
chodyam cheyyalukal

niyamathil, chodyam cheyyalukal (kooduthal vivarangalkkayulla abhyarthanakal ennum ariyappedunnu) oru kakshi munnottuvaykkunna oru aupachaarikamaaya rekhaamoolamulla chodyangalude oru koottamaanu, vasthuthakalude karyangal vyakthamakkunnathinum eathu vasthuthakalum munkootty nirnnayikkaan sahaayikkunnathin oru ethiraali utharam nalkendathundu.
upayogikkuka.
oru vyavahaarathile vishayangalumayi bandhapetta mattu kakshikalil ninnu vivarangal nedaan chodyam cheyyalukal upayogikkunnu. oru kesinte vasthuthakaleyum cases phayal cheiyunna adhikaaraparidhiyile niyamangaleyum aashrayich niyamavum prashnangalum vyathyaasappedum. chila tharatthilulla kesukalil avashya vasthuthakal ulkkollunna staanderd settu chodyam cheyyalukal labhyamaan, avaa upayogikkunna kesil parishkkarikkam.
oru cases phayal cheyyumbol, kakshikal phayal cheiyunna vaadangal, vichaaranayile oro kakshiyum enthaanu theliyikkaan uddeshikkunnathennum eathu niyamaparamaaya kesilaanu avar utharam nalkendathennum mattu kakshikale ariyikkaan uddeshichullathaanu. ennirunnaalum, mikka kesukalilum, parasparam niyamaparavum vasthuthaparavumaaya avakaashavaadangal poornnamaayum manasilakkaan kakshikalkk adhika vivarangal aavasyamaanu. anweshanangalude upayogam ulppedeyulla kandethal prakriya kakshikale parasparam aaa vivarangal nedaan sahayikkum.
chodyam cheyyalukal engane upayogikkaamennathinte oru udaaharanathinu, oru motor vahana apakada vyavahaarathil, parikketta oru vaadi saadhaaranayaayi apakadatthinu kaaranamayathil driver ashradhayude peedanamaanu cheythathennu vaadikkunnu. ashradha theliyikkunnathinu, driver thangalkk paricharana chumatala nalkiyittundennum athu lamghichuvennum parukketta paraathikkaaran kaanikkanamenn niyamam aavashyappedunnu. paraathikkaaran parikketta apakadatthil ulppetta oru vahanam oodikkunnathil prathi tharkkikkunnillenn karuthiyal, driver nyayamaaya driverude nilavaarathinu anusrithamaayi vaahanamodicho ennathilum parikketta vyakthiyude parikkukal munkootty kaanavunna anantharafalamaano ennathilum cases varum.
apakadam engane sambhavichu ennathinekkurichulla elavukal ulppedeyulla vivarangal parasparam thedaan kakshikalkk chodyam cheyyal upayogikkaam. paraathikkaarante kesinte sidhaanthathe pinthunaykkunna vivarangal thedi parikketta vaadikk prathi drivere chodyam cheythekkaam. prathi vegatha koottukayaanennu vaadi aaropikkukayaanenkil, apakadasamayathu prathiyude vaahanathinte vegatha parayaan vaadi prathiyodu aavasyappedaam. kaar shariyaayi niyanthrikkunnathil prathi paraajayappedukayo roadle mattu vaahanangalilum sariyaaya shradha nalkunnathil paraajayappedukayo cheythuvennu vaadi aaropikkukayaanenkil, paraathikkaaran chodyam cheyyal chodyangal chodikkaam, athu aaa aropanangal theliyikkaan sahaayikkukayo allengil eathenkilum tharatthilulla anaasthayude adisthaanam velippeduthendathundo ennu aavasyappedaam. apakadam kuranja vegathayil sambhavichathum ozhivaakkaanaavaathathumaanil (orupakshe eathenkilum moonnaam kakshi edapedal kaaranam) driverk aaa aaropanangale prathirodhikkaan kazhinjekkum. ennirunnaalum, parikketta vyakthi driver ippozhum utharavaadiyaanennu vadikkam (orupakshe driver moonnaam kakshiye ariyikkaan vaahanathinte hoonn upayogichirikkanam), allengil mattu aaropanangalundaakam.
vaadiyude kesinu niyamaparavum vasthuthaparavumaaya prathirodham kettippadukkaan sahaayikkunnathin prathibhagam samanamaaya chodyam cheyyalukal upayogichekkaam. oru kaar apakadatthinte udaaharanam thudarnnu, mattoru driver apakadatthinu bhaagikamaayo poornnamaayo utharavaadiyaanennu soochippikkunnatho sariyaaya paricharanam nadathiyittum apakadam ozhivaakkaanaavaathathaane soochippikkunnatho aaya vivarangalo elavukaloo prathikk vaadiyil ninnu thedaam.
prathyeka adhikaaraparidhikal.
englandum weils.
englandilum veyilsilum eee nadapadikramam niyanthrikkunnath sivil prosegior niyamangalude bhagam 18 aanu. ithu "kooduthal vivarangalkkulla abhyarthana" ennaanu ariyappedunnathu.
kooduthal vivarangalkkayulla abhyarthana" enna prakriyayil, saadhaarana munkootty achadicha fomukalude upayogam saadhaaranamalla, atharam eathenkilum abhyarthana kodathikal theerchayaayum vimarsanaathmakamaayi pariganikkum, kaaranam kesinu prathyekamaayi thayyarakkiya abhyarthanakalekkaal saadhaarana fomukalude upayogam 'melnotta lakshyathinethire' kuttappedutthaan saadhyathayund, kaaranam athu kesinu aanupaathikamaakaan saadhyathayilla, pakaram kakshikalkko avarude abhibhashakarkko chodyangalkku utharam nalkunnathinu samayavum panavum vibhavangalum chelavazhikkendivarum. niyamangal pravartthikkunna reethiyil, avasaanam avar cases vijayichalum-swantham chelavukalum ethiraaliyude chelavukalum nalkanamennu party abhyarthikkaan ithu eluppathil kaaranamakum.
englandilum veyilsilum, aadyam vivarangal arian aagrahikkunna vyakthi athu rekhaamoolamo allengil kooduthal saadhaaranayaayi, pejinte oru vashath chodyangalum maruvashathu utharangalkkayi sthalavum ulla oru shoonya rekhayil abhyarthikkunnu. abhyarthanaykku marupadi nalkaan athiraalikalkku oru samayaparidhi nischayichittundu. avar utharam nalkunnathil parajayappettaal, abhyarthikkunna vyakthikk kodathiyil notice nalki apeksha nalkaanum chodyangalkku utharam nalkaan ethiraaliye nirbandhitharaakkunna oru utharavu purappeduvikkaan nadapadikrama jadjiyodu aavasyappedaanum kazhiyum. jadji oru utharavu purappeduvikkumo ennathu vivechanadhikaaramullathum melnotta lakshythinum chodicha chodyangalude pashchaathalatthinum anusrithamaayi nirnnayikkappedunnathu kaaryamaan.
prathyekichum, vichaaranavelayil saadhaaranayaayi kaikaaryam cheyyappedunna chodyangal chodikkaan eee nadapadikramam uddesichittilla.
america.
amerikkayil, chodyam cheyyal upayogikkunnathu cases phayal cheytha niyamaprakaaramaan. ellah federal kodathikalum sivil nadapadikramangalude federal niyamangalkk keezhil pravartthikkunnu, ithu eee upakaranathinte upayogathinu vividha parimithikal earppeduthunnu, ithu oro kakshikkum irupathiyanchu chodyangalaayi chodyam cheyyalukal parimithappedutthaan vyakthigatha adhikaaraparidhikale anuvadikkunnu. chodyam cheyyalukal saadhaaranayaayi "parishodhichu", athaayath prathikaranatthil oru sathyavaangmoolam ulppedum, athinaal athu sathyaprathinjaykku vidheyamaayirikkum. sathyavaangmoolathil chodyam cheyyalukale praveshanathinulla abhyarthanakalil ninnu verthirichariyaan kazhiyum, avaykku saadhaaranayaayi sathyaprathinjaykku keezhil utharam nalkilla.
maruvashathu, california 1986 leeii sivil discovery act (pazhaya 1957 leeii niyamatthinte punaravalokanam) prakaram pravartthikkunnu, ithu california coode oof sivil proseejyaril krodeekarichirikkunnu. discovery act oru kakshikk prathyekamaayi thayyarakkiya muppathiyanju chodyam cheyyalukal vare anuvadikkunnu, ennaal chodyam cheyyalukalodoppam aavashyakathayude prakhyapanam nadappilaakkukayum nalkukayum cheiyunnathiloode eee paridhi marikadakkaam. ennirunnaalum, aavasyamennulla prakhyapanam vyaajasaakshaathkaarathinte shikshaykk keezhil nadappakkendathinaal, amithamaya peedanangalum bhaarameriyathumaaya chodyamcheyyalukalkku oru abhibhaashakane "vyakthiparamaaya" uparodhathin vidheyanaakkaan ithinu kazhiyum.
eathaandu ellah yuu.ezz. adhikaaraparidhikal, chodyam cheyyalukal ennivaye athu ennu vilikkunnu, avaa ishtaanusrithamaayi ezhuthappettathaayirikkanam, ennirunnaalum niravadhi chodyangal oru kesil ninnu mattonnilekku veendum upayogikkaan kazhiyum. yuu. eiii. yill.ezz. california, nyoojezhsi, florida ennee samsthaanangal kodathikal staanderd "phoom" chodyam cheyyalukal prakhyaapichittundu. kaaliforniyayil iva varunnath judicial kaunsil oof california prakhyaapicha oru audyogika kodathi foomilaanu, uchithamaaya boxukal parishodhichu avayil eathenkilum onninu utharam nalkaan oru kakshi mattoru kakshiyodu aavasyappedaam. california phoom inkvarettarikalude prayojanam avaa 35 enna paridhiyil kanakkakkunnilla ennathaanu (parimithamaaya sivil kesukalil upayogikkumbol ozhike); poraayma avaa valare pothuvaaya reethiyilaan ezhuthunnathu ennathaanu, athinaal pakuthiyolam chodyangal lalithamaaya kesukalil maathrame upayogapradamaakoo. athaakatte, california ishtaanusrithamaayi ezhuthiya chodyaavalikale "prathyekamaayi thayyarakkiya chodyaavalikal" ennu vilikkunnu."
american kandethalil chodyam cheyyalukal valareyadhikam upayogikkunnathinaal, sangalppikkaavunna mikkavarum ellah tharatthilulla niyama kesukalum ulkkollunna pothuvaaya chodyam cheyyalukalude rund pradhana samaahaarangalund "bendezhs forms oof discovery intergorettarikal" (lexisnexis prasidheekarichathu), "paatten discovery" (vestt prasidheekarichathu).