purathana greak saahityam

aadyakaala grandhangal muthal baisaantain saamraajyathinte kaalam vare purathana greak bhashayil ezhuthiya saahityamaanu purathana greak saahityam. purathana greak saahithyathinte aadyakaala purathana kaalaghattatthil nilanilkkunna aadyakaala kruthikal, mysenian kaalaghattavumaayi chila bandhamundennu innu thirichariyappedunna oru aadarshaparamaaya purathana bhoothakaalathil sajjeekarichirikkunna "iliad", "odeesi" ennee rund itihaasa kavithakalaanu. eee rund ithihaasangalum, homerick sthuthigeethangalum hesiyodinte rund kavithakalaya "theogani", "kruthikalum divasangalum" enniva classical, hellenistic, roman kaalaghattangalil thudarnnukondirunna greak saahitya paarambaryatthinte pradhana aditharayaayirunnu.
greak kaavya paarambaryatthinte aadyakaala vikasanathil sapho, alcase, pinder ennee gaanarachayithaav valareyadhikam swaadheenam chelutthi. eathoru naadakavum poornnamaayum nilanilkkunna aadyakaala greak daarunanaaya naadakakrithaanu escalus. eedippasinekkurichulla duranthangalkku, prathyekichu "eedippas rajaavu", "aantigon" ennivaykku sophocles prashasthanaan. palappozhum daarunamaaya vibhaagathinte athirukal marikadakkunna naadakangalkku euripids ariyappedunnu. haasya naadakakrithu aristophens pazhaya komadi vibhaagathil ezhuthumbol pilkkala naadakakrithu menander puthiya komadiyude aadyakaala thudakkakkaaranaayirunnu. bii. sii. anchaam noottaandil jeevichirunna charitrakaaranmaaraaya hallie carnassinteyum thusididinteyum herodotus, avarude swantham jeevithakaalathinu thottumumbum sheshavum sambhavicha sambhavangalekkurichu ezhuthi. thathwachinthakanaaya plaatto, saadhaaranayaayi thante adhyapakanaaya sokratteesine kendreekarichulla sambhashanangal ezhuthukayum, vividha daarshanika vishayangal kaikaaryam cheyyukayum, athesamayam addehathinte vidyaarthi aristottil niravadhi grandhangal ezhuthukayum, avaa pinneedu valare swaadheenamullavayaayi maarukayum cheythu.
pilkkaalatthe pradhana ezhuthukaaril argonaattukaarude yaathrayekkurichulla itihaasa kavithayaya "dhii argonatica" ezhuthiya apollonius oof roads, itihaasa ganithashaasthra prabandhangal ezhuthiya archemidies, pradhaanamaayum jeevacharithrangalum lekhanangalum ezhuthiya plutarch ennivar ulppedunnu. randaam noottaandile parasya ezhuthukaaranaaya samosattayile lucian oru greak aayirunnu, addeham praadhamikamaayi aakshepahasya kruthikal ezhuthi. purathana greak saahityam pilkkala greak saahithyathilum paashchaathya saahithyathilum aazhathilulla swaadheenam cheluthiyittundu. prathyekichum, pala purathana roman ezhuthukaarkkum avarude greak mungaamikalil ninnu prachodanam labhichu. navothaanam muthal, daante alikhiyeri, vilyam shakespeare, joonn milttan, jaims joys ennivarulppedeyulla europian ezhuthukaar classical prameyangalilum rooparekhakalilum valareyadhikam varachittundu.
pree-classical, classical puraathanathvam.
greak saahithyathinte eee kaalaghattam hommer muthal bii. sii naalam noottaand vareyum mahanaaya alexanderude uyarcha vareyum neendunilkkunnu. kaliman falakangalil leanier bii silabariyil ezhuthiya mysenian aanu ariyappedunna aadyakaala greak rachanakal. eee rekhakalil pradhaanamaayum vyaapaaravumaayi bandhapetta gadya rekhakal adangiyirikkunnu (listtukal, inventarikal, raseethukal muthalaayava).); yadhaartha saahityamonnum kandethiyitla. leanier biyude yadhaartha rooparekha nirddeshakaraaya maikkal ventris joonn chadwick parayunnath saahityam mikkavarum theerchayaayum mysenian greasil nilavilundaayirunnu, pakshe athu onnukil ezhuthappettathaayirunnilla, allengil anganeyaanengil, athu paarchmentilo thadi phalakangalilo aayirunnu, athu bii. sii. panthrandaam noottaandile mysenian kottaarangalude naashathe athijeevichilla.
greak saahityam nannayi nirvachikkapetta saahitya vibhagangalaayi vibhajikkappettirunnu, oronninum nirbandhitha aupachaarika gadanayundu, bhashayum alavukalum. gadyavum kavitayum thammilaayirunnu aadya vibhajanam. kavithaykkullil moonnu suuppar-vibhaagangalundaayirunnu ithihaasam, varikal, naadakam. saahitya vibhaagangalekkurichulla pothuvaaya europian padavali purathana greak padaavaliyil ninnu nerittu uruthirinjathaanu. ganarachana naadakavum kooduthal vibhagangalaayi thirichirikkunnu naalu ganangal (elegiac, iambic, monodic ganarachana, corell ganarachana); moonnu ganangal (trajady, komadi, idaya naadakam). gadyasaahithyam pradhaanamaayum herodotusil ninnaan aarambhikkunnathenn parayaam. kaalakramena, gadyasaahithyathinte niravadhi vibhagangal vikasichuvenkilum avaa thammilulla vyathyaasangal palappozhum mangukayaayirunnu.
itihaasa kavita.
greak saahithyathinte thudakkathil homarinte rund smaaraka kruthikalaaya "iliad", "odeesi" enniva nilakollunnu. homarinte roopam nigoodathayil moodappettirikkunnu. ippol nilakollunna kruthikal addehathintethaanenkilum, avayude verukal addehathinte kaalathinu valare munbe athiyittundennu urappaan (homerick chodyam kaanuka). trojan yudhathinte patthu varshathe avasaanathilninnu pathudivasatthe kaalayalavil vyaapichukidakkunna orotta episodinte vivaranamaan iliad. greak veerochitha aadarshathe ulkkollunna akkillas vyakthiye ithu kendreekarikkunnu.
troiyile yodhaakkalil oralaaya odeeshyasinte sahasikathakalekkurichulla vivaranamaan "odeesi". patthu varshathe yudhathinu sesham, addeham mattoru patthu varsham koodi bhaaryayudeyum kudumbatthinteyum veettilekku kappal yaatra cheiyunnu. penelope anuyojyamaaya sthriyaayi kanakkaakkappettirunnu; odeeshyasumaayulla vivaahasamayath avalude prathibaddhatha, elima, vishudhi, bahumanam ennivayude adisthaanathil hommer avale anuyojyamaaya sthriyaayi chithreekarichu. thante patthu varshathe yaathrayil, thante ellah sakhaakkaleyum kappalukaleyum nashtappedukayum oru yaachakante vesham dharichu ithaakkayilekku veettilekku pookukayum cheiyunnu. eee rund kruthikalum purathana aithihyangale adisthaanamaakkiyullathaayinu. iolic bashayeyum attik bashayeyum adisthaanamaakkiyulla oru purathana bhashayaayirunnu homerick bhasha, randaamathethu bii. sii. aaram noottaandile etheniyan pathipp kaaranam. mahakaavyam hexameter aayirunnu.
preclassical kaalaghattatthile mattoru mahanaaya kavi hessiod aayirunnu. homouril ninnu vyathyasthamayi, hessiod thante kavithakalil svayam paraamarsikkunnu. ennirunnaalum, oru baahya srothassil ninnum addehathekkurichu onnum ariyilla. madhya greasile beotia swadeshiyaaya addeham bisi 700-ll jeevichirunnuvennum jolie cheythirunnuvennum karuthappedunnu. kruthikalum dinangalum", "theogani" ennivayaanu hesiyodinte rund kavithakal. "jolikalum divasangalum" ennathu addehathinu nannayi ariyaavunna daaridryabaadhithamaaya raajyajeevithathinte vishwasthamaaya thithreekaranamaanu, athu karshakarkkulla thathwangalum niyamangalum vyakthamaakkunnu. "theogani" ennathu srishtiyeyum daivangaleyum kurichulla chittayaya vivaranamaan. deerghakaala suvarnna kaalaghattatthil ninnu aarambikkunna manushyaraashiyude yugangale ithu vyakthamaayi vivarikkunnu.
homarinteyum hesiodinteyum rachanakal purathana kaalaghattatthiludaneelam angeyattam uyarnna bahumaanathodeyaanu kanakkaakkappettirunnath, purathana greak mathathinu pinnile adisthaana grandhangalaayi pala purathana ezhuthukaarkkum ithu thonni; hommer oru veerochithamaaya bhoothakaalathinte katha paranju, athu oru srishtiparamaaya vivaranavum samakaalika dainamdina jeevithathinte praayogika yaadhaarthyangalude vivaranavumayi bandhikkappettirikkunnu.
ganarachana.
yadhaarthathil vyakthikal aalapichathilo lyre enna upakaranathodoppam oru corus upayogichathilo ninnaan gaanarachanaykk athinte peru labhichathu. peru undaayirunnittum, eee pothuvaaya ardhathilulla ganarachanaye naalu vibhagangalaayi thirichirunnu, avayil randennam chithrayodoppamalla, marichu pullaankuzhal upayogichaayirunnu. eee rund pilkkala vibhaagangalum shobhayulla kavitayum iambic kavithayumaayirunnu. randum ionic bhaashayilaan ezhuthiyathu. suswara kavithakal suswara dvipadikalil ezhuthukayum iambic kavithakal iambic trimeteril ezhuthukayum cheythu. gaanarachayithaavukalil aadyathethu orupakshe bii. sii. ezhaam noottaandile ettavum pradhanappetta iambic kaviyaya archylocus oof paros aayirikkam. mikka kavikaludeyum kaaryatthilennapole addehathinte kruthikalude sakalangal maathrame avasheshikkunnulloo. valare prakshubdhamaaya jeevitam nayicha addeham oru prakopithanaaya saahasikanaayirunnu ennu chila avashishtangal soochippikkunnu.
niravadhi ganarachanakal eolic bhaashayilaan ezhuthappettathu. ganarachanakal palappozhum valare vaividhyamaarnna kavita meterukal upayogichu. onpathu gaanarachayithaakkal" ennu vilikkappedunnavaraayirunu ellah gaanarachayithavukalilum ettavum prashastar. ellah gaanarachayithavukalilum, lesbosinte sapho (c. 630-sii. bii. sii. 570) aayirunnu ettavum kooduthal aadarikkappettirunnathu. purathana kaalath, avarude kavithakal homarinte kavithakalkk thulyamaaya bahumaanathodeyaanu kanakkaakkappettirunnath. oodu tuu afrodite" enna avarude kavithakalilonnu maathramaan athinte yadhaarthavum poorttheekarikkappettathu roopathil innum nilanilkkunnath. saphoic purame, avarude samakaalika lesbosile alsaeus monodic gaanarachanaykkum shradheyamaayirunnu. doric bhashayil maathramaayi addeham ezhuthiyirunnuvenkilum alkman ezhuthiya kavita manoharamaayi kanakkaakkappettirunnu, athu saadhaaranayaayi kelkkaan asukhakaramaanennu kanakkaakkappettirunnu. tibeesile pilkkala kavi pinder thante gaayakagaanangalkk perukettayalaayirunnu.
naadakam.
greak naadakatthinte nilanilkkunna ellah kruthikalum ethansil ninnulla naadakakrithukkal rachichavayaanu, avaa aattik bhashayil maathramaayi ezhuthappettavayaanu. ellah greak nagara-samsthaanangalilum samghaparipaadikal oru saadhaarana paarambaryamaayirunnu. korasinte neethaavumaayi samvadikkuka enna praadhamika uddeshyathode aadyathe nadane parichayappedutthi naadakam kandupidichathin thespis enna manushyane eadheniyakkaar prashamsichu. pinneedu naadaka rachayithakkal abhinethaakkalude ennam moonnaayi vardhippikkukayum kathaparachilil kooduthal swaathanthryam anuvadikkukayum cheythu.
greco-pershyan yudhangale thudarnnulla kaalaghattatthil, bhoothakaalathe veerochithavum ithihaasaparavumaaya prameyangale adisthaanamaakkiyulla noorukanakkinu duranthangalil ethansinte unarnna deseeya manobhaavam prakadippikkappettu. dionyses devante uthsavangalil avatharippikkunna lalithamaaya gaayakasamghagaanangalil ninnum sambhashanangalil ninnumaanu daarunamaaya naadakangal valarnnathu. classical kaalaghattatthil, ore puraanatthinte naalu vyathyastha episodukal chithreekarikkunna moonnu duranthangalum oru idaya naadakavum prakadanangalil ulppedunnu. oru pothu, mathaparamaya kadamayayi corus dharikkunnathinum parisheelippikkunnathinum chelavu vahikkaan sambannaraaya pouranmaare thiranjedutthu. utsava prakadanangalile hajar aaradhanayaayi kanakkaakkappettirunnu. ethansile dionysisinte grettu ooppan eyar theaterilaanu prakadanangal nadannathu. mikacha naadakangalkku nalkunna sammaanangalkkaayi kavikal malsarichu.
poornnamaayum nilanilkkunna ellah greak duranthangalum parambaraagathamaayi escalus, sophocles allengil euripids ennivayaanu. ennirunnaalum, parambaraagathamaayi eskylasinu avakashappetta "promethius boundu", parambaraagathamaayi yooripaidukalkk avakashappetta "reases" ennivayude rachayithaav chodyam cheyyappedunnu. escalus moolamundaaya ezhu duranthangal avasheshikkunnu. eee naadakangalil moonnu, "agamemnon", "dhaa libation-beyezhs", "dhaa eumenides" enniva "oorestiya" ennariyappedunna oru thrayam roopappeduthunnu. ennirunnaalum, eee naadakangalilonnaaya "promethius boundu" yadhaarthathil eskailasinte makan euphoriante kruthiyaayirikkaam.
sophoclesinte ezhu kruthikal athijeevichu, avayil ettavum prashamsa pidichupattiyathu eedippasinteyum addehathinte santhathikaludeyum kathaye kendreekarichulla moonnu teban naadakangalaanu. eedippas dhii king", "eedippas attu colonus", "aantigon" enniva ulkkollunnathaan teban thrayam. naadakangale palappozhum "thrayam" ennu vilikkunnundenkilum avaa yadhaarthathil varshangalude vyathyaasathilaan ezhuthiyathu. "thudarchayaayi moonnu naadakangalil avasaanatheth, "aantigon", yadhaarthathil aadyamaayi ezhuthappettathu bii. sii. 441-ll sophoclesinte kariyarinte thudakkathil rachichathaanu. "moonnil ettavum prashasthamaaya "eedipas dhii king" bii. sii. 429ll sophoclesinte kariyarinte madhyathilaanu ezhuthappettathu. "kaalakramatthil moonnu naadakangalil randaamathethu, "eedipas attu colonus", yadhaarthathil sophoclesinte avasana naadakamaayirunnu, bii. sii. 401 ll sophoclesinte maranashesham avatharippikkappettu.
eurifiedukalkku avakashappetta pathonpathu naadakangal avasheshikkunnu. eee naadakangalil ettavum ariyappedunnathu "media", "hippolytus", "baache" ennivayaanu. "reases" chilappol yoorippidesinte makan ezhuthiyathaanennu karuthappedunnu, allengil yoorippidesinte oru naadakatthinte maranananthara punarnirmmaanamaanennu karuthappedunnu. euripieds daarunamaaya vibhaagathinte paridhikal marikadannu, addehathinte naadakangalile pala gadakangalum duranthathekkaal komadiyude savisheshathakalaayirunnu. udaaharanathinu, addehathinte naadakamaaya "alsestis" palappozhum oru "prashna naadakam" allengil orupakshe oru yadhaartha duranthathekkaal daarunamaaya naadakamaayi tharamthirichittundu, kaaranam athinte haasya gadakangalum athinu santhoshakaramaaya avasaanavumund.
durantham pole, dionysisinte bahumaanaartham oru aachaarathil ninnaan komadi uyarnnuvannathu, ennaal eee saahacharyathil naadakangal thuranna ashleelata, durupayogam, apamanam enniva niranjathaayirunnu. ethansil, bii. sii. 486-ll komadikal utsava aaghoshathinte audyogika bhaagamaayi maarukayum mikacha nirmmaanangalkk sammanangal vaagdaanam cheyyukayum cheythu. duranthakaarikaleppole, mahanaaya haasyasaahithyakaaranmaarude kurachu kruthikal maathrame ippozhum avasheshikkunnulloo. naadakakrithu aristophens ezhuthiya pathinonnu naadakangalaanu classical komadiyude poornnamaaya kruthikal. haasya avatharanathinte oru nidhiyaan iva. addeham ellaavareyum ellah sthaapanangaleyum kaliyaakki. pakshikal" ennathil addeham ethaniyan janaadhipathyathe parihasikkunnu. meghangalil" addeham thathwachinthakanaaya sokratteesine akramikkunnu. lisistraatta" ennathil addeham yudhathe apalapikkunnu. naadakeeyamaaya kazhivinum kalaarangathum aristophens valareyadhikam prashamsikkappettittund. joonn lempriyarinte "bibliotheca classica" addehathe valare lalithamaayi visheshippikkunnathu "lokasaahithyathile ettavum mikacha haasya naadakakrithaannu addehathinte koode mollier maduppullavanum shakespeare komaliyumanennu thonnunnu."ennirunnaalum, aristophenisinte ellah naadakangalilum ettavum shaashvathamaaya amgeekaaram labhichathu" thavalakalaanu ", ithu oresamayam etheniyan duranthatthile rund bheemanmaraaya escalus, euripids ennivare aakshepikkukayum amarthyaraakkukayum cheiyunnu. bii. sii. 405ll yoorippidesinte maranathinu oru varshathinu sesham lenia utsavathil aadyamaayi ithu avatharippichappol, eadheniyakkaar ithinu onnaam sammanam nalki. rund maasathinu sesham sitti dionysiayil nadanna encore prakadanam nalkia eaka greak naadakamaayirunnu ithu. innum "thavalakal" aadhunika prekshakare aakarshikkunnu. vaanijyaparamaayi vijayakaramaya aadhunika sangeetha pathipp 2004 ll broadwayil avatharippichu.
moonnaamathe naadakeeya vibhaagam aakshepahasya naadakamaayirunnu. eee vibhaagam janapriyamaayirunnuvenkilum, oru aakshepahasya naadakatthinte oru samboornna udaaharanam maathrame nilanilkkunnulloo eurippidukalude "cyclops". sophocles rachicha "ichnyootta" enna randaamathe aakshepahasya naadakatthinte valia bhagangal eejipthile ooksiringas paappiriyude idayil ooksiringas ulla sthalathu ninnu kandeduthittundu.
charithralekhanam.
classical kaalaghattatthil jeevichirunna rund sradheyamaaya charitrakaaranmaar halicarnassinteyum thusididinteyum herodotus aayirunnu. herodotusine saadhaaranayaayi "charithratthinte pithaav" ennu vilikkunnu."addehathinte" "charithrangal" "enna pusthakam gadyasaahithyathile ettavum pazhaya kruthikalilonnaanu". thusididinte "histtari oof dhaa peloponneshyan vaar" enna pusthakam pilkkala ezhuthukaareyum charitrakaaranmaareyum valareyadhikam swaadheenichu, apposthalanmaarude pravrithikalude pusthakatthinte rachayithaavum baisaantain kaalaghattatthile charitrakaaranaaya procopius oof siseria ulppede.
purathana greasile moonnaamathe charitrakaaranaaya ethansile senophone thante "hellenica" aarambhichu, avide bisi 411 ll thusidides thante kruthi avasanippikkukayum bisi 362 vare thante charithram nayikkukayum cheythu. pershyan sairasine thante sahodarane simhaasanathil ninnu purathaakkaan sahaayicha oru greak koolippadayile pankaalithatthekkurichu vishadamaaya, aadya vivaranamaya "anabasis" enna addehathinte pusthakamaanu senophone ettavum prashasthamaaya kruthi, pershyan charitravumaayi bandhapetta mattoru prashasthamaaya kruthi addehathinte "syropedia" aanu. juriyodu sokratteesinte shamaapanam", "symposium", "oormmappeduthalukal" enningane moonnu kruthikal senophone rachichu. senophone plaattoykkum sokratteesine ariyaamaayirunnuvenkilum avarude vivaranagal valare vyathyasthamaan. sainika charithrakaarante vivaranavum kavi-thathwachinthakante vivaranavum thammil niravadhi thaarathamyangal nadathiyittundu.
thathwachintha.
bii. sii. anchaam noottaandilum naalam noottaandilum niravadhi pradhanappettavarum swaadheenamullavarumaaya thathwachinthakar jeevichirunnu. aadyakaala greak thathwachinthakaril moonnu "myelician thathwachinthakar" ennu vilikkappedunnavaraayirunu thails oof mailttas, anaximander, anaximens. ennirunnaalum, eee thathwachinthakarude rachanakalil, sileesiyayile symplicius samrakshicha anaximanderil ninnulla oru bhagam maathrame avasheshichittulloo.
saamosile thathwachinthakanaaya pitthagorasinte jeevithathekkurichu valare kurachu maathrame ariyoo, addehathinte oru rachana innuvare nilanilkunnilla, ennaal addehathinte sishyanaaya empedocles oof acragas ezhuthiya kaavyathmaka rachanakalude aakarshakamaaya oru shekharam nilanilkkunnu, ithu empedoclesine ettavum vyaapakamaayi saakshyappeduthiya pree-sakrettik thathwachinthakaril oralakkunnu. ephesasinte heraclitus, abderayude demokrittas ennee thathwachinthakar ezhuthiya dhaaraalam shakalangalum nilanilkkunnund.
ennirunnaalum, ellah classical thathwachinthakaril ninnum socreties, plaatto, aristottil ennivare pothuve ettavum pradhanappettavarum swaadheenamullavarumaayi kanakkakkunnu. socreties svayam oru pusthakavum ezhuthiyittilla, aadhunika pandithanmaar plaatto addehathe thithreekarikkunnathu krithyamaano allayo ennu charcha cheiyunnu. addehathinte pala ashayangalum, allengil avayekkurichulla avyakthamaaya oru ekadeshamenkilum, plaattoyude aadyakaala sokrettik sambhashanangalil prakadippichittunde chila pandithanmaar vaadikkunnu. athesamayam, mattu pandithanmaar vaadichathu, sokrateesinekkurichulla plaattoyude chithreekaranam athe perilulla charitra vyakthiyumayi valare kurachu bandhamullah plaattoyude swantham abhipraayangal vishadeekarikkaan uddeshichulla oru saangalppika praathinidhyam maathramaanennu. sokratteesinte aashayangale yadhaartha sokratteesinte plaatto chithreekaranam ethratholam prathinidheekarikkunnu ennathinekkurichulla charchaye socreties prashnam ennu vilikkunnu.
vividha vyakthikal thammilulla sambhaashanangale vivarikkan uddeshichulla sambhaashanangaliloodeyaanu plaatto thante ashayangal prakadippichathu. ivayil ettavum ariyappedunnavayil chilath ivayaanu socreties thante vichaaranaykkide nadatthiya prasamgatthinte rekhayaaya "sokratteesinte shamaapanam"; vadhashikshaykk munbu socreties shishyanmaarum thammilulla avasana sambhaashanathinte vivaranamaya "phedo"; snehathinte swabhaavathekkurichulla oru samvaadamaaya "symposium"; plaattoyude ettavum pradhanappetta kruthiyaayi parakke kanakkaakkappedunna "republic", anuyojyamaaya gavanmentine vivarikkunna oru neenda sambhashanam.
ekkaalatheyum ettavum pradhanappettathum swaadheenamullathumaaya daarshanika chinthakaril oralaayi aristottil oof staagira parakke kanakkaakkappedunnu. addehathinte "metaafisiksinte" aadya vaachakam iprakaaramaanu "ellah manushyarum swaabhaavikamaayi arian aagrahikkunnu."athinaal addehathe "ariyunnavarude pithaav" ennu vilikkunnu."addehathinte madhyakala sishyanaaya thomas akwinas addehathe" "thathwachinthakan" "ennu visheshippichu". plaatto academyile vidyaarthiyaayirunna aristottil thante adthyaapakaneppole sambhaashanangalo sambhaashanangalo ezhuthi. ennirunnaalum, ivayonnum innu nilavililla. innuvare vanna rachanakalude koottam orupakshe ethansile swantham skoolaaya lysiathil addeham nadatthiya prabhaashanangale prathinidheekarikkunnum. eee pusthakangalil ninnu polum, addehathinte thaalpparyangalude vishalamaaya shreni vyakthamaan innu daarshanikamaayi kanakkaakkappedunna karyangal ozhikeyulla karyangal addeham paryavekshanam cheythu; nilavilulla grandhangalil yukthi, bhouthikavum jaivashasthravum, dhaarmikatha, raashtreeyam, bharanaghadanaa gavanment enniva ulppedunnu. raashtreeyam", "nicomachian dhaarmikatha", "kaavyam", "aathmavinekkurichulla", "vaachaadopangal ennivayaanu aristottilinte ettavum sradheyamaaya kruthikal.
hellenistic kaalaghattam.
bii. sii. 338 aayappozhekkum sparta ozhikeyulla ellah greak nagara-samsthaanangalum maasidonile philipp randaaman onnippichu. philipinte makan alexander dhii grettu thante pithaavinte vijayangal valareyadhikam vipuleekarichu. greak samskaarathinte nethaavenna nilayilulla pradhana padavi ethansinu nashtappedukayum eejipthile alexandria thaalkkaalikamaayi pakaram vaykkappedukayum cheythu.
vadakkan eejipthile alexandria nagaram bii. sii. moonnaam noottaand muthal greak samskaarathinte mikacha kendramaayi maari. taamasiyaathe ithu oru valia jootha janasamkhyaye aakarshikkukayum purathana lokathile jootha panditharude ettavum valia kendramaayi maarukayum cheythu. hebru baibilinte greak vivarthanamaaya septhuvajint alexandriayil aarambhichathayi ariyappedunnu. hellenistic jootha thathwachinthakanaaya philoo, saadhaarana yugathinte thudakkathil alexandriayil ninnu pravarthichu. koodaathe, ithu pinneedu kristheeya chinthayude vikasanathinte oru pradhana kendrabinduvaayi maari. library school ulppedunna museum allengil myoosukalude aaradhanaalayam sthaapichathu tolami onnaamanaan. thudakkam muthal oru mikacha anthaaraashtra vidyaalayamaayum libraryaayum eee sthaapanam uddeshichirunnu. oduvil araa dashalakshathiladhikam vaalyangal adangiya library kooduthalum greekkilaayirunnu. shaasthreeya greak saahithyathinte ellah kruthikaludeyum oru shekharamaayi pravartthikkaan uddeshichullathaayirunnu ithu.
kavita.
kavi theocritasaanu buccolic kavithayude vibhaagam aadyamaayi vikasippichath. roman kanyaka pinneedu eee vibhaagathil thante "grahanangal" ezhuthi. alexandria libraryile pandithanaaya calimacus, bii. sii. moonnaam noottaandil niravadhi ghattangalilayi niravadhi ghattangalilayi ezhuthiya avyakthamaaya aachaarangaludeyum uthsavangaludeyum perukaludeyum aithihaasika uthbhavam vivarikkunna naalu vaalyangalayi ezhuthiya oru neenda kavithayaya "aythiya" ("kaaranagal") rachichu. madhyakaalakhattathil "eshya" nashtappettu, ennaal irupathaam noottaandil purathana paappiriyude puthiya kandethalukal kaaranam athil bhooribhaagavum veendedukkappettu. pandithanmaar thudakkathil ithine "randaam nira" ennu apakeerthippeduthi, mikacha patanam kaanichu, pakshe yadhaartha "kala" yude abhavam. noottaandinte kaalayalavil, athinekkurichulla pandithochithamaaya vilayiruthal valareyadhikam mechappettu, pala pandithanmaarum ippol athine kooduthal kriyathmakamaaya velichathil kaanunnu. calimacus prathyeka avasarangalkkayi hraswa kavithakalum addehathinte muun vidyaarthi apolloniasinethire nirmmicha "ibis" enna oru hraswa ithihaasamenkilum ezhuthiyittundu. alexandriayude libraryil sookshichirikkunna ellah pradhana kruthikalum pattikappedutthiya "pinekkukal" enna gadyagrandhavum addeham samaaharichu.
alexandrian kavi apollonius oof roads thante itihaasa kavithayaya "argonatica" yiloodeyaanu kooduthal ariyappedunnathu, ithu colchis deshathu ninnu swarnna kambili veendedukkaanulla jesaninteyum kappalyaathrikaraaya argonattinteyum sahasikathakal vivarikkunnu. bii. sii. naalam noottaandil ezhuthiya nakshathrangalekkurichulla sinidasinte grandhatthile eudoxasinte kaavyathmaka avatharanamaaya hexameter kavithayaya "fainomina" kavi araattas ezhuthi.
naadakam.
hellenistic kaalaghattatthil, classical kaalaghattatthile pazhaya komadi puthiya komadi upayogichu maattisthaapichu. puthiya komadiyude ettavum sradheyanaaya ezhuthukaaran etheniyan naadakakrithaaya menander aayirunnu. menanderude naadakangalonnum innum avayude poornna roopathil nilanilkunnilla, pakshe "mosham swabhaavamulla manushyan" enna oru naadakam innuvare eathaandu poornnamaaya roopathil nilanilkkunnu. dhii gayle phram samos" enna peril mattoru naadakavum mattu anchil valia bhaagangalum athijeevichu.
charithralekhanam.
charitrakaaranaaya tymaius sisiliyil janichuvenkilum thante jeevithathinte bhooribhaagavum ethansilaanu chelavazhichathu. addehathinte "charithram" nashtappettuvenkilum polybiasil athinte swaadheenam kaaranam athu praadhaanyamarhikkunnu. 38 pusthakangalil bisi 264 vareyulla sisiliyudeyum italiyudeyum charithram ulkkollunnu, avideyaanu polybius thante kruthi aarambhikkunnath. olimbiku geyimsinekkurichulla moolyavathaaya kaalakrama padanamaaya "olympionicaay" yum timayas ezhuthi.
purathana jeevacharitram.
purathana charitra vyakthikalude lakshyangal, nettangal, parajayangal, swabhaavam enniva vivarikkaanum avaa anukarikkanamo vendayo ennu vivarikkaanum thaalpparyamulla greak (roman) saahithyathinte oru vibhagamaayirunnu purathana jeevacharitram allengil "bios". neposinteyum plutarkkinteyum samanthara jeevithangal polulla purathana "biosi" nte rachayithakkal purathana greasinte samakaalika charithralekhanangalude athe srothassukalum saankethikavidyakalum anukarichu, prathyekichu herodotasinteyum thusididinteyum kruthikal ulppede. avarude vishayathinte dhaarmika swabhaavam konduvanna daarshanika jeevacharithrangal (diogenese lerttiyasinte "pramukha thathwachinthakarude jeevitam" polullava), prabhaashakarudeyum kavikaludeyum jeevithathekkurichu charcha cheiyunna saahitya jeevacharithrangal (philostraattasinte "sophisttukalude jeevitam" polullava), avarude poorvvikar, pradhana sambhavangalum nettangalum, maranam, aathmakathakal, vyaakhyaanangal, oormmakkurippukal enniva ulppede oraalude hraswa rekhaachithram vaagdaanam cheiyunna school reference jeevacharithrangalum, aathmakathakalum, aathmakathakalum, aaa vishayam avatharippikkunna aathmakathakalum, mattu vibhagangalkkoppam sainyathil sajeevamaayavarude jeevithathe kendreekarichulla charitra/rashtreeya jeevacharitravum ulppede purathana jeevacharithrangalude vividha roopangal undaayirunnu.
shaasthravum ganithavum.
alexandriayile (bisi 276-195/194 bisi) eratosthenes jyothishaasthratheyum bhoomishaasthratheyum kurichu ezhuthiyittundengilum addehathinte srishtikal pradhaanamaayum pilkkala samgrahangalil ninnaan ariyappedunnathu. bhoomiyude chuttalav alakkunna aadya vyakthiyayi addeham ariyappedunnu. euclid archemedies enna ganithashaasthranjar ezhuthiyathil bhooribhaagavum samrakshikkappettittund. euclid thante "moolakangalkk" perukettathaanu, avayil bhooribhaagavum addehathinte mungamiyaaya sinidasile eudoxasil ninnaan eduthathu. moolakangal" ennathu jyaamithiyekkurichulla oru grandhamaanu, athu ganithashaasthrathil thudarchayaaya swaadheenam cheluthiyittundu. aarkkimideesil ninnu niravadhi grandhangal innuvare vannittundu. avayil "vrithathinte alavu", athil addeham paiyude moolyam nirnnayichu; mechanicsile addehathinte pravarthanathekkurichu "mechanical sidhaanthangalude reethi"; "sand reconnor"; "floating bodikalil" enniva ulppedunnu. addehathinte kruthikalude oru kayyezhuthuprathi ippol padichukondirikkukayaanu.
gadyakathayaanathu.
hellenistic yugam muthal gadyakrithikale athijeevichathu valare kuravaanu. "bii. sii. randaam noottaandil ezhuthiyathaakaam myeltosile prabhukkanmaarude "dhii milesiakka". "miliaca" thanne athinte poornna roopathil innuvare nilanilkkunnillenkilum athinekkurichulla vividha paraamarshangal nilanilkkunnu. pilkkala roman ezhuthukaaranaaya appuliyasinte "golden aas" oru pradhana udaaharanamaaya "mylian kathakal" ennu vilikkappedunna oru puthiya tharam eee pusthakam sthaapichu.
chaarittan ezhuthiya purathana greak novalukalaaya "chairius aandu calirho", "mettiokkas aandu parthinope" enniva bii. sii. onnaam noottaandinte avasaanathilo eiii. dii onnaam noottaandinte thudakkathilo, hellenistic kaalaghattatthinte avasana bhaagathilo ezhuthappettathaakaam. lolianosinte "phoeneeshyan katha" yude niravadhi sakalangal kandethiyirikkunnath purathana greak picaresk novalinte oru vibhaagathinte nilanilpp velippeduthunnu.
roman kaalaghattam.
nagara-samsthaanathil ninnu saamrajyathilekkulla parivartthanam thathwashaasthrathe valareyadhikam baadhichappol, rashtreeya sidhaanthathil ninnu vyakthiparamaaya dhaarmikathayilekku oonnal nalki, pingaamikalude (prathyekichu tolamikal) keezhilum roman bharanathilum greak aksharangal thazhachuvalarnnu. saahithyaparamo vaachaadopaparamo aaya chaayvulla romacar greak maathrkakal nokkukayum ellaatharam greak saahithyangalum greak samsaarikkunna thaddesheeyarum pinneedu roman ezhuthukaarum vaayikkukayum nirmmikkukayum cheiyunnathu thudarukayum cheythu. eee kaalaghattatthile sradheyamaaya oru savisheshatha, prathyekichu demetrius, suedo-longinus, haalikaarnaassile dionysius enniva udaaharanamaayi eduthuparayunna oru vibhaagamenna nilayil saahitya vimarshanathinte vipuleekaranamaayirunnu. coyin greekkinte vyathyastha gunangalil vividha rachayithakkal ezhuthiya puthiya niyamavum eee kaalaghattatthil ninnullathaanu, ettavum pradhanappetta kruthikal suvisheshangalum vishudha polinte pathrangalumaan.
kavita.
eiii. dii naalam noottaandinte avasaanathil jeevichirunna smyrnayile kavi kvintas, troiyude pathanatthinte katha vivarikkunna oru itihaasa kavithayaya "poost homorica" ezhuthi, "iliad" upekshichidathu ninnu aarambhichu. ekadesham athe samayathum samanamaaya homerick shailiyilum, oru anjjaatha kavi "blemiomakia" rachichu, ithu romakkarum blemmikalum thammilulla samgharshathekkurichulla ippol shakalangalude ithihaasamaanu.
purathana kaalam muthal nilanilkkunna ettavum dairkhyameriya itihaasa kavithayaya "dionysiaca" panopolisile nonnas kavi rachichu. joninte suvisheshathinte oru kaavyathmaka paraphrase addeham ezhuthi. eiii. dii naalam noottaandinte avasaanathilo anchaam noottaandinte thudakkathilo nonnas jeevichirunnathaakaam.
charithralekhanam.
charitrakaaranaaya polybius bisi 200-laanu janichathu. 168ll bandiyaayi romilek konduvanna addeham romile general sipio emiliyaanasinte suhruthaayi. kaarthejinethiraaya yudhangalil addeham orupakshe generalinoppam speyinilekkum vadakke aafrikkayilekkum poyittundaakaam. addeham sipiyoykkoppam chernnu, 146-ll kartej nasippikkappettu.
bisi onnaam noottaandil juuliyas seaserinteyum augustasinteyum kaalaghattatthil jeevichirunna oru greak charithrakaaranaayirunnu diodorus sikulas. 40 pusthakangalilayi addeham "bibliotheca historikka" enna saarvathrika charithram rachichu. ithil aadya anchum 11 muthal 20 vare avasheshikkunnu. aadya rund bhagangal aadyakaala hellenistic kaalaghattatthile charithrathe ulkkollunnu. moonnaamathe bhagam kathaye ippol fraansilulla gaulile seaserinte yudhangalude thudakkathilekku kondupookunnu. bisi onnaam noottaandinte avasaanathilaanu haalikaarnaassile dionysius jeevichirunnathu. rominekkurichulla addehathinte charithram athinte uthbhavam muthal onnaam punic yuddham (bii. sii. 264 muthal 241 vare) vare oru roman veekshanakonil ninnaan ezhuthappettathengilum athu shradhaapoorvvam gaveshanam cheyyappedunnu. anukaranam", "purathana prabhaashakarekkurichulla vyaakhyaanangal", "vaakkukalude krameekaranathekkurichu" ennivayulppede niravadhi grandhangalum addeham ezhuthi.
alexandriayile appianum nicomediayile arian randaam noottaandil jeevichirunnu. appiyan romin athinte vijayangaleyum kurichu ezhuthiyittundu, athesamayam alexander dhii grettinte prachaaranangalekkurichulla pravartthanangalude peril aaran oormmikkappedunnu. roman sainyathil aaraan sevanamanushtichu. athinaal addehathinte pusthakam alexanderude jeevithathile sainika vashangalil valareyadhikam shradha kendreekarikkunnu. thante upadeshtaavu epictettasinte padippikkalukale adisthaanamaakki "diathribay" enna daarshanika grandhavum aaraan ezhuthi.
aadhunika vaayanakkaarkk ettavum ariyappedunna greak charitrakaaranmaaril 119-ll maricha plutarch oof cheyroniyayaanu. mahanaaya greak, roman nethaakkalude "samanthara jeevitam" eee kruthi aadyamaayi prasidheekarichathumuthal ellah thalamurakalum vaayichittund. dhaarmikavum mathaparavum raashtreeyavum shaareerikavum saahityaparavumaaya vishayangalekkurichulla lekhanangalude samahaaramaaya "moralia" aanu addehathinte avasheshikkunna mattoru kruthi.
pilkkaalakhattangalil, saadhaaranayaayi charitraparamaaya kathakal vivarikkunna "saadhaarana pusthakangal" ennu vilikkappedunnava valare janapriyamaayi. eee janapriya vibhaagathinte nilanilkkunna udaaharanangalil aulas gelliyasinte "aattik naitts", nokraattisinte "depnosophiste" yude ethenius, cladius eliyaanasinte "dii naachura animarium", "veriya historiya" enniva ulppedunnu.
shaasthravum ganithavum.
eiii. dii randaam noottaandilaanu gallen jeevichirunnathu. shareeraghadanayude shradhaapoorvamulla vidyaarthiyaayirunnu addeham, adutha 1,400 varshathekku addehathinte kruthikal vaidyashaasthrathil sakthamaaya swaadheenam chelutthi. eiii. dii. 23-nuu maricha strabo oru bhoomishaasthranjanum charithrakaaranumaayirunnu. 47 vaalyangalilulla addehathinte "charitra rekhaachitrangal" mikkavarum ellaam nashtappettu. addehathinte "bhoomishaasthraparamaaya rekhaachitrangal" aagasttas kaalaghattatthil greekkukalkkum romacarkkum ariyaavunna muzhuvan aalukaleyum rajyangaleyum ulkkollunna nilavilulla oreyoru purathana pusthakamaayi thudarunnu. eiii. dii randaam noottaandil jeevichirunna pousaaniyaas oru bhoomishaasthranjanum aayirunnu. randaam noottaandile greasinte bhoomishaasthravum puraanacharitravum vivarikkunna oru yatra gaidaanu addehathinte "greesinekkurichulla vivaranam". ethansil aarambhich naupaaktasil avasaanikkunna oru greak paryadanatthinte roopamaanu eee pusthakam sweekarikkunnathu.
pilkkala thalamurakalil ettavum kooduthal swaadheenam cheluthiya roman kaalaghattatthile shaasthranjan jyothishaasthranjanaaya tolamiyaanu ennathil samshayamilla. eiii. dii randaam noottaandilaanu addeham jeevichathenkilum addehathinte jeevithathekkurichu valare kurachu maathrame ariyoo. arab jyothishaasthranjar aaa thalakkettode vivarthanam cheythathinaal "ganithashaasthra shekharam" enna peril addehathinte maastarpees "almagest" enna peril varthamaanakaalathekk vannirikkunnu. 1300 varshathilereyaayi jyotishaasthra chinthayil aadhipathyam pulartthiyirunna oru grahathekkurichulla vishadamaaya vivaranam aavishkarichathu tolamiyaanu. copernicus, gelilio, keppler, mattu aadyakaala aadhunika jyothishaasthranjar ennivar athine sooryakendravaadam upayogichu maattisthaapikkunnathuvar prapanchathekkurichulla tolomic veekshanam nilaninnu.
thathwachintha.
epictattas (55 edii-135 edii) stoikkukalude dhaarmika thathwachinthayumaayi bandhappettirikkunnu. addehathinte padippikkalukal addehathinte vidyaarthi aaraan "prabhashanangalilum" "enchyridian" (patana maanuval) ennivayilum shekharichu.
eiii. dii moonnaam noottaandil jeevichirunna diogenese lartius, jeevichirunna mikkavarum ellah greak thathwachinthakarudeyum jeevacharithrangalude oru valia shekharamaaya "pramukha thathwachinthakarude jeevithangalum abhipraayangalum" ezhuthi. nirbhagyavashaal, diogenese lartius palappozhum thante srothassukal udharikkunnathil paraajayappedunnu, koodaathe pala aadhunika charitrakaaranmaarum addehathinte saakshyam vishwasaneeyamallennu karuthunnu. ennirunnaalum, ithokkeyaanengilum, aadyakaala greak thathwachinthakarude jeevithathekkurichu labhyamaya eaka uravidam addehamaanu. addehathinte pusthakam poornnamaayum yogyatha illaathathalla; allaathapaksham samrakshikkappedaatha aparamaaya vivarangalude sambathu athu samrakshikkunnu. udaaharanathinu, epicuresinte jeevacharitram prathyekichum uyarnna nilavaaramullathaan, athil epicurusinu thanne avakaashappedunna moonnu neelamulla aksharangalund, avayil randennam pothuve aadhikaarikamaanennu sammathikkunnu.
addehathinte kaalaghattatthile mattoru pradhana thathwachinthakan plotinus aayirunnu. addeham plaattoyude thathwachinthaye neoplatonism enna skoolaayi maatti. pathinezhaam noottaand vare europian chinthayil addehathinte "eneedukal" vishalamaaya swaadheenam chelutthi. plottinasinte thathwachintha pradhaanamaayum "naus", "saikk", "vann" ennee aashayangale chuttippattiyaan."
kristhumathatthinte uyarchaykku sesham, ettavum pradhanappetta thathwachinthakaril palarum kristhyaanikalaayirunnu. randaam noottaandile kristhyan mapp parayal vidagthanaaya justin rakthasakshi, greak bhashayil maathramaayi ezhuthiyirunna addeham greak thathwachinthayil ninnulla ashayangal, prathyekichu platonism, vipulamaayi upayogichu. kristhyan daivashaasthrathinte sthaapakanaaya alexandriayil ninnu uthbhavicha addeham greak thathwachinthayil ninnulla ashayangal vipulamaayi upayogikkukayum purajaatheeya thathwachinthakanaaya selsasinethire "kontraa selsum" enna shamaapana grandhatthil thante swantham nilapaadil urachunilkkaan polum addehathinu kazhiyukayum cheythu.
gadyakathayaanathu.
greak gadyakrithikalil bhooribhaagavum rachicha samayamaayirunnu roman kaalaghattam. akkilles taashyasinte "lucipe aandu klittophon", longasinte "daphnis aandu cloy" ennee purathana greak novalukal eiii. dii randaam noottaandinte thudakkathil ezhuthappettathaakaam. "avasheshikkunna anchu purathana greak pranaya novalukalil ettavum prashasthamaaya "daphnis cloy", greak dveepaaya lesbosil oru aadarshaparamaaya idaya anthareekshathil valarnna rund yuva pranayikalude oru nostaaljik kathayaanu. "antonius diogenese ezhuthiya "thoolinu purathulla athbhuthangal" eiii. dii randaam noottaandinte thudakkathil ezhuthappettirikkaam, ennirunnaalum pandithanmaarkk athinte krithyamaaya theeyathiyekkurichu urappilla. "thoolinappuramulla athbhuthangal" athinte poornna roopathil nilanilkunnilla, pakshe constantinoppilinte photios I ezhuthiya athinte valare neenda sangraham nilanilkkunnu. "eiii. dii randaam noottaandinte avasaanathil ezhuthiyathaakaam ephesasile senophone ezhuthiya "ephesian katha".
eiii. dii randaam noottaandinte avasaanathilaanu samosaattayile aakshepahaasyakkaaranaaya lushian jeevichirunnathu. purathana kaalath loosiyante kruthikal avishwasaneeyamaamvidham janapriyamaayirunnu. lucian ennu visheshippikkappedunna enpathiladhikam vyathyastha rachanakal innuvare nilanilkkunnu. akkaalat sushikshitharkkidayil prachaaratthilundaayirunna purathana greak bhaashayude kanatha alankaarabhaashayilaanu loosiyante mikkavarum ellah kruthikalum ezhuthappettathu. ennirunnaalum, herodotasinte bhashayum sailiyum manahpoorvvam anukarichukondu oru vyaja-ionic bhaashayilaan addehathinte "dhii syrian devathaya" enna pusthakam ezhuthiyathu. loosiyante ettavum prashasthamaaya kruthi "oru yadhaartha katha" enna novalaanu, ithu shaasthrakadhayile athijeevichirikkunna aadyakaala kruthiyaayi chila ezhuthukaar visheshippichittundu. addehathinte sambhashanamaaya "nunakalude kaamukan" ennathil ariyappedunna aadyakaala prethakathakalum "maanthrikante aprentisinte" aadyakaala pathipum adangiyirikkunnu."kristhyaanikalkkethiraaya krooramaaya aakshepahaasyamaaya" "peregrinasinte kadannupokal" "enna addehathinte kathil aadyakaala kristhumathatthile aadyakaala purajaatheeya moolyanirnnayangalilonn adangiyirikkunnu".
"eiii. dii moonnaam noottaandil ezhuthiyathaakaam emesayile heliodorus ezhuthiya "ethiopica". kudumbatthil ninnu akannupookukayum ariyappedunna lokamembaadum niravadhi duranubhavangal nadathukayum cheiyunna chaarikkila enna yuva ethiopian raajakumaariyude kathayaanu chithram parayunnath. ellah purathana greak novalukalilum ettavum kooduthal janapreeti nediya noval edii moonnaam noottaandil ezhuthiya mahanaaya alexanderude chooshanangalekkurichulla saangalppika vivaranamaya "alexander romans" aayirunnu. irupathinaalu vyathyastha bhashakalil athinte enpathu pathippukal nilanilkkunnu, madhyakaalakhattathil eee noval baibil pole thanne janapriyamaayirunnuvennu saakshyappeduthunnu. pathinalam noottaandil alexander romansinte pathippukal valare saadhaaranamaayirunnathinaal jiophree chosar athu ezhuthi...[alexanderude] bhagyam enthaano atho enthaano ennu manassilakkunna/manassilakkunna oro veettinum."
paarambaryamaayi.
purathana greak saahityam paashchaathya saahithyathil mothatthil valia swaadheenam cheluthiyittundu. purathana roman ezhuthukaar purathana greak saahithyathil ninnu vividha shailikalum rooparekhakalum sweekarichu. eee ashayangal pinneedu mattu paashchaathya europian ezhuthukaarum saahitya vimarshakarum sweekarichu. purathana greak saahityam pilkkala greak saahithyathe prathyekichu swaadheenichu. udaaharanathinu, museus grammaticus ezhuthiya "heero aandu leander" enna pilkkala kruthiye greak novalukal swaadheenichu. purathana roman ezhuthukaarkku purathana greak saahitya paarambaryathekkurichu nannayi ariyamaayirunnu, palarum avarude swantham kruthikalil greak klaasikkukalude sailiyum soothravaakyavum manahpoorvvam anukarichu. udaaharanathinu, roman kavi verjil thante itihaasa kavithayaya "ineed" "iliad", "odeesi" ennivayil maathrkayaakki.
madhyakaalakhattathil purathana greak saahityam padinjaaran europil erekkure marannupoyi. madhyakala ezhuthukaaranaaya rogger bekkan ezhuthi, "laattin kristhumathatthil greak, hebru, arabi vyakaranangal parichayamulla naalu purushanmaar illa."navothaanam vare greak rachanakal padinjaaran europian pandithanmaar veendum kandethi. navothaanakaalathu, padinjaaran europian kolejukalilum sarvakalaashaalakalilum aadyamaayi greak padippikkaan thudangi, ithu padinjaaran europian pandithanmaar purathana greasinte saahityam veendum kandethunnathinu kaaranamaayi. yadhaartha greekkil achadicha aadyathe puthiya niyamamaya "teksttas reseptus" 1516-ll dutch maanavika pandithanaaya desiderius irasmus prasidheekarichu. hesiodinte "kruthikaludeyum divasangaludeyum" laattin vivarthanam ulppede classical greak grandhangalude laattin vivarthanangalum irasmus prasidheekarichu.
aadhunika saahithyathil classical greak saahithyathinte swaadheenavum vyakthamaan. shaasthreeya saahithyathilum puraanatthilum ninnulla niravadhi vyakthikal daanthe alighiyeriyude "divya haasya" thiludaneelam prathyakshappedunnu. plutaarkkinte "jeevitam" vilyam shakespeareil valia swaadheenam cheluthukayum addehathinte duranthangalaaya "juuliyas seaser", "aantoni aandu cleopatra", "coriolanus" ennivaykku pinnile pradhana uravidamaayi pravartthikkukayum cheythu. shakespeareude "eiii komadi oof erers", "dhii twelth naitt" ennee komadikal greco-roman nyoo komadi vishayangalil ninnu valareyadhikam aakarshichu. athesamayam, shakespeareude duranthamaaya "taimon oof ethans" lucian ezhuthiya oru kathayil ninnu prachodanam ulkkondathum addehathinte komadi "pericles, prins oof tayar" joonn govarinte "kanfesiyo amantis" ll kandethiya purathana greak novalaaya "apollonius oof tayar" enna novalinte oru chalachithraavishkaarathe adisthaanamaakkiyullathum.
joonn milttante "parudeesa nashtappetta" enna itihaasa kavita rund homerick ithihaasangalkku samanamaaya sailiyilaanu ezhuthiyirikkunnathu. shaasthreeya saahithyathil ninnum puranangalil ninnumulla vyakthikalekkurich pathivayi paraamarsikkukayum avaye oru kristheeya sandesham nalkunnathinu pratheekangalayi upayogikkukayum cheiyunnu. loosiyante "oru yadhaartha katha" jonathan swifttinte "galeevezhs travels" enna novalinte prachodanatthinte bhaagamaayirunnu. "1867ll prasidheekarikkappettathum janapriya prekshakare lakshyamittullathumaaya greak puraanangalekkurichulla oru pusthakamaaya "bulfinchs motholaji" kaal jeey. vivarichu. amerikkayil ithuvare prasidheekarichathil vachu ettavum janapriyamaaya pusthakangalilonnayi" richard kanakkaakkappedunnu.
jorjju bernard shaayude "pigmalian" enna naadakam purathana greak ithihaasamaaya pigmaliyante aadunikavum yukthisahavumaya punarvivaranamaan. aadhunika saahithyathile ettavum mikacha kruthikalilonnaayi niroopakar visheshippicha jaims joyisinte "ulysus" enna noval, aadhunikakaalathe doublin pashchaathalamaakkiyulla homarude "odeesi" yude punarvivaranamaan. irupathaam noottaandinte madhyathil britiish ezhuthukaariyaaya merii renault purathana greak saahithyathilum puraanagalilum ninnu prachodanam ulkkond "vaininte avasaanatheth", "rajaavu marikkanam" ennivayulppede niroopaka prashamsa nediya niravadhi novalukal ezhuthi.
greco-roman saahithyathe bodhapoorvam aakarshikkaatha kruthikalil polum, rachayithakkal palappozhum purathana greasil ninnu uthbhavicha ashayangalum prameyangalum upayogikkunnu. aristottilinte "kaavyathmaka" kruthikalil prakadippicha ashayangal prathyekichum paashchaathya ezhuthukaarudeyum saahitya vimarshakarudeyum thalamurakale swaadheenichittundu. madhyakaalakhattathil avaros ezhuthiya "kaavyathmaka" thinte arabi pathippinte laattin vivarthanam labhyamaayirunnu. innum upayogikkunna saadhaarana greak saahitya padangalil iva ulppedunnu "kathersis", "ethos", "anagnorisis", "hamartia", "hubris", "mimesis", "mithos", "nemesis", "peripettiya".

