
niyama doctor

niyamathil biruda-entry professional birudamaanu niyama doctor, niyamashaasthra doctor, allengil niyama doctor (churukkatthil jeddy). amerikkayil niyamam abhyasikkunnathinaayi labhikkuna staanderd birudamaanu jeddy; mattu chila adhikaaraparidhikalil ninnu vyathyasthamayi, amerikkayil practies cheyyaan biruda birudamilla. american aikyanaadukalil, austreliya, canada, mattu chila pothu niyama rajyangal ennivaykkoppam, niyama school poortthiyaakkiyaanu jeddy nedunnathu.
amerikkayil professional doktarettu (gaveshana doktarettinu vipareethamaayi) enna academic nilavaaramulla ithine yunaittad stetts department oof ejyukkeshan oof ejyukkeshan staattistiksint deseeya vidyaabhyaasa kendram "doctor birudam-professional practies" ennu visheshippikkunnu. austreliyayil, ithinu birudaananthara birudatthinte academic nilavaaramund, ithu yogyathaa naamatthil "doctor" upayogikkunnathinum kaanadayil second entry baachilezhs birudatthinum apavaadamaayi nalkiyirunnu.
irupathaam noottaandinte thudakkathil amerikkayil aadyamaayi nalkia eee birudam italiyile "dottor inn geurisprudenza", germmaniyileyum madhya europileyum "juris utriousk doctor" thudangiya pazhaya europian "doctor oof loow" birudangalude aadhunika pathippayi srishtichu. 19-aamm noottaandile niyamathekkurichulla shaasthreeya padanathinaayulla harward prasthaanatthil ninnaan aadhunika jeddy uthbhavichath, avide ithine aadyamaayi ellb ennu vilichirunnu. irupathaam noottaandinte avasaanathil, jeey. dii. nalkunnathinu anukoolamaayi ell. ell. bii birudam nalkunnathu ghattamghattamaayi nirtthi. parambaraagathamaayi moonnu varshathe prograam ithil ulppedunnu, ennirunnaalum chila yunaittad stetts loow schoolukal 2 muthal 2.5 varsham vare thwarithappeduthiya prograamukal vaagdaanam cheiyunnu. rund varshathil thaazhe oru amgeekritha jeddy nedaan eiii. bii. eiii niyamangal anuvadikkunnilla. 
yunaittad stetsile oru prathyeka samsthaanathile kodathikalil niyamam abhyasikkan poornnamaayi adhikaaramullavaraayikkunnathu, jeddy birudam nediya bhooribhaagam vyakthikalum baar pareekshayil vijayikkanam. ennirunnaalum, visconsin samsthaanam, athinte rund niyama skoolukalile birudadhaarikale aaa samsthaanathum samsthaana kodathikalilum niyamapariseelanam nadatthaan anuvadikkunnu, athinte baar pareeksha ezhuthendathilla-"diploma privileju" enna practies-avar diplomic aavashyamaaya ellah kozhsukalum poortthiyaakkukayaanenkil. federal kodathikalil chilathil (ennaal ellaam allah) practies cheiyunnathinu, yunaittad stetsile oru samsthaanathenkilum practies cheyyaan adikaaramulla abhibhaashakarkku oru adhika baar pareeksha paasaakendathilla."ennirunnaalum, abhibhaashakarkku aaa kodathiyil practies cheyyaan adhikaaramundaavunnathinu munbu federal kodathiyude baaril praveshanam nalkanam. oru federal jilla kodathiyude baarile praveshanathil athinte anubandha paapparattha kodathiyude baarile praveshanavum ulppedunnu. ennirunnaalum pettant kodathikalkku oru prathyeka "pettant baar" aavasyamaanu, athil apekshakar avarude jeey. dii. yodoppam chila shaasthreeya mekhalakalil prathyeka birudam nedanam.
padavyuthpathiyum churukkezhuthukalum.
amerikkayil niyamathile professional doktarettu laattinilo engleeshilo "juris doctor" (chilappol laattin diplomakalil "juris doctorum" enna kuttaaropitha roopathil kaanikkunnu), chila niyama skoolukalil doctor oof loow (jeddy), allengil doctor oof jurisprudence (jeddy ennum churukkappedunnu) enningane nalkaam. "" "juris doctor" "enna vaakkinte aksharaarthatthil" "niyamatthinte adhyaapakan" "ennaanu ardhamaakkunnathu, athesamayam" "niyamashaasthrathinte doctor" "enna laattin padamaaya" "jurisprudentia doctor" "enna vaakkinte aksharaarthatthil" "niyama parijnjaanatthinte adhyaapakan" "ennaanu ardhamaakkunnathu".
jd niyama doctoro "legam doctoro" (elld) aayi thettidharikkaruthu. randaamathethu sambaadikkaan kazhiyunna sthaapanangalil, udha.jii.cambridge sarvakalashaalayum (avide "doctor oof loow" ennu perittirikkunnu, ippozhum elld enna churukkezhuthu nilanirthunnundengilum) mattu niravadhi britiish sthaapanangalum, ithu oru uyarnna gaveshana doctorateanu, ithu niravadhi varshangalayi eee mekhalaykku ganyamaaya sambhavana nalkunnu-oru doctor oof philosophic aavashyamaaya professional anubhavathinte maanadandam. amerikkayil elld ellaayppozhum oru oonarari birudamaanu.
charitraparamaaya pashchaathalam.
niyama birudatthinte uthbhavam.
europile aadyathe sarvakalashaalayaaya bologna sarvakalashaala, pathinonnam noottaandil aaa nagaratthile glosettar skoolile vidyaarthikalaaya naalu prashastha niyamapandithanmaar niyama vidyaalayamaayi sthaapichu. madhyakaalakhattatthile mattu niyama skoolukalkkum paduva sarvakalashaala polulla mattu aadyakaala sarvakalashaalakalkkum ithu maathrkayaayi pravarthichu. aadyathe academic birudangal sivil niyamathile doktarettu ("doctorase legam"), thudarnnu canon niyamam ("doctorase dekrettoram") ennivayaayirikkaam; iva professional birudangalaayirunnilla, marichu sarvakalaashaalakalil padippikkaan avarude udamakalkku amgeekaaram nalkiyittundennu soochippikkunnu. bologna doktarettu maathram nalkiyappol, paarisilum pinneedu engleesh sarvakalaashaalakalilum thayyaareduppu birudangal (baachilezhs, licensukal) avatharippichu.
englandile niyama parisheelanatthinte charithram.
englandile niyama vidyaabhyaasathinte charithratthinte pashchaathalam avalokanam cheiyunnathiloode jediyude swabhaavam nannayi manassilakkaan kazhiyum. kembridge, ooksfoord sarvakalaashaalakalile niyamapatanam pradhaanamaayum daarshanikamo pandithochithamo aaya aavasyangalkkaayullathaayir, allathe niyamam abhyasikkan oraale thayyarakkan uddeshichullathalla. sarvakalashaalakal sivil, canon niyamam (admiraltti kodathikal, palli kodathikal polulla valare kurachu adhikaaraparidhikalil maathrame upayogikkunnulloo) padippichirunnulloo, ennaal mikka adhikaaraparidhiyilum baadhakamaaya pothu niyamamalla. englandil pothu niyamam abhyasikkunnathinulla professional pariseelanam kodathi sathrangalil ettedukkappettuvenkum kaalakramena sathrangalude pariseelana pravartthanangal ganyamaayi kurayukayum vyakthigatha pariseelakarumaayulla aprenteeshippukal thayyaareduppinte pradhana maadhyamamaayi uyarnnuvarikayum cheythu. ennirunnaalum, padanatthinte nilavaaravalkkaranathinte abhavavum eee apranteesshippukalude moolyanirnnayathinulla vasthunishtamaaya maanadandangalum kaaranam, engleesh samsaarikkunna lokathile abhibhaashakarude vidyaabhyaasathil sarvakalaashaalakalude punk pinneedu pradhanamaayi.
1292ll englandil abhibhaashakarkku pariseelanam nalkanamennu edward onnaaman aadyamaayi abhyarthichappol, vidyaarthikal kodathikalil irunnu nireekshichuvenkilum kaalakramena vidyaarthikal avarude vasathikalil prabhashanam nadatthaan professionalukale niyamikkukayum ithu kodathi samvidaanathinte sathrangal sthaapikkunnathilekku nayikkukayum cheythu. kodathi sathrangalile vidyaabhyaasathinte yadhaartha reethi vivaadamaaya kodathi polulla parisheelanathinteyum prabhaashanatthinteyum, kodathi nadapadikramangalude nireekshanatthinteyum mishrithamaayirunnu. pathinanjaam noottaandode, ooksfoord sarvakalashaalaykkum kembridge sarvakalashaalaykkum samaanamaayi sathrangal oru sarvakalashaala pole pravarthichu, ennirunnaalum uddeshyathil valare prathyekathayullavayaayirunnu. kurishuyudhasamayathu kesukalkku kakshikalude pathiv abhavam moolam abhibhaashakante punk valareyadhikam vardhikkukayum abhibhaashakarude aavasyam vardhikkukayum cheythu.
parambaraagathamaayi oaksfordum cambridge pothuvaaya niyamathe academic padanatthinu yogyamaayi kanunnilla, koodaathe niyamathile kozhs varkk canon, sivil loow ennivayude pashchaathalatthil maathram ulppeduthi (yadhaartha baachilar oof losile rund "niyamangal", angane parishkaranatthinu sesham canon niyama patanam nirodhichappol baachilar oof sivil loow aayi maari) koodaathe thathwashaasthratheyo charithratheyo padanatthinte uddeshyathinaayi maathram. niyamathil praayogika vidyaabhyaasathinte aavashyakathayude anantharafalamaayi, abhibhaashakarkkulla apprenteeshipp prograam uyarnnuvannu, samrakshichu, tradesinaayulla apprenteeshipp prograamukalude athe niyamangalal niyanthrikkappedunnu. anchu varshathe apprenteeshipp vazhi abhibhaashakarude pariseelanam aupachaarikamaayi sthaapichathu attorni aandu solisittezhs act 1728.1753 ll ooksfoord sarvakalashaalayil engleesh pothu niyamathile aadya lactureraayi vilyam blaakkston maari, pakshe sarvakalashaala professional padanathinaayi prograam sthaapichilla, koodaathe prabhashanangal valare daarshanikavum saidhaanthikavumaaya swabhaavamullathaayirunnu. niyamapatanam sarvakalashaala adisthaanamaakkiyumenam avide aprenteeshippum kodathi sathrangalum nalkunna vishadaamshangalilum nadapadikramangalilum shradha kendreekarikkunnathinum adisthaana thathwangalil shradha kendreekarikkaamennum blaakkston vaadichu.
ooksfoord, kembridge, doublin ennividangalil ninnulla niyamathilo kalayilo birudadhaarikalkku aavashyamaaya apprenteeshipp kaalayalav moonnu varshamaayi kuraykkunnathinaayi 1821-ll 1728-leeii niyamam bhedagathi cheythu, kaaranam "atharam birudadhaarikalude praveshanam sugamamaakkanam, atharam birudam edukkunnathinu aavashyamaaya padanavum kazhivukalum kanakkileduthu". 1837ll puthuthayi sthaapithamaaya durham, lunden sarvakalashaalakalkkum 1851ll irelandile puthiya kweens sarvakalashaalaykkum ithu vipuleekarichu.
kodathi sathrangal thudarnnenkilum falaprapti kuranjathinaal baarilekkulla praveshanathinu kaaryamaaya vidyaabhyaasa pravartthanangalo pareekshayo aavashyamillaayirunnu. 1846-ll paarlament varaanirikkunna abhibhaashakarude vidyaabhyaasavum pariseelanavum parisodhikkukayum britiish abhibhaashakarude praveshanam niyanthrikkaathathinaal eee samvidaanam europinekkaalum amerikkayekkaalum thaazhnnathaanennu kandethukayum cheythu. athinaal, aupachaarika niyama schoolukal aavasyappedukayaanenkilum oduvil noottaandinte avasaanam vare sthaapikkappedaathe, appozhum baar praveshana theerumaanangalil oru sarvakalashaala birudam pariganichilla.
pathonpathaam noottaandinte pakuthi vare englandile mikka niyama birudangalum (ooksfoordileyum durhamile bii. sii. ell., landanile ell. ell. bii) artsil oru prarambha birudatthinu sesham edutha birudaananthara birudangalaayirunnu. bcl, bl allengil ellb ennu vividhamaayi paraamarshikkappedunna kembridge birudam oru apavaadamaayirunnu metrikkuleshan poortthiyaakkaan aarr varshameduthu, ennaal ivayil moonnennam maathrame thaamasthalathaayirunnulla, baa aavashyamillaayirunnu (baa illaathavar thangal thaamasikkunnuvenn mathramalla kuranjathu moonnu thavana prabhashanangalil pankedutthirunnuvennum theliyikkaan oru certificat haajaraakkendathund). eee birudangal engleesh pothu niyamathekkaal roman sivil niyamathil vaidagdhyamullavayaanu, randaamathethu kodathi sathrangalude domaine aayirunnu, athinaal avaa praayogikamaayi upayogapradamaayathinekkaal saidhaanthikamaayirunnu. 1858ll cambridge athinte ellb birudam bieikkoppam oru biruda kozhsaayi punasthaapichu, munbu baa kazhinju kuranjathu oru varsham aavasyamulla lunden ellb 1866ll oru biruda birudamaayi maari. pazhaya namakaranam ooksfoordile bii. sii. ellinu innum upayogikkunnu, ithu oru maastezhs level prograamaanu, athesamayam cambridge athinte ellb 1922ll birudaananthara birudatthilekku maatti, ennaal 1982ll athine ellm ennu punarnaamakaranam cheythu.
1960-num 1990-num idayil, englandile niyama schoolukal abhibhaashakare thayyarakkunnathil kooduthal kendra punk vahikkukayum thalphalamaayi kooduthal professionalaayi prasakthamaakunnathinaayi noothana niyama vishayangalude kavarej mechappeduthukayum cheythu. athe kaalayalavil, american niyama schoolukal kooduthal pandithochithavum professional adhishtithamallaathathumaayi maari, angane 1996-ll langbean ingane ezhuthaan kazhinju "scholarshippinte shethrangalaayi engleesh niyama schoolukalum professionte pariseelana kendrangalaayi american niyama schoolukalum thammilulla vyathyasam yaadhaarthyavumaayi vidooramaaya bandham vahikkunnilla".
colonial vadakke amerikkayilum pathonpathaam noottaandile amerikkayilum niyama pariseelanam.
thudakkathil colonial vadakke amerikkayile abhibhaashakarkku avar englandil vahicha punk kaaranam valareyadhikam ethirppundaayirunnu, ennaal kramena colonial sarkkarukal landanile sarvakalaashaalakalil pariseelanam labhicha professionalukalude sevanangal upayogikkaan thudangi, american viplavathinte avasaanathode oro samsthaanathum oru pravarthanakshamamaaya baar undaayirunnu. englandile varenyavargakkaarkk maathram thurannirikkunna oru thozhilinte prarambha avishwaasam kaaranam, parisheelanathinulla sthaapanangal vikasichathode avaa englandilethil ninnu thikachum vyathyasthamayi uyarnnuvannu.
thudakkathil amerikkayil niyama professionalukalkku pariseelanam nalkukayum englandil ninnu irakkumathi cheyyukayum cheythirunnu. 1730ll newyorkkil aadyamaayi oru aupachaarika apprenteeshipp allengil clerkship prograam sthaapichu-akkaalat ezhu varshathe clerkship aavashyamaayirunnu, 1756ll anchu varshathe clerkingin oru pareekshaykkum purame naalu varshathe koleju birudam aavasyamaanu. pinneedu rund varshathe koleju vidyaabhyaasam maathram aavashyamaayi varunna vidhathil aavasyangal kurachu. ennaal sathrangal polulla oru samvidaanam vikasichilla, pathonpathaam noottaand vare englandil oru koleju vidyaabhyaasam aavashyamillaayirunnu, athinaal eee samvidaanam savisheshamaayirunnu.
clarkship prograaminu valareyadhikam vyakthigatha patanam aavashyamaayirunnu, koodaathe maarganirddesha abhibhaashakan padanatthinulla saamagrikal shradhaapoorvvam thiranjedukkukayum niyamapatanatthil clarkine nayikkukayum athu ulkkollunnuvennu urappakkukayum cheiyumennu pratheekshikkappettu. niyamathekkurichulla thante vaayanayekkurichulla kurippukal vidyaarthi oru "saadhaarana pusthakatthil" samaaharikkendathaayirunnu, athu addeham ormmippikkaan sramikkum. avaa aadarshangalaayirunnenkilum, vaasthavathil clarkkukal palappozhum amithamaayi jolie cheiyunnavarum pratheekshichathupole vyakthiparamayi niyamam padikkaan apoorvvamaayi maathrame kazhinjirunnulloo. rekhakalude kaiyyaksara pakarppukal nirmmikkunnath polulla maduppikkunna jolikalkkaayi avar palappozhum jolie cheythirunnu. mathiyaya niyamagrandhangal kandethunnathum gurutharamaaya durbalappeduthunna oru prashnamaayirunnu, koodaathe clark trainikalkku nalkia pusthakangalil maanadandavalkkaranam undaayirunnilla, kaaranam avare avarude upadeshtaavu niyogichathinaal, niyamathekkurichulla abhiprayam addehathinte samaprayakkaaril ninnu valare vyathyasthamaayirikkam.
amerikkayile prashastha abhibhashakanaaya vilyam livingstan 1745ll newyork pathratthil clerkship paripadi gurutharamaaya thettaanennum mikka maarganirddeshakarum thettaanennum paranju.
sevanathinaayi samarppikkapetta kurachu maarganirddeshakar undaayirunnu, avarude apoorvatha kaaranam, avar valare aavashyakkaaraayi maari, eee abhibhaashakaril chilarude offeesukalil ninnu aadyathe niyama schoolukal parinamichu, avar niravadhi klaarkkukale ettedukkukayum niyamam parisheelikkunnathinekkaal kooduthal samayam pariseelanam chelavazhikkaan thudangukayum cheythu.
kaalakramena, thangalude kakshikalude aavasyangal niravettaan poornnamaayum kazhivulla abhibhaashakare nirmmikkaan apprenteeshipp prograam paryaapthamaayi kanakkakkappettilla. apprenteeshipp prograamukal palappozhum cheria jolikalulla trainy niyamichirunnu, oru loow offeesinte dainamdina pravarthanangalil avar nannayi pariseelanam nediyirunnuvenkilum avar pothuve thayyaaraakaatha parisheelakaro niyamaparamaaya yukthivaadikalo aayirunnu. american aikyanaadukalile sarvakalaashaalakalil aupachaarika niyama faakkalttikalude sthaapanam pathinettaam noottaandinte avasana bhagam vare nadannilla. american viplavathinte thudakkathode brittanil ninnulla abhibhaashakare vitharanam cheiyunnathu avasaanichu. 1793ll vilyam aandu merii koleju nalkia niyama birudamaanu american aikyanaadukalile oru sarvakalashaala nalkia aadyathe niyama birudam.bii.amerikkayil ellb enna churukkezhuthu upayogicha aadyathe sarvakalashaalayaayirunnu harward.
1812ll sthaapithamaaya maryland sarvakalashaala polulla amerikkayile aadyathe sarvakalashaala niyamaparipaadikalil baibil, sisaro, seneca, aristottil, aadam smith, montesquieu, grotius thudangiya kruthikal ulppede dhaaraalam saidhaanthikavum daarshanikavumaaya padanangal ulppedunnu. pathonpathaam noottaandinte thudakkathile aadyakaala sarvakalashaala niyama schoolukal abhibhaashakar ennathilupari raashtrathanthranjar enna nilayilulla kariyarinaayi vidyaarthikale thayyarakkunnathaayi thonnunnu. 1900 kalude thudakkathil stanford sarvakalaashaalayilum yelilum ell. ell. bii prograamukalil bhashakal, ganitham, saambathikashaasthram ennivayile kozhsukal ulppedunna "saamskaarika patanam" ulppeduthunnathu thudarnnu. oru ellb allengil baachilar oof loss, oru ellb sambaadikkaan muun baachilar birudam aavasyamillennu amgeekarichu.
1850kalil niyamatthinte sidhaantham, charithram, thathwachintha ennivayil vidyaabhyaasam nalkunna sarvakalaashaalakalil vaagdaanam cheiyunnathinu vipareethamaayi, onniladhikam aprenteesukale ettedukkukayum oru school sthaapikkukayum cheiyunna oru praakteeshanaril ninnu uthbhavichathum praayogika niyama vidyaabhyaasam nalkunnathumaaya niravadhi udamasthaavakaasha schoolukal undaayirunnu. naipunyangal nedunnathu praayogikamaayi nadakkumennu sarvakalashaalakal anumaanichappol, udamasthaavakaasha schoolukal vidyaabhyaasasamayathe praayogika kazhivukalil shradha kendreekarichu.
viplavakaramaaya sameepanam niyamathekkurichulla shaasthreeya patanam.
cheria professional loow skoolukalumaayi malsarikkunnathinu, yunaittad stetts yooniversitti niyama vidyaabhyaasathil valia maattam vannu. 1826 muthal churungiya samayathekku yaale rund varsham neenduninna oru samboornna "praakteeshanar kozhs" vaagdaanam cheyyaan thudangi, athil pleeding drafting polulla praayogika kozhsukal ulppedunnu. pathonpathaam noottaandil niyamathekkurichu kooduthal "shaasthreeya patanam" nadathanamennu vaadichappol american aikyanaadukalile supreme kodathi justice joseph harwardil niyama vidyaabhyaasathile maattatthinte manobhaavam aarambhichu. aaa samayat addeham harwardil lakchararaayirunnu. athinaal, ooksfoordile blackstone vilyam, merii ennividangalile jefezhsanum vaadicha kooduthal liberal arts vidyaabhyaasathinu vipareethamaayi, niyama vidyaabhyaasathodulla oru trade school tharatthilulla sameepanamaayirunnu harwardile vidyaabhyaasam. ennirunnaalum, swakaarya niyama skoolukalilennapole niyama vidyaabhyaasam kooduthal thozhilparamaano atho storiyum langdell vikasippicheduthathulla karsanamaaya shaasthreeya reethiyiloodeyaano ennathinekkurichu adhyaapakarkkidayil charchakal thudarnnu. dorsey ellisinte vaakkukalil, "langdell niyamathe oru shaasthramaayum niyama library laboratariyaayum kandu, oru shaasthramaayi kanakkaakkappedunna niyamathil ulppedunna 'thathwangalo sidhaanthangalo' padikkunnathinulla adisthaanam nalkunna kesukal. ennirunnaalum, 1900-ll, mikka samsthaanangalkkum oru sarvakalashaala vidyaabhyaasam aavashyamillaayirunnu (palappozhum oru apprenteeshipp aavashyamaanenkilum) koodaathe mikka pariseelakarkkum oru niyama schoolilo collegilo poyittilla.
athinaal, amerikkayile aadhunika niyama vidyaabhyaasa sambradaayam oru shaasthramaayum praayogika vaidagdhyamaayum adhyapana niyamatthinte samyojanamaanu, ithu klinikkal pariseelanam polulla gadakangal nadappilaakkunnu, ithu yunaittad stetsilum jeddy prograamilum niyama vidyaabhyaasathinte anivaarya bhaagamaayi mariyirikkunnu.
niyama vidyaabhyaasathinulla jdyudeyum pradhana pothu niyama sameepanangaludeyum srishti.
thozhilukalude pariseelanam mechappeduthunnathinulla oru prasthaanathinidayilaanu jeddy amerikkayil uthbhavichath. jeddy uthbhavikkunnathin munbu, niyama vidyaarthikal oru haiskool diplomyo allengil oru baachilezhs birudam nedunnathinu aavashyamaaya birudapatanatthinte alavil kuravo upayogichu niyamapatanam aarambhichu. irupathaam noottaandinte madhyathode ell. ell. bii nilaninnu, athinusesham niyama schoolil praveshikkunna ellah vidyaarthikalkkum oru poortthiyaakkiya birudam oru aavashyamaayi maari. athinte falamaayundaaya upadesaparamaaya sameepanagal sarvakalashaala vidyaabhyaasathinu viplavakaramaayirunnu, avaa americaykku purathu pathukke nadappakkappettu, pakshe aduthide (ekadesham 1997 muthal) gattangalaayum. eee puthiya sameepanathinte falamaayundaaya emm. dii, jeey. dii thudangiya birudangal vidyaabhyaasa sameepanagal vyathyasthamayirikkunnathu thanne europian athiraalikalil ninnum vyathyasthamaan.
amerikkayil niyama vidyaabhyaasam.
pathonpathaam noottaandil amerikkayil professional doktarettu vikasippikkappettu, 1807-ll doctor oof medisin aayirunnu aadyathethu, ennaal aaa samayat, vidyaabhyaasa sthaapanangal vikasichukondirunnathil amerikkayile niyama samvidaanam ippozhum vikasichukondirikkayuku, niyamaparamaaya thozhil aaa samayat ippozhum avyakthamaayirunnu, athinaal professional niyama birudam vikasikkaan kooduthal samayameduthu. chila sarvakalashaalakal niyamathil pariseelanam nalkiyappozhum avar birudam nalkiyilla. kaaranam amerikkayil court ins illaayirunnu, engleesh academic birudangal aavashyamaaya professional pariseelanam nalkiyilla, englandil ninnulla modalukal prayogayogyamallaanathavayu, koodaathe digri prograam vikasippikkaan kurachu samayameduthu.
thudakkathil digri eiii bii roopathil vannu.ell. (vilyam, merii kolejilennapole), ennaal pinneedu oxfordinteyum kembridjinteyum trappingukaliloode niyamasadhutha irakkumathi cheyyaan thaalpparyamulla harward oru ellb birudam nadappaakki. pathonpathaam noottaandile mikka american niyama skoolukalileyum praveshanathinu haiskool vidyaabhyaasam thripthikaramaayi poortthiyaakkendathundu enna vastutha kaaranamaan niyamathinu baachilar birudam nalkaanulla theerumaanam. pathonpathaam noottaand vare englandil oru birudatthinu aavashyamaaya saamskaarikamo classicalo aaya padanangalonnumillaatha oru professional parisheelanamaayathinaal, oru ellb allengil bclinu munbu oru general baa nedunnathu aavashyamaayirunnu. athinaal, engleesh ellb digriyude peru harwardil nadappaakkiyenkilum, yunaittad stetsile prograam engleesh bii yill ninnu vyathyasthamayi oru phastt digriyaayi uddeshichullathaayirunnu.eiii.niyamathil praayogikamo professionalo aaya pariseelanam nalki.
niyama doctorude srishti.
pathonpathaam noottaandinte madhyathil amerikkayile niyama vidyaabhyaasathinte gunanilavaarathekkurichu valareyadhikam aashankayundaayirunnu. sii.sii. 1870 muthal 1895 vare harward loow skoolinte deanayi sevanamanushticha langdell amerikkayile niyamavidyaabhyaasam parishkarikkunnathin thante jeevitam samarppichu. charitrakaaranaaya roobert steevans ezhuthi "niyama thozhilinu birudathalatthilalla, moonnu varshathe birudaananthara birudatthiloode vidyaabhyaasam nalkia oru sarvakalaashaalayaayi maattuka ennathaayirunnu langdellinte lakshyam."eee birudathala patanam cases reethi (supradhana kesukal padikkunnathinulla oru reethi), sokraatik reethi (padicha kesukalil kodathiyude nyaayavaadathe adisthaanamaakki vidyaarthikale parishodhikkunnathinulla oru reethi) ennariyappedunna langdell vikasippichedutha theevramaaya niyama pariseelanam anuvadikkum. athinaal, oru biruda, unnathala niyama birudam nirddeshikkappettu niyama doctor, cases nadappilaakkukayum upadesaparamaaya sameepanamaayi sakrettik reethikal nadappilaakkukayum cheythu. professor jeey. echu. 1882-ll harward niyama birudadhaariyaaya beal, eee maattatthinte pradhana vaadangalilonnu ekathaanathayaayirunnu. haarvaardinte naalu professional schoolukal-daivashaasthram, niyamam, vaidyashaasthram, kalayum shaasthravum-ellaam biruda skoolukalaayirunnu, athinaal avarude birudangal randaam birudamaayirunnu. avaril randuperkku doktarettum mattu randuperkku bachaloriyatt birudavum nalki. praadhamika birudam ulla vyakthikalkk saadhaaranayaayi onnaam birudam nalkunna eee vivechanam" avasaanippikkaan uddeshichullathaayirunnu elbyil ninnu jediyilekkulla maattam. jeddy jarmman jeey-nuu thulyamaayi nirddeshikkappettu.yuu.dii., phalapradamaaya oru abhibhashakanaakaan aavashyamaaya vipulamaaya patanam prathifalippikkunnathinna.
1902ll apekshakaril ninnu koleju birudam aavasyappetta anchu niyama skoolukalil onnu maathramaayirunnappol chikkago sarvakalashaala niyama vidyaalayamaanu jeddy aadyamaayi vaagdaanam cheythath. harwardil amgeekaaram labhikkathe kidakkumbol, nyoo, berkley, mishigan, stanford ennividangalile niyama schoolukal ulppede mattu niravadhi niyama skoolukalil birudam avatharippichu. paarambaryavum oru jeddy prograam nadappaakkunna pramukha sarvakalashaalakal kuravaayathinaal, harward, yaale, columbia thudangiya pramukha kizhakkan niyama schoolukal birudam nadappakkaan visammathichu. udaaharanathinu, 1909ll koleju birudamullah vidyaarthikalude praveshanam parimithappedutthiyirunne jeddy birudam sweekarikkaan harward visammathichu. theerchayaayum, kizhakkan niyama skoolukalil ninnulla sammarddam mikkavarum ellah niyama schoolukaleyum (chikkago sarvakalaashaalayilum illinoyisile mattu niyama skoolukalilum ozhike) jeddy upekshichu 1930kalode elb aadyathe niyama birudamaayi veendum sweekarikkaan prerippichu. 1962 aayappozhekkum, jeddy digri madhya padinjaaran mekhalaykku purathu apoorvamaayi maathrame kaanappettirunnullu.
1930kalkk sesham chila american niyama skoolukalil elb jeddy birudangalum sahavarthithvathil nilaninnirunnu. chila niyama schoolukal, prathyekichu illinoyisileyum midu vestt schoolileyum chila niyama schoolukal, (1926 muthal markwet yooniversitti pole), baachilezhs birudam ullavarkku (loow skoolinu munbu rando moonno varshathe colleginu vipareethamaayi), birudapatanatthil uyarnna academic nilavaaram pularthiyavarkku, avarude moonnaam varshathe niyama schoolil oru theesis poorthiyaakkunnavarkku maathram jeddy birudangal nalki. jeddy birudam baar praveshanathino thozhilino prayojanakaramallaathathinaal, bhooribhaagam markwet vidyaarthikalum ellb birudam nedaan eshtappettu.
1950kalilum 1960kalilum kooduthal niyama vidyaarthikal koleju birudangalumaayi niyama skoolukalil praveshichathinaal, niyama vidyaarthikale avarude biruda birudangal poortthiyaakkaan prolsaahippikkunnathi niravadhi niyama schoolukal jeddy avatharippichirikkaam. 1961 vare, amerikkayil 15 eiii. bii. eiii. amgeekaaramulla niyama schoolukal undaayirunnu, avaa ell. ell. bii, jeey. dii birudangal nalki. 15 ll pathimoonnu perum midu vestt mekhalayilaanu sthithicheyyunnathu, ithu yunaittad stetsile praadeshika vyathiyaanangale soochippikkaam.
1962nuu sesham maathramaan oru puthiya munnettam-ithavana kuranja praadhaanyamulla niyama skoolukalil aarambhicha-jeddy aadya niyama birudamaayi saarvathrikamaayi sweekarikkunnathilekku vijayakaramaayi nayichathu. niyama vidyaabhyaasathinteyum baarile praveshanathinteyum eiii. bii. eiii vibhaagam 1962lum 1963lum ellah amgeekritha niyama skoolukalkkum jeey. dii birudam aadyathe professional birudamaayi nalkunnathinu anukoolamaaya pariganana nalkanamennu shupaarsha cheiyunna oru prameyam ekakandamaayi amgeekarichappol eee vazhithirivu sambhavichathayi thonnunnu. 1960kalode, mikka niyama vidyaarthikalum koleju birudadhaarikalaayirunnu, aaa dashakathinte avasaanathode, mikkavarum ellaavarum athu cheyyendathundu. vidyaarthikaludeyum poorvva vidyaarthikaludeyum pinthuna ellb-tuu-jeddy maattatthil pradhanamaayirunnu, ettavum pramukhamaaya schoolukal polum maattam varuthaan bodhyappettu 1969 ll columbia harward, 1971 ll yaale (avasaanatheth). ennirunnaalum, yaale leeii ellb 1826 leeii "praakteeshanarmaarude kozhsukalude" upadesaparamaaya mattangal nilanirtthi, canada ozhikeyulla pothu niyama raajyangalile elbyil ninnu valare vyathyasthamaayirunnu.
staanderd moden academic practies pinthudarnnu, harward loow school athinte maasttar oof lossine doctor oof juridical sayans birudangaleyum birudathala niyama birudangalaayi paraamarsikkunnu. athupole, columbia ellmineyum jsd athinte biruda prograamaayi paraamarsikkunnu. yaale loow school athinte ellm, emsl, jsd, piechu enniva pattikappedutthunnu.dii. biruda prograamukal roopappeduthunnathu. athinaal yunaittad stetsile professional, biruda niyama birudangal thammilulla vyathyasam nilanilkkunnu.
pradhana pothu niyama sameepanagal.
america polulla mattu pothu niyama raajyangalude samvidaanangalude moolakaaranam engleesh niyamavyavasthayaanu. thudakkathil englandile saadhaarana abhibhaashakarkku kodathi sathrangalil mathramaayirunnu pariseelanam nalkiyirunnathu. englandilum veyilsilum niyama parisheelanatthinte bhagamaakunnathinaayi ooksfoordil blaakkston upayogichu pothu niyama vidyaabhyaasam aarambhich ekadesham 150 varshameduthenkilum, oru abhibhaashakanaakunnathin munbu saadhaaranayaayi edukkunna birudamaayi ellb maari. englandilum veyilsilum ellb oru birudapatanapadhathiyaanu, ithu (ithu oru yogyathayulla niyama birudamaanennu karuthuka) oru abhibhaashakanaakunnathinulla academic aavasyakathakal niravettunnundenkilum, aaa adikaaraparidhiyil licenses labhikkunnathin munbu oru baaristtar (baar professional pariseelana kozhs thudarnnu pupilage) allengil oru solisittar (niyama pariseelana kozhs thudarnnu "amgeekritha pariseelana kaalayalav") enna nilayil kooduthal thozhiladhishtithavum professionalumaaya pariseelanam aavasyamaanu. ooksfoord, cambridge ennivayulppede chila sarvakalaashaalakalil niyamathil bii. eiii. birudamaanengilum mikka engleesh sarvakalaashaalakalilum niyama birudam ell. ell. bii aanu. ithinakam mattoru vibhaagathil birudadhaarikalaayavarkku rund varshathinullil iva randum "seeniyar staattas" aayi edukkaam. chila sarvakalashaalakal "ozhivakkal" birudangal vaagdaanam cheiyunnu, saadhaaranayaayi niyamathil samyojitha birudaananthara birudangal (emm. ell. eiii), yogyathaa niyama birudatthe leagal practies kozhsumaayo baar professional pariseelana kozhsumaayo samyojippikkunnu.
kaanadayile niyama vidyaabhyaasathinu mattu komanvelthu rajyangalil ninnu savisheshamaaya vyathyaasangalund. kaanadayile niyamavyavastha kooduthalum engleesh sanbradaayathinte parivartthanamaanenkilum (cubec ozhike), canaden sambradaayam savisheshamaan, athil kodathi sathrangalilla, praayogika pariseelanam nadakkunnathu oru baaristarinteyum abhibhaashakanteyum offeesil niyama sosaitti amgathvavum, 1889 muthal, oru sarvakalashaala birudam oru articling clerkship aarambhikkunnathin oru munvyavasthayaanu. kaanadayile niyama skoolukalile vidyaabhyaasam irupathaam noottaandinte thudakkathil yunaittad stetsile vidyaabhyaasathinu samanamaayirunnu, ennaal niyamaparamaaya karadu thayyarakkunnathilum vyaakhyaanathilum udara vidyaabhyaasathinte gadakangalilum kooduthal shradha kendreekarichu. kaanadayile baar associationukale harwardile mattangal swaadheenichu, chilappol niyamam padikkunnathinu munbu munkaala koleju vidyaabhyaasam aavasyamullathupolulla amerikkayil nirddeshikkappetta mattangal desheeyathalathil nadappakkaan avarkk vegamundaayirunnu.
aadhunika vakabhedangalum paatyapadhathiyum.
niyama vidyaabhyaasam nalkunna adhikaaraparidhiyile niyamavyavasthayude charithratthilum ghadanayilum niyama vidyaabhyaasam veroonniyirikkunnu; athinaal, niyama birudangal oro rajyathinum valare vyathyasthamaan, ithu birudangal thammilulla thaarathamyathe prashnakaramaakkunnu. lokamembaadum nadappaakkiya jediyude vividha roopangalude pashchaathalatthil ithu sariyaanennu theliyikkappettittund.
ekadesham 1997 vare jeddy amerikkayile niyama skoolukalkku savisheshamaayirunnu, ennaal amerikkayil ninnulla niyama sthaapanangalude anthaaraashtra vijayam vardhichathum americaykku purathu ninnu yunaittad stetts niyama skoolukalil cherunna vidyaarthikalude vardhanavum jediyulla abhibhaashakar anthaaraashtra thalatthil kooduthal saadhaaranamaayitheernnu. athinaal, jediyude antass uyarnnu, americaykku purathulla pala sarvakalaashaalakalum avarude niyama vidyaalayathinteyum birudadhaarikaludeyum anthass uyarthukayenna vyakthamaaya uddeshyathinaayi jeddy vaagdaanam cheyyaan thudangi. atharam sthaapanangal saadhaaranayaayi birudatthinte peru maathram ulkkollaan lakshyamidunnu, chilappol puthiya jeddy patana paripadi avarude parambaraagatha niyama birudatthinu thulyamaanu, ithu saadhaaranayaayi yunaittad stetsil srishtichathupole jeddy upayogichu uddeshichittulla professional parisheelanathekkaal kooduthal pandithochithamaanu. athinaal, lokamembaadumulla sarvakalaashaalakalil nadappaakkunnathupole jeddy birudangalil vividha savisheshathakal kaanaan kazhiyum.
tharangalum savisheshathakalum.
valare adutha kaalam vare, yunaittad stetsile niyama schoolukal maathramaan "juris doctor" vaagdaanam cheythath. 1997 muthal, mattu raajyangalile sarvakalashaalakal niyamathile aadyathe professional birudamaayi jeey. dii. avatharippikkan thudangi, eee niyama schoolukal sthithicheyyunna raajyangalile niyama samvidaanangalkku anuyojyamaaya vyathyaasangalode.
staanderd "juris doctor" paatyapadhathi.
jeddy srishtikkunnathil earppettirunna rund aalukalaaya jaims haalum langdell paranjathupole, jeddy ennathu emdi polulla oru professional birudamaanu, ithu yukthiyiloodeyum ethir vishakalanathiloodeyum (casebook, sokraatik reethikal polullava) niyamam vishakalanam cheiyunnathiloodeyum padippikkunnathiloodeyum parisheelakare thayyarakkan uddeshichullathaanu. ithu 100 varshathilereyaayi amerikkayil vivarichathupole nilanilkkunnu, athinaal ithine 'staanderd' allengil 'parambaraagatha' jeddy prograam ennu vilikkam. jeddy prograaminu saadhaaranayaayi praveshanathinu oru baachilezhs birudam aavasyamaanu, ennirunnaalum eee aavasyakatha chilappol ozhivaakkappedunnu.
birudatthinaayulla patana paripadi athinte srishti muthal ganyamaayi maattamillathe thudarunnu, ithu adisthaana niyamatheyum athinte professional prayogangaleyum kurichulla oru theevramaaya padanamaanu (athinaal oru prabandhavum aavasyamilla, ennirunnaalum chilappol oru neenda ezhuthu padhathi aavasyamaanu.
). oru professional pariseelanamenna nilayil, ithu parisheelanathilekkulla praveshanathinu mathiyaya pariseelanam nalkunnu (baar pareekshayil irikkaan apprenteeshipp aavasyamilla). ithinu kuranjathu moonnu academic varshathe muzhuvan samaya padanamenkilum aavasyamaanu. jeddy amerikkayil doctoral birudamaanengilum abhibhaashakar saadhaaranayaayi "esk" enna suffix upayogikkunnu."" doow "enna prefixinu vipareethamaayi.", athu oru professional pashchaathalatthil maathram, avar oru pakshapathaparamaaya kakshiyaanennu mattullavare ariyikkendathu aavashyamullappol-avarude kakshiyude ejantaayi pravartthikkunnu.
ell. ell. bii. kku pakaramaayi.
irupathaam noottaandinte thudakkathil usile elb jeddy ennu punarnaamakaranam cheyyaanulla prarambha sramam 1902 ll harwardil oru harjiyumaayi aarambhichu. ithu nirasikkapettu, ennaal chikkago sarvakalaashaalayilum mattu sarvakalaashaalakalilum sthaapithamaaya puthiya niyama schoolil eee ashayam nilaninnu, us niyama skoolukalil ninnu birudadhaarikalkku jeddy nalki, athesamayam birudadhaarikal (athe paatyapadhathi pinthudarunnavar) elbyilekku parimithappedutthi, ennirunnaalum maattam harward, yaale, columbia ennivar nirasichu, 1920 kalude avasaanathode schoolukal jediyil ninnu maari veendum ell maathram nalki.bii, chikkago sarvakalashaala aasthaanamaayulla samsthaanamaaya illinoyisil maathram niyama schoolukal ullathinaal. 1960kalil ithu maari, appozhekkum niyama schoolil praveshikkunna mikkavarum ellah vidyaarthikalum birudadhaarikalaayirunnu. jeddy 1962-ll veendum avatharippikkappedukayum 1971-oode paatyapadhathiyil oru maattavumillathe elb maattisthaapikkukayum cheythu, pala schoolukalum avarude ellb poorvva vidyaarthikalkku oru cheria phees nalkunnathinu vare pooyi.
canadayileyum australiyayileyum sarvakalaashaalakalk amerikkayile jeddy prograamukalumaayi valare saamyamulla niyama prograamukalundu. kweens yooniversitti, thompson reverse yooniversitti, britiish columbia yooniversitti, alberta yooniversitti, victoria yooniversitti, yooniversitti dii monktoon, kalgari yooniversitti, suscatchevan yooniversitti, manittoba yooniversitti, windser yooniversitti, ottaava yooniversitti, vestten ontaariyo yooniversitti, york yooniversitti, kaanadayile torrento yooniversitti, aarmit, australiyayile melbone yooniversitti enniva ithil ulppedunnu. athinaal, eee sthaapanangalil jeddy prograam avatharippichappol, athu avarude second entry ellb prograaminte punarnaamakaranam mathramaayirunnu, avarude paatyapadhathiyil kaaryamaaya mattangalonnum ulppettilla. jediyude anthaaraashtra janapreethy amgeekaaravum prograaminte aavasyamulla biruda savisheshathakal thirichariyendathinte aavasyakathayum kondaanu angane cheiyunnathinu kaaranam nalkiyirikkunnath.
eee prograamukal brittanile sthaapanangalil valareyadhikam swaadheenikkappedunnathil, jeddy prograamukalkku palappozhum chila cheria pandithochitha gadakangalundu (jeddy vakabhedangalude thaarathamyangal enna thalakkettilulla chart "mukalil kaanuka"). niyamavyavasthakalum brittante swaadheenathilullathinaal, practies cheyyaanulla licensinu apekshikkunnathinu yogyatha nedunnathinu munbu oru apprenteeshipp aavasyamaanu ("yunaittad stetsinu purathulla jediyude vivaranagal" ennathinu keezhil chuvadeyulla raajya vibhagangal kaanuka).
american ikyanaadukalkku purathulla jediyude vivaranagal.
austreliya.
australiyayile parambaraagatha niyama birudam biruda biruda niyamamaan (ellb); ennirunnaalum, 2010-kalil jediyilekk valia maattam undaayittund, chila australian sarvakalashaalakal ippol raajyathe mikacha rank labhicha sarvakalashaalakal ulppede (udha.jii. yooniversitti oof nyoo southu weils, yooniversitti oof sidani, australian naashanal yooniversitti, yooniversitti oof melbone, monash yooniversitti).
pothuve, jeddy vaagdaanam cheiyunna sarvakalaashaalakalum ellb vaagdaanam cheiyunnu, ennirunnaalum chila sarvakalaashaalakalil, jeddy maathrame vaagdaanam cheiyunnulloo, birudaananthara thalangalil maathram. biruda biruda gadanayile sameepakaala mattangal kaaranam, melbone sarvakalashaala polulla chila sarvakalashaalakal birudaananthara thalatthil maathrame niyamam padikkaan anuvadikkunnulloo, jeddy poornnamaayum elb maatti.
oru australian "juris doctor" moonnu varshathe muzhuvan samaya patanam allengil thathulyamaayathaanu. australiyayile samsthaana praveshana bordukalude aavashyakathakalkanusarichu 11 vishayangal padippikkaan ellaavarum baadhyastharaanenkilum vividha sarvakalaashaalakalil eee kozhs vyathyaasappedunnu. jeey. dii. ell. bii. esinu thulyamaayi kanakkaakkappedunna iva ippozhum oru abhibhaashakanenna nilayil praveshanathinu praayogika niyamapariseelanam nalkendathundu.
australian yogyathaa chattakkoodil, "juris doctore" "maastezhs digri (extended)" ennu tharamthirickunnu, "juris doctor" enna padavi upayogikkaan anuvadichittundu (atharam mattu ozhivakkalukalil doctor oof medisin, doctor oof dentistry, doctor oof vettinari medisin enniva ulppedunnu). ithine doctoral birudam ennu visheshippikkaathirikkaam, koodaathe udamakal "doctor" enna padavi upayogikkathirikkaam. mattu vipuleekritha birudaananthara birudangalkkoppam, kuranjathu moonnu varshathe baachilar birudatthinu sesham jedic moonnu muthal naalu varsham vare edukkum.
canada.
komanvelthu raajyangalile parambaraagatha ellb birudatthinu pakaramaayi kaanadayile prabalamaaya pothu niyama niyama birudamaanu jeddy birudam. 2001ll torrento sarvakalashaala niyama birudatthe elbyil ninnu jdyayi punarnaamakaranam cheytha aadya sarvakalaashaalayaayi maari. second entry ellb pole, oru "juris doctor" prograamil praveshikkunnathinu, apekshakar kuranjathu rando moonno varshathe patanam poortthiyaakki birudam nedukayum vadakke american loow school praveshana pareekshayil uyarnna score nedukayum venam. praayogikamaayi, mikkavarum ellah vijayakaramaya apekshakarkkum oru canadian kooman loow schoolil praveshikkunnathinu munbu onno athiladhikamo birudangal poortthiyaakkiyittundi, mattu aadya professional birudangalkkoppam ithu baachilezhs digri thalatthilulla yogyathayaayi kanakkaakkappedunnu. ellah canadian "juris doctor" prograamukalum moonnu varsham neendunilkkunnavayaanenkum avayude nirbandhitha onnaam varsha kozhsukalil samanamaaya ulladakkamundu. cubeckinu purathulla canaden niyama skoolukalile nirbandhitha onnaam varsha kozhsukalil pothu niyamam ulppedunnu (athaayath.iii. pravishya niyamam, bharanaghadanaa niyamam, bharanaparamaya niyamam), swathavakaasha niyamam, peedana niyamam, karar niyamam, criminal niyamam, niyama gaveshanavum rachana.
onnaam varshathinum birudatthinu aavashyamaaya mattu kozhsukalkkum sesham, vaanijya, korpparettu niyamam, nikuthi, anthaaraashtra niyamam, prakrithivibhava niyamam, riyal estettu edapaadukal, thozhil niyamam, criminal niyamam, adivasi niyamam thudangi vividha kendreekaranangalode kozhs thiranjeduppu thiranjedukkunnathaanu. oru amgeekritha niyama schoolil ninnu birudam nediya sesham, oro pravishyayudeyo pradeshathinteyo niyama sosaitikkum oru baar admission kozhsum pareekshayum poortthiyaakkukayum swatantra parisheelanathinu munbu melnottatthilulla "articling" kaalayalav aavasyamaanu.
kaanadayile niyama schoolukal "jeddy" padavi upayogikkunnathu american niyamathinu oonnal nalkunnathine soochippikkaan uddeshichullathalla, marichu munkoor birudapatanam aavashyamillaatha engleesh niyama birudangalil ninnu kaanadayile niyama birudangale verthirichariyaan uddeshichullathaanu. canadian niyamathile oru birudamaanu canadian jeddy. athanusarichu, newyorkkum massatusetsum ozhikeyulla yunaittad stetts adhikaaraparidhikal kaanadayile "juris doctor" birudangale yaanthrikamaayi amgeekarikkunnilla. ontaariyo polulla canaden adikaaraparidhiyil yunaittad stetts jeddy birudadhaarikale pariganikkunna reethikk thulyamaanithu. athirthiyude iruvashathumulla adikaaraparidhiyil practies cheyyaan birudadhaarikale thayyaaraakkunnathin, chila jody niyama schoolukal samyuktha canadian-american jeddy prograamukal vikasippicheduthittundu. 2018 leeii kanakkanusarichu, windser sarvakalaashaalayilum detroit karshya sarvakalaashaalayilum oresamayam nadathunna moonnu varshathe prograam ottaava sarvakalaashaalayilum mishigan stettu sarvakalaashaalayilo american sarvakalaashaalayilo vidyaarthikal athirthiyude iruvashathum rund varsham padikkunna naalu varshathe prograam ithil ulppedunnu. munbu, newyork yooniversitti (nyoo) loow school oosgood haal loow school samanamaaya oru prograam vaagdaanam cheythirunnuvenkilum ithu avasaanippichu.
canadayilo newyork samsthaanatho mattevideyengilum niyamam abhyasikkunnathinaayi cubec sivil loow birudadhaarikale lakshyamit oru varshathe jeddy prograam vaagdaanam cheiyunna rund sradheyamaaya ozhivaakkalukalaan montriyal sarvakalashaala, sherbrook sarvakalashaala enniva.
york sarvakalashaala doctor oof jurisprudence birudam vaagdaanam cheythu (maama.niyamam.) 2002 vare oru gaveshana birudamaayi, prograaminte peru piechu ennu maattunnathuvare.dii. niyamathil.
chaina.
peeples republic oof chainayile praadhamika niyama birudam baachilar oof loss (; ellb) aanu. apekshakar munvyavasthayaayi niyama birudam nediyirikkanam enna aavasyamulla birudathala academic niyama birudamaanu maasttar oof loss (; ell. ell. emm).
chainayile birudathala professional niyama birudamaanu juris majistrettu (jm). digri prograaminte praveshana aavasyakatha apekshakar noonn-loow mejarmaarumaayi baachilezhs birudam nediyirikkanam. amerikkayile oru niyama doctorude prathiroopamaayi niyama majistrettine kanakkakkunnu.
niyamapatanatthile academic doktaraanu doctor oof loss (; elld).
2008 avasaanathode, pecking sarvakalaashaalayile shenshen biruda campus anthardesheeya niyama school aarambhichu, ithu yunaittad stetts shailiyilulla vidyaabhyaasam vaagdaanam cheyyukayum chainees maastezhs birudam-maasttar oof loss-avaardukal nalkukayum cheiyunnu, adhikaarikalude prathyeka amgeekaarathode, oru niyama doctor.
hongong.
nilavil chainees yooniversitti oof hongong, yooniversitti oof hongong, sitti yooniversitti oof hongong ennividangalilaanu jeddy birudam vaagdaanam cheiyunnathu. eee birudam chainees bhashayil 'loow vuu' ennum kantoneesil 'phaatt leot bookk sii' ennum ariyappedunnu. hongongile jeddy eathaandu elbic samaanamaan, ithu noonn-loow vishayangalile birudadhaarikalkkaayi neekkivachirikkunnu, ennaal jeddy oru biruda thala birudamaayi kanakkaakkappedunnu, ithinu oru theesis allengil prabandham aavasyamaanu. ell. ell. bii pole aavashyamaaya kozhs varkkil dhaaraalam pandithochithamaaya ulladakkamundu. jeddy rund varshathe prograamaanennu birudam vaagdaanam cheiyunna sarvakalashaalakal avakaashappedunnundenkum, rund varshathinullil birudam poortthiyaakkunnathinu venalkkaalath patanam aavasyamaanu. jeddy, athinte thalakkett undaayirunnittum, hongongil vaagdaanam cheiyunna sarvakalashaalakal oru birudaananthara birudamaayi kanakkakkunnu, ithu hongong yogyathaa chattakkoodile birudaananthara thalatthil sthaapichirikkunnu.
randidathumulla birudadhaarikalkku pii. sii. ell. kozhs, solisittar trainiship allengil baaristtar pupilage enniva ettedukkendathinaal ell. ell. biyum jeey. diyum practies cheyyaanulla licensinu mathiyaya vidyaabhyaasam nalkunnilla.
itali.
italiyil jeddy "gueresprudenceyil loria majistral" ennaanu ariyappedunnathu."bologna proses chattakkoodil, ithu oru maastezhs level birudamaanu. 5 varshathe kozhs varkkum oru anthima prabandhavum ithil ulppedunnu. birudadhaarikalkku "dottor majistrettu inn gueresprudenza" enna padavi nalkukayum yogyathaa pareeksha ezhuthaan aavashyamaaya 18 maasathe pariseelanam poortthiyaakkunnathinu eathenkilum itaaliyan baaril rajisttar cheyyaan yogyatha nedukayum cheiyunnu.
jappan.
jappanil jeddy ennaanu ariyappedunnathu. saadhaaranayaayi moonnu varshamaan padhathi neendunilkkunnathu. niyama parijnjaanamulla (pradhaanamaayum birudathala niyama birudam ullavar) apekshakarkkaayi rund varshathe jeddy prograamukalum vaagdaanam cheiyunnu. eee paatyapadhathi professional adhishtithamaanu, pakshe jappanil oru attorni aayi practies cheiyunnathinulla licensinu mathiyaya vidyaabhyaasam nalkunnilla, kaaranam licencinaayulla ellah udyogaarthikalkkum baar pareekshayil vijayichathin sesham leagal training aandu research instittyoottil ninnu 12 maasathe praayogika pariseelanam undaayirikkanam. american ikyanaadukalkku samaanamaayi, niyama doctore jappanil oru niyamanjanaayi tharamthirickunnu, ithu birudaananthara birudangaludeyum doktarettukaludeyum "academic" birudaananthara shreniyil ninnu vyathyasthamaan.
meksikoo.
licensulla abhibhashakanaakaan, oru vyakthikk naalu muthal anchu varsham vare academic padanatthinum avasana pareekshaykkum sesham labhikkuna baachilar oof loow ("" ") birudam undaayirikkanam. eee biruda padanangalkku sesham birudaananthara birudatthinu thulyamaaya oru majisttar birudam ("birudam") nedaan kazhiyum. eee birudatthinu rando moonno varshathe academic patanam aavasyamaanu. avasaanamaayi, doctoral thalatthilulla gaveshana birudamaaya doctoral birudam nedunnathinu oraalkk moonnu varsham koodi padikkaam. mikka sarvakalashaalakalkkum niyama skoolukalkkum pothuvidyaabhyaasa sekratteriyattil ninnu ("") professionukalude general oafees ("" dayarision general dii professionals "") vazhi amgeekaaram undaayirikkanam ennathinaal ellah academic prograamukalum raajyathudaneelamulla pothu, swakaarya niyama skoolukalil samaanamaan.
phillippeans.
philippeensil, jeddy staanderd ellb pole kooduthal saadhaarana elbic oppam nilanilkkunnu, ithinu naalu varshathe patanam aavasyamaanu; ithu oru biruda birudamaayi kanakkaakkappedunnu, koodaathe praveshanathinu munvyavasthayaayi munkoor biruda patanam aavasyamaanu, koodaathe baar pareekshakalkk aavashyamaaya pradhana vishayangal ulkkollunnu. ennirunnaalum, jeddy vidyaarthikalkku coor baar vishayangal verum randara varshathinullil poortthiyaakkendathundu; elective kozhsukal edukkuka (leagal thiyari, philosophy, chilappol daivashaasthram polum); oru aprenteeshippinu vidheyanaakuka; oru theesis ezhuthukayum prathirodhikkukayum cheyyuka.
philippeensil aadyamaayi birudam nalkiyathu atteniyo dii manila loow skoolaanu, ithu aadyam model prograam vikasippichu, pinneedu atteniyoykku sesham jeddy vaagdaanam cheiyunna mikka schoolukalum, yooniversitti oof batangas koleju oof loow, yooniversitti oof sent. laa saale-koleju oof loyum dii laa saale lipa koleju oof loyum jeddy vaagdaanam cheyyaan thudangi, phaar eestten yooniversitti instittyoott oof loow polulla schoolukal dii laa saale sarvakalaashaalayude raamon vii. raajyathe aadyathe jeddy-mba prograaminaayi dell rosario koleju oof bisinus. ll 2008, phillippeans yooniversitti niyamam athinte birudadhaarikalkku jeddy nalkaan thudangi, school athinte ellb prograam oru jeddy punarnaamakaranam thiranjedukkunnu, sarvakalashaala nalkunna vidyaabhyaasathinte swabhaavam krithyamaayi prathifalippikkaan "namakaranam ellb oru professional athupole oru poost-bachaloriyatt birudam vastutha krithyamaayi prathifalippikkunnilla."2009ll, panchasan lumsode enji mainila (pii. ell. emm) silliman yooniversitti koleju oof loyum athath collegeukal maatti.bii niyama doctormaarkkulla prograamukal, school varshathekkulla puthiya vidyaarthikalkku maattam prayogikkunnu. puthuthayi sthaapithamaaya dii laa saale yooniversitti koleju oof loow jeddy vaagdaanam cheiyunnu, ennirunnaalum ithu oru semistral kalandar upayogikkunna model paatyapadhathiyil ninnu vyathyasthamayi oru trimestral kalandar upayogichu prograam vaagdaanam cheyyum.
singapur.
singappoorile moonnu niyama skoolukalilum doctor oof jurisprudence birudam vaagdaanam cheiyunnu, avaa ell. ell. bii birudangalum vaagdaanam cheiyunnu. singappoorile niyama professionilekkulla praveshanathinaayi ithu oru yogyathayulla niyama birudamaayi kanakkaakkappedunnu. eee prograamukalil ninnu birudam nediya oraal niyamaparamaaya thozhililekkulla praveshanam niyanthrikkunna singappoorile niyamanirmmaanathinu keezhilulla oru "yogyathayulla vyakthi" aanu, koodaathe singapur baaril praveshikkaan arhathayullayaalaan.
yunaittad kingdom.
gunanilavaara urappu ejansi 2014 ll "yuu" yill "juris doctore" ulppeduthunnathinekku koodiyaalochichu.keey. doctoral birudangalkk maathrame doctor upayogikkaavoo enna niyamathinu apavaadamaayi unnatha vidyaabhyaasa yogyathakalkkulla chattakkood. niyama doctor baachilar thalatthil oru avaardayirikkumennum "doctor" enna padavi upayogikkaanulla avakasham nalkillennum nirddeshikkappettu. 2014ll prasidheekaricha anthima chattakkoodinullil ithu ulppeduthiyitla.
nilavil yuu nalkunna eaka jeddy birudam.keey. kweens yooniversitti belfaastilaanu sarvakalashaala. yuu. esile doctoral yogyathaa thalatthil professional doktarettu aayi vyakthamakkiya 3 muthal 4 varshathe birudamaanithu.keey. yadhaartha gaveshanathiloodeyo mattu noothana skolarshippukaliloodeyo puthiya arivinte srishtiyum vyaakhyaanavum, samapraayakkaarude avalokanam thripthippeduthunnathinum achadakkathinte munpanthiyil vyapikkunnathinum merrit prasidheekaranathinum" oru gunanilavaaram prakadamaakkunna 30,000 vaakkukalude prabandham ulppedunna chattakkood.
valare parimithamaaya vidyaarthikalkkaayi joyint ellb/jeddy kozhsukal vaagdaanam cheiyunnathu yooniversitti koleju lunden, kings koleju lunden, lunden school oof economics enniva yunaittad stetsile columbia sarvakalaashaalayumaayi sahakarichu jorttoun sarvakalaashaalayumaayi samyuktha ellb/jeddy vaagdaanam cheiyunnu. britiish ellb, yunaittad stetts jeddy kings koleju lunden ennivaykkulla naalu varshathe biruda kozhsukalaaniva, koodaathe eksattar sarvakalashaalayum chainees yooniversitti oof hongongumaayi samyukthamaayi ellb/jeddy birudangal vaagdaanam cheiyunnu, yukeyil rund varshavum hongongil rund varshavum.
amerikkayile harward loow school yukeyile yooniversitti oof cambridge oru jeddy/ellm joyint digri prograam vaagdaanam cheiyunnu, ithu harward jeddy udyogaarthikalkku 3.5 varshathinullil oru kembridge elmum harward jd nedaan prapthamaakkunnu.
southhaamptan sarvakalashaala "jeddy pathway" birudam ennu visheshippikkunna rund varshathe biruda-entry ellb vaagdaanam cheiyunnu, athesamayam yooniversitti oof loow athinte biruda ellb prograamukalkkullil vidyaarthikale oru canadian jedic thayyaaraakkunnathin vividha "ellb canadian jeddy pathakal" vaagdaanam cheiyunnu. sarey sarvakalashaala munbu southaamptaninu samanamaaya oru kozhs vaagdaanam cheythirunnu. 
york sarvakalashaala niyamathil oru anthaaraashtra currier nokkunnavarkkaayi moonnu varshathe "ellm loow (juris doctor)" birudam vaagdaanam cheiyunnu. ithu aupachaarikamaayi oru maasttar oof loss (ellm) birudamaanu, pakshe ithu oru jdyayi vipananam cheiyunnu.
academica thalatthil.
amerikkayil, niyama professionil praveshikkaan sweekarthaavine thayyarakkunna birudamaanu niyama doctor (emm.dii. allengil dii.oo. medical professionilum dii.dii.ezz allengil dii.emm.dii. danthashaasthrathil). athesamayam jeey.dii. niyama professorakan allengil niyamam practies cheyyaanulla licenses nedunnathinu aavashyamaaya eaka birudam, athu (emm.dii., dii.ooo, dii.dii.ezz, allengil dii.emm.dii.) oru "gaveshana birudamalla".
niyamapatanatthile gaveshana birudangalil maasttar oof loss (ell. ell.) ulppedunnu.emm.), ithinu saadhaaranayaayi jeey aavasyamaanu.dii. oru munvyavasthayaayi, niyamashaasthra doctor (kall.jeey.dii./jeey.ezz.dii.), saadhaaranayaayi ll aavasyamaanu.emm. oru munvyavasthayaayi. 
ennirunnaalum, us loow skoolukalkku amgeekaaram nalkunna american baar association oru kaunsil prasthavana purappeduvichu "oru doctor oof jurisprudence birudam nedunnathinu 84 muthal 90 semester manikkoor vare poost baakkalariyett padanavum doctor oof philosophy birudatthinu saadhaaranayaayi 60 semester manikkoor poost baakkalariyett padanavum oru prabandham ezhuthunnathinoppam aavasyamaanu, rund birudangalum vidyaabhyaasa thozhil aavasyangalkkaayi thulya birudangalaayi kanakkakkum."
athanusarichu, mikka niyama professormaarum kaalavadhi labhikkunnathinaayi yadhaartha rachana gaveshanavum nadathendathundengilum, bhooribhaagathinum jeey undu.dii. avarude ettavum uyarnna birudamaayi, padippikkaanum melnottam vahikkanum yogyathayullavaraan.emm. oppam jeey.ezz.dii sthaanaarthikal. ennirunnaalum, 2015 leeii gaveshanam rund professormareyum niyamikkunnathinulla vardhichuvarunna pravanatha kaanichu.dii. koodaathe piechu.dii. birudangal, prathyekichu kooduthal uyarnna raankulla skoolukalil.
professor keey. keey. keey. kaunsilinte prasthavanaye vimarshicha mwenda, athu jeey-yeei thaarathamyam cheiyunnuvennu choondikkaatti.dii. piechinte padippicha gadakathilekku maathram.dii. gaveshana, prabandha gadakangal avaganichu amerikkayil birudam.
yunaittad stetts department oof ejyukkeshan sentar phoor ejyukkeshan statistiks jeey tharamthirikkunnu.dii. mattu professional doktarettukalum "doctorude digri-professional practies" aayi."ithu piechine tharamthirikkunnu.dii. doctormaarude digri-research/scholarship enna nilayilulla mattu gaveshana doktarettukalum."niyamaparamaaya birudangalil, ithu randaamathe padavi doctor oof juridical sayans birudatthinu maathrame nalkoo.
europil, europian research kaunsil samanamaaya oru nayam pinthudarunnu, "doctor" enna padavi vahikkunna oru professional birudam piechu polulla gaveshana birudatthinu thulyamaayi kanakkaakkappedunnille prasthaavikkunnu.dii. dutch, porchugees deseeya academic recognission information sentarukal yunaittad stetsil nalkunna jd (mattu professional doktarettu birudangalkkoppam) oru birudaananthara birudatthinu thulyamaayi tharamthirikkunnu, athesamayam irelandile deseeya yogyathaa authority yunaittad stetsine sambandhichidatholam ingane parayunnu.. professional birudam oru onnaam birudamaanu, biruda birudamalla, athil 'doctor' enna vaakk ulppeduthiyittundile."
komanvelthu raajyangalum palappozhum amerikkayil nalkunna jeey. dii. yeei baachilezhs birudatthinu thulyamaayi kanakkakkunnu, ennirunnaalum yunaittad stetts sittisanshipp aandu immigration sarveesas "oru birudavum phdic thulyamalla" ennu upadeshichittund.dii.oru jeddy allengil emdi birudam oru maastezhs birudatthinu thulyamaayi kanakkakkum.
doctor" enna thalakkett upayogikkuka.
jeddy udamakale "doctor" ennu abhisambodhana cheiyunnathu amerikkayil aachaarathin virudhamaanu. 1920kalil doktarettu ullavarum (akkaalat biruda yogyathayullavarum polum) mattullavar eee padavi vyaapakamaayi upayogichappol jeddy eee kaaryatthil mattu doktarettukalil ninnu vyathyasthamaanennu sradhikkappettu. innum pothuve ithu thudarunnu.
1960kalude avasaanathil, jeey. dii. ezz nalkunna american niyama skoolukalude ennam vardhikkunnathu abhibhaashakarkku 'doctor' enna padavi dhaarmmikamaayi upayogikkanaakumo ennathinekkurichulla charchakalkku kaaranamaayi. annu praabalyatthil undaayirunna "professional dhaarmmikathayude niyamangale" adisthaanamaakkiyulla prarambha anoupachaarika dhaarmika abhipraayangal ithinethire vannu. niyamaparamaaya prayogatthil thalakkett upayogikkunnathinulla nirodhanam nilanirtthiya poornna dhaarmika abhipraayathode iva pinneedu shakthippeduthi, svayam prashamsanatthinte oru roopamaayi (abhibhaashakar "doctore" upayogikkunnathu staanderd practies aaya rajyangalumaayi edapedumbol ozhike), ennaal academyil thalakkett upayogikkaan anuvadichu "biruda school jeddy birudatthe doctorude birudamaayi kanakkaakkunnundenkil". eee abhipraayangal kooduthal charchakalkku kaaranamaayi.
1969-leeii "professional responsibility coode" avatharippichathu, coode sweekaricha samsthaanangalil sheershakam upayogikkaan anuvadikkunnathinu anukoolamaayi chodyam pariharichathaayi thonni. piechu maathramaano ennathinekkurichu chila tharkkangalundaayirunnu.dii.-level doctor oof juridical sayans eee padavi nalkunnathaayi shariyaayi kaanam, ennaal puthiya "coode" jeddy-holdermaare 'doctor' ennu vilikkaan anuvadichuvennu dhaarmika abhipraayangal vyakthamaakkukayum pazhaya "niyamangal" angane cheythillennu aavarthikkukayum cheythu.
ellah samsthaana baarukalum puthiya coode sweekarikkaathathinaal, chilar thalakkett upayogikkaan anuvadikkunna closs ozhivaakkiyathinaal, abhibhaashakarkku "doctor" enna thalakkett dhaarmmikamaayi upayogikkanaakumo enna ashayakkuzhappam thudarnnu. pala samsthaana baarukalum ippol thalakkett upayogikkaan anuvadikkumbol, oru abhibhaashakante yadhaartha yogyathakalekkurichu pothujanangale aashayakkuzhappathilaakkaan saadhyathayullidathu chilar athinte upayogam nirodhikkunnu (udha.jii. abhibhaashakan oru vaidyashaasthra doktaraanenna dhaarana pothujanagalkk avasheshippikkaamenkil). mattu chila parimithamaaya sandarbhangalil ithu anuvadaneeyamaano ennathinekkurichu charchakal nadannittundu. udaaharanathinu, 2006 juunil florida baar board oof govarnarmaar oru abhibhashakanu oru spanish bhasha parasyatthil svayam "doctor enn leys" (doctor inn loss) ennu visheshippikkaamennu vidhichu, munbathe oru theerumaanam maatti. 2006 joolaiyil diplomayil upayogikkunna bhashayil birudangalude perukal vivarthanam cheyyaathe maathrame kaanaan anuvadikkoo ennu board vottu cheythappol theerumaanam veendum pinvalikkapettu.
"walstreet jenal" "athinte stailbukkil prathyekam rekhappeduthunnathu" "abhibhaashakar, avarude jeddy birudangal undaayirunnittum, avare" "doctor" "ennu vilikkunnilla, ennirunnaalum" "piechu kaivashamulla vyakthikalkk" "enna thalakkett (mungananayundengil, sandarbhathil uchithamaanengil) upayogikkunnu".dii.american aikyanaadukalile avarude thozhilukalil 'doctor' ennu pothuve vilikkappedunnavarkku", "mattu pala pathrangalum doctormark maathramo allengil thalakkettukal upayogikkaathavarkk maathramo eee padavi neekkivaykkunnu. doow" enna vyaja thalakkett upayogichu mishel batchman thante yogyathakale thettayi chithreekarikkunnuvennu avakaashappett 2011 ll "mother johns" oru lekhanam prasidheekarichu.", avalude jeey. dii. yeei maathram adisthaanamaakki. abhibhaashakar eee padavi upayogikkunnathu "chila samsthaanangalil (lajjakaramaayi) amgeekarikkappetta oru sanbradaayamaanu, mattullavayil allah" ennu avar pinneedu lekhanathil bhedagathi varuthi, ennirunnaalum ithu apoorvvamaayi maathrame upayogichirunnulloo ennu avar vaadichu, kaaranam ithu "ningal oru medical doctoro phdo aanennu soochippikkunnu.dii. athinaal thettaaya thalatthilulla vaidagdhyam nalkunnu."

