nantar vegale hotat, pratyekane swatache dotter nucleus tayar kele. ardhasutran II yethe peshi vibhajanashi sambandhit naslyamule aanee pahilya vibhajanachya done kanya rachana dekhil punha ekatra yet asalyane, chaar-kendrak peshi akheris parinam karatat (samanyatah scale keetak shukranujanan babatit aahe). tathapi, 4 kendrakanpaiki, matechya gunasutransaha fakt donach nantar shukranunche kendra hotat; itar done adhikadhik ghanroop hotat aanee shevati nasht hotat.
vanaspati.
vanaspati samrajyat, polyploidae khoop samanya aahe. bahutansh bhagasathi, yaa serve eka eka eka eka ekachya bahereel prajati aahet jyamadhye pratyek gunasutrala ardhasutranadarmyan eka samaroop bhagidar aadhalato. parantu visham sankhyene gunasutra sanch asalelya prajati dekhil aahet. heey samanyatah ardhasutran aanee garbhadhanala vagaloon keval apomikik punarutpadan karoo shakatat, kaaran ardhasutranadarmyan dotter nucleusmadhye eksaman yadruchchikpane vitarit kele jaatat. tathapi, kahee vanaspati dnyat aahet jyat eksaman padarth yadruchchikpane vitarit kele jaatat aanee tyamule laingik punarutpadan karoo shakatat. sarvat june udaharan mhanje kutryanche gulab, jyamadhye heey 1922 chya suruvatilach sapadale hote. teey pentaplied aahet, mhanje tyanchyat gunasutranche paach sanch aahet. yapaiki, ardhasutranadarmyan donhi linganmadhye keval done jodidar asatat, tyamule 7 dvigunit aanee 21 eksaman asatat. stree lingamadhye, mea.eae., bhrun pishavichya matru peshimadhye, serve eksaman ghatak ardhasutran 1 madhye avibhajit houn sukshmapatalachya dishene asalelya spindle polmadhye sthalantarit hotat. tyanantar bhrun pishavi andakoshas tayar hott asalyane, tyala asha prakare gunasutranche 4 sampoorn sanch midatat. paragkanat, dusarikade, anek atulaneey ghatak anafage I kinwa II (tathakathit mage padane) madhye rahatat aanee asha prakare nasht hotat. heey gunasutra nasht hone itake jaast aahe qee 1/10 peksha jaast paragkananmadhye ardhasutranadarmyan jodalelya gunasutrancha keval eka haploid sanch asato. aanee keval heey haployed paragkan karyasheel asalyane, sampoorn pentaploid gunasutra sanch garbhadhanaveli punarsanchayit keela jaato. asha prakare, gunasutranchya 5 paiki 3 sanch keval maadee reshedvare sankramit hotat, tarr urvarit done samanyatah vagatat.
leukopogan juniperinus haah tripal asato aanee tyachya 3 gunasutranpaiki ardhasutran I darmyan keval done sangati tayar hotat. tisya sanchatil pratispardhi dishadarshakpane vitarit kele jaatat aanee donhi linganmadhil kutryachya gulabanchya ulat. yethe parag ardhasutran, sambandhit prajatinpramanech (tribus styphily) asman peshi vibhajanashi sambandhit aaheh charpaiki teen kanya kendrake suruvatila ajunahi avibhajit parag matru peshichya eka tokala ekatra yetat aanee tethe teen lahan peshi tayar karatat, jyaa nantar pudhe vikasit hott naheet. asha prakare, ardhasutran utpadananpaiki keval eka paragkanala janm dete aanee ardhasutran i, i madheel atulaneey padarthanchya dishatmak pruthakkaranamule heey bahutek vela haploid asate. eae. yethe paragkan kendrakamadhun eksaman ghatak mage padoon navhe tarr dishatmak vitaranadvare kadhoon takale jaatat. dusarikade, bhrun pishavichya matru peshimadhye, teey serve mothya pramanat vadhalelya sambhavyatesah sukshmajivikechya dishene sthalantar karatat aanee asha prakare pradhanyane andakoshat pravesh karatat. jaree yaa prajatimadhil dishatmak vitaran konatyahi prakare donhi linganmadhye 100% nasale taree parinami anek enuploid gamet tayar hotat, parantu teey uchch prajanankshamatesathi purese prabhavi aahe.
dakshin american god ghas 'andropogan turnets' dekhil tripal aahe aanee ardhasutranadarmyan gunasutrancha eka sanch jodala gelela nasato. anafage I madhye, donhi linganmadhil samanatva vegale ardh-dwigunitanmadhye rahate aanee tyanche swatache tisare kendrak tayar karate, jeey done dotter peshinpaiki eka pesheet samavisht asate. maadee ardhasutranamadhye, hii micropylkade tond karnari kanya peshi aahe. asha prakare, purvi charcha kelelya done vanaspati prajatinchya sahmatine, eksaman sukshmadhruviy bajus dishatmakpane vatap kele jaatat. tathapi, yethe chatushkonchya dusya tokala chalzala tond dett bhrun pishavi tayar hott asalyane, yacha parinam varshatoon atulaneey ghatak kadhoon taknyat hoto. yache nuksan paragkanadvare kele jaate, jyamadhye varvar pahata keval teey paragkan jeey dynucleate mayocytespasoon udbhavtat aanee mhanoon dvigunit asatat, samanyapane vikasit hotat aanee supic hotat.
mahatva.
fernando pardo-emmanuel dii villena aanee carmen sapienza yanni 2001 chya punaravalokanat yaa yadruchchik nasalelya goshtinchya mahattvavar charcha kelee, jee eka gunasutra kinwa gunasutra jodyanchya yadruchchik nasalelya pruthakkaranapurati maryadit hotee. asha ghatananchya (vanaspati, keetak aanee prushthavanshiy pranyanmadhye) vyapak ghatanevarun aanee sambandhit kramachya vividhatevarun, teey assa nishkarsh kadhatat qee spindle polchi karyatmak vishamata-yadruchchik pruthakkaranasathi purvatinpaiki eka-kadachit tattvatah upasthit aahe aanee keval apavadatmak nahee. heey manavanchya babatitahi kharey aahe, jethe robertsonian translocation parinami sanrachanatmakdrushtya asamanya gunasutra upasthit asatat tevha yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran hote. itaratra, utkrantimadhye (prajatikaran) naveen prajatinchya udayamadhye (robertson translocationpramane) sanrachanatmakdrushtya bhinn samaroop gunasutranchya yadruchchik nasalelya pruthakkaranala mahatva asalyacha yuktivad donhi lekhak karatat.
pramukh niyatkalikanmadhye aanee parisanvadanmadhye yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran yabaddal prakashne asoonahi anek dashakanparyant anek nishkarshanchya sambhavya parinamankade durlaksh kele gele.
mool peshi aanee yadruchchik nasalele gunasutra vegale karane.
jevha moolpeshi vibhajit hotat tevha mitosismadhye gunasutranche yadruchchik nasalele pruthakkaran dekhil aadhalate. praudh mool peshi metazoanchya paripakv uutinna tikavoon thevatat. tyanchya karyatil ghat hii uutinchya vruddhatvashi sambandhit aahe. teey done prakare punarutpadan karatat, pratham tyanchi santati asha prakare vegale karel qee uutinmadhye karyatmak yogdan deil, dusare mhanje akhand rahane aanee moolpeshi pool punha bharane. teey vividh peshi tayar karnyat duheri bhoomika bajavtat jyat bhinnatene paripakv ootee asatat, tarr keval moolpeshinchi sankhya tikavoon thevanyasathi swayam-pratikruti dekhil karatat. teey asamamiteey peshi vibhajanadvare heey vichalan sadhya karatat. gunasutranchya yadruchchik nasalelya pruthakkaranasah mytotic vishamata gunasutranchya tyanchya template dii. aine. aii. strandchya vayanusar asman vibhajanamule udbhavate. amar dii. aine. aii. strand gruhitkanusar, asamam moolpeshi vibhajanamadhye yadruchchik nasalele gunasutra pruthakkaran heey eka adviteey mahatva aahe; "navyane sanshleshit" dii. aine. aii. saha gunasutra vahoon nenanya santatimadhye utparivartan honyachi adhik shakyata asate kaaran tee pramukhyane "june dii. aine. aii." asalelya vegalya pratirupachya tulanet jaast pratikanmadhun gelee aahe. parinami, 'naveen dna' vahoon nenari peshi bahudha purvaj peshimadhye bhinn hote aanee 'june dna' vahoon nenari dusari peshi qamee utparivartan badalansah mool peshi mhanoon nutanikaran hote.
aadhipasoon astitvat asalele viruddha navyane nirman jhalele histone 3 heey threonin 3 varr phosphorylationdware vegale kele jaate. etch3tii3pii heey etch3chyyaa vividh poolsney samruddha asalelya bhagini chromatidsla vegale karate jenekarun "junya" etch3 chey asamamiteey pruthakkaran rogjantu mool peshinmadhye samanvayit karata yeil aanee tyaa purush rogjantuchya kriyakalapanna etch3tii3 phosphorylation kadak niyaman aavashyak aahe.