american aikyanaadukalile jayil samvidaanangalude charithram

american viplavathinu thottumunbu amerikkayil mattu tharatthilulla criminal shikshakalkk pakaram thadavu shiksha nalkaan thudangi, ennirunnaalum 1500-kall muthal thanne englandil shiksha thadavu sramangal nadakkunnundaayirunnu, koodaathe nilavarakaludeyum vividha thadankal soukaryangaludeyum roopathilulla jayilukal aadyathe paramadhikaara rajyangal muthale nilavilundaayirunnu. colonial kaalaghattatthil, kodathikalum majistrettumaarum pizha, nirbandhitha thozhil, pothu niyanthranam, chaattavaaradi, amgavaikalyam, maranam ennivayulppedeyulla shikshakal earppeduthukayum chila prathikale shereefukal vichaaranaykkaayi thadavilaakkukayum cheythirunnu. thadankal shikshaye oru shikshayaayi upayogikkunnathine yadhaarthathil vadhashikshaykkum shaareerika shikshaykkum kooduthal manushikamaaya badalaayi kaanapettirunnu, prathyekichu pensylvaniayile bhookambakkaarkkidayil. amerikkayil jayil nirmmaana sramangal moonnu pradhana tharamgangaliloodeyaanu nadannathu. aadyathethu jaxonian kaalaghattatthil aarambikkukayum american aabhyantharayudhasamayathu mikkavarum ellah samsthaanangalilum mikka kuttakrithyangalkkum praadhamika shikshayaayi thadavum punaradhivasa thozhilaalliyum vyaapakamaayi upayogikkunnathilekku nayikkukayum cheythu. randaamathethu aabhyantharayudhathinusham aarambikkukayum purogamana kaalaghattatthil aakkam koottukayum cheythu, parol, probation, anischithamaaya shikshavidhi thudangiya niravadhi puthiya samvidaanangal american shiksha sanbradaayathinte mukhyadhaarayilekku konduvannu. oduvil, 1970-kalude thudakkam muthal, america federal, samsthaana thalangalil charitraparamaayi abhoothapoorvamaaya jailwasa samvidaanangalude vipuleekaranathil earppettittundu. 1973 muthal amerikkayil thadavilullavarude ennam anjirattiyaayi vardhichu. ippol, ekadesham 2,200,000 aalukal, allengil muthirnna janasamkhyayude 3.2 sathamaanam, amerikkayil thadavilaanu, koodaathe ekadesham 7,000,000 parol probation ulppedeyulla thiruthal samvidaanathile eathenkilum roopathinte melnottathilaanu. jayil nirmmaanathinteyum parishkaranatthinteyum kaalaghattangal jayil samvidaanangaludeyum avayude douthyangaludeyum ghadanayilum, avayude bharananirvahanathinum melnottathinumulla federal, stettu ejansikalude utharavaadithangalilum, thadavukaarude niyamaparavum raashtreeyavumaaya padaviyilum valia mattangal srishtichu.
american aikyanaadukalile jayilukalude boudhika uthbhavam.
charitrakaaranaaya aadam jeey. parayunnathanusarichu, criminal shikshayude oru roopamaayi thadankal shiksha "anglo-american niyamashaasthrathile thaarathamyena sameepakaala episode" aanu. hirsh. pathonpathaam noottaandinu munbu, britiish vadakke amerikkayile criminal kodathikalil shikshaanadapadikal apoorvamaayirunnu. ennaal tudormaarude bharanakaalathuthanne englandil shikshaanadapadi upayogichirunnu, munballengilum. viplavaananthara jayilukal amerikkayil uyarnnuvannappol, hirshinte vaakkukalil paranjaal, avaa muun american kolanikalil ninnulla boudhika bhoothakaalathil ninnulla "adisthaanaparamaaya vyathiyaanamalla". 1780ll nirmmicha masaachyusets kaasil ailand jayil polulla aadyakaala american jayil samvidaanangal pradhaanamaayum 1500-kalile engleesh workhousinte maathruka anukarichu.
amerikkayile jayilukal.
jayilukalude aadyakaala kolanivalkkaranatthe englandile niyamavum paramadhikaaravum criminal kuttakrithyangalodulla avarude prathikaranangalum swaadheenichirunnuvenkum kuttakrithyatthinte shikshayodulla mathaparamaya abhiruchiyum ithinu undaayirunnu. kizhakkan samsthaanangalile janasamkhya kuravaayathinaal nilavilulla criminal kodukal palikkaan prayasamaayirunnu, ithu amerikkayil niyama maattangalilekku nayichu. kizhakkan samsthaanangalile janasamkhya vardhanavaanu yuu. esile jayil samvidaanathinte parishkaranatthilekku nayichathu.ezz. ooksfoord charithramanusarichu, jayilukalude pravarthanatthinaayi "thadavukaare kastadiyilaakkuka, kramam nilanirthuka, achadakkam niyanthrikkuka, surakshithamaaya anthareeksham enniva nilanirthuka, thadavukaarkku manyamaaya saahacharyangal nalkuka, aarogya pariraksha ulppedeyulla avarude aavasyangal niravettuka, thadavukaare sahayikkunna nalla bharanakoodangal nalkuka avarude kuttakaramaya perumaattam pariharikkuka, kazhiyunnathra utharavaadithamulla oru jeevitam anuvadikkuka, thadavukaarkku avarude samoohathilekku madangaan thayyaredukkaan sahayikkuka"
thadavukaare thadavilaakkunnathu manushyacharithrathile oru aashayamaanu. yuu.kuttavaalikale thadavilaakkunna kaaryatthil charithratthil ninnulla chila ashayangal jayilukal sweekarichu. broose jonsttan parayunnathanusarichu, "aalukale nirbandhithamaayi thadavilaakkuka enna ashayam theerchayaayum puraathanamaan, koodaathe vividha tharatthilulla kuttavaalikale thadavilaakkunnathinu romacarc nannayi vikasippicha samvidaanamundaayirunnu ennathinu vipulamaaya thelivukalundu" 1789 ll amerikkayil parishkkaranam nadakkaan thudangunnathuvare ithu nadannilla. david jeey. nammude swaathanthryathinte swaathanthryamaanu niyama parishkaranatthinu sahaayichathenn rathman abhipraayappedunnu. rohtman parayunnathanusarichu, newyorkkil niyamangal valare "krooratha niranjathum raajavaazhchayude thathwangal ullathumaayirunnu" ennathinaal avayil maattam varuthi. pensylvaniayile niyamangal maari, kavarchayum kavarchayum vadhashikshaykk vidhikkaavunna kuttakrithyangalil ninnu ozhivaakkukayum phastt digri kolapathakam maathram avasheshikkukayum cheythu. newyork, nyoojezhsi, virgenia enniva avarude thalasthaana kuttakrithyangalude pattika update cheyyukayum kuraykkukayum cheythu. vadhashikshayude kuttakrithyangal kurachathu mattu tharatthilulla shikshayude aavasyakatha srishtikkukayum ithu kooduthal kaalam thadavilaayirikkunnathilke nayikkukayum cheythu. ettavum pazhaya jayil 1720ll mainsile yorkkilaan nirmmichathu. samsthaana jayilayi marria aadyathe jayil walnut street jayilayirunnu. ithu amerikkayile kizhakkan athirthi samsthaanangaliludaneelamulla samsthaana jayilukalude kalaapathilekku nayichu. greenwich graamatthile newgate stettu jayil 1796-lum nyoojezhsi 1797-lum virjeeniya kentakkiyum 1800-lum vermont, nyoo hamshire, maryland ennivayum taamasiyaathe koottichertthu.
koottichertthu thudakkathil amerikkakkar parishkaranatthe anukoolichirunnu. thadavukaare niyamam anusarikkunna pouranmaaraayi punaradhivasippikkukayaan adutha nadapadiyennu avarkk aashayangalundaayirunnu. jayil samvidaanathinte pravarthanangalil avarkk maattam varuthendathundu. sthaapanangal vikasippichedutha reethi maattunnath thadavukaarkku marran aavashyamaaya upakaranangal nalkumennu jaxonian american parishkarthaakkal pratheekshichu. punaradhivasa ashayam nadappaakkiya aadyathe jayilayi aubarn stettu jayil maari. thadavukaare ottappeduthukayum anusaranm padippikkukayum thadavukaariloode ulppaadana maargangalkkaayi thozhil upayogikkukayum cheyyuka ennathaayirunnu jayilinte pravartthanam. rathman parayunnathanusarichu, "thadavinte lakshyam prathirodhamalla, parishkaranamaayirunnu."taamasiyaathe pensylvania modaliloode oru malsara padhathi nilavil vannu, athu manushya sanbarkkam illaathaakkukayallaathe eathaandu abarn modalinu samaanamaayi pravarthichu. ithinartham thadavukaare cellukalil ottaykku thadavilaakkukayum ottaykku bhakshanam kazhikkukayum amgeekritha sandarshakare maathrame kaanaan kazhiyoo.
jayilukalude vikasanam 1800 muthal aadhunika kaalaghattatthilekku maari. maari kanakkanusarichu 750,000-thiladhikam aalukal samsthaana jayilukalilo kaundi jayilukalilo thadavilaayirunnu. ithrayum valia ennam thadavukaare paarppikkan kazhiyunna tharatthilalla jayilukal roopakalppana cheythirunnathu. puthiya vasthukkaludeyum aashayangaludeyum vikasanathode, vardhichuvarunna janasamkhyaye ulkkollunnathinayi jayilukal shaareerikamaayi maari. uyarnna mathilukal nilanirtthiyenkilum, nireekshanam, electronic nireekshana paridhikal thudangiya puthiya aadhunika saankethikavidyakal cherkkukayum jayilukalude pravartthanareethiyil maattam varuthukayum cheythu. jayil operating sisttathinte maattam jayilukalile janangalude aavasyangal niravettunnathinaayi jayilukale onniladhikam gadakangalaayi vibhajikkaan kaaranamaayi. samakaalika jaile norwal morris ezhuthunnu, "avide 'thuranna jayilukal' undu... 'vaaranthya jayilukal', 'day jayilukal'."aadyakaala jayil samvidaanathinte punarvikasanatthil shikshayude maattam poornnamaayum maari ennalla ithinartham. athu ippozhum saamoohika kramam nilanirthukayum raashtreeyavum nirantharam maarikkondirikkunna kaaryangalum vazhi neengukayum cheiyunnu.
engleesh varkk house.
aadyakaala yunaittad stetts jayilukalude boudhika mungamiyaaya engleesh workhouse daridrarude alasathaykkulla oru "chikitsa" yaayittaan aadyamaayi vikasippichath. kaalakramena engleesh udyogastharum parishkaranakkaarum ellaatharam kuttavaalikaleyum punaradhivasippikkunnathinu oru pothu samvidaanamaayi eee thozhilkendrathe kandu.
kandu englandile pothu njaanam swath kuttakrithyangalkku alasathaye kaaranamaayi. "pathinalam noottaandinte madhyathil paarlament thozhilaallikalude niyamam paasakkiyathumuthal "alasata" oru staattas kuttakrithyamaayirunnu. 1530 aayappozhekkum, "rogish allengil naadodi vyapaaram allengil life" nayichathinu sikshikkappetta engleesh prajakal chaattavaaradikkum vikruthamaakkalinum vidheyaraavukayum aavarthanakkaarkku vadhasiksha neridendivarikayum cheythu.
1557-ll englandile palarum vardhichuvarunnathaayi manassilakki. athe varsham thanne lunden nagaram nagaraparidikkullil arasttilaaya naadodikalkkulla oru warehouseayi vadhunila veendum thurannu. vadhuvinte kinarile eathenkilum rund gavarnarmaarude utharavanusarichu, oru vyakthiye aazhchakal muthal niravadhi varshangal vareyulla kasttadi kaalayalavilekku jayilil adaykkaam. thudarnnulla dashakangalil, "thiruthal veedukal" allengil vadhunila polulla "workhouseukal" englandiludaneelamulla pattanangalude oru gadakamaayi maari-1576 ll paarlament eee mekhalayile ellah kaundikalum oru workhouse nirmmikkaan thudangiyappol ithu sthiramaayi maari.
varkk house oru kasttadi sthaapanam mathramaayirunnilla. thadavil paarppichathinte anubhavam kadinaadhvaanathiloode thozhilsthalathe thaamasakkaare punaradhivasippikkumenn athinte chila vakthaakkal pratheekshichirunnu. alasata" yill ninnu nirbandhithamaayi vittunilkkunnath naadodikale uthppaadanakshamamaaya pouranmaaraayi maattumenn anuyaayikal vishwasichu. jolisthalathinte bheeshani alasathaye thadayumennum thadavukaarante thozhil jolisthalathinu thanne oru maarggam nalkumennum mattu anuyaayikal vaadichu. praadeshika adhikaarikal purappeduvicha rekhaamoolamulla niyanthranangalum samadhana nireekshanatthilulla praadeshika jadjimaarum chernnaanu eee sthaapanangalude bharanam niyanthrikkunnath.
kuttavaalikalo mattu kuttavaalikalo allathe "naadodikal" aayirunnu varkk housile aadya nivaasikal-kuttavaalikalilekkulla athinte upayogam vipuleekarikkunnathinekku charcha cheythu. oru anuyojyamaaya sarkkar pouranmaare engane vadhasikshayalla, adimatham kondu shikshikkanamenn sarr thomas "uttopiya" (1516) ll kooduthal vivarikkukayum englandil shikshaanadapadikal upayogikkaan vyakthamaayi shupaarsha cheyyukayum cheythu. henry VIII-nte chappline thomas starkki, sikshikkappetta kuttavaalikale "chila pothu jolikalil earppeduthanamennu nirddeshichu. . . athinaal avarude jeevithathiloode kammyoon welth schold kurachu labham nedunnu."1500-kalil somershareile samadhaanathinte neethi enna edward hekst, annathe parambaraagatha shikshakal labhichathinu sesham kuttavaalikale jolisthalathu thozhil cheyyanamennu shupaarsha cheythu.
pathinezhaam noottaandilum pathinettaam noottaandilum vividha cheria kuttavaalikale jolisthalathekku shikshikkunnathinaayi niravadhi paripaadikal pareekshichu. eee shramangalkk munbuthanne niravadhi cheria kuttavaalikale veshyaavrithi niyamangaliloode jolisthalathekku shikshichu. american kolanikalilekku naadukadatthappettukondu vadhashikshaykk vidhikkapetta kuttavaalikale mochippikkunnathinaayi 1622-ll jaims onnaaman rajaavu niyogicha oru commission, rajaavo addehathinte mantrimaro mattuvidhathil theerumaanikkunnathuvare, kuttavaalikale "atharam bhaarameriyathum vedanaajanakavumaaya chila jolikalilum jolikalilum ivide veettilum jeernikkaanum thiruthal veettilo mattu sthalangalilo changalakalilakkaanum" adikaaram nalki. moonnu varshathinullil, prathyekamaayi kanakkakkiya cheria kuttakrithyangalkku varkk hausil thadavilaakkaan vardhichuvarunna niyamangalude oru samgham adhikaarappeduthi.
1700-kalil udaneelam, englandinte "raktharookshithamaaya niyamam" roopappettappol polum, kadinashramathil thadavilaakkappedunnathu vividha tharatthilulla kuttavaalikalkk sveekaaryamaaya shikshayaayi kanakkakkappettu-"udha.jii.", purohithanmaarude aanukoolyathaalo maappiloodeyo suspended cheytha vadhasiksha labhichavar, kolanikalilekku kondupokaatthavar allengil cheria kallappanathin sikshikkappettavar. 1779-ll-american viplavam kuttavaalikale vadakke amerikkayilekku kondupokunnathu asaadhyamaakkiya oru samayat-engleesh paarlament dutch workhousil maathrkayaakkiya aabhyanthara niyantranangalulla rund lunden jayilukal nirmmikkunnath nirbandhamaakki-"i.iii.", thadavukaar avarude bhakshanakramam, vasthram, ashayavinimayam enniva karsanamaayi niyanthrikkunna vidhathil pakal samayat kooduthalo kuravo nirantharam advaanikkum. shiksha thadankal shikshaye engleesh criminal niyamatthinte kendrabinduvaayi maattumenn jayil niyamam vaagdaanam cheythirunnuvenkilum, athu nirddeshicha jayilukalude oru parambara orikkalum nirmikkappettilla.
jayil niyamatthinte aathyanthika parajayam undaayirunnittum, niyamanirmmanam "[] velippeduthunna niyamanirmmaana shramangalude oru parambarayude paryavasaanamaayi adayaalappeduthi. . . charitrakaaranaaya aadam jeey. parayunnathanusarichu, anglo-american criminal niyamathile punaradhivasa thadankal prathyayashaasthrathinte "puraathanatha, thudarcha, deerghakaalam". hirsh. aadyakaala yunaittad stetts jayilukalil aadyakaala engleesh workhouseukalude gadakangal ulppettirunnu-divasathile kadinaadhvaanavum thadavukaarude karshana melnottavum.
engleesh jeevakaarunyapravarthakan penalaji.
englandile shiksha thadankal shikshaye pinthunacha randaamathe groupil 1700-kalil engleesh criminal neethinyaaya samvidaanathinte kaadinyam kuraykkunnathinu shramicha vividha mathavibhaagangalile purohithanmaarum "saadhaarana peettistukalum" ulppedunnu. thudakkathil, joonn hovardineppolulla parishkarthaakkal engleesh jayilukalile vichaaranaykk munbulla thadankalinte kadinamaaya saahacharyangalil shradha kendreekarichu. ennaal pala jeevakaarunya pravartthakarum jayil bharanathilum thadavukaarkkulla shuchithvathilum thangalude sramangal parimithappedutthiyilla; thadavukaarude athmeeya aarogyathilum ellah thadavukaareyum kramarahithamayi orumichu kalarthunna pothu sanbradaayathe thadayunnathilum avarkk thaalpparyamundaayirunnu. thadavukaarude vargeekaranatheyum eakaantha thadankalineyum kurichulla avarude ashayangal purogamana kaalaghattatthil nilaninnirunna amerikkayile shikshaparamaaya naveekaranatthinte mattoru antharpravaahavumaayi poruthappedunnu.
saamuval denninte "laadu brock prabhuvinulla kathu" (1771), jonas hanwayude "celetude inn jayil" (1776) ennivayil ninnu aarambhich, engleesh shiksha parishkaranathekkurichulla jeevakaarunya saahityam jayil pashchaathalatthile kuttavaalikalude shikshaananthara punaradhivaasatthil shradha kendreekarikkaan thudangi. avar orotta shabdathil polum samsaarichillengilum, jeevakaarunyavaadikalaaya penologistukal kuttakrithyathe kuttavaaliyude daivathil ninnulla verpiriyalinte pottippurappettathayi kaanunnu. udaaharanathinu, criminal niyamathe punaradhivasippikkunnathinu velluvili kristheeya daivathilulla thante vishwaasavum bhayavum punasthaapikkunnathilaanum "iru lokangalilum santhoshathinu [avane] yogyanaakkunnathilaanennum hanway vishwasichu."
pathinettaam noottaandile niravadhi engleesh jeevakaarunya pravartthakar thadavukaare dhaarmmikamaayi punaradhivasippikkunnathinu oru maargamaayi eakaantha thadavu nirddeshichu. kuranjathu 1740 muthal, jeevakaarunya chinthakar shikshaanadapadikal rund praadhamika aavasyangalkkaayi upayogikkunnathinekkur samsaarichu (1) mattu thadavukaarude dhaarmika pakarchavyaadhiyil ninnu jayil thadavukaare ottappeduthuka, (2) avarude athmeeya veendedukkal aarambikkuka. manushyasnehikal kadinaprayatnathekkaal valare shreshtamaaya eakaanthatha kandethi, athu kuttavaaliyude laukika swabhaavathil maathrame athiyulloo, kuttakrithyatthinte adisthaana athmeeya kaaranagal manassilakkunnathil parajayappettu. jayil" allengil paapathinulla anuthaapa sthalam enna avarude sangalppathil, engleesh jeevakaarunya pravartthakar bhookhanda maathrkakalil ninnu maari, saamoohika charitrakaaranmaaraaya maikkal merancinteyum maikkal ignettifinteyum abhipraayathil oru valia puthumayulla aashayathin janmam nalki-ithu amerikkayil shikshaanadapadikalilekku vazhimari.
englandil jeevakaarunya pravartthakarude eakaamga paripadi nadappakkunnathinulla oru pradhana rashtreeya thadassam saambathikamaayirunnu oro thadavukaaranum vyakthigatha cellukal nirmmikkunnathin pathinettaam noottaandile engleesh jayilukalude saadhaaranamaaya pothu bhawana krameekaranangalekkaal kooduthal chelavu varum. ennaal 1790 aayappozhekkum kuttavalikalkkulla praadeshika eakaantha thadankal soukaryangal gloucestershayarilum mattu niravadhi engleesh kaundikalilum prathyakshappettu.
ottappedalilum dhaarmika malineekaranathilum jeevakaarunya pravartthakarude shradha yunaittad stetsile aadyakaala jayilukalude aditharayaayi maari. sweekarichu american aikyanaadukalil uyarnnuvanna jeevakaarunyapravarthakaaya parishkarthaavu joonn hovardinteyum purathana thadavarakaludeyum reportukal akkaalathe philadelphians aakaamkshayode pinthudarnnu.jii.", aburn kizhakkan samsthaana jayilukalum-randum thadavukaare dhaarmmikamaayi punaradhivasippikkan lakshyamitulla oru eakaantha bharanam nadappaakki. thadavukaare vargeekarikkuka enna ashayam-allengil thadavukaare avarude perumaattam, praayam muthalaayava anusarichu vibhajikkuka.- yunaittad stetts jayilukalil innum upayogathilundu.
yuktivaada penology.
engleesh shiksha parishkaranatthil earppettirikkunna moonnaamathe samgham yukthivaadikalo "yootlitteriyan" kaloo aayirunnu. charitrakaaranaaya aadam jeey. hirsh, pathinettaam noottaandile yuktivaada kriminalshaasthram "saamoohika sthaapanangal kettippadukkunnathinulla eaka saadhuvaaya maargganirddeshamaayi manushyante yukthikkum yukthikkum anukoolamaayi thiruvezhuthukale nirasichu.
pathinettaam noottaandile yukthisahamaya thathwachinthakaraaya siser bekaria, jeremi bentham ennivar oru "kuttakrithyatthinte puthiya sidhaantham" vikasippichu-prathyekichum, oru nadapadiye criminal shikshaykk vidheyamaakkiyathu athu samoohathile mattu amgangalkku varuthunna doshamaanu. yukthivaadikale sambandhichidatholam, saamoohika upadravathinu kaaranamaakaatha papangal sivil kodathikalude paridhiyil varillaayirunnu. paristhithi maathram manushyante perumaattatthe nirvachikkunnuvennu nilanirtthiya joonn lokkinte "sensational saikkolaji" oru maargganirddeshamaayi, pala yukthivaadikalum oru kuttavaaliyude perumaattatthinte verukal avante allengil avalude munkaala parithasthithiyil thedi.
eathu paaristhithika gadakangalaanu kuttakrithyathinu kaaranamaayath enna kaaryatthil yukthivaadikal vyathyastharaayirunnu. siser bekaria ulppedeyulla chila yukthivaadikal "anishchithathvam" criminal shikshaye kuttappedutthi, athesamayam muun criminal vidagdhar criminal prathirodhatthe shikshayude "theevratha" yumayi bandhippichirunnu. churukkatthil, arast, shikshavidhi, kuttakrithyathinulla shiksha enniva "vegathilum thettillaatthathilum" ullidathu, kuttakrithyathinulla shikshakal mithamaayi thudaraamennu bekaria vishwasichu. samakaalika shiksha niyamangalude sathayekkurichu bekaria oru prashnavum eduthilla-udha.jii., chattavaaradiyum thoonukalum; pakaram, avayude roopathilum nadappakkalilum addeham prashnam eduthu.
jeremi benthaamineppolulla mattu yukthivaadikal, prathirodhatthinu maathram criminal pravartthanangal avasaanippikkaan kazhiyillennu vishwasikkukayum pakaram saamoohika paristhithiye kuttakrithyangalude aathyanthika uravidamaayi kaanukayum cheythu. criminal pravarthanangalekkurichu benthaaminte sangalpam kuttavaalikalude punaradhivaasatthinte aavasyakathayekkurichu jeevakaarunyapravarthakaraya parishkarthaakkalumaayi yojikkan addehathe prerippichu. ennaal, jeevakaarunya pravartthakaril ninnu vyathyasthamayi, bentham samana chinthagathikkaaraaya yukthivaadikalum vishwasichirunnathu punaradhivaasatthinte yadhaartha lakshyam kuttavaalikale mathathil ninnulla verpiriyalalla, marichu kuttakrithyatthinte yukthisahamaya "anubhavaparichayamillaayma" kaanikkuka ennathaanu. eee yukthivaadikale sambandhichidatholam, samoohamaayirunnu kuttakrithyangalude uravidavum pariharavum.
aathyanthikamayi, kadinaadhvaanam mungananayulla yuktivaada chikilsayaayi maari. bentham oduvil eee sameepanam sweekarikkukayum 1791-ll paanoptikkon jailinaayulla addehathinte ariyappedunna roopakalppana thadavukaarkku avarude thadavinte kaalayalavil eakaantha cellukalil jolie cheyyaan ahvaanam cheyyukayum cheythu. mattoru yukthivaadiyaaya vilyam eedan, joonn howard, justice vilyam blaakkston ennivarumaayi sahakarichu 1779 leeii jayil niyamam thayyarakki, athu kadinamaaya adhvaanathinte shiksha vyavasthaykku ahvaanam cheythu.
saamoohikavum niyamaparavumaaya charitrakaaranaaya aadam jeey. ennirunnaalum, yukthivaadikalkku yunaittad stetts shiksha sanbradaayangalil dvitheeya swaadheenam maathrame undaayirunnulloo. ennaal avarude ashayangal-american aikyanaadukalile jayil parishkarthaakkal bodhapoorvam sweekarichaalum illengilum-innuvare vividha american shiksha samrambhangalil prathidhwanikkunnu.
american aikyanaadukalile jayil samvidaanangalude charitraparamaaya vikasanam.
niyamacharitrakaaranaaya aadam jeey. parayunnathanusarichu vadakke amerikkayile britiish kudiyettatthil prathikalkk nirnaayaka pankundaayirunnu. kuttavaalikale mothatthil thadavilaakkunnathu yadhaarthathil anglo-american niyamashaasthrathinte charithratthile thaarathamyena sameepakaala episode aanu."vadakke amerikkayile aadyakaala engleesh kudiyettam muthal jayil soukaryangal nilavilundaayirunnu, ennaal bhoomishaasthraparamaayi vyapakamaaya oru "jayil" prasthaanatthinte falamaayi american aikyanaadukalude niyama charithratthinte aadya varshangalil eee soukaryangalude adisthaana uddeshyam maari. raashtreeyavum shaasthreeyavumaaya sambhavavikaasangaludeyum jaxonian yugam, punarnirmmaana yugam, purogamana yugam, yugam ennivayile sradheyamaaya parishkarana prasthaanangaludeyum falamaayi amerikkayile jayil samvidaanangalude roopavum pravartthanavum marikkondirikkunnu. ennaal american viplavathinte pashchaathalatthil aadyamaayi uyarnnuvannathumuthal criminal shikshayude praadhamika samvidaanamenna nilayil shiksha thadavinte padavi athepadi thudarunnu.
neratheyulla othutheerppu, kuttavaalikalude gathagatham, thadavukaarkkulla vyapaaram.
europian kudiyettakkaarude varavu muthal thadavukaarum jayilukalum vadakke amerikkayil oresamayam prathyakshappettu. christopher columbus ennariyappedunna paryavekshakanodoppam kappal yaatra cheytha thonnooro athiladhikamo purushanmaaril kaanari dveepukalil ninnu thattikkondupoya oru karuthavargakkaaranum kuranjathu naalu prathikalum undaayirunnu. 1570 aayappozhekkum spanish sainikar sent. floridayile augustin vadakke amerikkayile aadyathe ganyamaaya jayil nirmmichu. puthiya lokathile bhoomikkum sambathinum vendi mattu europian rajyangal spainumaayi malsarikkaan thudangiyappol, avarum thangalude kappalukalile jeevanakkaare niraykkaan kuttavaalikalilekku thirinju.
saamoohika charitrakaariyaaya maari gotshaakkinte abhipraayathil, innathe yunaittad stetsile engleesh othutheerppu shramangalkk kuttavaalikal "anivaryamaayirunnu". pathinaram noottaandinte avasaanathil, englandile puthiya lokathe sthirathaamasamaakkaan kuttavaalikale valia thothilulla nirbandhitha sainikasevanathinu richard hakluyit ahvaanam cheythu. ennaal 1606ll engleesh kireedam kolanivalkkarana sramangal vardhippikkunnathuvar hucklutinte nirddeshathekkurichulla audyogika nadapadi pinnott pooyi.
innathe mainil sarr joonn poppaaminte colonial samrambham "englandile ellah goal [jayilukalil] ninnum" sambharikkappettathayi oru samakaalika vimarshakan parathippettu."jaimstown sthirathaamasamaakkunnathinta utharavaadithamulla korpparettu sthaapanamaaya virgenia kambani, thaddesheeya american kuttikale mathaparivarthanathinaayi kazhiyunnidathellaam pidikoodunnathinu colonicarc adikaaram nalki... sathyadaivathinteyum avarude veendeduppukaaranaaya kristhuyeshuvinteyum arivinum aaraadhanaykkum."kolonistukal thanne kambaniyude govarnorudeyum ejantumaarudeyum thadavukaaraayi jeevichu. rakshappedaan shramicha purushanmaar peedippikkappettu; thunnalil thettu cheytha thunnalkkar chaattavaaradikk vidheyayayi. gavarnarkkethire "adisthaanavum apakeerthikaravumaaya vaakkukal" paranjathaayi aaropikkappedunna oru richard barnine, vaasasthalathu ninnu poornnamaayum naadukadatthunnathinumbu "niraayudharaayi kaikal thakarkkanum naav oru eiii. ell. ell kondu virasappeduthaanum" utharavittu.
1618-ll virgenia kambaniyude niyanthranam sarr edwin saandisinu kaimariyappol, avarude ishtathinu virudhamaayi dhaaraalam kudiyettakkaare puthiya lokathekku konduvaraanulla shramangalkk karar adimatham polulla kuranja nirbandhitha nadapadikalkkoppam shradha labhichu. elisabath onnaaman raajnjiyude bharanakaalathu eee kaalayalavil vadhashikshaykk pakaramaayi american kolanikalkku shiksha gathagatham nalkaan vagrancy niyamangal thudangi. athesamayam, "vagransi" yude niyamaparamaaya nirvachanam valareyadhikam vipuleekarikkappettu.
taamasiyaathe, kolapathakam, manthravaadam, kavarcha, balaalsangam ennee kuttangalkk sikshikkappettavar ozhikeyulla eathoru kuttavaaliyeyum niyamaparamaayi virjeeniyayilekko vestt indeesilekko oru thotta velakkaranaayi kondupokaamenna dhaarana oru rajakeeya commissionukal amgeekarichu. breedermar" aayi velakkaare jayimstounilekku ayaykkaanum sandies nirddeshichu, avarude yaathrachelav thottakkaarkk nalkaan kazhiyum, avar avare "bharyamaaraayi" sweekarichu."taamasiyaathe, atharam arupathiladhikam sthreekal kanyakakalilekku kadannupoyi, kooduthal perr pinthudarnnu. jaims onnaaman raajaavinte rajakeeya bharanasamvidaanavum "alanjuthiriyunna" kuttikale puthiya lokathekku daasanmaraayi ayachu. ayachu 1619num idayil 1,500 kuttikale virjeeniyayilekku ayachathaayi virgenia kambaniyude rekhakalile oru kathu soochippikkunnu. 1619 aayappozhekkum aafrikkan thadavukaare jayimstounilekku konduvarikayum adimakalaayi vilkkukayum cheythu, ithu atlaantik adimakkachavadathilekku englandinte praveshanathe adayaalappeduthunnu.
pathinezhaam noottaandinte thudakkathil thattikkondupoya kuttikal, velakkaar, kuttavaalikal, aafrikkakkaar ennivare kanyakakalilekku chertthathu ekadesham rund noottaandukalolam thudarnnukondirunna oru maathrkaykku thudakkamittu. 1650 aayappozhekkum colonial vadakke amerikkayilekkulla britiish kudiyettakkaaril bhooribhaagavum karar cheytha sevakar, kuttavaalikalaaya thozhilaallikal, adimakal enningane eathenkilum tharatthilulla "thadavukaaraayi" maari.
punasthaapanathinushesham thadavukaarude vyapaaram engleesh colonial nayatthinte "chalikkunna shakthiyaayi" maari-i.iii.1660-leeii venalkkaalam muthal-1680 aayappozhekkum, engleesh kireedatthaal prathivarsham ekadesham 10,000 perr amerikkayilekku naadukadatthappedunnuvennu aadaraneeyanaaya morgan godwin kanakkakki.
pathinettaam noottaandil paarlament thadavukaarude vyapaaram thwarithappeduthi. englandinte raktharookshitha niyamaprakaaram, raajyathe kuttavaalikalaaya janasamkhyayude valiyoru bhagam vadhasiksha nerittu. ennaal mapp nalkunnathu saadhaaranamaayirunnu. pathinettaam noottaandil, engleesh kodathikalil vadhashikshaykk vidhikkappettavaril bhooribhaagathinum mapp nalkappettu-palappozhum kolanikalilekkulla swamedhayaa ulla gathaagathathinu pakaramaayi. 1717-ll, kuttavaalikale gathaagathathinu nerittu shikshikkaan paarlament engleesh kodathikale adhikaarappeduthi, 1769 aayappozhekkum gathagatham grettu brittanile gurutharamaaya kuttakrithyangalude pradhana shikshayaayirunnu. 1769-ll pazhaya beyliyude sessionukalil sikshikkappettavaril moonnil rund bhaagavum kondupokappettu. gathagatham urappunalkunna "gurutharamaaya kuttakrithyangalude" pattika pathinezhaam noottaandil cheythathupole pathinettaam noottaandiludaneelam vikasichukondirunnu. charithrakaaran eiii. sthirathaamasamaakki colonial amerikkayilekkulla britiish kudiyettakkaaril naalilonn perum kuttavaalikalaayirunnuvennu rogger ekkirchu kanakkakkunnu. kanakkakkunnu jaims oglethorppu jorjiyayude koolani eathaandu poornnamaayum kuttavaalikalaaya kudiyettakkaarumaayi sthirathaamasamaakki.
sthirathaamasamaakki saadhaarana kondupookunna kuttavaaliye vadakke american kolanikalil oru jayil kappalil konduvannu."athiyashesham, kuttavaaliyude sookshippukaaran oru kuttavaaliyude lelathinulla thayyaareduppinaayi avane allengil avale kulikkukayum (angeyattatthe kesukalil, oru puthiya wig nalkukayum cheiyunnu) dharippikkukayum cheyyum. kuttavaalikalude charakkukalude varavu pathrangal munkootty parasyam cheyyukayum lela blockil ninnu kuttavaalikale vaangaan vaangunavar oru nischitha manikkooril athukayum cheyyum.
kuttavaalikalude vyaapaarathil jayilukal oru pradhana punk vahichu. pathinettaam noottaandile american thadavukaar vyaapaarathinte uyarnna kaalaghattatthil fleet, newgate thudangiya chila purathana jayilukal ippozhum upayogathilundaayirunnu. ennaal kooduthal saadhaaranayaayi oru pazhaya veedu, madhyakala nilavara sthalam allengil swakaarya ghadana enniva american thottangalko royal navico (mathippulavaakkunna) bandhikkappettavarkk oru holding penayaayi pravartthikkum. puthiya lokathekku gathagatham karsanamaayi niyamavidheyamallaatha thadavukaarkkaayi pradhana thuramukha nagarangalil rahasya jayilukal pravarthippikkunnathu eee kaalayalavil atlaantik samudrathinte iruvashathum labhakaramaaya oru vyaapaaramaayi maari. samakaalika jayilukalil ninnu vyathyasthamayi, kuttavaalikalude vyaapaaravumaayi bandhappettavar oru kasttadi pravarthichirunnu, shikshaanadapadiyalla.
britiish vadakke amerikkayile pala kolanikkaarum kuttavaalikalude gathaagathathe ethirthu. 1683-ll thanne pensylvaniayude colonial niyamanirmmanasabha athinte athirthikalil kuttavaalikale konduvarunnathil ninnu thadayaan shramichu. benchamin franklin kuttavaalikalude gathaagathathe "oru vyakthi mattoraalkk nalkia apamaanavum avahelanavum, ettavum krooravum" ennu visheshippichu."vadakke amerikkayile chila raattilsnekkukale englandilekku ayaykkanamennum athinulla prathikaaramaayi ettavum mikacha paarkkukalil ayaykkanamennum franklin nirddeshichu. ennaal englandile vadakke american kolanikalilekkulla kuttavaalikalude gathagatham american viplavam vare thudarnnu, englandile pala udyogastharum shiksha niyamatthinte kaadinyathinteyum engleesh jayilukalile samakaalika saahacharyangaludeyum velichathil ithu oru maanushika aavashyamaayi kandu. doow. gathaagathathinethiraaya american kolanikalile thudarchayaaya prakshobhatthinu britiish adhikaarikal vazhangumenn ketta saamuval jonson jaims boswellinode ingane paranju "enthukondaanu avar kuttavaalikalude vamshamaayirikkunnath, thookkikkollaan njangal anuvadikkunna enthinum nandiyullavaraayirikkanam!"
american viplavam vadakke amerikkayilekkulla thadavukaarude vyapaaram avasaanippichappol, pettennulla nirthalaakkal brittanile shiksha samvidaanathe kuzhappathilaakki, jayilukalum jayilukalum vegathil kolanikalilekku maariyekkaavunna niravadhi kuttavaalikale kondu niranju. sthithigathikal kramena vashalayi. engleesh criminal neethinyaaya samvidaanathile eee prathisandhi ghattathilaanu shiksha parishkarthaavu joonn howard thante pravartthanam aarambhichath. britiish shiksha sanbradaayathekkurichu hovaardinte samagramaya padanamaaya 'englandileyum veyilsileyum jayilukalude avastha' 1777-ll viplavam aarambhich oru varshathinu sheshamaan aadyamaayi prasidheekarichathu.
colonial criminal shikshakal, jayilukal, jolisthalangal.
plimouthu, masaachyusets bay kolanikal ennivayude utharavanusarichaanu 1690ll eee jayil nirmmichathu. 1690-1820 ll ninnulla jayilayi upayogichirunna; oru kaalath konstabilinte veettilekku maattukayum attaachucheyyukayum cheythirunnu. 1971ll charitraparamaaya sthalangalude deseeya rajisttaril 'pazhaya gavol' cherkkapettu.
colonial vadakke american samoohangalude aadyakaala sthaapanamaayirunnu jayilukal ennengilum, avaa saadhaaranayaayi criminal shikshayude oru roopamaayi thadankalppaalayangalaayi pravarthichilla. pakaram, colonial american jayilinte pradhana punk vichaaranaykk munbulla, shikshaykk munbulla criminal prathikalkkum thadavilulla kadakkarkkum shikshaanadapadikalillaatha thadankal soukaryamaayirunnu. pizha, chaattavaaradi, stokku polulla community adhishtitha shikshakal ennivayaayirunnu annathe ettavum saadhaaranamaaya shiksha uparodhangal.
colonial britiish vadakke amerikkayil nirmmicha aadyakaala pothu nirmmithikalil onnaayirunnu jayilukal. udaaharanathinu, masaachyusets bay kolaniyude 1629 leeii colonial charter, samrambhathin pinnile ohari udamakalkku "englandile nammude raajyathile niyamangalkk virudhamalla" enna avarude othutheerppinaayi niyamangal sthaapikkaanum lamghakare "niyamaparamaaya thiruthal" nadatthaanum avakasham nalki, koodaathe 1635 oode masaachyusets kuttavaalikale shikshikkunnathinaayi oru thiruthal kendram sthaapichu. colonial pensylvania 1682 ll aarambhich rund thiruthal veedukal nirmmichu, 1727 ll connecticut onnu sthaapichu. pathinettaam noottaandode, vadakke american kolanikalile oro kaundiyilum oru jayil undaayirunnu.
colonial american jayilukal criminal kuttavalikalkkulla "thiruthalinte saadhaarana samvidaanam" aayirunnillenn saamoohika charitrakaaranaaya david rathman parayunnu. charitrakaaranaaya aadam jeey. yude vaakkukalil, criminal thadavu shiksha enna nilayil criminal thadavu "vyakthamaayi randaamathe thiranjeduppaayirunnu", onnukil annathe parambaraagatha criminal shikshakalkk anubandhamo pakaramo aayirunnu. hirsh. pathinettaam noottaandile criminal kodukal yunaittad stetsile samakaalika samsthaana, federal criminal niyamangalekkaal valare vishalamaaya criminal shikshakal nalki. pizha, chaattavaaradi, stokkukal, thoonukal, pothukkoottam, naadukadatthal, thookkikkollal, swakaarya veedukalil shikshaanadapadi-eee shikshakalellaam britiish colonial amerikkayile thadavinu munbaayirunnu.
colonial kaalaghattatthile ettavum saadhaaranamaaya shiksha pizhayo chattavaradiyo aayirunnu, ennaal stokkukal mattoru saadhaarana shikshayaayirunnu-1662-ll virjeeniyayepolulla mikka kolanikalum kodathimurikko jailino munnil iva nirmmikkaan thidukkapettu. vishudha masaachyusetsile daivabharana samoohangal palliyil pookunna samoohathinu munnil nadatthiya oru aupachaarikamaaya apalapanam, shamaapanam, criminal shiksha (saadhaaranayaayi kuraykkukayo suspended cheiyukayo cheyyuka) enniva polulla vishwaasathe adisthaanamaakkiyulla shikshakal adichelppichu. colonial american workhousilekkulla shiksha-avaa yadhaarthathil prathikalkk mail adichelppikkappettu-apoorvvamaayi moonnu maasathil kaviyukayum chilappol oru divasam maathram neendunilkkukayum cheythu.
colonial jayilukal shiksha thadavu ozhikeyulla vividha pothu pravartthanangal nirvahichirunnu. kadathinulla sivil thadavu ithilonnaanu, ennaal colonial jayilukal yudhathadavukaarudeyum rashtreeya thadavukaarudeyum (prathyekichu american viplavakaalath) warehouseukalaayum pravarthichu. avaa gathagatha, adimatha samvidaanangalude avibhaajya gadakamaayirunnu-kuttavaalikaludeyum adimakaludeyum sambharanasaalakal lelathinu vekkuka mathramalla, rund tharatthilulla dasanmareyum achadakkam cheiyunnathinulla oru maarggam koodiyaayirunnu.
colonial jayilinte praadhamika criminal niyamaparamaaya pravartthanam vichaaranaykk munbullathum shikshaykk munbullathumaaya thadankal soukaryamaayirunnu. colonial jadjimar jaamyathinulla abhyarthanakal apoorvvamaayi nirasichathinaal pothuve, colonial vadakke amerikkayile jayilukalil ettavum daridraro ettavum nindikkappettavaro aaya prathikal maathrame praveshichirunnulloo. colonial jayilukal nalkia eaka shikshaparamaaya pravartthanam avahelanathinaayirunnu-ennaal ithu kodathikalude adikaaram samrakshikkunnathinaayi roopakalppana cheytha oru balaprayoga saankethikavidyayirunnu, allathe swantham avakaashathil shikshaanadapadiyalla.
colonial jayil innathe yunaittad stetts jayilukalil ninnu athinte uddeshyathil mathramalla, athinte ghadanayilum vyathyasthamaayirunnu. avayil palathum oru koodiloo alamaarayilo mathramaayirunnu. colonial jailermar avarude sthaapanangal "kudumba" maathrkayil nadathukayum jailinode chernnulla oru appaartmentil thaamasikkukayum cheythu, chilappol svanthamaayi oru kudumbathodoppam. colonial jayilinte roopakalppana oru saadhaarana gaarhika thaamasasthalathodu saamyamullathaayirunnu, thadavukaar adisthaanaparamaayi avarude kidakka vaadakaykku edukkukayum jailarinu aavasyangalkkaayi panam nalkukayum cheythu.
american viplavam avasaanikkunnathin munbu, colonial jayilarmaarude paricharanatthinteyo mattu utharavaadithangaludeyo kadama nirvachicha chila niyamangalo niyanthranangalo undaayirunnu. paripalanam palappozhum kramarahithamaayirunnu, athu valare saadhaaranamaayirunnu. thadavukaarude aarogyam nilanirthunnathino avarude mattu adisthaana aavasyangal shradhikkunnathino audyogika sramangal kuravaayirunnu.
viplavaananthara shiksha parishkaranavum yunaittad stetts jayil samvidaanangalude thudakkavum.
pathonpathaam noottaandinte thudakkathil american viplavathinu sheshamaan amerikkayile aadyathe pradhana jayil parishkarana prasthaanam aarambhichath. charitrakaaranmaaraaya aadam jeey. hirsh david rohtman chernnu eee kaalaghattatthile parishkkaranatthinu roopam nalkiyathu janasamkhya vardhanavum vardhichuvarunna saamoohika chalanaseshiyum ulla oru kaalaghattatthile pravarthanathinaayulla oru pothu nilaviliyekkaal englandile boudhika prasthaanangal kuravaayirunnu, ithu nirnayakamaaya punarmoolyanirnnayathinum shiksha thiruthal saankethikavidyakalude punaravalokanatthinum kaaranamaayi. eee mattangal pariharikkunnathinayi, colonial kaalatthinu sheshamulla niyamanirmmaathaakkalum parishkaranavaadikalum phalapradamallaatha shaareerikavum parambaraagathavumaaya shikshakalkk pakaram kadinadhwana samvidaanathinte aavasyakatha oonnipparayaan thudangi. aathyanthikamayi, eee aadyakaala sramangal american aikyanaadukalude aadyathe jayil samvidaanangalkku kaaranamaayi.
pathinettaam noottaandinte arambham colonial jeevithathilum oduvil colonial-uthara american jeevithathilum valia janasamkhyaaparavum saamoohikavumaaya maattam konduvannu. kuranja marananirakkinteyum vardhichuvarunna (thudakkathil cheruthaanenkilum) kudiyetta nirakkinteyum falamaayi kolanikalil udaneelam athivega janasamkhya valarcha eee noottaandil adayaalappeduthi. viplava yudhathinusheshavum eee pravanatha thudarnnu. thudarnnu 1790num idayil puthuthayi swathanthramaaya vadakke american samsthaanangalude janasamkhya valareyadhikam vardhichu, nagara kendrangalude ennavum saandrathayum vardhichu. eee kaalayalavil masaachyusetsile janasamkhya eathaandu erattiyaayi, pensylvaniayil moonnirattiyaayi, newyorkkil anjirattiyaayi vardhichu. 1790ll oru american nagaratthilum ambathinaayirathiladhikam nivaasikalundaayirunnil; ennirunnaalum 1830 aayappozhekkum ekadesham 500,000 aalukal athinekkaal valia nagarangalil thaamasichu.
muun britiish kolanikalil ninnulla janasamkhyayum pathinettaam noottaandil, prathyekichu viplavathinushesham, kooduthal sanjarikkaavunna avasthayilekku maari. nagara kendrangalilekkulla, valarnnuvarunna pradeshangalkkullilekkum purathekkumulla neekkavum noottaandiludaneelam kooduthal draavakamaaya saamoohika padiyum thaazhekkum pathinnalam noottaandil american jeevithathe roopappeduthiya praadeshikathaykkum shrenikkum avarude muun praadhaanyam nilanirthunnathu budhimuttaakki. eee viplavam sthaanachalanathinteyum shanikathayudeyum paattenukal thwarithappeduthi, kudiyozhippikkappett kudumbangaleyum muun sinikareyum yudhaananthara sambadvyavasthayude valarcha muradicha avasthayumaayi poruthappedaan paadupedutthunnu. nagarangalude aavirbhavam viplavathinu munbulla maathrkayil ninnu valare vyathyasthamaaya oru samoohathe srishtichu. philadelphia polulla valarnnuvarunna nagara kendrangalile tirakkeriya theruvukal varggam, lingam, vamseeya athirthikal enniva apakadakaramaayi mangikkunnathayi samakaalika nireekshakarkk thonni.
pathinettaam noottaandile janasamkhyaaparamaaya maattam kuttakrithyangalude krameekaranatthile mattangalumaayi poruthappettu. 1700 nuu sesham, vividha srothassukalil ninnulla saahitya thelivukal-"iii.jii.", mantrimar, pathrangal, jadjimar ennivar soochippikkunnathu swath kuttakrithyangalude nirakk vardhichuvennaanu (allengil, kuranjathu, kanakkaakkappettirunnu). pathinettaam noottaandinte avasana pakuthiyil, pakuthiyil athinusheshavum prathyekichu nagarapradeshangalilum shikshavidhi nirakk athivegam uyarnnathayi thonnunnu. muun kuttavalikalkkidayil vyapakamaaya shanikathvavum samakaalika vivaranagal soochippikkunnu.
eee kaalayalavil samoohangal thangalude pattanatthe ellah nivaasikaludeyum aakethukayekkaal kuravaanennu chinthikkaan thudangi, oru prathyeka criminal varggam enna ashayam yaadhaarthyamaakaan thudangi. udaaharanathinu, 1780-kalile philadelphiyayil, nagaratthinte praanthapradeshangalil bhakshanashaalakalude vyaapanathekkurich nagara adhikaarikal aashankaakularaayi, "oru badal, anthar vamseeya, thaazhnna vargga samskaarathinte sthalangal", athaayath oru nireekshakante vaakkukalil, "thinmayude moolamaanu."bosttanil, uyarnna nagara kuttakrithya nirakk 1800-ll oru prathyeka nagara kodathi srishtikkunnathilekku nayichu.
pathinnalam noottaandil parambaraagathavum samoohathe adisthaanamaakkiyullathumaya shikshakalude falaprapti kuranju. britiish, colonial american criminal neethiyude pradhana aditharayaaya shiksha adimatham pathinezhaam noottaandil eathaandu vamshanasham sambhavichu, athe samayam 1777 ll vermontil ninnu aarambhich vadakkan samsthaanangal adimatham nirthalaakkaan thudangi. colonial kaalaghattatthile ettavum saadhaaranamaaya criminal shikshakalilonnaya nalla perumaattathinulla pizhayum bondukalum shanikamaaya paavappettavarkkidayil nadappaakkunnathu eathaandu asaadhyamaayirunnu. muun american kolanikkaar thangalude puthiya samsthaana sarkkaarukalodu thangalude rashtreeya vishwasthatha vipuleekarikkukayum pothujanakshemathekkurichu vishalamaaya bodham prolsaahippikkukayum cheythappol, naadukadatthalum (allengil "munnariyipp") anuchithamayi thonni, kaaranam athu kuttavaalikale ayal samoohathilekku athichu. kuttaaropitharudeyum pothujanangaludeyum pankaalitthatthe valia thothil aashrayikkunnathinaal, stambham polulla pothu naanakkedukal ellaayppozhum pothu kramam nadappakkunnathinulla antharleenamaaya asthiramaaya reethikalayirunnu. pathinettaam noottaand pakwata praapikkukayum kuttavaaliyum samoohavum thammilulla saamoohika akalam kooduthal prakadamaakukayum cheythathode pothu vadhashikshayilum mattu shikshakalilum paraspara vidvesham (samooha anukambaykkum kuttavaalikalude pashchaathaapatthinum pakaram) kooduthal saadhaaranamaayi. philadelphia polulla nagara kendrangalil, vardhichuvarunna vargga, vamseeya pirimurukkangal-prathyekichu viplavathinte pashchaathalatthil-vadhashikshayilum mattu pothu shikshakalilum prathikalodu sajeevamaayi sahathapam prakadippikkaan janakkoottathe prerippichu.
colonial sarkkarukal viplavathinu munbuthanne avarude shiksha ghadana parishkarikkaanum niravadhi parambaraagatha shikshakal chumathanum sramangal aarambhichu. masaachyusets, pensylvania, connecticut ennivayellaam yudhathinu munbulla varshangalil kadinashramathil thadavilaakkunnathu mikka kuttakrithyangalkkum eaka shikshayaakkunnathinaayi avarude shiksha samvidaanangal punasamghadippikkaanulla sramangal aarambhichu. yuddham eee shramangale thadassappeduthiyenkilum pinneedu avaa puthukkippanithu. charitrakaaranaaya aadam jeey. yude vaakkukalil, viplavaananthara raashtreeyathile oru "kalavastha vyathiyaanam". hirsh, colonial niyamanirmmaanasabhakale viplavathinushesham ellaatharam niyamaparamaaya maattatthinum thurannukodukkukayum, englandil ninnulla avarude verpiriyaline prathifalippikkunnathina avarude bharanaghadanakalum criminal kodukalum punakrameekarikkukayum cheythu. akkaalathe anglophobic raashtreeyam engleesh niyamaparamaaya parisheelanatthil ninnu paarambaryamaayi labhicha shikshakal illaathaakkaanulla shramangalkk karuthekukayum cheythu.
viplavaananthara kaalaghattatthil criminal shiksha thanne criminal kuttakrithyangalil cheluthunna swaadheenathekkurichu american aikyanaadukalile parishkarthaakkal charcha cheyyaan thudangi, engleesh shiksha sanbradaayathil ninnu paarambaryamaayi labhicha colonial kaalaghattatthile shikshakalude krooratha nanmayekkaal kooduthal dosham cheythuvennu chilar nigamanam cheythu. "1801-ll newyork shiksha parishkarthaavu thomas eddi ezhuthi, "yukthiyudeyum manushyathvathinteyum soumyamaaya shabdam raajakumaaranmaarude simhaasanangalilo niyamasabhaamgangalude haalukalilo athiyilla."" maathrraajyam kolanikkaarude kaarunyaparamaaya sahajaavabodhathe adichamarthukayum pazhaya lokathinte asamskritha achaarangal anukarikkaan avare nirbandhikkukayum cheythu ", eddi parayunnu. kuttakrithyangal nilanirthaan maathram sahayikkunna puraathanavum shikshaparavumaaya niyamangalude aadhipathyamaayirunnu athinte phalam."1793-leeii oru prabandhatthil abhibhashakanaaya vilyam bradford eddiyude vaadathinu samanamaaya oru vaadam nadatthi.
pathonpathaam noottaandinte randaam dashakathode vadakkan carolina, thekkan carolina, florida ozhikeyulla ellah samsthaanangalum ettavum gurutharamaaya kuttakrithyangalozhike ellaavarkkum praadhamika shikshayaayi thadankal (praadhamikamaayi kadinamaaya thozhil) nalkunnathinaayi athinte criminal coode bhedagathi cheythu. masaachyusetsile pravishya niyamangal pathinettaam noottaandiludaneelam prathirodhatthinaayi varkk hausil hraswakaala nibandhanakal nirddeshikkaan thudangi, noottaandinte madhyathode, jolisthalathu deerghakaala kadinaadhvaanam nirbandhamaakkunna aadyathe niyamangal shikshaanadapadiyaayi prathyakshappettu. newyorkkil, 1785-leeii oru bill, newyork nagaratthil praabalyatthil parimithappedutthiyirunnu, muun niyamam shaareerika shiksha nirbandhamaakkiya ellah kesukalilum jolisthalathu aarumaasathe kadinaadhvaanam vare maattisthaapikkaan munisippal udyogasthare adhikaarappeduthi. 1796-ll oru adhika bill eee paripadi newyork samsthaanathudaneelam vyapippichu. 1786ll pensylvania oru kadina thozhil niyamam sthaapichu. kadinamaaya thozhil paripaadikal 1797ll newjezhsiyilekkum 1796ll virjeeniyayilekkum 1798ll kentakkiyilekkum 1800ll vermont, nyoo hamshire, maryland ennividangalilekkum vyaapichu.
thadavilulla eee neekkam parambaraagatha shikshaavidhikalil ninnulla udanadi edavelayaayi vivarthanam cheythilla. pala puthiya criminal vyavasthakalum thadavu ulppedeyulla vividha shikshakalil ninnu thiranjedukkaanulla jadjimaarude vivechanaadhikaaram vipuleekarichu. udaaharanathinu, udaaharanathinu masaachyusets theeveppu niyamathile bhedagathikal, chaattavaaradi, kadinashrama thadavu, thoonuvadi, chaattavaaradi, pizha, allengil aaa shikshakalile eathenkilum allengil ellaam enniva samyojippichu, thaamasakkaaranallaathavarkku theeyidan labhyamaya shikshakal vipuleekarichu. samsthaanathinte shiksha niyamaprakaaram pizha, thadavu, allengil vadhasiksha enniva maathram labhyamaya uparodhangalayi maarunnathin munbu masaachyusets jadjimar irupathu varshathekku eee puthiya vivechanaadhikaaram vividha reethikalil upayogichu. mattu samsthaanangal-"iii.jii.", newyork, pensylvania, connecticut ennivayum thadavilulla avarude maattatthil pinnilayi.
viplavaananthara niyamaparamaaya maattathinanusarichu jayil nirmmaanam nadannu. thadankal vyavastha cheiyunnathinaayi criminal kodukal parishkaricha ellah samsthaanangalum puthiya samsthaana jayilukalum nirmmichu. ennaal viplavaananthara varshangalile shiksha parishkaranakkaarude shradha avar nirmmicha sthaapanangalkku puramlokathaayirunnu ennu david rathman abhipraayappedunnu. annathe parishkartthaakkale sambandhichidatholam, thadavushikshayude vastutha-sthaapanathinte aantharika dinacharya kuttavaaliyil athinte swaadheenavum allah-praadhamika aashankayundaakkunnathaane rathman avakaashappedunnu. thookkikkollal, chaattavaaradi thudangiya parambaraagatha shikshakalekkaal kooduthal maanushikamaayi thonniya thadavu, saidhaanthikamaayi kuttakrithyavumaayi kooduthal prathyekamaayi shikshayumaayi poruthappedunnu. ennaal jaxonian kaalaghattatthil, yadhaartha neethinyaaya sthaapanangalude roopam sweekarikkaan samsthaana jayil samrambhangalkk parishkaranatthinte mattoru kaalaghattamedukkum.
jaxonian, antibellum yugam.
1800 aayappozhekkum annathe pathinaar american aikyanaadukalil pathinonnu-"i.iii."pensylvania, newyork, nyoojezhsi, masaachyusets, kentakki, vermont, maryland, nyoo hamshire, jorjia, virgenia ennivayil eathenkilum tharatthilulla shiksha thadavushiksha undaayirunnu. ennaal samakaalika criminal shaasthrathinte praadhamika shradha kuttavaalikal shiksha anubhavicha sthaapanangalilalla, marichu niyamavyavasthayilaanennu charitrakaaranaaya david rathman parayunnu. samakaalika criminal ashayangal marikkondirunnathinaal jaxonian kaalaghattatthil ithu maari.
sweekarichu aarambhicha "jayil" enna puthiya sthaapanam kramena amerikkayile criminal neethiyude kendrabinduvaayi maari. athesamayam, mattu puthiya sthaapanangalaaya abhaykendravum daanadharmashaalayum maanasikarogikaludeyum daridrarudeyum paricharanatthe punarnirvachichu. athinte vakthaakkale sambandhichidatholam, baahya roopam, aantharika krameekaranangal, dainamdina dinacharya enniva american samoohathil kuttakrithyangal valarthunnuvennu karuthappedunna kramakkedineyum adaarmikathayeyum prathirodhikkunna oru abhilasha paripaadiyaayirunnu. thudakkathil ithu kramarahithamayi sweekarikkappedukayum rashtreeya kalahangalaal adayaalappeduthappedukayu cheythenkilum-prathyekichu thekk-1830 kalude avasaanathode eee jayil amerikkayil oru sthaapitha sthaapanamaayi maari.
vyathiyaanathinte puthiya uthbhavavum sthaapanaparamaaya prathikaranavum.
jaxonian kaalaghattatthile parishkartthaakkalum jayil udyogastharum kuttavaalikalude vyakthiparamaaya charitrangalil kuttakrithyatthinte uthbhavam anweshikkaan thudangukayum kuttakrithyatthinte verukal samoohathil thanne kandethukayum cheythu. charitrakaaranaaya david rathmante vaakkukalil, "achadakkakkuravulla kuttikal samoohathil vittuveezhchayillaatha thinmayude swaadheenathinu vegathil irayaakumennu avarkk urappundaayirunnu."jaxonian parishkarthaakkal druthagathiyilulla janasamkhyaa valarchayeyum saamoohika chalanasheshiyeyum samakaalika samoohathinte kramakkedumaayum adaarmikathayumaayum prathyekamaayi bandhippichu. parishkaranathinaayulla prasthaanathinoppam pothujanangalude surakshaye nyaayeekarikkunnathinulla jayilukalkkaayirunnu.
samoohathinte thakarchayeyum athu avatharippikkunna apakadasaadhyathakaleyum cherukkunnathinaayi, jaxonian penologistukal avarude kudumbangaludeyum samoohangaludeyum azhimathiyil ninnu "vyathichalikkunnavare" neekkam cheiyunnathinaayi oru sthaapana krameekaranam roopakalppana cheythu. eee azhimathi rahithamaya anthareekshathil, thinmayude pralobhanangalil ninnu rakshappettukond thaan allengil aval munbu avaganicha supradhana dhaarmika paadangal padikkaan vyathichalichavarkk kazhiyum. eee pariharam aathyanthikamayi jayilinte roopam sweekarichu.
sweekarichu newyorkkum pensylvania mattu niravadhi samsthaanangalil samanamaaya shramangalkk prachodanamaaya puthiya jayil samrambhangal aarambhichu. viplavaananthara carceral bharanakoodangal engleesh workhouse paarambaryavumaayi poruthappettirunnu; thadavukaar pakal samayat orumichu jolie cheyyukayum raathriyil koottam koodunna murikal pankidukayum cheythu.
1790 muthal, pensylvania thadavilakkappetta kuttavaalikalkk eakaantha thadavu earppeduthunna yunaittad stetsile aadya rajyamaayi maari. 1790 nuu sesham, pensylvaniayil kadinamaayi adhvaanichavare philadelphiyayile walnut street jaile eakaantha cellukalude oru akathe blokkilekku maatti. 1796ll newyork nagaratthile newgate jayilil eakaantha thaamasakendrangal nadappakkaan thudangi.
walnut street jailileyum newgate jailileyum sramangalil ninnu 1820-kalode amerikkayil rund malsaraadhishtitha thadavu vyavasthakal uyarnnuvannu. uyarnnuvannu 1819num idayil newyorkkile athe perilulla jayilil ninnu "aubarn" (allengil "kansalttett sisttam") uyarnnuvannu. uyarnnuvannu 1826num idayil aaa samsthaanathu "pensylvania" (allengil "prathyeka samvidaanam") uyarnnuvannu. rund samvidaanangalum thammilulla oreyoru bhauthika vyathyasam thadavukaar eppozhengilum avarude eakaantha cellukal vidumo ennathaayirunnu-pensylvania sanbradaayathinu keezhil, thadavukaar orikkalum angane cheythilla, pakshe aubarn sanbradaayathinu keezhil mikka thadavukaarum divasam muzhuvan kansalttett varkshoppukalil jolie cheyyukayum ottaykku urangukayum cheythu.
rund samvidaanangaludeyum vakthaakkalkk, sthaapanavalkkaranathinte vaagdaanam, samoohathinte dhaarmika malineekaranathil ninnu thadavukaarane ottappeduthunnathilum addehathil achadakkam sthaapikkunnathilum (allengil, apoorva kesukalil, aval) aasrayichirikkunnu. ennaal eathu samvidaanamaanu mikachathu enna tharkkam pathonpathaam noottaandinte madhyam vare thudarnnu, aaa kaalaghattatthile ettavum pramukha parishkartthaakkalil chilare parasparam ethirthu. saamuval gridley hove oru aabarn vakthavaaya maathyoo kerikku ethire pensylvania samvidaanathe prothsaahippichu; dorothea dicks luis dwaittinethire pensylvania sambradaayam etteduthu; francis lieber francis weylandinethire pensylvania pinthunachu. ennirunnaalum, kuranja chelavu kaaranam aubarn samvidaanam oduvil nilaninnu.
pensylvania samvidaanam.
1830 kalude thudakkathil aaa samsthaanathinte kizhakkan samsthaana jaile philadelphiyayude praanthapradeshangalilum pittsburgile padinjaaran samsthaana jayililum aadyamaayi nadappaakkiya pensylvania samvidaanam ellaayppozhum thadavukaare poornnamaayum verthirikkunnathu nilanirthunnathinaanu roopakalppana cheythirikkunnathu. 1904 vare thadavukaar thalaykku mukalil karutha hood dharichu sthaapanathil praveshichu, athinaal avarude saha kuttavaalikal aaraanenn avarkk orikkalum ariyillaayirunnu, thudarnnu avare sellilekku kondupokum, avide avar avarude shikshayude backie kaalam sthiramaaya eakaanthathayil chelavazhikkum. cherry hill complexil samsthaana fandukalude vanthothilulla chelavu undaayirunnu; athinte mathilukalkk maathram 200,000 dollar vilavarum, athinte anthima vila tagg 750,000 dollarilethi, athu annathe ettavum valia samsthaana chelavukalilonnaan.
athiraalikalaaya oru punaradhivasa samvidaanam pole, kizhakkan samsthaanathinte niyanthranakramam thadavukaarante vyakthigatha punaradhivaasathinulla saadhyathakale adisthaanamaakkiyullathaayinu. eakaanthatha, advaanamalla, athinte mukhamudrayaayirunnu; thozhil avakashangal sthiramaayi nediya thadavukaarkku mathramaayirunnu. kizhakkan samsthaana thadavukaarude puramlokavumaayulla ellah sanbarkkavum erekkure nilachu. oru pensylvania thadavukaaran "lokathil ninnu thikachum ottappettavanaan" ennu vakthaakkal prashamsichu... pratheekshayillathe verpirinju... kudumbam, oppam avarumaayulla ellah ashayavinimayangalil ninnum avarekkurichulla arivu muzhuvan thadavu kaalayalavilum."
ottappedaliloodeyum nishabdathayiloodeyum-puramlokangalile dhaarmika malineekaranangalil ninnu poornnamaaya verthiriviloodeyum-thadavukaar oru parishkaranatthinu aarambhikkumenn pensylvania anukoolikal anumaanichu. "oro vyakthiyum swantham shikshayude upakaranamaayi maaranam; avante manassakshi samoohathinte prathikaariyaayirikkum", oru prathinidhi laghulekha vaayikkunnu."
pensylvania samvidaanathil neriya achadakka nadapadikal maathrame ulppedukayulloovennu vakthaakkal urappichu, otappetta aalukalkk niyamangal lamghikkunnathino rakshappedunnathino vibhavangalo avasaramo undaakillenn nyaayeekarichu. ennaal thudakkam muthal kizhakkan samsthaanathinte sookshippukaaraanu kramam nadappakkaan shaareerika shikshakal upayogichathu. thadavukaarante vaayil vachum kazhuthilum thalayilum changalayittum vetiyum vetiyum nirtthiyitta lohakkashanamaaya "irumbu gagg", "shawar baath", thadavilulla oru kuttavaaliyude mail aavarthichu thanutha vellam thallal, allengil thadavukaar avarude shareerangal vishramikkunnath thadayunnathinaayi kettiyitta "bhraanthan kasera" enniva udyogasthar upayogichu.
aathyanthikamayi, moonnu jayilukal maathramaan chelaveria pensylvania paripadi nadappaakkiyathu. ennaal antibellum kaalaghattatthile mikkavarum ellah shiksha parishkaranakkaarum pensylvaniayude eakaantha thadavu upayogathil vishwasichirunnu. irupathaam noottaandinte arambham vare kizhakkan samsthaana jayilil eee samvidaanam valia thothil kedupaadukal koodaathe thudarnnu.
newyork, ooben sisttam, jayilinte bhaavi.
anubhavichu cheythu newyorkkile abarn jayilil ninnu vadakkukizhakkan, madhya padinjaaran, thekk ennividangalilekku athinte upayogam vyaapichathinal abarn allengil "kansablitt" samvidaanam purathana maathrukaa thadavarayaayi maari. jayil varkshoppukalile koottabalavum raathriyile eakaantha thadavum samyojippichukondu oru yadhaartha yaadhaarthyamallengilum american jayil samvidaanangalil saarvathrikamaaya oru aadarshamaayi maari.
abarn sambradaayathin keezhil, thadavukaar raathriyil ottaykku urangukayum oru jadji nischayichathupole avarude nischitha criminal shiksha muzhuvan pakal samayat oru pothu varkshoppil orumichu jolie cheyyukayum cheythu. abarnile thadavukaar oru samayathum samsaricano nottam kaimarano polum paadillaayirunnu. jayil varkshoppukalude mathilukalkk pinnilulla rahasya pathakalil kavalkkar mokkaasinsil patrolling nadatthi, athinaal thadavukaarkku avar nireekshanatthilaano allayo ennu orikkalum urappilla.
oru udyogasthan aubarninte achadakkathe visheshippichathu "thaan inii swantham yajamaananallenn kuttavaaliye bodhyappeduthunnathinu nadapadikal; alasathayil vanchana nadathaanulla avasthayilalla; avan padikkukayum upayogapradamaaya chila bisinasukal shradhaapoorvvam pariseelikkukayum venam, athuvazhi avane jayilil ninnu mochippikkumbol sathyasandhamaya jeevitam nedaam."purathuninnulla sambhavangalekkurichu rahasyaanveshanam nadatthaan thadavukaare anuvadichilla. oru aadyakaala vaardante vaakkukalil, abarn thadavukaar aksharaarthatthil lokathil ninnu samskarikkappedanam."aabhyantharayudhathinusheva sthaapanathinte bharanam valia thothil kedupaadukalillathe thudarnnu.
newyork samsthaanathu nirmmicha randaamathe samsthaana jayilayirunnu aubarn. newyork nagaratthile innathe greenwich graamatthil sthithi cheiyunna aadyathe nyoogettil "ettavum mosham kuttavaalikalkkayi" neekkivachirikkunna kurachu sellukalkkappuram otappetta cellukalonnumilla."kuttavaaliyude punaradhivaasamaan shikshayude praadhamika paryavasanam ennu athinte aadya sookshippukaaranaaya thomas eddi vishwasichu (ennirunnaalum eddi thante kuttangal" "dushtavum moshavum, ellah athikramangalkkum kazhivullathum, akramathinum rakshappedaanumulla chila marggangal aasoothranam cheiyunnathumaayirunnu" "ennum vishwasichu".") thante theevrathayekkurichulla thadavukaarude bhayathe aashrayikkaan eddi chaayvullavanaayirunnilla; parimithamaaya reshanil eakaantha thadankalil paarppikkunnathaayirunnu addehathinte" "pradhana achadakka ayudham", "thadavukaare adikkunnathil ninnu addeham thante kaavalkkaare vilakkukayum" "nalla perumattamulla" "thadavukaare moonnu maasathilorikkal kudumbathodoppam melnottatthilulla sandarshanam nadatthaan anuvadikkukayum cheythu". jayil chelavukal ulkkollumennum thadavukaarude samoohathilekkulla punarpraveshathinu vithu panam nalkumennum pratheekshicha labhakaramaaya jayil thozhil paripaadikal sthaapikkunnathinulla eddi valia thothil parajayappetta sramangal nadatthi.iii.thadavilaayirikkumbol oru thadavukaarante adhwaanathinte laabhathinte oru cheria bhagam, avante allengil avalude mochanasamayathu nalkendathaanu. ennirunnaalum achadakkam nadappakkaan prayasamaayirunnu, prayasamaayirunnu 1799lum valia kalapangal nadannu-randaamathethu sainika edapedaliloode maathram keezhadangi. kalaapangalude pashchaathalatthil, prathyekichu 1812 leeii yudhathe thudarnnundaaya kuttakrithyangalude samayat sthithigathikal vashalayi.
nyoogettinte nirashakal pariharikkunnathinum athinte nirantharamaaya tirakk laghookarikkunnathinumaayi newyork niyamasabhaamgangal abarn jayilinte nirmmaanathinaayi panam neekkivaykkunnu. eathaandu thudakkam muthal, niyamasabhayude sammathathode, thomas eddi newgettinaayi vibhavanam cheytha "maanushika" shaili udyogasthar upekshichu. achadakka lamghanangalkulla shikshayaayi muppathombathu chaattavaaradi vare 1819 leeii samsthaana niyamaprakaaram anuvadichirunnu, ithu stokkukaludeyum irumbinteyum upayogathinum adhikaaramettu. mochitharaakumbol kuttavaalikalkk avarude advaanathil ninnu labhikkuna varumaanathil kurachu nalkunna reethi, "ovarsttint", nirthalaakki. puthiya bharanakoodatthinte theevratha 1820-ll mattoru kalapa parambaraykku kaaranamaayi, athinusesham bhaaviyile aswasthathakal laghookarikkunnathinaayi niyamanirmmanasabha oru newyork stettu jayil gaard roopeekarichu.
kalaapathinte pashchaathalatthil udyogasthar thadavukaare moonnu grouppukalaayi vibhajikkunna oru vargeekarana samvidaanam nadappakkaan thudangi (1) ettavum moshamayavar, sthiramaayi ottaykku adachidappettavar; (2) nalla reethiyil perumaarumbol ottaykkirikkukayum grouppukalaayi jolie cheyyukayum cheytha madhyanira kuttavaalikal; (3) "ettavum kuranja kuttakkaarum moshakkarumaaya" aalukalkk ottaykku uranganum grouppukalaayi jolie cheyyaanum anuvaadamundaayirunnu. vibhaagam (1) thadavukaarkkaayulla oru puthiya sellu blokkinte nirmmaanam 1821 desemberil avasaanikkukayum athinusesham eee "kadinaraaya" kuttavaalikal avarude puthiya veettilekku maarukayum cheythu. ennirunnaalum, oru varshathinullil, eee purushanmaaril anchu perr upabhogam moolam marichu, naalppathiyonnu perr gurutharaavasthayil, niravadhi perkku bhranthaayi. jayil sandarshikkukayum puthiya sell blokkile thaamasakkaare kaanukayum cheytha sesham govarnor joseph sii. avarude avastha kandu yetts bhayannupoyi, avaril palarkkum addeham mapp nalki.
eakaantha thadavil oru vanita thadavukaaran garbhiniyaayappol, pinneedu, aavarthichulla mardhanathinum pneumoniaykkum sesham marichathode vivaadam veendum pottipurappettu. (alakkal shucheekarana sevanangalumkkayi thadavukaar vanita thadavukaare aashrayichirunnathinaal, sthreekal janasamkhyayude bhaagamaayi thudarnnu, pakshe newyorkkile aadyathe prathyeka vanita sthaapanam 1893 vare poorthiyaayittilla.) oru juurii sthriye marddicha keepparine kuttakkaranaakkukayum baattari adichu 25 dollar pizha chumathukayum cheythu, pakshe addeham joliyil thudarnnu. jayil maanejmentinte mattu vashangalekurichulla oru grand juurii anweshanam thudarnnuvenkilum mattu thadassangalkkoppam, prathikalkk kodathiyil thelivukal hajarakkan kazhiyaathathinal thadassappettu. ennirunnaalum, unnatha udyogastharude saannidhyamillaathe thadavukaare chaattavaaradikkaan aubarninte sookshippukaare anuvadichathaayi grand juurii oduvil nigamanam cheythu, ithu samsthaana niyamatthinte lamghanamaanu. ennaal wardeno mattethenkilum udyogasthano orikkalum vichaarana cheyyapettilla, thudarnnulla varshangalil oobarnilum puthiya singing jayililum chaattavaaradiyude upayogavum theevrathayum vardhichu.
aadyakaala kumbhakonangalum sthiramaaya rashtreeya adhikara poraattangalum asthiramaaya bharana ghadana nilanirtthiyenkilum, varum pathittaandukalaayi aubarn raajyavyaapakamaayi oru maathrukaa sthaapanamaayi thudarnnu. masaachyusets 1826-ll abarn sanbradaayathinte maathrkayil oru puthiya jayil thurannu, abarninte nilanilppinte aadya dashakathinullil nyoo hamshire, vermont, maryland, kenttakki, ohiyo, tennessi, columbia jilla ennivayellaam athinte kootta samvidaanathinte maathrkayil jayilukal nirmmichu. american aabhyantharayudhathinte thalennu, illinois, indiana, jorjia, misauri, mississippi, texas, arkansas ennivayellaam vyathyastha vijayathode avarude adikaaraparidhiyil oru abarn-model jayil sthaapikkaanulla sramangal aarambhichu.
american aikyanaadukalile antibellum jayilukalilekkulla vyapakamaaya neekkam criminal shikshayude bhoomishaasthratheyum athinte kendra chikitsa maatti. kuttavaalikale ippol vellathinappuratho mathilukalulla komboundukalilo pothujanangalude kaazhchayil ninnu marachuvecha criminal neethinyaaya samvidaanathinte kendreekritha sthaapanangalilekku kondupoyi. pathonpathaam noottaandiludaneelam thadavukaare kaanaan phees nalkia sandarshakare pala jayilukalum anuvadichuvenkilum criminal vichaaranayile parimithamaaya pankinappuram shikshaanadapadikalile samoohathinte pankaalittham jayil angane pradhaanamaayum avasaanippichu.
thekk.
american aabhyantharayudhathinte thalennu, thekkan yunaittad stetsil kuttakrithyangal valia aashankayundaakkiyilla. thekkekkaar pradhaanamaayum kuttakrithyathe oru vadakkan prashnamaayi kanakkakkunnu. bahumana samskaarathe adisthaanamaakkiyulla slaittukal pariharikkunnathinulla parambaraagatha niyamavyathireka samvidaanam vyakthiparamaaya akramathe thekkan kuttakrithyangalude mukhamudrayaakki. thekkan jayil samvidaanangal ettavum kadinaraaya kuttavaalikale maathrame kendreekritha samsthaana niyanthranathinu keezhil konduvannulloo. mikka kuttavaalikalum aupachaarika samsthaana niyanthrana samvidaanangalkku puratthaayirunnu-prathyekichu thekkan nagarangalkk purathu.
antibellum sathen republicanisavum jayil kettidathodulla rashtreeya ethirppum.
vadakkan samsthaanangalil ninnu vyathyasthamayi, thekkan samsthaanangalkku antibellum kaalaghattatthil jayilukal nirmmikkano vendayo ennathinekkurichu savisheshamaaya rashtreeya uthkanda anubhavappettathayi charitraparamaaya rekhakal soochippikkunnu. republican thathwangalekkurichulla abhiprayavyathyaasangal-"i.iii.", saamoohika bharanathil samsthaanathinte punk-swaathanthryathinum aabhyantharayudhathinum edayilulla pathittaandukalil thekkan jayilukalude aavasyakathayekkurichulla nirantharamaaya charchayude kendramaayi maari.
charitrakaaranaaya edward ell ezhuthunnu, pala thekkekkaarkkum. ayezhs, "republicanism" ennathu mattaarudeyum ishtathil ninnulla swaathanthryathilekku vivarthanam cheyyappettu kendreekritha adikaaram, oru aaktivist republican gavanmentinte peril polum, nanmayekkaal thinma vaagdaanam cheythu. thekkan republicanisathinte eee roopam adimathathinu prathyeka roopathinu kadappettirikkunnuvennu iyers nigamanam cheiyunnu. thekk adima sambadvyavastha grameenavum praadeshikavalkkarikkadu oru samskaarathe nilanirtthiyennum athil aparichitharude adhikara avakaashavaadangale purushanmaar avishwasichuvennum addeham vaadikkunnu. eee rashtreeya parithasthithiyil, "saamoohika purogathi" enna chila amoorthamaaya sangalppathinu, eathenkilum tharatthilulla vyakthigatha swaathanthryangal-kuttavaalikalude polum-keezhadakkuka enna ashayam palarkkum veruppulavaakkunnu.
ennaal criminal thadavu thekk mattullavarkk akarshakamaayirunnu. criminal niyamathe kooduthal falapradamaakkukayum athinte kooduthal krooramaaya achaarangal illaathaakkukayum kuttavaalikalkk punaradhivaasathinum samoohathinu punarudhaaranatthinum avasaram nalkukayum cheytha prabudhamaaya oru samsthaana sarkkaarinte samrakshanathilaanu swaathanthryam ettavum nannayi valarumennu eee thekkekkaar vishwasichu. republican aadarshathe ("aswasthappeduthunna vargam") bheeshanippeduthunnavare verthirikkunnathiloode republican samoohathil ninnu dushtathayude pakarchavyaadhi neekkam cheyyaan jayilukal sahayikkumennum chilar vishwasichu. purogathi" enna loka aashayangalkk anusrithamaayi jeevikkanulla ashayangalum thekkan shiksha parishkaranavaadikale prachodippichu. 1829-leeii vinashakaramaaya oru theepiduthatthetthudarnnu jorjia niyamasabha samsthaanathinte jayil nirthalaakkunnathinekku chinthichappol, republican purogathi upekshikkunna aadya samsthaanamaayi thangalude samsthaanam maarumennu avidatthe parishkarthaakkal aashankappettu."
thekkan janasamkhyayude valiyoru bhagam-bhooripakshamallenkilum-jayil sthaapikkunnathine pinthunachilla. alabamayileyum vadakkan carolinayileyum baalat boxile jayil samvidaanathekkurichu abhiprayam prakadippikkaan eee mekhalayile watermark avasaram labhicha rund thavanakalil jayil kanatha nashtatthilaanu. chilar parambaraagatha pothu shikshakale avayude antharleenamaaya suthaaryatha kaaranam criminal neethikkulla ettavum republican samvidaanamaayi kandu. thadankal samvidaanathinu keezhilulla kashtappaadukalude alavu parambaraagatha samvidaanathekkaal valare kooduthalaayirikkumennathil, thekkan joorikal kuttavimuktharaakkunnathu avarude charitraparamaaya nirmarjanam nilanirthumennu chilar aashankappettu. suvisheshaka dakshinenthyan purohithanmaarum jayiline ethirthu-prathyekichu chila kuttakrithyangalkku baibil nirbandhamaayi avar kanakkakkiya vadhashikshayude niyamaparamaaya niyanthranathodoppam athu nadappaakkiyappol.
jayilinulla ethirppu party athirukal marikadannu; antibellum kaalaghattatthil viggukalo demokraattukalo sthaapanathinu sthiramaaya pinthuna nalkiyilla. ennaal thadankalinu sthiravum aaveshakaravumaaya pinthuna thekkan gavarnarmaaril ninnu eathaandu orupole labhichu. eee gavarnarmaarude uddeshyangal poornnamaayum vyakthamalla, charitrakaaranaaya edward ell. ayyar upasamharikkunnu orupakshe oru jayil vaagdaanam cheiyunna adhika rakshaakarthruthva sthaanangal thekkan executivinte charitraparamaayi durbalamaaya shakti vardhippikkumennu avar pratheekshichirikkaam; orupakshe avar kuttakrithyatthinte prashnathekkurichu niyamaanusrithamaayi aashankaakularaayirikkaam; allengil orupakshe rund parigananakalum oru punk vahichirikkam. dakshinenthyan "varenyavargathil" ninnulla grand joorikalum eee kaalayalavil thadavarakalkkaayi pathivayi vilikal purappeduvichu.
aathyanthikamayi, vadakku pole thekk bhaagathum jayilvaasikalude anuyaayikal aadhipathyam pulartthi. aabhyantharayudhathinu munbu thekkan niyamanirmmathaakkal palappozhum pothu ethirppinethudarnnu thekkan samsthaanangalkku sesham samsthaanathu jayil niyamanirmmanam nadatthi. angane cheiyunnathile avarude uddeshyangal sammisramaanennu thonnunnu. edward ell. ennirunnaalum, chila thekkan niyamasabhaamgangal thangalude janangalkk ettavum mikachathu enthaanennu ariyaamenn vishwasichathaayi thonnunnu. pala thekkan niyamasabhaamgangalum varenyavarggangalil ninnullavarayathinaal, jayil niyamanirmmanam nadappaakkunnathil avarkk vyakthiparamaaya "vargga niyanthranam" uddeshyamundaayirikkaanum iyermar nireekshikkunnu, athesamayam avarude swantham kaarunyatthinte thelivaayi jayil sramangalil avarude pankaalittham choondikkaanikkaan kazhiyum. charitrakaaranaaya maikkal ezz. thadankalppaalayathekkurillu thekkan maduppu, kuranjathu thekkan karolinayilengilum, adima sanbradaayathil ninnaan uthbhavichathenn hindukkal nigamanam cheiyunnu, ithu oru vella criminal adima varggathe srishtikkunnathu abhikaamyamallathaakki.
jayil nirmmaanam.
pathonpathaam noottaandinte thudakkathil thekkan samsthaanangal avarude vadakkan athiraalikalkkoppam jayilukal sthaapichu. virgenia (1796), maryland (1829), tennessi (1831), jorjia (1832), louisiana, misauri (1834-1837), mississippi, alabama (1837-1842) ennivayellaam antibellum kaalaghattatthil jayil soukaryangal sthaapichu. vadakkan carolina, thekkan carolina, janavaasamillaatha florida ennivaykku maathrame aabhyantharayudhathinu munbu oru thadavarayum nirmmikkaan kazhinjulloo.
1796ll pensylvaniaykku sesham vadhashikshaykk vidhikkaavunna kuttakrithyangalude ennam naadakeeyamaayi kuracha aadyathe samsthaanamaayirunnu virgenia, athinte niyamanirmmathaakkal oresamayam oru puthiya criminal neethinyaaya bharanakoodatthinte moolakkallaayi oru "goalum jailbhavanavum" nirmmikkanamenn aavasyappettu. benchamin henry latrobe roopakalppana cheytha richmandile samsthaanathe aadyathe jayil jeremi benthaaminte paanoptikkon roopakalppanayumaayi (athupole thanne ithuvare nirmmichittillaathu kizhakkan samsthaana jayilukalum) saamyamullathaan. ellah thadavukaarum praadhamika praveshanathinu sesham nirbandhitha eakaantha thadavu anubhavichu.
nirbhagyavashaal, virjeeniyayude aadyathe jayil nirmmicha richmandile sthalam malinajalam shekharikkunna oru nischalamaaya kulatthinte athirthiyilaanu. jayilinte cellukalil choodaakkal samvidaanamillaayirunnu, athinte mathilukalil ninnu vellam ozhukukayum shaithyakaalath thadavukaarude kaikaalukal maravippikkan idayaakkukayum cheythu. thadavukaare avarude shikshayude eakaanthamaaya bhaagath oru joliyum cheyyaan kazhinjilla, avar eathaandu poornnamaayum iruttil poornnamaayum otappettu, avarude shikshayude eee bhaagath palarum bhrantharaayi. ottappedal kaalayalav athijeevicha thadavukaar jayil varkshoppile mattu thadavukaarkkoppam chernnu samsthaana pourasenaykku saadhanangal nirmmichu. workshop orikkalum laabhamundakkiyilla. rakshappedal saadhaaranamaayirunnu.
ennaal virjeeniyayude maathruka undaayirunnittum, kentakki, maryland, jorjia ennivayellaam 1820 nuu munbu jayilukal nirmmikkukayum athinusesham thekk eee pravanatha thudarukayum cheythu. aadyakaala thekkan jayilukal rakshappedal, akramam, theeveppu ennivayaal adayaalappeduthiyirunnu. thadavukaarude vyakthiparamaaya parishkaranatthinu eathaandu kuranja shambalamulla jayil chaappalainmaarkk maathrame avasheshichirunnulloo. pothujanangalil ninnulla kadutha ethirppum vyapakamaaya tirakkum antibellum kaalaghattatthil thekkan shiksha samvidaanangale adayaalappeduthi. ennaal orikkal sthaapithamaayathode, thekkan jayilukal svanthamaayi jeevan apaharichu, oro samsthaanathinteyum samvidaanam puthumayudeyum sthambhanathinteyum sankeernamaaya charithram anubavikkunnu, kaaryakshamavum kaaryakshamamallaathathumaaya kavalkkar, aapekshika samriddhiyum daaridryavum, theepiduttham, rakshappedal, niyamanirmmaana akramanangal enniva; pakshe avaa oru pothu paatha pinthudarnnu.
adimatham nilaninnirunna kaalaghattatthil, thaazhathe thekk kurachu karutha thekkekkaar thadavilakkappettu, thadavilaakkappettavaril aarum adimakalaayirunnilla. mikkappozhum, kuttakrithyangalkku kuttaropitharaaya adimakal-prathyekichu gurutharamaaya kuttakrithyangal kurravaayava-niyamavirudhamaaya thotta "kodathikalil" anoupachaarikamaayi vichaarana cheyyappettirunnu, ennirunnaalum adimakal thekkan kodathikalude aupachaarika adikaaraparidhiyil varunnath asaadhaaranamaayirunnilla. antibellum kaalaghattatthile thekkan thadavukaaril bhooribhaagavum videshathu janicha vellakkaaraayirunnu. ennirunnaalum, thekkan mukal bhaagath swathanthraraaya karuthavarggakkaar samsthaana jayil janasamkhyayude moonnilonnu varum. thekk mukalilum thaazheyumulla gavarnarmaarum niyamanirmmaathaakkalum avarude jayil samvidaanangalil vamseeya kalarchayekkurichu aashankaakularaayi. pothujanangalude ethirppu nadapadi raddaakkunnathilekku nayikkunnathuvare (ennaal atharam naalpat pere vittathinusesham maathram) "gurutharamaaya" kuttakrithyangalil sikshikkappetta swatantra karuthavarggakkaare adimathathilekku vilkkunnathinekkurich virgenia oru kaalathekku pareekshanam nadatthi.
karuthavaro vellakkaarano aaya valare kurachu sthreekal maathrame antibellum thekk thadavilaakkappettittul. ennaal thekkan jayilukalude niyanthranathilaaya sthreekale sambandhichidatholam, eddu ward ell parayunnathanusarichu, saahacharyangal palappozhum "bhayanakamaayirunnu". ayyar. purusha kuttavaalikaleppole avare thala mundanam cheyyaan nirbandhichillenkilum, antibellum thekk vanita thadavukaar prathyeka soukaryangalil thaamasichirunnilla-pala antibellum vadakkan jayilukalilum angane aayirunnu-laingikaathikramam saadhaaranamaayirunnu.
vadakku pole, thadavushikshayude chelavu thekkan adhikaarikale aakarshichu, ennirunnaalum thekkan janatha avarude vadakkan athiraalikale apekshichu eee prashnatthil kooduthal shradha kendreekarichu. laabhamundaakkaathatho kuranjathu thakarnnatho aaya jayilukalodu antibellum kaalaghattatthile thekkan gavarnarmaarkk kshama kuravaayirunnu. thekkan jayilukal avarude vadakkan athiraalikaleppole thanne panam sambaadikkaanulla pala thanthrangalum sweekarichu. sandarshakaril ninnu phees eedaakkiyaanu jayilukal panam sambaadichathu. adima shoos, vaaganukal, paalikal, ishtikakal thudangiya sthiramaaya aavasyamulla lalithamaaya saadhanangal nirmmikkaan kuttavaalikalude advaanam upayogichum avar panam sambaadichu. ennaal ithu thekkan pattanangalilum nagarangalilum thozhilaalikalkkum vyaapaarikalkkum idayil aswasthathayundaakki. muun thayyalkkaranaaya tennessiyude govarnor andrew jonson thante samsthaanathinte jailinum athinte thadavukaarkkidayil athu avatharippicha vyavasaayangalkkumethire rashtreeya yuddham nadatthi. eee samgharshangal ozhivakkaan, jorjia, mississippi polulla chila samsthaanangal sarkkar samrambhangalkkayi jayil vyavasaayam pareekshichu. ennaal oduvil vadakotto thekotto ulla chila jayilukal antibellum kaalaghattatthil labhamundaakki.
ennirunnaalum, punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthile sambhavavikasangal munkoottipparanjukondu, virgenia, jorjia, tennessi ennivar 1850-kalode thangalude kuttavaalikale swakaarya bisinasukaarkku paattatthinu nalkaanulla ashayam pariganikkaan thudangi. misauri, alabama, texas, kentakki, louisiana ennividangalile thadavukaarellaam avarude kuttavaalikale vividha krameekaranangalkk keezhil paattatthinu nalki-chilar jayilinullil thanne (vadakkan jayilukalum cheythathupole), mattullavar samsthaanathinte swantham soukaryangalkku puratthaayirunnu.
antibellum thekk nagara kuttakrithyangal.
kuttakrithyangal 1800num idayil thekkan janasamkhyayude bahubhooripakshavum kaarshikamekhalayilaanu jolie cheythirunnathu. eee kaalayalavil krishiyidangalil jolie cheiyunna vadakkan janasamkhyayude anupatham 70 sathamaanathil ninnu 40 shathamaanamaayi kuranjappol, 80 sathamaanam thekkan nivaasikalum krishiyumaayi bandhapetta jolikalil sthiramaayi earppettirunnu. ithu prathifalippikkunna, thekkan janathayude patthilonnu maathramaan samakaalika sensus maanadandangal oru nagarapradeshamaayi visheshippichirunna (vadakkan janathayude naalilonn pere apekshichu) thaamasichirunnathu.
antibellum thekkan nagarangal eee pradeshatthinte adima sambadvyavasthayudeyum anthaaraashtra vipani sambadvyavasthayudeyum ghattathilaanu nilakondathu, thekkan nagarangalile kuttakrithyangalude mukham roopappeduthunnathil saambathikashaasthram nirnaayaka punk vahichathayi thonnunnu. eee nagara kendrangal thekkan graamapradesangalil ninnu mathramalla, vadakku, videshathu ninnum cheruppakkaarum swathillaathavarumaaya vellakkaarane aakarshikkan pravanatha kaanichu. kaanichu parutthiyile saambathika kuthichuchaattam "flush times" srishtichappol thekk nagara kudiyettam oru kodumudiyiletthi."pavapetta yuvaakkalum mattullavarum-vellakkarum karuppum-jorjiyayile savanna polulla thekkan nagarangalude chuttupaadukalil sthirathaamasamaakki. ivide avar aadhunika samoohathile sambannavum kooduthal sthirathayullathumaaya gadakangalumaayi sanbarkkam pulartthi, viplavaananthara philadelphiyayileyum mattu vadakkan nagarangalileyum janasamkhyaashaasthrathinu samaanamaayi.
samaanamaayi aabhyantharayudhathinum idayil aadyathe aadhunika thekkan police seena uyarnnuvannathu thekkan nagarangalil varggathe adisthaanamaakkiyulla samgharshangal moolamaanu. chila thekkan nagarangal-prathyekichu nyoo orleansum chaalstanum-pathinettaam noottaandinte thudakkathil thanne avarude valia nagara adima janasamkhyaye niyanthrikkunnathinulla oru maargamaayi police senayumaayi pareekshanangal nadatthi. ennaal mikka thekkan nagarangalum noottaandinte madhyathinu munbu sannadha ratri nireekshana senaye aashrayichirunnu. unifom dharicha police senayilekkulla parivartthanam prathyekichu sugamamayirunnilla puthiya police uyarthiya azhimathi, kaaryakshamathayillayma, vyakthigatha swaathanthryathinu bheeshaniyundennu karuthiyathinte falamaayi valia rashtreeya ethirppu uyarnnu.
edward ell. ennirunnaalum, antibellum kaalaghattatthile thekkan police senakal "kramakkedum" "shalyavum" nadappakkalil ninnu kuttakrithyangal srishtichukondu ekathvam nadappakkaan pravanatha kaanichu. thekk aantibellathile moshanakkesukalil bhooribhaagavum athinte nagarangalilaanu uyarnnuvannathu. koodaathe swath kuttavaalikal kuttavaalikalude janasamkhyayude aanupaathikamallaatha vihithamaayirunnu. thekkan kodathikalil sikshikkappetta kuttavaalikalil 20 sathamaanathil thaazhe maathramaan moshtaakkalum moshtaakkalum ennengilum thekk jayilukalile janasamkhyayude pakuthiyolam avaraanu.
swaathanthryathinum aabhyantharayudhathinum edayilulla kaalaghattatthil thekkan thadavukaar asamamaya vamseeya vibhaagakkaaraayirunnu. dakshinenthyayile swatantra janasamkhyayude 3 sathamaanathil thaazhe maathramaan videshathu janichavar. vaasthavathil, antibellum kaalaghattatthil amerikkayilekkulla kudiyettakkaaril ettilonnu maathramaan thekk sthirathaamasamaakkiyathu. ennittum eee kaalayalavil thekkan samsthaanangalile jayil janasamkhyayude 8 muthal 37 sathamaanam vare videsha kudiyettakkaraanu.
thekkan nagarangalile kuttakrithyangal saadhaaranayaayi antibellum varshangalile vadakkan nagarangale prathifalippikkunnu. american aabhyantharayudhathinte thalennu deseeya vipaniyile maandyakaalathu rund vibhaagangalum thadavu nirakkil vardhanavu anubhavichu. anubhavichu cheythu vadakku samanamaaya oru maandyam anubhavichirunnu-thadavu vardhanayode-kaarshika dakshinenthyakkaar anubhavichilla. ennaal thekk nagara kuttakrithyangal vadakku kuttakrithyangalil ninnu oru pradhana reethiyil vyathyasthamaayirunnu-athu akramamaanu. akramatthinte ganyamaaya uyarnna sathamaanam ellah vargga thalatthilumulla thekkan criminal kuttavaalikalude savisheshathayaanu. nagaratthile thekk bhaagathulla akramasaktharaaya kuttavaalikalil bhooribhaagavum velutha cheruppakkaaraanu.
thekk nagarangalile adimathavum athinte shiksha sthaapanangalude vikasanathil oru punk vahichu. nagaratthile adima udamakal palappozhum thangalude manushyaswathu "sambharikkunnathinum" achadakka lamghanangalkku adimakale shikshikkunnathinum jayilukal upayogichu. nagarapradeshangalile adimakalude ennam grameena dakshinenthyakkaare apekshichu kuravaayirunnu. udaaharanathinu, jorjiyayile savannayil thamasikkunna adimakalil ekadesham 60 sathamaanavum avarude yajamaananodoppam thaamasichirunnilla; palarkkum vethanathinaayi svayam vaadakaykku edukkaan anuvaadamundaayirunnu (varumanam avarude udamayumaayi pankidendivannenkilum). vamseeya niyanthranam nadappakkaan kooduthal budhimuttulla eee anthareekshathil, karutha kuttakrithyangalil ninnu thekkan vellakkaar nirantharam jagrata pulartthiyirunnu. southu karolinayile chaalsttan, thangalude adimakale oru phees shikshaykk ayaykkunnathinu yajamaananmaarkkaayi oru prathyeka workhouse sthaapichu. jorjiyayile savannayil, udamakalkku avarude adimakale shikshikkaanaayi sitti jaililekku ayaykkaam.
antibellum thekk grameena kuttakrithyangal.
antibellum kaalaghattatthil dakshinenthyayiludaneelam vyavasayavalkkaranam kramarahithamayi purogamikkukayum grameena janasamkhyayude valiyoru vibhaagam colonial kaalaghattatthilennapole upajeevana sambadvyavasthayil pankedukkukayum cheythu. eee pradeshangalile kuttakrithyangalude reethikal eee saambathika yaadhaarthyangale prathifalippikkunnu; moshanangalalla, akramam grameena thekkan kodathikalile bhooribhaagam sthalavum etteduthu.
nagarapradeshangalil ninnu vyathyasthamayi, vipani sambadvyavasthayude uyarcha thazhchakal thekk graamapradesangalile kuttakrithyangalil kuranja swaadheenam chelutthi. nagarangale apekshichu thekk grameena aantibellathile criminal dokkattukalil moshana kesukal valare kuravaanu (grameena jadjimaarum joorikalum avarude nagara athiraalikaleppole swath kuttavaalikale akramaasaktharekkaal kadinamaayi kaikaaryam cheiyunnundenkilum). graamapradesangalile kuttakrithyangal mikkavarum akramasakthamaaya kuttakrithyangal mathramaayirunnu.
vadakku pole antibellum thekk mikka kaundikalum vichaaranaykk munbulla thadavukaarkkum shikshaykk munbulla thadavukaarkkum thaamasikkunnathinaayi oru jayil paripaalikkunnu. vividha kaundikal thammilulla sambathile asamathvathinte falamaayi nirmmaanatthinte valuppathilum gunanilavaarathilum iva ganyamaayi vyathyasappettu. ennirunnaalum, thekkan nagarangalil ninnu vyathyasthamayi, vadakkukizhakkan, madhya padinjaaran samsthaanangalile samsthaanangal avarude criminal neethi prakriyayude shradha punaradhivasa thadaviloode maattiyengilum, grameena kaundikal antibellum kaalaghattatthil apoorvvamaayi maathrame jayiline criminal shikshayaayi upayogichirunnulloo. pakaram, pizhayaayirunnu grameena dakshinenthyan neethiyude pradhana adisthaanam.
grameena antibellum southil thadavu shiksha criminal shikshayaayi upayogikkaathirikkuka ennathu eee pradeshangalile criminal neethiyude kramarahithamaya bharanathe prathifalippikkunnu. annathe pothu criminal nadapadikramangal prakaram, moshanathinteyo akramatthinteyo irakal samaadhaanathekkurichulla avarude praadeshika neethikku munnil paraathikal nalki, avar prathikalkkayi arast vaarand purappeduvichu. kaundi sherief vaarant nadappilaakkukayum prathiye oru majistrettu jadjiyude munnil konduvarikayum cheyyum, addeham praadhamika vaadam kelkkum, athinusesham addehathinu onnukil cases thallikkalayukayo allengil grand juurii hearinginaayi prathiye unnatha kodathiyilekku kaimaarukayo cheyyaam. (ennirunnaalum, chila kesukal, prathyekichu madyapaanam, choothaattam thudangiya dhaarmika kuttakrithyangal ulppedunnava, grand juurii swantham ishtaprakaaram aarambhichu.)
antibellum rural southile criminal nadapadikramangal oru criminal prathikk rakshappedaanulla niravadhi vazhikal vaagdaanam cheythu, vichaaranayko shikshaykko kaathirikkumbol ettavum daridrar maathramaan jayilil thaamasichirunnathu. vichaaranaykk munbu jayilil samayam chelavazhicha prathikalkk prosecutor avarude kaundiyile dvivarsha sandarshanathinaayi kaathirikkendivannu. thekkan prosecutermaar saadhaaranayaayi kesukal vichaarana cheiyunna praadeshika pradeshathalla thaamasichirunnathu, pothuve avar thayyarayirunnilla. grameena thekkan samoohangalude pothuve aduppamulla swabhaavam kanakkiledukkumbol, thaalpparyamillaatha joorimaarum varaan prayasamaayirunnu. shikshavidhi vidhikkunnathile aapekshikamaya daya mikka judicial nadapadikalum akramasakthamaaya kuttakrithyangalkku adayaalappeduthiyathaayi thonnunnu-ettavum saadhaaranamaayath. niravadhi prashnamundaakkunnavar-prathyekichu bhurahitar-raajyam mothatthil upekshikkumennu vishwasichu judicial samvidaanathinu kaikaaryam cheyyaan kazhiyunnathinekkaal kooduthal kuttavaalikale joorikal kuttavimuktharakkiyathaayi charitraparamaaya thelivukal soochippikkunnu.
aabhyantharayudhathinu munbulla varshangalil kurachu kudiyettakkaaro swatantra karuthavarggakkaaro grameena thekk thaamasichirunnu, eee kaalayalaviludaneelam thottakkaar bharikkunna oru prathyeka criminal neethinyaaya samvidaanathinte aadhipathyathin keezhil adimakal thudarnnu. athinaal, mikka criminal prathikalum thekk janicha vellakkaaraayirunnu (ellah saamoohika-saambathika vibhaagangaleyum criminal dokkattukalil prathinidheekarichu). gray maarkkattil" vellakkarumaayulla avarude edapaadukalil ninnu karuthavarggakkaar idaykkide parambaraagatha criminal neethinyaaya samvidaanathinte paridhiyil vannu. ennaal niyamaviruddha vyaapaarathil ninnu vellakkarkkum karuthavargakkaarkkum orupole undaakunna apakadangal, avarude yogangalil palappozhum pottippurapetta akramangal, niyamaparamaayi durbalaraaya karuthavarggakkaare muthaledukkaanulla vellakkaarude pravanatha ennivayellaam eee sambhavangale thaarathamyena apoorvamaakki.
punarnirmmaana yugam.
american aabhyantharayudhavum athinte anantharafalangalum amerikkayude samvidaanathe parishkarikkunnathinum thadavinulla yukthikkum saakshyam vahichu. jaxonian kaalaghattatthil jayil kettidangalude tharamgam muthal mikka samsthaana jayilukalum maattamillathe thudarnnu, athinte falamaayi, shaareerikavum bharanaparavumaya thakarchayude avasthayilaayirunnu. jaxonian parishkaranatthinte maathrukaaparamaaya jayilukalaaya aubarnum kizhakkan samsthaana jayilukalum alpam vyathyasthamaayirunnu. vyakthiyude punaradhivaasatthil shradha kendreekaricha oru puthiya shiksha vyavasthayiloode puthiya parishkarthaakkal antibellum jayilukal nasikkunna prasnangal nerittu-ithavana perumatta maattathe baadikkunnathinulla oru maargamaayi sthaapanaparamaaya prachodanangal upayogikkunnathinu oonnal nalki. athesamayam, yudhaananthara varshangal amerikkayil oru sujanna prasthaanatthinte jananathinu saakshyam vahichathinaal, vamshavum paarambaryavumaayi bandhapetta kriminaalittiyekkurittu uyarnnuvarunna "shaasthreeya" kaazhchappaadukalilum punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthile penology shradha kendreekarichu.
vadakkan vikasanangal.
krooratha, kudiyettam, sujananashaasthram, "jayilukal laborattarikal".
saamoohika charitrakaaranaaya david rathman, jaxonian kaalaghattatthile abhilaashangalil ninnulla thakarchayaayi punarnirmmanaanthara jayil bharanathinte kathaye visheshippikkunnu. valia tirakkum jeevanakkaarude kuravum neridunna jayil udyogasthar avarude kuttangal niyanthrikkunnathinulla "athisayakaramaaya vichitramaaya" reethikalilekku madangi, rathman ezhuthunnu. eee kaalayalavil vardhichuvarunna shikshakalil iva ulppedunnu
niyanthranathinu eee nadapadikal aavasyamaanennu wardenmar vishwasichirunnuvenkilum, samakaalika nireekshakar pothuve avaye "samshayaatheethamaayi krooravum asaadhaaranavumaanennu" rohtman abhiprayappettu.
yudhaananthara varshangalil vadakkan samsthaanangal thangalude prathikalude thozhil swakaarya bisinesses thaalpparyangalkkayi paattatthinu nalkunnathu thudarnnu. 1865ll amgeekaricha pathimoonnaam bhedagathi, adimatham "party shariyaayi shikshikkappedenda oru kuttakrithyathinulla shikshayaayi" vyakthamaayi anuvadichu."vadakkan jayilukalil, samsthaanam saadhaaranayaayi thadavukaarkku bhakshanam nalkukayum thamasippikkukayum cheiyunnu, athesamayam kararukar aavashyamaaya ellah yanthrangalum jayil soukaryathilekku konduvarikayum thadavukaarude samayam paattatthinu nalkukayum cheiyunnu.
thozhiludamakalum kaavalkkaarum thadavukaaril ninnu kazhiyunnathra samayavum parisramavum edukkaan sramichathinaal, anweshanaathmaka reporter scott kristhyansan parayunnathanusarichu durupayogangal saadhaaranamaayirunnu. trantanile nyoojezhsiyile jayilil, jayil jeevanakkar "neettikkondupokumbol" oru thadavukaaran marichathinethudarnnu, jaile achadakkam anweshikkunna oru samiti, udyogasthar apasmara rogikalil madyam ozhichathaayum avar jolie ozhivakkunnathinaayi vyajamaaya aarthavaviraamamaano ennu nokkaan avarkk theeyittathayum nirnnayichu. ohiyoyile oru jayilil, anuthpaadakaraaya kuttavaalikale vellathinte kuzhikalil nagnaraayi irikkukayum oru induction koyil ninnu vaidyutha shokkukal sweekarikkukayum cheythu. cheythu aathyanthikamayi 1860kalilum samsthaanathe jayilukalile aachaarangalekkurichulla pothu anweshanangal newyorkkil pathivayi vardhichuvenkilum saahacharyangalil yadhaarthathil kaaryamaaya swaadheenam cheluthiyilla. oru sthaapanathil jolie cheyyaathathinu oru thadavukaarane visham nalki kolappeduthiyathaayum mattoraale maanasikamaayi thakarnnupokunnathuvare patthu maasam eakaantha thadavil tharayil changalayittathayum avar velippeduthi.
1870 kalilum 1880 kalilum 1890 kalilum amerikkakkar akkaalathe yunaittad stetts jayilukalile achadakkatheyum mattu durupayogangaleyum abhisambodhana cheyyaan kaaryamayonnum cheythilla. scott kristyansanum david rohtman parayunnathanusarichu, eee nissamgathayude oru kaaranam samakaalika jayil janasamkhyayude gadanayaayirunnu. aabhyantharayudhathethudar, yudhathinu valarekkalam munbu deseeya raashtreeyathinte oru gadakamaayirunna native vikaaram vikasippikkunathinoppa amerikkayilekkulla kudiyettatthinte alavu vardhichu. jeey.echu ekadesham 30 laksham kudiyettakkaar american aikyanaadukalude theerangalil ethi. 1880-kalode, kizhakkan, thekkan europile peedanatthilum aswasthathayilum ninnu kudiyettakkaar palayanam cheythathode eee varavu 52 lakshamaayi uyarnnu. uyarnnu 1904num idayil prathivarsham 10 laksham aalukalude kudiyettam unnathiyilethunnathuver eee pravanatha thudarnnu.
thudarnnu aathyanthikamayi jayilukal (manasikarogikalkkulla abhayakendrangalkkoppam) videshathu janichavarudeyum daridrarudeyum prathyeka samrakshana kendrangalaayi maarukayayirunnu. pathonpathaam noottaand avasaanichathode eee pravanatha thwarithappettu. udaaharanathinu, 1890-leeii thadavukaaril 60 sathamaanavum videshathu janichavaro randaam thalamurayile kudiyettakkaaro aayirunnu-airish, jarmman, kooduthalum. illinois thadavukaaril moonnilonnil thaazhe perr vyaakarana school poortthiyaakkiyavarum 5 sathamaanam perkku maathrame haiskool allengil koleju vidyaabhyaasam undaayirunnulloo, bhooribhaagavum avidagdha allengil ardha-vaidagdhyamulla jolikal nadathiyirunnu. ayyar kaaliforniyayile thadavukaaril 45 sathamaanavum videshathu janichavaraayirunnu-pradhaanamaayum chainees, meksikkan, airish, jarmman vamshajar-bhooribhaagavum thozhilaallikal, waitermaar, paachakakkar allengil karshakar ennivaraayirunnu. yudhaananthara varshangaliludaneelam, videshathu janicha amerikkakkaarude thadavu nirakk thaddesheeyamaayi janichavarude erattiyaayirunnu; karutha amerikkakkaare vellakkaraaya amerikkakkaarude moonnirattiyaayi vadakkum thekkum thadavilaakki.
aabhyantharayudhathinte avasaanam jaiva shreshtathayum paarambaryamaayi labhicha saamoohika nyoonathayum sambandhicha kapada-shaasthreeya sidhaanthangalude aavirbhaavathinum saakshyam vahichu. ettavum yogyarude athijeevanam" enna darvinian ashayam saamoohika varggathinte aashayangalilekku vyaakhyaathaakkal koottichertthu. dhii resers klaass oof newyork" (1872) enna grandhatthinte rachayithavaaya chaals loaring brezaanu, jeevakaarunya pravarthanangaliloode daaridryam sukhappeduthaanulla sramangal daridrarude athijeevana saadhyatha kuraykkunnathiloode thirichadiyaakumennu thante vaayanakkaarkk munnariyipp nalkiyathu. richard ell. pouramanassukaaraaya newyork vyaapaariyaaya dugdale jeey.echu newyorkkile prashasthamaaya jayil associationte sannadha inspectoraayi pathimoonnu kaundi jayilukal sandarshichu. pilkkala rachanakalile thante nireekshanangale prathifalippichukondu, dugdell paarambarya criminal kuttakrithyavum laingikabandham illaathathum kuttakrithyamaanennu kandethi.
vamshatheyum janithakashaasthratheyum kurichulla eee kaazhchappaadukal, american jayilukalile niyanthrana paalikkal nireekshikkunnathinaayi sthaapithamaaya vividha audyogika melnotta sthaapanangale baadhichathaayi christianson rathman nigamanam cheiyunnu. eee nireekshana boardukal (samsthaana executivo niyamanirmmaanasabhayo sthaapicha) jayil samvidaanathile durupayogangal prathyakshatthil illaathaakkumenkilum, oduvil thadavilakkappetta janangalodulla avarude nissamgatha avare manushyathvaparamaaya paricharanam polum urappakkaanulla chumathalaykk valia thothil sajjaraakkiyillenn rathman vaadikkunnu. samsthaana, federal jadjimar 1950 vare jayil saahacharyangal nireekshikkunnathil ninnu vittuninnu.
paarambaryamaayi labhicha criminal pravarthanangalilum saamoohikamaaya keezhchappadukalilum nilanilkkunna vishwaasangal punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthil valarnnuvarunna sujanna prasthaanatthinu kaaranamaayi, ithu niyantritha prajananatthiloode manushyarashi "mechappeduthaanum" "daridra" allengil "" thaazhnna "pravanathakal illaathaakkaanum shramichu. 1890 kalude avasaanathode, pramukha doctormar, manasshaasthranjar, wardenmar ennivare pinthunachukondu american jayilukalilum maanasikarogikalaya sthaapanangalkkumaayi sujanna paripaadikal oru "poornnamaaya navothaanam" aasvadikkukayaayirunnu. itaaliyan criminal shaasthranjanaaya siser lombroso 1878-ll "ell 'oomo delinkwente" (allengil, "criminal maan") enna peril valare swaadheenamulla oru laghulekha prasidheekarichu, ithu shaareerika lakshanagal allengil "stigmatta" vazhi thirichariyaan kazhiyunna oru aadima criminal tharam nilavilundennu sidhaanthichu."
jayil udyogastharkkidayil frenology oru janapriya "shaasthramaayi" maari; padanatthinte janapreethiyude unnathiyilaayappol, swaadheenamulla punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthile maatran oof singh singh jayil, elisabath dablyu. farnham athinte anuyaayikaliloraalaayirunu, kizhakkan samsthaana jaile udyogasthar yudhaananthara varshangalil ellah thadavukaareyum kurichulla frenological daatta sookshichu.
sookshichu bhauthika naravamshashaasthra mekhala shradha nediyathode, jayilukal sujananashaasthram, manahshaasthram, manushyabudhi, vaidyashaasthram, mayakkumarunnu chikitsa, janithakashasthram, janana niyanthranam enniva padikkunnathinulla laborattarikalaayi maari. eee samrambhangalkkulla pinthuna akkaalat amerikkayile swaadheenamulla jayil parishkarana samghadanakalil ninnaan-"iii.jii.", jayil parishkarana kongras, chaarittikalkkum thiruthalukalkkumulla deseeya sammelanam, naashanal jayil kongras, newyorkkile jayil association, pothu jayilukalude durithangal laghookarikkunnathinulla philadelphia sosaitti enniva.
criminal pravanathakal thirichariyunnathinum kuttavaalikale bheeshani nilavaaram anusarichu tharamthirikkunnathinumulla puthiya reethikal jayil adisthaanamaakkiyulla gaveshanathil ninnu uyarnnuvannu. udaaharanathinu, 1896-ll, muppath divasamo athil kooduthalo sikshikkappetta ellah vyakthikaleyum samsthaana rekhakalkkayi alakkaanum foto edukkaanum newyork aavasyappettu. jayil pashchaathalatthile sujanna padanangal poornnamaaya kaastreshanu pakaramaayi vandhyamkarana sasthrakriya vikasippikkunnathilekku nayichu.
rachayithavaaya scott kristyansan parayunnathanusarichu, punarnirmmaanatthe niyanthrikkunnathiloode manushyaraashiyude vamshanaashamo janithaka thakarchayo thadayukayenna lakshyathodeyaanu eee divasathe sujananashaasthra padanangal lakshyamidunnathu. lakshyamidunnathu madhyathil, kansas "durbalamanaskarude veedu" athile ellah nivaasikalkkum koottamaaya vargeekaranam nadatthaan thudangi. 1907ll chila maanasikarogikalum criminal vyakthikalum nirbandhitha vandhyamkarana niyamam nadappaakkiya aadya samsthaanamaayi indiana maari. rockfeller juuniyar.sujanna bhakthanaya addeham newyorkkile soshyal daarvinist pareekshanangalil earppettu. 1910-kalil rockfeller beuro phoor soshyal haijeen srishtichu, ithu vanita thadavukaare avarude criminal swabhaavathinteyum "maanasika vaikalyathinteyum" verukal nirnnayikkunnathinaayi samsthaanathinte sammathathodeyum saambathika pinthunayodum koodi pareekshanangal nadatthi."
jaxonian parishkaranatthinteyum puthukkiya shramangaludeyum parajayam.
punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthil jayil parishkartthaakkalude oru puthiya samgham uyarnnuvannu, athu sthaapanathekkurichu kurachu shubhaapthivishvaasam nilanirthukayum jayiline dhaarmika punaradhivasa kendramaakki mattaanulla sramangal aarambikkukayum cheythu. avarude sramangal samakaalika jayilukalil chila maattangalilekku nayichu, ennaal american aikyanaadukalile jayil samvidaanangalil enthengilum supradhana gadanaaparamaaya parishkaarangalkk purogamana kaalaghattatthil parishkaranatthinte mattoru kaalayalav vendivarum.
charitrakaaranaaya david rathmante abhipraayathil, punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthile jayilukalude praadhamika parajayam bharanaparamaayirunnu. samsthaana govarnarmaar saadhaaranayaayi muzhuvan samayamo shambalamo illaatha jayil thasthikakalilekku rashtreeya rakshaadhikaarikale niyamikkaarund. udaaharanathinu, 1870-kalil, newyorkkile yoottikkayude boardil rund bankermar, oru dhaanya vyaapaari, rund nirmmathaakkal, rund abhibhaashakar, rund general bisinasukaar ennivaraayirunnu undaayirunnathu. praadeshika bisinasukaar ulppedunna eutica polulla jayil melnotta boardukal mikka kaaryangalilum jayil udyogasthare maattivaykkukayum saambathika melnottatthil maathram shradha kendreekarikkukayum cheythathinaal nilavile sthithi nilanirthaan pravanatha kaanichu, rathman ezhuthunnu.
punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthile jayil parishkarana sramangal vividha srothassukalil ninnaan vannath. criminal varggathinte" janithaka malineekaranathekkurichulla bhayavum manushyaraashiyude bhaviyil athu cheluthunna swaadheenavum eee kaalayalavil vyabhicharam, veshyaavrithi, "velutha adimatham" enniva thadayukayenna lakshyathode niravadhi dhaarmika police shramangalkk kaaranamaayi. athesamayam, gaarhika peedanatthe, prathyekichu kuttikalodulla, kriminalvalkkarikkaanulla prachaaranangalum anubandha mitatwa prasthaanangalum 1870 muthal pala samudaayangalilum "kramasamadhaanathodulla" prathibaddhatha puthukkippaniyaan kaaranamaayi. sthreekalkkum kuttikalkkum kooduthal samrakshanam nalkanamenna aavasyangal niyamanirmmathaakkal avaganichappol, sthreevirudha pravartthakar purusha criminal kuttavaalikalkk-chaattavaaradi, vandhyakaranam, kooduthal neenda jayil shiksha ennivayulppede-kooduthal kadinamaaya shikshakal nalkanamennu lobby cheythu.
mattoru koottam parishkarthaakkal nishedhaathmakamaaya kaaranangalal jayilukale nyaayeekarikkunnath thudarnnu-"i.iii.", jayil samvidaanathinum athinte parajayangalkkumethiraaya susthiravum vijayakaravumaya akramanam colonial kaalaghattatthile shikshakalude" "krooratha" "yilek madangivarumenna bhayathaal". ennirunnaalum, charitrakaaranaaya david rathman parayunnathanusarichu, aabhyantharayudhaananthara kaalaghattatthil parishkaranavaadikalude chinthakalil oru paridhivare shubhaapthivishvaasam aadhipathyam pulartthi.
1870 oktobarode, sradheyamaaya punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthile jayil parishkarthaakkalaaya enoch wines, franklin saanbon, theodor dwait, sebulon brokeway ennivar ohiyoyile sinsinnattiyil nadanna deseeya jayil, parishkarana achadakka kongrasumaayi yogam chernnu. thathwangalude prakhyapanam" ennu vilikkappedunna sammelanathil ninnu uyarnnuvanna prameyangal adutha niravadhi pathittaandukalaayi amerikkayile jayil parishkarana ajandayude pradhana gadakangalaayi maari. prakhyapana" thile deseeya kongrassinte ajandayude saaramsham oru puthiya jayil maathrkayiloode kuttavaalikalude (prathyekichu cheruppakkaarude) "dhaarmika punarujjeevana" thinulla puthukkiya prathibadhathayaayirunnu.
deseeya kongrassinte "thathwangalude prakhyapanam" kuttakrithyathe "orutharam dhaarmika rogamaayi" visheshippichu."" "prakhyapanam" "" "[oof] enna mahathaaya vasthu" "ennu prasthaavichu". . . kuttavaalikalodulla perumaattam. . . athu avarude dhaarmika punarujjeevanamaayirikkanam. . . kuttavaalikalude parishkaranamaanu, prathikaraparamaaya kashtappaadukal undaakkunnathalla."penologist sarr walter krofttan munnottuvacha" "airish maarkk sisttathil" "ninnu prachodanam ulkkondaanu prakhyapanam". nalla samaya" creditukalum (neratheyulla mochanam) mattu perumatta prolsaahanangalum upayogichu engane neraaya jeevitam nayikkaamenn thadavukaare padippikkuka ennathaayirunnu krofttan samvidaanathinte lakshyam. (1) thadavukaarude aathmaabhimaanam valarthiyedukkuka; (2) thadavukaarude vidhi swantham kaikalil vaykkuka ennivayaayirunnu prakhyaapanatthinte praadhamika lakshyangal. ennaal "prakhyapanam" kooduthal vishaalamaayi
deseeya kongrasum athinte ajandayodu prathikarichavarum kooduthal thuranna sikshaaniyamam nadappaakkumennu pratheekshichirunnu. vichaaranaykk sesham oru jadji nischayicha divasathile peremptory (allengil nirbandhitha) shikshakal anischithamaaya dairkhyamulla shikshakalaal maattisthaapikkanamennu avar vaadichu. kongras prakhyaapanatthil nalkiyirikkunna yadhaartha "parishkaranatthinte thelivu", thadavil ninnu oru thadavukaarane mochippikkunnathile "verum kaalaharanathinu" pakaramavanam. eee nirddeshangal purogamana kaalaghattatthil anischithamaaya shikshavidhi samagramaayi sweekarikkumennu pravachichu.
shikshaanadapadikalkkaayi niravadhi "purogamanaparamaaya" nirddeshangal undaayirunnittum, ezhuthukaaranaaya scott kristyansante kazhchappadil, shikshaanadapadikalil ninnu mochitharaaya karuthavarudeyum kudiyettakkaarudeyum duravasthayodu deseeya kongras samvedanakshamatha kaanichilla. karuthavargakkaarum videshikalum avarude antharleenamaaya adhapathanavum saamoohika adhapathanavum kaaranam jayil samvidaanathil asamamaayi prathinidheekarikkappedunnu enna samakaalika aashayathin deseeya kongras amgathvam saadhaaranayaayi anusrithamaanennu kristhyansan abhipraayappedunnu.
pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasaanathil newyorkkile elmira parishkaranasamghathinte uyarchayum thakarchayum "thathwangalude prakhyaapanatthil" deseeya kongras nischayichittulla lakshyangal niravettunnathinulla punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthile ettavum abhilashakaramaaya shramathe prathinidheekarikkunnu. 1876ll nirmmicha elmira sthaapanam, avarude shikshavidhi jadji nischayicha anischithakaala thadavu anubavikkunna pathinarinum muppathinum idayil praayamulla kuttavaalikale aadyamaayi paarppikkunnathinaan roopakalppana cheythirikkunnathu. vipulamaaya grading samvidaanathiloode vilayiruthiyathupole, elmira thadavukaarkku nalla perumaattatthiloode sthaapanathil ninnu purathukadakkendivannu. thadavukaarude thadavu kaalaavadhikk niyamanirmmanasabha avarude kuttatthinu nischayicha uyarnna paridhi mathramaayirunnu.
scott kristyansanum david rohtman parayunnathanusarichu, samakaalika shiksha parishkaranatthinte adisthaana pirimurukkatthinu elmirayude bharanam adivarayidunnu. oru vashath kuttavaalikale punaradhivasippikkuka ennathaayirunnu athinte lakshyam; maruvashathu, criminal perumaattatthinte paarambaryatthilulla vishwaasathaal athinte parishkarana thathwangal samyojippikkappettu. elmirayude aadya warden naashanal kongras amgavumaaya sebulan brokeway 1884-ll ezhuthiyathu addehathinte kuttapathrangalil pakuthiyenkilum avayude janithakaghadana kaaranam "thiruthaanaavaatha" aanennaan. aadhunika kuttavaalikale "ganyamaaya alavil nammude naagarikathayudeyum naagarikathayudeyum ulppannamaayi brokeway visheshippichu. . . tirakkeriya europian vipanikalude adhapathicha janasamkhyayil ninnu nammude theerathekkulla kudiyettam."brokeway ettavum karsanamaaya achadakka nadapadikal neekkivachu-" iii.jii.", idaykkide chattavaaradiyum eakaantha thadavum-addeham" "pariharikkaanaavaathavar" "ennu karuthiyavarkk (praadhamikamaayi maanasikamayum shaareerikamaayum vaikalyamullavarkk)".
elmira athinte aadya varshangalil nannayi pravartthikkunna oru maathrukaa sthaapanamaayi samakaalikar palarum kanakkaakkiyirunnu. ennirunnaalum, 1893 aayappozhekkum parishkaranasangham valareyadhikam thirakkeriyathum maanasikamayum shaareerikamaayum vaikalyamullavarodu addeham nadatthiya kroorathayude falamaayi janithaka apachayathekkurichum budhishoonyathayekkurichum kriminaalittiyekkuriyum brokewayude ashayangal vimarsanathinu vidheyamaayi. elmirayude achadakka reethikalekkurichulla oru 1894 executive anweshanam sthaapanathile achadakkam kadinamaanennu nigamanam cheythu, ennirunnaalum addeham thadavukaare krooravum krooravum amithavum apamanakaravum asaadhaaranavumaaya shiksha nalki enna kuttangal oduvil athu illaathaakki."ennaal thudarnnukondirunna kalankam 1900 oode elmirayile thante sthaanathu ninnu raajivaykkaan brokeway prerippichu.
yudhaananthara varshangalil nilaninnirunna mattu jaxonian kaalaghatta sthaapanangalil ninnu athinte reethikal valare vyathyasthamallathathinaal, elmirayil ninnu brokewayude verpiriyal sthaapanathinte paraajayatthe oru parishkaricha jayilayi adayaalappeduthunnathaayi charitrakaaranaaya david rathman visheshippikkunnu. ennaal elmirayude anubhavam samakaalika parishkarthaakkalodu maanejmentine maathram kuttappeduthanamennu nirddeshichuvennum, avarude nirddishta thadankal samvidaanamallennum rathman nigamanam cheiyunnu. irupathaam noottaandinte thudakkathile purogamana yugam 1870-ll deseeya kongrasum athinte anuyaayikalum pinthunacha shiksha ajanda nadappakkaanulla puthiya shramangalkk saakshyam vahichu-ennirunnaalum chila sradheyamaaya gadanaaparamaaya kootticherkkalukalode.
thekkan vikasanangal.
aabhyantharayudham thekkan samoohathilum athinte criminal neethinyaaya samvidaanathilum valia maattam varuthi. swathanthraraaya adimakal thekkan janathayil chernnathode avar aadyamaayi praadeshika sarkkaarukalude praadhamika niyanthranatthilaayi. athesamayam, vipani sambadvyavastha munbu sparshikkappedaatha thekk pradeshangalile vyakthikaleyum pradeshangaleyum badhikkaan thudangi. pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasaanathil vyapakamaaya daaridryam thekk varggathe adisthaanamaakkiyulla munkaala saamoohika ghadanaye anaavaranam cheythu. punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthile nagarangalaya jorjiyayile savannayil, vamshaparamaaya maryaadakalude sankeernamaaya niyamangal yudhathinu thottupinnaale vimochanathinte thudakkathode anaavaranam cheyyaan thudangi. yudhasamayathu kshayichupoya antibellum thekk labhyamaayirunna praadeshika police senaykk munbatheppole vamseeya kramam nadappakkaan kazhinjilla. daaridryavum neerasavum baadhicha vellakkaar antibellum kaalaghattatthilennapole vamseeya policingil aikyappettavaraayirunnil. punarnirmmaanatthinte avasaanathode, thekk kuttakrithyangaludeyum shikshayudeyum oru puthiya krameekaranam uyarnnuvannu irupathaam noottaand vare nannayi nilaninna, swakaarya bisinasukalkku paattatthinu nalkia kuttavaalikalulla, kadinashramathil thadavilaakkappedunna oru sankaravum vamsheeyavumaaya roopam.
thekk punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthil kuttakrithyangaludeyum shikshayudeyum janasamkhyaashaasthrathil maattam.
yudhaananthara dakshinenthyayile saambathika prakshubdhatha vamshabandhangalum mekhalayile kuttakrithyangalude swabhaavavum punasamghadippichu, vellakkaar avarude aadhipathyam veendum urappikkaan shramichu. munbu, kuu cluxes clanepole velutha aadhipathyam punasthaapikkunnathinulla niyamaviruddha sramangal kramena kooduthal nischithavum asthiravumaaya vamsha niyanthranathinu vazhiyorukkiyathayi charitrakaaranaaya edward ell parayunnu. ayyar. vamshangal kooduthal verpirinjathode vamseeya sathruthayum vidveshavum vardhichuvennum thekkan niyama sthaapanangal vellakkaarude vamseeya "avastha" samrakshikkunnathilekku kooduthal shradha kendreekarichuvennum ayyar vaadikkunnu.
mono-ratial niyama nirvvahana" thinte paattenukal, iyermar paraamarshikkunnathupole, american aabhyantharayudhathinu thottupinnaale thekkan samsthaanangalil sthaapikkappettu. orikkalum police seena illaathirunna nagarangal avaa sthaapikkaan vegathil neengukayum yudhaananthara raashtreeyathil vellakkaar nagara police senaye vimarshikkunnath valare kuravaayitheerukayum cheythappol, antibellum kaalaghattatthil avaa valia rashtreeya charchakalkku kaaranamaayi. raifilukal, revolverukal, saabarukal enniva upayogichu aayudhadhaarikalaaya chaaraniratthilulla unifom dharichu nagaratthil patrolling nadatthiya konfedarettu vettaranmaar chernnathaanu jorjiyayude yudhaananthara police senayaaya savanna. muun konfedarettu generalaya richard echu aanu avare nayichathu. aandezhsan. american aabhyantharayudhathinusham thekk udaneelam niyama nirvvahana shramangalkk velutha pouranmaare samrakshikkunna vella poleesukaar maathrkayaayi maariyenn iyers nigamanam cheiyunnu.
parutthiyude vila lokamembaadum kurayukayum sathrutha avasaanichathinu sesham vyakthigatha kadathinte palisha nirakk "athisayakaramaaya" vegathayil uyarukayum cheythathinaal, yudhaananthara thekk vella, karutha karshakare saambathika saahacharyangal baadhichu. 1870-kalil udaneelam thekkan graamapradesangalile swath kuttakrithyangalkkulla shikshaavidhikal kuthane uyarnnu (velutha kuttavaalikalude akramasakthamaaya kuttakrithyangal grameena kodathikalude bhooribhaagam kaaryangalum thudarnnu).
thekkan nagarangalilekku kudiyeriya muun adimakale, avide avarkk palappozhum ettavum kuranja shambalamulla jolikal labhikkunnu, avarude grameena athiraalikale apekshichu saambathika maandyam kooduthal shakthamayi baadhichu. aabhyantharayudham nadannu anchu varshathinu sesham jorjiyayile savannayile karutha varggakkaarude 90 sathamaanam perkkum swathukkalonnum undaayirunnilla. savannayile black property kuttakrithyangalude vardhanavu yudhaananthara kaalaghattatthile pradhana saambathika maandyavumaayi bandhappettirikkunnu.
charitrakaaranaaya edward ell parayunnathanusarichu, vellakkaar avarude kottaarangalile aneeti marachuvekkaan kurachu sramangal maathrame nadathiyulloo. ayyar. karuthavarggakkaare joorikalil ninnu orupole ozhivaakkukayum prathikalallathe criminal neethi prakriyayil pankedukkaanulla oru avasaravum nishedhikkukayum cheythu. karutha vargakkaraaya kuttavaalikalude moshanangal thekkan neethinyaaya samvidaanangalude oru puthiya kendramaayi maarukayum kodathiyil vellakkaraaya kuttavaalikalude akramasakthamaaya kuttakrithyangalkku pakaram vaykkaan thudangukayum cheythu. avar nagaratthilo graamapradeshathilo ullavarayaalum swath kuttakrithyangalil prathikalaayavarkk yudhaananthara thekkan kodathikalil shikshikkappedaanulla ettavum valia saadhyathayund. ennaal karuthavargakkaaraaya prathikal ettavum kooduthal sikshikkappettu. pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasana pakuthiyil, thekkan kodathikalil swath kuttakrithyathinu prathikalaaya anchu vellakkaaril moonnu perr sikshikkappettu, athesamayam anchu karuthavargakkaaril naalu perr sikshikkappettu. athesamayam, pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasana pakuthiyiludaneelam vellakkaarude shikshavidhi nirakk antibellum nilavaaratthil ninnu ganyamaayi kuranju.
eee neethinyaaya vyavastha nayikkapettu, dablyu abhipraayathil. iii. bii. athinaal, karuthavaro vellakkaaro criminal neethinyaaya samvidaanathe bahumaanikkaatha oru samvidaanathilekku-vellakkaar avar valare apoorvamaayi utharavaadithamullaavaraayinum karuthavarkku avarude swantham utharavaaditham valare asamathwamullathaayi thonniyathinaalum. aathyanthikamayi, aathyanthikamayi 1860kalilum aayirakkanakkin karutha thekkekkaar cheria moshanangalkkum duraachaarangalkkumaayi shringhala samghangalil deerghakaalam sevanamanushtichu, athesamayam aayirakkanakkin perr kuttavaalikalude paatta sanbradaayathilekku pooyi.
criminal shikshavidhi vidhikkumbol, karuthavargakkaare avarude vellakkaraaya samapraayakkaarumaayi bandhappett-athu cheyin gang, kuttavaali leasing ooppareshan allengil jayil-ennivaykku-asamamaya thadavinu shikshichu. samoolamaaya punarnirmmaanatthinu munbum sheshavum karuthavarggakkaarude thadavu ettavum uyarnnu, thekkan vellakkaar phalatthil aniyanthrithamaaya adikaaram prayogikkukayum criminal kodathikalil "karyakshamatha" punasthaapikkukayum cheythu. udaaharanathinu, 1874-ll vadakkan karolinayile 455 thadavukaaril 384 perr karuthavargakkaaraayirunu, 1878-ll eee anupatham 952-ll 846 aayi cheruthaayi vardhichu. 1871 aayappozhekkum virjeeniyayile 828 prathikalil 609 perum-athinte arupathezhu vanita thadavukaaril naaluper ozhike-karuthavaraayirunnu. ennaal eee prathibhasam thekk prathyekamaayirunnilla vadakkan jayilukalile karutha thadavukaarude anupatham pathonpathaam noottaandinte randaam pakuthiyiludaneelam thekkan jayilukalile anupaathathinu samanamaayirunnu.
yudhaananthara varshangalil grameena kodathikal valare apoorvamaayi maathrame kandumuttiyittullu, thadavukaar palappozhum sarkkaarinte chelavil vichaaranaykkaayi kaathirikkumbol maasangalolam jayilil irikkaarundu. eee saambathika kammikk oru prarambha parihaaramaayi yudhaananthara varshangalil shringhala samghangal uyarnnuvannu. nagara, grameena kaundikal criminal shikshayude sthaanam munisippaalittikalil ninnum pattanangalil ninnum kaundiyilekku maattukayum shikshayude saambathikashaasthrathe kanatha chelavil ninnu pothu "varumaana" thinte uravidamaayi maattaan thudangukayum cheythu-kuranjathu adisthaana soukarya mechappeduthalukalude kaaryamenkilum. dushkrithyangal polum saambathika nettamaakki maattaan kazhiyum; prathikalkk palappozhum cheyin samghathile kurachu perkku maathrame shiksha labhikkoo, koodaathe moonnu muthal ettu maasam vare adhikamaayi shiksha nalki "chelavukal" nikathaan."savisheshamaaya sthaapanathinte naashatthinte pashchaathalatthil thekkan sambadvyavastha sthaapikkappedukayum swath kuttakrithyangal vardhikkukayum cheythathode, punarnirmmaana kaalayalaviludaneelam irupathaam noottaandilekkum samsthaana sarkkarukal kuttavaalikalaaya thozhilaallikalude saambathika saadhyathakal kooduthalaayi paryavekshanam cheythu.
sthaapanaparamaaya adikaaram thekkan neethinyaaya samvidaanathinmel pooraadunnu.
"pathonpathaam noottaandile thekk kuttakrithyangaludeyum shikshayudeyum charithratthile ettavum dooravyaapakamaaya maattam", charitrakaaranaaya edward ell. karuthavargakkaarude mail avarude muun yajamananmaaril ninnu niyanthranam undaakumenna samsthaanathinte anumanamaayirunnu iyers. . . ."ithu sambhavicha prakriya" "nirthalaakkunnathum durbalavumaayirunnu", "ennaal oru yajamanan thante adimakalodu avar swathanthraraanennu paranja nimisham thanne parivartthanam aarambhichu"."eee bhooprakrithiyil, yudhaananthara thekk neethiyekkurichulla aashayangale athirkkunnathil audyogika sarkkar upakaranangaliloodeyum kuu cluxes klaan polulla anoupachaarika samghadanakaliloodeyum friedmens beuro thekkan vellakkaarumaayi malsarichu", iyers ezhuthunnu.
american aabhyantharayudhathinte pashchaathalatthil antibellum kramatthinte paramavadhi rakshikkaan pradhana thekkan vellakkaar shramichu, avarude mail enthu mattangal nirbandhitharaakumennu kaathirunnu. yudhathinushesham eathaandu udan thanne nadappaakkiya "black kodukal"-mississippy, southu carolina enniva 1865 ll thanne pasaki-eee dishayilulla oru prarambha sramamaayirunnu. avar vamseeya padangal upayogichillengilum, puthiya swathanthraraaya karutha amerikkakkar mikkavarum "yadhaartha" adimathathil thudarumennu urappu nalkaan mathiyaya "vagransi" enna puthiya kuttakrithyathe niyamangal nirvachikkukayum shikshikkukayum cheythu. eee dauthyam nirvahikkunnathin kodukal praadeshika jadjimarkkum joorikalkkum ganyamaaya vivechanaadhikaaram nikshipthamaakki kaundi kodathikalkku munbu labhyamallaatha shikshayude dairkhyavum tharangalum thiranjedukkaam. vellakkaar karutha kuttakrithyangalaayi karuthunna, prathyekichu, vanchana, theeveppu, balaalsangam, kavarcha ennivaykkulla shikshaavidhikal yudhaananthara varshangalil ganyamaayi vardhichu.
america american aikyanaadukalum thammilulla sathrutha audyogikamaayi avasaanichathinu thottupinnaale, nashvilleyileyum tennessi, nyoo oorliyansileyum louisianayile karutha "naadodikal" ennivarkku pizha chumatthi nagaratthile workhousilekku ayachu. texasile saan aantoniyoyilum alabaamayile montgomeriyilum swathanthraraaya karuthavarggakkaare arast cheyyukayum jayililadaykkukayum swantham paripaalanathinaayi theruvukalil jolie cheyyukayum cheythu. aabhyantharayudhathinusham selmayiloode kadannupoya oru vadakkan pathrapravartthakanaaya alabamayodu, oru vellakkaranum ithuvare changala samghathinu shikshikkappettittille ennaal "oru vellakkaaranodu adhikshepa bhasha upayogikkunnathu" allengil pattanaparidikkullil kaarshika uthppannangal vilkkunnath polulla "kuttakrithyangalkku" karuthavarggakkaare ippol shikshikkunnundennum paranju.
punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthil thekkan sarkkarukal "black kodukal" nadappaakkiya athe samayam, avar samsthaanathinte shiksha samvidaanathinte swabhaavam maattukayum athine oru saambathika vikasana upakaranamakki maattukayum cheythu. saamoohika charitrakaaranaaya maari gotshack yudhaananthara varshangalil thekkan samsthaana sarkkarukal shikshaanadapadikal upayogichathine adimathathe adisthaanamaakkiyulla kaarshika sambadvyavasthaykkum puthiya thekk vyavasayavalkkaranathinum kaarshika aadhunikavalkkaranathinum edayilulla oru pradhana paalamaayi visheshippikkunnu."
american aabhyantharayudhathinte avasaanathode thekk pala jayilukalum attakuttappanikalkk vidheyamaakukayum eee mekhalayiludaneelamulla samsthaana bajattukal theernnupokukayum cheythu. udaaharanathinu, mississippiyude jayil, yudhasamayathu nasippikkappedukayum athinte panam kurayukayum cheythu. 1867ll samsthaana sainika sarkkar nashicha railway thadaakangalum punarnirmmikkunnathinaayin kuttavaalikale paattatthinu nalkaan thudangi. 1872 aayappozhekkum, muun konfedarettu generalum adima vyaapaariyumaaya nathan bedford forestinu kuttavaalikale paattatthinu nalkaan thudangi, athupole thanne annathe uyarnnuvarunna kuu cluxes klaante aadyathe saamraajyathva maanthrikanum.
texes yudhaananthara oru valia maandyavum anubhavichu, athinidayil athinte niyamanirmmathaakkal jayil mathilukalkkullil nirbandhitha thadavukaarkkum samsthaanathinte thadankal soukaryathinu purathulla pothu upayogathinulla mattu jolikalkkum ahvaanam cheiyunna kadinamaaya puthiya niyamangal pasaki. taamasiyaathe texes kuttavaalikale railway, jalasechana, naavigeshan padhathikal, eeyam, chembu, irumbu khanikal ennivaykku paattatthinu nalkaan thudangi.
1865ll nagaram keezhadangiyathinte pashchaathalatthil richmandile virjeeniyayude jayil thakarnnuvenkilum adhinivesha union sainyam kazhiyunnathra kuttavaalikale joliyilekku thirike konduvarunnathinaayi avare valanju. aabhyantharayudhathinusham alabama athinte vethumpka jayil swakaarya bisinasukaarkku paattatthinu nalkaan thudangi.
punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthil, kaundi rodukalilo reyilvekalilo mattu aantharika mechappeduthalukalilo cheyin samghangalil pravartthikkaan kuttavaalikale paramavadhi oru varshathekku shikshikkaan vadakkan carolina niyamasabha samsthaana jadjimaare adhikaarappeduthi-ennirunnaalum thirichupidicha rakshappettavarkk avarude yadhaartha shikshayude eratti anubhavikkendivarum. antibellum kaalaghattatthil oru jayil nirmikkunnathil north carolina parajayappettu, koodaathe athinte niyamanirmmathaakkal shiksha thozhil samvidaanathinu pakaramaayi oru abarn shailiyilulla jayil nirmmikkaan padhathiyittu. ennaal azhimathi, nizhal edapaadukal taamasiyaathe oru puthiya jayil asaadhyamaakki, vadakkan karolinayile kuttavaalikale railway kambanikalkku paattatthinu nalkunnathu thudarnnu.
swathanthraraaya karuthavarggakkaar thekk uyarnnuvarunna shiksha thozhil samvidaanathile praadhamika thozhilaallikalaayi maari. swath kuttakrithyangalil prathikalaaya vellayo karuppo aayavarkk yudhaananthara thekkan kodathikalil shikshikkappedaanulla ettavum valia saadhyathayund. ennaal karutha swath kuttavaalikal vellakkaarekkaal kooduthal thavana sikshikkappettu-oro patthu karutha prathikalkkum ettu shikshaavidhikalude nirakkil, oro patthu vella prathikalil aarennavumayi thaarathamyappeduthumbol. mothatthil, vellakkaarude shikshavidhi nirakk punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthil antibellum nilavaaratthil ninnu ganyamaayi kurayukayum pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasana pakuthiyil udaneelam kurayukayum cheythu.
muun konfedarettu samsthaanangaliludaneelam kongras punarnirmmaanam nadappaakkunna chumatala vahikkunna friedmens beuro, punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthil thekkan criminal neethiyude vardhichuvarunna vamseeya svarangale ethirtha praadhamika rashtreeya sthaapanamaayirunnu. charitrakaaranaaya edward ell parayunnathanusarichu beuroyude dauthyam almaratta niyamavaadatthilulla sakthamaaya vishwaasathe prathiphalippichu. ayyarmarum athinte ejantumaarum karuthavargakkaarude niyamaparamaaya samathvathinte urappu nalkunnavaraayi pravarthikkendathaayirunnu. 1865 muthal 1868 vare swathanthraraaya adimakal ulppedunna cheria sivil, criminal kesukal vidhikkunnathinaayi beuro thekk kodathikal paripaalikkunnu. aathyanthikamayi, beuro, bhakshanam, vasthram, school pinthuna, karaarukalile sahayam ennivayude roopathil mochitharaaya adimakalkku aavashyamaaya sevanangal nalkiyittundenkilum, vellakkaarude kuttakrithyangalil ninnum akramatthil ninnum thekkan niyamavyavasthayude aneethikalil ninnum mochitharaaya adimakale samrakshikkunnathil beuro valiyathothil paraajayappettuvenn ayyar upasamharikkunnu. greensboro, north carolina "herald" kooduthal vyakthamaayi prasthaavichathu friedmens beuro thekk, velutha aadhipathyathile "bhoomiyude jaiva niyamavumaayi" poruthappedunnillenna.
grameena thekk, friedmens beuro athinte otappetta ejantumaareppole shakthamaayirunnu, avarkk palappozhum avarude adhikaaraparidhiyilulla vellakkaarude ishtam urappikkaan kazhinjilla. manushyashakthiyude prashnangalum praadeshika velutha amarshavum aadyakaala othutheerppukalilekku nayichu, athin keezhil thekkan siviliyanmaare friedment kodathikalil majistrettumaaraayi sevikkaan anuvadichu, ennirunnaalum eee neekkathe niravadhi muun adimakal ethirthu.
jorjiyayile savanna polulla nagarangalil, praadeshika vellakkaarude agrahangal nadappilaakkunnathilum muun adimakaleyum (union sainyathile muthirnavareyum) changala samghangalkkum shaareerika shikshakalkkum pothu nanakkedinum shikshikkunnathilum friedmens kodathikal kooduthal sannadharaayi. mathaparamaya oru yogathil nilavilikkuka" allengil oru vellakkaaranodu anaadaravode samsaarikkuka thudangiya "kuttakrithyangalkku" arast cheyyaan polum savanna friedmens kodathikal amgeekaaram nalki.
yudhaananthara kuttakrithyangalilum shikshayilum beuroyude swaadheenam thaalkkaalikavum parimithavumaayirunnu. byooroyiloode samsthaana kaaryangalil abhoothapoorvamaaya federal nuzhanjukayattam maathrame thekk yadhaartha republicanism konduvaraan kazhiyoo ennu yunaittad stetts kongras vishwasichirunnuvennu edward ell. iyermar, ennaal thekkekkaar ithu avarude swantham republican aadarshangalude gurutharamaaya lamghanamaanennu swaabhaavikamaayi ethirthu. ezhuthum sthaapanavalkkarikkappettathu niyamatthinte mekhalaye ellaayppozhum thekkekkaar parimithappeduthumaayirunnu, federal gavanmentil ninnulla baahya adichamarthalumaayi avar athine bandhappedutthaan thudangiyappol, athine bahumanikkaan avarkk yaathoru kaaranavum kandilla. eee neerasatthil ninnu, beuro athinte dauthyatheyum ethirthu kuu cluxes klaan polulla jagrata grouppukal uyarnnuvannu-ennirunnaalum, ayyarmaarude vaakkukalil paranjaal, klaan "yudhaananthara samghattanathinte deerghakaala charithratthile thaarathamyena hrasvamaaya episode aayirunnu thekk, avide niyamavirudhamaaya prathikaram oru paarambaryamaayirunnu, thudarnnu.
thangalude bhaagathuninnu, punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthile thekk muun adimakal velutha medhaavithva akramatheyum aneetiyeyum prathirodhikkaan svanthamaayi sramangal nadatthi. 1866 maarchil, ebraham winfield mattu patthu karuthavarggakkaarum savannayile beuroyude kodathi adichamarthunnathil ninnu-prathyekichu aabhyanthara yudhathil pankedutthavarkku-mochanam thedi jorjia friedmens beuroyude thalavanodu apekshichu. green kaundi, jorjia thudangiya graamapradesangalil karuthavarggakkaar vellakkaaril ninnulla jaagrathayode akramathe nerittu. ennaal 1868ll friedmens beuro pinvalikkukayum vellakkaaril ninnulla rashtreeya akramam thudarukayum cheythathode karuthavargakkaarkku aathyanthikamayi eee poraattam nashtamaayenn charitrakaaranaaya edward ell parayunnu. ayyar. karutha thekkekkarkkethiraaya akramathinu vellakkaare niyamathinu munnil konduvaraan thekkan kodathikalkku polum valia thothil kazhinjilla. kazhinjilla arambham muthal madhyam vare thekk bhooribhaagathum velutha rashtreeya aadhipathyam veendum sthaapikkappettu.
yudhaananthara varshangalil thekkan nagarangalil vyathyasthamaaya oru tharatthilulla akramam uyarnnuvannu. yudhathinushesham eathaandu udan thanne thekkan nagarangalil vamseeya kalapangal pottippurappedukayum athinusesham varshangalolam thudarukayum cheythu. edward ell. karuthavargakkaarkkethiraaya niyamaparamaaya niyanthranangalum vyapakamaaya daaridryavumaanu eee samgharshangalil palathinum praadhamika kaaranamenn iyers nigamanam cheiyunnu. yudhaananthara thekkan sambadvyavasthayil karuthavarggakkaaril ninnulla thozhil malsarathe vellakkaar ethirthu, nirmmikkappedaatha thekkekkaar ulppedunna police seena palappozhum akramatthil earppettu. yudhavum vimochanavum srishticha shoonyathayil rashtreeya adikaaram neduka ennathaayirunnu karuthavarudeyum vellakkaarudeyum aathyanthika lakshyam; veendum, punarnirmmaana kaalayalavil karuthavarggakkaarkku aathyanthikamayi eee poraattam nashtappettu.
kuttavaalikalude paatta sanbradaayathinte thudakkam.
jayil prasthaanatthinte aadyakaalam muthal vadakku practies cheythirunna kuttavaalikalude paattatthinu american aabhyantharayudhathethudar thekkan samsthaanangal aathmaarthamaayi etteduthirunnu. yudhaananthara kaalaghattatthiludaneelam kuttavaalikalude thozhil upayogam raajyavyaapakamaayi janapriyamaayi thudarnnu. thudarnnu oru deseeya sarveyil 138 sthaapanangal vyavasayangalil 53,000 thadavukaar jolie cheythirunnuvennum avaa 28.8 dasalaksham dollar moolyamulla saadhanangal uthppaadippichirunnuve report cheythu. 1880-ll swatantra thozhil vazhi uthppaadippikkappetta 5.4 bilyan dollar charakkukalumaayi thaarathamyappeduthumbol ithu thaarathamyena cheria thukayaayirunnuvenkilum, prathyeka vyavasayangalil earppettirikkunnavarkk jayil thozhil valia bisinassaayirunnu.
ennaal yudhaananthara thekk kuttavaalikale paattatthinu nalkunnathu vadakkethinekkaal kuttakrithyangalilum shikshayilum kooduthal pradhana punk vahikkukayum irupathaam noottaand vare thekk pramukharude amgeekaarathode athu thudarukayum cheythu. aabhyantharayudhathethudar aranoottaandilerekkaalam, kuttavaalikalude kyaambukal thekkan bhooprakrithiyil vyaapichukidakkukayum aayirakkanakkin purushanmaarum sthreekalum-avaril bhooribhaagavum muun adimakalaayirunnu-avarude jeevithathinte varshangal samvidaanathinullil kadannupoyi. vadakku, thekk ennividangalil ninnulla mooladhanamulla aalukal eee kuttavaalikalude varshangalude jeevitam vaangukayum avare valia khanana, railway pravarthanangalilum cheria dainamdina bisinasukalilum jolie cheyyichu. sharashari, thekkan leasing krameekaranangalile marananirakk vadakkan jayilukalile marananirakkinekkaal moonnirattiyaanu.
charitrakaaranmaaraaya edward ell. parayunnathanusarichu, thekk bhaagath nadappaakkunnathupole, kuttavaalikalude paattatthinu adimatham punarujjeevippikkaanulla samsthaana sarkkaarukalude oru kashandi sramam mathramaayirunnilla. ayyezhsum maari gotshack. ithu vamseeya bandhangalile thudarchaye prathifalippichuvenkilum yudhaananthara thekkan sambadvyavasthayile adisthaana maattangalum prathiphalippichu. aadyamaayi, mochitharaaya dasalakshakkanakkinu adimakal samsthaana shiksha upakaranangalude kendreekritha niyanthranathinu keezhil vannu; athe samayam, thekk puthiya vyaavasaayika muthalaalitham mooladhanathinteyum thozhilaallikaludeyum kuravu nerittu. sevanathilekku akarshikkaanum eee mattangalumaayi thekkan vyavasaayangale poruthappedutthaanum ettavum eluppamulla thekkan janasamkhya muun adimakalaayirunnu.
ennirunnaalum, aathyanthikamayi, eee samvidaanathinte ettavum dairkhyameriya paarambaryam velutha thekk bhaagatthinte aneethiyudeyum manushyathvarahithathayudeyum pratheekamaayirikkam. 1912ll doow. iii. jayil thozhil sambandhicha deseeya kammeeshan thekke kuttavaaliyude padhavi "adima sanbradaayathinte avasheshikkunna avasaanathe adayaalam" ennu visheshippichu."1920-kalil oru vadakkan ezhuthukaaran thekkan shringhala samghathe thekk bhaagathe puthiya" "vichitramaaya sthaapanam" "ennu visheshippichu".
yudhaananthara varshangalil antibellum kaalaghattatthile thekkan jayilukal valare valia kuttavaalikalude thozhil samvidaanathinte autposttukalaayi mariyathinaal avaa mothatthil kedupaadukalkk vidheyamaayi. american aabhyantharayudhakaalathu thekkan jayil samvidaanangal oronnaayi thakarnnu. vadakkan adhiniveshathinidayil surakshithamaayi sookshikkunnathinaayi mississippi thangalude thadavukaare alabaamayilekku ayachu. louisiana athinte thadavukaare oru nagaratthile jolisthalathekku kendreekarichu. 1863ll union sainyam athirthikal lamghichathode arkansas kuttavaalikale pirichuvittu. adhinivesha tennessi athinte thadavukaare american sarkkaarilekku niyamichu, 1864ll general vilyam techumse sherman thante sainyathodoppam atlaantayilekku pookunnathinide jorjia athinte thadavukaare mochippichu. richmandinte pathanathode virjeeniyayile thadavukaaril bhooribhaagavum rakshapettu.
eee araajakathvathil ninnu thadassamillaathe kuttavaalikalude paatta sambradaayam uyarnnuvannu, edward ell. muun varshangalil jayilil undaayirunnathupole, iyers merii gotshack nigamanatthilethunnu. eee ghattathil jayil oru thekkan sthaapanamaayi maariyirunnuvennum athinte poornnamaaya nirmaarjanathinu samsthaana criminal kodukalude valia naveekaranam aavasyamaayirunnuvennum iyers choondikkaattunnu. jorjia polulla chila samsthaanangal yudhaananthara varshangalil avarude jayil samvidaanangal punarujjeevippikkaan shramichuvenkilum aadyam thakarnnukondirikkunna samsthaana adisthaana soukaryangalum vardhichuvarunna jayil janasamkhyayum kaikaaryam cheyyendivannu. antibellum kaalaghattatthil jayilukal sthaapikkaatha moonnu samsthaanangal-"i.iii.", karolinakalum florida-punarnirmmaana samayat avaa sthaapikkaan thidukkapettu.
ennaal vadakkan carolina, mississippi, virgenia, jorjia ennivayulppede pala thekkan samsthaanangalum taamasiyaathe paatta sanbradaayathilekku oru thaalkkaalika parihaaramaayi maari, kaaranam vardhichuvarunna chelavukalum kuttavaalikalude janasamkhyayum avarude cheria vibhavangale marikadannu. edward ell. iyers, "[tii] avan thekk. . . yadhaarthathil thripthikaramaaya oru padhathi uyarnnuvarumennu pratheekshichukondu valia chelavukal ozhivakkaanulla oru maargam thedi paattatthinu kodukkunnathil kuravo kooduthalo edarnnu."saamoohika charitrakaaranaaya maari gotshack eee paattathinulla krameekaranangale" "adimathathe adisthaanamaakkiyulla oru kaarshika sambadvyavasthayum puthiya thekk vyavasayavalkkaranavum kaarshika aadunikavalkkaranavum thammilulla oru pradhana paalamaayi" visheshippikkunnu "."kuttavaalikalude paattatthinu dakshinenthyan samoohathil samboornna pinthuna vyaapakamaayirunnath enthukondaanennu vishadeekarikkaan ithu sahaayichekkam", ayyar upasamharikkunnu. adikaaram nediya sesham oru group-karuppum veluppum, republican janaadhipathyavaadiyum-paattatthine nirantharam athirthilla.
american aabhyantharayudhathinusham thekkan sambadvyavastha vikasichathode paattakkaarkk shiksha nalkunna thozhil vyathyasthamaayirunnu. munkaala thotta udamakal aadyakaala gunabhokthaakkalaayirunnu, ennaal valarnnuvarunna vyaavasaayika muthalaalitha samrambhangal-"udha.jii.", floridayile phoosphett khanikal, turpentine plaantukal, mississippiyile railway (thekk)-taamasiyaathe kuttavaalikalude thozhil aavasyappedaan thudangi. yudhaananthara varshangalil thekk kadutha thozhil shaamam nerittu, edward ell. ayar vishadeekarikkunnu, englandilum bhookhandathilum undaayirunnathupole, factory udamakalude aavasyangal niravettunnathinaayi kudiyozhippikkappett kaarshika thozhilaallikalude oru koottavum labhyamayirunnilla.
vegathil panam sambaadikkaan aagrahikkunna muthalaalikalkk paatta sambradaayam upayogapradamaayirunnu thozhil chelavukal sthiravum kuravaayirunnu, thozhil anishchithathvam illaathaakunnathilekku kuranju. thozhilaallikalkk sahikkaan kazhiyaatha (madyapikkaano moshamaayi perumarano kazhiyaathe) oru ghattathilekku kuttavaalikale nayikkuvaanum prerippikkuvaanum kazhiyum. thozhil aswasthathayum saambathika maandyavum vadakkum athinte faaktarikalum thudarnnum alattiyirunnuvenkilum, paatta sambradaayam thekk athinte gunabhokthaakkale eee baahya chelavukalil ninnu akatti.
pala kesukalilum edward ell. kuttavaali-paatta sambradaayam upayogicha bisinasukaar athu bharicha athe raashtreeyakkaaraanennu ayyar ezhuthunnu. puthiya thekk velutha janaadhipathya bharanakoodangale niyanthricha muthalaalikalkkum raashtreeyakkaarkkum eee samvidaanam orutharam "paraspara sahaaya samoohamaayi" maari ennu ayyar vaadikkunnu. athinaal, udyogastharkku palappozhum enthengilum marachuvekkaanundaayirum paattatthinu nalkunnathinekkurichulla samakaalika reportukal palappozhum eee padhathikalil pankeduttha bhayanakamaaya saahacharyangalum marananirakkum avaganikkukayo avaganikkukayo cheythuvennum ayyar upasamharikkunnu.
alabamayil, 1870-ll 40 sathamaanam thadavukaar avarude thozhil kaalayalavil marichu-1868-lum 1869-lum marananirakk yathaakramam 18 sathamaanavum 17 shathamaanavumaayirunnu. mississippiyude kuttavaalikalude thozhil padhathikalil pattakkaar pattakkaar vadakkan jayilukalile thadavukaarude ennathinte ombathu madangu nirakkil marichu. takarnna kuttavaalikalkk marikkunnathin munbu raajyam mapp nalkiyirunnillenkil marananirakk valare kooduthalaayirikkumennu mississippi sanbradaayathil samayam chelavazhicha oraal avakashappettu, athuvazhi avarkk veettil thanne athu cheyyaan kazhiyum.
raajyathudaneelamulla samakaalika noonn-leasing jayil samvidaanangalumaayi thaarathamyappeduthumbol, sharashari 32 sathamaanam maathram chelavukal thirichupidicha kuttaaropitharkkulla leasing samvidaanangal sharashari 267 sathamaanam labham nedi. vadakkan faaktarikalumaayi thaarathamyappeduthumbol polum, edward ell. yudhaananthara varshangalil paatta sanbradaayathinte laabhakshamatha yadhaarthavum susthiravumaayirunnu, irupathaam noottaand vare angane thanne thudarnnu.
newyorkkilennapole vadakkan jayilukalil cheythathupole, yudhaananthara kaalaghattatthil pathrangal, samsthaana rekhakal, vadakkan prasidheekaranangal, deseeya jayil asosiyeshanukalude prasidheekaranangal ennivayil vardhichuvarunna aavruthiyumaayi paatta sanbradaayathekkurichu velippeduthalukal prathyakshappedaan thudangi. pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasaanathilum irupathaam noottaandinte thudakkathilum yunaittad stetts steel korppareshan niravadhi varshangalayi khanana pravarthanangalkkaayi kuttavaalikalude thozhilaallikale vangiya alabama polulla thekkan samsthaanangalil kuttavaalikalude avashishtangal adangiya koottakkuzhi sthalangal kandethiyittundu.
yudhaananthara varshangalil vamseeya niyanthranatthil thekkan neethiyude shradha paatta samvidaanangalude janasamkhyayude janasamkhyaashaasthrathil aazhathilulla swaadheenam chelutthi. aabhyantharayudhathinu munbu, phalatthil ellah thekkan thadavukaarum vellakkaaraayirunnu, ennaal yudhaananthara paattathinulla krameekaranangalkk keezhil mikkavarum ellaavarum (ekadesham 90 sathamaanam) karuthavaraayirunnu. antibellum kaalaghattatthil, velutha kudiyettakkaar thekk jayil janasamkhyayude aanupaathikamallaatha oru vihithamaayirunnu, ennaal yudhaananthara kaalaghattatthil jayil rekhakalil ninnu aprathyakshamaayi. ithinu iruvashathumulla kaaranagal undaayekkaam, edward ell. ayyar nirddeshikkunnu. onnamathaayi, pothuve mosham saambathika kaalaavasthayum vimochanam labhicha adimakal uyarthunna thozhil malsarathile valia vardhanavum kaaranam vella kudiyettakkaar yudhaananthara thekk bhagam ozhivaakkiyirunnu. randaamathaayi, yudhaananthara thekkan police seena karuthavarggakkaar cheytha kuttakrithyangalil earppettirunnathu kudiyettakkaar ulppedeyulla vellakkarkkidayile avarude sramangal kurachu.
yudhaananthara thekk bhaagathum kuttavaalikalude uravidam maari. american aabhyantharayudhathinu munbu, grameena kaundikal kurachu prathikale samsthaana jayilukalilekku ayachirunnu, ennaal yudhaanantharam grameena kodathikal avarude samsthaanangalude paatta samvidaanangalkku sthiramaaya vitharanakkaraayi maari (eee kaalayalavil kuttavaalikalude paattakkaarkk nagarangal ettavum valia vitharanakkaraayi thudarnnu). udaaharanathinu, jorjiyayile savanna, kuttavaalikale avarude janasamkhya nirddeshikkunnathinekkal ekadesham moonniratti thothil paattatthinu nalki, kodathikalil sikshikkappetta karuthavargakkaaril 76 sathamaanam perkkum jayil shiksha labhichuvenna yaadhaarthyam eee maathruka vardhippichu.
prathikalil bhooribhaagavum irupathukalilo athil thaazheyo prayamullavaraayirunnu. yudhaananthara varshangalil thekkan jayil samvidaanangalile sthreekalude ennam ekadesham 7 shathamaanamaayi vardhichu, ithu yunaittad stetsile mattu samakaalika jayilukalumayi poruthappedunnilla, ennaal thekk valia vardhanavaanu, munbu athinte (velutha) vanita janasamkhyayude dhaarmika krithyathayekkurichu prashamsichirunnu. atharam sthreekalellaam karutha vargakkaraayirunnu.
thekk paattatthinu nalkunna pravartthanangal nadatthiya udyogasthar kuttavalikalkkidayil polum vamshangal thammilulla saamoohika samathvam amgeekarikkaan visammathichukondu kuttavaalikalude kyaambukalil karsanamaaya vamseeya verthiriv nilanirthaan shramichu. 1886ll oru thekkekkaaran deseeya jayil kongrasil report cheythathupole "jaile vamshangale koottikkalarthunnathu" oru kolayaliye irayude avayavathinte mrithadehathil thala muthal call vare kettikkond, shayikkunna mrithadeham jeevichirikkunnavarkku maranam konduvarunnathuvare puraathanamaayi nadappaakkiyirunna peedanatthinu samaanamaan."edward ell parayunnathanusarichu, vellakkaar thekkan jayilukalil ethi. ayyarmaare avarude vamshathile ettavum thazhnnavaraayi kanakkaakkiyirunnu. chila niyamanirmmathaakkal akkaalat karuthavargakkaarkkaayi neekkivachirunna athe vamseeya padanaamangalulla velutha thadavukaare paraamarshichu.
thekkan paatta sambradaayam oru "motham samvidaanathekkaal kuravaayirunnu."mathilukaludeyo mattu securitykaludeyo nadapadikaloo kuravaayirunna bhooribhaagam kuttavaali-paatta kyaambukalum chitharippoyi-ennirunnaalum chila thekkan shringhala samghangale avarude jolisthalangalilekku thuranna koodukalil kondupoyi raathriyil avayil paarppichu. kyaambukalile kramam pothuve durbalamaayirunnu, edward ell. ayyar vaadikkunnu. rakshappedal pathivaayirunnu, kyaambukalude savisheshathakalaaya changalakal, rakthakkoombukal, thokkukal, shaareerika shikshakal enniva prakadamaaya niraashayode kaikaaryam cheyyappettu. (ennirunnaalum, report cheyyappetta rakshappettavarude uyarnna ennam thettaaya kalii marachuvekkaanulla thandramallayo ennu chila nireekshakarenkilum chodichu.)
thekkan kodathikalile criminal dokkattukal maarunnath prathifalippikkunna paatta sanbradaayathile thadavukaaril pakuthiyolam perum swath kuttakrithyangalkku shiksha anubhavichu. punaradhivasam samvidaanathil yadhaartha punk vahichilla. parishkaranatthinulla utharavaaditham enthaayirunnaalum athu chaaplainukalude chumalilaayirunnu, edward ell. ayyar parayunnu. warden jeey.echu. jeey.echu alabama jaile baank head nireekshichirunnathu "nammude valia nagarangalil nilanilkkunna eathenkilum aneethiyude guhakalekkaal kuttavalikalkkulla mikacha pariseelana vidyaalayamaanu yur sisttam. . . . panniyude sheelangalum chuttupaadukalum pole malinamaaya oru kuttavaaliye parishkarikkunnathin oru panniyil manyamaaya sheelangal valarthumennu ningal pratheekshikkaam."
paattatthinte chila vakthaakkal eee samvidaanam karuthavarggakkaare jolie cheyyaan padippikkumennu avakaashappettuvenkilum samakaalika nireekshakaril palarum charithrakaaran sii. vamseeya prashnathodulla pithrthvaparamaaya sameepanathil velutha samooham nilanirtthiya dhaarmika adhikaarathinu eee samvidaanam valia praharamelppichuvennu vaan woodward pinneedu paranju."prasamgakarum mattu samudaaya nethaakkalum athinte kroorathayude vaartha pracharippichathinaal, karutha samoohathil cheria kalankam konduvaraan jaile samayam vannu.
punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthil paatta sanbradaayathe prathirodhikkunnathil vellakkaar oru aikyamunnaniyil ninnu valare akaleyaan. parishkaranavaadikalum sarkkar akathullavarum thudakkam muthal thanne samvidaanathinte ettavum mosham durupayogathe apalapikkaan thudangi. aabhyantharayudhathe thudarnnu raashtreeyamaayi kooduthal kuttappeduthappetta varshangalil avar athine prathirodhichuvenkilum prathirodhichuvenkilum pathrangal eee ahvaanam sweekarikkaan thudangi. ennaal eee samvidaanathinu athinte prathirodhakarum undaayirunnu-chilappol parishkarthaakkal polum, avar athinte sathayodu yojichappol polum vadakkan vimarshanathe ethirthu. pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasaanathile "shaasthreeya" vamseeya manobhaavangal paattatthine pinthunaykkunna chilare avarude samshayangal samippikkaan sahayichu. oru niroopakan ezhuthiyathu, kuttavaalikalude paattakkrishiyidangalil karuthavarggakkaar avarude thaazhnna "vidyaabhyaasamillaatha" rakthathinte balaheenata kaaranam ithrayum ennam marichuvennu.
daarmmikamaayathinekkaal saambathikamaaya aashankakal leasinginethiraaya kooduthal vijayakaramaya aakramanangalkk adivarayidunnu. yudhaananthara kaalaghattatthil thozhilaallikal paattatthinethire phalapradamaaya prathipaksha prasthaanangal aarambhichu. burmingham, alabama, 1885ll roopeekaricha athinte kuttaaropitha virudha leag ennivayaayirunnu eee prasthaanatthinte kendramennu iyermar parayunnu. parayunnu 1881num idayil thekk irupathirandu thavana kalkari khanithozhilaalikal paattatthinethiraaya kalapam nadatthi. 1895 aayappozhekkum tennessi khanithozhilaalikalude aavasyangalkku vazhangukayum athinte paatta sambradaayam nirthalaakkukayum cheythu. eee kalapangal vamseeya athirukal marikadannu. udaaharanathinu, alabamayil, veluthavarum karuthavarumaaya swatantra khanithozhilaalikal praadeshika khanana pravarthanangalil kuttavaalikalaaya thozhilaallikale upayogikkunnathil prathishedhichu arikil march nadatthi.
eee ettumuttalukalil, kuttavaalikalaaya thozhilaallikal theerchayaayum swatantra thozhilaallikalkk oru paridhivare athishayokthiparamaaya praadhaanyam nalkiyennu edward ell vaadikkunnu. ayyar. ayyar 27,000 kuttavaalikal maathramaan eathenkilum tharatthilulla thozhil krameekaranangalil earppettirunnathu. ennaal cheruthum kooduthal kendreekrithavumaaya thekkan vyavasaayangaludeyum thozhil grouppukaludeyum uyarnnuvarunna swabhaavam, cheria ennam kuttavaalikalkk muzhuvan vyavasaayangaleyum badhikkunna oru saahacharyathin kaaranamaayi.
purogamana yugam.
thekkan vikasanangal.
kuttavaaliyude paattatthinte kramena maranam.
yudhaananthara thekk bhaagath kuttavaalikalude paattatthinu kramena roopamnalkiyathupole, athu kramena purathukadannu.
virgenia, texas, tennisi, kentakki, misauri enniva thangalude krishiyidangalkku purame vadakkan shailiyilulla nirmmaana jayilukalum upayogichirunnuvenkilum 1890 vare bhooribhaagam thekkan kuttavaalikalum hajarakatha bisinasukaar nadathunna thadavukaarude campukalilaanu shikshavidhi paasaakkiyat. ennaal ennaal sarkkar nadathunna jayil faamukalude roopathil paatta sanbradaayathil vittuveezhchayilekkulla kramanugathamaaya maattatthinte thudakkavum adayaalappeduthi. mosham kuttavaalikalude "malineekaranathil" ninnu avare neekkam cheiyunnathinum aarogyakaramaya oru sahacharyavum thozhil bharanavum nalkunnathinumaayi eee kaalayalavil sthreekal, kuttikal, rogikal ennivare svakaaryamaayi nadathunna pazhaya kyaambukalil ninnu samsthaanangal neekkam cheyyaan thudangi. 1890ll mississippi oru puthiya samsthaana bharanaghadana pasaki, athu 1894 oode paattatthinu avasaanippikkanamenn aavasyappettu.
eee mattangal undaayirunnittum, thozhil prasthaanangal, janakeeyavaadikal, harita pinthunakkaar ennivaril ninnulla thudarchayaaya akramanangal undaayirunnittum, irupathaam noottaandinu munbu mississippi ozhikeyulla rund thekkan samsthaanangal maathramaan eee sambradaayam avasaanippichathu. mikka thekkan samsthaanangalum thangalude samvidaanangal karsanamaaya niyanthranathinu keezhil konduvarikayum irupathaam noottaandode samsthaana shiksha faamukalude upayogam vardhippikkukayum cheythu, ennirunnaalum, mechappetta avasthaykkum marananirakkil kurravinum kaaranamaayi. ellaavarudeyum maasika" yill chaals edward russell nadatthiya oru velippeduthal paattapadhathikalekkurichu "bhayanakamaaya" vyavasthakal velippeduthiyathinu sesham 1908 ll jorjia athinte samvidaanam nirthalaakki. jorjia kyaambukalile purushanmaare avarude thallaviralukal neettukayum viralukalude neelam vare roopabhedam varuthukayum cheiyunna vidhathil, chila kurangukalude paadangalumaayi saamyamullavidham, shikshayaayi thallaviralukalil thookkiyittirunnathengne oru muun warden vivarichu."floridayile jayil kyaambukal-avide rogikaleppolum mardhanamo vedivayppo bheeshanippedutthi jolie cheyyaan nirbandhitharaayi-1923 vare upayogathilundaayirunnu.
cheyin samghangal, samsthaana jayil faamukal thudangiya paatta sanbradaayathinulla pakarakkar avarude mungaamikalil ninnu athra vyathyasthamayirunnilla. paatta sanbradaayathinte deerghakaala swaadheenathinte oru udaaharanam arkansas jayil faamukalil kaanam. irupathaam noottaandinte madhyathode, arkkansaasinte purusha shiksha sanbradaayathil rund valia jayil faamukal ulppettirunnu, avaa puram lokathil ninnu eathaandu poornnamaayum vichedikkappedukayum punarnirmmaana kaalaghattatthilennapole pravartthikkukayum cheythu. eee kyaambukalile avastha valare moshamaayirunnu, 1960 kalude avasaanathode, oru origon jadji thante adikaaraparidhiyil arasttilaaya arkkansaasil ninnu rakshappettavare thirike nalkaan visammathichu. thadavukaare arkkansasilekku madakkinalkunnathu naasi thadankalppaalayangalumaayi thaarathamyam cheythukondu "bheekaratha, bheethikaramaaya, nindyamaaya thinmayude sthaapanangal" ennu addeham visheshippichathil thante samsthaanathe pankaalikalaakkumennu jadji prakhyaapichu.
1966ll, origon jadjiyude vidhi samayat, archensas shiksha faamukalile jeevanakkaarudeyum thadavukaarudeyum anupatham oro arupathiyanchu thadavukaarkkum oru staaf amgamaayirunnu. ithinu vipareethamaayi, akkaalathe deseeya sharashari oro ezhu thadavukaarkkum oru jayil staaf amgamaayirunnu. krishiyidathil ninnu labham nedunna eaka sthaapanam samsthaanam mathramaayirunnilla; swakaarya oopparettarmaar athinte chila vyavasaayangale niyanthrikkukayum uyarnna labhavihitam nilanirthukayum cheythu. udaaharanathinu, labhathinaayulla eee faamile blud baank nadatthiya doctor, thadavukaar nalkia sambhaavanakalil ninnu prathivarsham 130,000 muthal 150,000 dollar vare sambaadichu.
manushyashakthiyude eee kadutha kuravu nerittukondu, trasttikalude niyanthranatthil jolie cheiyunna thadavukaar divasathil patthu muthal pathinaalu manikkoor vare (varshathile samayathe aashrayich) aazhchayil aarr divasam jolie cheyyumbol, kuttavaalikale samrakshikkaan "trasttikal" allengil "ridezhs" ennariyappedunna sayudha thadavukaare shiksha faamukalile adhikaarikal aashrayichu. jayil udyogastharkku ippozhum kuttavaalikale chavattukollikkaan kazhiyunna eaka samsthaanamaayirunnu akkaalat arkansas.
arkansas jayil faamukalil akramasakthamaaya maranangal saadhaaranamaayirunnu. 1966 leeii choodupidicha govarnor malsarathinide nilavile govarnor oorval foubas aarambhicha anweshanathil nadannukondirikkunna durupayogangal velippeduthi-"iii.jii."thadavukaarude jannendriyangalil vayar playarukalude upayogam, kuthal, thadavukaarude kaimuttukal takarkkaan nattu padakkam upayogikkuka, thadavukaare kuthirakalumayi chavittimethikkuka, marddichathinu sesham ashupatri samayathekku thadavukaare charge cheyyuka. ennaal aaropanangalekkurichu arkansas niyamanirmmaanasabhayude jayil kammitti chairmanode chodichappol addeham marupadi nalki, "arkkansaasil amerikkayile ettavum mikacha jayil samvidaanamundu."pinneedu, oru federal kodathi edapettathinushesham, arkansas jayil kyaambukalil parishkaarangal aarambhichu.
pouraavakaashangalude yugam.
kramasamadhana" prasthaanam.
jayil samvidaanathinte suraksha, suraksha, samagratha ennivayilekkulla oru prasthaanam. pouraavakaashangalilekkum maanushika jeevita saahacharyangalilekkum athicherunna aadya maarggamaan samgha bodhavalkarana pariseelanam. jayilinullilum puratthum samghangalumaayi vyaapakamaayi ashayavinimayam nadathunna gundakalkku samoohathilekku veendum praveshikkaan soukaryamorukkuka. niyamavirudhamaaya saambathika edapaadukal, pidichedukkal, azhimathi enniva nirthuka, kaaranam aaa reethiyil pravarthikkaanulla kazhivu jayilinullilum puratthum kooduthal akramatthinte bheethiye uyarthunnu. ellah nagarangal, sell blokkukal, praanthapradeshangal ennivayude anweshanam. samghaditha saamskaarika kuttakrithyam ennariyappedunna eathenkilum saamoohika samskaarangalude paridhi paraamarshikkuka. samgharsham abhivridhippeduthaan anuvadikkunna vyakthikalaanu samghaditha kuttavaalikal. kuttavaalikale thadavilaakkunnathu samghathe niyamikkunnathinum nadappaakkunnathinum pinthuna nalkunna oru avishwasthamaaya pravrithiyaanu. paristhithi kendreekrithamaaya sikshayum shambalavum thaalkkaalika aashvaasam nalkiyekkaam. samghavumaayi bandhapetta criminal pravarthanangalkkulla oru prajnana samvidaanamaanu jayil graundu. ellah samsthaana jayilukalum associationukal, recruitmentukal, fozhsu allengil kabalippikkal muthalaayava vazhi eathenkilum vidhathil samghangalumaayi bandhappettirikkunnu.. ellah thalangalilum eee samvidaanathil parishkaranamilla. puthiya samgha niyamanangal ozhivakkaan ellah vyakthikalilum shradha kendreekarikkuka. niyamapalanam azhimathi niranjathallennu urappaakkuka, samghavumaayi bandhapetta taattookalulla vyakthikaleyum koottaalikaleyum nokkuka. prathivaara parishodhanakalum vamseeya profiling muthalaayavayekkurichulla select-pariseelanavum.. jayil pravartthanangalude dainamdina parishodhanakalum jayil pravartthanangalude aazhchathorum shucheekaranavum. pravanathakalkkayi nokkuka, puthiya kaazhchappaadukal pareekshikkuka, aashankaakularum kauthukamullavarumaayirikku, pareekshana paridhikal, samghaditha kuttakrithyangalude vyathiyaanathekkurich jagrata palikkuka. labhathinaayulla swakaarya udamasthathayilulla jayilukal jolie cheiyunna thadavukaarkku nyayamaaya thuka nalkunnilla, koodaathe adisthaana aavasyangalkku amita vilayullathum kuranja vitharanavumaanu. oro thadavukaaranum (thadavukaaran) paristhithi pravartthanangal adhikamaayi nalkanam. nyayamaaya shambalavum phalapradamaaya jolikalum niyamam anusarikkunna poura nikuthi dollarukalude upayogam illaathaakkanam. suraksha, kavalkkar, camerakal kaanunna vyakthikal, pravachanatheethamaaya samayakramangal, kaavalkkaarude kramarahithamaya niyamanangal, aadhunika jayilukalude vaasthuvidya (saankethika apakadangal thadayunnathinulla saankethikavum maanuval pravartthanangalum) ennivayil ganyamaaya valarchaykkulla aavasyam. samghathil ninnu prachodanam ulkkonda recruitment, akramam, poornnamaayum shaareerika upadravam ennivayil ninnu thadavukaarkku samrakshanam labhikkaan arhathayund. thadavukaarkku punaradhivaasathinum ree-entry programukalkkum arhathayund. samghaditha kuttakrithyangal vyavasthaapitha prasnangalkkum avayodulla niyama nirvvahana prathikaranatthinum oonnal nalkiyekkaam. pothu samadhaanam, suraksha, neethi ennivaye pinthunaykkuka. vishalamaaya saamoohika pravanathakalude pashchaathalam prakadippikkukayum valia kuttakrithyangalkku pashchaathalam nalkukayum cheiyunna jaile sahaaya gadakangalaanu velutha, neela collar thozhilaallikalaaya samghaditha kuttavaalikal. aashanka 
avalambam stettu oof nyoojezhsi kammeeshan oof investigation 2009 meyy maasathil jayilukalkk pinnilulla samgharsham
columbia, mississippy, california, newyork, florida, puerto rico, nyoo meksikoo, texas, newada, havaay, nyoo jezhsi, mississippy, arizona, louisiana, jorjia, maryland ennee jillakalilaanu shradha kendreekarikkuka.

