sosaitti oof dhaa soong dainaasti

gaana raajavamshathinte kaalath (aii. dii. 1) chainees samooham raashtreeyavum niyamaparavumaaya parishkaarangal, kanfyooshyanisathinte daarshanika punarujjeevanam, bharanaparamaya aavasyangalkkappuramulla nagarangale vyavasaayathinteyum samudra, nadee vaanijyathinteyum kendrangalaayi vikasippikkal ennivayaal adayaalappeduthiyirunnu. grameena janasamkhya kooduthalum karshakaraayirunnu, chila vettakkar, mathsyathozhilaalikal, saamraajyathva khanikal, uppu chathuppukal ennivayile thozhilaallikal. neremarichu, kadayudamakal, karakaushalathozhilaalikal, sitti gaardukal, vinodasanchaarikal, thozhilaallikal, sambannaraaya vyapaarikal ennivar chainees prabhukkanmarkkoppam kaundiyilum pravishya kendrangalilum thaamasichirunnu-vidyaasambannaraaya pandithanmaarudeyum pandita-udyogastharudeyum oru cheria, varenya samooham.
bhoovudamakalum pareekshayil birudam nediyavarum enna nilayil, kuleenar svayam samoohathinte nethaakkalaayi kanakkakki; audyogika chumathalakalude amithabharamulla kaundi allengil pravishya bureaucratinu avarude sahakaranavum vibhavangalum nedunnathu anivaryamaayirunnu. pala tharatthil, gaana kaalaghattatthile pandita-udyogasthar tang raajavamshathile (618-907) kooduthal prabhukkanmaril ninnu vyathyastharaayirunnu. offeesukalile malsaraarthikal ganyamaayi vardhichathinaal sivil sarvees pareekshakal oru audyogika thasthikayilekkulla niyamanathinulla praadhamika maargamaayi maari. prathyayashaasthraparavum nayaparavumaaya vishayangalil sahamanthrimaarkkidayil idaykkide undaakunna abhiprayavyathyaasangal rashtreeya kalahathin vibhaagangalude vyapanathinum kaaranamaayi, ithu niravadhi kudumbangalkk sivil sarveesil praveshanam nalki.
purathana chainayile kanfyooshyan allengil niyamavaada pandithanmaar-orupakshe avasaanathe shau rajavamsham vare (c. <aii. dii. 1> bii. sii.-samoohathe naalu thozhilukalude (avarohana kramatthil) oru sreniyaayi tharamthirichu "shhii" (pandithanmaar, allengil jentry), "nong" (karshaka karshakar), "gong" (karakaushalathozhilaalikalum karakaushala vidagtharum), "shang" (vyapaarikal). sambannaraaya bhoovudamakalum udyogastharum thangalude makkale kadinamaaya sivil sarvees pareekshakalkk thayyarakkanulla vibhavangal kaivashappeduthiyirunnuve paatt kaalaghattatthil vyapaarikal avarude adhikaarathilum sambathilumaayi palappozhum malsarichirunnu. vaanijyaparamaaya thozhilukalude anthass kuravaanengilum vyapaarikal palappozhum udyogastharumaayi vaanijyaparamaayum raashtreeyamaayum othukoodi. sainikarkk valia bahumanam labhichillengilum udyogastharaayathinu vendi sainyam purogathikku oru maarggavum nalki. gaanasamoohathile sthreekalil ninnu karsanamaaya gaarhika, kudumbaparamaaya kadamakal pratheekshichirunnuvena, oru purushaadhipathya samoohathil avarkk niravadhi saamoohikavum niyamaparavumaaya avakashangal undaayirunnu. vadhukkalude kudumbangal vaagdaanam cheiyunna sthreedhanathinte moolyam vardhichathode sthreekalude swathavakaasham kramena mechappettu.
gaana kaalaghattatthil chainayude prabala mathangalaayirunnu davoyisavum budhamathavum, randaamathethu raajavamshathiludaneelamulla navaa-kanfyooshyanisathinte niravadhi vishwaasangaleyum thathwangaleyum aazhathil swaadheenichuvenkilum budhamatham kadutha kanfyooshyan abhibhaashakarude kadutha vimarsanathinu vidheyamaayi. purathana chainees puranangal, naadodi matham, poorvvika aaradhana ennivayile pazhaya vishwaasangalum dainamdina jeevithathil valia punk vahichu, athmeeya mekhalayile devanmaarilum prethangalilum jeevanullavarkkidayil pravartthikkunnathil vyapakamaaya vishwaasamundu.
shereefukalum anweshakarum audyogika maranananthara udyogastharum kaundi majistrettumaaraayi pravartthikkunna pareeksha thayyarakkiya udyogastharum chernnaanu gaana neethinyaaya samvidaanam paripaalikkunnath. saamoohika dhaarmikatha prolsaahippikkunnathi judicial theerumaanangal edukkunnathil praayogika arivum rekhaamoolamulla niyamavum prayogikkaan soong majistrettumaare prothsaahippichu. aadyakaala forencic shaasthrathile purogathi, thelivukal shekharikkunnathinu vardhichuvarunna oonnal, postmortem reportukalum sakshi saakshyapathrangalum klarkkukal shradhaapoorvvam rekhappeduthunnathu kuttavaalikale shikshikkaan adhikaarikale sahayichu.
nagarajeevitam.
nagaravalarchayum paripalanavum.
saankethika purogathiyum kaarshika viplavavum kaaranam gaana kaalaghattatthile chainees nagarangal lokathile ettavum valia nagarangalilonnayi maari. vadakkan gaanatthinte (960-1127) kaalath thalasthaanavum sarkkaarinte aasthaanavumaayi pravarthicha kaifengil 1021ll ekadesham araa dasalaksham nivaasikalum nagaratthile ombathu niyukta praanthapradeshangalil araa dasalaksham nivaasikalum undaayirunnu. 1100 aayappozhekkum nagara mathilukalkkullile sivilian janasamkhya <aii. dii. 1> aayirunnu; avide nilayurappichirunna sainyam motham janasamkhya 14 lakshamakki. 12-aamm noottaandinte avasaanathil thekkan gaanatthinte (1127-1279) thalasthaanamaaya haangshouvil 400,000-thiladhikam nivaasikalundaayirunnu, pradhaanamaayum grand kanaalinte thekkan terminasile vyapara sthaanam kaaranam, lover yangsiyude "graine baaskat" ennariyappedunnu."13-aamm noottaandil, nagaratthile janasamkhya ekadesham oru dasalaksham aalukalayi uyarnnu, 1270 leeii sensus prakaram 186,330 rajisttar cheytha kudumbangal nagaratthil thaamasikkunnu. padinjaaran sichuwan polulla pradeshangal kaarshikaparamaayi sambannamallengilum, fujian pradeshavum vanthothilulla janasamkhyaa valarchaykku vidheyamaayi; 742 muthal 1208 vareyulla varshangalil rajisttar cheytha kudumbangalude ennathil 1500% vardhanavu sarkkar rekhakal soochippikkunnu. abhivridhi praapichukondirunna kappalnirmmaana vyavasaayavum puthiya khanana soukaryangalum kondu, gaana kaalaghattatthil fujian chainayude saambathika shakthikendramaayi maari. chainayude mahaa thuramukhamaaya kwaanshou sthithicheyyunnathu fujian nagaratthilaayirunnu, 1120 aayappozhekkum nagaratthinte janasamkhya 500,000 ll athiyennu athinte govarnor avakashappettu. ulnaadan fujian nagaramaya jiankang eee samayat valare valuthaayirunnu, ekadesham 200,000 janasamkhyayulla nagaramaayirunnu. roobert hartwell parayunnath 742 muthal 1200 vare vadakkan chainayude janasamkhyaa valarcha thekkukizhakkan bhagavumaayi thaarathamyappeduthumbol 54 sathamaanam maathramaan vardhichathennu parayunnu. ettaam noottaand muthal pathinonnam noottaand vare thekkan chainayile mattu pradesangalumaayi thaarathamyappeduthumbol thaazhnna yangsi thaazhvarayil mithamaaya janasamkhyaa valarcha undaayi. 1170 muthal 1225 vareyulla kaalayalavil thalasthaanathe haangshouvilekku maattiyath janasamkhyaa valarchayil pettennulla naadakeeyamaaya maattam srishtichilla, puthiya pouldermar thaay thadaakathinum kizhakkan chaina kadalinum edayilulla krishiyogyamaaya mikkavarum ellah bhoomikkum bhoomi veendedukkaan anuvadichu, athupole vadakkan sejiang theerathekkulla yangsiyude mukhavum.
chainayude vadakkan thalasthaanavum muun tang thalasthaanamaaya changaanum thammilulla vyathyasangalil chainayude puthuthayi vaanijyavalkkarikkappetta samooham vyakthamaayirunnu. valia sambathinte kendramaaya chaanginte praadhaanyam rashtreeya kendram oru vaanijya samrambhamenna nilayil athinte praadhaanyam marikadannu; tang kaalaghattatthil chainayude saambathika kendramaayirunnu yaangshou. maruvashathu, chainayile oru vaanijya kendram enna nilayil kaifenginte punk athinte rashtreeya punk pole pradhanamaayirunnu. 1063ll curfue nirthalaakkiyathinushesham, kaifengile vipanikal divasathil oro manikkoor thurannirunnu, athesamayam tang yugathile chaangaaninte rund audyogika vipanikalil sandhya muthal karsanamaaya curfue earppeduthi; eee curfue athinte vaanijya saadhyathakale parimithappedutthi. kaifengile kadayudamakalum kachavadakkaarum pularche muthal avarude saadhanangal wilkan thudangi. saamraajyathva paathayude vishalamaaya vazhiyil, prabhaathabhakshana vibhavangal kadakalilum staalukalilum vilkkukayum kachavadakkaar kulimuriyude praveshana kavaadangalil mukham kazhukaan chooduvellam nalkukayum cheythu. vaikunnerathe bhakshanam vare vipanikalile sajeevamaaya pravartthanangal kurayaan thudangiyittilla, athesamayam noodles kadakal ravum pakalum thurannirunnu. gaana kaalaghattatthile aalukal munkaalangale apekshichu tirakkeriya vipanikalkku sameepam sthithi cheiyunna veedukal vaangaan kooduthal utsukaraayirunnu. kaifenginte sambannavum bahunilakalullathumaaya veedukalum pothu nagara vaasasthalangalum muun tang thalasthaanatheppole mathilukalulla komboundukalilum gated vaardukalilum maranjirikkunnathinuparam nagaratthinte theruvukalilaayirunnu sthithicheythirunnathu.
nagaratthinte paripaalanathinu sahayikkukayum avidatthe nivaasikalude kshemam urappakkukayum cheiyunna nayangalum paripaadikalum haangshou munisippal sarkkar nadappaakki. ithrayum valia nagaratthil kramam nilanirthunnathinaayi, ekadesham naalu muthal anchu vare kaavalkkaare nagaratthil niyogichu. tharkkangalum moshanangalum thadayuka, raathriyil theruvukalil patrolling nadatthuka, theepiduttham undaakumbol pothujanagalkk vegathil munnariyipp nalkuka ennivayaayirunnu avarude pradhana chumathalakal. nagarathinullil thee padarunnathu cherukkunnathinaayi nirmmicha 14 fayar steshanukalilekku sarkkar 2,000 sainikare niyogikkukayum nagaratthinte kothalangalkku purathulla fayar steshanukalil 1,200 sainikare vinyasikkukayum cheythu. 100 perr veetham sthiramaayi pravartthikkunna vaachu towerukalulla eee steshanukal verthirichu. muun nagarangaleppole, gaana thalasthaanangalilum theepidutthangal srishtikkunnathinulla vishalavum thurannathumaaya vazhikal undaayirunnu. ennirunnaalum, vyapakamaaya theepiduttham oru nirantharamaaya bheeshaniyaayi thudarnnu. 1137ll theepidittham undaayappol, vaadaka adaykkendathinte aavasyakatha sarkkar nirtthivachu, 108,840 kilogram (120 tonn) arrie paavappettavarkk vitharanam cheythu, mulla, palakakal, tirakk koottal thudangiya vasthukkale sarkkar nikuthiyil ninnu ozhivaakki. haangshouvileyum mattu tirakkeriya nagarangalileyum nivaasikal abhimukeekarikkunna oreyoru prashnam theepidithamaayirunnilla. grameena graamapradeshangale apekshichu valare kooduthal daaridryam vyaapakamaayirunnu, ithu kendra kodathiyilum praadeshika sarkkaarukalilum oru pradhana charchaa vishayamaayi maari. athinte prathyaaghaathangal laghookarikkunnathinaayi, paavappettavarkk daanadharmmam vitharanam cheyyuka; pothu klinikkukal, faarmasikal, retairment homukal enniva sthaapikkuka; paavappettavarude smashaanangal srishtikkuka ennivayulppede niravadhi samrambhangal gaana sarkkar nadappaakki. vaasthavathil, oro bharanaparamaya prefecturilum pavappettavar, prayamaayavar, rogikal, chikilsikkaan kazhiyaathavar ennivare soujanyamaayi paricharikkaavunna pothu aashupathrikal samsthaana sarkkar kaikaaryam cheythirunnu.
oru pattanatthil ninno nagaratthilekku ninno vegathilulla ashayavinimayam nilanirthunnathinaayi, grameena chainayiludaneelam niravadhi mailukal roadukalum noorukanakkinu paalangalum eee gaanam sthaapichu. kendra sarkkar niyanthrikkunna aayirakkanakkin tapal udyogasthare ulkkollunna "hoott-phoott rile" enna perilulla kaaryakshamamaya tapal sevanavum avar nilanirtthi. tapal clarkkukal ayachavayude rekhakal sookshikkukayum tapal steshanukal meyil delivari roottukal samrakshikkunna kantonal offeesarmaarude jeevanakkaare paripalikkukayum cheythu. gaanakaalathinushesham, yuwan rajavamsham tapal samvidaanathe kooduthal sainikavalkkarikkappett oru samghadanayaayi maatti, koriyarukal niyanthrakarude keezhil kaikaaryam cheythu. pathinalam noottaand muthal pathonpathaam noottaand vare eee sambradaayam nilaninnu, padinjaaru ninnu telegraph aadhunika rooad nirmmanavum chainayil avatharippikkappettu.
vinodangalum vinodangalum.
sambannaraaya chainakkarkkaayi vaividhyamaarnna saamoohika clubbukal eee gaana kaalaghattatthil janapriyamaayi. janapriyamaayi oru grandhatthil haangshou nagaratthil maathram vestt lake kavita club, buddha tea sosaitti, physical phitnas club, anglers club, ooklttu club, dhii yang gales corus, dhii exotic phudu club, dhii plaants aandu fruits club, dhii aantik collectors club, dhii hozhs-lovers club, refined music sosaitti ennivayundennu paraamarsikkunnu. oru aupachaarika paripadiyum utsavavum virunninillathe poortthiyaayirunnilla, ithu cattering kambanikale aavashyamaayi vannu.
kaifeng, haangshou, mattu nagarangalile vinoda kwaarttezhsukalil paambu vasheekarikkunnavar, vaal vizhungunnavar, bhagyavaanmaar, akrobaattukal, pavakal, abhinethaakkal, kathaakrithukkal, theyilashaalakal, restorantukal, vaadakaykkedukkunna velakkaar, veppaattikal, paadunna penkuttikal allengil veshyakal enningane sevanam nalkaan kazhiyunna yuvathikal vaagdaanam cheiyunna brokermar enniva ulppedeyulla vinodangal undaayirunnu. karsanamaaya saamoohika daarmikathayum aupachaarikathakalum avaganikkaavunna sthalangalaayirunnu "aanandakendrangal" ennariyappedunna eee vinoda kwartezhs. nagarathinullil, kavaadangalkk sameepamulla kothalangalkku puratthum praanthapradeshangalilum aanandasthalangal sthithicheyyunnu; oronnum sarkkar niyamicha udyogasthanaanu niyanthrichirunnathu. kalikalum vinodangalum oru divasam muzhuvan nadakkunna kaaryamaayirunnu, athesamayam bhakshanashaalakalum gaanarachayithrubhavanangalum raavile rund munny vare thurannirunnu. paarttikalkkayi veenju choodaakkunna veyittarmaarum sthreekalum sevanam nalkumbol, vainhousukalil playboy kudikkunna saadhaaranakkaare "idelermar" ("sianhan") palappozhum sameepikkukayum avar jolikal nadatthaanum panam edukkaanum ayaykkaanum paadunna penkuttikale vilikkaanum vaagdaanam cheyyukayum cheythu.
palappozhum samgeethathodoppam naadakeeyamaaya prakadanangal vipanikalil janapriyamaayirunnu. naadaka skoolukalil avarude abhinaya vaidagdhyam uyarthikkond vasthrangalude tharavum niravum anusarichu abhinethaakkale rankingle verthirichu. azhimathikkaraaya sarkkar udyogasthare apalapikkunna aakshepahasya rekhaachitrangal prathyekichum janapriyamaayirunnu. vediyile abhinethaakkal ellaayppozhum classical chainees bhaashayilaan samsaarichirunnath; thudarnnulla yuwan rajavamsham vare pothuvaayi samsaarikkunna bhasha anukarikkunna praadeshika chainees bhasha naadaka prakadanangalil avatharippikkappettirunna. vidyaasambannamaaya shaasthreeya bhashayil samsarikkaan pariseelanam labhichenkilum, abhinaya samghangal saadhaaranayaayi samoohathile ettavum thaazhnna saamoohika grouppukalilonnil ninnu avarude amgathvam nedi veshyakal. kaifengile aanandasthalathu sthithi cheiyunna ambathu theaterukalil naalennam aayirakkanakkin prekshakare rasippikkaan paryapthamaayirunnu, ithu valia janakkoottathe aakarshikkukayum aduthulla bisinasukal thazhachuvalarukayum cheythu.
nagarangalilum grameena samoohangalilum oorjjaswalamaaya niravadhi pothu uthsavangalum nadannu. ayodhana kalakal pothu vinodathinte uravidamaayirunnu; chainakkar reyilukalillaatha uyarnna plaattfomaaya liie thaayiyil poratta malsarangal nadatthi. gaana raajavamshathinte kaalath savisheshamaaya nagara, gaarhika pravartthanangalude janapreeti vardhichathode, vettayaadal, kuthirasavaari, pooloo thudangiya parambaraagatha outtdoor chainees vinodangalil idivu undaayi. aabhyanthara vinodathinte kaaryatthil, siyaankhi aandu goo polulla board geyimukal ulppede niravadhi vyathyastha pravartthanangal chainakkar aasvadichu. nadakkaan aagrahikkunnavarkkaayi adambara poonthottangal nischayichirunnu, athidhikale rasippikkunnathino boat raceukal samghadippikkunnathino aalukal palappozhum avarude bottukal thadaakathil kondupokaarundaayirunnu.
grameena jeevitam.
pala tharatthil, gaana raajavamshathinte kaalath graamapradesangalile karshakarude jeevitam muun rajavamshangalil jeevichirunnavaykku samanamaayirunnu. aalukal avarude divasangal vayalukalil uzhuthumarikkukayum nadukayum cheythu, avarude kudumbangale paripalikkukayum praadeshika vipanikalil vilakalum saadhanangalum vilkkukayum praadeshika shethrangal sandarshikkukayum vivahangal polulla chadangukal samghadippikkukayum cheythu. praadeshika udyogasthar neridaan nirbandhitharaaya kollayadi kesukal graamapradesangalil nirantharam sambhavichu.
oraalude pradeshatthinte bhooprakrithiyum kaalaavasthayum anusarichu vyathyastha tharam bhoovudamakalum kaalavadhiyum undaayirunnu. vyapara pathakalil ninnu akaleyulla malayora, peripheral pradeshangalil, mikka karshaka karshakarum avarude swantham vayalukal svanthamaakkukayum krishi cheyyukayum cheythu. hunan, sichuwan thudangiya athirthi pradeshangalil sambannamaaya estettukalude udamakal avarude bhoomi krishi cheiyunnathinaayi adimakale shekharichu. ettavum purogamicha pradeshangalil krishiyidangal uzhuthumarikkunna adimakalulla kurachu estettukal maathrame undaayirunnulloo; eee pradeshangal deerghakaalamaayi eerppamulla nelkrishi valarthiyirunnu, athinu krishiyude kendreekritha maanejment aavashyamillaayirunnu. bhoovudamakal eee pradeshangalile vaadakakkaarkku nischitha vaadaka nischayikkunnu, athesamayam swatantra cherukida karshaka kudumbangalkkum svanthamaayi sthalamundu.
thadakangal, chathuppukal, kadal, terroused parvatha charivukal ennivayude arikukalil krishi cheiyunna karshakarkk soong sarkkar nikuthi aanukoolyangal nalki. anakkett saankethikavidyakalile mechappeduthalukalum uyarnna jalasechana vimaanangalilekku vellam uyarthaan cheyin pambukal upayogikkunnathum eee dushkaramaaya pradeshangalil krishi saadhyamaakki. patthaam noottaandil vividha kalavastha mekhalakalilum bhooprakrithiyilum valaraan kazhiyunna neratthe pakamakunna ariyude aamukham noottaandukalaayi krishi cheythirunna ettavum uthppaadanakshamamaaya bhoomiyil ninnu yangsi thaazhvarayudeyum thekkukizhakkan chainayudeyum chuttumulla janavaasamillaatha pradeshangalilekku ganyamaaya valia kudiyettatthinu anuvadichu, avaa athivega vikasanam anubhavichu. chainayil vyapakamaaya arrie krishi thozhil, kaarshika saankethikavidyakalude puthiya pravanathakal aavashyamaayi vannu. nelppalangalil ninnulla phalapradamaaya vilavinu nelthaikal shradhaapoorvvam nattupidippikkal, mathiyaya kalaveduppu, jalanirapp paripaalikkal, vilaveduppinaayi vayalukal vattikkal enniva aavasyamaanu. nelvayalile cheli vellathiloode karshakarkk nagnapaadangaliloode nadendi vannathinaal nadunnathinum kalakal kalayunnathinum palappozhum vrithiketta oru divasam aavashyamaayirunnu. mattu vilakalkkayi, vayalukal uzhuthumarikkunnathinum kashtappeduthunnathinum jala pothukale karadu mrugangalaayi upayogichirunnuvenkilum sariyaaya praayavum misrithavumaaya compostum valavum nirantharam pracharippichirunnu.
saamoohika varggam.
chainees samoohathil taangil ninnu soong raajavamshathilekkulla adisthaana maattangalilonn pandita-udyogastharum pareeksha birudangal nediyavaro sivil sarvees pareekshakalile sthaanaarthikalo ulppedunna pandithochitha varenyavarggathinte parivartthanamaayirunnu. gaanapandita-udyogastharum pareeksha sthaanaarthikalum mikacha vidyaabhyaasamullavarum avarude sheelangalil kuleenar kuravullavarum tang kaalaghattathekkaal kooduthal annamullavarumaayirunnu. kanfyooshyan daarshanika klaasikkukalude yukthi pinthudarnnu, gaanapandita-udyogasthar svayam karuthiyath athyagrahamullah vyaapaarikaleyum adhikara vishappulla sinikareyum avarude sthaanathu nilanirthukayenna utharavaadithamulla uyarnna dhaarmika vyakthikalaayaan. oru birudam nediya vidyaarthiye orikkalum oru audyogika sarkkar thasthikayilekku niyamichillengilum, samoohathil dhaarmikatha uyarthippidikunnathil addeham svayam utharavaadiyaanennu karuthukayum thante samoohathile oru unnatha amgamaayi maarukayum cheythu.
eee puthiya varggathe roopappeduthunna ettavum swaadheenamulla ghadakam imperial pareekshakaliloode sivil sarveesil praveshikkunna pandithochitharaaya udyogaarthikalude malsara swabhaavamaayirunnu. ellah pandita-udyogastharum bhoovudamakalil ninnullavarallenkilum, pramukha bhoovudamakalude puthranmaarkk unnatha vidyaabhyaasathilekku mikacha praveshanam undaayirunnu, angane sarkkar sevanathinaayi pareekshakalil vijayikkanulla kooduthal kazhivu undaayirunnu. gaana kaalayalavil prefectural, surcuted level allengil palas pareekshakal paasayi pandithochitha birudam neduka ennathu niyamanathinu pariganikkunnathil ettavum pradhanappetta munvyavasthayaayirunnu, prathyekichu uyarnna thasthikakalilekku; ithu valare cheria thothil pareeksha sambradaayam nadappaakkiya tang kaalaghattatthil ninnulla vyathiyaanamayirunnu. moonnu thalatthilulla pareekshakaliloode nediya uyarnna birudam sarkkaaril uyarnna padavikal nedaanulla saadhyathaye soochippikkunnu. ithu uyarnna shambalam urappaakkuka mathramalla, vasthradhaaranathaal prakadamaayi verthirichariyappedunna kooduthal saamoohika antass urappakkukayum cheythu. vasthradhaaranam anusarichu pandita-udyogastharude eee sthaapanavalkkaricha vyathyaasathil parambaraagatha pattunool vasthrangal, thoppikal, arakkettukal ennivayude tharavum niravum ulppedunnu, ithu aaa pandita-udyogastharude bharanaparamaya adhikaarathinte thalathe verthirikkunnu. eee karkkashamaaya vasthradhaaranareethi raajavamshathinte thudakkathil prathyekichum nadappaakkappettirunnu, ennirunnaalum prashasthamaaya purple vasthra niram madhya, thaazhnna grade udyogastharude raankukaliloode pathiye vyapikkaan thudangi.
pandita-udyogastharum unnatha-vibhagakkaarum avarude boudhikamaaya pravarthanangaliloode svayam verthirichu. shhein kuvo (<aii. dii. 1>), suu soong (<aii. dii. 2>) thudangiya chilar shaasthram, patanam, rashtrathanthram ennivayude ellah mekhalakalilum pravartthikkumbol, gaanavarggakkaarkk saadhaaranayaayi kavithakal rachikkunnathilum paarayanam cheiyunnathilum, kalaasamaahaarathilum, puraavasthushaasthrathilum ettavum kooduthal thaalpparyamundaayirunnu. ennittum eee parisramam polum oru pandithochithamaaya onnaayi mariyekkaam. aadyakaala likhithathilum puraavasthushaasthrathilum aashayangalkk thudakkamitta kallilum venkalathilum purathana maalinyangalude vishakalana pattika samaaharichath audyogikanum charitrakaaranum kaviyum upanyasakanum aaya oayaang siyu (1007-1072) aayirunnu. jyothishaasthram, ganitham, purathana sangeetha nadapadikal enniva rekhappeduthal ennivayil thante pravartthanangale sahayikkunnathinaayi shhein kuvo puraavastu padanatthinu oru interdisiplinary sameepanam polum sweekarichu. pandithanum audyogikanum charitrakaaranumaaya seng gong (1019-1083) purathana "saan guyo CE" yude avasana adhyayangal veendeduthu, amgeekarikkappetta aadhunika pathippayi maarunna pathipp proof reed editting cheythu. praadeshika charithrangalo gasatteerukalo ezhuthunnathu polulla eee boudhika pravartthanangal samoohathinte nanmaykkaayi anuyojyamaaya audyogika, jentry pandithanmaar upayogikkumennu pratheekshichirunnu. shhein kuvo, suu soong ennivayude kaaryatthil, farmaceuticalsine tharamthirikkunnathum jyothishaasthrathile kodathi jolikaliloode kalandar shaasthram mechappeduthunnathum polulla academic mekhalakalile avarude parisramangal eee aadarshathinu anuyojyamaanu.
boudhikamaaya pravarthanangalkkoppam, maanyar avarude saamoohika padaviyum parishkaranavum adayaalappeduthunna sheelangalum samskaaramulla hobikalum prakadippichu. chainees pandithante naalu kalakalude vipuleekaranamaaya 'ombathu athidhikal' (<unk> <unk>, 'jiuk') aaswadikkuka enna pandita padam chainees seethar kalikkuka, chainees chess kalikkuka, seen buddha dhyanam, mashi (calligraphy, painting), chaaya kudikkuka, alchemy, kavita cholluka, sambhashanam, veenju kudikkuka ennivayude sveekaaryatha nediya jentari vinodangalude oru roopakamaayirunnu. antharleenamaaya rashtreeya, janasamkhyaa, saamoohika saahacharyangal kaaranam, kuleenarude peyint cheytha kalaasrishti vadakku ninnu thekk gaanathilekku naadakeeyamaayi maari. deseeya thaalpparyamulla prasnangal kaikaaryam cheiyunnathil valia shradha pulartthunna vadakkan gaana gentry udyogastharum, praadeshika kaaryangalil adhikam sradhikkaathavar, oru valia pashchaathalatthil muzhukiyirikkunna cheria vyakthikalallathe valia prakrithidrishyangal varaykkaan eshtappettu. dakshinenthyan gaanakaalath, rashtreeya, kudumba, saamoohika aashankakal praadeshika thaalpparyangalumaayi valareyadhikam ulchernnupoyi; eee mattangal dakshinenthyan gaanarachanakalude pradhana shailiyumaayi bandhappettirikkunnu, avide vyakthikalil praadhamika shradha kendreekarichulla cheruthum aduppamullathumaaya ramgangalkku oonnal nalki.
eee pandita-udyogastharude estettukalil thamasikkunna sambanna kudumbangalum-athupole sambannaraaya vyaapaarikalum rajakumaaranmaarum prabhukkanmaarum-palappozhum jolie cheiyunna sevakar, saankethika staaf, vyakthiparamaaya priyappettavar ennivarude oru valia samghathe nilanirtthi. avar aabharana nirmmathaakkal, shilpikal, embroidermaar thudangiya vyakthigatha karakaushalathozhilaalikale niyamichu, athesamayam sevakar veedu vrithiyaakkukayum saadhanangal vaangukayum adukkala dutykalkku hajaraakukayum virunnu, vivahangal, shavasamskaarangal ennivaykkaayi furnitureukal thayyarakkukayum cheythu. sambanna kudumbangal secreterimaar, koppisttukal, avarude makkale padippikkunnathinaayi adthyaapakare niyamikkunnathupolulla saahityapravarthakarkkum aathidheyathvam vahichu. sangeethanjjar, chithrakaaranmaar, kavikal, chess kalikkaar, kathaakrithukkal ennivarude rakshaadhikaarikalum koodiyaayirunnu avar.
sambanna kudumbangal aathidheyathvam vahikkunna eee dasanmarum priyappettavarum thaazhnna varggathile kooduthal bhaagyamulla amgangale prathinidheekarikkunnuvennu charitrakaaranaaya jackwus jernett oonnipparayunnu. mattu thozhilaallikalum thozhilaallikalum, athaayath jalavaahinikkappalukal, naavikasenakal, kachavadakkaar, physiognomistukal, soothseyarmaar ennivar "mikkavarum kaikondu vaayiloode jeevichirunnu."vipaniyile moodappetta chanthakalileyum paalangalude praveshana kavaadangalileyum vinoda bisinesses kathaakrithukkal, pavakal, kushalanmar, akrobaattukal, irukiya trope nadathakkaar, vanyamrugangalude pradarshakar, kanatha beemukalum irumbu bharangalum kallukalum uyarthi kaanikkunnathinaayi thangalude shakti prakadippicha pazhaya sainikar ennivarkku thaazhnna thozhil maargangalum nalki. vaarshika uthsavangalil eee aalukal ettavum mikachathum mathsaraadhishtithavumaaya jolie kandethi. ithinu vipareethamaayi, grameena daridraril bhooribhaagavum karshaka karshakaraanu. ennirunnaalum, graamapradesangalile chilar vettayaadal, malsyabandhanam, vanavalkkaranam, khananam allengil uppu chathuppukalil jolie cheyyuka thudangiya sarkkar vaagdaanam cheiyunna thozhilukal enniva kendreekarichu thozhilukal thiranjedutthu.
avarude kanfyooshyan dhaarmikatha anusarichu, varenyarum samskaramullavarumaaya pandita-udyogasthar samoohathile ettavum unnatha amgangalaayi (saamraajyathva kudumbatthinu sesham maathram randaamathu) svayam kandu. samoohathinu muzhuvan bhakshanam nalkunna avashya sthambhangalayi grameena karshakare kaanapettu; ethra sambannarum shaktharumaayaalum praadeshika allengil praadeshika vyaapaariyekkaal avarkk kooduthal bahumanam nalkappettu. chainayude vishalamaaya bureaucracy nadathiyirunna kanfyooshyan padippicha pandita-audyogika varenyavarggakkaar thangalude samoohathinte vaanijyavaadathodulla vardhichuvarunna thaalparyam dhaarmika thakarchayude adayaalamaayi kandu. ennirunnaalum, mothakkachavadakkaar, shippermar, storeju keypermar, brokermar, travelling salesmanmar, retail shopingukaar, kachavadakkaar, thaazhnna vaanijya adhishtitha thozhilukal ennivayaal sambannamaayirunnu chainees nagarasamooham.
pandita-udyogastharude samshayavum shaktharaaya vyapaarikalodulla avaganana undaayirunnittum, randaamathethu palappozhum pandita varenyavargavumaayi kaikorthu. pandita-udyogasthar palappozhum vyaapaarakaaryangalil earppettirikkukayum aaraan vyapara varggathil pettathennum aaraan ulppedaathathennum avarkk avyakthathayundaakkukayum cheythu. grameena karshakar polum veenju, curry, paper, thunitharangal, mattu saadhanangal ennivayude cherukida ulppaadanathil earppettirunnu. saidhaanthikamaayi oru udyogasthanu samsthaanathu ninnu shambalam nedukayum sevikkukayum cheyyumbol mooladhanam nedunna swakaarya kaaryangalil pankedukkunnathu nirodhichirikkunnu. oru dhaarmika kanfyooshyan enna nilayilulla oraalude prashasthi nasippikkaathirikkaan, pandita-udyogastharkku bisinus idanilakkaariloode pravarthikkendivannu; 955-ll thanne oru rekhaamoolamulla utharavu videsha rajyangalumaayulla swakaarya bisinesses edapaadukalkku idanilakkaare upayogichathayi velippeduthi. gaana sarkkar niravadhi pradhana vyavasaayangal ettedukkukayum karsanamaaya samsthaana kuthakakal adichelppikkukayum cheythathinaal, sarkkar thanne pandita-udyogasthar nadathunna oru valia vaanijya samrambhamaayi pravarthichu. vyapara, karakaushala samghangalumaayi samsthaanathinu poruthendivannu; samsthaanam charakkukal vaangukayum nikuthikal vilayiruthukayum cheiyumbozhellaam athu gild medaavikalumaayi edapedukayum avar audyogika idanilakkaar vazhi nyayamaaya vilayum nyayamaaya vethanavum urappakkukayum cheythu. ennittum oru samghathil cherunnathu shaaktheekaranathino swaathanthryathino ulla oru pettennulla margamaayirunnu; charitrakaaranaaya jackwus gernett prasthaavikkunnu "[samghangal] avarude swaadheenam anubhavikkan anuvadikkaan kazhiyaathathra ennavum vaividyavumullavayaayirunnu."
pandita-udyogastharude kazhchappadil, karakaushalathozhilaalikalum karakaushalathozhilaalikalum samoohathile karshaka karshakarkk thottaduttha nilayilulla avashya thozhilaallikalum parannabhojikalaayi kanakkaakkappedunna vyaapaarikalil ninnum vyaapaarikalil ninnum vyathyastharumaayirunnu. gaana samoohathil aavashyamaaya staanderd sais waterweelukal, vidagdha veelraittukal nirmmicha cheyin pambukal thudangiya ellah charakkukalum nirmmikkukayum nirmmikkukayum cheythath karakaushalathozhilaalikalum karakaushalathozhilaalikalumaanu. aarkkidekttukalum marappanikkaarum nirmmathaakkal pandita-udyogasthareppole athra aadaraneeyaraayirunnillengum, avarude nettangalkku kottaaratthilum pothumekhalayilum vyapakamaaya prashamsa nediya chila vasthuvidyaa enchineeyarmaarum ezhuthukaar undaayirunnu. ithil audyogika lii jee (<aii. dii. 1>) enna pandithanum oduvil kettida, enchiniyaring sarkkar ejansikalile uyarnna sthaanangalilekku sthaanakkayattam labhichayaalum ulppedunnu. kettida nirmmaana kodukaleyum nadapadikramangaleyum kurichulla addehathinte rekhaamoolamulla maanuval huizong chakravarthiyaanu sponsor cheythath (aarr. 1100-1126) eee sarkkar ejansikalkku jolie nalkunnathinum raajyavyaapakamaayi saksharathayulla karakaushalathozhilaalikalum karakaushalathozhilaalikalum prayojanathinaayi vyaapakamaayi achadikkunnathinum vendiyaayirunnu ithu. patthaam noottaandile muun aarkkitekt yuu haavoyude saankethika rachanakalkk 1088 leeii "dream pool upanyasangalil" bahubhasha pandithanum audyogikanumaaya shhein kuvo valia prashamsa nedikkodutthu.
raajasabhayile shandanmaar adikaaram nediyathinte muun episodukal kaaranam, pandita-udyogastharum kanfyooshyan saahithyakkaarum avare samshayathode nokki. ennittum, kottaaratthile aantharika jeevithavumayulla avarude bandhavum uyarnna thalatthilulla sainika kamaandilekkulla avarude pathiv niyamanangalum avarkk ganyamaaya anthass nalki. vijayakaramaya kariyarulla sainika udyogastharkku ganyamaaya anthass nedaan kazhiyumenkilum, gaana samoohathile sainikane pandita-udyogastharum samskaaramulla aalukalum alppam avahelikkunnathinaalaan nokkiyathu. oru chainees pazhanjollilaanu ithu ettavum nannayi prathifalikkunnathu "nalla irumbu nakhangalkk upayogikkunnilla; nalla manushyare pattalakkaaraayi upayogikkunnilla."eee manobhaavathinu niravadhi verukalundaayirunnu. sayudha senayil sainikaraayi svayam chernna palarum grameena karshakaraayirunnu, avaril palarum vaaypa thirichadaykkaan kazhiyaatha uppu vyaapaarathile muun thozhilaallikal aayirunnu. ennirunnaalum, sainika sainikarodulla kuleenarude nilavilulla manobhaavam pradhaanamaayum charitraparamaaya mungaamikalekkurichulla arivil ninnaan uthbhavichath, kaaranam avasaanathe tang rajavamshathileyum anchu raajavamshangalileyum patthu rajyangalileyum (907-960) sainika nethaakkal sivil udyogastharekkaal kooduthal adikaaram sambaadichu, chila kaaryangalil avare maattisthaapichu. sivil kramatthil sainika shaktharude aadhipathyam ozhivakkunnathinaayi gaana chakravarthimaar sivil sarvees pareeksha samvidaanavum sarkkar school samvidaanavum vipuleekarichu.
vadakkan gaanatthinte thudakkathil, chainees udyogasthar sedan kaserakal mrugangalkku pakaram manushyavela upayogikkunnathinu manushyathvarahithamaanennu kanakkakki. eee sanbradaayathinethire vipulamaaya nirodhanamundaayirunnu, udyogasthar rogikaloo praayamaayavaro allaathapaksham kuthirasavaari nadathendathundu. ennirunnaalum, pathinonnam noottaandinte avasaanathode, prathyekichu thekkan gaanatthinte thudakkathil, sedan kaserakalkkethiraaya niyanthranangalum vilakkukalum kurayukayum uyarnna klaas gathaagathatthinte prabalamaaya roopamaayi maarukayum cheythu.
vidyaabhyaasavum sivil sarvees.
sarkkar schoolukalum swakaarya akkaadamikalum thammil.
chainayile aadyathe rajyavyaapaka sarkkar dhanasahaayathodeyulla school samvidaanam edii 3-ll ping chakravarty hahn (bisi 9-edii 5) yude keezhil sthaapithamaayi. vadakkan gaana raajavamshathinte kaalath, muun anchu raajavamshangalude kaalaghattatthil kanatha naashanashtangal sambhavichathin sesham sarkkar kramena oru audyogika school sambradaayam punasthaapichu. pathinonnam noottaandinte madhyathode sarkkar sthaapitha schoolukal swakaarya akkaadamikalude punk marikadannu. thalasthaana nagariyil sthithicheyyunna central schoolukal, guvosijian, thyxue, niravadhi vokkeshanal schoolukal ennivayaayirunnu school sanbradaayathile unnatha vidyaabhyaasathinte unnathiyilullathu. prefectural, kaundi schoolukal punarnirmmikkunnathinulla aadyathe pradhana parishkarana sramam 1040-kalil chansalar phaan songyan (989-1052) aarambhichu. eee samayathinu munbu, prefectural, kaundi schoolukal sthaapikkunnathinu anuvadicha fandukalude bhooribhaagavum swakaarya dhanasahaayathinum kuranja sarkkar dhanasahaayathinum vittukoduthirunnu; aaraadhakarude parishkarana sramangal kuranjathu prefectural skoolukalkkenkilum kooduthal sarkkar dhanasahaayathinte pravanatha aarambhichu. puthiya prefectural, kaundi skoolukalkku dhanasahayam nalkunnathinaayi duranta nivaaranathinum bhakshyavila sthirappeduthunnathinum aadyam anuvadicha fandukal upayogicha huizong chakravarty eee sarkkar schoolukal nannakkaanum punarnirmmikkaanum paripalikkaanum avaganicha udyogastharum vidyaabhyaasa soukaryangalude valia vipuleekaranathinu thudakkamittu. charitrakaaranaaya joonn dablyu. panthrandaam noottaandinte thudakkathil samsthaana school samvidaanathinu dormittarikalil thamasikkunna ekadesham 200,000 vidyaarthikalkku nalkaan kazhiyunna bhoomi undaayirunnuvennu chaaf parayunnu. 1120 muthal 1140 vareyulla jurchen adiniveshangalil schoolukal vyaapakamaayi nasippikkappettathinum, gaanatthinte chakravarty gavosong (aarr. praadeshika kaundi udyogastharude swakaarya dhanasamaaharanathinte sramathaal kaundi schoolukal mothatthil punarnirmmichuvenkilum 1142-ll prefectural schoolukalum 1148-ll kaundi schoolukalum punasthaapikkunnathinaayi 1127-1162) oru utharavu purappeduvichu.
panthrandaam noottaandinte avasaanathode, pareeksha samvidaanatheyum sarkkar nadathunna schoolukaleyum vimarshikkunna niravadhi perr swakaarya akkaadamikale punarujjeevippikkunnathi oru prasthaanam aarambhichu. thekkan gaanatthinte samayat, akkadami samsthaana school sanbradaayathinu praayogikamaaya oru badalaayi maari. ardha-swakaarya allengil sarkkar sponsor cheythavar polum samsthaanathinte swaadheenathil ninnu swathanthraraayi kaanappedukayum avarude adhyaapakarkk valia, rajyavyaapaka prasnangalil thaalpparyamillathaavukayum cheythu. 976ll taisu chakravartthiyude bharanakaalathu sthaapithamaaya yulu academyaanu eee gaana kaalaghattatthil sthaapithamaaya aadyakaala academic sthaapanangalilonnu. 960-976). chainees shaasthranjanum raashtrathanthranjanumaaya shhein kuvo orikkal tang raajavamshathinte kaalath sthaapithamaaya hanlin academyude head chansalaraayirunnu. budhamatham polulla mattu prathyayashaasthrangalude vyabhichaarinikalaya swaadheenangal avarude poornnamaayum kanfyooshyan sanbradaayathinte adhyaapanathe swaadheenikkaruthu enna uracha padippikkalinte adisthaanathilaanu 1111ll sthaapithamaaya navaa-kanfyooshyan donglin akkadami sthaapithamaayathu. budhamathatheyum kanfyooshyan moolyangalil athinte swaadheenatheyum theerchayaayum vimarshicha tang upanyasakanum gadya stailistum kaviyumaaya hahn yuu (768-824) yude rachanakal eee vishwaasam kettukelppichu. gaanatthinte aadya pakuthiyil thekkan taanginte (937-976) vaitt deer groto akkadami upayogashoonyamaayengilum, navaa-kanfyooshyan thathwachinthakanaaya shhu sii (1130-1200) athine punarujjeevippichu.
sarkkar schoolukal svayam vyakthigathamayi valarthunnathine vendathra prolsaahippikkunnil vidyaarthikale laabhavum shambalavum maathram shradhikkunna udyogastharaayi roopappeduthunnuvennum vaadicha niravadhi vimarshakaril oraalaayirunnu shuu sii. gaana kaalaghattatthile ellah saamoohika, rashtreeya thathwachinthakarum prashnatthinte moolakaaranam pareeksha samvidaanamaanennu kuttappedutthiyittilla (marichu niyamanathinteyum thiranjeduppinteyum oru reethi enna nilayil), pakaram saamskaarika varenyavarggamenna nilayil samoohathil utharavaaditham ettedukkunnathil varenyavarggakkaar paraajayappettuvenn oonnipparayunnu. ellah kanfyooshyan vidyaarthikalkkum vidyaabhyaasathinte audyogika aamukhamaayi maarunna kanfyooshyan klaasikkukalude oru parambarayaaya naalu pusthakangalkkum suu sii oonnal nalki, ennittum thudakkathil addehathinte samakaalikar avaa upekshichirunnu. addehathinte maranashesham, naalu pusthakangalekkurichulla addehathinte vyaakhyaanam pandita-udyogastharkkidayil aakarshanam kandethukayum 1241-ll addehathinte rachanakal lizong chakravartthiyude (aarr. 1224-1264).
pareekshakalum unnatha kudumbangalum.
paattinte saamraajyathva pareekshakal prefectural, pravishya, oduvil deseeya (kottaram pareeksha) thalangalil thudarchayaaya birudangal nalki, sthaanaarthikalil oru cheria bhagam maathrame "jinshi" allengil "pandithanmaare avatharippichu". thang kaalaghattathekkaal anchiratti kooduthal "jinshi" gaana kaalaghattatthil sweekarichu, ennittum kooduthal digri udamakal birudatthinte anthass kurachilla. pakaram, moonnu varshathilorikkal nadakkunna pareekshakalil praveshikkaanum malsarikkaanum ithu kooduthal prothsaahippichu. pathinonnam noottaandinte thudakkathil ekadesham 30,000 purushanmaar prefectural pareekshakal ezhuthi, 1100 oode ekadesham 80,000 aayi uyarnnu, oduvil 13-aamm noottaandode vijayikkanulla saadhyatha 333-ll oraalaayappol 400,000 pareeksha ezhuthunnavaraayi.
ennirunnaalum, oru birudam nedunnathile vijayam offeesilekkulla udanadi vazhi urappakkiyilla. thaamgile motham pandita-udyogastharude ennam ekadesham 18,000 aayirunnu, athu gaanathil ekadesham 20,000 aayi maathram vardhichu. chainayile vardhichuvarunna janasamkhyayum eathaandu nischalamaaya sarkkar udyogastharude ennavum kaaranam, sthaanathekku niyamikkappedaatha birudadhaarikal dainamdina samoohathil oru pradhana punk niravetti. avar avarude samudaayangalile praadeshika varenyavargamaayi maari, athesamayam sarkkar bharanadhikaarikal kramam nilanirthunnathinum vividha audyogika chumathalakal niravettunnathinum avare aashrayichu.
boudhika malsarathinte anthareeksham kanfyooshyan pandithanmaare prachodippichu. sambanna kudumbangal thangalude swakaarya librarikalkkaayi kanfyooshyan klaasikkukalum daarshanika kruthikalum ganithashaasthra prabandhangalum farmaceutical rekhakalum buddha soothrangalum mattu soumya saahithyangalum ulppedeyulla pusthakangal aakaamkshayode shekharichu. pathinonnam noottaandode wood block printinginteyum thudarnnu chalikkavunna tharatthilulla printinginteyum vikasanam pusthakangalude uthppaadanam valareyadhikam vardhippikkukayum vidyaabhyaasathinte vyapanathinum pareeksha sthaanaarthikalude vardhichuvarunna ennathinum sambhavana nalkukayum cheythu. kuranja varumaanamullavarkk pusthakangal kooduthal labhyamaayi.
tang raajavamshathekkaal kooduthal krodeekarichathum vasthunishtavumaaya yogyathayude maanadandangalkkanusarichu gaanapandita-udyogastharkku raankukal, bahumathikal, currier niyamanangal enniva nalkiyirunnu. jadjimaarude vanchanaykkum pakshapaathatthinum ethire kaathusookshikkunna pareeksha pepparukalude anjjaathathvam, sthaanaarthiyude calligraphy adisthaanamaakkiyulla vidhikal ozhivakkaan, gradinginu munbu oro paper oru beuro oof koppisttukal veendum pakarthi. pandithochithamaaya birudangal udan thanne offeesilekkulla niyamanam urappaakkiyillenkilum, unnatha bharanaparamaya thasthikakalilekkulla pradhana yogyatha pandithochithamaaya vijayamayirunnu. udyogasthare niyamikkano neekkam cheyyaano kendra sarkkaarin prathyeka adhikaaramundaayirunnu. oro udyogasthanteyum prakadanam avalokanam cheiyunnathinaayi kendra sarkkar thalasthaanathu sookshichirikkunna oru rekha sookshichu.
sivil sarvees samvidaanathil merittokrasiyum kooduthal saamoohika chalanaseshiyum nilaninnirunnuvennu ebray prasthaavikkunnu digri udamakalil pakuthiyolam perkku maathrame sarkkar udyogasthanaayi sevanamanushticha pithaav, muthachan allengil muthumuthachan undaayirunnulloo ennu rekhakal kaanikkunnu. 1947ll edward crack aadyamaayi avatharippicha eee vishakalanam sudo yoshiyukiyum hoow ping-tiyum pinthunachathine, vipuleekritha kudumbatthinte swaadheenam avaganichukondu nerittulla pithruvamshathe maathram pariganichathinu roobert hartwell roobert haim vimarshichu. avarude pithaav palappozhum thaazhnna thalatthilulla staaf sthaanangalilekku niyamichirunnathinaal nilavile udyogastharude puthranmaarkk aadyakaala vidyaabhyaasathinteyum anubhavaparichayathinteyum nettamundaayirunnu. oru mootha sahodaran, ammavan, ammayiyamma, ammaavante ammayiyamma ennivarkku polum bhaviyil adhikaarathil valaraan kazhiyunna vidhathil eee 'samrakshanam' (yinn allengil yinn-buu) adutha bandhukkalkk nalki. gaanakaalatthe kavi suu shhii (1037-1101) "ente makante jananathekkurichu" enna peril oru kavita ezhuthi, sambannavum raashtreeyavumaayi bandhappettathumaya pashchaathalangalil ninnulla kuttikalude avasthaye parihasichukondu thaazhnna nilayilulla thilakkamulla kuttikalekkaal nettamunda
hartwell vadakkan soong raajavamshathe oru sthaapaka varenyavargavum professional varenyavargavumaayi tharamthirikkunnu. patthaam noottaandile vadakkan chainayile sainika govarnarmaareyum muun anchu raajavamshangalile thalasthaana nagara udyogasthareyum kendreekarichaayirunnu sthaapaka varenyavargam. professional varenyavarggathil kaifengilo pravishya thalasthaanangalilo thamasikkunna kudumbangalum, mattu pramukha kudumbangalumaayi parasparam vivaham kazhichavarum, thalamurakalayi uyarnna offeesukalil amgangalumundaayirunnavum, abhimaanakaramaaya vamshaparambara avakaashappedunnavarumaayinu. panthrandaam noottaand vare eee professional varenyavarggam idaykkide gaana sarkkaaril aadhipathyam pulartthi pathinonnam noottaandile chansalarmaaril 18 perr ulppetta chila pramukha kudumbangal, ettavum uyarnna audyogika tasthika. 960 muthal 986 vare shansi, shansi, hebey ennividangalil ninnulla sthaapaka sainika varenyavarggakkaar 46 sathamaanam dhanakaarya offeesukaleyum sthaapaka chakravartthiyude sainika gavarnarshippaaya songshouvil ninnullavar 22 sathamaanavum kaifeng, luyoyang ennividangalil ninnullavar 13 sathamaanavum prathinidheekarichu. sthaapaka elaitt professional elaitt orumichu 90 sathamaanathiladhikam nayaroopeekarana sthaanangal nirachu. ennirunnaalum, 983 nuu sesham, thekk saamraajyamaayi ekeekarikkappettathode, oru ardha-paarambarya professional varenyavargam kramena sthaapaka varenyavargathe maatti. 1086 nuu sesham sthaapaka varenyavargathil oru kudumbatthinum nayaroopeekaranatthilo saambathika sthaanangalilo oru amgavum undaayirunnilla. undaayirunnilla 998num idayil, professional varenyavargathile 35 pradhana kudumbangal nayaroopeekarana offeesukalil amgangalulla kudumbangalil 5 sathamaanam maathrame prathinidheekarichirunnum avar eee sthaanangalil 23 sathamaanam aanupaathikamaayi vahichirunnu. pathinonnam noottaandinte avasaanathode professional varenyavarggakkaar verpiriyaan thudangi. audyogika thozhilukalkk purame niravadhi vyathyastha thozhilukal pinthudarunna niravadhi praadeshika gentry vamshangal avarkk pakaram vannu. pathinonnam noottaandinte avasana pakuthiyil vibhageeya pakshapatha raashtreeyathinte uyarcha moolam professional varenyavargathinte offeesukalile pidivaashiyude falamaanu adhikaarathinte eee maattamenn hartwell prasthaavikkunnu.
vidyaabhyaasa sthaapanangal dakshinenthyayil kendreekarichirunnu fujian, sejiang, jiangsi, hunan ennividangalil 80 muthal 100 sathamaanam vare kaundikalil schoolukal undaayirunnu; vadakku 10 muthal 25 sathamaanam vare mathramaayirunnu. kudumbamo bandhangalo kanakkiledukkaatha sivil sarveesinte bhooribhaagavum pareekshayiloodeyaanu thiranjedutthirunnathenkum thiranjedutthirunnathenkum thekkekkaar sarkkaarile nayaroopeekarana offeesukalil aadhipathyam sthaapichu.
sthaapichu munbu, karadu thayyarakkiya udyogastharil bhooribhaagavum praadeshikamaayi vaividhyamaarnna pashchaathalatthil ninnullavaraayirunnu; pinneedu, karadu thayyarakkunna udyogastharude praadeshika paattenukal kooduthal saadhaaranamaayi. dakshinenthyan gaanatthinte samayat, kendratthil ninnu praadeshika bharanakoodangalilekkulla adhikaaramaattam, puthiya prabhukkanmaarude praadeshika thalpparyangal, praadhamika pareekshakalil prefectural kwaattakal nadappaakkal, vibhageeyamaayi vibhajikkapetta thalasthaanathu vijayakaramaya rashtreeya jeevithathinte anishchithathvangal enniva pala sivil sarveesukaareyum prathyeka pradeshangalil thudaraan anuvadikkunna sthaanangal thiranjedukkaan prerippichathaayi hartwell ezhuthunnu. dakshinenthyan gaanarachayithaav praadeshika vivaha saadhyathakalkk munganana nalkiyathinaal vadakkan gaanatthile professional varenyavargathe nilanirtthiya deerghadoora vivaha sakhyangalude thakarchayumaayi ithu engane bandhappettirikkunnave sthuthigeethangal kaanikkunnu. shenzong chakravartthiyude bharanakalam vare athu undaayirunnilla (aarr. 1068-1085) thekkan chainayile ippol janasaandrathayulla pradeshangal chainayude motham janasamkhyayude vihitathinu aanupaathikamaaya nayaroopeekarana thasthikakalil dhaaraalam udyogasthare nalkaan thudangi. 1125 muthal 1205 vare, kendra sarkkaarinte aarr manthraalayangalil onnil jolie cheythirunnavaril 80 sathamaanavum avarude thaazhnna nilavaaramulla audyogika jeevithathinte bhooribhaagavum aadhunika thekkan anhui, thekkan jiangsu, sejiang, fujian pravishyakal ennivaykkullil chelavazhichu. eee udyogastharellaam eee thekkukizhakkan mekhalayilaanu janichavarum samskarikkappettathvarumaayinu.
sarkkarum raashtreeyavum.
bharanaparamaya unitukal.
sarcuteukal ("luu") ennariyappedunna gaanatthinte ettavum valia rashtreeya vibhagangalkkullil niravadhi prefecturukal ("shau") undaayirunnu, avaa kaundikalude ettavum cheria rashtreeya unitukalaayi ("sian") vibhajikkapettu; gaana kaalayalavil ekadesham 1,230 kaundikal undaayirunnu. aadyakaala vadakkan gaanatthinte samayat praadeshika sarkkar adhikaarathinte pradhana udyogasthanaayirunnu prefect, simhaasanathe anusmarikkaan anuvadicha ettavum thaazhnna praadeshika udyogasthanaayirunnu, praadhamika nikuthi shekharanakkaaranum sivil tharkkangal kaikaaryam cheiyunna thante adhikaaraparidhiyilulla niravadhi majistrettumaarude head majistrettum aayirunnu. vadakkan gaanatthinte avasaanathode, oru prefectinte adikaaraparidhiyil janasamkhyayil vyathyastha anupaathamulla kaundikalude ennathile valarcha, prefectinu kaundikal kaikaaryam cheiyunnathu kooduthal budhimuttaayathinaal, pinneedulla offeesinte praadhaanyam kurachu. madhya bharana yoonittukalude praadhaanyam kramena kurayunnathinoppam, kendra gavanmentil ninnu valia praadeshika bharanakoodangalilekku adikaaram marunnathinoppam, tang muthal ming rajavamshangal vareyulla bharanaparamaya pravanathakalude oru valia thudarchayude bhaagamaayirunnu ithu; randaamathethu avarude pathiv kaaryangalil kendra gavanmentinte swaadheenam kramena kuranju. thekkan gaanathil, praadeshika, sainika unitukale adisthaanamaakki naalu ardha svayambharana praadeshika command samvidaanangal sthaapichu; ithu verpeduthiya sevana sekratteriyattukalude maathrkaye swaadheenichu, athu yuwan (1279-1368), ming (1368-1644), kwing (1644-1912) raajavamshangalude pravishya bharanakoodangalaayi ("sheng") maari. saamraajyathinte mail thekkan kendra gavanmentinte bharana niyanthranam thalasthaanamaaya haangshouvinu sameepam sthithicheyyunna sarcuteukalil kooduthal parimithamaayitheernnu, athesamayam akaleyullavar kooduthal svayambharanaadhikaaram abhyasichu.
paarambarya prefecturukal.
gaanatthinte chakravarthiyaaya taisu thekkupadinjaaran bhaagathekku gaana pradesham vipuleekarichappol addeham naalu sakthamaaya kudumbangale nerittu boshouvile yang, maanshouvinte gaanam, sisouvile tian, nanning dairkhyam. neenda kudumbatthinte pithavaaya long yanyavo, 967-ll gaanatthinte niyanthranathinu keezhadangi, tanikku nanning thante swakaarya swathaayi bharikkamennum paattinte edapedalillaathe thante kudumbatthiloode kaimaramennum urappu nalki. pakaramaayi neenda kudumbam gaanamelaykk adaranjali arppikkendivannu. mattu kudumbangalkkum athe vyavasthakal vaagdaanam cheythu, athu avar sweekarichu. soong raajavamshathinte audyogika prefectureukalil avaa ulppeduthiyittundile, praayogikamaayi, eee kudumbangalum avarude estettukalum soong raajyathinullil swatantra paarambarya rajyangalaayi roopappettu.
975-ll, myooge raajyathe akramikkaan soong jingyanginum long handanginum yaachi nadikku kuruke avare thirichayakkaan soong chakravarty taisong utharavittu. avar pidicheduttha eathu pradeshavum nilanirthaan avare anuvadichu. oru varshathe poraattatthinu sesham avar aaa shramathil vijayichu.
audyogika jeevitam.
prakshubdhamaaya oru lushan kalaapathin sesham (755-763), aarr manthraalayangalude shreniyil uyarnnuvarunna udyogastharude aadyakaala tang currier paatha-ettavum thaazhnna padaviyum ettavum uyarnna udyogastharum nalkia jolikal-aarr manthraalayangalil onnil udyogasthar prathyeka kariyarukal thiranjedukkunna oru samvidaanamaayi maatti. oru lushante kalaapathin sheshamulla pettennulla saambathika prathisandhiye neridaan srishticha uppu, irumbu, fandukal, sensus ennivayude commissionukal, pravartthanaparamaayi vyathyasthamaaya shrenikalil shradha kendreekaricha currier paathakalile eee maattatthinte swaadheenaparamaaya adisthaanamaayirunnu. aadyakaala vadakkan gaana udyogastharude vaividhyamaarnna currier pashchaathalangalum vaidagdhyavum ardhamaakkunnathu udyogasthar, ravanyoo, achaarangal, yuddham, neethi allengil pravrithikal ennee manthraalayangalil onnil maathram pravartthikkaan avarkk prathyeka niyamanam nalkanam ennaanu. chainayude janasamkhya vardhikkukayum praadeshika sambadvyavasthakal kooduthal sankeernamaakukayum cheythathode kendra sarkkaarin saamraajyathinte prathyeka bhagangal kaaryakshamamaayi kaikaaryam cheyyaan kazhinjilla. ithinte falamaayi, 1082-ll kendra bureaucrasiyude punasamghadana, manthraalayangalude oru shreniyiloode munnerunna udyogastharude aadyakaala tang modalinu anukoolamaayi kammeeshanukalude shrenikale illaathaakki, oronninum vyathyastha thalatthilulla anthass undaayirunnu.
niravadhi jeevacharithrangalum shavasamskara likhithangalum nireekshikkunnathil, vadakkan gaana kaalaghattatthile udyogasthar deseeya thalpparyangalil praadhamika shradha prakadippichathaayi sthuthigeethangal prasthaavikkunnu, kaaranam avar praadeshika allengil kendra sarkkar kaaryangalil avarude praadeshika prefecturinteyo kaundiyudeyo nettatthinaayi edapettittilla. eee pravanatha thekke gaanathil vipareethamaayirunnu. thekkan gaanatthile bhooribhaagam kendra sarkkar udyogastharum anhui, jiangsu, sejiang, fujian ennee macro reejiyanil ninnullavarayathinaal, kendra sarkkar nayangalil valia alavil adhock praadeshika thalpparyangal prathinidheekarichirunnave hartwell, himes enniva prasthaavikkunnu.
nikuthi piriv, criminal kesukalkku melnottam vahikkal, shaamavum prakrithi duranthavum neridaanulla sramangal nadappaakkal, idaykkide vipani kaaryangalo pothupravartthanangalo melnottam vahikkal thudangiya bharanathinte aavashyamaaya chumathalakal kaundiyileyum prefectural thalangalileyum thaazhnna grade udyogasthar nirvahichu. chainayile janasamkhyayude valarcha soong gavanmentil administrettarmaaraayi amgeekaricha motham udyogastharude ennathe marikadannathinaal, audyogika thasthikayilekku niyamikkappedaatha vidyaasambannaraaya varenyavargakkaare grameena samoohangalile kaaryangalude supervisormaaraayi chumathalappedutthi. thalasthaanathe unnatha udyogastharude "unnatha vibhaagam" aayirunnu-kottara pareekshayil vijayichavar ulppedunnavar-samoohathe swaadheenikkaanum parishkarikkaanum kazhinjavar.
rashtreeya pakshapaathavum parishkaranavum.
gaana raajavamshathinte kaalathe rashtreeya ramgathe uyarnna sthaanangal samsthaana manthrimaarude vibhaagangalkkidayil pakshapaathatthinteyum kalahathinteyum kuprasidhamaaya paarambaryamaanu avasheshippichathu. thaazhnna nilavaaramulla, madhyanira udyogastharude thozhil jeevitam erekkure surakshithamaayirunnu; kendra bharanakoodatthile uyarnna raankukalil, sinologist charitrakaaranaaya jackwus jernett paranjathupole, "bhaagyathinte thirichuvaravu bhayappedendathaayirunnu". chansalar phaan songyan (989-1052) 1043 num 1045 num idayil niravadhi parishkaarangal avatharippichu, athu kodathiyil yaadhaasthithika gadakathil ninnu chooderiya thirichadi nedi. azhimathikkaaraakaathirikkaanum kaikkooli vaangaathirikkaanum apraapta udyogasthare prerippikkunnathinayi, avarkk uyarnna shambalam nalkikkond recruitment samvidaanathil ninnulla azhimathi illaathaakkaan aaraadhakan purappettu. udyogastharude maryaadakalkkum samskaraparamaaya roopathinum pakaram avarude yogyatha, bharanaparamaya kazhivukal, dhaarmika swabhaavam ennivayil udyogasthare thayyaaraakkunnuvenn urappaakkunna sponsorship paripaadikalum addeham sthaapichu. ennirunnaalum, kodathiyile yaadhaasthithikar avarude currier paathakalum sukhapradamaaya sthaanangalum puthiya maanadandangalaal apakadathilaakkaan aagrahichilla, athinaal parishkaarangal vijayakaramaayi nirthaan avar aninirannu.
aaradhakanil ninnu prachodanam ulkkond pilkkala chansalar wang anshi (1021-1086) 1069-ll adhikaaramettathinusesham niravadhi parishkaarangal nadappaakki. wang oru community adhishtitha niyama nirvvahanavum bavojia samvidaanam ennariyappedunna sivil kramavum prakhyaapichu. samana moolyangal pankidukayum sarkkaarin eluppathil niyantrikkaan kazhiyukayum cheiyunna paraspara utharavaadithamulla saamoohika grouppukalkku anukoolamaayi bhoovudamakaludeyum swakaarya sambathinteyum praadhaanyam kuraykkaan wang anshi shramichu. pandita-udyogasthar avarude saamoohika antassinu avarude sarkkar birudangal kadappettirikkunnathupo, samoohathe muzhuvan kendra sarkkarinodu vishwastharaaya aashritharude oru koottamaayi roopappeduthaan wang aagrahichu. kudiyaanmaarkk vaaypa vaagdaanam cheiyunna bhoovudamakalude nirodhanam ulppede vividha marggangal addeham upayogichu; eee punk sarkkar etteduthu. audyogika nilayilulla sainyathe sahayikkaanum sainyathinulla parimithamaaya samsthaana bajatt chelavukal kuraykkaanum kazhiyunna praadeshika milishyakal wang sthaapichu. gaana sambadvyavasthayude nattellayi thaan kanda grameena karshakarude prayojanathinaayi addeham kuranja nirakkil vaaypakal sthaapichu. grameena karshakaril ninnu eedaakkiya bhoomi nikuthi samsthaana treasuryude khajanaavukal nirachathinaal, kooduthal krithyamaaya vilayiruthalukal shekharikkunnathinaayi bhoomi sarway samvidaanam naveekarikkunnathinaayi wang oru parishkkaranam nadappaakki. mattu vaidagdhyamullavarum arivullavarumaaya niravadhi kanfyooshyan vidyaarthikalkku bharanathil praveshanam nishedhikkappedunnathinte adisthaanathil sivil sarvees pareekshakalile nirbandhitha kavithaavyavastha wang neekkam cheythu. theyila, uppu, veenju ennivayude uthppaadanathinaayi wang sarkkar kuthakakalum sthaapichu. eee padhathikalellaam yaadhaasthithika manthrithala samaprayakkaaril ninnu kanatha vimarsanathinu vidheyamaayi, addehathinte parishkaarangal praadeshika kudumba sambathine nasippichuvennu vishwasicha avar, ithu pareeksha sthaanaarthikal, maanejarmaar, vyapaarikal, bhoovudamakal, samoohathile mattu avashya amgangal ennivarude ulppaadanathinu adithara paakunnu. charitrakaaranaaya pooll jeey. vadakku shaktharaaya sathrukkalaaya liavo padinjaaran siaye neridunnathil samsthaana vibhavangalude abhavam pariharikkunnathinayi abhivridhi praapikkunna sambadvyavasthaye samsthaana niyanthranathilaakkaanulla professional bureaucratic varenyarude avasana shramathe wang parishkaarangal-puthiya nayangal prathinidheekarikkunnuvennu smith ezhuthunnu.
vinsttan dablyu. thaan oru pilkkala rishiyaanennu addeham urappichathil ninnaan vaanginte daarmikamaaya perumattavum parishkaarangalude punaravalokanamo radhakkalo pariganikkanulla kazhivillaaymayum undaayathenn loow vaadikkunnu. anchu klaasikkukalil ulchernna 'vazhi' ('daavo') purathana munimaarkk ariyamaayirunnuvennum oru munimaril ninnu mattonnilekku eathaandu telepathic reethiyil kaimaattam cheyyappettuvennum ennaal athu mensiasil athiyathinu sesham (sii. 372-sii. bii. sii. 289) "davo" yude kaimaattam sweekarikkaan yogyaraaya aarum undaayirunnilla. oraal yadhaarthathil oru rishiyaanenkil deerghakaalamaayi nishkriyanaayirunna "davo" punarujjeevippikkaan kazhiyumennu chilar vishwasichu; navaa-kanfyooshyanistukalude gaanathekkurichu loow ezhuthunnu, "parambaraagatha daarmmikathayumaayum paandithyavumaayum bandhapetta avarude theevravaada nilapad vishadeekarikkunnathu eee svayam-prathichaayayaanu."thante jeevithalakshyathe" "davo" "yude aikyam punasthaapikkuka ennathaayirunnu wang nirvachichathu, kaaranam athu lokathil ninnu vyathichalichittillennum ennaal oronnum pakuthi sathyangal maathram pracharippikkunna kanfyooshyan chinthakalude skoolukalaal vibhajikkappettuvennum addeham vishwasichu". thaan "davo" yude udamayaanennu vishwasicha wang, vimarsanavum pothu abhipraayavum avaganichu swaartharudeyo viddikaludeyo aagrahangale cherukkunnathil yii shiye shouvinte prabhuvineyum pinthudarnnuvennu loow avakaashappedunnu. thante budhishakthiyilum thettillaatha parishkaarangalilum achanjalamaaya urappu mathiyaakunnillenkil, wang saadhyathayulla sakhyakakshikale thedukayum puthiya naya group ennariyappedunna oru sakhyam roopeekarikkukayum cheythu, ithu addehathinethire onnikkaan ariyappedunna rashtreeya athiraalikale dhairyappedutthi. ennittum vibhageeya adikaarasamarangal prathyayashaasthraparamaaya samvaadathil maathram muzhukiyirunnilla; professional varenya vamshaavalikalude sakhyangal maarunnathiloodeyum malsaraarthikalekkaal oraalude udanadi, vipulamaaya bandhatthinaayi labhyamaya offeesukalude kooduthal punk nedaanulla shramangaliloodeyum koottukal swaabhaavikamaayi roopappettu. suu shiyeppolullavarum praayogika adisthaanathil vaanginte vibhaagathe ethirthu; udaaharanathinu, vaanginte uppu kuthaka phalapradamaaya uppu vitharanathe thadassappeduthiyennu soochippikkunna suu yude vimarsanaathmaka kavita.
1076-ll wang raajivaykkukayum 1085-ll athinte rakshaadhikaariyaaya chakravartthiyude maranathode addehathinte neethrthwamillaatha vibhaagam anishchithathvam neridukayum cheythu. charitrakaaranum audyogikavumaaya sima gwanginte (1019-1086) neethrthwathilulla rashtreeya vibhaagam kendra sarkkaarinte niyanthranam ettedukkukayum, yuva chakravarthiyaaya sesonginte (r. 1085-1100). corvy laber sarveesinulla nikuthi pakarakkaaran polulla janakeeya parishkaarangal ulppede vaanginte puthiya nayangal poornnamaayum vipareethamaayirunnu. sessong chakravarty praayapoorthiyaayappol muthasshiye samsthaana shakthiyaayi maatti, addeham vaanginte nayangale anukoolikkukayum 1093 ll veendum parishkaarangal earppeduthukayum cheythu. huisonginte bharanakaalathu parishkarana partic anukoolamaayirunnu (aarr. 1100-1125) yaadhaasthithikar peedippikkappettu-prathyekichu kaii jinginte chansalary samayat (1047-1126). oro rashtreeya vibhaagavum mattonninekkaal nettamundaakkiyathode, ethir vashathe manthrimaare "thadassavaadikal" ennu mudrakuthukayum saamraajyathinte vidoora athirthi pradeshangal bharikkan thalasthaanathinu puratthekku ayaykkukayum cheythu. eee tharatthilulla rashtreeya naadukadatthal raashtreeyamaayi doshakaramaanennu mathramalla, shaareerikamaayum bheeshaniyaakaam. anukoolatha nashtappedunnavare marakamaaya malaria rogam vyaapakamaayirunna aazhathilulla thekk pradeshangal bharikkan ayaykkaam.
kudumbavum lingabhedavum.
kudumba avakashangal, niyamangal, achaarangal.
chainees thathwachinthayaaya confusius (bii. sii. 1) addehathinte shishyanmar pinthudarnna sreniparamaaya saamoohika kramavum hahn chakravarthiyaaya vuu (aarr. 141-87 bc). gaana raajavamshathinte kaalath, muzhuvan chainees samoohavum saidhaanthikamaayi meludyogastharudeyum thaazhekkaarudeyum eee kudumba saamoohika kramatthe maathrkayaakki. sariyaaya dhaarmika perumaattam enthaanennum samoohathile oru thaazhnna angathinodo oraalude kudumbatthinodo edapedumbol oru meludyogasthan engane prathiphalangalo shikshakalo niyanthrikkanamennum kanfyooshyan sidhaantham nirddeshichu. gaana kaalaghattatthil pradhaanamaayum nilanirtthiyirunna tang niyamasamhithayil ithu udaaharanamaayi kaanapedunnu. jernett ezhuthunnu "oru anuyojyamaaya kudumbatthil nilanilkkenda kudumbabandhangal muzhuvan dhaarmika veekshanathinteyum aditharayaayirunnu, niyamam polum, athinte motham ghadanayilum athinte shikshakalude alavilum, avayude krodeekaricha aavishkaaramallaathe mattonnumayirunnilla."
ezhaam noottaandil samaaharicha tang niyamasamhitha prakaram, muthirnnavarude shrenivyavasthaye anusarikkukayo avahelikkukayo cheiyunnavarkku kadinamaaya shikshakal nalkiyirunnu. maathaapithaakkale aakramichavarkku vadhasikshayum mootha sahodarane aakramichavarkku nirbandhitha prasavavum mootha bandhuvine aakramichavarkku beltt adichu sikshayum nalkaam. thante yajamanane konna oru veettujolikkaaran vadhasiksha vidhikkappedaam, athesamayam thante dasane kolappeduthiya oru yajamanane arast cheyyukayum samsthaanathinaayi oru varshathe kadinaprayathnathinu nirbandhikkukayum cheyyum. ennittum muthirnnavarodum meludyogastharodumulla eee aadarav mathethara kanfyooshyan vyavahaarathil mathramalla, poorvvika aaraadhanayekkurichulla chainees vishwaasangal oraalude maathaapithaakkalude vyakthithvathe amoorthavum anyalokavumaaya vyakthikalayi maatti. amoortha thathwangalaal niyanthrikkappedaatha saamoohika bandhangalil mathramalla, oru unnathane samarppichukond labhikkuna samrakshanathilaanu gaanasamooham nirmmikkappettath.
niravadhi pingaamikalulla kudumba aaradhana nilanirthunnathinoppam kooduthal kuttikale uthppaadippikkunnathu kudumbatthinu oru samrakshana paali nalkukayum samoohathil athinte shakti shakthippeduthukayum cheiyunnu enna ashayavum chernnu. kooduthal kuttikal ennathinartham mattu pramukha kudumbangalumaayi vivaahabandhathiloode oru kudumbatthinte adikaaram vipuleekarikkunathinulla mikacha saadhyathakalum sarkkaaril oru kutty oru abhimaanakaramaaya bharanaparamaya padavi vahikkaanulla mikacha saadhyathakalum aanu. kuleena kudumbangal audyogika padavi allengil sambathu, padaviyilekkulla saadhyathakal, vamshavali, pandithochithamaaya prashasthi, marumakkaleyum marumakkaleyum thiranjedukkunnathil praadeshika prashasthi thudangiya maanadandangal upayogichuvennu himes abhipraayappedunnu."audyogika sthaanakkayattam pareeksha birudavum oru meludyogasthante offeesilekkulla shuparshayum pariganichathinaal, bureaucrasiyil ganyamaaya alavil uyarnna rank nediya marumakkalkk bandhutwa samrakshanavum amgangalude abhimaanakaramaaya currier oopshanukalum urappakki. sradheyamaaya kudumbangalil ninnu vannavarodu anthassodeyaanu perumaariyirunnath, vishalamaaya kudumba swaadheenam oru vyakthikk swantham bhagyam surakshithamakkaan mikacha avasaramaan ardhamaakkunnathu. uyarnna vargga kudumbangalkk ore veettil niravadhi thalamurakal thaamasikkunnath saadhaaranamaayathinaal, thante vipuleekritha kudumbatthile amgangalumaayi edapazhakunnathil dhaaraalam anubhavam nediya oralekkaal mikacha reethiyil samoohathinu aarum thayyarayirunnilla. ennirunnaalum, oraalkk avarude samoohathil kooduthal saamoohika bandhangal kettippadukkunnathinna mattullavarumayi ore raktharekha pankidendathilla. paraspara baadhyathakalum pankitta vishwasthathayum urappunalkunna oru chadangil ethra krithrima rakthasahodaranmaareyum sweekarichu ithu cheyyaan kazhiyum.
pradhaanamaayum maattamillaatha tang kaalaghattatthile niyamasamhithayaal niyanthrikkappedunna gaana samoohathil, chainees swathavakaashathil jyeshtaavakasha niyamam nadappaakkiyirunnilla, vaasthavathil athu niyamavirudhamaayirunnu. oru kudumbatthinte thalavan marichappol addehathinte santhathikal swath thulyamaayi vibhajichu. vadakkupadinjaaran mekhalayile sakthamaaya prabhukkavamshangale velluvilikkunnathinum bhoovudamakalude aadipathyamulla oru samoohathinte uyarcha thadayunnathinumaayaanu tang raajavamshathil eee niyamam nadappaakkiyathu. eathaanum thalamurakalkkullil oru audyogika kudumbam mattoru udyogasthane niyogichillenkil, aaa kudumbam sambannavum swaadheenamullathumaayirikkulanu bhaavi saadhyathakal anishchithathvathilaayi. athinaal, kudumba anantharaavakaashathinte niyamaparamaaya prasnangal samoohathinte mattu bhaagangalil aazhathilulla swaadheenam chelutthi.
kudumbatthile oru amgam marichappol kudumbaamgangalkkidayil vyathyastha alavilulla sashtanga namaskaaravum bhakthiyum undaayirunnu, oororutharum marichavarumaayulla bandhuthwathinte aachaaramanusarich vyathyasthamayi perumari. vilaapavelayil thilangunnatho varnnaabhamaayatho aaya vasthradhaaranam paadillaayirunnu, koodaathe marichayaale ashudhikalil ninnu mochippikkunnathinaayi shudheekaranavum vasthrangalum polulla sariyaaya shavasamskara chadangukal acharikkappettu. marichayaale aaraadhikkappedunna poorvvikaril oralaayi acharikkunnathinulla aavashyamaaya nadapadikalilonnaanithu, ithu kudumbatthinte anthass uyarthi. shavasamskaarangal palappozhum chelaveriyathaayirunnu. marichavare evide samskarikkanam ennathinekkurichu oru jiomensarumaayi koodiyaalochikkendivannu, shavasamskara virunnu nalkaan bhakshanadaathaakkale niyamichu, koodaathe shavapettiyum kuthirakaludeyum vandikaludeyum bhrithyanmaarudeyum paper chithrangalodoppam kathikkukayum avaa adutha jeevithathilekku marichavare anugamikkunnathinayi athu eppozhum vaangukayum cheythu. samskarikkanulla uyarnna chelavu kaaranam mikka kudumbangalum vilakuranja shavasamskara reethi thiranjedutthu. poorvvika aaraadhanayilulla vishwaasangal kaaranam kanfyooshyan udyogasthar ithine ethirthu. ethirthu 963lum nirodhanangalode eee sambradaayam nirodhikkan avar shramichu; ennirunnaalum, pavappettavarkkum madhyavargakkarkkum idayil shavasamskaram thudarnnu. panthrandaam noottaandode, oru kudumbatthinte marichavare sarkkar udamasthathayilulla swathil samskarikkaavunna pothu smashaanangal sthaapikkunnathinulla pariharam sarkkar konduvannu.
sthreekal niyamaparavum jeevitashailiyum.
tang raajavamshathile sthreekal gaanarachayamulla sthreekalekkaal lajjakaravum dridanishchayamullavarum sajeevar thaarathamyena kooduthal saamoohika swaathanthryamullavaranum charitrakaaranmaar abhipraayappedunnu. gaana kaalaghattatthile sthreekal saadhaaranayaayi nannayi vidyaabhyaasam nediyavarum kavithakaliloode svayam prakadippikkaan thaalpparyamullavarumaanenne kaanapedunnu, ennirunnaalum kooduthal karuthalum bahumaanavum "nertthathum cheruthum manoharavum" aanennu jernett parayunnu. thekkan gaana kaalaghattatthile oru puthiya pravanathayenna nilayil call bandhippikkunnathinulla thelivukal theerchayaayum eee ashayathe shakthippeduthunnu. blake parayunnathanusarichu eee pravanathayude verukal navaa-kanfyooshyan vishwaasangalil aayirunnu. "ennirunnaalum, kooduthal vyapakamaaya achadi kaaranam rekhakalude ennam kudumbajeevithatheyum gaanarachayikalaya sthreekaleyum kurichulla kooduthal sankeernavum sambannavumaaya yaadhaarthyam velippeduthunnu. ezhuthukadhakaliloodeyum niyama kesukaliloodeyum mattu rekhakaliloodeyum, niravadhi vyathyastha srothassukal kaanikkunnath kudumba theerumaanamedukkalil gaanarachayamulla sthreekalkku ganyamaaya swaadheenamundaayirunnavum chilar saambathikamaayi valare vidagtharaayirunnuvennum. purushanmaar pothumekhalayil aadhipathyam pulartthiyappol sambannaraaya bharyamaar avarude bhooribhaagam samayavum veedinullil ozhivusamaya pravartthanangal aaswadikkaanum veedu kaikaaryam cheyyaanum chelavazhichu. ennirunnaalum, thaazhnna, madhyavarga vanithakal aabhyanthara mekhalayumaayi maathram bandhappettirunnilla. sthreekal taunn sathrangal kaikaaryam cheiyunnathu saadhaaranamaayirunnu, chilar restorantukal kaikaaryam cheiyunnu, karshakarude penmakkal neythu payakal undaakkukayum svanthamaayi vilkkukayum cheiyunnu, midwifeukal kunjungale prasavikkunnu, buddha kanyaasthreekal mathagrandhangalum soothrangalum padikkunnu, vanita nazhsumaar doctormaare sahayikkunnu, sthreekal avarude saambathika kaaryangalil sookshumamaayi nireekshikkunnu. randaamathethinte kaaryatthil, niyamaparamaaya cases rekhakal thangalude anantharavar thangalude swath moshtichuvennu aaropicha kuttikalillaattha vidhavakale vivarikkunnu. bharthaavinte sahodarimaare mattu pramukha kudumbangalilekku vivaham kazhikkaan sahaayikkunnathin sthreekal avarude sthreedhanam edukkunnathinekkurichum niravadhi paraamarsangalundu. jeevithathinte avasana varshathil oru saamraajyathva yaagam nadathumbol chakravartthiyude vasthrangal dharicha gaana raajavamshathile aadyathe chakravarthiyaaya liu (969-1033) aayirunnu sradheyamaaya oru vyakthi.
gaanakaalakhattatthile saambathika samriddhi pala kudumbangaleyum avarude penmakkalkku saambathika surakshayude sthiramaaya jeevitam nalkunnathinaayi ettavum sambannaraaya marumakkale aakarshikkunnathinayi avarude penmakkalkku valia sthreedhanadhanam nalkaan prerippichu. oru makalude sthreedhanathinaayi valia alavil swath anuvadichathinaal, avalude kudumbam swaabhaavikamaayum aanukoolyangal thedi; thalphalamaayi swathinaayulla sthreekalude niyamaparamaaya avakaashavaadangal valareyadhikam mechappettu. chila saahacharyangalil, sahodaranmaarillatha avivahithayaaya makalkko aanmakkalillaatha jeevichirikkunna ammaykko soong loow coode prakaram avalude pithaavinte avibhaajya kudumba swathinte pakuthiyum anantharaavakaashiyaayi labikkum, oru anantharaavakaashiyaaya purushan thante swathinum kudumbatthinum vyakthamaaya pingami avasheshippichillenkil, "liji" ("anantharaavakaashiye datthedukkal") enna prakriyayil swantham anantharaavakaashiye naamanirddesham cheyyuka ennathu addehathinte vidhavayaya bhaaryayude avakashamaayirunnu. maathaapithaakkalude bandhukkal avarude maranashesham oru anantharaavakaashiye niyamichuvenkil, "niyukthanaaya" anantharaavakaashiykk oru jeevashasthraparamaaya makanu estettu anantharaavakaashamaayi labhikkunnathin thulyamaaya avakashamilla; pakaram, enthengilum undengil, maathaapithaakkalude makal (kall) yumayi "juhu" ("vamshanasham sambhavicha kudumbam") swath pankittu.
paraspara sammathamundengil inaye vivaahamochanam cheiyunnathu anuvadaneeyamaayirunnu, athesamayam inayude maranashesham punarvivaham cheiyunnathu gaana kaalayalavil saadhaaranamaayirunnu. ennirunnaalum, punarvivaham cheythukondu thante sadgunangal nashtappedunnathinekkaal vidhava marikkunnathaanu nallathennu abhiprayappetta kanfyooshyan thathwachinthakanaaya cheng yii (1033-1107) yude dhaarmikatha pinthudarnnu gaanaananthara raajavamshangalkk keezhilulla vidavakal palappozhum punarvivaham cheythirunnilla. aadyapankaaliyude maranashesham vidavakal mattoraale punarvivaham cheiyunnathu avasaanathe kwing rajavamsham (1644-1912) vare saadhaaranamaayirunnilla, ennirunnaalum atharam oru nadapadi dhaarmmikamaayi thazhnnathaayi kanakkaakkappettirunnu.
aapekshika saamoohika swaathanthryangalilum niyamaparamaaya avakaashangalilum purogathi undaayirunnittum, sthreekal veedinte chumathalakalil pankedukkumennu pratheekshichirunnu. kuttikale valarthunnathinoppam nool nool, thuni naithal, thayyal vasthrangal, bhakshanam paachakam cheyyal ennivayude utharavaadithavum sthreekalkkaayirunnu. pattunool vilkkunna kudumbangalil ninnulla sthreekal prathyekichum thirakkilaayirunnu, kaaranam avarude chumathalakalil pattunoolppuzhukkale koottikkalartthuka, muricha mulberry maratthinte elakalkku bhakshanam nalkuka, oduvil avar avarude kokkoonukal karakkumennu urappakkaan avaye choodaakkuka enniva ulppedunnu. kudumbakramatthil, veettile prabalayaya sthree ammayiyammayaayirunnu, avarkk avarude aanmakkalude bhaaryamaarkk utharavukalum aanukoolyangalum nalkaan swaathanthryamundaayirunnu. eee purushanmaar palappozhum veettilirunnathinaal ammamaarkk palappozhum avarude valarnnavarum vivahitharumaaya aanmakkalumaayi sakthamaaya bandhamundaayirunnu. oru ammaayiyammaykk marumakkalil ninnu mathiyaya gaarhika sahayam labhikkunnillenkil, sthreekale velakkaarikalaayo velakkaaraayo vaangaan oru maarkkat undaayirunnu. vinodam, bandhangal, pranaya karyangal ennivayil purushanmaare thirakkilakkiya niravadhi professional veshyakalum (veettilekku konduvanna veppaattikalum) undaayirunnu. bhaaryamaarkk asuya avarude sambannaraaya bharthakkanmaar veettilekku konduvanna veppaattikalodu goodaalochanayum saadhaaranamaayirunnu. ennittum eee kaliyil randuperkku kalikkaam. mikka veppaattikaleyum fudal prabhukkanmaarudeyum rajaakkanmaarudeyum kudumbangalil kandethi. oru ezhuthukaaran paranjathupole, athyagrahamullavarum pranayikkunnavarumaya sthreekal undaayirunna haangshou, sooshou thudangiya nagara krameekaranangalil shudhayum elimayullathum bhakthayumulla oru yuvathiyude aadarsham oru paridhivare valachodikkappettu. eee sthreekalude bharthaakkanmaarkku avare thripthippeduthaan kazhiyillennu eee rachayithaav prasthaavichu, athinaal anchu 'pooraka bharthaakkanmaare' sweekarichu; avar oru aashramathinaduthu thaamasichirunnenkil, buddha sanyaasimaarkk polum kooduthal pranayikalkku mathiyakum.
aankuttikale kanfyooshyan akkaadamikalil sarkkar sevanathinte aathyanthika lakshyathinaayi padippichirunnuvenkilum penkuttikale palappozhum avarude sahodaranmaar vaayikkanum ezhuthaanum padippichirunnu. gaanakaalamaakumbozhekkum, sthreekal ezhuthiya kathukaludeyum kavithakaludeyum mattu rekhakaludeyum oru nidhi avasheshichukondu, vyapakamaaya achadiyile purogathi kaaranam uyarnna, vidyaabhyaasamulla klaasukalile kooduthal sthreekalkku vaayikkaan kazhinju. chila sthreekal thangalude aanmakkale oru audyogika schoolilekku ayaykkunnathinu munbu avare padippikkaan mathiyaya vidyaabhyaasam nediyirunnu. udaaharanathinu, raashtrathanthranjanum shaasthranjanumaaya shhein kuvoyude amma avane adisthaana vidyaabhyaasavum mootha sahodaranil ninnu padicha sainika thanthravum padippichu. oru prashastha gaana udyogasthanaaya huu suu yude kochumakalaaya huu ventuvine shhein kuvo oru sradheyamaaya vanita ganithashaasthranjayaayi kanakkaakkiyirunnu, kaaranam ganithashaasthrathile pishakukal avalokanam cheiyunnathinum anweshikkunnathinum vendi shhein idaykkide thante bharthaaviloode huu ventoyumaayi chodyangal ayaykkumaayirunnu. suu shiyude suhruthaayirunna pithaav lii kingshaavo (1084-1151) avarude palappozhum prakshubdhamaaya jeevithathiludaneelam niravadhi kavithakal ezhuthukayum (ithil 100 ennam maathrame athijeevikkunnullu) avarude jeevithakaalathu prashastha kaviyayi maarukayum cheythu. bharthaavinte maranashesham, addehathinte paintingukal, calligraphy, purathana venkala pathrangal ennivayil thulachukayarunnathinekkurur aazhathilulla vaikarikamaaya aagrahamulla kavithakalekkurichum avar dhaaraalam kavithakal ezhuthi
mathavum thathwashaasthravum.
purathana chainees davoism, poorvvika aaradhana, videshathil ninnu uthbhavicha budhamatham ennivayaayirunnu gaana kaalaghattatthile ettavum pradhanappetta mathaparamaya achaarangal. bii. sii. aaram noottaandile thathwachinthakanaaya lavosi ("pazhaya guru") yude "daavodijinginte" padippikkalukalil ninnaan davoism pradhaanamaayum vikasichathu, moonnu shudharaaya devanmaaril oralaayi (daavoyisathinte pradhana devathakal) kanakkaakkappedunnu. onnum randum noottaandukalil yousi, pershyan, kushan missionarymar avatharippicha chainayile budhamatham kramena swabhaavathil kooduthal thaddesheeyamaakukayum vyathyasthamaaya chainees budhamathamaayi parivartthanam cheyyappedukayum cheythu.
palarum budhanteyum pramukha sanyasimaaraaya dahui songavo (1089-1163), wushun shifan (1178-1249) ennivarude padippikkalukal pinthudarnnu. ennirunnaalum, budhamathatthinte mathaparavum daarshanikavumaaya thathwangale vimarshikkunna niravadhi perundaayirunnu. thekkan, vadakkan rajavamshangalil (420-581) ettavum durbalamaayirunnappol thante raajyathinte thaddesheeya vishwaasangalilekku nuzhanjukayariya oru anya paarambaryamaaya budhamathathe chainaykkethiraaya "saapam" ennu vilicha theevranaaya native, pandithanum raashtrathanthranjanumaaya oayaang siyu ithil ulppedunnu. budhamathathekkurichulla tharkkam chilappol kuleenavargathinullil kudumbangalkkullilum polum bhinnippikkunna oru prashnamaayirunnu. udaaharanathinu, charitrakaaranaaya seng gong budhamathathinte vijayathil vilapichu, athine kanfyooshyanisathinte 'rishimaarude vazhiyumayi' malsarikkunna oru prathyayashaasthramaayi kandu, ennittum 1083-ll addehathinte maranashesham muthachan nirmmikkaan sahaayicha oru budhakshethrathil samskarikkappedukayum addehathinte sahodaran seng buvinu kudumbatthinte swakaarya merrit klosttaraayi prakhyapikkaan kazhiyukayum cheythu. thaddesheeya kanfyooshyanisathinte yaadhaasthithika vakthaakkal budhamathathinte padippikkalukalil valareyadhikam samshayaalukkalaayirunnuve palappozhum athil ninnu svayam akannunilkkaan shramichuvenkilum mattullavar swantham kanfyooshyan thathwachinthaye shakthippeduthunnathin budhamatha padippikkalukal upayogichu. pathinonnam noottaandile navaa-kanfyooshyan thathwachinthakarum sahodaranmaraaya cheng havoy cheng yiyum, janapriya budhamatha chinthayile valare sankeernamaaya thathwameemaamsayude ashayangalodu prathikarichukondu, prakrithiyile thathwathinteyum (lii) jeevashakthiyudeyum (kvi) pravarthanatthinu daarshanika vishadeekaranangal thedi. navaa-kanfyooshyan pandithanmaar bodhisathvathil ulkkollunna thyaagathinteyum kshemathinteyum daanadharmangaludeyum mahayana budhamatha aadarshathe kadamedukkaanum shramichu. saamoohikakshemathilum jeevakaarunya pravarthanangalilum orikkal budhamatha aashramathin undaayirunna pradhana punk maattisthaapikkaan shramicha navaa-kanfyooshyanisathe pinthunaykkunnavar eee aadarshathe dhaarmika saarvathrikathayude mathethara dauthyathinu keezhil paavapettavarkkulla sarkkar sponsor cheytha pinthunayude praayogika nadapadikalaayi maatti.
anchaam noottaand muthal patthaam noottaand vare chainayil nadanna niravadhi valia peedanangalkk sesham budhamatham orikkalum poornnamaayum veendedukkaan kazhinjilla, ennirunnaalum chainayile gaanangalil davoism thazhachuvalarnnu. 1127 nuu sesham jiinn raajavamshathinte keezhil vadakkan chainayil, daavoyist thathwachinthakanaaya wang chongyang (1113-1170) kwanshen school sthaapichu. ezhu amarthyar ennariyappedunna vaanginte ezhu shishyanmar chainayiludaneelam valia prashasthi nedi. avaril pramukha daavoyist purohithayaaya sann beyer (c. 1119-1182), daavoyisathil oru vanita roll modalaayi. longmen ("draagan gettu") ennariyappedunna swantham kwanshen daavoyist shaakha sthaapicha kyoo chuji (1148-1227) undaayirunnu. thekkan gaanathil, daavoyist devathakalude bhoumika pravasangalaayi ariyappettirunna parvathapradeshangalil daavoyisathinte aradhana kendrangal janapriyamaayi; praadeshika devathayaayi karuthappedunnavarude bahumaanaartham eee parvathapradeshangalil elaitt kudumbangalkk aaraadhanaalayangal sthaapichittundu. budhamatha purohithanmaar, daavoyist purohithanmaar, vishudhanmaar ennivare apekshichu oraal oru makane prasavikkaanaayi praarthikkumbozho oraal shaareerikamaayi rogabaadhithanaayirikkumbo allengil mosham kaalaavasthaykkum mosham vilaveduppinum sesham maattam aavasyamullappozho aanu kooduthal thirayunnath.
purathana chainees puraanangaludeyum poorvvika aaraadhanayudeyum vashangal ulkkollunna chainees naadodi matham chainayil oru paarambaryamaayi thudarnnu. aathmalokathe aathmaakkalum devanmaarum jeevanullavarude rajyavumaayi pathivayi edapazhakunnuvennu palarum vishwasichirunnu. eee vishayam gaanasaahithyathil janapriyamaayirunnu. jiangsiyil ninnulla oru audyogika kudumbatthile pramukha amgamaaya hong mye (1123-1202), "shrothaavinte record" enna peril oru janapriya pusthakam ezhuthi, athil athmeeya mekhalayekkurichum aalukalude ashayavinimayathekkurichum niravadhi kadhakalundaayirunnu. thangalude dainamdina jeevithathil edapedunna vividha devathakalum aathmaakkalum thammilaan thangalude dainamdina nirbhaagyangalum anugrahangalum undaayathenn chainayile aalukal vishwasichu. eee devathakalil budhamathathinteyum daavoyisathinteyum deseeyamaayi amgeekarikkappetta devathakalum prathyeka bhoomishaasthraparamaaya sthalangalil ninnulla praadeshika devanmaarum bhoothangalum ulppedunnu. deerghakaalamaayi marichupoya oru bandhuvinodu oraalkk athrupthiyundengil, asamthripthanaaya poorvvikan prakrithidatha rogangalum rogangalum undaakkumenn aaropikkappedunnu. poorvvikarkkaayi baliyarppikkaavunna yagangal thattiyedukkaan kazhivulla dushtathmaakkalilum dushtathmaakkalilum aalukal vishwasichirunnu-saaraamshathil iva athmeeya saamraajyathinte bheeshanippeduthalukalaayinu. jeevanullavarkk ulla athe vikaarangalum prachodanangalum athmaavinum devanmaarkkum undennu chainakkar vishwasichirunnu. chila sandarbhangalil oru praadeshika pattanatthinteyo nagaratthinteyo pradhana devata oru munisippal udyogasthanaayi pravarthikkunnuvennu vishwasikkappedunnu, avarkk aathmaakkale engane shikshikkanamenno prathiphalam nalkanamenno ulla utharavukal sweekarikkaanum ayaykkaanum kazhiyum. thangalude nagaram thee polulla duranthangalil ninnu rakshappedumenna pratheekshayil nagaravaasikal thangalude daivangalkku niravadhi yagangal arppichu. ennirunnaalum, praadeshika devanmaare preenippikkendathinte aavasyakatha saadhaaranakkaarkku mathramalla anubhavappettath. thalasthaanathu ninnu saamraajyathinte vividha sthalangalilekku ayacha majistrettumaarum udyogastharum palappozhum thante adhikaarathe praadeshika devata pinthunaykkunnuvennu pradeshavaasikal urappakendivannu.
neethiyum niyamavum.
kodathiyil judicial kesukal kelkkuka ennathaayirunnu pandita-udyogastharude kadamakalilonnu. ennirunnaalum, kaundi majistrettum gaana kaalaghattatthile prefectumarum rekhaamoolamulla niyamangalekkaal kooduthal ariyumennu pratheekshichirunnu. samoohathil dhaarmikatha prolsaahippikkumennum dushtanmaare shikshikkumennum kodathi kesil eathu kakshiyaanu yadhaarthathil thettu cheythathennu avarude shikshayil shradhaapoorvvam thirichariyumennum avar pratheekshichirunnu. palappozhum kodathiyil vanna ettavum gurutharamaaya kesukalaayirunnu ithu; kodathi thayyaareduppukal chelaveriyathukondu niyamaparamaaya tharkkangal svakaaryamaayi theerppaakkaan mikka aalukalum aagrahichu. purathana chainayil, kodathiyil prathikal poornnamaayum niraparaadhikalaayi kaanappedathe theliyikkappedunnathuvar, kuttaaropithaneppolum jadji samshayathodeyaanu kandathu. prathikal udan thanne vrithiketta jayilukalil paarppikkukayum suhruthukkaludeyum bandhukkaludeyum parishramathaal maathram poshippikkappedukayum cheythu. ennittum kuttaaropithanu oru vila nalkendivannu avarude cases kelkkaan, "manyamaaya oru kaaryamaayi" judjic oru vaagdaanam nalkendathundennu jernett prasthaavikkunnu."
arast aavasyamulla tharkkangal mikkavarum ozhivaakkukayo svakaaryamaayi pariharikkukayo cheythathayi jernett choondikkaanikkunnu. ennittum charitrakaariyaaya patricia ebre prasthaavikkunnath, paatt kaalaghattatthile niyamaparamaaya kesukal kodathikale swathavakaashathecholli ayalkkaarum bandhukkalum parasparam cases cheiyunna kesukalil muzhukiyirikkunnathayi chithreekarichirikkunnu ennaanu. gaanarachayithavum audyogika yuvan kaii (1140-1190) ithinethire aavarthichu munnariyipp nalkukayum thante kaalathe mattu udyogasthareppole thekkan gaana samoohathil kollakkaarude vardhanavinekkurichum svayam samrakshikkendathinte aavashyakathayekkurichum thante vaayanakkaarkk munnariyipp nalkukayum cheythu.
prathikaaravum jagrathayum.
prashastha gadya stailist koodiyaaya chansalar wang anshi pathinonnam noottaandil samsthaana neethiyude kaaryangalil oru kruthi ezhuthi. swakaarya thalpparyangal, prathyekichu jaagrathayode neethi thedunnavarude, mikkavarum ellah saahacharyangalilum orikkalum pothuneetiye marikadakkukayo edapedukayo cheyyaruthennu wang ezhuthi. purathana "classic achaarangal", "shouvinte achaarangal", "vasanthakala, sharatkaala dinavrithangalude" "gongyang" vyaakhyaanangalil, oraalude kudumbathinethiraaya akramasakthamaaya kuttakrithyathinu prathikaram thedunnathu dhaarmikavum pithruparamaayathumaaya kadamayayi kanakkaakkappedunnu, ennirunnaalum "shouyude achaarangalil" prakopippikkukayum prathikaram cheyyukayum cheiyunna kakshikal thammilulla samsthaana edapedal oonnipparayunnu. purathana kaalathekkaal valare sthirathayullathum neethi nalkaan prapthavumaaya chainayile gaanangalude avasthayaanu chainayenn wang vishwasichirunnu. classic avenger vuu sixuvine (526-484 bisi) wang prashamsichuvenkilum, rashtreeya prathyaaghaathangalil kaalaharanapetta vuyude pravrithikal gaanakalangalil aavarthichirunnenkil wang "bheethiyundaakkumaayirunnu" ennu maikkal dalby ezhuthunnu."vaangine sambandhichidatholam, gurutharamaaya criminal pravrithi cheytha oraalodu vyakthiparamayi prathikaram cheiyunna oru iraye sarkkarum athinte niyamavyavasthayum pravartthanarahithamo araajakathvamo illaathaakumbol maathrame sveekaaryamaayi kanakkaakkoo. addehathinte kazhchappadil, oru niraparadhiye orikkalum vadhikkatha oru sarkkaarinte mukhamudra shariyaayi pravartthikkunna oru sarkkaraayirunnu. ithu sambhavikkukayaanenkil, paraathikal shariyaayi pariharikkunnathuvare nirantharam vardhichuvarunna sreniparamaaya padavi sambandhichu avanteyo avalinteyo dukhitharaaya bandhukkalum suhruthukkalum koottaalikalum udyogastharkku parati nalkanam. atharamoru cases chakravartthiyude aduthekku-avasaanatheyum avasaanatheyum jadji-ethi, cases ketta muun udyogasthar avarude theerumaanangalil thettu cheythuvennu addeham theerumaanikkukayaanenkil, athanusarichu addeham aaa udyogasthareyum yadhaartha kuttakkaranaaya kakshiyeyum sikshikkum. yadhaarthathil kuttakkaranaaya oru kakshiyodu mapp nalkunnathil chakravarty polum chila kaaranangalal thettu cheythittundenkil, neethiyude abhaavathinu eaka vishadeekaranam swarggathinte ichhaashakthiyum athinte vidhiyum aanennu wang nyaayeekarichu. eee kaaryatthil swarggathinte ishtathinu keezhadanguka sariyaaya kaaryamaanennu wang urappichu, athesamayam kollapetta oru pithavineyo maathavineyo aachaaraparamaaya yaagangaliloode bahumanikkaan kazhiyum.
kodathi kesukal.
pala gaanakodathi kesukalum samoohathil dhaarmikatha prolsaahippikkunnathi udaaharanangalaayi varthikkunnu. tounmentineyum karshakareyum kurichulla thante arivum dharana upayogichu, kodathi paan 52, lii 7 ennu mudrakuthiya rund mathsyathozhilaalikalude kaaryatthil oru gaana jadji eee vidhi purappeduvichu
malsyam vilkkunnathile malsaram aakramanathinu kaaranamaayi
oru prakhyapanam nagaratthile vipanikalil vaanijyathil ninnulla labham yaathrakkaarude kuthakayaanu, athesamayam grameena gramangalil ninnulla cheria aalukalkk avarude saadhanangal wilkan anuvaadamilla. eee pazhaya naadukalude vayalukalude ulppannamallaatha oru vasthramo bhakshanamo polum nammude aavasyamalla. purushanmaar kalappa sthreekal neythum cheiyunnu. avarude advaanam angeyattam sheenakaramaanu, ennittum athil ninnu avarkk labhikkunnath valare kuravaanu, athesamayam eee alasanaya nishkriyarkk palamadangu palisha thirike labhikkunnu. itharakkaar pathinaayirakkanakkin aalukalayi othuchernnu samghangal roopeekarikkunnu. saadhanangal kaivittupokunnathinu munbu thanne grameenar maarkkattil saadhanangal wilkan varumbol, eee nishkriyarude aalkkoottam ethi avare akramikkukayum oru samghamaayi avare akramikkukayum cheiyunnu. eee nishkriyar ithine "community kudumbatthinte boxing" ennu vilikkunnu."avar prakopanaparamaayi pravartthikkaan ottum bhayappedunnilla. ithu ithupoleyaanennu njaan thanne kandittundu. avarkk aavasyamulla bhakshyavasthukkaleyum avar dharikkunna vasthrangaleyum kurichu avar chinthichittille? vipanikalile eee aalukalaano ithu nirmmikkunnath? atho grameena karshakaraano ithu uthppaadippikkunnathu? eee saadhanangal uthppaadippikkunnathu karshakaraano graamangalaano ennu avar thirichariyumbol, avarkk engane avare deshyathode nokkaan kazhiyum? avare engane bheeshanippeduthaanum apamanikkaanum kazhiyum? ippol, paan ambathirandum lii seven mathsyathozhilaalikalaanu, pakshe paan nagaratthil thaamasikkunnu, malsyabandhanamaanu addehathinte upajeevanamaargam. tirakkeriya samayangalil malsyabandhanam nadathunna oru karshakanaan lii seven. varshavasaanam ambathirandu maasathil malsyam valarthaanulla advaanam illaathe, pakshe malsyam vilkkunnathiloode maathram sambaadikkunna laabhamund. avan liye verukkukayum malsyavipaniyilvechu avanodu yuddham cheyyukayum cheythu. addehathinte manushyathvathinte abhavam angeyattam theevramaanu! lii seven oru graamapradesamaanu. chanthayil chuttikkarangunna yaathrakkaarude sayudha loyattarmaarumaayi addehathinu engane poraadaan kazhiyum? pooraattatthil parikkukalonnum sambhavichillengilum, nammal ippozhum chila cheria shikshakal nalkanam. ambathirandu paan kanatha vadi upayogichu pathinanju adii adikkanam. koodaathe, lii seven, oru grama karshakanaanengilum, iruvarum dhaarshtyathode tharkkikkumbozhum addeham vaakkukond adhikshepikkukayaayirunnu. addeham vyakthamayum lalithavum shudhavumaaya swabhaavamulla oru manushyanalla. eee tharkkathinu kaaranamakaan addeham enthengilum cheythirikkanam. inimuthal kooduthal lamghanangal undengil nadappaakkenda patthu adii adii enna suspended shikshayaan liie seven nalkendathu.
aadyakaala forencic shaasthram.
gaana raajavamshathil, kuttavaalikalennu samshayikkunnavare anweshikkaanum pidikoodaanum shereefukale niyamichu, kuttakrithyam nadanna sthalathu ninnu maranakaaranam rogam, vaardhakya, apakadam allengil apakathakal ennivayaano ennu shareerathil ninnu kandethiya thelivukalum nirnnayikkunnu. kolapathakamaanu kaaranamenn kanakkaakkukayaanenkil, prefecturil ninnulla oru udyogasthane anweshanathinum aupachaarika anweshanam nadathunnathinum sakshikal oppidunnathinum kodathiyil upayogikkunnathinum ayachu. evideyaanu, enthokke parikkukal sambhavichu ennathinte vishadaamshangalodukoodiya eee anweshanathinte rekhakalum.
thekkan gaana raajavamshathile oru chainees vaidyan nyaayaadhipanumaayirunnu soong sii (1186-1249). addehathinte prasidhamaaya kruthi "aneeti thiruthi shekharicha kesukal" chainayile aadyakaala forencic shaasthrathinte adisthaanamaayirunnu. manushyante thondaykku randinupakaram moonnu vaalvukal undenna pazhaya chainees vishwaasathe illaathaakki, gaanatthinte mungamiyaaya shhein kuvo manushya shareeraghadanayekkurichu vimarsanaathmakamaaya vishakalanam nalki. panthrandaam noottaandinte thudakkathil nadanna oru chainees postmortem, annanaalavum swarapedikayum enna rund thonda vaalvukalekkurichulla shenninte sidhaantham sthireekarichu. ennirunnaalum, criminal kesukal pariharikkunnathinayi manushyashareerangalude vichedanam, parisodhana enniva gaanangalkk thaalpparyamullathaayirunnu. neethiyum forencic kaikaaryam cheiyunna mattu chainees kruthikalude adisthaanathilaanu addehathinte kruthikal samaaharichath. addehathinte pusthakam maranangalude (kazhuthu njerichu kollal, mungimaranam, visham, adii muthalaayava) oru pattika nalki.) kolapathakam, aathmahathya, apakadam enniva thammil verthirichariyaan shaareerika parishodhanaykkulla oru maarggam. mrithadehangal parishodhikkunnathinulla sariyaaya maargangalekkurichulla nirddeshangalkku purame, thoongimarichum mungimarichum, sooryaprakaasham veeshiyum, maravippichum, poshakaahaarakkuravum moolam maranathodu aduthulla erakalkku pradhamashushroosha nalkunnathinekkurichum soong sii nirddeshangal nalki. mungimaricha prathyeka saahacharyathil, krithrima shwasanathinte pradhamashushroosha saankethikavidya upayogikkaan soong sii upadeshichu. audyogika clarkkukalkkum paricharakarkkum idayil thuranna sthalathu nadatthiya erakalude mrithadehangalude parishodhanakalekkurichum, oru coroner asisttant (allengil sthreekalude kaaryatthil midwife), kuttakrithyatthil yadhaartha prathi, marichayaalude bandhukkal ennivarkkidayil nadatthiya parishodhanakalekkurichum postmorttatthinte phalangal groupilekku uchathil vilichu anweshana reportil rekhappeduthiyittundu. sii. aii. enna gaanam ezhuthi
samshayaaspadavum budhimuttullathumaaya ellah anweshanangalilum, athupole thanne swaadheenamulla kudumbangal tharkkathil earppedumbol, [niyogikkappetta udyogasthan] vishwasaneeyavum parichayasambannavumaaya maranananthara chikilsayude sahayikaleyum nalla swabhaavamulla recordermare thiranjedukkanam, avar sookshumathayode thanne anugamikkaan praaptharaanu. [. . .] oru hrasvamaaya nirtthal vilikkukayum bandhapetta kakshikal athunnathuvare kaathirikkukayum cheyyuka. allengil, swakaarya aanukoolyangalkkaayulla abhyarthanakal undaakum. vasthuthakal arian oru parisodhana nadathiyittundennu karuthuka, edapaadinekkurichulla reportukal maattaan clarkkukal chilappol kaikkooli sweekarikkum. udyogastharum klaarkkukalum avarude kuttakrithyangalkku kashtappedukayaanenkil, athu oru cheria kaaryamaan. ennaal, vasthuthakalil maattam varuthiyaal, judicial durupayogam oraalude jeevan apaharichekkaam. vasthuthaparamaaya krithyatha paramapradhaanamaanu.
kolapaathakatthil prathiyennu samshayikkunnayaale irayude postmorttatthil, marichayaalude dukhitharaaya bandhukkalodu aduthu hajarakunnathu adhikaarikalkk kuttasammatham nedaanulla valare sakthamaaya maanasika upakaranamaanennum soong sii thante abhiprayam pankittu. forencic entomologyude aadyakaala kesil, oru gramavasi ariwal kondu vettikkonnu, ithu praadeshika majistrettine oru taunn squareil ellah gramavaasikaleyum avarude ariwal kidathaan orumichu nirthaan prerippichu, angane ariwal kathikkaan eechakal shekharikkappettu, ariwal ippozhum irayude rakthathinte adrishya avashishtangal undu; eathu ariwal kolapathaka aayudhamaayi upayogichuvennu vyakthamaayappol, kuttasammatham nadathunna kolayaliye sambhavasthalathu thanne arast cheythu.
paashchaathyalokathu manushya shareeraghadanayodulla thaalpparyangalkk oru neenda paarambaryamundaayirunnum, pathinezhaam noottaandil roderic dii kaastroyude pusthakam vare soong sii polulla oru forencic pusthakam paashchaathya kruthikalil prathyakshappettilla. sii. aii. yude gaana rachanayekkurichum athu engleeshilekku vivarthanam cheiyunnathinekkurichum niravadhi aadhunika pusthakangal prasidheekarichittundu. ithil dablyu ulppedunnu.eiii. haarlandinte "parikkukal kazhukunnathinte rekhakal" (1855), herbert gailsinte "dhii sii yuwan luu, allengil instructions tuu coroners" (1924), doow. bryan iii. mcnitinte "thettukal kazhukal pathimoonnaam noottaandile chainayile forencic medisin" (1981).
sainyavum yudhavum.
"vuu", "wenn", akramavum samskaaravum.
gaana raajavamshathinte kaalath, aupachaarika vidyaabhyaasamillaathavar, adhikaarathilekkum samoohathile unnatha thalangalilekkum ettavum vegathayeriya maargam sainyathil cheruka ennathaayirunnu. oru vyakthikk sainyathil vijayakaramaya oru currier undaayirunnengil vijayakaramaya yudhangalil abhimanikkaan kazhiyumenkil, addehathinu raashtreeyathil vijayathilekkulla oru urappaya paathayundaayirunnu. pareekshayil pankedukkunna pandita-udyogasthar kooduthalum pramukha kudumbangalil ninnullavaraayirunnu, avarkk avarude currier samoohathil sthaanavum munnott kondupokaan avarude vamshapadaviye aashrayikkaan kazhiyumaayirunnu. pala gaana sainika udyogastharkkum eee nettam undaayirunnilla, mathramalla sainika shakti avarkk nalkia nettatthinu samoohathil avarude padavi kadappettirikkunnu. tong gwan (1054-1126) polulla pala raajasabhayile shandanmaarum kendra sainyathil udyogastharaayi cheraan utsukaraayirunnu, kaaranam ithu kodathiyil avarude sthaanam uyarthunnathinulla oru margamaayirunnu.
saadhaarana sainikare verum grameena karshakare niyamikkukayo nirbandhithamaayi niyamikkukayo cheythappol keezhadangiya kollakkarum koolippadayaalikalum sainyathil chernnu. naalu thozhilukalil onnil pettavaraanennu kanfyooshyan pandithanmaar sainikarkk audyogika padavi nalkiyilla; "vuu" (akramam) enna anachaaraparamaaya sanbradaayangale chuttippattiyaan avarude jeevitam sanjarikkunnavare amgeekarikkunnathino niyamavidheyamaakkunnathino pandita-udyogasthar jagrata pulartthiyirunnu. sainika pareekshakalum ranking thasthikakalum sivil oordarinu samaantharamaayirunnuvenkilum, pandita-udyogastharum varenyarum sainika pravartthanangale krishiyillaathavayaayi kandu. daarmmikamaaya uyarnna nilavaaratthilulla eee avaganana vaadavum undaayirunnittum, pandita-udyogasthar palappozhum sainyathe nayikkukayum sainika adikaaram upayogikkukayum cheythu. ennittum pandita-udyogasthar sainyathinteyo sivilian kramatthinteyo unnathiyilayirunnilla; samoohathinte unnathiyilaayirunnu chakravarty. samoohathile vimatha gadakangale niyanthrikkunnathinum akramasakthavum krishiyillaathathumaaya aantharika eshyan gothrangalil aadhipathyam sthaapikkunnathinum chakravartthiyude akramam oru aavasyakathayaayi kaanapettu, avar chakravarthikku keezhadangukayum chainayude unnathamaaya "wenn" (samskaaravum nagarikathayum) vazhi parivartthanam cheyyappedukayum cheyyum.
duranthavum parishkaarangalum.
sainyathinte valipavum eee prayojanakaramaaya parishkaarangalum undaayirunnittum, unnatha raankilulla gaana sainika commandukal valareyadhikam azhimathi niranjathaayirunnu. panthrandaam noottaandinte thudakkathil, soong generalukal avar record cheytha sainikarude ennathe adisthaanamaakki panam shekharichu; sainikarkk prayojanam cheiyunnathinu pakaram, avar eee panam swantham shambalam vardhippikkaan upayogichu. athesamayam, staanding aarmiyile sainikarkk valare cheria shambalam nalkumbol cheria adhwana jolikal nalki. sarkkar nadathunna pandita-udyogasthar palappozhum sainikarude duravasthayilum udyogastharude aavashyangalilum polum shradhichilla, kaaranam avar samoohathil thaazhnna thalathilaanu. fairbank ezhuthunnathu "sainyathinte sivilian aadhipathyam bharanavargathinte samsthaanathinte niyanthranatthinte bhaagamaayirunnu, pakshe athu samsthaana sainyathe durbalamakki."
khittan liavo raajavamshathe (916-1125) keezhadakkaan jurchen janathayumayi chernnu gaanam nadatthiya samyuktha shramathiloode haikkamaandinte azhimathiyum sainika shakthiyude falapraapthiyillaathathum udan velippettu. thangalude khithan yajamaananmaarkkethiraaya joorchenukalude vijayakaramaya kalaapathin sesham, jurchen gaanasainyathinte balaheenata nireekshikkukayum avarude udambadi lamghikkukayum thudarnnu gaanathe akramikkukayum cheythu. 1127 aayappozhekkum kaifengile thalasthaanam pidichedukkukayum vadakkan chaina keezhadakkukayum cheythu, athesamayam gaanasabhayude avashishtangal thekk haangshouvilekku palayanam cheyyukayum thekkan gaanam sthaapikkukayum cheythu. 1127 vare rashtreeya gadanayumaayi adutha bandhamundayirunnathinaal ithu gaanarachayithaavin nirnayakamaaya oru praharamaayirunnu; pinneedu avar chakravarthiyilum gaanasabhayilum ninnu akannupoyi. puthiya jurchen jiinn raajavamshathin (1115-1234) vadakkan chaina nashtamaayenkilum, eee nashtam gaanathe kadinavum shaashvathavumaaya sainika parishkaarangal varuthaan prerippichu. kendra sainyathinte takarnna raankukal veendum niraykkaan aagrahikkunna gavosong chakravarty raajyathinte vividha bhaagangalil ninnu aalukale konduvannu. ithu munbu cheyyappettirunnu, pakshe athe thothil aayirunnilla. patthaam noottaandilum pathinonnam noottaandilum ettavum vaidagdhyamulla sainikar maathramaan saamraajyathva kaavalkkaraayi maariyath, athesamayam gavosonginte keezhil ellah pradeshathuninnum pashchaathalatthil ninnumulla sainikar ulppetta muzhuvan kendra sainika yoonittukalum undaayirunnu. thekkan gaanam oduvil avarude shakti veendedukkukayum huvaay nadiyile athirthi vijayakaramaayi prathirodhicha yuye feye (<aii. dii. 1>) polulla dheeraraaya kamaandarmaarude vishwasthathaykku aajnaapikkukayum cheythu. jurchens gaanavum oduvil 1141-ll oru samadhana udambadiyil oppuvachu.
1131-ll chainees ezhuthukaaranaaya shang yii jiinn sainyathinethire poraadaan oru navikasena niyogikkendathinte praadhaanyam shradhikkukayum chaina kadalineyum nadhia thante valia mathilayi kanakkakkanamennum yudhakkappalukale ettavum valia kaaval gopurangalaayi upayogikkanamennum ezhuthi. purathana vasanthakaalavum sharathkaalavum muthal chainayil naavikasenakal upayogichirunnuvenkilum upayogichirunnuvenkilum, chainayude aadyathe sthiramaaya naavikasena 1132-ll thekkan gaanam sthaapichu. yangsi nadiyude neelatthil thekkan gaanatthinethire jurchen oru akramanam aarambhichu, ithu 1161-ll chaishi yudhathilum tangdavo yudhathilum rund nirnaayaka gaana vijayangalkk kaaranamaayi. gaanatthinte staanding neviyodu jiinn naavikasena parajayappettu, avar avarude kappalukalude mukalile deckhouseukalil trebuchettukale upayogichu thokku bombukal vikshepichu.
vamseeya, videsha, matha nyoonapakshangal.
muun tang thalasthaanamaaya chaangaanile bahu saamskaarikavum metropolittan anthareekshavum pole, kaifengileyum haangshouvileyum gaana thalasthaanangal yaatra cheiyunna videshikaludeyum vamseeya nyoonapakshangaludeyum aavasa kendramaayirunnu. puramlokavumaayi valia thothil sanbarkkam undaayirunnu. eejipt, yeman, india, korea, madhyeshyayile kaaraa-khaanid khaanett ennividangalil ninnulla vyapara, kappam embassykal vyapara bandham shakthippeduthunnathinaayi chainayilekku vannu, athesamayam chainakkar videsha vyapaaram prolsaahippikkunnathi videshathu embassykale ayachu. chainees vyaapaarakkappalukal jappaanile thuramukhangal, thekkan viyatnaamile chamba, samudra thekkukizhakkan eshyayile srivijaya, bangal, dakshinenthya, kizhakkan aafrikkayude theerangal ennividangalilekku sanjarichu.
onpathaam noottaandil gwaangshouvile tang thuramukhathu valia muslim janasamkhyayundaayirunnu. soong raajavamshathinte kaalath fujian pravishyayile kwaanshou, fushou thuramukhangal athine marikadannathode randaamathe thuramukhatthinte praadhaanyam kuranju. ithinethudarnnu chainayile middle eestten kadal vyaapaarikalude kuravum samudra vyaapaarathil earppedunna chainees kappal udamakalude ennavum vardhichu. ennirunnaalum, middle eestten vyaapaarikalum mattu videshikalum poornnamaayum illaathirunnilla, chilarkk bharanaparamaya sthaanangal polum labhichu. udaaharanathinu, pershyan allengil arab vamshajaraaya musleem puu shougeng 1250 num 1275 num idayil kwaanshouvile vyapara shipping kammeeshanaraayi sevanamanushtichu. arab jyothishaasthranjanaaya maa yij (910-1005) taisuvinte keezhil gaanasabhayude mukhya jyothishaasthranjanaayi. eee varenyavargakkaarkk purame, chainees thuramukhangal oororutharkkum prathyeka enclaveukal nischayichittulla arabukal, pershyakkaar, koreakkaar ennivarumaayi niranjirunnu.
mattu niravadhi perr undaayirunnengilum chainayile ettavum valia mathanyoonapakshathe prathinidheekarichathu musleengalaanu. 1126ll jurchens vadakkott aakramichathinusesham haangshouvilekku gaanasabhayude palayanam pinthudarnna kaifeng joothanmaarude oru samooham undaayirunnu. tang samayat pershyayil ninnulla manicasem avatharippikkappettu; gaana samayat, fujian, sejiang ennividangalil maanikkeyan vibhagangal ettavum pramukhamaayirunnu. tang rajavamshathinushesham chainayile nestoriyan kristhumathatthinte bhooribhaagavum illaathaayi; ennirunnaalum, pathimoonnaam noottaandile mangolian adhiniveshathil ithu punarujjeevippikkappedu. sorostrian mathatthinte anuyaayikalkk ippozhum chainayilum kshethrangalundaayirunnu. chainees chaan budhamatham padikkaanulla saadhyathakal videsha budhamathakkaare chainayilekku aakarshichu, udaaharanathinu kyottoyil tofuku-jii sthaapikkunnathinu munbu prashastha chainees sanyasi wushun shifante (1178-1249) keezhil padicha jappaanile enni benen. indiayil ninnu chainayilekkum thirichum sanjaricha buddha sanyasimar eee gaanathil tang raajavamshathe marikadannuvennum athesamayam "gaana raajavamshathin keezhil vivarthanam cheytha indian grandhangal muun raajavamshangalkk keezhil poorthiyaakkiyavayekkaal kooduthalaanennum tansen seen parayunnu."
hahn chainees bhooripakshathil pedaattha niravadhi thaddesheeya vamseeya vibhagangal soong chainaykkullil undaayirunnu. 1035ll gwangdongilum 1043ll hunan enna sthalathum gaanatthinethire gotravarga kalapangal nadatthiya yaavo janathayum ithil ulppedunnu. 1023-1064). ippol gwangsey, gwangdong ennee sthalangalil praadeshika udyogastharaayi suwang janataye soong adhikaarikal niyamichu, avide avare yaavoykkum mattu gothravibhagangalkkum bhoomi vitharanam cheyyaanulla chumatala aaa gaanam ealppichu. saamraajyathinte athirthiyilulla yaavo janathayeyum mattullavareyum oru fudal sanbradaayathil allengil "fengjian shehui" yill ulppeduthi. yaavoykkum mattullavarkkum nischalamaaya paarambaryamillaathathinaal oru aadima adima samoohathinte allengil "nuli shehui" yude saadhyamaaya eathenkilum thaddesheeya vikasanathe marikadannathaayi litsinger parayunnu. bii. sii. moonnaam noottaand muthal chainayude pradhana bhoopradesam hainan dveepinte chila bhagangal sthirathaamasamaakkaan shramichuvenkilum, chila samayangalil hahn chainees kudiyettakkarkethire pooraadukayum pinthirippikkukayum cheytha malambradeshangalile lii janataye swaamsheekarikkaan oru koottaaya sramam nadannathu eee gaanam vare aayirunnilla. pathinonnam noottaandil, hainanile manushyar patho nooro peradangunna kollakkaarude samghathil chernnu nasham vithachu. chainayude pradhana bhoopradeshathe oru dasano athiladhikamo prefectureukalil kuranjathu aayirakkanakkin kollakkar thaamasikkunnathayi 1043-ll rashtrathanthranjanaaya oayaang siyu kanakkakki.
dally raajyam (934-1253) polulla sakthamaaya ayalkkaare prathirodhikkunnathinaayi, thekkupadinjaaran chainayile gotravarga grouppukalumaayi eee gaanam sakhyamundaakki, athu avarude athirthikalkkum daalikalkkum idayil oru samrakshana bafaraayi pravarthichu. eee vamseeya gothravibhagangal gaanasabhaykku adaranjali arppikkukayum athinte videshanayathinte gathi pinthudaraan sammathikkukayum cheiyunnidatholam kaalam, sainika samrakshanam nalkaanum gothranethaakkale paarambaryavum svayambharanaparavumaaya praadeshika bharanam anuvadikkaanum gaanam sammathichu. sammathichu, eee gaanam thaay rajavamshavumaayulla athirthiyile praadeshika gotra kalaapangale adichamarthi, athesamayam thaay janathayumaayulla avarude bandhavum thekkan athirthiyile praadeshika gotra nethaakkalumaayulla sakhyavum 1075 muthal 1077 vare liyumayi athirthi yudhathilekku nayichu.

