
madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasanakaalam

madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanamo madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanamo allengil thaazhnna madhyakaalakhattamo eiii. dii 1350 muthal 1500 vare neenduninna europian charithratthinte kaalaghattamaayirunnu. madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanavum uyarnna madhyakaalakhattathe pinthudarukayum aadhunika kaalaghattatthinte thudakkathinu munbum (europinte bhooribhaagathum navothaanam).
1350 oode europile noottaandukalude samriddhiyum valarchayum nilachu. aii. dii. 1-nte vann shaamavum karutha maranavum ulppedeyulla shaamangaludeyum mahamaarimaarudeyum oru parambara janasamkhyaye duranthangalkku munbullathinte pakuthiyaayi kurachu. janasamkhya kurayunnathinoppam saamoohika aswasthathayum praadeshika yudhavum undaayi. france englandum jackwary, karshakarude kalapam thudangiya gurutharamaaya karshaka kalaapangalum oru noottaandilere neenduninna edavittulla samgharshamaaya nooru varshathe yudhavum anubhavichu. akkaalathe niravadhi prashnangalkk aakkam koottunnathinaayi, paashchaathya bhinnathakal catholica sabhayude aikyam thaalkkaalikamaayi thakarthu. koottaayi, aaa sambhavangale chilappol madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathe prathisandhi ennu vilikkunnu.
prathisandhikalkkidayilum, 14-aamm noottaand kalayilum shaasthrathilum valia purogathiyude kaalamaayirunnu. uyarnna madhyakaalakhattathil veroonniya purathana greak, roman grandhangalodulla puthiya thaalpparyathethudarnnu itaaliyan navothaanam aarambhichu. panthrandaam noottaandile navothaanathinu munbu kurishuyudhasamayathu arabikalumaayulla sanbarkkathiloode laattin grandhangalude agiranam aarambhichuvenkilum ottoman tarkkukalude sthiramaaya janavibhaagangalude pathanathode pradhana greak grandhangalude labhyatha thwarithappettu, niravadhi baisantain pandithanmaarkk padinjaaru, prathyekichu italiyil abhayam thedendi vannu.
achadicha vaakkinte prachaaranatthinum janaadhipathyavalkkarikkappedu padanatthinum soukaryamorukkiya achadiyude kandupiduthamanu classical aashayangalude eee ozhukkinoppam samyojichathu. eee rund kaaryangalum pinneedu parishkaranatthilekku nayichu. aaa kaalaghattatthinte avasaanathode, kandethalinte yugam aarambhichu. automan saamraajyathinte vipuleekaranam kizhakkumaayulla vyapara saadhyathakale thadassappeduthi. 1492ll christopher kolambasinte keezhil amerikkayilekkulla spanish paryaveshanathilekkum 1498ll vasco daa gaamayude aafrikkayilekkum indiayilekkum ulla yaathrayilekkum nayichukondu puthiya vyapara pathakal thedaan europianmaar nirbandhitharaayi. avarude kandethalukal europian raajyangalude sambadvyavasthayeyum shakthiyeyum shakthippeduthi.
eee sambhavavikasangal konduvanna mattangal eee kaalaghattatthe madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanamaayum aadhunika charithrathinteyum aadyakaala aadhunika europinteyum thudakkamayum kaanaan pala pandithanmareyum prerippichu. ennirunnaalum, eee vibhajanam oru paridhivare krithrimamaanu, kaaranam purathana patanam orikkalum europian samoohathil ninnu poornnamaayum illaathaayirunnilla. thalphalamaayi, purathana kaalavum (purathana kaalatthiloode) aadhunika kaalavum thammil vikasanaparamaya thudarchayundaayi. chila charitrakaaranmaar, prathyekichu italiyil, madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathekkurichu samsarikkaan eshtappedunnilla, marichu madhyakaalakhattatthinte uyarnna kaalaghattam navothaanathilekkum aadhunika kaalaghattatthilekkum maarunnath kaanunnu.
charithralekhanavum kaalaghattavalkkaranavum.
madhyakaalathinte avasanakaalam" enna padam madhyakaalakhattatthile moonnu kaalaghattangalil onnaaya aadyakaala madhyakaalakhattatheyum uyarnna madhyakaalakhattatheyum soochippikkunnu. leonardo bruny thante florent janathayude charithratthil (1442) trikakshi kaalaghattavalkkaranam upayogicha aadyathe charitrakaaranaanu. roman saamraajyathinte thakarchayude pathittaandukalude charithratthil" (1439-1453) flavio biondo samanamaaya oru chattakkood upayogichu. jarmman charitrakaaranaaya christoph cellarius "saarvathrika charithram puraathanavum madhyakalavum puthiya kaalaghattavumaayi vibhajikkappettirikkunnu" (1683) enna pusthakam prasidheekarichathinushesha trikakshi kaalayalav saadhaarana nilavaaratthilaayi.
pathinalam noottaandum pathinanjaam noottaandum padikkunna pathinettaam noottaandile charitrakaaranmaarkku, purathana padanatthinte punarnirmmanavum oru vyakthigatha aathmaavinte aavirbhaavavumulla navothaanamaayirunnu kendra prameyam. eee punarnirmmaanatthinte hridayam italiyilaanu, avide jacob burkhardinte vaakkukalil "manushyan oru athmeeya vyakthiyayi maarukayum svayam angane thirichariyukayum cheythu". eee nirddesham pinneedu velluvilikkappedukayum panthrandaam noottaand valia saamskaarika nettangalude kaalaghattamaanennu vaadikkukayum cheythu.
charithrapadanatthinu saambathikavum janasamkhyaaparavumaaya reethikal prayogikkappettathode, madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathe maandyathinteyum prathisandhiyudeyum kaalaghattamaayi kaananulla pravanatha vardhichuvarikayaayirunnu. beljian charitrakaaranaaya henry piren onnaam lokamahaayudhakaalathe aadyakaala, uyarnna, avasana madhyakaalakhattangalude upavibhagam thudarnnu. ennittum addehathinte dutch sahapravarthakanaaya johann hyusingayaanu madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathe nirashaavaada veekshanam janapriyamaakkunnathin praadhamika utharavaaditham vahichathu, addehathinte "madhyakaalakhattatthinte sarathkaalam" (1919) enna pusthakatthiloode. italiyekkaal francineyum thaazhnna rajyangaleyum kendreekarichulla gaveshanam nadatthiya huisingayilekku, nirashayum thakarchayum pradhana prameyangalaayirunnu, punarjanmamalla.
aaa kaalaghattatthile aadhunika charithralekhanam naveekaranathinteyum prathisandhiyudeyum rund athirukal thammilulla samavaayathilethi. aalpsinte vadakkum thekkum sthithigathikal valare vyathyasthamaayirunnuvenna ippol pothuve amgeekarikkappedunnu, koodaathe itaaliyan charithralekhanathil "madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasanakaalam" enna padam palappozhum poornnamaayum ozhivaakkappedunnu. navothaanam" enna padam ippozhum chila boudhika, saamskaarika, kalaparamaaya sambhavavikaasangale vivarikkunnathin upayogapradamaanennu kanakkaakkappedunnu, pakshe oru muzhuvan europian charitra kaalaghattatthinteyum nirvachikkunna savisheshathayaayi kanakkakkunnilla. pathinalam noottaandinte arambham muthal chilappol pathinaram noottaand vareyulla kaalaghattatthe mattu pravanathakalude savisheshathayaayi kaanunnu janasamkhyaaparavum saambathikavumaaya thakarcha, thudarnnu veendedukkal, paashchaathya matha aikyathinte anthyam, thudarnnu raashtraraashtrathinte aavirbhavam, lokathinte mattu bhaagangalil europian swaadheenathinte vipuleekaranam.
charithram.
pathinalam noottaandilum pathinanjaam noottaandilum kristhyan yooroppinte paridhikal ippozhum nirvachikkapettu. moscoyile grand duchy mangolukale pinthirippikkaan thudangukayum iberian rajyangal upadveepinte punarkrameekaranam poortthiyaakki avarude shradha puratthekku thirikkukayum cheythappol balcans automan saamraajyathinte aadhipathyathin keezhilaayi. athesamayam, bhookhandathile sheshikkunna rajyangal mikkavarum nirantharamaaya anthaaraashtra allengil aabhyanthara samgharshangalil akappettu.
eee sahacharyam kramena kendra adhikaarathinte ekeekaranathilekkum raashtrathinte aavirbhavathilekkum nayichu. yudhathinte saambathika aavasyangal uyarnna thothilulla nikuthi aavashyamaayi vannu, athinte falamaayi praathinidhya sthaapanangalude aavirbhavam undaayi-prathyekichu engleesh paarlament. paashchaathya bhinnathayodoppam maarppaappayude thakarchayum protestant parishkaranatthinte varavum mathethara adhikaarathinte valarchaye kooduthal sahayichu.
vadakkan europe.
sweeden, norway ennivayude parajayappetta ikyathinushesham 1397ll paan-scandinavian kalmar union sthaapikkappettu. sweedish thudakkam muthal danish aadipathyamulla unionile vimukha amgangalaayirunnu. sweedankaare keezhadakkanulla shramathil, denmarkile kristhyan randaaman rajaavu 1520leeii stockholm rakthachorichilil dhaaraalam sweedish prabhukkanmaare vadhichu. ennittum eee nadapadi kooduthal shathruthayilekku nayichu, 1523ll sweeden nanmaykkaayi pirinju. maruvashathu, norway yooniyante oru thaazhnna party maarukayum 1814 vare denmaarkkumaayi aikyappedukayum cheythu.
islandinu athinte aapekshika ottappedaliloode prayojanam labhichu, karutha maranam baadhicha avasana scandinavian rajyamaayirunnu ithu. athesamayam, greenlandile norse koolani pathinanjaam noottaandil kadutha kaalaavasthayil illaathaayi. eee saahacharyangal cheria himayugathinte falamaayirunnirikkaam.
vadakkupadinjaaran europe.
1286-ll skotlandile alexander moonnaamante maranam raajyathe pinthudarchaavakaasha prathisandhiyilekku thallividukayum engleesh rajaavaaya edward onnaamane madhyasthatha vahikkaan konduvarikayum cheythu. edward skotlandinte mail aadhipathyam avakaashappedukayum athu scotish swaathanthrya yudhangalilekku nayikkukayum cheythu. engleeshukaar oduvil paraajayappedukayum, staarttukalude keezhil sakthamaaya oru raashtram vikasippikkaan skottukalkku kazhiyukayum cheythu.
1337 muthal nooru varshathe yudhathil englandinte shradha pradhaanamaayum francilake aayirunnu. 1415-leeii ajinkort yudhathile henry vinte vijayam hrasvamaayi rund raajyangaludeyum ekeekaranathinu vazhiyorukkiyenkilum addehathinte makan henry vinte munkaala nettangalellaam taamasiyaathe pazhaakki. fraansinte nashtam swantham nattil asamthripthiyilekku nayichu. 1453-ll yuddham avasaanichathinu thottupinnaale, rosaappookkalude yudhangalude rajavamsha poraattangal (c. 1455-1485) house oof lancasterileyum house oof yorkkileyum athiraalikalaaya rajavamshangal ulppettaan aarambhichath.
sakthamaaya, kendreekritha rajavaazhcha kettippadukkunnathinaayi yorkkist rajaakkanmaar aarambhicha pravartthanangal thudarnna tudor bhavanathile henry VII-nte sthaanaarohanathode yuddham avasaanichu. englandinte shradha mattevideyengilum kendreekarichirunnappol, irelandile hiberno-norman prabhukkanmaar kramena airish samoohavumaayi kooduthal swaamsheekarikkappedukayum engleesh aadhipathyathin keezhil vertual swaathanthryam vikasippikkaan dveepine anuvadikkukayum cheythu.
padinjaaran europe.
1328-ll kaapett bhavanathe pinthudarnna franch house oof valois thudakkathil swantham rajyath paarshwalkkarikkappettu, aadyam nooru varshathe yudhathile engleesh adhinivesha shakthikalum pinneedu burgandyile sakthamaaya duchy. oru sainika nethaavenna nilayil joonn oof aarkkinte aavirbhavam franchukaarkku anukoolamaayi yudhathinte gathiye maattukayum lui pathinaar rajaavu eee samrambham munnott kondupookukayum cheythu.
athesamayam, burgandyile dheeranaaya duke chaals thante swathukkal ekeekarikkaanulla sramangalil, prathyekichu 1291 ll roopeekaricha swis konfedareshanil ninnu prathirodham nerittu. 1477 ll nancy yudhathil burgandian yudhangalil chaals kollappettappol, burgandyile duchy france veendeduthu. athe samayam, bargandi kaundiyum sambannamaaya burgandian netherlandukalum habsburg niyanthranatthilulla vishudha roman saamraajyathilekku varikayum varum noottaandukalaayi samgharsham srishtikkukayum cheythu.
madhya europe.
pathinalam noottaandil bohemia abhivridhi praapikkukayum 1356-leeii swarnna kaala bohemiayile raajaavine saamraajyathva votermaaril onnamathethikkukayum cheythuvenkilum husait viplavam raajyathe prathisandhiyilakki. vishudha roman saamrajyam 1438-ll habsburg housilekku kadannupoyi, 1806-ll athu pirichuvidunnathuvare avide thudarnnu. ennirunnaalum habsburgukalude kaivashamulla vipulamaaya pradeshangal undaayirunnittum saamrajyam thanne vighadichuninnu, yadhaartha adikaaravum swaadheenavum vyakthigatha naatturaajyangalilaayirunu. koodaathe, hansiatic leag, fuger famili thudangiya dhanakaarya sthaapanangalkku saambathikavum raashtreeyavumaaya thalangalil valia adhikaaramundaayirunnu.
pathinalam noottaandil hungery raajyam oru suvarnna yugam anubhavichu. prathyekichu angievin rajaakkanmaaraaya chaals robertinteyum (1308-42) addehathinte makanaaya luis dhii grettinteyum (1342-82) bharanakalam vijayathal adayaalappeduthiyirunnu. svarnnathinteyum velliyudeyum pradhana europian vitharanakkaranaayi raajyam sambannamaayi valarnnu. litwania muthal thekkan itali vareyum polandu muthal vadakkan grease vareyum luis dhii grettu vijayakaramaya prachaaranangalkk neethrthwam nalki.
14-aamm noottaandile ettavum valia sainika sheshi addehathinte valia sainyathodoppam (palappozhum 100,000-thiladhikam purushanmaar) undaayirunnu. athesamayam, lithwaniyayumaayulla komanvelthu eee mekhalayil oru valia asthithvam srishtichathinaal polandinte shradha kizhakode thirinju. union lithwaniayude parivartthanavum europile purajaatheeyathayude avasaanathe adayaalappeduthi.
1382-ll luis thante maranashesham oru makaneyum anantharaavakaashiyaayi vittukoduthilla. pakaram, addeham luxembergile yuva rajakumaaranaaya sigismund enna peru thante anantharaavakaashiyaayi nalki. hangarian prabhukkanmaar addehathinte avakaashavaadam amgeekarichilla, athinte phalam oru aabhyanthara yudhamaayirunnu. sigismund oduvil hangariyude poornna niyanthranam nedukayum budayilum visegradilum thante rajasabha sthaapikkukayum cheythu. rund kottaarangalum punarnirmmikkukayum mechappeduthukayum cheythu, avaa europile akkaalathe ettavum sambannamaayi kanakkakkappettu. bohemiayudeyum vishudha roman saamraajyathinteyum simhasana avakashappetta sigismund hangariyil ninnu thante raashtreeyam thudarnnu, pakshe pathinanjaam noottaandinte thudakkathil europinu bheeshaniyaayi maarikkondirunna husaittukalodum automan saamraajyathodum pooraadunnathil addeham thirakkilaayirunnu.
hangariyile matias corvinus rajaavu akkaalathe ettavum valia koolippadayaalikalude sainyamaaya hangariyile karutha sainyathe nayichu, athu addeham bohemia austriyayum keezhadakkaanum automan saamraajyathinethire poraadaanum upayogichu. italikku sesham navothaanam prathyakshappetta aadyathe europian rajyamaayirunnu hungery. ennirunnaalum, pathinaram noottaandinte thudakkathil, 1526-ll automan saamrajyathinethiraaya mohakkukalude yudhathil hangariyile luis randaaman rajaavu kollappettappol raajyathinte mahathvam avasaanichu. hungery pinneedu gurutharamaaya prathisandhiyilayi, madhyakaalakhattathil madhya europil athinte praadhaanyam avasaanippichukondu aakramichu.
kizhakkan europe.
13-aamm noottaandil mangolian adhiniveshathil keevan roose samsthaanam thakarnnu. athinusesham moscoyile grand duchy adhikaarathil uyarnnu, 1380-ll kulikovo yudhathil swarnna samghathinethire valia vijayam nedi. vijayam eee mekhalayile tartar bharanam avasaanippichilla, ennirunnaalum, athinte udanadi gunabhoktaavu kizhakode swaadheenam vyapippicha lithwaniayile grand dachiyaayirunnu.
ivaan dhii grettinte (1462-1505) bharanakaalathu mosco oru pradhana praadeshika shakthiyaayi maarukayum 1478-ll vishalamaaya republic oof novgorodinte kootticherkkal oru russian deseeya raajyathin aditharayittu. 1453-ll constantinoppil vamshathinte pathanathinushesham russian rajakumaranmar baisaantain saamraajyathinte anantharaavakaashikalaayi svayam kaanaan thudangi. oduvil avar saar enna saamraajyathva padavi ettedukkukayum mosco moonnaamathe roome ennu visheshippikkukayum cheythu.
thekkukizhakkan europe.
raashtreeyathilum samskaarathilum kizhakkan medittareniyan saamraajyathil baisantain saamrajyam valarekkaalamaayi aadhipathyam pulartthiyirunnu. ennirunnaalum, pathinalam noottaandode, ithu eathaandu poornnamaayum ottomaan saamraajyathinte oru poshaka samsthaanamaayi thakarnnu, ithu constantinoppil nagaratheyum greasile kurachu enklevukaleyum kendreekarichaayirunnu. 1453ll constantinoppil saamraajyathinte pathanathode baisantain saamrajyam shaashvathamaayi illaathaayi.
pathinalam noottaandode bulgarian saamrajyam thakarukayum 1330-ll velbasd yudhathil balgeriyakkaarkkethiraaya serbian vijayam serbiayude aadhipathyathe adayaalappeduthukayum cheythu. 1346 aayappozhekkum serbian rajaavaaya stephaan dussane chakravarthiyaayi prakhyaapichu. ennittum serbian aadhipathyam hraswakaalamaayirunnu; 1389-leeii kosovo yudhathil lazar herebeljaanovichinte neethrthwathilulla serbian sainyathe automan sainyam paraajayappeduthi, avide serbian prabhukkanmaril bhooribhaagavum kollappedukayum raajyathinte thekk bhagam automan adhiniveshathinu keezhilaakukayum cheythu, kaaranam 1371-leeii maaritsa yudhathil thekkan bulgariayude bhooribhaagavum automan pradeshamaayi maari. bulgariayude vadakkan avashishtangal oduvil 1396-oode keezhadakki, serbia 1459-lum bosnia 1463-lum veenu, oduvil scanderbegginte maranathinu eathaanum varshangalkk sesham 1479-ll albania keezhadangi. akkaalathe oru hangarian domainaya belgrade, 1521 leeii belgrade uparodhathil automan bharanathinu keezhilulla avasaanathe valia balcan nagaramaayirunnu. madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathode, balcan upadveep muzhuvan automanmaar pidichedukkukayo avarude saamanthathvam ettedukkukayo cheythu.
thekkupadinjaaran europe.
1309 muthal 1376 vare maarppaappayude aasthaanamaayirunnu avignon. 1378ll marpappa romilek madangiyethiyathode marpappa raashtram oru pradhana mathethara shakthiyaayi vikasikkukayum alexander aaraamante dhaarmmikamaayi azhimathi niranja maarppaappaasathil kalashikkukayum cheythu. saambathika bisinassiloode itaaliyan nagara-samsthaanangalkkidayil florence praadhaanyam nedukayum kalaa samrakshanathiloode prabalamaaya medisi kudumbam navothaanatthinte pradhana promotermaaraayi maarukayum cheythu. vadakkan italiyile mattu nagara samsthaanangalum avarude pradeshangal vipuleekarikkukayum praadhamikamaayi milan, venees, genova ennivayil avarude adikaaram shakthippeduthukayum cheythu. pathinalam noottaandinte thudakkathil sisilian vespezhs yuddham thekkan italiye sisiliyude oru aragon rajyamaayum neppilsinte oru anjou rajyamaayum vibhajichu. 1442ll rund raajyangalum aragonian niyanthranatthin keezhil phalapradamaayi onnichu.
1469ll kaasttilile isabella onnaamanteyum aragonile ferdinand randaamanteyum vivaahavum 1479ll aragonile joonn randaamante maranavum aadhunika speyininte srishtiyilekku nayichu. 1492ll granada moorukalil ninnu pidichedukkappedukayum athuvazhi punarkrameekaranam poortthiyaakkukayum cheythu. pathinanjaam noottaandil porchugal-prathyekichu navikanaaya henriyude keezhil-kramena aafrikkayude theeram paryavekshanam cheyyukayum 1498-ll vasco daa gaama indiayilekkulla kadalmargam kandethukayum cheythu. indiayilekkulla oru padinjaaran kadalmargam kandethunnathinayi christopher kolambasinte paryaveshanathinu dhanasahayam nalkikkond spanish rajaakkanmaar porchugees velluvili nerittu, ithu 1492 ll amerikkayude kandethalilekku nayichu.
madhyakala europian samoohathinte avasanakaalam.
ekadesham <aii. dii. 1> madhyakaalathe choodulla kaalaghattam cheria manjukaalathinu vazhiyorukki. thanuppulla kaalavastha kaarshika prathisandhikalkk kaaranamaayi, athil aadyathethu aii. dii. 1-nte mahakshaamam ennariyappedunnu. ennirunnaalum, eee kshaamatthinte janasamkhyaaparamaaya prathyaaghaathangal noottaandinte avasaanathil sambhavicha mahamari, prathyekichu karutha maranam pole kadinamaayirunnilla. eee pakarchavyaadhi moolamundaakunna marananirakkinte kanakkukal moonnilonnu muthal arupath sathamaanam vare varum. 1420 aayappozhekkum, aavarthichulla mahamari, shaamam ennivayude shekharicha phalam europile janasamkhyaye oru noottaand munbullathinte moonnilonnil koodaatheyaayi kurachu. sayudha samgharshangal prakrithiduranthangalude prathyaaghaathangal vardhippichu; nooru varshathe yudhathil fraansil ithu prathyekichum sambhavichu. europian janasamkhyaykku samanamaaya 1300 ennam veendedukkaan 150 varshameduthu.
europian janasamkhya ganyamaayi kuranjathode, athijeevichavarkku bhoomi kooduthal samriddhamaayi, thalphalamaayi advaanam kooduthal chelaveriyathaayi maari. 1351leeii engleesh thozhilaallikalude niyamam polulla vethanam nirbandhithamaayi kuraykkunnathinulla bhoovudamakalude sramangal parajayappettu. eee sramangal karshakarkkidayil amarsham valarthukayallathe mattonnum cheythilla, ithu 1358-leeii franch jackwary, 1381-leeii engleesh karshakarude kalapam thudangiya kalaapangalilekku nayichu. deerghakaala phalam padinjaaran europile adimathathinte yadhaartha avasaanamaayirunnu. maruvashathu, kizhakkan europil, karshakare kooduthal adichamarthal adimathathilekku nirbandhikkaan bhoovudamakalkku sahacharyam chooshanam cheyyaan kazhinju.
karuthavargakkaarude maranam moolamundaaya kalapam chila nyoonapaksha vibhaagangale, prathyekichu duranthangalkku palappozhum kuttaropitharaaya joothanmaare, durbalarakki. europiludaneelam jootha virudha vamshahathyakal nadannu; 1349 februvariyil 2,000 juthanmaar strasburgill kollappettu. joothanmaarodulla vivechanathilum samsthaanangal kuttakkaaraayirunnu. 1290ll englandil ninnum 1306ll fraansil ninnum 1492ll speyinil ninnum 1497ll portugalil ninnum joothanmaare purathaakki.
juthanmaar peedanam anubhavikkumbol, madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathil vardhicha shaaktheekaranam anubhavicha oru vibhaagam sthreekalaayirunnu. aaa kaalaghattatthile valia saamoohika mattangal vaanijyam, patanam, matham ennee mekhalakalil sthreekalkku puthiya saadhyathakal thurannu. ennirunnaalum, manthravaadatthilulla vishwaasam vardhichathode athe samayam sthreekal kuttakrithyathinum peedanatthinum irayaakukayum cheythu.
saamoohikavum paaristhithikavum aarogyavumayi bandhappettathumaya prasnangal adinjukoodiyathum yooroppinte mikka bhagangalilum parasparamulla akramangal vardhikkaan kaaranamaayi. janasamkhya vardhanavu, mathaparamaya asahishnutha, shaamam, rogam enniva madhyakala samoohathinte valiyoru bhaagath akramasakthamaaya pravartthanangal vardhikkaan kaaranamaayi. vipulavum vijayakaravumaya vyaapaarathinte falamaayi kooduthal samghadithamaaya oru samooham kaaranam kuranja thothilulla akramam nilanirthaan kazhinja vadakkukizhakkan europe ithinulla oru apavaadamaayirunnu.
pathinalam noottaandinte pakuthi vare europe kramanugathamaayi vardhichuvarunna nagaravalkkaranam anubhavichirunnu. nagarangalum karuthavarggakkaarude maranathaal nasippikkappettuvenkum patana, vaanijyam, sarkkar ennivayude kendrangal enna nilayil nagarapradeshangalude punk thudarchayaaya valarcha urappakki. 1500 aayappozhekkum venis, milan, napples, paarees, constantinoppil ennivayil oronninum 100,000-thiladhikam nivaasikalundaayirunnu. mattu irupathirandu nagarangal 40,000-ll kooduthalaayirunnu; ivayil bhooribhaagavum italiyileyum iberian upadveepileyum aayirunnu, ennaal fraansilum saamraajyathilum thaazhnna raajyangalilum englandile landanilum chilath undaayirunnu.
sainika charithram.
courtray (1302), bannokkben (1314), morgarten (1315) thudangiya yudhangaliloode europile mahanaaya praadeshika raajakumaaranmaarkk fudal kuthirappadayude sainika nettam nashtappettuvennum nannayi sajjeekarichirikkunna kaalalppadayaanu nallathennum vyakthamaayi. velsh yudhangaliloode engleeshukaar valare kaaryakshamamaya neelamulla villumaayi parichayappedukayum sweekarikkukayum cheythu. shariyaayi kaikaaryam cheythukazhinjaal, eee ayudham nooru varshathe yudhathil franchukaarekkaal valia nettam nalki.
vedimarunninte prayogam yudhathinte nadatthippine saaramaayi baadhichu. 1346-leeii craisy yudhathinte thudakkathil thanne engleeshukaar upayogichirunnuvenkilum thokkukalkku thudakkathil yudhamekhalayil kaaryamaaya swaadheenamundaayirunnil. uparodha aayudhangalaayi peerankikal upayogichathiloodeyaanu valia maattam konduvannathu; puthiya reethikal oduvil kottakalude vasthuvidyaa ghadanaye maattimarichu.
sainyangalude niyamanathilum ghadanayilum mattangal sambhavichu. deseeya allengil fudal leviyude upayogam kramena aabhyanthara jeevanakkaarude allengil videsha koolippadayaalikalude shambalamulla sainikar upayogichu maatti. englandile edward III, itaaliyan nagara-samsthaanangalude kondottiyeri ennivayumaayi eee sambradaayam bandhappettirunnu. europiludaneelam, swis sainikarkk prathyekichum uyarnna aavashyakkaarundaayirunnu. athe samayam, aadyathe sthiramaaya sainyathinte aavirbhaavavum eee kaalayalavil undaayi. nooru varshathe yudhathinte kanatha aavashyangalude peril fraansile valoyisilaanu sayudha seena kramena sthiramaaya swabhaavam sweekarichathu.
sainika sambhavavikaasangalkk samaantharamaayi yodhaakkalude varggathinu nirantharam kooduthal vipulamaaya dheeramaaya perumaattachattavum uyarnnuvannu. puthuthayi kandethiya eee dhaarmikatha prabhukkanmaarude sainika punk kurayunnathinulla prathikaranamaayi kaanaan kazhiyum, kramena athu athinte sainika uthbhavathil ninnu eathaandu poornnamaayum verpettu. puthiya (mathethara) tharam dheeramaaya utharavukaliloodeyaanu dheerathayude aathmaav prakadippichathu; ivayil aadyathethu sent oordar aayirunnu. 1325-ll hangariyile chaals onnaaman sthaapicha jorj, 1348-ll edward moonnaaman sthaapicha engleesh oordar oof dhaa garter aayirikkam ettavum ariyapettath.
kristheeya samgharshavum parishkaranavum.
maarppaappayude bhinnatha.
maarppaappayude mail franch kireedatthinte vardhichuvarunna aadhipathyam 1309-ll hollie zee-tuu-avignon kaimaattatthil kalaashichu. 1377-ll marpappa romilek madangiyethiyappol, ithu avignonilum romilum vividha poppumaarude thiranjeduppilekku nayichu, ithu maarppaappayude bhinnathaykku (1378-1417) kaaranamaayi. bhinnatha europine rashtreeya adisthaanathil vibhajichu; france avarude sakhyakakshiyaya scotland spanish raajyangalum avignon marpappa pinthunachappol, fraansinte shatru englandum porchugal, scandinavia, mikka jarmman rajakumaaranmaarum ennivarkkoppam romil maarppaappaykk pinnil ninnu.
koonstans kaunsilil (1414-1418), marpappa orikkal koodi romile ikyathilaayi. paashchaathyasabhayude aikyam nooru varsham koodi nilanilkkumennaayirunnum, maarppaappayude bharanam mumbathekkaalum valia bhauthika samriddhi anubhavikkendathaayirumnum, valia bhinnatha nikathaanaavaattha naashanashtangal varuthi. sabhaykkullile aabhyanthara poraattangal saarvathrika bharanathinulla avalude avakaashavaadathe durbalappeduthukayum janangalkkum avarude bharanadhikaarikalkkum idayil purohithaviruddhatha prolsaahippikkukayum parishkarana prasthaanangalkk vazhiyorukkukayum cheythu.
protestant parishkkaranam.
pala sambhavangalum madhyakaalakhattatthile parambaraagatha kaalaghattatthinu purathaayirunnuvenkilum, paashchaathya sabhayude aikyathinte (protestant parishkarana) avasaanam madhyakaalakhattatthinte savisheshathakalilonnaanu. mathaviruddha prasthaanangalkkethire catholica sabha deerghakaalamaayi pooraadiyengilum madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathil parishkaranatthinulla aavasyangal ullil ninnu anubhavappedaan thudangi. ivayil aadyathethu englandile ooksfoord professor joonn vaiklifil ninnaan. mathaparamaya chodyangalil baibil maathramaayirikkanam eaka adikaaram ennu wycliffe abhiprayappettu, koodaathe traansbstaanteshan, brahmacharyam, anardhangal ennivaykkethire addeham samsaarichu. joonn oof gaundu polulla engleesh prabhukkanmarkkidayil swaadheenamulla pinthunakkaar undaayirunnittum prasthaanatthe nilanirthaan anuvadichilla. wycliffe thanne aswasthanaakkappettilkam, addehathinte anuyayikalaaya lollardukal oduvil englandil adichamarthappettu.
englandile richard randaaman bohemiyayude aannumaayulla vivaham iru raajyangalum thammil bandham sthaapikkukayum avarude maathrraajyathekku lollard ashayangal konduvarikayum cheythu. check purohithanaaya jaann hasinte padippikkalukal joonn vaiklifinte padippikkalukale adisthaanamaakkiyullavayinum addehathinte anuyayikalaaya hasaittukalkk lollardukalekkaal valare valia rashtreeya swaadheenam cheluthendiyirunnu. hoosinu bohemiyayil valia anuyayikalundaayirunnu, 1414-ll thante lakshyathe prathirodhikkaan koonstans kaunsilil hajarakan addehathodu abhyarthichu. 1415-ll addehathe mathavirudhanaayi chuttukonnappol athu check rajyangalil janakeeya prakshobhatthinu kaaranamaayi. thudarnnulla husait yudhangal aabhyanthara kalahangal moolam thakarukayum chekkukalkku mathaparamo deseeyamo aaya swaathanthryathinu kaaranamaakaathirikkukayum cheythuvenkilum catholica sabayum raajyathinullile jarmman gadakavum durbalamaayi.
jarmman sanyasiyaaya martin luther 1517 october 31nuu vittanbargile kottara palliyil 95 prabandhangal poost cheythukondu jarmman parishkaranatthinu thudakkam kurichu. lioo ex maarppaappayude puthiya sent mandiratthinte nirmmaanathinulla anugraham puthukkiyathaayirunnu eee niyamathinu udan thanne prakopanamundaakkiyathu. 1514-ll peettezhs basilica. 1521-ll puzhukkalude bhakshanakramathil ninnu pinmaran lutherine velluvilichu. addeham visammathichappol, chaals vii addehathe saamraajyathinte nirodhanathinu keezhil konduvannu. frederic dhaa vaisinte samrakshanam labhicha addehathinu pinneedu baibil jarmman bhaashayilekku vivarthanam cheyyaan kazhinju.
pala mathethara bharanadhikaarikalkkum protestant parishkkaranam avarude sambathum swaadheenavum vipuleekarikkaanulla swaagathaarhamaaya avasaramaayirunnu. catholica sabha parishkarana prasthaanangalude velluvilikale catholica parishkaranamo ethir-parishkaranamo ennu vilikkappedunna reethiyil nerittu. europe vadakkan protestant, thekkan catholica bhagangalaayi vibhajikkapettu, ithu 16,17 noottaandukalile mathayudhangalkku kaaranamaayi.
vyapaaravum vaanijyavum.
kizhakkan medittareniyanile ottoman saamraajyathinte vardhichuvarunna aadhipathyam padinjaaran kristhyan raajyangalkk vyaapaarathin oru thadassam srishtichu, avar badal marggangal thedaan thudangi. porchugees, spanish paryavekshakar puthiya vyapara pathakal kandethi-aafrikkayude thekk indiayilekkum atlaantik samudrathinu kuruke amerikkayilekkum. genois, veneeshyan vyapaarikal flanderukal upayogichu nerittulla kadal pathakal thurannathode shampain melakalkku avayude praadhaanyam nashtappettu.
athesamayam, engleesh kambili kayattumathi asamskritha kambiliyil ninnu samskaricha thuniyilekku maari, ithu thaazhnna raajyangalile thuni nirmmaathaakkalkk nashtamundaakki. baltic, vadakkan kadalil, hansiatic leag pathinalam noottaandil avarude shakthiyude unnathiyilethiyenkilum pathinanjaam noottaandil athu kshayikkaan thudangi.
13-aamm noottaandinte avasaanathilum 14-aamm noottaandinte thudakkathilum, oru prakriya nadannu-praadhamikamaayi italiyilum bhaagikamaayi saamraajyathilum-charitrakaaranmaar athine "vaanijya viplavam" ennu visheshippichu. eee kaalaghattatthile puthumakalil puthiya tharatthilulla pankaalitthavum insurance issue cheyyalum ulppedunnu, iva randum vaanijya samrambhangalude apakadasaadhyatha kuraykkunnathinu kaaranamaayi; exchange billum mattu tharatthilulla kredittum palishaykkethiraya vijaatheeyarude canonical niyamangale marikadakkukayum bullian vahikkunnathinte apakadangal illaathaakkukayum cheythu; puthiya tharatthilulla accounting, prathyekichu double-entry book keeping, mikacha melnottatthinum krithyathaykkum anuvadikkunnu.
saambathika vipuleekaranathode, vyapara avakashangal vaanijya varenyavarggakkaar kooduthal asooyayode samrakshichukondirunnu. pattanangal samghangalude vardhichuvarunna shakti kandu, athesamayam deseeya thalatthil prathyeka kambanikalkku engleesh kambili pradhana vyapaaram polulla prathyeka vyapaarangalil kuthaka nalkum. eee vikasanangalude gunabhokthaakkalkk aparamaaya sambathu shekharikkaanaakum. germmaniyile faggarmar, italiyile medisin, englandile dii laa pools, fraansile jackwus koyur thudangiya vyakthikal thudangiya kudumbangal rajaakkanmaarude yudhangalkku dhanasahayam nalkaanum eee prakriyayil valia rashtreeya swaadheenam nedaanum sahayikkum.
pathinalam noottaandile janasamkhyaaparamaaya prathisandhi uthppaadanathilum vaanijyathilum "samboornna" padangalil naadakeeyamaaya idivinu kaaranamaayi ennathil samshayamillengilum, janasamkhyayile idivinekkaal kurravaano ennathinekkurichu sakthamaaya charitraparamaaya charchakal nadannittundu. navothaanatthinte kalaparamaaya uthppaadanam kooduthal samriddhiyude falamaanennu pazhaya yaadhaasthithikatha abhipraayappettirunnuve, 'navothaanatthinte vishaadam' ennu vilikkappedunna oru avasthayundaakaamennu sameepakaala padanangal soochippikkunnu. kesinu bodhyappeduthunna vaadangal undaayirunnittum, sthithivivarakkanakku thelivukal oru krithyamaaya nigamanathiletthaan kazhiyaathathra apoornnamaanu.
kalayum shaasthravum.
pathinalam noottaandil, skolaastisathinte pradhana academic pravanathaye maanavika prasthaanam velluvilichu. praadhamikamaayi classical bhaashakale punarujjeevippikkaanulla shramamaanenkilum, 1453-ll constantinoppil pathanatthinu sesham padinjaaru abhayam thedendivanna baisaantain pandithanmaarude prachodanangalaal shaasthram, kala, saahityam ennee mekhalakalile puthumakalilekkum eee prasthaanam nayichu.
shaasthrathil, purathana kaalathinu sesham aadyamaayi aristottilineppolu classical adhikaarikal velluvilikkapettu. kalaykkullil, manavikatha navothaanatthinte roopam sweekarichu. pathinanjaam noottaandile navothaanam valare praadeshikavalkkarikkappedu oru prathibhaasamaayirunnuvenkum-kooduthalum vadakkan italiyile nagara samsthaanangalil maathramaayi parimithappedutthiyirunne-kalaparamaaya vikasanangal kooduthal vadakkottum, prathyekichu netherlandilum nadakkukayaayirunnu.
thathwachintha, shaasthram, saankethikavidya.
13-aamm noottaandile pradhana chinthadhaara kristheeya daivashaasthravumaayi aristottil padippicha thangalestik anuranjanamaayirunnu. paarees sarvakalashaalayil 1277-leeii apalapanam, mathavirudhamennu vyaakhyaanikkaavunna aashayangalkk niyanthranangal earppeduthi; aristotaliyan chinthaye badhikkunna niyanthranangal. yukthiyude lokavum vishwaasathinte lokavum verthirikkanamennu urachuninna muun fraansiskan joonn duns skottasinte reethi pinthudarnnu ookkaamile vilyam oru badal avatharippichu. oakhaam parsimani allengil ookkaaminte razer enna thathwam avatharippichu, athil kooduthal sankeernamaaya sidhaanthathekkaal lalithamaaya oru sidhaanthathinu munganana nalkukayum nireekshikkaanaavaatha prathibhaasangalekkurichu oohaapohangal ozhivaakkukayum cheiyunnu. ennirunnaalum, eee vaachakam palappozhum thettayi udharikkappedunnu. eee udharaniyil thante naamamaathrathvathe paraamarshikkukayaayirunnu okaam. adisthaanaparamaayi samboornna sidhaantham allengil metaafisikkal realism ennu parayunnath lokathe ardhamaakkunnathinu anaavashyamaayirunnu.
eee puthiya sameepanam shaasthreeya oohaapohangale aristottiliyan shaasthrathinte pingamikalaaya niyanthranangalil ninnu mochippikkukayum puthiya sameepanagalkk vazhiyorukkukayum cheythu. jeane buriden, nikkol ooresme, ooksfoord calculatorukal thudangiya pandithanmaar aristottilte pravartthanangale velluvilichappol prathyekichum chalana sidhaanthangalude mekhalayil valia purogathi kaivarichu. aadhunika jadatwa aashayathilekkulla oru pradhana chuvaduveppaayirunna projectylukalude chalanatthinte kaaranamaayi buriden "prachodanam" enna sidhaantham vikasippichu. eee pandithanmaarude kruthikal nicolas copernicusinte sooryakendreekrutha lokaveekshanam munkootty kandirunnu.
arab, chainees uthbhavam, allengil athulyamaaya europian kandupiduthangal ennivayulppede aaa kaalaghattatthile chila saankethika kandupiduthangal raashtreeyavum saamoohikavumaaya sambhavavikasangalil, prathyekichu vedimarunnu, achadisaala, dixuchi ennivayil valia swaadheenam cheluthumaayirunnu. yudhakkalathil vedimarunnu avatharippichathu sainika samghadanaye mathramalla, raashtrathe munnott kondupokaan sahayichu. gutenberginte chalikkavunna tharatthilulla achadisaala parishkaranatthe mathramalla, kramena kooduthal samathwa samoohathilekku nayikkunna arivinte vyaapanatheyum saadhyamaakki. cross staaf, naavikante austrolabe, kappal nirmmaanatthile purogathi thudangiya mattu puthumakalkkoppam compuse loka samudrangalude navigation koloniyalisatthinte aadya ghattangalum praapthamakki. kannada, bharam vahikkunna clock thudangiya mattu kandupiduthangal dainamdina jeevithathil kooduthal swaadheenam chelutthi.
drishyakalayum vaasthuvidya.
navothaana kalayude oru munnodiye pathinalam noottaandinte thudakkathil jiotoyude kruthikalil ithinakam kaanaan kazhiyum. purathana kaalam muthal trimana yaadhaarthyathe prathinidheekarikkaanum thante kathaapaathrangalkk yadhaartha maanushika vikarangal nalkaanum shramicha aadyathe chithrakaaranaayirunnu gioto. ennirunnaalum, ettavum pradhanappetta sambhavavikasangal pathinanjaam noottaandile florencilaanu undaayath. vyapara varggathinte sambathu kalaykku vipulamaaya rakshaakarthruthvam nalki, rakshaadhikaarikalil pradhaanappettath vaidyanmaaraayirunnu.
masaxioyude kruthiyil kaanapedunna rekheeya veekshana thathwam, pinneedu brunelleshi vivarichathupolulla niravadhi pradhana saankethika kandupidithangal eee kaalayalavil kandu. donaattelloyeppolu kalakaaranmaar vijayicha shareeraghadanayekkurichulla shaasthreeya padanathiloodeyum kooduthal yaadhaarthyam kaivarichu. classical modalukalude padanatthil ninnu prachodanam ulkkonda addehathinte silpangalil ithu prathyekichum nannayi kaanaan kazhiyum. prasthaanatthinte kendram romilek maariyathode, eee kaalayalav unnatha navothaana gurukkanmaraya daa vinsi, michelanchalo, raffle ennivaril paryavasaanichu.
itaaliyan navothaanatthinte ashayangal alps kadannu vadakkan europilekku pathukkeyaayirunnuvenkilum thaazhnna raajyangalilum pradhana kalaparamaaya puthumakal undaayi. allengilum-munbu vishwasichathupole-oayil paintinginte kandupiduthakkaranaaya jaann vaan aikku puthiya maadhyamathinte chaambyanaayirunnu, athu valia yaadhaarthyathinteyum sookshumamaaya vishadaamshangaludeyum srishtikal srishtikkaan upayogichu. rund samskaarangalum parasparam swaadheenikkukayum parasparam padikkukayum cheythuvenkilum netherlandsile painting italiyude aadarsha rachanakalekkaal textureukalilum uparithalangalilum kooduthal shradha kendreekarichu.
vadakkan europian rajyangalil gothik vaasthuvidya saadhaarana nilayilayi, gothik cathedral kooduthal vipuleekarikkappettu. maruvashathu, italiyile vaasthuvidya vyathyasthamaaya oru dishayilekku neengi, ivideyum classical aadarshangalil ninnu prachodanam ulkkondathaanu. jiotoyude clock tower, giberty baptisti gettukal, abhoothapoorvamaaya anupaathathilulla brunelleshiyude cathedral thaazhikakkudam ennivayulla florencile santa maria dell feor aayirunnu aaa kaalaghattatthile kireedavakashi.
saahityam.
madhyakala saahithyathinte avasaanathe ettavum pradhanappetta vikasanam praadeshika bhaashakalude uyarchayaayirunnu. ettaam noottaand muthal englandilum pathinonnam noottaand muthal fraansilum praadeshika bhasha upayogathilundaayirunnu, avide ettavum janapriyamaaya vibhagangal chaansan dii gestte, troubador varikal, romaantik ithihaasangal allengil pranayam ennivayaayirunnu. itali pinneedu praadeshika bhashayil oru thaddesheeya saahityam vikasippicheduthirunne, aaa kaalaghattatthile ettavum pradhanappetta sambhavavikasangal varaanirikkunnath ivideyaayirunnu.
pathinalam noottaandinte thudakkathil ezhuthiya daanthe alighiyeriyude "divya komadi" oru madhyakala lokaveekshanathe classical aadarshangalumaayi layippichu. itaaliyan bhaashayude mattoru prabodhakan bokkaashiyoyude "decameron" aayirunnu. praadeshika bhaashayude prayogam laattin bhasha nirasikkunnathine nirbandhikkunnilla, koodaathe daantteyum bokkashiyoyum laattinilum itaaliyan bhashayilum pinneedu petraarkkineppole (avarude "cansonior" praadeshika bhasha prolsaahippikkukayum athinte ulladakkangal aadyathe aadhunika gaanarachanakalaayi kanakkaakkukayum cheiyunnu) vipulamaayi ezhuthukayum cheythu. moonnu kavikalum chernnu aadhunika itaaliyan bhaashayude maanadandamaayi tuscan bhasha sthaapichu.
puthiya saahithyashaili athivegam vyaapikkukayum fraansil yoostaache deshamps, gillom dii machaatt thudangiya ezhuthukaare swaadheenikkukayum cheythu. englandil jiophree chausar thante "kaantarbari kathakal" upayogichu madhya engleeshine oru saahitya bhashayaayi sthaapikkaan sahayichu, athil vaividhyamaarnna vivaranakaaranmaarum kathakalum (bokkashiyoyil ninnu vivarthanam cheythava ulppede) adangiyirunnu. praadeshika saahithyathinte vyaapanam oduvil bohemia, baltic, slavik, baisantain lokangal vare ethi.
samgeetham.
mathetharavum aathmeeyavumaaya samskaarathinte oru pradhana bhaagamaayirunnu samgeetham, sarvakalaashaalakalil athu liberal aartsinte "quadrivium"-nte bhaagamaayirunnu. pathimoonnaam noottaandinte arambham muthal, pradhana vishudha sangeetha roopam mottatt aayirunnu; niravadhi bhagangalilaayi vaachakamulla oru rachana. 1330-kalum athinusheshavum, swatantra shabdangalude kooduthal sankeernamaaya samyojanamaaya polyphonic shaili uyarnnuvannu. provensal trabaadorukalude mathethara samgeethathil polyphony saadhaaranamaayirunnu. ivaril palarum 13-aamm noottaandile albijensian kurishuyudhathinu irakalaayirunnuvenkilum avarude swaadheenam avignonile maarppaappayude kottaaratthiletthi.
aars antica" ennathinu vipareethamaayi "aars nova" ennu vilikkappedunna puthiya shailiyude pradhana prathinidhikal philipp dii vitriyum gillom dii machaattum aayirunnu. italiyil, provensal troubaadorukalum abhayam kandethiyappol, anubandha kaalayalav trenso enna peril pookunnu, koodaathe pramukha samgeethasamvidhaayakar jiovanni daa cassia, jacopo daa bologna, francesco landini ennivaraayirunnu. pathinalam noottaandinte aadya pakuthi muthal yaadhaasthithika sabhaa samgeethathinte pramukha parishkarthaavaayirunna joonn cucuselis, thudarnnulla noottaandukalil baalkkanukalil vyaapakamaayi upayogikkunna oru notteshan samvidaanavum addeham avatharippichu.
thiyettar.
britiish dveepukalil madhyakaalakhattathil 127 oolam vyathyastha pattanangalil naadakangal nirmikkappettu. york (48 naadakangal), chesttar (24), wakefield (32), anjjaatha (42) enningane niravadhi naadakangalude chakrangalilaanu eee praadeshika nigooda naadakangal ezhuthiyathu. eee kaalaghattatthil fraansil ninnum germmaniyil ninnum dhaaraalam naadakangal nilanilkkukayum madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathil mikkavarum ellah europian raajyangalilum chila tharatthilulla matha naadakangal avatharippikkukayum cheythu. eee naadakangalil palathilum komadi, pishachukkal, villanmaar, komaalikal enniva ulppedunnu.
1400 oode dhaarmikatha naadakangal oru vyathyastha naadakeeya roopamaayi uyarnnuvarikayum 1550 vare thazhachuvalarukayum cheythu, udaaharanathinu manushyaraashiyude jananam muthal maranam vareyulla purogathi chithreekarikkunna "sthirothsaahathinte kotta". eavarmaan" aanu mattoru prashasthamaaya dhaarmika naadakam. oro manushyan maranatthinte summons labikkukayum rakshappedaan paadupedukayum oduvil aavasyathinu svayam raajivaykkukayum cheiyunnu. vazhiyil, avan bandhukkalum saadhanangalum sahavaasavum moolam upekshikkappedunnu-nalla pravrithikal maathrame avanodoppam shavakudeerathilekku pookunnulloo.
madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathode englandilum europilum professional abhinethaakkal prathyakshappedaan thudangi. richard III, henry VII ennivar professional abhinethaakkalude cheria kambanikal paripaalikkunnu. oru prabhuvinte vasathiyile valia haalil avarude naadakangal avatharippikkappettu, palappozhum prekshakarkkaayi oru attathu uyarnna vediyum abhinethaakkalkkaayi maruvashathu oru "screen" undaayirunnu. chrismus seasonil avatharippicha mammarmaarude naadakangalum court maaskukalum pradhanamaayirunnu. 1545ll oru vinodayaathraalayavum oru vinodayaathraalayavum sthaapicha henry VIII-yude bharanakaalathu eee maaskukal prathyekichum janapriyamaayirunnu.
catholica sabhayude durbalamaaya shakti, protestant parishkkaranam, pala raajyangalilum mathaparamaya naadakangal nirodhikkal ennivayulppede niravadhi gadakangal moolamaanu madhyakala naadakatthinte anthyam sambhavichathu. 1558ll elisabath onnaaman ellah mathaparamaya naadakangalum nirodhichu, 1580kalode valia saikkil naadakangal nishabdamaakki. athupole, 1539-ll netherlandilum 1547-ll marpappa 1548-ll paareesilum mathaparamaya naadakangal nirodhichu. eee naadakangal upekshichathode avide nilaninnirunna anthaaraashtra naadakavedi nasippikkappedukayum oro raajyavum athintethaaya naadakaroopam vikasippikkaan nirbandhitharaakukayum cheythu. mathethara vishayangalilekku tirian ithu naadakakrithukkale anuvadikkukayum greak, roman naadakangalodulla thaalparyam punarujeevippikkukayum avarkk thikanja avasaram nalkukayum cheythu.
madhyakaalakhattatthinushesham.
madhyakaalakhattatthinte avasaanathinushesham, navothaanam thekkan europian mekhalayil ninnu bhookhanda europilekku asamamaayi vyaapichu. navothaanatthinte boudhika parivartthanatthe madhyakaalakhattathinum aadhunika kaalaghattatthinum edayilulla oru paalamaayi kaanunnu. europpukaar pinneedu loka kandethalinte oru yugam aarambikkum. achadicha vaakkinte prachaaranatthinum janaadhipathyavalkkarikkappedu padanatthinum soukaryamorukkiya achadiyude kandupidutham classical aashayangalude ozhukkinoppam samyojippikkappettu. eee rund kaaryangalum protestant parishkaranatthilekku nayikkum. 1492ll columbus amerikkayilekkulla yaathrayilum 1498ll vasco daa gaama aafrikkayilum indiayilum sanjarichathilum cheythathupole europpukaar puthiya vyapara pathakal kandethi. avarude kandethalukal europian raajyangalude sambadvyavasthayeyum shakthiyeyum shakthippeduthi.
automansum europe.
pathinanjaam noottaandinte avasaanathode automan saamrajyam thekkukizhakkan europiludaneelam munnerukayum oduvil baisantain saamrajyam keezhadakkukayum balcan samsthaanangalude niyanthranam vipuleekarikkukayum cheythu. kizhakk laattin kristhyan lokathinte avasaanathe kottayaayirunnu hungery, rund noottaandukalolam athinte bharanam nilanirthaan poraadi. 1444-ll automan janathaykkethiraya varna yudhathil hangariyile yuva rajaavaaya vladislas onnaamante maranashesham, raajyam hangariyude reejant gavarnaraaya kaundu joonn hunadiyude kaikalil ealppikkappettu. pathinanjaam noottaandile ettavum prasakthamaaya sainika vyakthikalil oralaayi hunadi kanakkaakkappettirunnu maddhya, padinjaaran europilekku ottomanmaare munnerunnathil ninnu prathirodhikkanulla eaka pratheekshayaayathinaal piyus randaaman marpappa addehathinu "athlattikka kristti" allengil kristhuvinte chaambyan enna padavi nalki.
1456ll automan janathaykkethiraya belgrade uparodhathil hunadi vijayichu, pathittaandukalkkidayile aaa saamrajyathinethiraaya ettavum valia vijayamaanith. vishudhayudham pravachikkunna italiyil ninnu vanna fraansiskan sanyasi capistranoyile joonn joonn karshakare prachodippichathinaal eee yuddham muslimkalkkethiraaya oru yadhaartha kurishuyudhamaayi maari. akkaalat athu srishticha swaadheenam vijayam nedaan sahaayicha pradhana gadakangalilonnaanu. ennirunnaalum hangarian prabhuvinte akaala maranam pannonia prathirodhamillaathathum araajakathvathilumaanu maattiyath. madhyakaalakhattatthile valare asaadhaaranamaaya oru sambhavathil, hanyaadiyude makan mathiyas hangariyile prabhukkanmaar hangariyile rajaavaayi thiranjedukkappettu. aadyamaayi oru prabhukkakudumbatthile oru amgathe (oru raajakudumbathil ninnullathalla) kireedamaniyappedutthi.
hangariyile matias corvinus rajaavu (1458-1490) aaa kaalaghattatthile ettavum pramukha vyakthikalil oraalaayirunnu, padinjaaran prachaaranangal nayikkukayum, husait protestantukalkke maarppaappayude sahayathinulla aahvaanathin marupadiyaayi bohemia keezhadakkukayum cheythu. koodaathe, habsburghile jarmman chakravarthiyaaya frederic moonnaamanumaayulla rashtreeya sathrutha pariharikkunnathiloode addeham thante padinjaaran domainukal aakramichu. maathyoo koolippadayaalikalude karutha sainyathe samghadippichu; akkaalathe ettavum valia sainyamaayi ithu kanakkaakkappettirunnu. eee sakthamaaya upakaranam upayogichu, hangarian rajaavu turkey sainyathinethire yudhangalkku neethrthwam nalkukayum thante bharanakaalathu automan sainyathe thadayukayum cheythu. maathyoovinte maranashesham, karutha sainyathinte avasaanathode, automan saamrajyam shakthiyode valarukayum madhya europe prathirodhamillaathathaavum cheythu. mohakkukalude yudhathil, automan saamraajyathinte sainyam hangarian sainyathe unmoolanam cheyyukayum hangariyile luis randaaman rakshappedaan shramikkunnathinide sele kreekkil mungimarikkukayum cheythu. hangarian sainyathinte nethaavaaya paal tomori yudhathil marichu. madhyakaalakhattatthile avasaanathe yudhangalilonnaayi ithu kanakkaakkappedunnu.
timeline.
"theeyathikal ekadeshamaanu, vishadaamshangalkku prathyeka lekhanangal parisodhikkuka"
 madhyakaalakhattatthinte mattu prameyangal
pathinalam noottaand
litwania golden hordine paraajayappedutthunnu. keevu principality lithwaniayile grand dachiyude bhaagamaayi maarunnu
pathinanjaam noottaand