
indiayude bhoomishaasthram

indiayude bhoomishaasthram vaividhyapoornamaanu. indiayude vividha pradeshangalil vividha bhoomishaasthra kaalaghattangalilppetta paarakalund, avaa eorkian yugam vare pazhakkamullathaanu. chila parakal valare roopabhedam varuthukayum maarukayum cheythittundu. diagenesisinu ithuvare vidheyamaakaatha aduthide nikshepikkappetta vandalmannu mattu nikshepangalil ulppedunnu. indian upabhookhandathil vaividhyamaarnna dhaatu nikshepangal valia alavil kaanapedunnu. stromatolyteukal, akasherukkal, kasherukkal, sasya fossilukal enniva ulppedunna indiayude phoosil recordukal polum sradheyamaanu.
indiayude bhoomishaasthraparamaaya bhoopradeshathe decan kenikal, gondwana, vindhyaan enningane tharamthirikkaam.
gujaraathinte bhagamaaya maharashtra, karnataka, madhya pradesh, andhraapradesh ennivayude bhagamaaya mikkavarum muzhuvan pradeshangalum decan kenikal ulkkollunnu. gondwanayude backie bhaagangalil ninnu verpirinjathinushesham vadakkottulla yaathrayil, indian plate oru geological hotspottaaya reunion hotspottiloode kadannupoyi, ithu indian krettaninu keezhil vyaapakamaayi urukaan kaaranamaayi. oru valia vellapokka bassault sambhavathil kraattaninte uparithalathiloode urukal thakarnn decan kenikal srishtichu. punarekeekarana hotspot madagaskarinteyum indiayudeyum verpiriyalinu kaaranamaayathaayum karuthappedunnu.
gondwana vindyanum athinte bhagangalaaya madhyapradesh, chhattisgarh, odeesha, bihar, jaarkhand, paschima bangal, andhraapradesh, maharashtra, jammu kashmeer, panchab, himachal pradesh, rajasthaan, uttaraakhandu ennivayil ulppedunnu. permo-carboniferous samayat nikshepikkappetta fluviattail paarakalude savisheshamaaya oru sreniyaanu gondwana avashishtangal. damodar, soonn nadeethadangal, kizhakkan indiayile rajmahal kunnukal ennivayil gondwana paarakalude oru rekhayundu.
geological sarway oof india indiayile deseeya bhoomishaasthra smaarakangalude pattika prasidheekarichu.
plate tectonics.
indian krettan orikkal suuppar bhookhandamaaya pangiayude bhaagamaayirunnu. akkaalat, indiayude thekkupadinjaaran theeram madagaskarumaayum thekkan aafrikkayumaayum bandhippichirunnu, ippol athinte kizhakkan theeram australiyayumaayi bandhippichirunnu. ekadesham 160 maa (2004) kaalaghattatthil, villalukal pangia rund suuppar bhookhandangalaayi vibhajikkaan kaaranamaayi, athaayath gondwana (thekk), lauresia (vadakku). ekadesham 125 dasalaksham varshangalkk munbu (2004) kreeteshyasinte thudakkathil suuppar bhookhandam villal thudangunnathuvare indian krettan gondwanayumaayi chernnunilkkunnu. indian plate pinneedu eurasian plettilekku vadakkott neengi, eathoru plettinteyum ettavum vegathayeriya chalanamaanith. ekadesham 90 dasalaksham varshangalkk munbu (2004) indian plate madagaskaril ninnu verpirinjathaayi pothuve vishwasikkappedunnu, ennirunnaalum chila jaiva bhoomishaasthraparavum bhoomishaasthraparavumaaya thelivukal soochippikkunnathu ekadesham 50 dasalaksham varshangalkk munbu (2004) indian plate eurasian plettumaayi koottiyidicha samayat madagaskar africa thammilulla bandham nilanirtthiyirunnuvenna. innu thudarunna eee oorojeni, tethys samudrathinte adachupoottalumaayi bandhappettirikkunnu. europil alps parvathanirakalum padinjaaran eshyayile cocusus parvathanirakalum srishticha eee samudrathinte adavu dakshineshyayil himalaya parvathangalum tibattan peedabhoomiyum srishtichu. nilavile orogenic sambhavam eshyan bhookhandathinte chila bhagangal oorajante iruvashathum padinjaarum kizhakkum roopabhedam varuthaan kaaranamaakunnu. eee koottiyidikkoppam, indian plate aduthulla australian plettil thunnukayum oru puthiya valia plate, indo-australian plate roopappedukayum cheythu.
tectonic parinamam.
tectonic parinaamatthinte aadya ghattam archaean kaalaghattatthil (2.5 bilyan varshangalkk munbu) bhoomiyude uparithalathinte mukal puramthodinte thanuppikkalum urapikkalum adayaalappeduthiyirunnu, ithu prathyekichu "upadveepil" naisukaludeyum graanaittukaludeyum exposure prathinidheekarikkunnu. ivayaanu indian krettaninte kaathal. indian krettan roopeekarikkunna rund pazhaya bhagangalumaayi chernna aravali-dalhi oorajan ennariyappedunna aadyakaala proterosoic oorajante avashishtamaan aravalli shreni. ithu ekadesham athinte vadakke attathu ninnu otappetta kunnukalum paarakkettukalum vare haryanayilekku vyaapichukidakkunnu, ithu dulhick sameepam avasaanikkunnu.
cheria agni nuzhanjukayatangal, roopabhedam (madakalum takarar), aravalli parvathanirakalude thudarnnulla roopaanthareekaranam enniva oorojenisisinte pradhana ghattathe prathinidheekarikkunnu. parvathangalude mannolipum dharwarian grouppinte (bijavaarukal) avashishtangalude kooduthal roopabhedavum randaam ghattathe adayaalappeduthunnu. eee randaam ghattavumayi bandhapetta agniparvvatha pravartthanangalum nuzhanjukayatangalum eee avashishtangalude ghadanayil rekhappeduthiyittundu.
eerppamullathum ardha varandathumaaya kalavastha vyavasthakalumaayi poruthappedunna kaalsyavum eriyaasiyasum nikshepangalaaya aadyakaala muthal avasaanathe proterosoic (2.5 muthal 0.54 bilyan varshangal vare) kadappa, vindhyaan thadangalil nikshepikkappettu. nilavilulla kristalin basementinullil athirthi pankidunna allengil sthithi cheiyunna eee thadangal cambrian kaalaghattatthilaanu uyarthiyathu (500 maa (aii. sii. ezz 2004). avashishtangal pothuve roopabhedam varuthaathavayaan, avayude yadhaartha thirashcheena sthareekaranam pala sthalangalilum samrakshikkappettittund. ~ 1800-1600 maa-ykkidayil nikshepikkappetta oru thaazhnna supergroup ulkkollunnathaan vindhyaanukal. thaazhathe vindhyaan parakal cheruthaayi roopabhedam varuthiyirunnu (charinjirunnu), mukalile vindhyaan shreni thaazhathe vindhyaan mukalilaanu. uyarnna vindhyaan (kaimur, reva, bhander) avashishtangalude yugam vivaadaparamaanu. 1073 maa majgavan kimberlight (gregori thudangiyavar) aanu kaimur parakal nuzhanjukayariyathu., 2006) athinaal 1073 emm. eiii. yill kooduthal pazhakkamullathaanu. kaimoorinu sesham roopappettathaayi soochippikkunna vajrasamoohangal revayil adangiyirikkunnu. reva bhander group anuroopamaayi pothinjirikkunnu. 1073 maa majgavan kimberlight, 1.1 gaa mahoba dike, bhaandar, reva grouppukalude avashishtangal ennivayil ninnulla paleomagnetic dishakalile saamyam shradhicha meert pandittum (2015) uyarnna vindhyaanukalude praayathekkurichulla paroksha thelivukal charcha cheythu. koodaathe, onniladhikam detrital sircon padanangalkku mukalile vindhyaan paarakalil ninnu 1000 email thaazheyulla eathenkilum praayakkaare verthirikkunnathil parajayappettu. mukalile bhaandaril (retalac thudangiyavar) sthithi cheiyunna ikkanik ediyaakaaran phoosil "dickinsonia" yude sameepakaala avakaashavaadam., 2021) aaa groupinu oru ediyaakaaran praayam aavasyamaanu; ennirunnaalum, mert thudangiyava. (2023) phoosil thettayi thiricharinjittundena theliyichu, athinaal uyarnna vindhyaanukalude praayam ippozhum charcha cheyyappedunnu. 
aadyakaala paleosoic parakal himalayangalil kaanapedunnu, avaa kristalin krettanil ninnu mannolikkukayum indian plaattphomil nikshepikkukayum cheiyunna thekk ninnu uruthirinja avashishtangal ulkkollunnu.
paleosoic kaalaghattatthinte avasaanathil, permo-carboniferous himanikal madhya indiayiludaneelam, sag/normal folting srishticha puthiya thadangalil vipulamaaya himanikal-fluevial nikshepangal avasheshippichu. eee tilaittukaleyum himapaalikalil ninnu uruthirinja avashishtangaleyum gondwanas seerees ennu vilikkunnu. permian samudra lamghanathinte (270 maa (aii. sii. ezz 2004) falamaayi avashishtangal paarakalal pothinjirikkunnu.
gondwana suuppar bhookhandathinte roopabhedavum vyathiyaanavum avasanakaala paleosoic kaalaghattavumaayi poruthappettu. eee vyathiyaanam, vindhyan avashishtangalude uyarchaykkum himalayan kadalil vadakkan peripheral avashishtangalude nikshepathinum kaaranamaakunnu.
jurassic kaalaghattatthil, panjia pilaraan thudangiyappol, madhya indiayil valia graabanukal roopappettu, uyarnna jurassic, thaazhnna cretatius manalkkallukalum complomettukalum niranju.
cretatius kaalaghattatthinte avasaanathode india austreliyayil ninnum aafrikkayil ninnum verpett vadakkott eshyayilekku neengukayaayirunnu. eee samayat, decan pottitherikku munbu, dakshinenthyayile uyarcha aduthulla navjata indian mahaasamudrathil avashishtangalkk kaaranamaayi. eee paarakalude exposureukal thekkan indian theerathu pondicheriyilum thamizhnaattilum sambhavikkunnu.
mesosoic agniparvvathathinte avasaanathil, bhoomiyude charithratthile ettavum valia agniparvvatha spodanangalilonnu sambhavichu, decan laava ozhukunnu. onniladhikam pradeshangal ulkkollunna iva gondwanayil ninnulla avasana edavelaye adayaalappeduthunnu.
himalayan oorojeniyude aadya gattamaaya moonnaamghattatthil karakkoram ghattam sambhavichu. himalayan oorojeni innum thudarunnu.
grettar india.
grettar india allengil grettar india basin ennaal indian plettum indian-eshya koottiyidikku eluppathil thirichariyaan kazhiyunnathil ninnu thakarkkapetta oru postulated vadakkan vipuleekaranavum ennaanu ardhamaakkunnathu. plate tectonic sidhaanthathinu munbaanu eee padam upayogichirunnathenkilum 1970kall muthal eee padatthinte upayogam vardhichu.
indian plettum eurasian plettum ± vare othuchernnu. eshyayileyum himalayatileyum bhoomishaasthraparamaaya rekhakalil ninnu mukalile krasttal shortening ekadesham kuravaanennu rekhappeduthiyittundu. nashtappetta pradeshatthinte bhooribhaagavum eshyayude keezhilaakki tibattan malambradeshamaayi maari.
pradhana paarakkoottangal.
precambrian suuppar-iyoon.
indian sheeled enna upadveep indiayude ganyamaaya pradeshamaaya indiayil kaanapedunna ettavum pazhaya paarakalaya archaean naisukalum shisttukalum ulkkollunnu. indiayile precambrian paarakale dharwar sisttam, archaean sisttam (gneese, shist) enningane rund samvidaanangalaayi tharamthirichittundu.
dharwar sanbradaayathile parakal pradhaanamaayum avashishtangalude uthbhavamaan, bellary jilla, mysur, rajaputhaanayile aravalikal ennividangalil kaanapedunna naisukalil vishramikkunna idungiya neelamulla synclineukalilaanu iva kaanappedunnath. eee lohangalude oru pradhana vibhavathe prathinidheekarikkunna manganese, irumbayiru ennivayaal sambannamaanu eee parakal. avaa svarnnam upayogichu vyaapakamaayi dhaathuvalkkarikkappedunnu, prathyekichu kolaaril sthithicheyyunna collar swarnna khanikal. indiayude vadakkum padinjaarum bhaagath hundar, kumaavon, spithi pradeshangalil kaanapedunna vaikrita sambradaayam, sikkimile dailing seerees, asamile shillong seerees enniva dharwar sanbradaayathinte athe praayathilullavayaanenna vishwasikkappedunnu.
bangal gneese, bundelkhandu gneese, nilgiri gneese enningane veendum tharamthirickunna gneases ulkkollunnathaan metamorphic basement. graanaittukal muthal gabbros vareyulla charnokkaittukal nilgiri samvidaanathil ulppedunnu.
phenerosoic.
paleosoic.
kuranja paleosoic.
cambrian kaalaghattatthinte aadyakaala bhaagathe parakal panchaabile uppu shreniyilum madhya himalayangalile spithi pradeshathum kaanapedunnu, koodaathe phosilphorus avashishtangalude kattiyulla shreniyum ithil ulppedunnu. soult renchil, soult seudomorph sonil ninnaan strattigraphy aarambhikkunnath, athinte kanam dolomiteukalum manalkkallukalum ulkkollunnu. magnesian manalkkallukalaal moodappettirikkunna ithinu, adisthaana dolomiteukalkku samanamaaya kanamundu. eee manalkkallukalil valare kurachu fossilukal maathrame ulloo. manalkallukalkk mukalil irunda shellukal kondu nirmmicha neobolus sheyil undu. oduvil chuvapp allengil purple manalkkallukal adangiya oru mekhalayundu, athinte kanam purple manalkkall ennu vilikkunnu. iva phosilisarasallaathathum sooryante paarakalum puzhu kuzhikalum kaanikkunnavayumaan, avaa saberiyal kalavastha vyathiyaanathinte savisheshathayaanu. spithiyile nikshepangal haimanta sisttam ennariyappedunnu, avayil slettukal, micasius kwaartsait, dolomitic chunnaambukallukal enniva adangiyirikkunnu. oordoovishyan paarakalil flaggy shellukal, chunnaambukallukal, chuvanna kwaartsaittukal, kwaartsaittukal, manalkkallukal, complomerateukal enniva ulppedunnu. oordoovishyan paarakalkk mukaliloode silurian parakalilppetta sileesus chunnaambukallukal pathinjirikkunnu. eee chunnaambukallukal velutha kwaartsait kondu pothinjirikkunnu, ithu mathu kwaartsait ennariyappedunnu. saadhaarana silurian janthujaalangal adangiya silurian paarakalum kashmeerile vihi jillayil kaanapedunnu.
mukalile paleosoic.
madhya himalayangalile chaaraniratthilulla chunnaambukallukalilum chithral pradeshathe karutha chunnaambukallukalilum devonian fossilukalum pavizhapputtukalum kaanapedunnu. carboniferous rund vyathyastha srenikalaanu, upper carboniferous poow, lover carboniferous lipac. lipac shreniyile kaalsyamullathum manal niranjathumaaya paarakalil braachiyopodukaludeyum chila trilobiteukaludeyum fossilukal kaanapedunnu. kashmeerile syringothyris chunnaambukallum lipakkil pedunnu. poow seerees lipac seereesinu mukalilaanu, koodaathe fenestella shellukal kwaartsaittukaludeyum dark shellukaludeyum oru shreniyil parasparam bandhippichirikkunnu. pala sthalangalilum agniparvvatha uthbhavamaanenn vishwasikkappedunna chaaraniratthilulla aglomeratic slettukalaal moodappettirikkunnu. permo-triasic kaalaghattatthile chunnaambukallukalil niravadhi uthppannangalude janussukal kaanapedunnu, ithu eee paarakale "uthppanna chunnaambukallu" ennu vilikkaan kaaranamaayi. eee chunnaambukallu samudra uthbhavamullathum uthppanna kalagananaye adisthaanamaakki moonnu vyathyastha lithostratigraphic unitukalaayi thirichirikkunnu niravadhi amoniteukal adangiyirikkunna lettu permian chideru, lettu-middle permian virgal, middle permian amb yoonit.
mesosoic.
triasikkil amonite serattaittinte peril ariyappedunna seraattait kidakkakalil araneshyas chunnaambukallukal, calcerus manalkkallukal, maarlukal enniva adangiyirikkunnu. jurassic rund vyathyastha unitukal ulkkollunnu. keoto chunnaambukallu, madhya jurassic muthal thaazhekku vare kanathode vyaapichukidakkunnu. karakkoram muthal sikkim vare vyaapichukidakkunna spithi black shellukalaanu mukalile jurassic prathinidheekarikkunnath. indiayile vishalamaaya pradeshathe cretatius parakal ulkkollunnu. dakshinenthyayil, avashishta paarakale naalu ghattangalayi thirichirikkunnu; niniyoor, ariyalur, thiruchinopoli (innathe thiruchirappally, karoor, ariyalur, perambalur ennee jillakale ulkkollunna madras presidencyile oru jilla), udathooru gattangal. uttaattoor ghattathil parakal phoosphett noduleukalkku aathidheyathvam vahikkunnu, ithu raajyathe phosphettukalude oru pradhana uravidamaanu. madhya pravisyakalil, nannayi vikasippicha laamettayude kidakkakalil phoosil rekhakal adangiyirikkunnu, ithu decan kenikalude praayam kanakkakkaan sahayikkunnu. agniparvvatha pravartthanangal kaaranam cretatius kaalaghattatthinte avasaanathoduthaanu basaltic paarakalude eee shreni roopappettathu. eee laava pravaahangal oru pradesham ulkkollunnu. eee parakal uyarnna nilavaaramulla nirmmaana kallinte uravidamaanu, koodaathe parutthi krishiykku anuyojyamaaya valare phalabhooyishtamaaya kalimannu kalimannu nalkunnu.
senosoic.
moonnaamkaalakhattam.
eee kaalayalavil himalayan oorojeni aarambhichu, decan kenikalumaayi bandhapetta agniparvvathangal thudarnnu. eee kaalaghattatthile paarakalil petroliyatthinteyum kalkariyudeyum vilayeriya nikshepamundu. panchaabil eosene kaalaghattatthile manalkkallukal kaanapedunnu, avaa enna chorchakalulla chunnaambukallukalaayi maarunnu. vadakku simla pradeshathu kaanapedunna paarakale moonnu srenikalaayi thirichirikkunnu, chaaraniravum chuvappum niramulla sabathu shreni, thilangunna chuvanna kalimanninte dagshaay shreni, kasauli shreni manalkkallukal. kizhakk asamil khaasi kunnukalil nanmulittik chunnaambukallukal kaanapedunnu. oligo-mayoseen kaalaghattatthile eee paarakalumayi enna bandhappettirikkunnu. himaalayangalude thaazhvarayil, eosene muthal pleosene vareyulla kanamulla manalkkallukal, complomettukal, shellukal enniva chernnathaanu sivalik molas. niravadhi phoosil hominoidukal ulppede sambannamaaya kasherukkalkk eee parakal sradheyamaanu.
quaternary kaalayalav.
intho-ganga samathalathil kaanapedunna kenii eee kaalaghattathilppettathaanu. nadikal, kaalavarsham ennivayaal himalayangalil ninnu ithu illaathaayi. kalimannu, kalimannu, cheli muthalaayava eee vandal nikshepangalil ulppedunnu. avaa pazhaya vandal, puthiya vandal enningane vibhajikkappettirikkunnu. pazhaya vandalkkinarine bhangar ennu vilikkunnu, ithu nadikalude vellappokkanirappin mukalil nilathundu. khaadar allengil puthiya vandalkkinar nadeetheerangalilum avayude vellapokka samathalangalilum parimithappedutthiyirikku. ellah varshavum nadikal nirantharam puthiya cheli idunnathinaal rajyath ettavum phalabhooyishtamaaya mannu eee pradeshathaanu.
bhookambangal.
indian upabhookhandathinu vinashakaramaaya bhookambangalude charithramund. 1950leeii asam bhookambathil 8.6 theevratha rekhappeduthiyirunnu; ithuvare rekhappeduthiyittullathil vachu ettavum sakthamaaya bhookambangalilonnaanith. innu janasaandrathayulla pradeshathu samanamaaya bhookambam lakshangalallengil lakshakkanakkin aalukalude jeevan apaharikkum. athukondaanu valia anakkettukal nirmmikkunnathinulla ettavum apakadakaramaaya sthalangalilonnaayi himalayan parvathanirakal vishwasikkappedunnathu. bhookambangalude uyarnna aavruthiyudeyum theevrathayudeyum pradhana kaaranam indian plate prathivarsham ekadesham 47 millimeter enna nirakkil eshyayilekku neengunnu ennathaanu. indiayude bhoomishaasthraparamaaya sthithivivarakkanakkukal kaanikkunnath bhoomiyude 54 sathamaanavum bhookambathinu irayaakaanaanu saadhyatha. 2050 aakumbozhekkum indiayile ekadesham 20 kodi nagaravaasikal kodunkaattukalkkum bhookambangalkkum vidheyaraakumenn locabank, ikyaraashtrasabha ennivayude report kaanikkunnu. deseeya duranthanivaarana authority parayunnath indiayude bhoopradeshathinte 60 sathamaanavum bhookambathinum 8 sathamaanavum chuzhalikkaatt apakadasaadhyathaykkum vidheyamaan ennaanu.