
aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaanthathinte charithram

aadunikavalkkaranam ennathu oru "pree-moden" allengil "parambaraagatha" ennathil ninnu "aadhunika" samoohathilekkulla purogamanaparamaaya parivartthanatthinte oru maathrkaye soochippikkunnu. kooduthal vikasita raajyangalkk ulla athe reethiyil parambaraagathamo aadhunikathaykk munbullatho aaya raajyangale vikasanathilekku konduvaraan kazhiyumennu anumaanikkumbol eee sidhaantham oru raajyathinte aantharika gadakangalil prathyekichum shradha kendreekarikkunnu. saamoohika purogathikkum samoohangalude vikasanathinum sambhavana cheiyunna saamoohika vyathiyanangal thirichariyaan aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaantham sramikkukayum saamoohika parinaama prakriya vishadeekarikkaan sramikkukayum cheiyunnu. aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaantham soshyalistukalkkum swatantra vipani prathyayashaasthrangalkkum loka samvidaana sidhaanthakarkkum aagolavalkkarana sidhaanthakarkkum ashrita sidhaanthakarkkum idayil ninnu uthbhavikkunna vimarsanathinu vidheyamaan. aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaantham maattatthinte prakriyaykku mathramalla, aaa maattathodulla prathikaranangalkkum oonnal nalkunnu. saamoohikavum saamskaarikavumaaya gadanakaleyum puthiya saankethikavidyakalude poruthappedutthalineyum paraamarshikkumbol ithu aantharika chalanathmakathayeyum nokkunnu.
sidhaanthathinte aadyakaala aavishkaarangal.
aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaanthathinte adisthaana thathwangal 18-aamm noottaandil janangalkk thanne avarude samoohathe vikasippikkaanum mattaanum kazhiyumenna aashayathode uyarnnuvanna purogathi enna aashayathil ninnu uruthirinjathaanu. saambathikavum saamoohikavumaaya vikasanam thammil bandhappeduthukayum manushyakaryangalil thudarchayaaya purogathiyum mechappeduthalum undaakaamenn nirddeshikkukayum cheytha aadya vyakthiyaan conterset.
saamoohika gadanaykkum samoohangalude parinaamatthinum purame, franch saamoohikashaasthranjanaaya emily durkhaim oru samoohathinte sthaapanangalude paraspara aashrithathvathinum saamskaarikavum saamoohikavumaaya aikyam nilanirthunnathil avayude edapedalinum oonnal nalkunna pravartthanavaadam enna ashayam vikasippichu.
pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasaanathil aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaantham kooduthal uyarnnuvarikayum irupathaam noottaandinte madhyathil pandithanmarkkidayil prathyekichum janapriyamavukayum cheythu. harward soshyolajist talcott paarsans enna sradheyanaaya abhibhaashakan, "bhaaviyile manderines" (2003) samoohangal maattathinu thurannukodukkendathinte praadhaanyam oonnipparayukayum pinthirippan sakthikal vikasanathe niyantrikkunnathaayi kaanukayum cheythu. paarambaryatthinuvendi paarambaryam nilanirthunnathu purogathikkum vikasanathinum doshakaramaanennu karuthappettirunnu. aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaanthathinte vakthaakkale rund grouppukalaayi thirikkam; shubhaapthivishvaasikalum niraashaavaadikalum. eee sidhaanthathinu (iranian viplavam allengil demookratik republic oof kongoyile asthirathayude sthiratha polulla sambhavangal) oru thirichadiyaakumennu chilar kaanunnath purogathiyilekkulla paathayile thaalkkaalika thirichadikalaanennu shubhaapthivishwaasa veekshanam vivarikkunnu. ithinu vipareethamaayi, lokathinte chila 'aadhunikamallaatha' pradeshangalkk aadhunikamaakaan kazhiyillennu niraashaavaadikalude veekshanam vishwasikkunnu.
sambhavakar.
eee sidhaanthathil sradheyamaaya academic sambhavanakal nalkunnavaril dablyu ulppedunnu. dablyu. saambathika valarchayude ghattangal oru communist ithara manifesto" (1960) enna thante pusthakatthil, oru raajyam aadhunikavalkkaranathilekkalula paathayilethaan aavashyamaaya gadakangal kaanikkan thante rostovian take-oof modalil sramichukondu, aadhunikavalkkaranathinte saambathika samvidaana vashathil shradha kendreekarichu. janadhipathyam, sadbharanam, karyakshamatha, aadunikavalkkaranam enniva thammilulla bandham gaveshanam cheythukondu rashtreeya samvidaanathilum janaadhipathyathinte charithratthilum david apthar shradha kendreekarichu. janaadhipathyathinte chila saamoohika aavasyakathakal" (1959) enna grandhatthil saambathika vikasanam janadhipathyam srishtikkunna aazhathilulla saamoohika maattangalude oru parambara aarambhikkunnuvenn seymar martin lipsett vaadichu. david mcclelland ("nediyedukkunna samooham", 1967) eee vishayathe manashaasthraparamaaya veekshanakonil ninnu, thante prachodana sidhaanthathode sameepikkukayum, oru nischitha samooham naveekaranatthe vilamathikkunnathuvare, mechappeduthalinum samrambhakathvathinum vendi parishramikkunnathuvare aadunikavalkkaranam nadakkillennu vaadikkukayum cheythu. alex inkels ("aadhunikanaakuka", 1974) athupole thanne "aadhunika vyakthithva" thinte oru maathruka srishtikkunnu, athu swathanthravum sajeeva pothu nayangalilum saamskaarika kaaryangalilum thaalpparyamullathum puthiya anubhavagalkk thurannirikkunnathum yuktisahavum bhaaviyilekkulla deerghakaala padhathikal srishtikkaan kazhiyunnathumayirikkanam. edward paranju, "oriyantalisam" (1978) vegathilum samoolamaayum parivartthanam cheyyappetta samoohangalude veekshanakonil ninnu aadhunikavalkkaranathe vyaakhyaanikkunnu. 
cases padanangal.
america.
irupathaam noottaandinte thudakkathil amerikkayile purogamanavaadikal aadhunikavaada manobhaavam uyarthippidichu. shaasthram, saankethikavidya, vaidagdhyam, prathyekichu vidyaabhyaasam enniva samoohathinte daurbalyangalkkulla mahathaaya parihaaramaayi avar vishwasichu. nagara-vyaavasaayika samoohathodulla anukoola manobhaavam, paristhithiyum jeevita saahacharyangalum mechappeduthaanulla manushyaraashiyude kazhivil vishwaasam, saambathikavum saamoohikavumaaya kaaryangalil edapedaanulla baadhyathayil vishwaasam, vidagtharude kazhivilum sarkkar edapedalinte kaaryakshamathayilum vishwaasam enniva purogamanavaadatthinte savisheshathakalil ulppedunnu.
columbia sarvakalaashaalayile charitra professoraaya pooll moonroo 1919-leeii paarees samadhana sammelanathil american vidagtharude oru samghathil amgamaayirunnu. albania, turkey, madhya aphrica thudangiya vikaswara mekhalakalude vidyaabhyaasa aavasyangal vilayiruthunnathinayi philippainsile thante anubhavam addeham eduthuparanju. raashtranirmmaanathinum saamoohika saambathika vikasanathinum vidyaabhyaasa vikasanam oru pradhana gadakamaanennu moonroo vishwasikkukayum avatharippikkukayum cheythu. aphrica ozhikeyulla oru deseeya vidyaabhyaasa sanbradaayathil svayam vikasanathinte adisthaanamaayi praayogika, muthirnna, adhyapaka parisheelanathinu oonnal nalkikkond purogamanaparamaaya oru paatyapadhathi nadappaakkanamenn moonroo shupaarsha cheythu. addehathinte sameepanam 1920kalil vikaswara rajyangalumaayulla american sahakaranatinum 1920-1930kalil aadhunikavalkkarana sramangalkkum roopam nalki.
germmaniyude "sonderweg".
charitrakaaranmaaraaya kokka (1988) sherry berman irupathaam noottaandile naasisathinteyum jarmman duranthatthinteyum moolamaayi oru jarmman "sonderweg" ("prathyeka paatha") allengil "asaadhaaranavaadam" yude kendra praadhaanyam oonnipparanju. onnaam lokamahaayudhathinu kaaranamaaya germmaniyude praadhamika kuttabodham fritts fisher addehathinte vidyaarthikalum oonnipparanju.
1860-70 kaalaghattatthil samanamaaya rashtreeya aadhunikavalkkaranamillathe saambathika aadhunikavalkkaranathilekkaanu germmaniyude duranthatthilekkulla paathayude uthbhavam ennu beelfeld saamoohika charithratthinte oru nethaavaaya hans-ulrichu wehler visheshippichu, angane pazhaya prussian grameena varenyavarggam sainyam, nayathanthram, sivil sarvees ennivayude uracha niyanthranatthil thudarnnu. parambaraagathavum prabhukkanmaarum premoden samoohavum uyarnnuvarunna muthalaalitha, boorshwa aadhunika samoohavumaayi poraadi. vyavasaayathilum sambadvyavasthayilum saamskaarika mekhalayilum shakthikale aadhunikavalkkarikkunnathine praadhaanyam amgeekaricha wehler, germmaniyile rashtreeya mekhalayude bhooribhaagavum ippozhum aadhunikathaykk munbulla parambaraagatha moolyangalum saamoohika maanasikathayum vargga bandhangalum (classenhabitus) uyarthippidikkunnave vaadichu. 1914num 1945num edayilulla vinashakaramaaya jarmman raashtreeyathe athinte rashtreeya gadanakalude kaalathamasakaramaaya aadhunikavalkkaranathinte adisthaanathil vyaakhyaanikkunnu. irupathaam noottaandine roopappeduthunnathil pradhana punk vahicha "madhyavarga" theyum "viplavatheyum" kurichulla addehathinte perumattamaanu vehlarude vyaakhyaanathinte kaathal. naasi bharanathekkurichulla vehlarude parisodhana adolph hitlaril valareyadhikam shradha kendreekarikkunna "charismetic aadhipathyam" enna addehathinte aashayathal roopappeduthunnu.
oru jarmman sonderweg enna charitraparamaaya aashayathin prakshubdhamaaya charithramund. aadhunikathayilekkulla oru prathyeka jarmman paathaykk oonnal nalkia pathonpathaam noottaandile pandithanmaar grettu brittan tharamthirikkunna "paashchaathya paatha" yill ninnu germmany verthirichariyunna oru nalla gadakamaayi ithine kandu. sakthamaaya bureaucratic raashtram, bismark mattu sakthamaaya nethaakkalum aarambhicha parishkaarangal, prussian sevana dhaarmikatha, thathwashaasthrathinteyum samgeethathinteyum uyarnna samskaaram, oru saamoohika kshema raashtrathinte germmaniyude thudakkakkar ennivaykku oonnal nalki. 1950kalil, padinjaaran germmaniyile charitrakaaranmaar vaadichathu sonderweg germmany aii. dii. 1 enna duranthatthilekku nayichuvennaanu. jarmman charitraparamaaya gadanakaludeyum anubhavangaludeyum prathyeka saahacharyangale, deseeya soshyalisathinu nerittu kaaranamaakaathe, oru udara janaadhipathyathinte vikasanathe thadassappeduthukayum faasisathinte uyarchaye sugamamakkukayum cheytha munvyavasthakalaayi vyaakhyaanichu. sonderweg maathruka jarmman charithralekhanatthile kuranjathu moonnu gaveshanangalkkenkilum prachodanam nalkiyittunda neenda 19-aamm noottaand, boorshwaasiyude charithram, paashchaathyarumaayi thaarathamyam cheyyuka. 1990 nuu sesham, saamskaarika maanangalilekkum thaarathamyaparavum parasparabandhithavumaya charithrathilekkum vardhicha shradha jarmman charithralekhanathe vividha vishayangalilekku maatti, sonderweggin valare kurachu shradha nalki. chila charitrakaaranmaar sonderweg prabandham upekshichuvenkilum avar pothuve amgeekarikkappetta badal vyaakhyaanam nalkiyittilla.
pathonpathaam noottaandile france.
karshakar franch janathayilekkulla grameena fraansinte aadunikavalkkaranam" (1976) enna thante adisthaana pusthakatthil charitrakaaranaaya yoojan weber franch graamangalude aadunikavalkkaranam kandethukayum grameena france pinnokkaavasthayil ninnu otappetta avasthayilekku aadhunikathayilekku neengukayum 19-aamm noottaandinte avasaanathilum 20-aamm noottaandinte thudakkathilum franch desheeyathayude oru bodham kaivasham vaykkukayum cheythuvennu vaadikkukayum cheythu. railway, republican schoolukal, saarvathrika sainika nirbandhitha niyamanam ennivayude punk addeham oonnipparanju. school rekhakal, kudiyetta reethikal, sainika sevana rekhakal, saambathika pravanathakal ennivaye adisthaanamaakkiyaanu addeham thante kandethalukal nadathiyathu. 1900 vare pravisyakalil franch desheeyathayude oru bodham durbalamaayirunnuvennu weber vaadichu. moonnaam republicinte nayangal graamapradesangalil franch desheeyathayude oru bodham engane srishtichuvennu weber nokki. eee pusthakam vyaapakamaayi prashamsikkappettuvenkum 1870 nuu munbu pravisyakalil franch bhaashayude oru bodham nilaninnirunnuvennu vaadicha chilar vimarshichu.
grease.
aabhyantharayudhaananthara greak samoohathinte aadhunikavalkkarana shakti pradhaanamaayum kizhakkan medittareniyan mekhalayile europian, us bhoumaraashtreeya thanthratthinte falamaanu. niravadhi kizhakkan, moonnaam loka block raajyangaludeyum sakthamaaya deseeya communist prasthaanathinteyum saameepyathe prathirodhikkaan grease oru aadhunika muthalaalitha rajyamaayirikkanam. truman sidhaanthamanusarichu praadeshika varenyavargakkaarude pinthunayode 1967leeii attimariyilekku nayicha kadutha adichamarthalinoppam oru valia saambathika munnettavum nadannu.
aadunikavum navaa-greak puraathanavum parambaraagathavumaaya swathuangalumaayi thaarathamyam cheythukondu greak academyude deerghakaala saamskaarika vibhajanathe eee naadakeeyamaaya maattam ulkkollunnu. american, europian pravanathakalude thudakkakkar swaadheenicha samgeetham, kala, sinima enniva 1967 leeii naazhikakkall vare, svechaadhipathya, parambaraagatha sainika, ardhasainika gadanakalil ninnu vyathyasthamayi abhivridhippettu. paashchaathya nirddeshangalkku keezhilulla aadhunikavalkkarana prakriya ellah saamoohika thalangalilum velippeduthunnathinaal eee maanam pradhaanamaan, athu yadhaarthathil ore srothassinte rashtreeya nirddeshangalkku athiraayirunnu.
eshya.
aadhunikavalkkaranathekkurathu niravadhi padanangal pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasaanathil jappanudeyum irupathaam noottaandinte avasaanathil chainayudeyum indiayudeyum charithratthil shradha kendreekarichittundu. udaaharanathinu, shaasthravum saankethikavidyayum paashchaathya rajyangalil ninnu kadamedukkunna prakriya paryavekshanam cheyyappettittund.
chaina.
aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaantham chainayude anubhavam vishadeekarikkunnathil parajayappettu. vanthothilulla vyavasaayavalkkarana padhathikalum saamoohika parivartthanavum vazhi maavo peeples republic oof chaina aadhunikavalkkarichu. ennirunnaalum, aadhunikavalkkaranathinusham chaina oru janaadhipathya rajyamaayi maariyilla. innu, soviyatt shailiyilulla svechaadhipathya bharanakoodangal ithinakam lokamembaadum thakarnnittundenkilum, maavoyude maranashesham chainaykku valia rashtreeya parishkarangalonnum undaayirunnilla. saambathika mekhalayude valippam undaayirunnittum raajyam svechaadhipathyamaayi thudarnnu.
1911leeii viplavavum chainayile avasaanathe rajavamshamaaya kwing raajavamshathinte avasaanavum muthal chaina aadunikavalkkarikkaan shramikkunnu. kwing rajavamsham attimarikkappedunnathum, 1902 muthal 1908 vare svayam rakshikkunnathinayi parishkkarikkan sramikkukayum adisthaana soukaryangal, gathagatham, sarkkar ennivayil parishkaarangalkk prerippikkukayum cheythu. eee parishkaarangal paashchaathya maathrkakale adisthaanamaakkiyullavayinu, koodaathe aadhunikavalkkarana prakriyayumaayi palappozhum bandhappettirikkunna janaadhipathyathinte vashangal polum ithil ulppedunnu. ennirunnaalum, eee parishkaarangal valia thothil paraajayappedukayum 1911leeii viplavathinu kaaranamaakukayum cheythu. 1911leeii viplavathethudarnnu, 1919leeii meyy 4 prasthaanam polulla mattu prasthaanangal aadunikavalkkaranam, iconoclasm, videsha swaadheenavum saamraajyathvavum nirasikkal ennivaykkaayi vaadichu. irupathaam noottaandinte thudakkam muthal 1949ll peeples republic oof chaina sthaapithamaakunnathuvare, yudhaprabhukkanmaarude oru yugam, randaam saino-japanese yuddham, sii. sii. pii. yum keey. emm. tiyum thammilulla aabhyantharayudham enniva kaaranam chaina aadhunikavalkkarikkaanulla sramangal vaiki.
1949ll communist party adhikaarathil vannappol maavo sedong soviyatt unione aadhunikavalkkaranathin chainayude udaaharanamaayi upayogichu. 1958 muthal 1961 vareyulla vann kuthichuchaattam soviyatt yooniyante panchavatsara padhathiyude maavoyude pathippaayirunnu, vyavasaayavalkkaranathiloodeya koottaayavalkkaranathiloodeyum oru aadhunika communist samooham srishtikkuka ennathaayirunnu athinte lakshyangal. videshikalo, pradhaanamaayum paashchaathyaro, pankaalitthamo ashayangalo muthalaalithamo illaatha oru lokashakthiyayi maan sedong lakshyamidukayum swaashrayathwam enna ashayam prasamgikkukayum cheythu. chainayude aadhunikavalkkaranathin maavo sambhavana nalkiyengilum, eee valia kuthichuchaattam parajayamaayi kanakkaakkappedunnu, 1966 muthal 1976 vareyulla saamskaarika viplavam chainayude vyavasaayavalkkarana purogathikku hanikaramaayirunnu. ennirunnaalum, maavoyude kaalaghattatthil addeham chaina pradhaanamaayum kaarshika raajyathil ninnu oru vyaavasaayika shakthiyaayi maatti. 1970kalil chainaykku swantham vyavasaayathiloode mikka charakkukalum charakkukalum ulppaadippikkaan kazhinju. denginte kaalaghattatthil chainayude saambathika vikasanathinu maavo aditharayittu.
chainees paramonnatha nethaavu deng siyaappinginte saambathika parishkaarangalkk kaaranam 21-aamm noottaandile chainayude saambathika vijayamaan. krishi, vyavasaayam, deseeya prathirodham, shaasthra saankethikavidya ennee naalu aadunikavalkkaranangalil deng shradha kendreekarichu. eee aadunikavalkkaranangalil palathinum padinjaaru oru udaaharanamaayi upayogichirunnuvenkilum avayude niyanthranam poornnamaayum chainees aayirunnu. deng dii-collectivisation aarambikkukayum tounshippu, villej enterprises (tii. vii. iii), special economic sonukal (ezz. iii. ezz), videsha nikshepam, labha prothsaahanangal, svakaaryavalkkaranam enniva anuvadikkukayum cheythu.
maavo swaashrayathvathe vaadichappol, deng aadhunikavalkkaranathin dhanasahayam nalkunnathinaayi videsanaanyamundaakki. addehathinte prashasthamaaya udharani ithaanu, "elikale pidikkunnidatholam kaalam poocha veluthathaano karuthathaano ennathu prashnamalla."denginu sheshamulla parishkaarangal eee pathayil thudarnnu, ithu irumbu arrie paathratthil ninnu porsaline arrie paathratthilekko allengil svakaaryavalkkarikkappedu sarkkaarinte udamasthathayilullathilekko ulla mattamaayi amgeekarikkappedunnu. chainayude sambadvyavastha svakaaryavalkkaranathilekkum muthalaalithathilekkum maariyengilum, aadhunikavalkkarikkappetta raajyangalude mattu udaaharanangalumaayi thaarathamyappeduthumbol parasparavirudhamaaya oru aadhikaarika bharanakoodamaayi prc thudarunnu. munkaalangalil aadhunikavalkkarikkappetta raashtrangale nirvachicha rashtreeya savisheshathayaanu janadhipathyam, aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaantham soochippikkunnathu aadhunikavalkkarikkappetta oru raashtrathinte vikasanathodoppam janadhipathyavum pinthudarunnu ennaanu. chaina aadhunikavalkkaranathil vaikukayum angane aadhunikavalkkarana maathrkaye adisthaanamaakki mattu niravadhi rajyangal udaaharanangalaayi labikkukayum cheythu.
chainayude aadhunikavalkkaranathin sambhavana nalkunnathino nirbandhithamaakkunnathino ulla oru saankethikavidya koodiyaanu oru kutty nayam. 1978ll aarambhicha oru kutty nayam "singlettans" allengil "littil chakravarthimaar" ("siavo huwangdi shh") ennariyappedunna oru thalamura srishtichu. "aagola varenyavargathil cheraanulla vibhavangalum abhilaashavumulla" "uyarnna nilavaaramulla" "aalukalude oru thalamura valarthiyedukkunnathiye roopakalppana cheytha drutha garbhadhaarana parivartthanam chainees samsthaanam nadappaakki"."eee cheria chakravarthimaar maathaapithaakkalude nikshepathinaayi malsarikkaan sahodarangalillaatha onnaam loka rajyangalumaayi malsarikkumennu prathekshikkunnu. saadhaaranayaayi aadhunikavalkkaranathodum nagaravalkkaranathodum koodi cheriyatho aanavaparamo aaya kudumbangal athinte falamaayi vikasikkunnu. ottakkutti nayam upayogichu aanava kudumbatthinte samskaaram srishtikkunnathu aadunikavalkkaranam srishtikkumennu pratheekshichaanu chaina eee yukthi maattiyath.
21-aamm noottaandinte thudakkathil chaina ippozhum aadhunikavalkkarana prakriyayilaanu. 2010ll lokathile ettavum valia thozhil shakthiyulla lokathile moonnaamathe valia gdp gdp (ppp) ulla ithu lokathile randaamathe valia sambadvyavasthayaayi amgeekarikkappettu. 2010ll athinte sambadghadana ippozhum valarchayil 10.3% aayi valarukayaayirunnu. 1971ll unnil amgathvavum 2001ll dablyu. tii. oo. yill amgathvavum nedi chaina pradhaanamaayum paashchaathya anthaaraashtra ramgathum vijayakaramaayi chernnu, 2008ll olimbiksinu aathidheyathvam vahichu. onnaam lokathil cherunnathuvare aadunikavalkkaranam thudarukayum coor-periphery modalil ninnu semi-periphery allengil peripheric pakaram coor aakukayum cheyyuka ennathaanu chainayude lakshyam.
nagaravalkkaranam, vyavasayavalkkaranam, saambathika nayam ennivayiloode chainayude aadunikavalkkaranam 21-aamm noottaandil oru lokashakthiyayi uyarnnuvarunnathinaal raajyathin saambathikamaayi gunam cheythu. ennirunnaalum, mattu aadhunika rajyangalumaayum muthalaalithavumaayum bandhapetta prasnangal ippol athu abhimukeekarikkunnu. sambannarum daridrarum thammilulla vardhichuvarunna asamathvam, nagravum daridrarum thammilulla asamathvam enniva eee prasnangalil ulppedunnu. grameena, kudiyetta, paaristhithika prasnangal.
dakshina korea.
pathonpathaam noottaandinte avasaanathil dakshina koriyayile aadhunikavalkkarthakkal american, japanese modalukalkkidayil chitharippoyi. americaye thangalude naagarikathayude anuyojyamaaya maathrkayaayi kanda vidyaabhyaasamulla kristhyaanikalaayirunnu athil ulppettirunna bhooribhaagam koriyakkaarum. ennirunnaalum, mikkavarum jappane oru praayogika maathrkayaayi upayogichu-30 varsham munbu pinnokkam nilkkunna oru kizhakkan eshyan raajyathin svayam aadunikavalkkarikkunnathil engane vijayikkaan kazhiyum ennathinte udaaharanamaayi. athesamayam, koriyayile japanese aadhipathyathinum colonial perumaattatthinumethiraaya parishkaranavaadikalude deseeya prathikaranam palappozhum anthaaraashtra (paashchaathya) naagarikathayude nilavaarangalodulla aakarshanathinte roopathilaayi. aadyakaala kristhyan deseeyavaada parishkartthaakkalude paashchaathya-adhishtitha lokaveekshanam sankeernavum bahumukhavum palappozhum svayam virudhavumaayirunnu-'adichamarthal' savisheshathakal 'swaathanthrya' savisheshathakalil ninnu eluppathil verthirichariyaan kazhiyilla. oreyoru yadhaartha, anuyojyamaaya nagarikatha enna nilayil padinjaarinekkurichulla avarude aadarshaparamaaya prathichaaya koriyayude parambaraagatha samskaarathinte bhooribhaagatheyum 'ooriyantal' sthaanathekku thaazheyirakki.
aadunikatha, colonialism, kristhumatham, deseeyatha ennivayumaayulla sankeernamaaya bandhangaliloodeyaanu koriyakkaarude svayam prathichaaya roopappettathu. anthaaraashtra samoohathinte' parivartthanam moolam 'nagarikatha' enna aashayathile maattamaan eee roopeekaranathinu thudakkamittath, athinusesham japanese kolanivalkkaranatthinte aaghaatham baadhichu. samskaarathekkurichulla parambaraagatha kanfyooshyan aashayathil ninnu sweekaaryathayum prathirodhavum enna paashchaathya aashayathilekkulla parivartthana prakriyayiloode koreakkaar avarude samskaaratheyum vamsheeyavum saamskaarikavum vyakthigathavumaya aadhunika swabhaavathekkurichulla avarude ashayangaleyum roopappeduthi. paashchaathya oriyantalisam, prathyekichu, koriyakkaarude svayam-aidantitti roopappeduthunnathinulla pashchaathalamaayi pravarthicha samskaarathekkurichulla paashchaathya aashayathinte aamukhathodoppam. koriyayude aadhipathyathil ninnu jappan uthbhavicha ooriyantalisathinte japanese pathipp koriyakkaarude svayam-vyakthithvam roopappeduthunnathil nirnaayaka punk vahichu. thalphalamaayi, korea ippozhum paashchaathya samskaarathodulla heenamaaya sankeernnatha, japanese samskaarathodulla avyakthamaaya vikarangal, avarude swantham saamskaarika paarambaryangalekkurichu pakshapathaparamaaya-anukoolamo prathikoolamo aaya kaazhchappaadukal enniva nilanirthunnu. angane aadunikavalkkaranavum kolanivalkkaranavum paashchaathyarallaatha aalukalude aathmabodhathinte roopeekaranathino valachodikkalino roopam nalki.
dakshina koriaye oru maathrukaa rashtra-rajyamaayum saambathika vijayamaayum maattaan sahayikkuka enna lakshyathode 1945 muthal america pathittaandukalaayi theevramaaya vikasanam aarambhichu. koriyayil aadhunikavalkkaranathinte ejantumaaril us sainyam, saambathika sahakarana bharanakoodam, ann corian punarnirmmaana ejansi, niravadhi sarkkarithara samghadanakal enniva ulppedunnu, avayil presbytarian charchu, vaii. emm. sii. eiii, booy scouts, foord foundeshan enniva ulppedunnu. niravadhi koreakkaar kaaliforniyayilekkum havaiyilekkum kudiyerukayum corian saahacharyangalumayi poruthappedaan shramicha aadhunika bisinesses, sarkkar sanbradaayangalekkurichu nerittulla vivaranagal thirike konduvarikayum cheythu.
jappan.
aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaanthathe american pandithanmaar pothuve pinthunaykkukayum japanese maarksistukal ethirkkukayum cheythu. vyavasayavalkkaranathinum saambathika aadhunikavalkkaranathinum sesham, jappanil oru janaadhipathya samooham prathyakshappettuvenkum 1930-kalil oru aakramanathmaka svechaadhipathya phaasist raashtram pinthudarnnu, randaam lokamahaayudhathil sakhyakakshikal jappane paraajayappeduthunnathuvar athu oru janaadhipathya raashtramaayi maari. yudhathinu munbulla japanese raashtreeyathil mikkavarum janaadhipathya thathwangalo sanbradaayangalo undaayirunnilla. american aikyanaadukal jappane athinte sainika gavanmentil ninnu mochippikkunnathinu munbu, japanese ellaayppozhum anusaranatheyum sreniyeyum bahumanikkukayum vyakthivaadatheyum swaathanthryatheyum verukkukayum cheythu.
randaam lokamahaayudhathil jappan paraajayappedunnathinu valare munbuthanne nadanna meiji kaalaghattatthil jappan ithinakam thanne aadhunikavalkkarikkappedum oru vyavasaayavalkkarikkappetta rajyamaayi maarukayum cheythirunnu. eshyayile aadya vyavasayavalkkaranam vijayakaramaayi nadatthiya rajyamaanu jappan. athu valare vegam saamraajyathva, colonial shakthikalilonnayi maari. jappan 1894ll chainayile kwing raajavamshathe paraajayappedutthukayum pinneedu 1905ll russia paraajayappedutthukayum cheythu. koriayum thaayvaanum japanese saamrajyam pidichadakki. 1931ll jappan chaina aakramichappol, athu ithinakam thanne vyavasaayavalkkarana prakriya poortthiyaakkukayum yuddham cheyyaan mathiyaya vyaavasaayika shakti kaivarikkukayum cheythirunnu. lokathile ettavum noothanamaaya naavikasenakalilonnaanu jappaanile naavikasena.
randaam yudhathinushesham jappaante janadhipathyaparamaaya prakadanam yuu. ezz prothsaahippichu.ezz. valia bhooripakshathode swaagatham cheyyukayum cheythu.
avarude paraajayathinu sesham aadunikavalkkaranavumaayi bandhappett jappan athivegam niravadhi maattangaliloode kadannupoyi. america jappaanumaayi vegathil edapettathodeyaanu ithu sambhavichathu. american sainikavalkkaranavum janaadhipathyavalkkaranavum jappaanile janangal sakthamaaya prathirodhamillathe amgeekarichu.
american aikyanaadukalude adhiniveshathin keezhil, scap (sakhyashakthikalude paramonnatha commander) sthaapikkappettu, ithu nayangal roopeekarikkunnathinulla chumatala vahikkunna oru sthaapanamaayirunnu. sainyatheyum navikasena pirichuvidukayum utharavaadithamulla nethaakkale shikshikkukayum cheyyuka ennathaayirunnu scapinte lakshyam, athu 1946leeii puthiya bharanaghadana sthaapichu. bhasha thadassam valare uyarnnathukondu japanese gavanmentinte sahayamillaathe scapinu pravartthikkaan kazhinjilla. ennirunnaalum, sainikavalkkaranavum janaadhipathyavalkkaranavum srishtikkunnathil valia mattangal varuthaan ithu yadhaarthathil sahayichu. samsara swaathanthryam, maadyama swaathanthryam, thozhil allengil karshaka unionukal samghadippikkaanulla avakasham enniva nedaan scap aalukale sahayichu.
athinaal, scap srishticha puthiya bharanaghadana janangalkk pouraavakaashangalum raashtreeyaavakaashangalum nalki; thathfalamaayi, aadhunikavalkkaranathilekku nayichu. abhipraaya swaathanthryavum samghadanayum, laber association prasthaanangalum samghadippikkunnathino unionukal srishtikkunnathino ulla avakasham, sthreekalkku pouraavakaashangalkkulla adisthaanangal enniva ithu anuvadichu.
jappane aadunikavalkkarikkunnathil sarkkar nirnaayaka punk vahichu. jappan avarude vyavasaayathilum saankethikavidyayilum shradha kendreekarichu valarcha kaivarichu, athinaayi samsthaanam niravadhi vyavasaayangalkk sahayam nalkukayum samrakshana nayangal sweekarikkukayum cheythu. oru vaaypakkaaranaayum, videsanaanya, asamskritha vasthukkal allengil saankethika licensukal ennivayilekkulla praveshanathinu soukaryamorukkunnayaalayum, prasnangal undaakumbol rakshaakarthaavaayum sarkkar pravarthichu. udaaharanathinu, ettavum pradhanappetta maarganirddesha ejansi anthaaraashtra vyapara vyavasaya manthraalayamaayirunnu. koodaathe, 1960kalil jappan sarkkar tarif polulla saambathika nayangal irakkumathi thadassappeduthunnathinum aabhyanthara vipaniyile videsha athiraalikalil ninnu japanese sthaapanangale samrakshikkunnathinum oru aadhunika rajyamaayi maarunnathin upayogichu.
turkey.
1920kalilum 1930kalilum kemal attaattoorkkinte keezhil turkey "kemalism" enna chittayaya aadhunikavalkkarana paripaadiyil earppettu. noorukanakkinu europian pandithanmaar sahayikkaan vannu. turkey budhijeevikalumaayi chernnu avar vikasanathinte oru vijayakaramaya maathruka vikasippichu.
laattin america.
swaathanthryam labhichathumuthal, aadunikavalkkaranam chiliyude rashtreeya varenyavargathinte prerakashakthiyaan. 1964 muthal mukalil nadappaakkiya aadhunikavalkkarana padhathikal ree (2007) vishakalanam cheiyunnu. avayude prathyayashaasthraparamaaya vyathyaasangalum aadhunikathayekkurichulla vyathyasthamaaya dharana undaayirunnittum, vikasana sidhaanthangalude upayogam, avayude samsthaana-ooriyanteshan, saankethikavidyayudeyum samsthaana-aasoothranathinteyum pradhana punk, aabhyanthara aswasthathakal kanakkileduthu poruthappedaanulla kazhivu thudangiya nirmmaanatthilum nadappakkalilum eee padhathikal pradhana savisheshathakal pankittu. eee padhathikal prathyekichum sthirathayullathaayi theliyikkapetta aadhunikathayude paattenukal srishtichu.
aphrica.
lokamembaadum kriyathmakamaaya vikasanam srishtichathaanu aadhunikavalkkaranathin kaaranamenn parayappedunnu, ennaal aadhunika kaalaghattatthil, prathyekichu aafrikkayil, aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaanthathekkurichulla dhaarana maari. aafrikkayile paashchaathya aadhunikavalkkaranathinte prayogam padinjaaran ithara aafrikkan raajyangalkk prayojanakaramaaya onnaayi amgeekarikkappettirikkunnu. aadhunikavalkkarana sidhaantham sthaapikkappettaal, colonial bharanathin keezhil paashchaathya ithara raajyangalude aabhyanthara prakriyakal chooshanam cheiyunnathaayaanu palappozhum kanakkaakkappedunnath.
raajyathinte prakrithivibhavasambathu chooshanam cheiyunna swakaarya, videsha udamasthathayilulla enna kambanikale konduvannu nigeriayile aadunikavalkkaranam prashnangalkk kaaranamaayi. ennakkambanikal saadhaaranayaayi mattoru raajyathinte udamasthathayilullathinaal, labham nigeriayil ninnaan kayattumathi cheiyunnathu, eee mekhalayil uthppaadippikkunna sambathinte pathinanjilonnu maathramaan athilekku madangunnathu. nigeriayile ogonilaandil pravartthikkunna ennakkambaniyaaya shellil ninnulla labham raajyathe cheria thothil vikasippikkaanum vyavasaayavalkkarikkanum sahaayichappol naijeeriyayude paramaadhikaaratheyum svayambharanatheyum velluvilichittund.
paashchaathya sthaapanangale avayude prayogam anaavasyamaaya nilavilulla samskaarangalilekku konduvarunna paashchaathyavalkkaranamaayaanu pramukha pandithanmaar aadhunikavalkkaranathe pradhaanamaayum kaanunnath. aadhunikavalkkaranathodoppam samskaarathinteyum samoohathinteyum nashtavum undaakukayum vyakthi shakthippedukayum cheiyunnu. colonialism moolamundaaya vyakthigatha raajyangalude roopeekaranavum aadunikavalkkaranavum kaaranam ikk ennariyappedunna oru aafrikkan gothram avarude sheelangal maattaan nirbandhithanaayi. gotra africa paashchaathyavalkkarikkaanum aadhunikavalkkarikkaanum aagrahicha colonialistukal aadhunikavalkkaranathinte oru upakaranamenna nilayil desasaalkkaranam aafrikkaykku nalki. oro raajyangalude roopeekaranam gothravargakkaarude jeevitam kooduthal budhimuttaakki, kaaranam avarude naadodi jeevitashailiyil ninnu puthuthayi sthaapithamaaya oru desheeyodyaanathe adisthaanamaakkiyulla oru vaasasthalathekku avare nirbandhitharaakki, athu avarude vettayaadal sthalangal prathyeka paarkk ithara pradesangalaayi parimithappedutthi avarude upajeevanamaargam praayogikamaayi nashippichu. deseeya udyaanangalude srishti krishi vardhippichu, aalukal kannukaalikale maathram aashrayikkaathathinaal ithu nalla vikasanamaayi kaanaan kazhiyum. oru puthiya tharatthilulla upajeevanamaarggathinte eee srishti sammisramaaya mechappeduthalukal undaakkunnu, kaaranam gothravargangalude anthareeksham neekkam cheyyappedaathe orotta sthalathaanu sthaapikkappedunnathu.

