
venkalathilum pichalayilum kala

venkala, pichala kala vidoora purathana kaalam muthalullathaanu. chembu, tinn enniva kondu nirmmicha venkala lohangalum chembu, sink enniva upayogichu nirmmicha pichalayumaanu eee pradhana lohangal.
oro aloiyudeyum anupatham alpam vyathyaasappedunnu. venkalam saadhaaranayaayi chembinte onpathu bhagangal muthal oru tinn vare aayi kanakkakkaam. idaykkide kaanapedunna mattu cheruvakal erekkure aakasmikamaan. casting vazhi pravartthikkaan kazhiyunna sambannamaaya swarnna thavitt niramulla oru lohamaanu phalam-athinte ghadaka bhaagangalkk valare kurachu baadhakamaaya oru prakriya, pakshe venkalathil savisheshamaayi vijayikkunnu, lohathinte saandrathayum kaadinyavum oru pooppal ethra sookshumamaayaalum eathu bhaavavum edukkaan anuvadikkunnu. athinaal vividha tharatthilulla alankaara srishtikal srishtikkaan kazhiyum.
casting.
venkalathilum pichalayilum casting prakriya "seyar perdue" ennariyappedunnu, ithu noottaandukaliludaneelam ettavum aadimavum saadhaaranayaayi upayogikkappedunnathumaaya prakriyayaan, ithu sanyasi theophilus benvenuto selliniyum vivarichittundu. churukkatthil, ithu iprakaaramaanu uthppaadippikkenda vasthuvinte valuppatheyum roopatheyum prathinidheekarikkunna oru coor, chillukal kondu nirmmicha ishtika, plaasttar allengil samanamaaya mattu padaarthangal enniva upayogichu nirmmikkukayum nannayi unakkukayum cheiyunnu. ithil kalaakaaran thante mezhuk pothinjuvekkunnu, athu thante poortthiyaaya srishtiyil aavashyamaaya alavil maathrkayaakkunnu. koril ninnu mezhukiloode kadannupokukayum athinappurathekku uyarthukayum cheiyunnathu loha vadikalaanu. loost-vaaks casting ennu vilikkunna modeling poortthiyaakkumbol, pooppal roopappeduthunna puram cover prayogikkendathundu; ithu kalimannum plaasttarum kondu roopappetta draavakamaanu, mezhuk modalinte ellah vishadaamshangalilekkum vazhi kandethaan ithu mathiyaya nerthathaanu. draavakathinte kooduthal coatingukal prayogikkunnu, angane unangumbol, mezhuk maathrkayil mezhuk nirmmicha kalaasrishtikalkkoppam loha vadi kondu orumichu pidichirikkunna oru khara baahya coating oru khara aantharika korum undaakum. choodu prayogikkukayum mezhuk uruki theerukayum urukia loham ozhikkukayum mezhuk niracha ellah vishadaamshangalum ulkkollukayum cheiyunnu. thanukkumbol, puram aavaranathe shradhaapoorvvam thakarkkunnu, coor kazhiyunnathra puratthekku valichidunnu, projecting vadi neekkam cheiyunnu, mezhuk maathrkayil nirmmicha vasthu venkalathil prathyakshappedunnu. kooduthal finish aavashyamaanenkil, athu tooling vazhi labikkum.
greak roman.
bisi 3500 oode eejipthile pree-dainaastik yugathinte avasaanathoduthu ejiyan pradeshathu chembu upayogichu. ariyappedunna ettavum pazhaya upakaranam oru paranna selttaanu, ithu crettile nosos kottaaratthinte central courtile oru puthiya shilayuga house floril kandethi, ithu oru eejipshyan ulppannamaayi kanakkaakkappedunnu. ayiram varshamo athil kooduthalo kazhinjittum venkalam saadhaaranayaayi upayogichirunnilla. athinte aadya roopam orupakshe troy randaamathe nagaratthile selttukalilum kataara-bladeukalilum aayirikkam, avide ithu ithinakam 10 sathamaanam tinninte staanderd aloy aanu. madhya minovan yugathinte arambham vare (emmi, sii. bii. sii. 2000). vadakkan greasileyum sii. italiyileyumaanu chembu yugam aarambhichath. krii. muu. 2500, kreyttilum anatoliayilum ullathinekkaal valare vaikiyum, terrimayer samskaarathinte pakwathayulla itaaliyan venkala yugam avasana ejiyan (mysenian) samskaaravumaayi (1600-1000 bisi) poruthappettu. eee pradeshangalile tinninteyum chembinteyum yadhaartha uravidangal anjjaathamaanu.
aadyakaala upakaranangalum paathrangalum.
upakaranangalum aayudangalum, kaithandakalum kodali-thalakalum, kunthangal allengil kataara-bladeukal enniva chembu yugathil nilanilkkunna oreyoru karakaushala vasthukkalaan, avaa kalaparamaaya paricharanam kanikkunnilla. ennaal chila aadyakaala minovan manpaathra roopangal loha prototypeukal, lalithamaaya nirmmaanatthinte kappukal, jagukal, marichu vipulamaaya roopakalppana ennivayil ninnu vyakthamaayi pakarthiyittundu. kappukal konaakrithiyilullathum chilappol oru stem-foottumaanu; neelamulla tubular spouttukalulla oval jaarukalum konaakrithiyilulla bodikalil vrithaakrithiyilulla tholukal ulla beaked jagsumaanu. lohabhagangal bandhippikkunna revettukalude thalakal palappozhum kalimannil oru alankaara gadakamaayi punarnirmmikkappedunnu. aadyakaala minovan kreettinte lohashasthraparamaaya bandhangal bhaagikamaayi mesopotamian aanennu thulliyulla jaarukalum thulachukayariya tharam kodaliyum soochippikkunnu.
minovan, mysenian.
aayudangalum upakaranangalum.
madhya minovan venkalakala oru swatantra thaddesheeya kalayayi abhivridhi praapichuvennu ariyappedunnu. eee yugathinte thudakkam vare malia kottaaratthil kandethiya eee kaalaghattatthile ettavum valia vaal athaayirunnu. 79 centimeter neelamulla paranna blade, vishalamaaya aditharayum moorchayulla pooyintum; oru svarnnavum kristtal hilttum undu, pakshe bladil aabharanangalilla. kurachu kaalathinushesham, ippol newyorkkile metropolittan myoosiyathil kreyittil ninnu alankaricha venkalathinte aadyakaala kashanamaanu kataara. bladinte iruvashathum chithrangalundu kaalakalude poraattavum oru manushyan oru marappokkathil pannikale vettayaadunnathum. alpam kazhinju veendum (emm III) greak pradhana bhoopradeshathu ninnulla bledukalude oru parambarayaanu, avaa krittan karakaushalathozhilaalikalkk nalkanam, alankaarangal, allengil murikkuka, allengil svarnnam, velli, neello enniva kothivachirikkunnu. simhangaleyum poochakaleyum vettayaadunna manushyarude chithrangalaaya ettavum vipulamaaya inley, mycenayile shaftgrevukalil ninnulla kataarakalilaanu. eee valia designukal athinte attam ozhikeyulla paranna blade muzhuvan moodunnu, ennaal nososil kandethalukal mikacha reethiyil prathinidheekarikkunna vaalukalil, aabharanangal neelamulla bledukalude pradhana savisheshathayaaya uyarnna midribukalil parimithappedutthiyirikku. eee tharam avasana minovan (mysenian) yugathinte thudakkathilaanu. blade upayogichu oru kashanathilaanu hiltt nirmmichirikkunnathu; ithinu oru kombulla gaard, grip-skeyilukal pidikkunnathinulla oru flanged edju, oru pommalinu oru tang ennivayundu. skeyilukal anacompo kedaakunna mattethenkilum padaarthamo aayirunnu, avaa venkala revateukal upayogichu gadippichirunnu; pommalukal palappozhum kristtal upayogichaanu nirmmichathu. saffer paporayil (nosos) ninnulla oru rapierinu 91.3 centimeter neelamundu; athinte madhyabhagavum hiltt-flanch sarppila koyilukalude baandukalum revate-headukalum (yadhaarthathil swarnna-cased) volsukalum kondu kothivachittundu. saadhaarana mysenian bladeukal vaalinteyum kataarayudeyum madhyabhaagangalkk samaantharamaayi allengil oru vashamulla kathiyude valanja pinbhaagathu idungiya achukal kondu sambannamaanu. kuntham thookkiya sokkattukal undu. oval rund attangalulla kathikal, chathuraakrithiyilulla resarukal, cleverukal, chisalukal, chuttikakal, kodaalikal, maatt tokkukal, kalappakal, arakal ennivayaanu mattu upakaranangalum upakaranangalum. cycladic, mainland greak (helladic) aayudangal aabharanangalonnum kaanikkunnillenkilum chila puthiya tharangal ulppedunnu. oru tanged kunthathinu shaaft surakshithamaakkunnathinaayi oru slitt (cycladic) allengil slippid (helladic) blade undu; padinjaaran europian aayudhamaaya halbird madhya helladic greasil upayogichirunnu. mysenian loha kavachatthinte avashishtangal kuravaanu; helmettil ninnulla oru playin cheekk-pease roadsile ayalisosil ninnum cypressil encomiyil ninnulla oru jodi greavesilum varunnu. pachakkarikalilonnil kambikal athinte attathu kettiyittirikkunnu.
pathrangal.
madhyakala, avasana minovan, mysenian kappalukal niravadhiyaan. 1. 40 meter vyaasamulla ettavum valia kreettile tylesosil kaanapedunna chila thadangalaanu valippathil aadyam kaanappedunnath. rando moonno lupe-handilukal avayude arikukalil revate cheytha aazhamillaatha ardhagola paathrangalaanu avaa, avaa niravadhi vibhagangalaayi nirmmikkappedunnu. ettavum valuth chundil moonnu, shareerathil moonnu, adiyil onnu enningane ezhu chuttika sheettukal chernnathaanu. eee nirmmaana reethi valia sankeernamaaya roopangalil saadhaaranamaanu. kazhuthile sandhikalum jagukaludeyum jaarukaludeyum shareerabhaagangalum palappozhum oru roll-moulding upayogichu marachirunnu. lalithavum cheruthumaaya roopangalum kaast cheythu. atharam paathrangalude ettavum mikacha maathrkakal nososile veedukalil ninnum shavakudeerangalil ninnumaanu varunnath. avarude aabharanangal prathyeka baandukalil puratti, chuttikayo kaastoo upayogichu pinthudarukayum paathratthinte chundil allengil tholil soulder cheyyukayum cheiyunnu. vishalamaaya mothiravum paranna chundum ulla aazham kuranja paathramaanu sambannamaayi alankaricha roopam, iva randum elakalullatho pookkalullatho aaya roopangalaanu.
hellenic lohashaasthravumaayi charithraatheethakaalatthe bandhippikkunna oru sradheyamaaya aakruthi oru tripod-bowl aanu, chundil neraaya ring-haandilukalum tholil gadippichirikkunna kanatha kaast kaalukalum ulla oru chuttikayulla golaakrithiyilulla body.
prathimakal.
minovan venkalathil poornnamaayum alankaara jolikal apoorvamaanu, gunanilavaarathil thaarathamyena moshamaan. poornnamaayum maathrkayaakkiyathum ennaal ekadesham kaast cheythathumaaya niravadhi prathimakalundu; avaa urachathum avyakthamaaya vishadaamshangalodukoodiyathum aanu. ippol berlinil, oru troadle ninnulla praarthikkunna allengil nritham cheiyunna sthreeyude roopavum hagia triadayil ninnulla mattoraalum; tylesosil ninnum cycroyil ninnumulla purushanmaare praarthikkunnu, matoraal britiish myoosiyathil, leydanile oru fluit kalikkaaran, minovan bull-leaper ennariyappedunna oru charging kaalaykk mukalil somersolt thirikkunna oru purushante abhilasha samgham. eee avasaanatheth orupakshe oru bhaaramaayirikkaam; mrugangalude roopangalil cheria mysenian bhaarangalund, eeyam niracha, roadukalil ninnum cypressil ninnum. cypressil kaanapedunna ettavum puthiya mysenian venkalangalil lalithamaaya ooppan varkk nirmmaanatthinte niravadhi tripod-staandukalundu, ithu kreettilum greak pradhana bhoopradeshathe aadyakaala irumbu yuga (jyaamitheeya) sandarbhangalilum parivartthana vasthukkal upayogichu kandethiyittundu. kappalukaludeyum manushyarudeyum mrugangaludeyum roopakalppanakalil nirmmichirikkunna kooduthal vipulamaaya kashanagal kreettile idean guhayil ninnu kandethiya oru koottam venkalathil pedunnu, avayil bhooribhaagavum bisi onpathaam noottaandileyo ettaam noottaandileyo eshyan kruthikalaanu. ooppan varkk tripodukalkku ore uthbhavam undayirikkaam. avar orupakshe greekkukaaralla.
hellenic, itaaliyan.
jyaamitheeya kaalaghattam.
venkalathil ninnu irumbilekkulla parivartthanatthinte irunda kaalaghattatthil, alankaara kalakal eathaandu nischalamaayirunnuvenkil vyaavasaayika lohanirmmithikal swathanthramaayi uthppaadippikkappettu. jyaamitheeya venkala paathrangalude kurachu avashishtangal undu, ennaal aadyakaala minovan vasthukkalude kaaryatthilennapole, loha roopangal avayude manpathrangalil ninnu uruthirinjathaayi rekhappeduthiyittundu. chila paathrangalude roopangal mysenian repertariyil ninnulla athijeevanangalaan, ennaal kooduthal ennam puthiyathum iva praadhamikavum oru paridhivare vikruthavum, golaakrithiyilullatho biconical bodiyum, neelamulla baand-haandilukalulla valia silindar kazhuthum, spouttukalumillaathum aanu. seramic peyint cheytha aabharanangal lohathinte yadhaartha roopangale prathifalippikkunnu, koodaathe noobukalude varikalulla nerttha venkala plettinte chila scrappukal pothinjatho sig-jagg rooparekhayil cheruthaayi kothivachatho puthumukhangal greak raajyangalilekku konduvanna kalaye prathinidheekarikkunnu ennathil samshayamilla. vadakkum madhya italiyilumulla adutha bandhamullah villanova samskaarathinte venkalathilaanu itharathilulla alankaara pravartthanangal kooduthal nannayi kaanunnath. vrithaakrithiyilulla cheria roopangal, prathyekichu pakshikalum kaalakalude thalakalum, kaippidikal, adappukal, rimmukal ennivayude aabharanangalaayi prayogikkunnathu oru puthiya savisheshathayaanu. itaaliyan jyaamitheeya shaili sankeernathayilekku vikasichu, parambaraagatha paattenukalude tirakkeriya idungiya baandukalilum thaaraavukalude serid varikalilum; ennaal samakaalika greak srishtikal athe asamskritha gadakangalude parishkaranamaayirunnu.
hellenic puraanangalude aadyakaala chithrangal vahikkunna fibulayude valia catch plettukalil kothupanikal ettavum mikachathaayi kaanapedunnu. mrugangalude cheria prathimakal mathaparamaya upayogathinaayi nirmmikkukayum mudrakalaayi pravartthikkukayum upakaranangal avayude adithattinadiyil idukayum cheythu. mudrakalil ninnu uruthirinja atharam roopangalude oru valia parambarayundu, kooduthalum kuthirakal, kothupanikalilo sushirangalulla phalakangalilo nilkkunnu; pilkkala udaaharanangalil purushanmaarudeyum centaarukaludeyum koottangalaanu. olimbiyayil ninnulla tripod-coldronukalude kashanangalil mrugangal avarude neraaya ring-handilukalil kidakkukayo nilkkukayo cheiyunnu, avaa rimmukalil manushya roopangalaal sthirappeduthunnu. kaippidikalum kaalukalum kaast cheyyukayum manoharamaaya jyaamitheeya roopeekaranangalaal sambannamaakkukayum cheiyunnu. pathrangal nirmmichathaanu, avayude aakruthiyum saankethikathayum pree-helenic aanu. shaasthreeya greak kalayude rund gadakangal ivide undu oru puthiya soundaryabodham shakthippeduthiya munkaala roopangalum prakriyakalum.
kizhakkan swaadheenam.
moonnaamathe ghadakam nilavil eejipt, assyrian ennee alankaara uddeshyangalude sambannamaaya shekharathil vitharanam cheyyappettu, athu phoeneeshyan vyapaarikal europilekku konduvarikayo saahasikaraaya greekkukaar eshyayil ninnu konduvarikayo cheythu. bisi 800 oode greasileyum italiyileyum oru valia alavilulla kizhakkan charakkukal ethi. avasheshikkunna venkala nirmmaanatthinte bhooribhaagathinteyum nirmmaana sthalathekkurichu chila anishchithathvangalundu, ennaal athe samshayam phoeneeshyan, greak allengil etruscan ennee kashanagal avayude assyrian allengil eejipshyan modalukalumaayi vahikkunna adutha saamyam oonnipparayunnu. avayil pradhaanappettath kreettile idean guhayil ninnulla paathrangalum parichakalumaanu. eee rasakaramaaya paathrangalil lalithamaaya mrugangalude koottangal, poornnamaayum ooriyantal swabhaavamulla dheeravum sankeernavumaaya roopakalppanakalulla parichakal enniva kothivachittundu. eee oorjjaswalamaaya jyaamitheeya kaalaghattatthile oru greak karakaushala vidagthanu thante sailiye adichamarthaanum ithupolulla mechanical pakarppukal nirmmikkanum kazhiyumennu karutunnilla. athinaal etruscan shavakudeerangalil, alekhanam cheytha phoenishyan paathrangalkk sameepam, simhangaludeyum griffinukaludeyum thalakal kondu alankarichathum assyrian chirakukalulla rakshasanmaar kothivachirikkunna konaakrithiyilulla staandukalil sthaapichathumaaya valia paathram kandethiyittundu.
classical greak etruscan.
pathravum staandum priyappetta purathana roopangalaayirunnu. kaast-rooad tripodinteyum embose cheytha koninteyum samyojanamaayirunnu greak staand. chila aadyakaala udaaharanangalil kaalukalkkidayil valia thrikonaakrithiyilulla falakangalundu, avaa aashvaasam nalkunnu; ennaal vikasita tharam prathyeka kaalukalum avashishtangalum undu, athil sandhikal alankaara rimmukalum kaalukalum covering plettukalum kondu marachirikkunnu. eee aabharanangal pookkal, mrugangal, manushyar ennivayude maathrkayil nirmmikkukayum pinthudarukayum cheiyunnu. kaalukal simhangalude paadangalaanu, avaa chilappol oru panthu pidikkukayo todukalil nilkkukayo cheiyunnu; rimmukalilum phalakangalilum pooraadunna mrugangal, yodhaakkal, revellukal allengil athlattukal, nymphukal, saattayars allengil puraana vishayangal enniva ulkkollunnu. virunnukaar kuninj kuthirappadayaalikal paathrangalude arikukalil kuthikkunnu; ottaykku nilkkunna roopangal, kamaanamulla jody gustikkaar, kaikal pidikkunna pranayikal allengil thirascheenamaaya oru sakhaavine vahikkunna rund lamba sainikar ennivayaal handilukal roopappedunnu. nagna kaayikathaarangal ellaatharam moodukaludeyum paathrangaludeyum handilukalaayi pravartthikkunnu, pothinja sthreekal sneha-daivangal parakkunna mirror discukale pinthunaykkunnu, samanamaaya roopangal mezhukuthiriyude uyaramulla shaafttukalkk kireedam nalkunnu. handle-baseukal saattir-maaskukal, pamettukal, sphinks enniva pole roopakalppana cheythirikkunnu. aaram noottaandileyum pinneedulla noottaandukalileyum greak aabharanamaanith. athinte nirmmaana kendrangal krithyamaayi ariyillengilum valare purathanamaaya varkk shaili ioniayilekku viral choondunnu.
etruscan thunitharangal avayude greak orijinalukale valare aduthu sameepikkunnathinaal avaye saankethikathayo roopakalppanayo upayogichu verthirikkaan kazhiyilla, etruscan shaili pravishya greekkinekkaal kooduthalalla. italiyil venkalam valare samriddhamaayirunnu, aadyakaala roman nanayangal kanatha venkalathintethaayirunnu, etruscan venkalangal kayattumathi cheythuvennathinu saahitya thelivukalundu. line encraving prakriya oru laattin prathyekathayaanennu thonnunnu; kannaadikalude pinbhaagathulla chitra vishayangalilum vashangalil valia silindar boxukalilum ithu prayogichu, iva randum prathyekichu prainestumaayi bandhappettirikkunnu. atharam pettikalil ettavum mikacha, romile villa giulia firconi "sistta" oru roman kalakarante oppu vahikkunnu. bii. sii. naalam noottaandilum moonnaam noottaandilum ullavayaan iva. ithe kaalaghattatthile greak kannaadikal apoorvvamaayi maathrame kothivaykkaarulloo; disk saadhaaranayaayi oru paranna pettiyil adangiyirikkunnu, athinte adappil "repose" design undu.
hellenistic, roman.
hellenistic, greco-roman roopangal kooduthal parambaraagathamaanu, eee kaalaghattangalil ulppedunna puthiya uddeshyangal kooduthalum pushpangalaanu. basttukalum maaskukalum saadhaarana handle-falakangalum spouttukalum aanu; vividha mrugangalude thalaykkum kaikaalukalkkum chila alankaara pravartthanangal anuvadichittundu, udaaharanathinu, kaumaarakkaar paraamarshichirikkunna utsahamullah kovarkazhuthakalude thalakal, daining kattalukalude kaimutt-resttukal roopappeduthi. eee gadanaaparamaaya kashanagal palappozhum velliyum neelloyum kondu kothivachittundu. venkala kaserakalum meshakalum saadhaaranayaayi hellenistic, roman veedukalil upayogichirunnu, munkaalangalil janapriyamaayirunna smaaraka paathrangalude sthaanamaayirunnu ithu. venkalam kondu nirmmikkumbol vilakkukal polulla cheria veettupakaranangal saadhaaranayaayi roman aanu, koodaathe oru prathyeka roman vyakthigatha aabharanangalude vibhaagam niramulla inaamalukal kothivacha oru valia venkala broach aanu, ithu oru golish uthbhavamaanenn thonnunnu.
phine art.
purathana kaalaghattatthile ellah kaalaghattangalilum venkala prathimakalum mathaparamaya upayogathinum kuranjathu hellenistic, roman kaalaghattangalil gaarhika aabharanangalkkum gaarhika aaraadhanaalayangalile farnicharukalkkumaayi nirmmichirunnu. ennaal bisi aaram noottaandinte madhyathil pollayaya casting avatharippikkunnathin munbu venkala prathimakalude kala valare kuravaayirunnu. devanmarkku samarppikkappedunna irakale prathinidheekarikkunna kaalakalum mattu mrugangalumaanu ettavum aadimamaaya vigrahangal. niravadhi shethrangalil iva dhaaraalamaayi kandethiyittundu. ennaal classical kala manushya vishayathino, sammanangal kaivasham vaykkunnavarkko allengil avarude saadhaarana veshathil daivangalkko, allengil manushyaroopatthilo eshtappettu. atharam roopangal samarppana soothravaakyangal upayogichu palappozhum alekhanam cheyyappedunnu. devathakalum devathakalum avarude parambaraagatha kathaapaathrangalumaayi poruthappedukayum avayude vyathirikthamaya attributeukal vahikkukayum cheiyunnathu pilkkala prathimakalude ettavum kooduthal prathinidheekarikkunna vibhagamaanu. naalam noottaandile shilpakala aadyamaayi prathyakshappedunna avaa oru mathaparamaya "vibhagamaanu", prathyekichu hellenistic vikaaravum roman pedantry ithu eshtappedunnu. avaril palarum bhakthiyulla vyakthikalaayirunnu, mattullava gaarhika aaraadhanaalayangalile prathimakalaayirunnu, chilath theerchayaayum aabharanangalaayirunnu. cornucopy libation boulukalum vahikkunna nritha laarukalaan kaltt-idolukalil ulppedunnathu. alexanderinaayi lysippus nirmmicha cheria vamshapaarambaryangal oru mesha alankaaramaayirunnu ("epithrapicios"): avan simhathinte charmmatthil, oru kaiyil thante clubble, maruvashathu oru wine kappilaan kidannirunnath.
saankethikavidya.
pollayaya casting kandupidichathode venkalam smaaraka shilpathinte ettavum pradhanappetta maadhyamamaayi maari, pradhaanamaayum athinte shakthiyum bharam kaaranam, kallil saadhyamallaatha posukal sammathichu. ennaal pilkkaalakhattangalil lohathinte moolyam atharam mikkavarum ellah prathimakalum nasippikkunnathumaayi bandhappettirikkunnu. athijeevichirikkunna churukkam chila poornnamaaya roopangalum, kurachu kooduthal verthirichedutha thalakalum chhaayaachithra-basttukalum eee metteeriyalile purathana srishtikalude mikavu saakshyappeduthunnu. aadyakaala prathimakal arichedukkukayum, nirmmikkukayum, weld cheyyukayum cheiyunnu; aduthathaayi soolid castingukal varunnu, ennaal valia roopangal gaarhika pathrangal pole chuttikayulla bhagangal chernnathaanu, oro bhaagavum "reposy" yill vevvere pravartthikkukayum muzhuvan revettukalum (σφyρδατα) upayogichu kootticherkkukayum cheythu. eee durbalamaaya thuniyil valare kurachu maathrame nilavilulloovenkilum, valsiyile polrara shavakudeerathil oru prathima muzhuvan samrakshikkaan saadhyathayund. ithu bii. sii. aaram noottaandinte thudakkathile "repose" joliyude kaalaghattatthilaanu.
eee prakriya taamasiyaathe pollayaya casting vazhi marikadannu, ennaal greak venkalappani uthbhavicha gaarhika karakaushalavasthukkalaaya adichu, chila prathyekavum valare poornnavumaaya roopangalil, chila paathrangalil handle plettukal, kannaadi-kesukalil "emblamaatta", prathyekichu bharam kuranja kavacham aavasyamulla alankaarangal enningane nilaninnu. britiish myoosiyathile siris venkalangal naalam noottaandile curasil ninnulla tholil ninnulla kashanangalanu. kaliman achukalile "seyar perdue" prakriyayiloodeyaanu casting nadathiyathenkilum poortthiyaakkaan dhaaraalam advaanam chelavazhichu. kaastukal valare nannayi pinthudarunnu, mikka valia kashanangalilum paachukal adangiyirikkunnu, ithu poraaymakal pariharikkunnathin cherkkunnu. prathimakalude thalayum kaikaalukalum vevvere idukayum mrithadehangalumaayi krameekarikkukayum cheythu saahithyathinteyum yadhaartha venkalathinteyum thelivukalkku purame, berlinile oru peyint cheytha paathratthil nirmmikkunna oru vighadicha prathimayude thithreekaranamundu.
plinic mattu purathana ezhuthukaarkkum venkalathinte vividha lohasankarangalekkurichu-korinthyan, delian, ejinettan, sirakusan-avayude ghadanayeyum upayogangaleyumkkurichum prathyekichu avayude varnnafalangalekkurichum dhaaraalam parayaanund, ennaal avarude prasthavanakal aadhunika vishakalanangalaal sthireekarikkappettilta, chilappol avaa vyakthamaayi thettaanu. romacar nagaram kathichappol (bisi 146) urukia chembu, svarnnam, velli ennivayude aruvikal kalarnnappozhanu corinthian venkalam aadyamaayi nirmmichathennu parayappedunnu. kalakaaranmaarude niratthinte niyanthranathekkurichu plutarch plinyum samanamaaya kathakal parayunnu silanian thante venkalathil velli kalarthi ilam mukhamulla jokkaasta undaakki, aristonidas irumbinte misritham upayogichu athmas blush undaakki. greak, roman venkalangal krithrimamaayi pothinjirunnilla ennathinu nalla thelivukalundu, ennirunnaalum avayil palathum golto velliyo aayirunnu. delfiyile chila purathana prathimakalude neela niratthe plutarch prashamsikkukayum athu engane nirmmichuvennu athbhuthappedukayum cheiyunnu; pliny oru bittumen vashinekkurichu paraamarsikkunnu, pakshe ithu oru samrakshana lakkamayirunnuvennathil samshayamilla; cheosil ninnulla naalam noottaandile oru likhitham oru pothu prathima vrithiyum thilakkavum nilanirthunnathinaayi avide undakkiya niyanthranangal rekhappeduthunnu.
europian pichalayum venkalavum.
eee vibhaagam venkalathile silpavumaayi bandhappettathalla, marichu vaasthuvidyayumaayi bandhapetta lohathinte niravadhi kalaparamaaya prayogangalumaayo sabhaparamaayathum garhikavumaaya upayogathinulla vasthukkalumaayo bandhappettirikkunnu. enthukondaanu italiyil venkalathinum speyinilum germmaniyilum irumbinum thaazhnna raajyangalile pichalaykkum munganana nalkiyathu ennu thripthikaramaayi nirnnayikkaan kazhiyilla; lohangalude thiranjeduppilum avayude pravartthana reethikalilum deseeya swabhaavam mathippulavaakkunnu. yudhangal, vijayangal allengil kudiyettam enniva kaaranam kalaparamaaya oorjja kendrangal oridathu ninnu mattonnilekku maarunnu.
roman, baisantain saamrajyangal.
vidooramaaya purathanakaalam maathram vittukondu, saamraajyathva romiloode aarambhich, orupakshe keezhadakkiya greasil ninnu prachodanam ulkkonda venkalathinte pravartthanam vyakthamaayi kaanapedunnu. roman foratthile romulus kshethrathil purathana venkala vaathilukalundu; caracalla kulikkunna mattullava laattaran basilikkayilaan, athil korinthyan kramatthile naalu phine giltt venkala pullaankuzhal nirakalum adangiyirikkunnu. pompeyiyudeyum herkkuleniyathinteyum kuzhichitta pattanangalil ninnu kandedutha venkalathinte gaarhika paathrangalude oru valia shekharam naples myoosiyathil adangiyirikkunnu, ithu lohathinte pravartthanatthil uyarnna nilavaaramulla poornathayum athinte upayogathinte vishalamaaya prayogavum kaanikkunnu. eiii. dii onnaam noottaandil nirmmichathum kurachu varshangalkk munbu alban kunnukalile nemi thadaakathil ninnu kandeduthathumaya sookshumamaaya maathrkayilulla mrugangalude thalakalude roopathilulla niravadhi mooringukal eee lohathinte naipunyapoornamaaya pravartthanavumaayi kooduthal parichayam kaanikkunnu. paareesile bibliothech naashanalile dagobertinte simhasana oru roman venkala kyool cheyar aanennu thonnunnu, panthrandaam noottaandil madaadhipathiyaaya saggar purakilum aayudhangalude bhaagavum chertthu.
naalam noottaandinte thudakkathil konstaantain athine saamraajyathinte aasthaanamaakkiya kaalam muthal bysantium 1,000 varshamaayi lohathile srishtikalkku perukettathaayirunnu. kizhakkum padinjaarum thammilulla oru vyapara kendramenna nilayil athinte sthaanam syria, eejipt, pershya, eshya minor, karinkadalinte vadakkan theerangal ennividangalil ninnulla karakaushala vidagtharude kalaparamaaya kazhivukal nalkunna ellah mikacha srishtikaleyum aakarshichu, 400 varshatholam, ettaam noottaandinte aadya pakuthiyil iconoclastic kaalaghattatthinte arambham vare, athinte uthppaadanam valare valuthaayirunnu. pathinonnam noottaandinte avasaanathil paantaliyon kudumbatthile amgangal amalfi, monde casino, athrani, monde gargano ennividangalile pallikalkk sammaanichathupolulla niravadhi itaaliyan pallikal ippozhum kizhakkan saamraajyathinte pilkkalangalil sthiramaaya janangalil nirmmicha venkala vaathilukal nilanirthunnu. samanamaaya vaathilukal salernoyilaanu; sent marks, venis, greak uthbhavamulla vaathilukalum undu.
jarmmani.
iconoclastukalude kaalaghattam padinjaaran europiludaneelam shakti anubhavicha frankish chakravarthiyaaya chaalmeyninte bharanavumaayi samanvayippichu. bysantium vidaan nirbandhitharaaya chila karakaushalathozhilaalikale koloon, ikes-laa-chaappal ennee thalasthaanangalil addeham swaagatham cheyyukayum avarude swaadheenam fraansilum anubhavappedukayum cheythu. medittareniyan vazhi mattoru aruvi italiyilekku kadannupoyi, avide niravadhi deseeya duranthangal kaaranam pazhaya classical kala shayikkukayum ivide athu punarujjeevanamundaakkum cheythu. rainlaandilum europile mattidangalilum vaasthuvidyaykkum kalaasrishtikalkkum saadhaaranayaayi prayogikkunna "renish-baisantain", "romanesk" ennee padangal eee shailiyudeyum thudarnnulla kaalaghattatthinteyum uthbhavathin saakshyam vahikkunnu. achen cathedralinte venkala paarapett classic roopakalppanayullathaanu, orupakshe chaalmeyninte kaalathaayirikkaam.
madhyakaalakhattatthiludaneelam, prathyekichu 11,12 noottaandukalil, venkalathinte upayogam valia thothil thudarnnu. kalayude mahanaaya rakshaadhikaariyaayirunna hildeshame bishop bernwardinu 1015ll sent nicolas pallikkayi (pinneedu cathedralilekku neekkam cheytha) nirmmicha venkala vaathilukalum bernward vaathilukalum undaayirunnu; 1060num 1065num idayil evideyengilum augsburghinum 1000nuu thottupinnaale mainsinum valia vaathilukal nirmikkappettu. eee vaathilukalil palathinteyum oru pradhana savisheshatha parambaraagatha maanukalum thaadiyellukalil thoongikkidakkunna mothiravumulla mikacha maathrkayilulla simha thaadiyellukalil kaanapedunnu. fraansilum scandinaviayilum englandilum ivayude prathiroopamundu, avide durham cathedralile sancuri nocker ennu vilikkappedunnavar avare prathinidheekarikkunnu.
vipulamaaya shavakudeera smaarakangalum palli furnitureukalum nalkiyathu jarmman, netherlandish sthaapakarkku valareyadhikam pravartthanam nalki. 1000-ll abbez maattildaykkaayi nirmmicha essen cathedralile ezhu branch mezhukuthiriyekkurichum 1223-ll poortthiyaaya brunswickil mattonninekkurichum paraamarshikkaam; 13-aamm noottaandile sradheyamaaya phondinekkurichum cathedralinte canonaya wilbernessinte chumatala hildeshime cathedralinaayi nirmmichathaanu. brandenbergilum worsbergilum mattu fondukal kaanapedunnu. madhyakaalakhattathil dhaaraalam venkala, pichala enangal, vishudhajala pathrangal, avashishtangal, mezhukuthiri enniva uthppaadippikkappettu. pothuve, ettavum mikacha jolikalil bhooribhaagavum sabhaykku vendiyaanu nadappilaakkiyathu. madhyakala chembu, pichala kaasttinginte (duches "geeljiyattan"; aksharaarthatthil "manja casting") oru pradhana kendram miyus thaazhvarayaayirunnu, prathyekichu panthrandaam noottaandil. ellaatharam kalaparamaaya chembu, pichala srishtikalkkum franch padamaaya "dinandari" ("pichala" vibhaagavum kaanuka) enna perilaanu dinanth nagaram ariyappedunnathu. 1466ll chaals dhii boold eee pattanam nasippichathinushesham niravadhi pichala thozhilaallikal germmaniyile mattu pattanangalilekkum englandilekkum polum maari.
gothik kaalaghattatthinte avasaanathil germmaniyilum habsburg netherlandilum chila mikacha karakaushala vidagdhar kandu. brass worker earttu vaan tritch maastrichu aasthaanamaakkiyullayalinum sent. johns cathedral, ezz-hertogenbosh, saantan cathedral. sent. peettezhs charchu, luvan ippol newyorkkile klosttarukalude shekharathilaanu. neurembergile peettar visar addehathinte puthranmarum, alankaarangaludeyum roopangaludeyum sambannamaaya vishadaamshangalulla vasthuvidyaa roopathinte manoharamaayi sangalppicha smarakamaaya sent sebaaldinte venkala avashishtathil pravartthikkunnu; randaamathethu kalaakaaran thante working dressil prathyakshappettu. 1516ll kshethram poortthiyaakki sthaapichu. eee mahanaaya karakaushala vidagthan magdeburg, romhield, breslau ennividangalil mattu mikacha pravrithikal nadatthi. maximilian onnaaman chakravartthiyude shavakudeeramaaya insbruckile 28 venkala prathimakalulla valia smaarakathe paraamarsikkanam. myoonichilum augsburgilum polulla venkalam swathanthramaayi upayogikkunna valia neeruravakal sthaapichu. vaasthuvidyaaparamaayatho shilpangalullatho aaya valia srishtikalkkaayi eee loham upayogikkunnathaayirunnu pravanatha; athesamayam cheria vasthukkal gaarhika aavasyangalkkaayi nirmikkappettu. pathinanjaam noottaandinte avasaanam muthal pathinaram noottaand vare beckenschlaggershoosal enna alankaara pichala paathrangalude oru shaili vikasichirunnu.
itali.
panthrandaam noottaandode itaaliyan karakaushalathozhilaalikal svanthamaayi oru shaili vikasippicheduthirunnu, ithu sent seno, verona (kaast venkalamalla, chuttika kondu nirmmichava), ravello, tran, monteyil ennivayude venkala vaathilukalil kaanam. bonano daa pisa aaa nagaratthile erattakalkkaayi oru koottam vaathilukal nirmmichu, avayil oru jody avasheshikkunnu. pathinalam noottaand kuranjathu naalu noottaandukalolam abhivridhi prapikkaan vidhikkappettirunna venkalathinte pravartthanatthil oru valia punarujjeevanatthinte jananathinu saakshyam vahichu. itaaliyan karakaushala vidagthanu priyappetta oru lohamaayirunnu venkalam; florencile lorenzo giberty vazhi valutho cherutho aaya ellah uddeshangalkkumaayi addeham vasthukkal nirmmichu, avaa parudeesayude kavaadangalil nannayi nilkkumennu michelanchalo abhiprayappettu. nikkola, jiovanni, andrea pisano, giberty, brunelleshi, donatello, verochio, cellini, michelanchalo, jiovanni daa bologna-ivayum mattu palathum venkalathil mikacha srishtikal nirmmichu.
benedetto daa rovessano 1524-ll englandilethiyathu kardinal vosliyude shavakudeeram nirmmikkaanaan, athinte oru bhagam, niravadhi vyathiyaanangalkk sesham, ippol sent polinte cathedralinte maravil aanu. florencile piitroo torrigiano westminstar aabiyil henry VII-nte shavakudeeram vadhichu. pathinaram noottaandinte thudakkathil alessandro lepperdy, flag staafukalkkaayi moonnu prashamsaneeyamaaya sokkattukal poortthiyaakki, avaa ippozhum venesile piassa saan marco alankarikkunnu. venkalathil chhaayaachithra medalukalude nirmmaanatthil kooduthal vikasanam prakadamaayi, athu uyarnna nilavaaratthilulla poornatha kaivarikkukayum niravadhi prashastha kalakaaranmaarude shradha pidichupattukayum cheythu. valia vasthukkalude alankaarathinaayulla venkala plackettukal roopakalppanayudeyum gadanayudeyum mikacha bodham prakadippikkunnu. pallikkum gaarhika upayogathinumaayi cheria vasthukkalude ennam lejiyanaayirunnu. aadyathethil kroosheekaranangal, aaraadhanaalayangal, balipeetam, paschel mezhukuthirikal enniva paraamarshikkaam, paaviyayude sartosayile vipulamaaya udaaharanagal; mathethara upayogathinaayi, mortaarukal, mashi staandukal, mezhukuthirikal, dhaaraalam manoharamaaya vaathil muttalukalum haandilukalum, ellaam poornnamaaya naipunyathodum poornnathayodum koodi nadappilaakkunnu. 17, 18 noottaandukaliludaneelam itharathilulla pravartthanangal thudarnnu.
france.
milan cathedralile candelabro trivulsio, 5 meter uyaramulla ezhu branch venkala mezhukuthiriyude aditharayum thaazhathe bhaagavum sankeernamaayi roopakalppana cheytha alankaarangalaal alankarichirikkunnu, ithu pathimoonnaam noottaandile franch srishtiyaayi palarum kanakkakkunnu; shaakhakalulla mukal bhagam pathinaram noottaandinte randaam pakuthiyilaanu chertthathu. samanamaaya sankeernamaaya alankaaram kaanikkunna samanamaaya oru vasthuvinte oru bhagam munbu reamsil nilavilundaayirunnuvena nirbhagyavashaal onnaam lokamahaayudhathil nasippikkappettu. 
pathinaram noottaandil jermaine pailan, jeane gaujon ennivayude perukal venkalathil pravarthikkaanulla kazhivinte mathiyaya thelivaanu. pathinezhaam noottaandinte thudakkam muthal, ormolu allengil giltt venkalathile srishtikal valia alavil nirmmikkappettappol kalaparamaaya oorjjathinte oru valia spodanam kaanapedunnu. karakaushalavidya gambheeravum uyarnna nilavaaramullathumaan, aadyam parishkarichathum samamithavumaaya designukal; ennaal pinneedu, 1723 ll avatharippicha rococo shailiyude swaadheenathil, manoharamaaya mahathvam maathram lakshyamidunnu. ithellaam aaa kaalaghattatthinte aathmaavinod chernnaayirunnu, avayude thanne aadambaraparamaya krameekaranatthil eee mikacha mezhukuthirikal, skonukal, pathrangal, klokkukal, furnitureukalude sambannamaaya moundingukal enniva poornnamaayum yojichathaan. piyari gauthiyar, jackwus kafeeri thudangiya "sisalyur" "fandure" mikacha furnitureukaludeyum athilolamaaya sever porsalininteyum nirmmaathaakkalumaayi svayam bandhappettirunnu, athinte phalam angeyattam sambannathayum manoharamaaya phalavumaayirunnu. franch viplavathinushesham eee shailikk pingamiyaayi, athintethaaya aakarshanamundengilum, munkaala srishtikalude jeevithavum swaathanthryavum illaatha kadinavum classical reethiyumaayirunnu. landanile valas shekharam, maanchastar square, southu kensingtonile victoria aandu albert museum, newyorkkile metropolittan museum ennividangalil eee shailikal padikkaam.
englandu.
niravadhi smarakangal ippozhum avasheshikkunna englandil venkalathil casting uyarnna paripoornnatha kaivarichu. svarnnappanikkaaranum lunden pouranumaaya vilyam toral, westminstar aabeyile avarude shavakudeerangalkkaayi henry III-nteyum pinneedu raajnji elanorinteyum venkala prathima nirmmichu; edward III-nte prathima orupakshe addehathinte vidyaarthikalil oraalude kruthiyaayirunnirikkaam. engleesh pallikalil venkala aksharangal kaanappedunnillenkilum pathinanjaam noottaand muthal niravadhi ghoshayaathrakal nilanilkkunnu, ellaam ore roopakalppanayum krooshikkappedaatha nirvvahanavum pinthudarunnu. norvichu, glousestar ennividangalilum mattidangalilum sanctuary ringukal allengil nokkarukal nilavilundu; ettavum sradheyamaayathu durham cathedralinte vadakke vathilil bhookhanda sahodaranmaaril ninnu verthirikkaanum vadakkan uthbhavam nirddeshikkaanum mathiyaya swabhaavamundu ennathaanu.
southu kensingtonile victoria aandu albert myoosiyathile glousestar mezhukuthiri designarude shakthiyum bhavanayum sthaapakante asaadhaaranamaaya krithrima vaidagdhyavum pradarshippikkunnu. vasthuvil oru likhitham anusarichu, 1109 muthal 1112 vare bharichirunna madaadhipathiyaaya peettarinu vendi nirmmicha eee mezhukuthiri, kurachu uyarathil nilkkukayum venkalavumaayi chernnulla oru aloy kondu nirmmikkukayum cheiyunnu. rooparekha shradhaapoorvvam samrakshikkappedumbol, aabharanathil raakshasanmaarudeyum pakshikaludeyum manushyarudeyum oru koottam roopangal adangiyirikkunnu, avaa kalarnnathum aashayakkuzhappathinte vakkilekk izhukichernnirikkunnu. kaasttinginte oru bhagam enna nilayil ithu saankethika kazhivinte vijayamaan. mathethara upayogathinaayi bhookhandathilennapole englandile ettavum saadhaaranamaaya vasthukkalilonnaan mortar; gothik roopakalppanayude aadyakaala udaaharanagal valare manoharamaanu. pilkkala udaaharanangalil gothik, navothaana aabharanangalude baandukalil shailikalude oru misritham kaanapedunnu, avaa swathanthramaayi samyojippichu upayogikkunnu. brons eeverukal saadhaaranamaayirunnirikkanam; kooduthal alankaricha tharatthilulla randennam kaananakum, onnu southu kensingtonilum randaamathethu britiish myusiyathilum. aayudhangalude parichakalum munny sthaapakarude aksharangalile likhithangalumulla ekadesham uyaramulla valia kappalukalaaniva. mortaarukal, skillattukal muthalaaya gaarhika upayogathinulla niravadhi vasthukkal.pilkkala noottaandukalil avaa nirmikkappettu.
manikal.
vadakkan europe, france, jarmmani, englandu, netherlands ennividangalil madhyakaalakhattatthinte aadyakaalam muthal belfounding oru valia vyavasaayamaan. nirbhagyavashaal dhaaraalam madhyakala manikal urukki punarnirmmikkukayum yudhasamayathu palathum thokkukalil eriyunnathinaayi pidichedukkukayum cheythu. aadyakaala manikal manoharamaaya rooparekhayullavayaanu, palappozhum lalithavum ennaal nannayi roopakalppana cheythathumaaya aabharanangalum valare alankaara likhithangalum undu; randaamathethinu oro aksharathinum allengil oru cheria koottam aksharangalkkum oru prathyeka staambu allengil dye upayogichirunnu. ellah raajyangalilum bell foundermaar samoohathinte oru pradhana grooppaayirunnu; englandil avarude niravadhi perukal ariyappedunnu, avarude srishtiyude prathyeka swabhaavam thirichariyaavunnathaanu. germmaniyil erfert, koloon, halberstad ennividangalile amiens, beauvise, chartress thudangiya franch cathedralukalil pazhaya manikal nilavilundu. 1858ll westminstaril 13 muthal 14 tonn vare bharamullah "bigg benn" casting aayirunnu athinte pilkkala nettangalilonnaya bell founting vyavasaayam noottaandukaliludaneelam thudarnnu.
sameepa varshangalil, vaasthuvidyayumaayi bandhappett, railingukal, baalkkanikal, staircaseukal ennivaykku oru paridhivare venkalam irumbinu pakaram vannu; sweekaricha shaili valare classicalaanu, ithu valare valia alavil alankaaram aavashyappedunnilla, koodaathe lohathinu manoharamaaya roopavum ganyamaaya eedu undu.
pichala.
chembu, sink enniva chernna oru aloy aanu pichala, saadhaaranayaayi sheett metalinaayi, aadyathethinte ezhu bhaagangalum randaamathethinte moonnu bhaagangalum anupaathathil casting cheiyunnu. atharamoru kompineshan nallathum thilakkamullathumaaya niram urappaakkunnu. ennirunnaalum, ilam naaranga niram muthal aazhathilulla swarnna thavitt vare vaividhyamaarnna tonukal undu, ithu sinkinte cherutho athiladhikamo alavine aasrayichirikkunnu. aadyakaalangalil eee loham valarekkurachu upayogichirunnathaayi thonnumenkilum madhyakaalakhattam muthal pichala vyavasaayam valare pradhanappetta onnaayirunnu, ithu valia thothil nadathukayum vyaapakamaayi vyathyastha dishakalil prayogikkukayum cheythu. pazhaya rekhakalil pathivayi kaanapedunna "laattan" enna padam, kurachu ayanja reethiyil upayogikkunnu, chilappol venkalam kondu nirmmicha vasthukkalkkaayi ithu upayogikkunnu; athinte yadhaartha prayogam nammal pichala ennu vilikkunna aloy aanu. europil kalaparamaaya aavasyangalkkaayi ithu pradhaanamaayum thekkukizhakkan beljiyathile miyus thaazhvarayude pradeshathe kendreekarichaayirunnu, vadakkukizhakkan france, netherlandinte chila bhagangal, koloon kendramaayirunna renish pravishyakal ennivaykkoppam.
pathinonnam noottaand vare hyuu, dinant pattanatthile nivaasikal eee lohathil jolie cheiyunnathaayi kaanapedunnu; sink avar swantham rajyath kandethi, chembinu avar kolonilekko dortmandilekko pinneedu haars parvathanirakalile khanikalilekkum pooyi. casting repose cheythaanu valareyadhikam jolikal nirmmichathu, pakshe muun prakriyayilaanu avar mikavu pulartthiyathu. valare churungiya samayathinullil dinaantinteyum ayalpakkathe mattu pattanangaludeyum foundarikalil ninnu uthbhavicha pichalayile srishtikale nirddeshikkaan "dinandari" enna padam upayogichu. avarude nirmmanangal france, spain, englandu, jarmmani ennividangalilekku vazhi kandethi. landanil edward III prothsaahippicha dinant vyapaarikal 1329-ll oru "haal" sthaapichu, athu pathinaram noottaandinte avasaanam vare nilaninnirunnu; fraansil avar ruyan, kalais, paarees ennividangalilum mattidangalilum vyapaaram nadatthi. niravadhi noottaandukalaayi vyavasaayam abhivridhi praapichuvenkilum ayal pattanamaya bovignessil avarude athiraalikalumaayulla kalahangal moolam durbalapettu; 1466-ll chaals dhii boold eee pattanam kollayadikkukayum nasippikkukayum cheythu. pichala sthaapakar haay, naamoor, middleberg, tournai, brugus ennividangalilekku palayanam cheyyukayum avide avarude pravartthanam thudarukayum cheythu.
mayus jillayil ninnulla pichalayile aadyakaala kruthi leejile (cf. figue. 1 galleryil), kaalakalil vishramikkunna oru valia kappal, paathratthinte purambhaagam snapana chadangukalil earppettirikkunna oru koottam roopangalumaayi uyarnna kothupaniyil idunnu; 1113 num 1118 num idayil lillie myoosiyathile sradheyamaaya sensarinte nirmmathaavaaya renier oof hyuu ithu nirmmichu.
eee samayam muthal pallikalkkum katheedralukalkkumaayi fondukal, lectorukal, paschel, balipeeta mezhukuthirikal, koodaarangal, chandaliyarukal ennivayude roopathil asaadhaaranamaaya kruthikal oru neenda parambara nadappilaakki; lalithamaaya rooparekhayude fondukalkku palappozhum chitra vishayangalaal alankarichirikkunna sambannamaaya kavarukal undu; lectorukal saadhaaranayaayi parambaraagatha roopathilulla kazhukanaal marikadakkappedunnu, pakshe chilappol oru pelikkan (cf. figue. 2); andennile lectornine oru griffin marikadakkunnu. eee pakshikale pinthunaykkunna staandukal chilappol sambannamaaya gothik tracery varkkukalullathum, roopangalullathum, simhangalil vishramikkunnathumaayavaan; pilkkala roopangal silindar roopathilulla oru shaaft kaanikkunnu, edavelakalil moldingukal, vishalamaaya aditharayilekku splay cheiyunnu. germmaniyil koloon jillayil praadeshika nirmmaanatthil ninnulla niravadhi ennam kaanapedunnu; chilath venis pallikalil avasheshikkunnu. norvichu, sent albans, croydon thudangiya engleesh pallikalil ekadesham oru score rekhappeduthiyittundu. mikkappozhum avaa ore maathruka pinthudarunnu, orupakshe beljiyathil ninnu irakkumathi cheythathaayirikkam. kshetra palliyil mikacha pichala chandaliyarukal nilavilundu, bristtol (sii. eph. figue. 3), sent michaels moundu, cornwall, north weils ennividangalil. lectornukal englandil itharathilulla vasthukkalude fashion sajjeekarichirikkanam; sent jorjju chaappal, winder kaasil, kings koleju chaappal, kembridge, sent pools cathedral, chila lunden pallikal (cf. figue. 4). koloon mekhalayil dhaaraalam pichala panikal nirmmikkappedukayum ippozhum pallikalil avasheshikkukayum cheiyunnu; pathinaram noottaandinte thudakkathil netherlandsile maastrichile oru karakaushalakkaarante paniyaya saantan cathedralile manoharamaaya screeninekkurichu paraamarsikkanam. 1862ll jorjju gilbert scott nirmmicha hereford cathedralile hereford screen oru aadhunika udaaharanamaanu, avide pichala aadhipathyam pulartthunna vividha lohangalil (cf. figue. 5)
netherlands, norway, sweeden ennivayum valia valippathilulla chandiliyarukal nirmmichu 16-umm 17-umm noottaandukalile tharam ariyappedunna "chilanthi" aanu, avayil dhaaraalam englandilum nirmmikkappedukayum ippozhum niravadhi lunden, pravishya pallikalil thoongikkidakkukayum cheiyunnu. netherlandukalum chuttika paniyodu valia ishtam kaanikkukayum aaa reethiyil dhaaraalam lectornukal, balipeeta mezhukuthirikal ennivayum mattum nirmmikkukayum cheythu. aadam, eevu enniva ulkkollunna valia vibhavangalum samanamaaya vishayangalum orupakshe dutch vamshajaraanu, ayal rajyangalil kaanapedunnu. iva kendra vishayamaaya ananshyeshan, sent jorjju, sent christopher, agnus deyy, oru mathsyathozhilaali allengil pookkal ennivaykku chuttum oru koottam aksharangalal chuttappettirikkunna pichala vibhavangalil ninnu ganyamaayi vyathyaasappettirikkunnu, avaykku alankaarathinappuram oru praadhaanyavumilla; rimmukalil cheria designukalude aavarthichulla paatten upayogichu staambu cheiyunnu. eee randaamathe tharam vibhavam orupakshe neuremberghinteyo augusburg karakaushalathozhilaalikaludeyo srishtiyaayirikkaam, koodaathe aabharanangal muzhuvan nirmmikkunnath diesil chuttikkarangunnathiloode staambukal upayogicho aanennu shradhikkanam; avaa poornnamaayum mechanical kashanangalanu.
pallikalile cheria vasthukkalkkum gaarhika upayogathinum pichala vyaapakamaayi upayogichirunnu. pallikalil upayogikkunnathupole mezhukuthirikal, vishudhajala stouppukal, reflectorukal, censorukal, kaii kazhukunnathinulla pathrangal enniva flemish, jarmman chithrangal kaanikkunnu. englandile palli saadhanangalude shekharam parishkaranatthinte samayathe orupakshe rajyath nirmmicha laattanil valare valia ennam vasthukkal velippeduthaan prerippichu. akwamanail" (sii. eph.) ennariyappedunna aakarshakamaaya oru kappalaayirunnu pothuve upayogichirunnathu. figue. 6); ithu saadhaaranayaayi nilkkunna simhathinte roopathilulla oru jalakkuzhalaan, vaayil ninnu oru thulli uyarthunnu; thalayude mukalil paathram niraykkunnathinulla oru thurassaaya idamundu, palliyude aakruthiyilulla oru kaipul thalayude pinbhaagathu vaalumaayi cherunnu. mattullava kuthirayudeyo aattukottanteyo roopathilaanu; chilath manushyante prathimayude roopathilaanu, chilath kuthirappurathulla yodhaavine prathinidheekarikkunnu. panthrandaam noottaand muthal pathinanjaam noottaand vareyaanu avaa nirmmikkappettath. ennamatta gaarhika vasthukkal undu mortaarukal, cheria mezhukuthirikal, choodaakkunna chattikal, trivettukal, fenderukal; iva pradhaanamaayum 17,18 noottaandukalil nirmmichathaanu, valuthum cheruthumaaya clockdialukalil pichala alankaaram pathivayi prayogichirunnu. pathinezhaam noottaandile rund engleesh sambhavavikasangal prathyeka ariyipp aavashyappedunnu. inaamalinu pichala oru mosham maadhyamamaayathinaal budhimuttulla dravyamaaya pichala upayogichu inaamal upayogikkaanulla sramamaayirunnu aadyathethu.
firegogukal, mezhukuthirikal, pettikal, falakangal, pathrangal ennivayude roopathil niravadhi vasthukkal nilavilundu, avayude body ekadesham oru roopakalppanayil nirmmicha pichalayaanu; roopakalppanayude varikalkkidayilulla pollayaya edangal vella, karupp, neela, chuvapp inaamal paachukalaal nirachirikkunnu, valare santhoshakaramaaya phalangal (cf. figue. 7). 17-umm 18-umm noottaandukalil russiayil nirmmicha cheria inaamal cheytha pichala phalakangalilum chinnangalilum ettavum aduthulla saamyam kaanapedunnu. sankeernamaaya samvidaanamulla oru koottam poottukalil pichalayude randaamathe upayogam kaanapedunnu, avayude kesukal thuranna joliyil idunna pichalayaanu, scroll varkkinte athilolamaaya paatten, chilappol kothivacha pakshikalude roopangal. kooduthal vikasanam sambannamaayi kothivacha designukal kondu moodappettirikkunna kharamaaya pichala kesukal kaanikkunnu (cf. figue. 8). landanile victoria aandu albert myoosiyathil eee poottukalude oru mikacha koottam adangiyirikkunnu; mattullava hampton kodathi kottaaratthilum naadan maalikakalilum "inn sittuvilaan".
pathinettaam noottaandil aabhyanthara upayogathinulla vasthukkalude nirmmaanatthil pichala pradhaanamaayum upayogichirunnu; valia thoongikkidakkunna chaandaliyarukalude nirmmanavum chuvar-konsukalum mattu lighting upakaranangalum thudarnnu. pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasana pakuthiyil englandil sabhaparamaaya pravarthanangalkku vardhichuvarunna aavasyam vannu; prabhashanangal, daanavibhavangal, ghoshayaathrayude kurishukal, balipeetathinte furnitureukal enniva pichala upayogichaanu nirmmichathu; designukal bhooribhaagavum pazhaya srishtikalude poruthappedutthalukalaayinu, valia moulikathayonnumilla.
smaaraka pichala.
memorial braasukalude pravartthanam saadhaaranayaayi vadakkupadinjaaran germmaniyil uthbhavichathayi kanakkaakkappedunnu, kuranjathu oru kendramenkilum koloon aanu, avide praadeshika upayogathinum kayattumathikkumayi laattan allengil "kallan" plettukal nirmmichirunnu. ennaal madhyakaalakhattam muthal beljiyam pattanangalil thulya uthppaadanam undaayirunnuvennu urappaan, mattu aavasyangalkku pichala ishtappetta lohamaayirunnu. bhookhandathile pichala lohathinte chathuraakrithiyilulla sheettukalaayirunnu, athil marichayaalude chithram jeevante valippam vare, aazhathil murikkapetta varikalaal prathinidheekarikkappedunnu, palappozhum maastik allengil inaamal polulla padaartham kondu nirachirunnu; roopangalude pashchaathalam oru vasthuvidyaa krameekaranam, allengil elakaludeyum roopangaludeyum alankaaram, oru likhitham enniva kondu moodappettirunnu. englandil, orupakshe lohathinte samriddhi kuravaayathinaal, eee roopangal saadhaaranayaayi aaksasarikalaanu, lohathil ninnu murichu kallu allengil marble slaabukalude maatriksukalil cherkkunnu, ithu shavakudeerathinte bhagamaanu; vasthuvidyaa kanoppikal, likhithangal, aayudhangalude parichakal enniva athe reethiyil ottichirikkunnu. angane bhookhandathinte maathrkayude alankaricha pichala pashchaathalatthinte sthaanam kallu allengil marble pashchaathalamaanu. murivukal niraykkunnathinulla aadyakaala reethi pathimoonnaam noottaandile limojas inaamellarukalude reethikalumaayi chila bandhamundennu soochippikkunnu. thaazhnna rajyangalil ninnu englandilekku eee kala avatharippikkukayum athivegam uyarnna nilavaaratthilulla mikavu nedukayum cheythu. niravadhi noottaandukalaayi ithu valare janapriyamaayi thudarnnu, koodaathe dhaaraalam pichala ippozhum valare manoharamaaya kalaparamaaya pravarthanatthinu saakshyam vahikkunnu.
germmaniyile verdonile bishop vaisovilppinte 1231 muthalullathum, aaa meteeriyalil jolie cheyyaan sheelicha oru kalakarante maathrkayilullathumaaya pichalayaanu nilavilulla ettavum pazhakkam chenna pichala. englandile ettavum pazhaya udaaharanam 1277-ll maricha sarr joonn dii 'abernonte smaranaykkaayi sureyile stokku dii' abernon palliyilaanu. beljiyathilum fraansilum netherlandilum niravadhi pichalakal kandethiyittundu. kalaparamaaya aakarshanathinu purame, eee alankaara pichala aaa kaalaghattatthile sabhaaparamo sivil allengil sainikamo aaya vasthrangal vishwasthathayode chithreekarikkunnathil ettavum moolyamullathaanu; avaa manoharamaaya aksharangalil uchithamaaya likhithangalum nalkunnu (cf. brass gallery).
dakshineshya.
oru kaalath indu thaazhvara samskaaram abhivridhi praapicha sthalangalil ninnulla khananagal vividha aavasyangalkkaayi venkalathinte upayogam velippeduthunnu. kalaaroopangalkkaayi venkalathinte aadyakaala upayogam bisi 2500 muthal kandethaam. mohanjodaaroyude nritham cheiyunna penkuttiyum ithinu kaaranakkariyaanu. utharpradeshile kosambiyil khanana sthalathu pravartthikkunna puraavastu gaveshakar ekadesham bii. sii. 2000-1750 kaalaghattatthil rund kaalakale oodikkunna oru penkuttiyude venkala prathima kandethi, ithu harappan kaalaghattatthinte avasaanathil oru kalaaroopathilekku casting cheyyaan venkalam upayogichathayi velippeduthunnu. mahaaraashtrayile daimbaadil ninnu kandethiya atharamoru mattoru udaaharanam, indian thaazhvaraykku chuttumulla sthalangalil maathram venkalam kooduthal vyaapakamaayi upayogikkappedaanulla saadhyatha soochippikkunnu.
bisi randaam noottaandinum edii aaram noottaandinum edayilulla venkala prathimakal chausa bihaaril kandethiya venkala shekharathil ninnu kaanaan kazhiyunnathupole classical kaalaghattatthil vividha prathimakalkum prathimakalkkumayi venkalam oru lohamaayi thudarnnu.
pallavarude bharanakaalathu madhyakaalakhattathil dakshinenthyayil uyarnnuvanna venkalakala, ettaam noottaandile shivante ardhaparyanka aasana chihnamaanu eee kaalaghattatthile sradheyamaaya oru karakaushalavasthu. ennirunnaalum cholarude bharanakaalathu venkala shilpangal ettavum uyarnna nilayilaayirunnu (sii. 850 CE-1250 CE). eee kaalaghattatthile niravadhi venkala shilpangal ippol lokamembaadumulla vividha myoosiyangalil undu. newyork nagaratthile metropolittan museum oof artle ninnu kandethiya nadaraaja prathima eee kaalaghattatthile sradheyamaaya silpamaanu.

