
sanyukt raajya america key samvidhaan mein pandrahvaan sanshodhan

sanyukt raajya key samvidhaan mein pandrahvaan sanshodhan (sanshodhan xv) sanghiya sarkaar aur pratyek raajya koo jaati, rung, yaa daasata kii pichhali sthiti key kaaran "ack nagrik key matdan key adhikaar koo aswikar karane yaa cumm karane seey pratibandhit kartaa haye."punarnirmaan sanshodhanon key teesare aur antim key roop mein 3 farwari, 1870 koo isaki pushti kii gaee thee.
americi grihyuddh key antim varshon aur usake baad key punarnirmaan yug mein, congress ney baar-baar laakhon ashwet mukt purushon key adhikaaron parr bahas kii. 1869 taka, gulami koo samaapt karane aur kaanoonon key tahat nagrikta aur samaan suraksha pradaan karane key liye sanshodhan paarit kiye gaye they, lekin eulysis key chunaav. 1868 mein rashtrapati pada key liye anudan ney adhikansh ganarajyiyon koo aashvast kiya kii ashwet purush matdaataon key matadhikar kii raksha karna party key bhavishya key liye mahatvapurna thaa. 26 farwari, 1869 koo, ack matadhikar sanshodhan key adhik vyaapak sanskaranon koo aswikar karane key baad, ganarajyiyon ney ack samjhauta sanshodhan kaa prastaav rakhaa joe nasl, rung yaa pichhali daasata key aadhar parr matadhikar pratibandhon parr pratibandh lagaa dega. loktantravadiyon seey ack kathin anusamarthan ladaai aur virodh seey bachane key baad, sanshodhan koo 30 march, 1870 koo vidhivat anusamarthan aur samvidhaan key hisse key roop mein pramaanit kiya gayaa thaa. congress key pustakalaya key anusaar, pratinidhiyon key sadan mein 144 ganrajyon ney 15vein sanshodhan koo manjuri dene key liye matdan kiya, jisamen shoonya loktantriyon key paksh mein, 39 vote naheen they, aur saat anupasthit they. senate mein, 33 ganrajyon ney anumodan key liye matdan kiya, phir seey shoonya loktantra key paksh mein.
unnisvin shatabdi key anta mein sanyukt raajya america key sarvocch nyayalaya key faisalon ney sanshodhan kii sankeern vyakhya kii. 1890 seey 1910 taka, dakshini sanyukt raajya mein loktaantrik party ney nae raajya samvidhaanon koo apanaaya aur "zim crow" kaanoon banaae joe matadaata panjikaran mein baadhaaen paida karate they. isake parinamswarup adhikansh ashwet matadaata aur kaee garib gorey matdan karon aur bhedbhavpurna saksharta parikshanon dwara matadhikar seey vanchit hoe gaye, matdan mein anya baadhaon key beach, jinase shwet purush matdaataon koo daadaa khandon dwara chhoot dee gaee thee. shwet prathamikon kii ack pranali aur koo clux clan (key. key. key.) key madhyam seey loktantravadiyon dwara hinsak dhamki ney bhee ashwet bhagidari koo dabaa diyaa.
beesavin shatabdi mein, adalat ney sanshodhan kii adhik vyaapak roop seey vyakhya karna shuru curr diyaa, jisamen "ginn v" mein daadaa khandon koo hataa diyaa gayaa. sanyukt raajya america (1915) aur "texas praathamik mamalon" (1927-1953) mein loktaantrik party dwara banaai gaee shwet praathamik pranali koo samaapt karna. matdan key adhikaaron koo samvidhaan mein unneesven sanshodhan (mahilaaon key liye matdan adhikaar, prabhaavi 1920), chaubisven sanshodhan (sanghiya chunaavon mein matdan karon koo pratibandhit karna, prabhaavi 1964) aur chhattisven sanshodhan (matdan kii ayu koo 21 seey ghataakar 18 karna, prabhaavi 1971) mein shamil kiya gayaa thaa. 1965 key matdan adhikaar adhiniyam ney bhedbhavpurna kshetradhikar mein chunaavon kaa sanghiya nireekshan pradaan kiya, saksharta parikshanon aur isi tarah key bhedbhavpurna upkaranon parr pratibandh lagaa diyaa, aur matdan bhedbhaav seey prabhaavit logon key liye kanuni upaay banaae. adalat ney harper banaam mein chaudahaven sanshodhan key tahat raajya chunaav mein chunaav karon koo asamvaidhaanik paaya. virginia raajya chunaav board "(1966).
prishthabhoomi.
americi grihyuddh key antim varshon aur usake baad key punarnirmaan yug mein, congress ney 1863 kii mukti ghoshana aur 1865 key terahaven sanshodhan dwara mukt kaale poorv daason key adhikaaron parr baar-baar bahas kii, jisamen seey baad vaale ney aupchaarik roop seey gulami koo samaapt curr diyaa thaa. congress dwara terahaven sanshodhan key paarit honey key baad, halanki, ganatantravaadi iss baat seey chintit hoe gaye kii yeh loktaantrik-pradhaan dakshini raajyon key congress key pratinidhitva mein vriddhi karega. kyonki mukt kiye gaye daason kii poori aabaadi koo abb pichhale teen-paanchven samjhaute dwara anivarya teen-paanchven hisse key bajaay ginaa jaayega, dakshini raajya jansankhya-adharit pratinidhi sabhaa mein apani shakti koo naatakiya roop seey badhaayenge. gantantravadiyon ney naee matadhikar praapt ashwet aabaadi key voton koo aakarshit karke aur unaki raksha karke iss laabh kii bharpai karane kii ummeed kii.
1865 mein, congress ney 1866 kaa nagrik adhikaar adhiniyam paarit kiya, joe nasl, rung, yaa gulami yaa anaichhik daasata kii pichhali sthiti koo dhyaan mein rakhe binaa nagrikta kii guaranti detaa haye. iss vidheyak ney samaan laabhon aur kaanoon taka pahunch kii bhee guaranti dee, joe yuddh key baad kaee dakshini raajyon dwara paarit kaale code parr seedha hamla thaa. black code ney poorv daason koo unaki poorv sthiti kii tarah kuchh vaapas karane kaa prayaas kiya, anya cheejon key alawa, unaki aavaajaahi koo pratibandhit kiya, unhein saal bhar key shram anubandhon mein pravesh karane key liye majboor kiya, unhein agneyastra rakhane seey pratibandhit kiya, aur unhein adalat mein mukadama karane yaa gawahi dene seey rokaa. halanki congress mein narampanthiyon dwara vidheyak parr hastakshar karane kaa jordar aagrah kiya gayaa thaa, rashtrapati johnson ney 27 march, 1866 koo apane veeto sandesh mein ise veeto curr diyaa, unhone iss upaay parr apatti jataai kyonki isane aise samay mein swatantra logon koo nagrikta pradaan kii thee jaba 36 mein seey 11 raajyon koo congress mein pratinidhitva naheen diyaa gayaa thaa, aur yeh kii yeh african amerikiyon key paksh mein aur goron key khilaf bhedbhaav kartaa thaa. teen saptah baad, johnson key veeto koo override curr diyaa gayaa aur yeh upaay kaanoon bunn gayaa. iss jeet key bavjood, kuchh gantantriyon ney bhee, jinhone nagrik adhikaar adhiniyam key lakshyon kaa samarthan kiya thaa, iss baat parr sandeh karna shuru curr diyaa kii congress key paas una lakshyon koo kaanoonon mein badalane kii samvaidhaanik shakti thee. iss anubhav ney kattarpanthi aur madhyampanthi ganarajyiyon donon koo asthaayi raajneetik bahumat parr bharosa karane key bajaay kaale adhikaaron key liye samvaidhaanik guaranti lene key liye protsaahit kiya.
18 juuna, 1866 koo congress ney chaudahaven sanshodhan koo apanaaya, jisane nasl kii parwah kiye binaa kaanoonon key tahat nagrikta aur samaan sanrakshan kii guaranti dee, aur ise anusamarthan key liye raajyon koo bheja. ack kadve sangharsh key baad jisamen dou raajyon dwara anusamarthan key prayaas shamil they, chaudahaven sanshodhan koo 28 julaai 1868 koo apanaaya gayaa thaa.
chaudahaven sanshodhan kii dhaara 2, kissy bhee raajya key pratinidhi sabhaa mein cumm pratinidhitva dwara dandit kii gaee haye, jisane 21 varsh seey adhik ayu key kissy bhee purush nagrik koo matadhikar seey vanchit curr diyaa haye. kathor dund koo apanaane mein whiffle rahane seey, yeh raajyon koo sanket detaa haye kii unake paas abhee bhee daud key aadhar parr matpatra taka pahunch seey incar karane kaa adhikaar haye. uttari raajya aam taur parr dakshini raajyon kii tarah ashweton koo matdan kaa adhikaar dene key khilaf they. isake anusamarthan key varsh mein, kewal aathh uttari raajyon ney ashweton koo matdan karane kii anumati dee. dakshin mein, ashwet loga kaee kshetron mein matdan karane mein saksham they, lekin kewal kabje vaali sangh senaa key hastakshep key madhyam seey. isase pahale kii congress ney 10 janwari, 1867 koo kshetriya matadhikar adhiniyam paarit karke kshetron mein ashweton koo matadhikar pradaan kiya thaa (srotah congress kaa globe, 39 veen congress, doosara satra, pp. 381-82), 8 janwari, 1867 koo kolambiya jile mein ashweton koo matdan kaa adhikaar diyaa gayaa thaa.
prastaav aur anusamarthan.
prastaav.
nimnalikhit congress mein loktaantrik sadasyata mein vriddhi kaa anuman lagaate hue, ganarajyavadiyon ney kaale matadhikar kii raksha karane vaale sanshodhan koo paarit karane key liye 40 veen sanyukt raajya congress key langade-dook satra kaa upayog kiya. pratinidhi johnn bingham, chaudahaven sanshodhan key praathamik lekhak, ney matadhikar seemaon parr vyaapak pratibandh key liye jore diyaa, lekin "nasl, rung, janm, sampatti, shiksha yaa dhaarmik vishvaason" key aadhar parr matadaata pratibandh parr pratibandh lagaane key ack vyaapak prastaav koo khariz curr diyaa gayaa. saksharta parikshanon parr vishesh roop seey pratibandh lagaane key prastaav koo bhee khariz curr diyaa gayaa thaa. uttar key kuchh pratinidhi, jahaan netivavaad ack pramukh bull thaa, videsh mein janme nagrikon koo matadhikar seey vanchit karane vaale pratibandhon koo sanrakshit karna chaahte they, jaisa kii paschim key pratinidhiyon ney kiya thaa, jahaan jaatiya cheeni logon koo matdan karane seey pratibandhit curr diyaa gayaa thaa. dakshini aur uttari donon ganarajya bhee sangh key samarthan key liye matadhikar seey vanchit dakshini logon koo asthaayi roop seey vote dene seey incar karna jaari rakhna chaahte they, aur way chintit they kii matadhikar kaa vyaapak samarthan iss samooh koo matadhikar pradaan karega.
ack sadan aur senate sammelan samiti ney sanshodhan key antim paath kaa prastaav rakhaa, jisane kewal "jaati, rung, yaa daasata kii pichhali sthiti" key aadhar parr matadaata pratibandh parr pratibandh lagaa diyaa."samarthan key vyaapak sambhav aadhar koo aakarshit karane key liye, sanshodhan mein matdan koo avaruddh karane key liye chunaav karon yaa anya upaayon kaa koee ullekh naheen kiya gayaa, aur ashweton key pada dhaaran karane key adhikaar kii guaranti naheen dee gaee. praarambhik masaudon mein karyalaya kii bhasha shamil thee, lekin vidwan iss parivartan key kaaran key baare mein asahmat hain. iss samjhauta prastaav koo 25 farwari, 1869 koo sadan dwara anumodit kiya gayaa thaa aur agale dinn senate ney ise manjuri dee thee.
sadan mein matdan 144 seey 44 thaa, jisamen 35 ney matdan naheen kiya. sadan kaa vote lagbhag poori tarah seey party lines key saath thaa, koee democrate bill kaa samarthan naheen curr rhaa thaa aur kewal 3 republican ney isake khilaf matdan kiya, kuchh ney socha kii sanshodhan apane sanrakshan mein kaafee door naheen gayaa. pratinidhi sabhaa ney 143 ganrajyon aur ack roodhivaadi ganarajya key matdan "haan" aur 39 loktantriyon, teen ganrajyon, ack swatantra ganarajya aur ack roodhivaadi matdan "naheen" key saath sanshodhan paarit kiya; 26 ganarajya, aathh loktantra aur ack swatantra ganarajya ney matdan naheen kiya. senate mein antim vote 39 seey 13 thaa, jisamen 14 ney matdan naheen kiya. senate ney sanshodhan koo paarit kiya, jisamen 39 ganrajyon ney "haan" aur aathh loktantriyon aur paanch ganrajyon ney "naheen" matdan kiya; 13 ganrajyon aur ack-loktaantrik ney matdan naheen kiya. kuchh kattarpanthi ganarajya, jaise kii massachusets senator charles sumner, matdan seey door rahey kyonki sanshodhan saksharta parikshanon aur matdan karon koo pratibandhit naheen kartaa thaa. congress kii manjuri key baad, prastaavit sanshodhan koo raajya sachiv villium heinry seaward dwara anusamarthan yaa asweekriti key liye raajyon koo bheja gayaa thaa.
anusamarthan.
halanki sanshodhan key liye kaee mool prastaavon koo samiti mein baatchit dwara niyantrit kiya gayaa thaa, phir bhee antim masaude koo teen-chauthai raajyon dwara anumodit kiye jaane mein mahatvapurna baadhaon kaa saamana karna padaa. itihaaskaar villium gillet ney iss prakriya key baare mein likhaa, "yeh kathin thaa aur anta taka parinam anishchit thaa."
prastaavit sanshodhan key virodh kaa ack srot mahila matadhikar andolan thaa, jisane grihyuddh seey pahale aur usake dauran unmoolanvaadi andolan key saath aam kaaran banaaya thaa. raajya key samvidhaan aksar "shwet purush nagrikon" key liye matadhikar koo seemit karke nasl aur ling koo jodate hain."halanki, chaudahaven sanshodhan key paarit honey key saath, jisane apane dusare khand mein spasht roop seey kewal purush nagrikon kii raksha kii thee, kaaryakartaon ney paaya kii mahilaaon key nagrik adhikaar ashweton seey alag hoe gaye hain. pandrahaven sanshodhan key prastaav key saath mamle ack sheersh parr aaa gaye, joe matadaata kaanoonon mein nasl bhedbhaav koo pratibandhit kartaa haye lekin ling bhedbhaav koo naheen. matadhikar aur pada dhaaran key beach sambandh key baare mein congress kii sabse spasht charchaon mein seey ack pandrahaven sanshodhan key baare mein charcha key dauran hui. shuru mein, donon sadanon ney sanshodhan kaa ack sanskaran paarit kiya jisamen karyalaya kaa ullekh karane vaali bhasha shamil thee, lekin antatah bhasha koo chhod diyaa gayaa. 
iss dauran, mahilaaon ney apane adhikaaron kii vakaalat karna jaari rakhaa, sammelan aayojit kiye aur matdan aur pada dhaaran karane key adhikaar kii maang karane vaale prastaav paarit kiye. sanshodhan key kuchh praarambhik sanskaranon mein mahilaaon koo bhee shamil kiya gayaa thaa. haalaanki, antim sanskaran ney yaun sambandh key sandarbhon koo hataa diyaa, jisase mahilaaon key matadhikar andolan mein aur adhik antar aaa gayaa. ack teekhi bahas key baad, americi samaan adhikaar sangh, rashtra kaa pramukh matadhikar samooh, dou pratidvandi sangathanon mein vibhajit hoe gayaah rashtriya mahila matadhikar sangh susan bee. anthany aur elizabeth caddy stanton, jinhone sanshodhan kaa virodh kiya, aur americi mahila matadhikar sangh luci stone aur heinry braun blackwell, jinhone iska samarthan kiya. 1890 key dashak taka donon samooh vibhajit rahey.
1 march 1869 koo nevada sanshodhan kaa anumodan karane vaalaa pahala raajya thaa. nae ingland raajyon aur adhikansh madhya-paschim raajyon ney bhee isake prastaav key turant baad sanshodhan kii pushti kii. dakshini raajya abhee bhee kattarpanthi punarnirmaan sarkaaron dwara niyantrit hain, jaise kii uttari carolina ney bhee teji seey pushti kii. navanirvaachit rashtrapati ulysses aiss. anudan ney sanshodhan kaa dridhata seey samarthan kiya, ise "hamari swatantra sarkaar kii neenv seey laker aaj taka iss tarah key kissy bhee anya ack adhiniyam kii tulanaa mein adhik mahatvapurna upaay" kahaa."unhone niji taur parr nebrasca key governor seey raajya key anusamarthan koo surakshit karate hue prakriya koo gati dene key liye ack vishesh vidhaayi satra bulaane key liye kahaa. aprail aur disambar 1869 mein, congress ney punarnirmaan bill paarit kiye, jisamen virginia, mississippi, texas aur georgia koo congress key pratinidhitva koo phir seey praapt karane key liye ack poorv shart key roop mein sanshodhan kaa anumodan karna anivarya kiya gayaa; sabhi chaar raajyon ney aisaa kiya. anusamarthan key liye sangharsh vishesh roop seey indiana aur ohiyo mein nikat thaa, jisane kramshah maee 1869 aur janwari 1870 mein anusamarthan key liye matdan kiya. newyork, jisane 14 aprail, 1869 koo pushti kii thee, ney 5 janwari, 1870 koo apane anusamarthan koo radd karane kii koshish kii. haalaanki, farwari 1870 mein, georgia, ayova, nebrasca aur texas ney sanshodhan kii pushti kii, jisase kull anusamarthan raajyon koo untees taka laaya gayaa-saintees raajyon seey aavashyak atthais anusamarthan seey ack adhik, aur newyork key kissy bhee adalat key prastaav koo apani sahamati vaapas lene key liye chunauti dene seey roque diyaa.
pandrahaven sanshodhan kaa anumodan karane vaale pahale atthais raajya theh
raajya sachiv hamilton fish ney 30 march, 1870 koo sanshodhan koo pramaanit kiya, jisamen nimnalikhit kaa anusamarthan bhee shamil haih
shesh saat raajyon ney baad mein sanshodhan kii pushti keeh
sanshodhan koo apanaane key saath kaale samudaayon aur unmoolanvaadi samajon mein vyaapak utsavon kaa saamana karna padaa; baad vaale mein seey kaee koo yeh mahsoos karate hue bhang curr diyaa gayaa kii kaale adhikaar surakshit curr liye gaye they aur unakaa kaam puuraa hoe gayaa thaa. rashtrapati anudan ney sanshodhan key baare mein kahaa kii yeh "sabse badaa nagrik parivartan puuraa kartaa haye aur rashtra key jeevan mein aaney key baad seey hui sabse mahatvapurna ghatana kaa gathan kartaa haye."kaee ganarajyiyon ney mahsoos kiya kii sanshodhan key paarit honey key saath, ashwet amerikiyon koo abb sanghiya suraksha kii aavashyakta naheen haye; congress sadasya aur bhavishya key rashtrapati james aeye. garfield ney kahaa kii sanshodhan kaa maarg "african jaati koo apane bhaagya kii dekhbhal pradaan kartaa haye. yeh unake bhaagya koo unake apane haathon mein rakhta haye."congress sadasya johnn aar. linch ney baad mein likhaa kii una dou sanshodhanon key anusamarthan ney punarnirmaan koo safal banaa diyaa.
aavedan.
pandrahaven sanshodhan kii 150 veen varshgaanth key varsh mein kolambiya vishvavidyalaya key itihas key professor aur itihaaskaar erich phoner ney pandrahaven sanshodhan key saath-saath punarnirmaan yug aur punarnirmaan key baad key yug key itihas key baare mein kahaah
punarnirmaan.
african amerikiyon ney apani pustak "dha sekand foundingh haau dha sivil vaar aind reconstruction dha constitution" mein itihaaskaar erich phoner key anusaar iss sanshodhan koo rashtra kaa "doosara janm" aur "1776 kii tulanaa mein badee kranti" kahaa. 
sanshodhan koo apanaane key baad vote dene key liye jaane jaane vaale pahale ashwet vyakti thomas mundi pieterson they, jinhone 31 march, 1870 koo ack sanshodhit shahar charter koo apanaane vaale janmat sangrah key chunaav mein apana matpatra daala. african americi-unamen seey kaee nae mukt kiye gaye gulam-ney apani naee swatantrata kaa upayog karane key liye, ashwet ummidvaaron key score mein matdan kiya. punarnirmaan key dauran, 16 ashwet purushon ney congress mein seva kii aur 2,000 ashwet purushon ney nirvaachit sthaaniya, raajya aur sanghiya padon parr seva kii.
sanyukt raajya america mein v. reez "(1876), pahala yuu.aiss. pandrahaven sanshodhan kii vyakhya karate hue, adalat ney sanshodhan kii sankeern vyakhya kii, matdan karon, saksharta parikshanon aur ack daadaa khand sahit matadhikar parr spasht roop seey nasl-tatasth seemaon koo barkarar rakhate hue, joe nagrikon koo anya matdan aavashyaktaon seey chhoot detaa haye yadi unake daadaa panjikrit matadaata they. adalat ney yeh bhee kahaa kii sanshodhan matadhikar kaa adhikaar pradaan naheen kartaa haye, lekin yeh sanyukt raajya key nagrikon koo unaki jaati, rung, yaa daasata kii pichhali sthiti key kaaran vaikalpik matadhikar key abhyaas mein bhedbhaav seey chhoot key adhikaar key saath nivesh kartaa haye, aur congress koo "uchit kaanoon" dwara usa adhikaar koo lagu karane kaa adhikaar detaa haye. adalat ney likhaah
shwet varchasvavaadi, jaise kii koo clux clan (key. key. key.), ashweton koo matdan seey rokane key liye ardhsainik hinsa kaa upayog karate they. 1873 key coalfax narsamhar mein apane vote key adhikaar kii raksha karane key prayaas mein kaee ashwet maare gaye they. congress dwara key. key. key. aur anya key sanghiya abhiyojan koo adhikrit karane key liye pravartan adhiniyamon koo 1870-1871 mein paarit kiya gayaa thaa jinhone sanshodhan kaa ullanghan kiya thaa. haalaanki, jaise-jaise punarnirmaan apane anta key karib aaya aur sanghiya sanic vaapas chaley gaye, pravartan adhiniyamon key tahat mukadama kaafee cumm hoe gayaa. sanyukt raajya america mein v. crookshank "(1876), sarvocch nyayalaya ney faisala sunaaya kii sanghiya sarkaar key paas coalfax narsamhar key apraadhiyon parr mukadama chalaane kaa adhikaar naheen thaa kyonki way raajya abhineta naheen they.
 
congress ney sajish key khilaf ack praavdhaan koo hataakar 1894 mein adhiniyamon koo aur kamjor curr diyaa. 1877 mein, republican rutherford bee. hayes koo ack atyadhik ladey gaye chunaav key baad rashtrapati chunaa gayaa thaa, jise teen dakshini raajyon seey samarthan praapt huaa thaa, isake badale mein shwet loktaantrik sarkaaron koo sanghiya hastakshep key binaa shasson karane kii anumati dene kii pratigya kii gaee thee. rashtrapati key roop mein, unhone sanghiya nagrik adhikaar sanrakshan koo lagu karane seey incar curr diyaa, jisase raajyon koo nasleeya bhedbhavpurna zim kauve kaanoonon koo lagu karna shuru karane kii anumati millie. ack sanghiya chunaav vidheyak (1890 kaa "lodge bill") koo senate mein safaltapurvak lagu kiya gayaa thaa.
punarnirmaan key baad.
1890 seey 1910 taka, dakshin mein matdan curr aur saksharta pareekshan sthaapit kiye gaye, jisase adhikansh ashwet purushon koo prabhaavi roop seey matadhikar seey vanchit curr diyaa gayaa. kewal shwet purush praathamik chunaavon ney bhee raajneetik pranali mein ashwet purushon key prabhaav koo cumm karane mein madad kii. badhati kanuni baadhaon key saath, ashweton koo raajneetik pranali seey baahar rakhaa gayaa thaa, jisamen goron dwara hinsak pratishodh kii dhamkiyan dee gaeen theen, jisamen linch bheed aur koo clux clan dwara aatankvaadi hamale shamil they. kuchh loktantravadiyon ney sanshodhan koo nirast karane kii vakaalat bhee kii, jaise kii newyork key villium borke cockran.
20veen shatabdi mein, adalat ney pandrahaven sanshodhan koo adhik vyaapak roop seey padhana shuru kiya. ginn vee. mein. sanyukt raajya america (1915), ack sarvasammat adalat ney ack oclahoma daadaa khand koo khariz curr diyaa, jisamen shwet matdaataon koo saksharta pareekshan seey prabhaavi roop seey chhoot dee gaee thee, aur ise bhedbhavpurna paaya gayaa thaa. adalat ney sambandhit mamle mein faisala sunaaya "myers banaam. anderson "(1915), kii iss tarah key khand koo lagu karane vaale adhikaari nagrik nuksan key liye uttardaayi they.
adalat ney nirnayon kii ack shrinkhala mein shwet praathamik pranali koo sambodhit kiya jise baad mein "texas praathamik mamalon" key roop mein jaanaa gayaa. nixon vee. mein. herndon "(1927), dow. laurence aeye. nixon ney nasl key aadhar parr ack loktaantrik party key praathamik chunaav mein matpatra seey incar kiye jaane key baad sanghiya nagrik adhikaar kaanoonon key tahat harjaane key liye mukadama daayar kiya. adalat ney chaudahaven sanshodhan key aadhar parr unake paksh mein paaya, joe kaanoon key tahat samaan suraksha kii guaranti detaa haye, jabaki unake pandrahaven sanshodhan key daave parr charcha naheen kartaa haye. texas dwara raajneetik dall kii raajya karyakari samiti koo matdan yogyata nirdhaarit karane kii anumati dene key liye apane kaanoon mein sanshodhan karane key baad, nixon ney phir seey mukadama daayar kiya; "nixon banaam. (1932), adalat ney chaudahaven sanshodhan key aadhar parr phir seey unake paksh mein paaya.
nixon" key baad, loktaantrik party key raajya sammelan ney ack niyam sthaapit kiya kii kewal gorey apane praathamik chunaavon mein matdan curr sakate hain; adalat ney sarvasammati seey iss niyam koo "groway banaam" mein samvaidhaanik key roop mein barkarar rakhaa. townsand "(1935), pichhale praathamik mamalon mein ack niji sangathan dwara raajya key bhedbhaav koo alag kartaa haye. haalaanki, sanyukt raajya america mein vee. classic "(1941), adalat ney faisala sunaaya kii praathamik chunaav chunavi prakriya kaa ack aavashyak hissa they, joe" groway "mein tark koo cumm karate they. classic" parr adharit, "smith vee mein court. olerite "(1944) ney" groway "koo khariz curr diyaa, yeh nirnay kii gair-shwet matdaataon koo praathamik chunaavon mein matpatra seey incar karna pandrahaven sanshodhan kaa ullanghan thaa. texas key antim praathamik mamalon mein, "terry vee. addams (1953), adalat ney faisala sunaaya kii kaale vaadi ack samooh seey harjaane key hakdar they joe loktaantrik party key adhikaariyon kii sahaayata seey kewal gorey-poorv-praathamik chunaavon kaa ayojan kartaa thaa.
adalat ney "gomilian banaam" mein ack geremander koo maarne key liye sanshodhan kaa bhee upayog kiya. lightfoot "(1960). nirnay mein paaya gayaa kii tuskegi, alabama adhikaariyon dwara tuskegi sansthaan key aspas key jyaadaatar kaale kshetra koo baahar karane key liye shahar kii seemaon koo phir seey taiyar karane key liye nasl key aadhar parr bhedbhaav kiya gayaa. adalat ney baad mein "chawal banaam" mein iss nirnay parr bharosa kiya. kayetano "(2000), jisane havaai mamalon key karyalaya key chunaavon mein vansh-adharit matdan koo cumm curr diyaa; faisale mein kahaa gayaa kii chunaavon ney" vansh koo nasleeya paribhasha key roop mein aur nasleeya uddeshya key liye "upayog karke pandrahaven sanshodhan kaa ullanghan kiya.
pandrahaven sanshodhan key nyaayik pravartan key baad daadaa khand, shwet praathamik aur anya bhedbhavpurna ranneetiyon koo samaapt curr diyaa gayaa, dakshini ashwet matadaata panjikaran dheere-dheere badhaa, 1940 mein paanch pratishat seey badhkar 1960 mein atthais pratishat hoe gayaa. haalaanki pandrahaven sanshodhan kii vyakhya kabhi bhee matdan karon koo pratibandhit karane key liye naheen kii gaee thee, 1962 mein chaubisven sanshodhan koo sanghiya chunaavon mein matdan karon parr pratibandh lagaane key liye apanaaya gayaa thaa, aur 1966 mein sarvocch nyayalaya ney "harper banaam. virginia raajya chunaav board "(1966) kii raajya chunaav curr chaudahaven sanshodhan key samaan sanrakshan khand kaa ullanghan karate hain.
congress ney matdan mein aur nasleeya samaantaa praapt karane key liye 1965 key matdan adhikaar adhiniyam koo paarit karane key liye pandrahaven sanshodhan kii dhaara 2 key anusaar apane adhikaar kaa upayog kiya. matdan adhikaar adhiniyam kii dhaara 4 aur 5 key anusaar matdan mein nasleeya bhedbhaav key itihas vaale raajyon aur sthaaniya sarkaaron koo apane matdan kaanoonon yaa prathaon mein sabhi parivartanon koo sanghiya sarkaar koo anumodan key liye prastut karane kii aavashyakta hoti haye, isase pahale kii way prabhaav mein aaa sakein, ack prakriya jise "poorv-spashteekaran" kahaa jaataa haye. 1976 taka, 63 pratishat dakshini ashweton ney matdan key liye panjikaran karaaya thaa, joe dakshini shweton key liye kewal paanch pratishat cumm thaa.
sarvocch nyayalaya ney "dakshin carolina banaam" mein dhaara 4 aur 5 kii samvaidhaaniktaa koo barkarar rakhaa. katzenback "(1966). haalaanki, shelby county banaam mein. dhaarak (2013), sarvocch nyayalaya ney faisala sunaaya kii matdan adhikaar adhiniyam kii dhaara 4 (bee), jisane coverage sootra sthaapit kiya joe nirdhaarit kartaa haye kii kaun seey kshetradhikar poorv-manjuri key adheen they, abb samvaidhaanik naheen thaa aur pandrahaven sanshodhan kii dhaara 2 key tahat congress key pravartan pradhikaran seey adhik thaa. adalat ney ghoshana kii kii pandrahvaan sanshodhan "adesh detaa haye kii jaati yaa rung key kaaran matdan key adhikaar seey incar yaa sankshipt naheen kiya jaayega, aur yeh congress koo usa adesh koo lagu karane kii shakti detaa haye. sanshodhan ateet key liye dandit karane key liye naheen banaaya gayaa haye; iska uddeshya ack behtar bhavishya sunishchit karna haye."adalat key anusaar," record koo kaise dekhaa jaae, koee bhee yeh uchit roop seey naheen kaha sakata haye kii yeh 'vyaapak', 'spasht', 'vyaapak' aur 'vyaapak' bhedbhaav key karib aaney vaali kissy bhee cheez koo darshaata haye joe 1965 mein congress kaa saamana curr rhaa thaa, aur joe spasht roop seey desh key baaki hisson seey cover kiye gaye kshetradhikaron koo alag kartaa haye."asahamati mein, justice rooth badder ginsberg ney likhaa," jaba yeh kaam curr gayaa hoe aur bhedbhavpurna parivartanon koo rokane key liye kaam karna jaari rakhe, tou poorv-spashteekaran koo baahar fenkana barish key toofaan mein apani chhatari fenkane jaisa haye kyonki aap geele naheen hoe rahey hain."jabaki poorv-manjuri praavdhaan koo hii nirast naheen kiya gayaa thaa, yeh taba taka nishkriya rahega jaba taka kii congress ack nayaa coverage sootra paarit naheen karati.
sandarbh.
soochanaatmak tippaniyan
uddharan
granth soochi