
samanthara computing

oresamayam niravadhi kanakkukoottalukalo prakriyakaloo nadathunna oru tharam kanakkukoottalaan samanthara computing. valia prashnangale palappozhum cheriyavayayi thirikkam, avaa ore samayam pariharikkanaakum. samanthara computinginu niravadhi vyathyastha roopangalunda bitt-level, instruction-level, daatta, task samaantharatha. uyarnna prakadanamulla computingil samaantharatha valarekkaalamaayi upayogikkunnundengil freekwansi scaling thadayunna bhauthika parimithikal kaaranam vishalamaaya thaalparyam nediyittundu. computerukalude vaidyuthi upabhogam (thalphalamaayi taapa uthppaadanam) sameepa varshangalil oru aashankayaayi mariyathinaal, samanthara computing computer vaasthuvidyayile pradhana maathrkayaayi maari, pradhaanamaayum multy-coor prosessorukalude roopathil.
samanthara computing kankarant computingumaayi adutha bandhamullathaan-avaa palappozhum orumichu upayogikkunnu, palappozhum samyojippichirikkunnu, iva randum vyathyasthamaanenkilum kankaransiyillaathe samantharathayum samaantharathayillaathe samantharathayum saadhyamaan (single coor cpuvil samayam pankidunnathiloode multitasking polullava). samanthara computingil, oru computational task saadhaaranayaayi niravadhi, palappozhum, valare samanamaaya upa-taskukalaayi vibhajikkappedunnu, avaa swathanthramaayi prosess cheyyaan kazhiyum, avayude phalangal poortthiyaakumbol pinneedu samyojippikkunnu. ithinu vipareethamaayi, kankarant computingil, vividha prakriyakal palappozhum anubandha jolikale abhisambodhana cheiyunnilla; avaa cheyyumbol, distributed computingil saadhaaranapole, prathyeka jolikalkku vaividhyamaarnna swabhaavam undayirikkaam, koodaathe palappozhum nirvvahana samayat chila inter-prosess ashayavinimayam aavasyamaanu.
hardware samaantharathaye pinthunaykkunna thalathinanusarichu samanthara computerukale ekadesham tharamthirikkaam, multy-coor, multy-prosessor computerukalkku orotta mesheenil onniladhikam prosessing gadakangalundu, athesamayam klasttarukal, empipikal, gridukal enniva ore joliyil pravartthikkaan onniladhikam computerukal upayogikkunnu. nirddishta jolikal thwarithappeduthunnathinna parambaraagatha prosessorukalkkoppam prathyeka samanthara computer aarkkitekcharukalum chilappol upayogikkunnu.
chila sandarbhangalil samaantharatha prograamarkk suthaaryamaan, bitt-level allengil instruction-level samaantharatha polullava, ennaal vyakthamaayi samanthara algorithangal, prathyekichu kankaransi upayogikkunnava, thudarchayaayavayekkaal ezhuthaan kooduthal budhimuttaanu, kaaranam kankaransi niravadhi puthiya klaasukal avatharippikkunnu. vyathyastha subtaskukal thammilulla ashayavinimayavum samanvayippikkalum saadhaaranayaayi opttimal samanthara prograam prakadanam nedunnathinulla ettavum valia thadassangalaanu.
samantharavalkkaranathinte falamaayi orotta prograaminte vegathayekkurichulla oru saidhaanthika uyarnna paridhi aamdaalinte niyamathaal nalkiyittundu, ithu samantharavalkkaranam upayogikkaan kazhiyunna samayathinte bhinnasamkhyayaal parimithappedutthiyirikku.
pashchaathalam.
parambaraagathamaayi, seeriyal kanakkukoottalinayi computer software ezhuthiyittundu. oru prashnam pariharikkunnathin, oru algoritam nirmmikkukayum nirddeshangalude seeriyal streamy nadappilaakkukayum cheiyunnu. eee nirddeshangal oru computerile central prosessing yoonittilaan nadappilaakkunnathu. oru samayat oru nirddesham maathrame nadappilakkaan kazhiyoo-aaa nirddesham poortthiyaaya sesham aduthathu nadappilaakkunnu.
maruvashathu, samanthara computing oru prashnam pariharikkunnathin oresamayam onniladhikam prosessing gadakangal upayogikkunnu. oro prosessing gadakathinum athinte algoritam mattullavaykkoppam oresamayam nadappilakkaan kazhiyunna vidhathil prashnathe swatantra bhagangalaayi vibhajikkunnathiloodeyaanu ithu poortthiyaakkunnathu. prosessing gadakangal vaividhyamaarnnathaayirikkaam, koodaathe onniladhikam prosessorukalulla orotta computer, niravadhi network cheytha computerukal, prathyeka hardware allengil melpparanjavayude eathenkilum samyojanam polulla vibhavangal ulppedaam. charitraparamaayi samanthara computing shaasthreeya computingin shaasthreeya prashnangalude anukaranathinum upayogichu, prathyekichu prakrithi, enchiniyaring shaasthrangalil, kaalaavasthaashaasthram polullava. ithu samanthara hardwareinteyum softweyarinteyum roopakalppanayilekkum uyarnna prakadanamulla computingilekkum nayichu.
1980kalude pakuthi muthal 2004 vare computer prakadanatthil mechappeduthalukalude pradhana kaaranam freekwansi scaling aayirunnu. oru prograaminte rantaim nirddeshangalude ennathe oro nirddeshathinteyum sharashari samayam kondu gunikkunnathin thulyamaanu. matellaam sthiramaayi nilanirthunnathiloode, clock freekwansi vardhippikkunnathu oru nirddesham nadappilakkaan edukkunna sharashari samayam kuraykkunnu. freekwansiyile vardhanavu ellah computed-boundu prograamukaludeyum rantaim kuraykkunnu. ennirunnaalum, oru chipp upayogikkunna vaidyuthi upabhogam "p" ennathu "p" = "c" × "v" 2 × "f" enna samavakyathaal nalkunnu, ivide "c" ennathu oro clock saikililum switch cheiyunna kappaasittans aanu (inputtukal maarunna traansisttarukalude ennathinu aanupaathikamaayi), "v" ennathu voltage "f" ennathu prosessor freekwansiyumaanu (secondil cycleukal). aavruthi vardhikkunnathu oru prosessoril upayogikkunna oorjjathinte alavu vardhippikkunnu. vardhichuvarunna prosessor vaidyuthi upabhogam aathyanthikamayi intalinte 2004 meyy 8 nuu tejas, jaihok prosessorukal raddaakkunnathilekku nayichu, ithu freekwansi skailinginte avasaanamaayi saadhaaranayaayi paraamarshikkappedunnu.
vaidyuthi upabhogavum amita choodaakkalum kaikaaryam cheiyunnathinaayi pradhana central prosessing yoonit (cpu allengil prosessor) nirmmathaakkal onniladhikam korukalulla oorjja kaaryakshamamaya prosessorukal nirmmikkaan thudangi. coor prosessorinte computing yoonittaan, multy-coor prosessorukalil oro korum swathanthramaanu, ore memory oresamayam axus cheyyaan kazhiyum. multy-coor prosessorukal desktop computerukalilekku samanthara computing konduvannittundu. angane seeriyal prograamukalude samantharavalkkaranam oru mukhyadharaa prograaming dauthyamaayi maari. 2012ll kwad-coor prosessorukal desktop computerukalkku staanderdaayi maari, serverukalkku 10 + coor prosessorukalundu. oro 18-24 maasathilum oru prosessorinte korukalude ennam erattiyaakumennu moorinte niyamathil ninnu pravachikkam. 2020 nuu sesham oru saadhaarana prosessorinu dussen kanakkinu allengil noorukanakkinu korukal undaayirikkumennu ithinartham, ennirunnaalum vaasthavathil staanderd 4 muthal 16 korukal vareyulla pradeshathaanu, chila designukalkku prakadanavum kaaryakshamathayum korukal (kaii valuth polullava) undu.cheria design) taapa, design parimithikal kaaranam.
labhyamaya korukalil samaantharamaayi vyathyastha jolikalum upayokthru prograamukalum pravarthippikkunnavennu oru operating systethinu urappakkaan kazhiyum. ennirunnaalum, oru seeriyal software prograaminu multy-coor architecture poornnamaayum prayojanappeduthunnathi prograamar coode punasamghadippikkukayum samantharamaakkukayum cheyyendathundu. freekwansi skailingiloode aaplikkeshan software rantaim vegatha vardhippikkilla, pakaram multicore aarkkitekcharukalude vardhichuvarunna computing shakti prayojanappeduthunnathi programmermar avarude software coode samaantharamaakkendathundu.
aamdaalinte niyamavum gustafsante niyamavum.
ettavum mikacha reethiyil, samaantharavalkkaranathil ninnulla vegatha rekheeyamaayirikkum-prosessing gadakangalude ennam erattiyaakkunnathu rantaim pakuthiyaayi kuraykkukayum randaam thavana erattiyaayi veendum rantaim pakuthiyaayi kuraykkukayum cheyyum. ennirunnaalum, valare kurachu samanthara algorithangal maathrame opttimal speed upp nedunnulloo. avayil mikkavaykkum cheria ennam prosessing gadakangalkku oru sameepa-rekheeya vegathayundu, ithu dhaaraalam prosessing gadakangalkku sthiramaaya moolyamaayi maarunnu.
samanthara computing plaattphomil oru algoritam vegathilaakkaan saadhyathayullath aamdaalinte niyamamaan.
evide
kaaranam, samaantharamaakkaan kazhiyaatha prograaminte oru cheria bhagam samaantharavalkkaranathil ninnu labhyamaya mothatthilulla vegathaye parimithappedutthumennu ithu kaanikkunnu. oru valia ganithashaasthra allengil enchiniyaring prashnam pariharikkunna oru prograamil saadhaaranayaayi niravadhi samanthara bhaagangalum niravadhi samaantharamallatha (seeriyal) bhaagangalum adangiyirikkum. oru prograaminte samaanathakalillaatha bhagam rantaim ("p" = 0.9) nte 10 shathamaanamaanenkil, ethra prosessorukal cherthaalum namukk 10 madangu vegathayil kooduthal labikkilla. ithu kooduthal samanthara execution unitukal cherkkunnathinte upayogathinu uyarnna paridhi nischayikkunnu. "thudarchayaaya parimithikal kaaranam oru task vibhajikkaan kazhiyaathappol, kooduthal parisramam prayogikkunnathu shedyooline baadikkilla. ethra sthreekale niyogichaalum oru kunjinte prasavam onpathu maasamedukkum."
prashnatthinte valuppam nischayicha kesukalil maathrame aamdaalinte niyamam baadhakamaakoo. praayogikamaayi, kooduthal computing vibhavangal labhyamaakumbol, avaa valia prashnangalkk (valia daattaasettukal) upayogikkunnu, samaantharamaayi chelavazhikkunna samayam palappozhum antharleenamaaya seeriyal varkkinekkaal valare vegathil valarunnu. eee saahacharyathil, gustaafsante niyamam samanthara prakadanathekkurichu niraashaavaadaparavum kooduthal yaadhaarthyabodhamullathumaaya vilayiruthal nalkunnu
amdal niyamavum gustaafsan niyamavum prograaminte seeriyal bhaagatthinte pravartthana samayam prosessorukalude ennathil ninnu swathanthramaanennu anumaanikkunnu. aamdaalinte niyamam muzhuvan prashnavum nischitha valuppathilaanennu anumaanikkunnu, athinaal samaantharamaayi cheyyenda motham joliyum "prosessorukalude ennathil ninnu swathanthramaanu", athesamayam gustaafsante niyamam samaantharamaayi cheyyenda motham joliyude alavu "prosessorukalude ennavumaayi rekheeyamaayi vyathyaasappedunnu" ennu anumaanikkunnu.
aashrithathvam.
samanthara algorithangal nadappilaakkunnathil daatta aashrithathvangal manassilaakkunnath adisthaanaparamaanu. shringalayile munkoor kanakkukoottalukale aashrayichirikkunna kanakkukoottalukal kramatthil nadappilaakkendathinaal, ashrita kanakkukoottalukalude ettavum dairkhyameriya shringalayekkaal vegathil pravartthikkaan oru prograaminum kazhiyilla (critical paathu ennariyappedunnu). ennirunnaalum, mikka algorithangalilum ashrita kanakkukoottalukalude oru neenda shringhala maathram adangiyirikkilla; saadhaaranayaayi samaantharamaayi swatantra kanakkukoottalukal nadappilakkaanulla avasarangalund.
p" "i", "p" "j" enniva rund prograam segmentukalaayirikte. iva randum swathanthramaayirikkunnathum samaantharamaayi nadappilakkaan kazhiyunnathum eppozhaanennu bernsteente vyavasthakal vivarikkunnu. p" "i" nuu, "i" "i" ellah inputt variabilukalum "o" "i" outtputtu variabilukalum ayirikkatte, athupole "p" "j" num. "pii" "aii" ", pii" "jeey" "enniva thripthippeduthukayaanel swathanthramaanu".
aadya vyavasthayude lamghanam oru phloo dependency avatharippikkunnu, aadya vibhaagathin anusrithamaayi randaam vibhaagam upayogikkunna phalam nalkunnu. randaamathe vibhaagam aadya vibhaagathin aavashyamaaya oru variable uthppaadippikkumbol randaamathe vyavastha oru aanti-dependency prathinidheekarikkunnu. moonnaamatheyum avasaanatheyum vyavastha oru outtputtu aashrithathvathe prathinidheekarikkunnu rund segmentukal ore sthalathekku ezhuthumbol, phalangal logically avasaanamaayi execute cheytha segmentil ninnaan varunnath.
pala tharatthilulla aashrithathvangal prakadamaakkunna inipparayunna pravartthanangal pariganikkuka
 1: function dep (eiii, bii)
 2: siih = eiii * bii
 3: dii = 3 * sii
 4: end function
eee udaaharanathil, nirddesham 3 nirddesham 2 nuu munbu (allengil samaantharamaayi polum) nadappilakkaan kazhiyilla, kaaranam nirddesham 3 nirddesham 2 ll ninnulla phalam upayogikkunnu. ithu vyavastha 1 lamghikkunnu, angane oru phloo dependency avatharippikkunnu.
 1: function nodep (eiii, bii)
 2: siih = eiii * bii
 3: dii = 3 * bii
 4: iii = eiii + bii
 5: end function
eee udaaharanathil, nirddeshangalkkidayil ashrithathvangalonnumilla, athinaal avayellaam samaantharamaayi pravarthippikkaan kazhiyum.
bernsteente avasthakal vyathyastha prakriyakalkkidayil memory pankidaan anuvadikkunnilla. athinaayi, semaphoreukal, thadassangal allengil mattethenkilum samanvayippikkal reethi polulla aaksasukalkkidayil oru kramam nadappilaakkunnathinulla chila marggangal aavasyamaanu.
vamshaparamaaya saahacharyangal, paraspara ozhivakkal, samanvayam, samanthara maandyam.
oru samanthara prograamile subtaskukale palappozhum threadukal ennu vilikkunnu. chila samanthara computer aarkkitekcharukal fiberukal ennariyappedunna cheruthum bharam kuranjathumaaya thredukalude pathippukal upayogikkunnu, mattullava prosessukal ennariyappedunna valia pathippukal upayogikkunnu. ennirunnaalum, "threadukal" saadhaaranayaayi subtaskukalkkulla oru pothuvaaya padamaayi amgeekarikkappedunnu. threadukalkk palappozhum oru objectilekko mattu resourceukalilekko samanvayippicha axus aavasyamaanu, udaaharanathinu avaa thammil pankidunna oru variable update cheyyendivarumbol. samanvayippikkaathe, rund threadukal thammilulla nirddeshangal eathu kramatthilum parasparam cherkkaam. udaaharanathinu, thaazhepparayunna prograam pariganikkuka
1b nirddesham 1a num 3a num idayil nadappilaakkukayaanenkil, allengil 1b num 3b num idayil 1a nirddesham nadappilaakkukayaanenkil, prograam thettaaya daatta srishtikkum. ithu oru rays avastha ennariyappedunnu. paraspara ozhivakkal nalkunnathinu prograamar oru loock upayogikkanam. oru charatthinte niyanthranam ettedukkaanum aaa charakk anlokku cheiyunnathuvare mattu charangal athu vaayikkunnathil ninno ezhuthunnathil ninno thadayaanum oru threadine anuvadikkunna oru prograaming bhasha nirmmaanamaan loock. loock pidikkunna thread athinte critical sekshan (chila veriyabilukalilekku exclusive axus aavasyamulla oru prograaminte vibhaagam) execute cheyyaanum daatta poortthiyaakumbol anlokku cheyyaanum swathanthramaanu. athinaal, sariyaaya prograam execution urappakkaan, mukalil paranja prograam lokkukal upayogikkunnathinu mattiyezhuthaam
oru thread vijayakaramaayi variable vii loock cheyyum, athesamayam matte thread loock outtu cheyyum-vii veendum anlokku cheiyunnathuvare munnott pookaan kazhiyilla. ithu prograaminte sariyaaya nirvvahanam urappaakkunnu. threadukalkk vibhavangalilekkulla praveshanam serialise cheyyendivarumbol sariyaaya prograam execution urappakkaan lokkukal aavashyamaayi vannekkaam, pakshe avayude upayogam oru prograaminte vegathaye valareyadhikam mandagathiyilaakkukayum athinte vishwaasyathaye baadikkukayum cheyyum.
noonn-aattomik lokkukal upayogichu onniladhikam variableukal loock cheiyunnathu prograam dedlokkinte saadhyatha parichayappedutthunnu. oru aattomik loock onniladhikam variableukal oresamayam loock cheiyunnu. avayellaam poottaan kazhiyunnillengil, avayilonnum poottilla. rund threadukalkk oronnum noonn-aattomik lokkukal upayogichu ore rund variableukal loock cheyyendathundenkil, oru thread avayilonnu loock cheyyaanum randaamathe thread randaamathe variable loock cheyyaanum saadhyathayund. atharamoru saahacharyathil, rund threadukalkkum poortthiyaakkaan kazhiyilla, dedd loock phalangal nalkunnu.
pala samanthara programukalkkum avayude subtaskukal samanvayippichukondu pravarthikkendathundu. ithinu oru barrier upayogikkendathundu. thadassangal saadhaaranayaayi oru loock allengil semaphore upayogichaanu nadappilaakkunnathu. loock-free, veytt-free algorithangal ennariyappedunna oru klaas algorithangal, poottukaludeyum thadassangaludeyum upayogam mothatthil ozhivaakkunnu. ennirunnaalum, eee sameepanam nadappilakkaan pothuve budhimuttaanu, koodaathe shariyaayi roopakalppana cheytha dattaa gadanakal aavasyamaanu.
ellah samaantharavalkkaranavum vegatha vardhippikkunnilla. saadhaaranayaayi, oru task kooduthal kooduthal thredukalaayi vibhajikkappedumbol, aaa threadukal avarude samayathinte vardhichuvarunna bhagam parasparam ashayavinimayam nadathunnathino vibhavangalilekkulla praveshanathinaayi parasparam kaathirikkunnathino chelavazhikkunnu. vibhava tharkkathil ninno ashayavinimayathil ninno ulla overhead mattu kanakkukoottalukalkkaayi chelavazhikkunna samayathe aadhipathyam pulartthumbol, kooduthal samantharavalkkaranam (athaayath, jolibharam kooduthal thredukaliloode vibhajikkunnath) poortthiyaakkaan aavashyamaaya samayam kuraykkunnathinupakaram vardhikkunnu. samanthara maandyam ennariyappedunna eee prashnam chila sandarbhangalil software vishakalanathiloodeyum punarroopakalpanayiloodeyum mechappeduthaam.
nerttha daanyangal, parukkan daanyangal, lajjakaramaaya samaantharathvam.
aaplikkeshanukal palappozhum avayude subtaskukal parasparam samanvayippikkukayo ashayavinimayam nadathukayo cheyyendathinte aavasyakatha anusarichu tharamthirikkunnu. oru aaplikkeshan athinte subtaskukal secondil palathavana ashayavinimayam nadathanamenkil sookshumamaaya samaantharathvam prakadippikkunnu; avaa secondil palathavana ashayavinimayam nadathunnillengil parukkan samaantharathvam prakadippikkunnu, koodaathe avaa apoorvvamaayo orikkalum ashayavinimayam nadathendathillengil lajjakaramaaya samaantharathvam prakadippikkunnu. naanakkedaayi samanthara aaplikkeshanukal samaantharamaakkaan ettavum eluppamullathaayi kanakkaakkappedunnu.
flainte vargeekaranam.
maikkal jeey. samanthara (thudarchayaaya) computerukalkkum prograamukalkkumaayi aadyakaala vargeekarana samvidaanangalilonnu fline srishtichu, ithu ippol flines taxonomy ennariyappedunnu. prograamukalum computerukalum orotta settu upayogichaano allengil onniladhikam settu nirddeshangal upayogichaano pravartthikkunnathu, aaa nirddeshangal orotta settu allengil onniladhikam settu daatta upayogikkunnundo illayo ennathine adisthaanamaakki avaa tharamthirickunnu.
single-instruction-single-daatta (ezz. aii. ezz. dii) vargeekaranam poornnamaayum oru thudarchayaaya prograaminu thulyamaanu. single-instruction-multiple-daatta (sii. emm. dii) vargeekaranam oru valia daatta settil ore pravartthanam aavarthikkunnathin samaanamaan. signal prosessing aaplikkeshanukalilaanu ithu saadhaaranayaayi cheiyunnathu. multiple-instruction-single-daatta (emm. aii. ezz. dii) apoorvvamaayi upayogikkunna vargeekaranamaanu. ithu kaikaaryam cheiyunnathinulla computer aarkkitekcharukal (systolic arekal polullava) aavishkarichappol, eee klaasumaayi poruthappedunna kurachu aaplikkeshanukal maathrame yaadhaarthyamaayulloo. multiple-instruction-multiple-daatta (midu) prograamukalaan ithuvare ettavum saadhaaranamaaya samanthara prograamukal.
david eiii. paattezhsanum joonn ell. hennessy, "chila yanthrangal theerchayaayum eee vibhaagangalude sankarayinangalaanu, pakshe eee classic model nilanilkkunnu, kaaranam ithu lalithavum manassilakkaan eluppavumaanu, koodaathe oru nalla aadya ekadesha kanakk nalkunnu. ithu-orupakshe athinte manassilakkaavunnathinaal-ettavum vyaapakamaayi upayogikkunna padhathi koodiyaanu."
samaantharathayude tharangal.
bitt level samaantharathvam.
1970kalil valare valia thothilulla integration (vlc) computer-chipp fabrication saankethikavidyayude varavu muthal 1986 vare, computer vaasthuvidyayile vegatha vardhippichathu computer vaid sais erattiyaakkunnathiloodeya-prosessorinu oro saikililum kaikaaryam cheyyaan kazhiyunna vivarangalude alavu. vaakkinte valuppam vardhippikkunnathu vaakkinte neelathekkaal valuppamulla veriyabilukalil oru pravartthanam nadatthaan prosessor nadappilaakkenda nirddeshangalude ennam kuraykkunnu. udaaharanathinu, oru 8-bitt prosessor rund 16-bitt poornnasamkhyakal cherkkendivannaal, prosessor aadyam staanderd addition nirddesham upayogichu oro poornnasamkhyayil ninnum 8 lover oordar bittukal cherkkanam, thudarnnu aadu-vithu-kyaari nirddeshavum lover oordar additionil ninnulla kyaari bittum upayogichu 8 hye-oordar bittukal cherkkanam; athinaal, oru 8-bitt prosessorinu orotta pravartthanam poortthiyaakkaan rund nirddeshangal aavasyamaanu, avide oru 16-bitt prosessorinu orotta nirddeshathode pravartthanam poortthiyaakkaan kazhiyum.
charitraparamaayi, 4-bitt microprosessorukalkku pakaram 8-bitt, pinneedu 16-bitt, pinneedu 32-bitt microprosessorukal upayogichu. rund pathittaandukalaayi general purposes computingil oru staanderdaaya 32-bitt prosessorukalude varavode eee pravanatha saadhaaranayaayi avasaanichu. 2000-kalude arambham vare, x 86-64 aarkkitekcharukalude varavode, 64-bitt prosessorukal saadhaaranamaayi.
prabodhana thalatthilulla samaantharathvam.
oru computer prograam, saaraamshathil, oru prosessor nadappilaakkunna nirddeshangalude oru streamaanu. nirddesha-thala samaantharathvam illaathe, oru prosessorinu oro clock saikililum () onnil thaazhe nirddeshangal maathrame nalkaan kazhiyoo. eee prosessorukale "sabskalar" prosessorukal ennu vilikkunnu. eee nirddeshangal veendum oordar cheyyaanum grouppukalaayi samyojippikkaanum kazhiyum, avaa prograaminte phalam maattathe samaantharamaayi nadappilaakkunnu. ithu prabodhana-thala samaantharavaadam ennariyappedunnu. 1980kalude madhyam muthal 1990kalude madhyam vare prabodhana thalatthilulla samaantharathvathile purogathi computer vaasthuvidyayil aadhipathyam pulartthi.
ellah aadhunika prosessorukalkkum multy-steju instruction pipelineukalundu. pipeline oro ghattavum aaa ghattathil aaa nirddeshathil prosessor cheiyunna vyathyastha pravartthanavumaayi poruthappedunnu; "enn"-steju pipelineulla oru prosessorinu poorttheekaranatthinte vividha ghattangalil "enn" vare vyathyastha nirddeshangal undayirikkaam, athinaal oro clock saikilinum () oru nirddesham nalkaan kazhiyum. eee prosessorukale "scaler" prosessorukal ennu vilikkunnu. pipeline cheytha prosessorinte canonical udaaharanam anchu gattangalulla oru risk prosasaraana instruction fetch (iff), instruction decode (aidi), execute (ex), memory axus (mem), rajisttar raitt back (dablyubi). pentiyam 4 prosessorinu 35 gattangalulla pipeline undaayirunnu.
mikka aadhunika prosessorukalkkum onniladhikam execution yoonittukalund. avar saadhaaranayaayi eee savisheshatha pipeliningumaayi samyojippikkunnu, athinaal oro clock saikililum () onniladhikam nirddeshangal nalkaan kazhiyum. eee prosessorukale "superscalar" prosessorukal ennu vilikkunnu. superscalar prosessorukal multy-coor prosessorukalil ninnu vyathyasthamaan, kaaranam niravadhi execution unitukal muzhuvan prosessorukalalla (athaayath.iii. prosessing unitukal). nirddeshangal thammil daatta aashrithathvam illengil maathrame avaye orumichu groupucheyyaan kazhiyoo. scoreboarding tomasulo algorithavum (ithu scoreboardingin samaanamaan, ennaal rajisttar punarnaamakaranam upayogikkunnu) kramatheethamaaya nirvvahanavum nirddesha-thala samantharathayum nadappilaakkunnathinulla ettavum saadhaaranamaaya rund saankethikavidyakalaanu.
task paralelism.
oretho vyathyasthamo aaya daatta settukalil thikachum vyathyasthamaaya kanakkukoottalukal nadatthaan kazhiyum" enna oru samanthara prograaminte savisheshathayaanu task paaraalalisangal. ithu daatta samaantharavaadavumaayi vyathyaasappettirikkunnu, avide ore kanakkukoottal ore allengil vyathyastha daatta settukalil nadathunnu. oru task upa-taskukalaayi vighadippikkukayum thudarnnu oro upa-task nirvvahanathinaayi oru prosessorinu anuvadikkukayum cheiyunnathu task paaraalalisatthil ulppedunnu. prosessorukal eee upa-jolikal oresamayam palappozhum sahakaranathode nirvahikkum. task paralelism saadhaaranayaayi oru prashnatthinte valuppathinanusarichu alakkarilla.
superwade level paralysm.
lupe untolling, basic block vektaraiseshan ennivaye adisthaanamaakkiyulla oru vektaraiseshan saankethikathayaanu superwade level paralelism. kordinettukal, kalar chaanalukal allengil kaikondu antol cheytha looppukal enniva kaikaaryam cheiyunnathu polulla inline kodinte samaantharatha prayojanappedutthaan kazhiyunnathinaal ithu lupe vektaraiseshan algorithangalil ninnu vyathyasthamaan.
hardware.
oormmayum ashayavinimayavum.
samanthara computerile pradhana memory onnukil pankitta memmariyaanu (orotta vilasa idathile ellah prosessing gadakangalkkum idayil pankittirikkunnu) allengil distributed memmariyaanu (oro prosessing gadakathinum athintethaaya praadeshika vilasa idam undu). memory yukthisahamaayi vitharanam cheyyappedunnu enna vasthuthaye distributed memory soochippikkunnu, ennaal palappozhum athu bhouthikamaayum vitharanam cheyyappedunnu ennaanu soochippikkunnathu. distributed shared memory memory vertualisation rund sameepanangalum samyojippikkunnu, avide prosessing gadakathinu athintethaaya praadeshika memory noonn-local prosessorukalil memmariyilekkulla praveshanavumundu. praadeshikamallaatha memmariyilekkulla aaksasinekkaal vegathayullathaanu praadeshika memmariyilekkulla axus. suuppar computerukalil, pii. jii. eiii. ezz polulla prograaming model upayogichu vitharanam cheytha pankitta memory space nadappilakkaan kazhiyum. eee model oru computed nodile prakriyakale mattoru computed nodinte remot memory suthaaryamaayi axus cheyyaan anuvadikkunnu. ellah computed nodukalum infiniband polulla athivega interconnect vazhi oru baahya pankitta memory sisttavumaayi bandhippichirikkunnu, eee baahya pankitta memory systethe burst buffer ennu vilikkunnu, ithu saadhaaranayaayi onniladhikam aii/oo nodukaliludaneelam bhouthikamaayi vitharanam cheiyunna asthiramallaatha memmariyude arekalil ninnaan nirmmichirikkunnathu.
pradhana memmariyude oro gadakavum thulya latensiyum bandwidth upayogichu axus cheyyaan kazhiyunna computer aarkkitekcharukale unifom memory axus (uma) sisttangal ennu vilikkunnu. saadhaaranayaayi, memory bhouthikamaayi vitharanam cheyyaatha oru pankitta memory sisttathiloode maathrame athu nedaan kazhiyoo. eee savisheshathayillaatha oru samvidaanathe noonn-unifom memory axus (nyooma) architecture ennu vilikkunnu. distributed memory systengalkku noonn-unifom memory axus undu.
computer samvidaanangal kashukal upayogikkunnu-prosessorinu sameepam sthithicheyyunna cheruthum vegathayeriyathumaaya memmarikal memory moolyangalude thaalkkaalika pakarppukal (bhouthikavum yukthisahavumaya ardhathil aduthu) sambharikkunnu. samanthara computer systengalkku ore moolyam onniladhikam sthalangalil sambharikkaavunna kaashukalil budhimuttukalundu, koodaathe thettaaya prograam execution saadhyathayullathum. eee computerukalkku oru kaashe koharansi sisttam aavasyamaanu, athu kaashe cheytha moolyangalude track sookshikkukayum thanthraparamaayi avaye shudheekarikkukayum cheiyunnu, angane sariyaaya prograam execution urappaakkunnu. eathokke moolyangalaanu axus cheiyunnathennu track cheiyunnathinulla ettavum saadhaaranamaaya reethikalilonnaanu buzz snooping (athinaal athu shudheekarikkanam). valia, uyarnna prakadanamulla kaashe coherance sisttangal roopakalppana cheiyunnathu computer vaasthuvidyayil valare budhimuttulla oru prasnamaanu. thalphalamaayi, shared memory computer aarkkitekcharukal distributed memory sisttangal pole skeyil cheiyunnilla.
pankitta (multiported allengil multiplexed) memory, crossbar switch, pankitta buzz allengil staar, ring, trea, hypercube, phaatt hypercube (oru nodil onniladhikam prosessorukalulla hypercube), allengil enn-dimensional mesh ennivayulppede niravadhi topologykalude interconnect network ennivayulppede niravadhi vazhikaliloode prosessor-prosessor, prosessor-memory ashayavinimayam hardwareil nadappilakkaan kazhiyum.
parasparam bandhippichittulla nettvarkkukale adisthaanamaakkiyulla samanthara computerukalkku nerittu bandhippichittillaatha nodukalkkidayil sandeshangal kaimaran praapthamaakkunnathin eathenkilum tharatthilulla ruting aavasyamaanu. valia multy prosessor mesheenukalil prosessorukal thammilulla aashayavinimayathin upayogikkunna maadyamam sreniparamaayirikkaam.
samanthara computerukalude klaasukal.
hardware samaantharathaye pinthunaykkunna thalathinanusarichu samanthara computerukale ekadesham tharamthirikkaam. eee vargeekaranam adisthaana computing nodukal thammilulla doorathinu vishaalamaayi samaanamaan. iva paraspara virudhamalla; udaaharanathinu, cemetric multiprosessorukalude koottangal thaarathamyena saadhaaranamaanu.
multy coor computing.
ore chippil onniladhikam prosessing unitukal (korukal ennu vilikkunnu) ulkkollunna oru prosasaraanu multy-coor prosessor. eee prosessor oru superscalar prosessoril ninnu vyathyasthamaan, athil onniladhikam execution unitukal ulppedunnu, koodaathe oru instruction streamil (thread) ninnu oro clock saikilinum onniladhikam nirddeshangal nalkaan kazhiyum; ithinu vipareethamaayi, oru multy-coor prosessorinu onniladhikam instruction streamukalil ninnu oro clock saikilinum onniladhikam nirddeshangal nalkaan kazhiyum. soony playstation 3-ll upayogikkunnathinaayi roopakalppana cheytha ibminte sell microprosessor oru pramukha multy-coor prosasaraanu. oru multy-coor prosessorile oro korum superscalar aakam-athaayath, oro clock saikililum, oro korinum oru threadle ninnu onniladhikam nirddeshangal nalkaan kazhiyum.
oresamayam multithreading (intalinte hyper-threading ettavum ariyappedunna) kapada-multy-korisatthinte aadyakaala roopamaayirunnu. oresamayathu multithreading cheyyaan kazhivulla oru prosessoril ore prosessing yoonittil onniladhikam execution unitukal ulppedunnu-athaayath ithinu oru superscalar architecture undu-koodaathe "onniladhikam" threadukalil ninnu oro clock saikilinum onniladhikam nirddeshangal nalkaan kazhiyum. maruvashathu, temporal multithreadingle ore prosessing yoonittil orotta execution yoonit ulppedunnu, koodaathe "onniladhikam" threadukalil ninnu oru samayat oru nirddesham nalkaan kazhiyum.
cemetric multiprosesing.
memory pankidukayum buzz vazhi bandhippikkukayum cheiyunna onniladhikam samana prosessorukalulla oru computer samvidaanamaanu cemetric multiprosessor (ezz. emm. pii). buzz tharkkam buzz aarkkitekcharukale scalingle ninnu thadayunnu. thalphalamaayi, ezz. emm. pii. kalil saadhaaranayaayi 32-ll kooduthal prosessorukal adangiyirikkilla. prosessorukalude cheria valipavum valia kashukal kaivarikkunna buzz baandvidthinte aavasyakathakalil ganyamaaya kuravum kaaranam, mathiyaya memory bandwidth undengil atharam cemetric multiprosessorukal valare chelavu kuranjathaanu.
vitharanam cheytha computing.
oru network prosessing gadakangal bandhippikkunna oru distributed memory computer sistamaanu distributed computer (distributed memory multiprosessor ennum ariyappedunnu). vitharanam cheytha computerukal valare alakkaavunnavayaan. kankarant computing", "paaralal computing", "distributed computing" ennee padangalkku dhaaraalam ovarlaappu undu, avaa thammil vyakthamaaya vyathyasamilla. ore samvidaanathe "samanthara", "vitharanam" enningane visheshippikkaam; oru saadhaarana vitharanam cheytha samvidaanathile prosessorukal samaantharamaayi pravartthikkunnu.
klasttar computing.
chila kaaryangalil avaye orotta computeraayi kanakkakkaan kazhiyunna vidhathil orumichu pravartthikkunna ayanja kapal cheytha computerukalude oru koottamaanu klasttar. oru network bandhippichirikkunna onniladhikam staandalon mesheenukal chernnathaanu klasttarukal. oru klasttarile yanthrangal samamithiyullavayaakanilennil, illengil looad balancing kooduthal budhimuttaanu. tcp/aipi itharnettu local eriya nettvarkkumaayi bandhippichirikkunna onniladhikam samana vaanijya oof-dhii-shelf computerukalil nadappilaakkunna oru klastaraanu beovulf klasttar. thomas sterling donald becker chernnaanu baywolf saankethikavidya aadyam vikasippichath. mikacha 500 suuppar computerukalil 87 sathamaanavum klasttarukalaanu. bakkiyullava thaazhe vishadeekarichirikkunna valia samanthara prosessorukalaanu.
grid computing systengalkku (chuvade vivarichirikkunnu) naanakkedillaatha samanthara prasnangal eluppathil kaikaaryam cheyyaan kazhiyumennathinaal, aadhunika klasttarukal saadhaaranayaayi kooduthal budhimuttulla prasnangal kaikaaryam cheiyunnathinaanu roopakalppana cheythirikkunnathu-nodukal parasparam idatharam phalangal kooduthal thavana pankidaan aavasyamulla prasnangal. ithinu uyarnna bandwidth athilum pradhanamaayi kuranja latensi intarkanakshan netvarkkum aavasyamaanu. charitraparavum nilavilullathumaaya pala suuppar computerukalum klasttar computinginaayi prathyekamaayi roopakalppana cheytha cray jemini network polulla ishtaanusrithamaakkiya uyarnna prakadanamulla network hardware upayogikkunnu. 2014 leeii kanakkanusarichu, mikka nilavile suuppar computerukalum chila oof-dhii-shelf staanderd network hardwareukal upayogikkunnu, palappozhum mairinett, infiniband allengil jigaabit itharnettu.
massivy paaralal computing.
niravadhi network prosessorukalulla orotta computeraanu massivy paaralal prosessor (emm. pii. pii). emm. pii. pii. kalkk clusterukalkku samanamaaya niravadhi savisheshathakalundengilum emm. pii. pii. kalkk prathyeka interconnect netvarkkukal undu (athesamayam klasttarukal netvarkkinginaayi charakk hardware upayogikkunnu). saadhaaranayaayi nooriladhikam prosessorukalulla emm. pii. pii. kall klasttarukalekkaal valuthaanu. oru emm. pii. pii. yill, "oro cpuvilum athintethaaya memory operating systethinteyum aaplikkeshanteyum pakarpum adangiyirikkunnu. oro subsistavum athivega interconnect vazhi mattullavarumayi ashayavinimayam nadathunnu."
2009 juun maasatthile topp 500 ranking prakaram lokathile anchaamathe vegathayeriya suuppar computeraaya ibminte blue jeane/ell oru emm. pii. pii aanu.
grid computing.
samanthara computinginte ettavum vitharanam cheyyappetta roopamaanu grid computing. oru prathyeka prashnatthil pravartthikkaan internettiloode ashayavinimayam nadathunna computerukal ithu upayogikkunnu. kuranja bandwidth internettil labhyamaya valare uyarnna latensiyum kaaranam, distributed computing saadhaaranayaayi lajjakaramaaya samanthara prasnangal maathrame kaikaaryam cheiyunnulloo.
mikka grid computing aaplikkeshanukalum middleware upayogikkunnu (network resourceukal kaikaaryam cheiyunnathinum software interface staanderdais cheiyunnathinum operating systethinum application idayil irikkunna software). network computinginulla (boink) berkley ooppan infrastructuraanu ettavum saadhaaranamaaya grid computing middleware. palappozhum volunteer computing software "spare cycleukal" upayogikkunnu, oru computer nishkriyamaayirikkumbol kanakkukoottalukal nadathunnu.
prathyeka samanthara computerukal.
samanthara computinginullil, thaalpparyamulla prathyeka samanthara upakaranangal nilanilkkunnu. domaine-nirddishtamallenkilum, avaa samanthara prashnangalude kurachu classukalkku maathrame baadhakamaakoo.
feeld-prograamabil gettu arekal upayogichu punarroopakalppana cheyyaavunna computing.
oru pothu-uddeshya computerinte qoo-prosessoraayi feeld-prograamabil gettu array (fpga) upayogikkunnathu reconfigure cheyyaavunna computingaanu. oru nischitha jolikkayi svayam reware cheyyaan kazhiyunna oru computer chippaan eph. pii. jii. eiii..
vhdl allengil verilogue polulla hardware vivarana bhashakal upayogichu efpas prograam cheyyaan kazhiyum. mikka programarmaarkkum parichithamaaya sii prograaming bhaashayude vaakyaghadanayum ardhavum anukarikkaan sramikkunna sii muthal echdl vare bhashakal niravadhi wendermar srishtichittundu. sii muthal echdl vareyulla ettavum ariyappedunna bhashakal mitriyon-sii, impulse sii, handell-sii ennivayaanu. sii + + adisthaanamaakkiyulla systemsiyude nirddishta upavibhaagangalum ithinaayi upayogikkaam.
hyper transport saankethikavidya moonnaam kakshi ventarmaarkkaayi thurakkaanulla amdyude theerumaanam uyarnna prakadanamulla punarroopakalppana cheyyaavunna computinginulla prapthamaakkunna saankethikavidyayaayi maari. maikkal aarr. dii 'amour, dii. aarr. sii computer korppareshante cheef operating officer, "njangal aadyamaayi amdyilekku kadannappol avar njangale' sokkatt moshtaakkal 'ennu vilichu.'ippol avar njangale avarude pankaalikal ennu vilikkunnu."
graphics prosessing yoonittukalile general purposes computing (gpgpu).
graphics prosessing yoonittukalile (gpgpu) general purposes computing computer enchiniyaring gaveshanathile oru sameepakaala pravanathayaanu. computer graphics prosessinghinaayi valareyadhikam opttimais cheytha qoo-prosessorukalaanu gpu. daatta samanthara pravartthanangal aadhipathyam pulartthunna oru mekhalayaanu computer graphics prosessing-prathyekichu leanier aljibra matricks pravartthanangal.
aadyakaalangalil, gpgpu prograamukal prograamukal nadappilakkaan saadhaarana graphics epis upayogichirunnu. ennirunnaalum, yathaakramam kuda, stream ezz. dii. keey enniva upayogichu envidia amd prograaming parithasthithikal release cheiyunnathode jipasil pothuvaaya uddeshya kanakkukoottal nadatthaan niravadhi puthiya prograaming bhaashakalum plaattphomukalum nirmmichittundu. brookgpu, peakstream, rapid mind ennivayaanu mattu gpu prograaming bhashakal. envidia avarude tesla shreniyil kanakkukoottalinayi prathyeka uthppannangalum purathirakkiyittundu. sipas, jipas enniva ulppedunna plaattfomukaliludaneelam nadappilaakkunna prograamukal ezhuthunnathinulla oru chattakkoodaya ooppansiel specification teknolaji kansorshyam chronos group puratthirakki. amd, apple, intal, envidia ennivayum mattullavarum ooppankline pinthunaykkunnu.
aaplikkeshan-nirddishta integrated sarcuteukal.
samanthara prayogangal kaikaaryam cheiyunnathinaayi niravadhi aaplikkeshan-nirddishta integrated surcuted (eiii. ezz. aii. sii) sameepanagal aavishkarichittundu.
oru ASIC oru nischitha aaplikkeshanu prathyekathayullathinaal, athu aaa aaplikkeshanaayi poornnamaayum opttimais cheyyaan kazhiyum. thalphalamaayi, oru aaplikkeshane sambandhichidatholam, oru asic oru pothu-uddeshya computerine marikadakkunnu. ennirunnaalum, yuvi photolithography upayogichaanu aasikkukal srishtikkappedunnathu. eee prakriyaykku oru mask settu aavasyamaanu, athu valare chelaveriyathaayirikkum. oru mask settinu oru dasalaksham us dollariladhikam vila varum. (chippinu aavashyamaaya traansistarukal cheruthaanenkil, maaskinte vila kooduthalaayirikkum.) athesamayam, kaalakramena general purposes computingil (moorinte niyamam vivarichathupole) prakadanam vardhikkunnathu onno rando chipp thalamurakalil maathrame eee nettangal illaathaakkoo. uyarnna prarambha chelavum moorinte niyamathaal nayikkappedunna general purposes computingine marikadakkaanulla pravanathayum mikka samanthara computing aaplikkeshanukalkkum aasikkukale asaadhyamaakki. ennirunnaalum, chilath nirmmikkappettittund. molecular dynamics simuleshanaayi ishtaanusritha asix upayogikkunna piflops rikkan emm. dii. grap-3 mesheenaan oru udaaharanam.
vekttar prosessorukal.
valia koottam daattakalil ore nirddesham nadappilakkaan kazhiyunna oru cpu allengil computer samvidaanamaanu vekttar prosessor. vekttar prosessorukalkku akkangaludeyo vektarukaludeyo rekheeya arekalil pravartthikkunna uyarnna thalatthilulla pravarthanangalundu. oru udaaharana vekttar pravartthanam "a" = "b" × "c" aanu, ivide "a", "b", "c" enniva 64-bitt floating-pooyint nambarukalude 64-element vektarukalaanu. avaa fline simminte vargeekaranavumaayi adutha bandhamullavayaan.
1970kalilum 1980kalilum cray computerukal vekttar prosessing computerukalkku prashasthamaayi. ennirunnaalum, sipas, phul computer sisttangal enningane vekttar prosessorukal pothuve aprathyakshamaayi. aadhunika prosessor nirddesha settukalil freeskeyil semikandaktarinte altivec, intalinte streaming simmed ekstenshanukal (sse) polulla chila vekttar prosessing nirddeshangal ulppedunnu.
software.
samanthara prograaming bhashakal.
samanthara computerukal prograaming cheiyunnathinaayi kankarant prograaming bhashakal, librarikal, epis, samanthara prograaming modalukal (algoritam asthikoodangal polullava) enniva srishtichittundu. adisthaana memory aarkkitekcharinekkurich avar cheiyunna anumaanangale adisthaanamaakki ivaye saadhaaranayaayi klaasukalaayi thirikkam-shared memory, distributed memory allengil shared distributed memory. pankitta memory prograaming bhashakal pankitta memory variableukal kaikaaryam cheythukondu ashayavinimayam nadathunnu. distributed memory sandesham passing upayogikkunnu. posics threadukalum ooppanempiyum ettavum vyaapakamaayi upayogikkunna rund shared memory epikalaanu, athesamayam message passing interface (empi) aanu ettavum vyaapakamaayi upayogikkunna message-passing sisttam api. prograaming samanthara prograamukalil upayogikkunna oru ashayam bhaaviyile aashayamaanu, avide oru prograaminte oru bhagam bhaaviyile eathenkilum samayat oru prograaminte mattoru bhaagathekku aavashyamaaya daattam athikkumennu vaagdaanam cheiyunnu.
samanthara prograaming staanderdais cheiyunnathinulla sramangalil hibrid multy-coor samanthara prograaminginaayi ooppanhemp enna ooppan staanderd ulppedunnu. hardware acceleratorukalil kanakkukoottalukal kaaryakshamamaayi offload cheiyunnathinum remot proseasure kolukal upayogichu hardware memmariyilekku/athil ninnu daatta chalanam opttimais cheiyunnathinum ooppanechmpi directive adhishtitha prograaming model oru vaakyaghadana vaagdaanam cheiyunnu.
upabhokthru jipisinte uyarcha graphics episilo (computed shaderukal ennu vilikkunnu), samarppita episilo (ooppansiel polullava) allengil mattu bhasha vipuleekaranangalilo computed kernalukalkkulla pinthunayilekku nayichu.
automatic samantharavalkkaranam.
oru compiler oru sequential prograaminte yaanthrika samantharavalkkaranam samanthara computinginte "hollie grail" aanu, prathyekichu prosessor freekwansiyude melpparanja paridhiyil. compiler gaveshakar pathittaandukalaayi pravarthichittum, automatic samaantharavalkkaranathin parimithamaaya vijayam maathrame undaayittulloo.
mukhyadharaa samanthara prograaming bhashakal onnukil vyakthamaayi samaantharamaayi allengil (ettavum mikachathu) bhaagikamaayi avyakthamaayi thudarunnu, athil oru prograamar samaantharavalkkaranathinaayi compiler nirddeshangal nalkunnu. sisal, samanthara hashkell, sequencel, sisttam sii (fpac-kku), mitriyon-sii, vhdl, verilogue enningane poornnamaayum antharleenamaaya chila samanthara prograaming bhashakal nilavilundu.
aaplikkeshan check pooyinting.
oru computer sisttam sankeernathayil valarumbol, paraajayangalkkidayilulla sharashari samayam saadhaaranayaayi kurayunnu. computer sisttam aaplikkeshante oru "snapshot" edukkunna oru saankethikavidyayaanu aaplikkeshan checkpointing-oru coor dumpinu samanamaaya ellah nilavile resource alokkeshanukaludeyum variable avasthakaludeyum record-computer parajayappettaal prograam punasthaapikkaan eee vivarangal upayogikkaam. aaplikkeshan checkpointing ennaal prograam aarambhathil ninnu pakaram avasana chekkpoyintil ninnu maathram punararambhikkanam ennaanu. check pooyinting vividha saahacharyangalil aanukoolyangal nalkumbol, uyarnna perfomence computingil upayogikkunna dhaaraalam prosessorukalulla valare samanthara samvidaanangalil ithu prathyekichum upayogapradamaanu.
algoritam reethikal.
samanthara computerukal valuthum vegathayeriyathumaayi maarumbol, munbu pravartthikkaan valareyadhikam samayameduthirunna prasnangal pariharikkan namukk ippol kazhiyum. bioinformatics (protein madakkal, sequence vishakalanam ennivaykkaayi), saambathikashaasthram (ganithashaasthra dhanakaaryathinaayi) thudangiya vaividhyamaarnna mekhalakal samanthara computinginte prayojanam nediyittundu. samanthara computing aaplikkeshanukalile saadhaarana tharatthilulla prasnangal ivayaanu
thettu sahishnutha.
thettu sahishnuthayulla computer sisttangalude roopakalppanayilum samanthara computing prayogikkaam, prathyekichu samana pravartthanam samaantharamaayi nadathunna lockstep sisttangaliloode. oru ghadakam parajayappettaal ithu aavarthanakshamatha nalkunnu, koodaathe phalangal vyathyasthamaanenkil automatic error ditakshanum error karakshanum anuvadikkunnu. shanikamaaya pishakukal moolamundaakunna otta sambhavathile aswasthathakal thadayaan eee reethikal upayogikkaam. ulcherthatho prathyekamo aaya samvidaanangalil adhika nadapadikal aavashyamaayi vannekkaamenkilum, vaanijyaparamaaya oof-dhii-shelf samvidaanangalil enn-modular redendency nedunnathinu eee reethikk chelavu kuranja sameepanam nalkaan kazhiyum.
charithram.
yadhaartha (midu) samaantharathayude uthbhavam luigi federico menabriyayilekkum chaals babej kandupidicha vishakalana enchininte rekhachithrathilekkum pookunnu.
1958 eprilil staanli gill (ferrandy) samanthara programinginekkurinum shaakhakaludeyum kaathirippinteyum aavashyakathayekkurichum charcha cheythu. 1958-ll aii. bii. emm gaveshakar joonn kokkum daniel slotnikkum aadyamaayi samkhyaa kanakkukoottalukalil samaantharathayude upayogam charcha cheythu. baros korppareshan 1962ll oru crossbar switch vazhi 16 memory moduleukal vare axus cheiyunna naalu prosessor computeraaya dii825 avatharippichu. 1967ll american federation oof information prosessing sosaitiis konfaransil samanthara prosessinghinte saadhyathayekkurich amdal slotnikkum oru charcha prasidheekarichu. eee charchaykkidayilaanu samaantharatha kaaranam vegathayude paridhi nirvachikkaan aamdaalinte niyamam roopeekarichathu.
1969ll, honeywell athinte aadyathe multics sisttam avatharippichu, samaantharamaayi ettu prosessorukal vare pravarthippikkaan kazhivulla oru cemetric multiprosessor sisttam. sii.1970kalil karnegi melloon sarvakalaashaalayile multy-prosessor projectaaya emm. emm. pii., kurachu prosessorukalulla aadyathe multy-prosessorukalil onnaayirunnu. 1984-ll synapse enn + 1 aayirunnu snooping kaashukalulla aadyathe buzz connectucheytha multiprosessor.
simmed samanthara computerukal 1970kalil ninnu kandethaam. onniladhikam nirddeshangalkmel prosessorinte kantrol yoonittinte gettu kaalathamasam thirichadaykkuka ennathaayirunnu aadyakaala simmed computerukalkku pinnile prachodanam. 1964ll laurence livermore deseeya laborattarikkayi oru valia samanthara computer nirmmikkaan slotnik nirddeshichirunnu. addehathinte roopakalppanaykku dhanasahayam nalkiyathu us vyomasenayaan, ithu aadyathe simmed samanthara-computing sramamaayirunnu, iliac IV. 256 prosessorukal vareyulla uyarnna samaantharathvamaayirunnu athinte roopakalppanayude thacol, ithu pinneedu vekttar prosessing ennariyappetta valia daattaasettukalil pravartthikkaan mesheene anuvadichu. ennirunnaalum, naalilonn maathram poortthiyaakkiya padhathikku 11 varshameduthenkilum yadhaartha esttimettinte naaliratti chelavu sambhavichathinal iliac IV-neey "suuppar computerukalil ettavum kuprasiddham" ennu vilichirunnu. 1976ll athinte aadyathe yadhaartha aaplikkeshan pravarthippikkaan thayyaaraakumbol, cray-1 polulla nilavilulla vaanijya suuppar computerukale marikadannu.
jaiva masthishkam oru valia samanthara computer.
1970 kalude thudakkathil, eimti computer sayans aandu artificial intelligence laboratariyil, marvin minsky seymar paper "sosaitti oof mind" sidhaantham vikasippikkaan thudangi, ithu jaiva thalachorine valia samanthara computeraayi kaanunnu. 1986ll minsky 'dhii sosaitti oof mind' prasidheekarichu, athu avakaashappedunnu, 'manass roopappedunnathu niravadhi cheria ejantumaaril ninnaan, oororutharum svayam budhiheenaraanu'. budhishakthi ennu naam vilikkunnathu budhishoonyamaaya bhaagangalude prathipravartthanatthinte uthppannamaakumenn vishadeekarikkaan sidhaantham shramikkunnu. kuttikalude blokkukal upayogichu nirmmikkaan robotic kaii, viidiyoo camera, computer enniva upayogikkunna oru yanthram srishtikkaan shramichathil ninnaan eee sidhaanthathekkurichulla aashayangalude ettavum valia uravidam vannathennu minsky parayunnu.
samanamaaya maathrkakal (ithu jaiva thalachorine oru valia samanthara computeraayi kaanunnu, athaayath.iii.swathanthramo ardha-swathanthramo aaya ejantumaarude oru koottamaanu thalachoru) ivayum vivarichirunnu

