
pustakon kaa itihas

1980 key dashak mein pustakon kaa itihas ack sweekrit shaikshanik vishay bunn gayaa. iss vishay mein yogdan karane vaalon mein paathya chhatravritti, sanhitavigyan, granth soochi, bhasha vigyaan, puralekh, kalaa itihas, samajik itihas aur saanskritik itihas key kshetra key visheshagya shamil hain. iska mukhya uddeshya yeh pradarshit karna haye kii pustak ack vastu key roop mein, naa kii kewal isake bheetar nihit paath, pathakon aur shabdon key beach baatchit kaa ack madhyam haye.
guttenberg bibil dwara prasiddh printing press key vikas seey pahale, pratyek paath ack advitiya hastanirmit moolyavaan lekh thaa, jise lekhak, malik, bookbinder aur chitrakaar dwara shamil design suvidhaon key madhyam seey vyaktigat kiya gayaa thaa. pustak key pratyek ghatak bhaag key vishleshan seey iska uddeshya, ise kahaan aur kaise rakhaa gayaa thaa, ise kaun padhata thaa, usa avadhi kii vaichaarik aur dhaarmik maanyataaen aur kyaa pathakon ney paath key bheetar key paath key saath baatchit kii thee, yeh pataa chalata haye. iss prakriti key pramaan kii kamee bhee usa vishesh pustak kii prakriti key baare mein moolyavaan surag chhodati haye.
utpatti.
20veen shatabdi key uttaraardh mein pustak kaa itihas ack sweekrit shaikshanik vishay bunn gayaa. ise villium ivince junier dwara badhaava diyaa gayaa thaa.'1958 mein 'print aur drishya sanchaar' (1953) aur heinry-jeane martin aur lucien fabrey kii 'll' apparition doo livre '(pustak kaa aanaah mudran kaa prabhaav, 1450-1800) key saath-saath marshel kluhan kii' guttenberg galaxyh dha making off typographic maine '(1962). pustak key itihas mein ack aur ullekhaniya agrani robbert darnton hain.
kalakram.
pustak kaa itihas lekhan key vikas aur kagaj aur mudran jaise vibhinn anya aavishkaron key saath shuru hotaa haye, aur pustak mudran key aadhunik vyavasaay key madhyam seey jaari haye. pustakon key itihas parr sabse pahale gyaan samaaj mein haye joe vaastav mein aaj paaramparik roop seey "pustaken" kahalaane seey pahale kii baat haye aur goliyaan, scroll aur paparus kii chadaron seey shuru hoti haye. (vartamaan praarup jise humm pustakon key roop mein maanate hain, jisamen ack scroll key bajaay alag-alag sheet ack saath rakhee jaati hain, usey codex (bahuvachan kodis) kahaa jaataa haye.) phir haath seey bandhi, mahangi aur vistrit paandulipiyaan codex key roop mein dikhaai deen. inn ney press-mudrit khandon koo raasta diyaa aur antatah aaj vyaapak roop seey mudrit khandon koo prachalit curr diyaa. ee-book key aagaman key saath samkaaleen pustakon kii koee bhautik upasthiti bhee naheen hoe sakati haye. brail aur audiobook key aagaman key saath yeh pustak viklangon key liye adhik sulabh hoe gaee.
mitty kii goliyaan.
mesopotamia mein mitty kii goliyon kaa upayog kiya jaataa thaa. calmus, ack trikoniya bindu vaalaa ack upkaran, kaa upayog nama mitty mein paatron koo likhane key liye kiya jaataa thaa. goliyon koo sookhane key liye aag kaa istemal kiya gayaa thaa. nauveh mein, 20,000 seey adhik goliyaan paaee gaee hain, joe iss seey sambandhit hain; yeh assyria key raajaon kaa sangrah aur pustakalaya thaa, jinake paas pratilipikaron aur sanrakshanvadiyon kii kaaryashaalaaen theen. yeh pustakon key sangathan, sanrakshan, vargeekaran aadi parr vichaar karane kii ack degree kaa anuman lagaata haye. germany, chilly, phillippeans aur sahaara registan sahit duniya key vibhinn hisson mein 19veen shatabdi taka aisee goliyon kaa upayog jaari rhaa.
cuniform aur sumerian lekhan.
lekhan kii utpatti cuniform key aagaman key dauran sumer mein record-keeping key ack roop key roop mein hui. kaee mitty kii pattiyan paaee gaee hain joe kanuni anubandhon koo darj karane, parisampattiyon kii soochi banaane aur antatah sumerian saahitya aur mithakon koo darj karane key liye upayog kiye jaane vaale cuniform lekhan koo darshaati hain. puraatatvidon ney bahut pahale seey hii lekhakar schools kii khoj kii haye, jahan chhatron koo lekhan kii kalaa sikhai jaati thee. abb iraq mein vikasit, "cuniform" lipi kaa naam baad mein lattin shabd cunus key naam parr rakhaa gayaa, jiska arth haye ways-aakar. lekhak aksar mitty parr cuniform likhate they, lekin kabhi-kabhi way soney jaisi keemati samagri kaa upayog karate they. cuniform koo teen hazaar seey adhik varshon taka vibhinn bhaashaon mein likhaa gayaa thaa, jaise kii sumerian, akadian aur greek, kewal tabhi samaapt huaa jaba sassanian samrajya ney babylone parr vijay praapt kii aur shastriyon koo likhana bund karane key liye majboor kiya. kuchh bachee hui cuniform goliyaan chhaatr lekhakon dwara likhi gaee theen.
papyrus.
papyrus reed key tanon seey majja nikaalane key baad, charanon kii ack shrinkhala (aardrata, dabaane, sukhaane, gond karane aur kaatane) ney parivartansheel gunavatta key madhyam kaa utpaadan kiya, jiska upayog pavitra lekhan key liye sabse achchha kiya jaa rhaa haye. pracheen misra mein, papyrus kaa upayog lekhan satahon key liye ack madhyam key roop mein kiya jaataa thaa, shayed pahale rajvansh key roop mein, lekin pahala saboot paanchven rajvansh (lagbhag 2400 eesaa poorv) key raajaa nepherikare kakai kii vivaran pustakon seey haye. ack calmus, ack bindu taka tej kiye gaye ack nakkashi kaa tanaa, yaa pakshi key pankhon kaa upayog lekhan key liye kiya jaataa thaa. misra key lekhakon kii lipi koo padaanukramit, yaa pavitra lekhan kahaa jaataa thaa; yeh chitralipi naheen haye, balki pandulipi lekhan key liye adhik anukoolit ack saralikrit roop haye (chitralipi aamtaur parr utkeern yaa chitrit kii jaati haye). misra key loga grees aur rome sahit anya bhoomadhyasagariya sabhyataon koo paparus kaa niryaat karate they, jahan charmpatra vikasit honey taka iska upayog kiya jaataa thaa.
papyrus pustaken 10 meater yaa usase adhik kii kull lambai key liye ack saath chipkai gaee kaee chadaron key ack scroll key roop mein theen. kuchh pustaken, jaise kii ramses III key shasankal kaa itihas, 40 meater seey adhik lambi theen. pustaken kshaitij roop seey baahar nikalati hain; paath ack taraf faila huaa thaa aur stambhon mein vibhajit thaa. sheershak koo pustak vaale cylinder seey judey label dwara ingit kiya gayaa thaa. kaee papyrus granth kabron seey aatey hain, jahan praarthanaaen aur pavitra granth jamaa kiye gaye they (jaise kii mritakon kii pustak, doosari sahasrabdi eesaa poorv kii shuruat seey).
papyrus ack samanya substrate thaa jiska upayog notary dastaavezon, curr rajistriyon, kanuni anubandhon aadi key roop mein kiya jaataa thaa. scroll aamtaur parr padhane key liye urdhvaadhar roop seey rakhe jaate they aur paath lambe stambhon mein likhaa jaataa thaa. doosari or, saahityik granthon koo paaramparik roop seey codex roop mein likhaa jaataa thaa. misra mein bache hue papyrus kaa upayog aksar pustak key aavaran banaane key liye bookbinder dwara kiya jaataa thaa kyonki kagaj ney pustakon key liye pramukh substrate key roop mein papyrus koo badal diyaa thaa.
purvi asia.
chean.
pustakon kii shuruat seey pahale, huddy, khol, lakadi aur resham parr lekhan chean mein eesaa poorv doosari shatabdi seey bahut pahale prachalit thaa, jaba taka kii pahali shatabdi esvi key aspas chean mein kagaj kaa aavishkaar naheen huaa thaa. chean kii pahali pahchaanane yogya pustaken jinhen "jeans" yaa "jiandu" kahaa jaataa haye, patali vibhajit aur sookhe baans key roll seey bunny theen jinhen bhang, resham yaa chamade key saath bandha gayaa thaa. kagaj banaane key liye shahatoot kii chhaal kaa upayog karke prakriya kii khoj kaa shreya kaaee lune koo diyaa jaataa haye, lekin yeh purana hoe sakata haye. granthon koo lakadi key tukade key mudran dwara punah prastut kiya gayaa thaa; bauddh granthon kaa prasaar badey paimaane parr utpaadan key liye ack mukhya prerana thee. pustak kaa praarup madhyavarti charanon mein mudey hue scroll, ack kinare parr bandhe scroll ("titali kii kitaaben") aur isi tarah key saath vikasit huaa.
haalaanki koee sateek tithi gyaat naheen haye, 618 aur 907 esvi key beach-taang rajvansh kii avadhi-chean mein pustakon kii pahali chhapaai shuru hui. sabse purani mudrit pustak "heere key sootra" kaa ack kaam haye aur yeh 868 esvi mein, taang rajvansh key dauran kii haye. heere kaa sootra" lakadi key tukade kii chhapaai kii vidhi dwara mudrit kiya gayaa thaa, ack kathin vidhi jisamen mudrit kiye jaane vaale paath koo lakadi key tukade kii satah mein tarasha jaayega, anivarya roop seey lekhan satah key madhyam parr shabdon parr muhar lagaane key liye upayog kiya jaayega. pustak mudran key shuruati charanon key dauran pahale seey hii hastalikhit granthon key punarutpadan key liye lakadi key tukade kii chhapaai ack aam prakriya thee. yeh prakriya avishvasaniya roop seey samay lene vaali thee.
lakadi key block kii chhapaai kii saavdhaanipoorvak aur samay lene vaali prakriya key kaaran, mudran key itihas mein ack pramukh yogadankarta, bee sheng ney chala prakaar kii mudran (1041-1048 CE) kii prakriya kaa aavishkaar kiya. bii sheng ney ack mudran prakriya vikasit kii jisamen likhit paath koo baney charitra prakaron key upayog key saath pratilipi kiya jaa sakata haye, joe sabse pahale syremic yaa mitty kii samagri seey banaa thaa. chala prakaar kii chhapaai kii vidhi kaa baad mein swatantra roop seey aavishkaar kiya gayaa aur johannes guttenberg dwara isamen sudhaar kiya gayaa.
japan.
17veen shatabdi kii shuruat mein japan mein bahut saare atyant vistrit paath kaa nirmaan kiya gayaa thaa. udaaharan key liye, hitomi hitudai ney apani pustak "honcho shokan" (kshetra kaa paak darpan) key liye 499 prakaar key khaadya foolon aur jaanvaron parr feeled notes lene mein saath saal bitaaye. lekhan kii yeh vistrit shally shuruati varshon mein aam thee jaba adhikansh sakshar loga uchch varg key they. isake turant baad, saksharta mein vriddhi hui, kyonki saikadon (kuchh kahate hain kii hajaaron) schools ney bachchon koo bhugol, itihas aur vyaktigat shilp aur ahwan kii shabdawali sikhai. atyadhik vistrit shally abhee bhee bunny hui haye kyonki yeh kaee rajpatron mein susangat thee, joe ack samajik shabdakosh key roop mein ubhar rahee thee. kuchh udaharanon mein, parivarik panchang aur vishvakoshon koo kshetriya roop seey ack saath rakhaa gayaa thaa.
jabaki atyadhik vistrit lekhan roop banaa rhaa, ack saral padhane kii shally bhee 1670 key dashak key aspas vikasit hui joe ack lokpriya pathakon key liye likhi gaee thee. yeh ack saral sthaaniya bhasha kaa upayog kartaa thaa, aur pahali baar pustak kharidaaron key liye lagbhag seedhe likhaa gayaa thaa. kaalpanik kathaaon kii yeye mool kathaaen aam samurai key saath-saath aam shahar key logon key beach lokpriya theen. kritiyaan kalpana seey parey gaeen aur usa vishay key liye vishesh roop seey kuchh shilp aur niyamavali koo bhee chitrit kiya gayaa. yeye adhik lokpriya pustaken lipi key nae ubharate roop mein likhi gaee theen. lekhakon koo pahali baar "padhane vaale logon" key vichaar seey nipatna padaa. inn lekhakon ney apane darshakon key vibhinn samajik staron koo dhyaan mein rakhaa aur aam aadami key liye "sandarbh key samanya roopon koo seekhana padaa joe ack paath key shabdon aur chhaviyon koo samajhane yogya banaate they.
lekhak apane adhik saral lekhan key saath ack nae bajar mein pahunch gaye they. iss baadha koo paar karane key baad, unhone nirdisht shilp aur samajik shabdakoshon key baare mein adhik likhana shuru curr diyaa. pahali baar, lekhakon koo ack baar niji gyaan koo saarvajanik karane kaa mauka milaa, aur way adhik kshetriya soochana guides mein chaley gaye. vistaar-unmukh lekhan abhee bhee banaa huaa haye kyonki lekhan koo kuchh aisaa key roop mein samajha jaane lagaa jise "parivartan key khilaf nirantarta koo maapane key liye matratmak sakshya" dikhaane kii aavashyakta thee. japan mein badhati saksharta key saath-saath lekhakon key prasaar ney lekhan koo ack ardh-swaayatt pranali banaa diyaa. haalaanki, 17veen shatabdi key anta mein bhee censorship key udaaharan they. paridrishya key vishal chitran key bavjood, sarkari shaktiyon ney una kshetron koo sunishchit kiya joe samvedansheel vishayon jaise kii sainya parivaaron, videshi mamalon, isai dharm aur anya visham dhaaranaon koo shamil karate they, aur pareshan karane vaali vartamaan ghatnaaon koo saarvajanik karyon seey baahar rakhaa gayaa thaa. iss swa-censorship mein kamiyaan theen, kyonki samajik tippani uchch samajik jaati mein rahee jahaan yeh jaankaari adhik aasaani seey upalabdh thee. inn sensors key bavjood, poore japan mein saarvajanik reeding mein vriddhi hui aur nae bajar banaae jinhen uchch abhijaat varg key saath-saath madhyam varg key logon key beach saajha kiya jaa sakata thaa, halanki alag-alag vishay vastu key saath.
america key poorv-kolambiyai kodis.
mesoamerica mein, jaankaari koo kagaj kii lambi pattiyon, bhutashay tantuon yaa jaanvaron kii khaal parr darj kiya gayaa thaa, jinhen phir modd diyaa gayaa thaa aur lakadi key aavaran dwara sanrakshit kiya gayaa thaa. aisaa maanaa jaataa thaa kii yeye teesari aur aathvin shatabdi key beach shaastriya kaal key samay seey maujood they. inmein seey kaee sanhitaon mein jyotishiya jaankaari, dhaarmik calender, devtaon key baare mein gyaan, shasakon kii vanshavali, maanchitran jaankaari aur shraddhanjali sangrah shamil they. inmein seey kaee kodis mandiron mein sangraheet kiye gaye they lekin antatah spanish khojkartaon dwara nasht curr diye gaye they.
vartamaan mein, ekmatra poori tarah seey poorv-kolambiyai lekhan pranali maaya lipi haye. maaya ney, mesoamerica mein kaee anya sanskritiyon key saath, amet pepper parr likhi gaee sangeet-shally kii pustakon kaa nirmaan kiya. lagbhag sabhi maaya granthon koo saanskritik aur dhaarmik aadhar parr upanivesh key dauran spanish dwara nasht curr diyaa gayaa thaa. kuchh jeevit udaharanon mein seey ack dresden codex haye.
halanki kewal maaya mein hii ack aisee lekhan pranali dikhaai gaee haye joe kissy bhee avadharana koo vyakt karane mein saksham haye jise bhaashan key madhyam seey vyakt kiya jaa sakata haye (aadhunik japani lekhan pranali key samaan star parr), anya mesoamerican sanskritiyon mein adhik praathamik vaichaarik lekhan pranali thee joe samaan sangeet-shally kii pustakon mein nihit thee, aisaa hii ack udaaharan aztech kodis haye.
florentin codex.
iss yug kaa pratinidhitva karane vaale deshi kalakaron dwara banaae gaye 2,000 seey adhik chitra hain. bernardino dee sehgun aztech logon key jeevan aur unake praakritik itihas kii kahani bataata haye. florentin codex sanskriti dhaarmik brahmand vigyaan aur anushthaan prathaon, samaaj, arthshastra aur aztech logon key praakritik itihas key baare mein bolata haye. pandulipi koo nahuatal aur spanish donon mein vyavasthit kiya gayaa haye. florentine codex key sabhi baarah khandon key poorna nahuat paath key angreji anuvaad mein duss saal lagey. arther jey.oh. anderson aur charles dibble ney ack dashak taka lambe samay taka kaam kiya, lekin ise mesoamerican nasl itihas mein ack mahatvapurna yogdan banaaya. varshon baad, 1979 mein, maxican sarkaar ney florentin codex kii ack poorna-rangeen matra prakaashit kii. abb, 2012 seey, yeh digital roop seey upalabdh haye aur maxican aur aztech itihas mein ruchi rakhane vaalon key liye poori tarah seey sulabh haye.
florentin codex 16veen shatabdi kaa ack nasleeya shodh adhyayan haye jise spanish franciscan friar bernardino dee sehgun dwara laaya gayaa thaa. codex koo vaastav mein "laa historia universal dee laas kosas dee nueva espana" naam diyaa gayaa thaa."bernardino dee sehgun ney iss pariyojana parr 1545 seey 1590 mein apani mrityu taka kaam kiya. florentin codex mein baarah pustaken hain. yeh 2500 prishthon kaa haye lekin devtaon, samarohon, shakunon aur aztech logon key anya saanskritik pahaluon jaisi shreniyon dwara baarah pustakon mein vibhajit haye.
mome kii goliyaan.
roman mome-lepit lakadi kii goliyaan yaa "pugillers" kaa upayog karate they jinn parr way ack stylus kaa upayog karke likh aur mitaa sakate they. stylus kaa ack chhor nukila thaa, aur doosara golakar thaa. aamtaur parr, inn goliyon kaa upayog rosemarra key uddeshyon (lekhankan, notes) aur bachchon koo lekhan sikhaane key liye kiya jaataa thaa, quintillion dwara apane "institutio auretoria" x adhyaay 3 mein charcha kii gaee vidhiyon key anusaar. inmein seey kaee goliyon koo codex key samaan roop mein ikattha kiya jaa sakata thaa. codex (lakadi kaa khand) shabd kii vyutpatti seey yeh bhee pataa chalata haye kii yeh lakadi kii mome kii goliyon seey vikasit huaa hoga.
charmpatra.
charmpatra ney dheere-dheere paparus koo badal diyaa. kinvadanti isake aavishkaar kaa shreya pergamon key raajaa eumenus II koo detee haye, jisase "pergaminum" naam aataa haye, joe "charmpatra" bunn gayaa."iska utpaadan eesaa poorv teesari shatabdi key aspas shuru huaa. jaanvaron (bhed, maveshi, gadhe, mrig aadi) kii khaal kaa upayog karke banaaya jaataa haye.), charmpatra samay key saath sanrakshit karna aasaan saabit huaa; yeh adhik thhos thaa aur paath koo mitaane kii anumati thee. yeh ack bahut hii mahanga madhyam thaa kyonki samagri kii durlabhata aur dastaavez taiyar karane key liye aavashyak samay thaa. vellam, vishesh roop seey, ack achchi gunavatta vaalaa charmpatra haye, joe bachhade kii khaal seey banaaya jaataa haye.
grees aur rome.
papirus key scroll koo lattin mein "volumen" kahaa jaataa haye, ack shabd joe "golakar andolan", "roll", "sarpil", "whirlpool", "kranti" (shayed, "swarl" kii aadhunik angreji vyakhya key samaan) aur anta mein "lekhan kagaj kaa ack roll, ack ludhaki hui pandulipi, yaa ack pustak."
7veen shatabdi mein seville key isidor ney apane "vyutpatti" (vi.13) mein codex, pustak aur scroll key beach sambandh koo iss prakaar samajhaayah
varnan.
scroll koo dou urdhvaadhar lakadi key akshon key chaaron or ghumaaya jaataa haye. yeh design kewal kramik upayog kii anumati detaa haye; koee bhee paath koo usa crum mein padhane key liye baadhya haye jisamen yeh likhaa gayaa haye, aur paath mein ack sateek bindu taka seedhe pahunchane key liye ack marker rakhna asambhav haye. yeh aadhunik video casset key saath tulaniya haye. isake alawa, paathak koo urdhvaadhar lakadi key roll koo pakadane key liye donon haathon kaa upayog karna chaahiye aur isaliye ack hii samay mein padh aur likh naheen sakata haye. aaj aam upayog mein ekmatra volumen yahudi torah haye.
pustak sanskriti.
pracheen kaal key lekhakon key paas unake prakaashit karyon key baare mein koee adhikaar naheen they; naa tou lekhakon key aur naa hii prakaashan adhikaar they. kissy key paas bhee paath kii punah pratilipi hoe sakati thee, aur yahaan taka kii isaki samagri mein bhee badalaav kiya jaa sakata thaa. lekhakon ney paisa kamaaya aur lekhakon ney jyaadaatar gaurav arjit kiya jaba taka kii ack sanrakshak nakad pradaan naheen kartaa; ack pustak ney apane lekhak koo prasiddh curr diyaa. yeh sanskriti kii paaramparik avadharana kaa anusaran kartaa haih ack lekhak kaee models parr adig rhaa, jinka unhone anukaran kiya aur sudhaar karane kaa prayaas kiya. lekhak kii sthiti koo bilkul vyaktigat naheen maanaa gayaa thaa.
raajneetik aur dhaarmik drishtikon seey, pustakon koo bahut pahale hii sensor curr diyaa gayaa thaah protegorus key karyon koo jalaa diyaa gayaa thaa kyonki way agyeyavaad key samarthak they aur tark diyaa kii koee yeh naheen zaan sakata thaa kii devtaon kaa astitva thaa yaa naheen. aam taur parr, saanskritik sanghrshon key kaaran pustak vinash kii mahatvapurna avadhiyaan huinh 303 mein, samrat diocletian ney isai granthon koo jalaane kaa adesh diyaa. kuchh isaaiyon ney baad mein pustakalayon aur vishesh roop seey vidharmi yaa gair-vidharmi isai granthon koo jalaa diyaa. yeye prathaaen maanav itihas mein paaee jaati hain lekin aaj kaee deshon mein samaapt hoe gaee hain. kuchh rashtra aaj bhee bahut adhik sensor karate hain aur kitaaben bhee jalaate hain.
lekin jaba kitaaben abhijaat varg key liye aarakshit hoti hain tou censorship kaa ack cumm dikhaai dene vaalaa lekin phir bhee prabhaavi roop bhee maujood hotaa haye; yeh pustak mool roop seey abhivyakti swatantrata kaa madhyam naheen thee. yeh ack raajneetik pranali key moolyon kii pushti karane key liye kaam curr sakata haye, jaisa kii samrat augustus key shasankal key dauran, jinhone kushalata seey mahaan lekhakon key saath khud koo gher liya thaa. yeh raajneetik shakti dwara media key niyantran kaa ack achchha pracheen udaaharan haye. haalaanki, niji aur saarvajanik censorship aadhunik yug mein jaari haye, halanki vibhinn roopon mein.
yunan mein pustakon kaa prasaar aur sanrakshan.
pracheen yunan mein pustakon key baare mein bahut cumm jaankaari bachee hui haye. kaee fooldaanon (eesaa poorv 6veen aur 5veen shatabdi) mein aakar kii chhaviyaan hain. nissandeh pustakon kaa koee vyaapak vyaapaar naheen thaa, lekin pustakon kii bikri key liye samarpit kaee sthal maujood they.
pustakon kaa prasaar, aur unaki soochi aur sanrakshan parr dhyaan, saath hii saath saahityik aalochana hellenistic avadhi key dauran badey pustakalayon key nirmaan key saath vikasit hui, joe kuleen varg dwara udaaharan key roop mein gyaan kii ichcha key jawab mein thee. inn pustakalayon koo nissandeh raajneetik pratishtha key pradarshan key roop mein bhee banaaya gayaa thaah
pustakalayon mein pratilipi banaane vaali kaaryashaalaaen theen aur nimnalikhit key liye pustakon key samanya sangathan kii anumati theeh
rome mein pustak nirmaan.
pahali shatabdi eesaa poorv mein roman mein vikasit pustak nirmaan lattin saahitya key saath huaa joe yunani seey prabhaavit thaa. roodhivaadi anumaanon key anusaar shaahi rome mein sambhaavit pathakon kii sankhya lagbhag 100,000 haye.
yeh prasaar mukhya roop seey saahityik vyaktiyon key halakon seey sambandhit thaa. atticus unake dost sisro key sampaadak they. haalaanki, pustak vyavasaay ney dheere-dheere roman samrajya key madhyam seey khud koo vistaarit kiya; udaaharan key liye, lyon mein pustak kii dukaanen theen. pustak key prasaar koo samrajya key vistaar seey sahaayata millie, jiska arth thaa badee sankhya mein logon (spen, africa aadi mein) parr lattin bhasha kaa adhiropan.).
pustakalaya niji they yaa kissy vyakti key kahane parr banaae gaye they. udaaharan key liye, julius seasure rome mein ack sthaapit karna chaahte they, yeh saabit karate hue kii pustakalaya raajneetik pratishtha key sanket they.
varsh 377 mein, rome mein 28 pustakalaya they, aur yeh gyaat haye kii anya shaharon mein kaee chhote pustakalaya they. pustakon key badey vitaran key bavjood, vaigyaanikon key paas pracheen saahitya key baare mein poori tasveer naheen haye kyonki hajaaron pustaken samay key saath khou gaee hain.
kagaj.
kagaj banaane kaa paaramparik roop seey chean mein lagbhag 105 esvi mein pataa chalaa haye, jaba haan rajvansh (202 eesaa poorv-220 esvi) key dauran shaahi darbar seey judey ack adhikaari kaaee lune ney shahatoot aur anya kameene reshon kaa upayog karke machhali key guchhe, puraane kapade aur bhang key kachare key saath kagaj kii ack sheet banaai thee.
chean mein doosari shatabdi eesaa poorv seey lapetane aur padding key liye upayog kiye jaane vaale kagaj kaa upayog kiya jaataa thaa, lekin lekhan madhyam key roop mein upayog kiye jaane vaale kagaj kaa upayog kewal teesari shatabdi taka vyaapak hoe gayaa. chean mein 6 veen shatabdi taka, toilet pepper key liye bhee kagaj kii chadaron kaa upayog kiya jaane lagaa thaa. taang rajvansh (618-907 CE) key dauran chaay key swaad koo sanrakshit karane key liye kagaj koo modkar varg bagg mein silvaya jaataa thaa. isake baad geet rajvansh (960-1279) kagji mudra jaari karane vaali pahali sarkaar thee.
ack substrate key roop mein kagaj koo chean seey pesh kiya gayaa thaa aur 8veen shatabdi esvi taka madhya asia mein iska abhyaas kiya gayaa thaa. cheeni kagaj banaane key liye upayog kiye jaane vaale kamtar reshon key bajaay, kaarigaron ney raag fiber kaa upayog kiya joe sthaaniya roop seey praapt kiye jaa sakate they. arab niyam key tahat, inn kaarigaron ney raag fiber koo peetane aur starch kaa upayog karke kagaj kii satah koo chikna aur jharjhara banaane key liye apani takneekon koo badhaaya. 10veen shatabdi key uttaraardh taka see. ee. pepper ney islami shasson key tahat kshetron mein pustakon key liye pramukh substrate key roop mein paparus koo badal diyaa thaa.
madhyayugeen kagaj nirmaataon dwara kagaj nirmaan kaa mashinikaran ack mahatvapurna vikas thaa. jall-sanchaalit kagaj milon kii shuruat, jiska pahala nishchit pramaan 11 veen shatabdi mein cordoba, spen mein haye, ney utpaadan key badey paimaane parr vistaar kii anumati dee aur cheeni aur muslim kagaj banaane donon kii shramsadhya hastshilp visheshta koo badal diyaa. 13veen shatabdi key anta mein itali mein kagaj banaane key kendron mein vriddhi shuru hui, jisase kagaj kii keemat charmpatra key chhathe hisse taka cumm hoe gaee aur phir aage gir gaee.
madhya yug.
pracheen kaal key anta taka, doosari aur chauthi shatabdi key beach, scroll koo codex dwara pratisthaapit kiya gayaa thaa. yeh pustak abb ack nirantar roll naheen thee, balki peechhe sanlagn sheets kaa sangrah thaa. paath mein ack sateek bindu taka jaldi seey pahunchana sambhav hoe gayaa. codex koo ack mez parr aaraam karna bhee utanaa hii aasaan haye, joe paathak koo padhane key dauran notes lene kii anumati detaa haye. codex roop mein shabdon, badey aksharon aur viram chihnon key prithakkaran key saath sudhaar huaa, jisase mook padhane kii anumati millie. samagri aur soochkaankon kii taalikaon ney jaankaari taka seedhe pahunch kii suvidha pradaan kii. yeh abhee bhee maanak pustak roop haye, isake prakat honey key 1500 varshon key baad bhee. haalaanki, yeh adhik sambhavana haye kii iska vikas praarambhik isaaiyon key kaaran huaa haye jinhone iska upayog karna shuru kiya thaa.
kagaj uttarottar charmpatra koo badal dega. utpaadan key liye sastaa, isane pustakon key adhik prasaar kii anumati dee.
mathon mein kitaaben.
304 mein diocletian key crum mein kaee isai pustakon koo nasht curr diyaa gayaa thaa. akramanon key ashant kaal key dauran, yeh mathh they jinhone paschim key liye dhaarmik granthon aur shaastriya prachinta key kuchh karyon koo sanrakshit kiya thaa. byzantium mein mahatvapurna pratilipi kendra bhee they.
pustakon key sanrakshan mein mathon kii bhoomika kuchh hudd taka aspasht haih
pustakon kii pratilipi banaana aur unakaa sanrakshan karna.
iss aspashtata key bavjood, paschim aur purvi samrajya mein mathon ney ack nishchit sankhya mein dharmnirpeksh granthon key sanrakshan kii anumati dee, aur kaee pustakalaya banaae gaeh udaaharan key liye, casiodorus (calabria mein 'vivaram', lagbhag 550), aur constantinople mein constantine I. phir bhee, pustakon kaa astitva aksar raajneetik ladaaiyon aur vichardharaon parr nirbhar kartaa thaa, jisamen kabhi-kabhi pustakon kaa bhaari vinash yaa utpaadan mein kathinaaiyaan hoti theen (udaaharan key liye, 730 aur 842 key beach pratima key dauran pustakon kaa vitaran). bahut puraane aur jeevit pustakalayon kii ack lambi soochi joe abb vatican abhilekhagar kaa hissa hain, catholic vishvakosh mein paaee jaa sakati haye.
kitaabon koo sanrakshit karane aur unhein choron seey bachaane mein madad karane key liye, librarian janjeeron seey jakade pustakalaya banaate they, jisamen kitaaben almaariyon yaa dhaatu kii janjeeron key saath desk seey judee hoti theen. isase pustakon koo anadhikrit roop seey hataane kaa kaam samaapt hoe gayaa. sabse pahale janjeeron seey jakade pustakalayon mein seey ack 1500 key dashak key dauran ingland mein thaa. lokpriya sanskriti mein janjeeron seey jadey pustakalayon key udaaharan bhee hain, jaise kii hairi potter aur jey dwara daarshanik kaa patthar.key roing.
scriptorium".
scriptorium bhikshu pratilipikaron kaa kaary kaksh thaa; yahaan, pustakon kii pratilipi banaai jaati thee, unhein sajaaya jaataa thaa, palatwar kiya jaataa thaa aur sanrakshit kiya jaataa thaa. shastragar ney kaam kaa nirdeshan kiya aur librarian kii bhoomika nibhai.
pratilipikaar kii bhoomika bahuayami theeh udaaharan key liye, unake kaam key liye dhanyavaad, granth ack mathh seey dusare mathh mein prasaarit kiye gaye. pratiyon ney bhikshuon koo granthon koo seekhane aur apani dhaarmik shiksha koo paripurna karane kii anumati dee. iss prakaar pustak key saath sambandh bhagwan key saath ack bauddhik sambandh key anusaar paribhaashit kiya gayaa haye. lekin aggar yeye pratiyaan kabhi-kabhi bhikshuon key liye banaai jaati theen, tou maang parr pratiyaan bhee banaai jaati theen.
swayam kii pratilipi banaane key kaary mein kaee charan theh ack baar kaam puuraa honey key baad notebook key roop mein pandulipi taiyar karna, prishthon kii prastuti, swayam kii pratilipi banaana, sanshodhan, trutiyon kaa sudhaar, sajawat aur bandhan. isaliye, pustak mein vibhinn prakaar kii dakshataon kii aavashyakta thee, joe aksar ack pandulipi koo saamoohik prayaas banaati thee.
12veen shatabdi mein saahityik sanskaran seey parivartan.
europe mein shaharon key punruddhar seey pustak utpaadan kii sthiti badal jaayegi aur iska prabhaav badhega, aur pustak kii mathon kii avadhi samaapt hoe jaayegi. iss punruddhar key saath usa avadhi kaa bauddhik punarjagaran huaa. mathh key baahar pandulipi sanskriti iss samay europe mein inn vishvavidyalaya-shaharon mein vikasit hui. yeh pahale vishvavidyalayon key aspas haye kii utpaadan kii naee sanrachanaaen vikasit huinh sandarbh pandulipiyon kaa upayog chhatron aur professors dwara dharamshastra aur udaar kalaa key shikshan key liye kiya gayaa thaa. vanijya aur poonjipati varg key vikas ney apane saath vishesh aur samanya granthon (kaanoon, itihas, upanyaas, aadi) kii maang laaee.). isi avadhi mein aam bhasha mein lekhan (darbari kavita, upanyaas, aadi) vikasit huaa.). vaanijyik scriptoria aam hoe gayaa, aur pustak vikreta kaa pesha astitva mein aaya, kabhi-kabhi antarrashtriya star parr.
sant luis aur charles banaam key mamle mein shaahi pustakalayon kaa nirmaan bhee haye. niji pustakalayon mein bhee pustaken ekatra kii jaati theen, joe 14veen aur 15veen shatabdi mein adhik aam hoe gaee.
14veen shatabdi mein europe mein kagaj kaa upayog faila. yeh samagri, charmpatra seey cumm mahangi, 11veen aur 12veen shatabdi mein spen mein arabon key madhyam seey chean seey aaee thee. iska upayog vishesh roop seey sadharan pratiyon key liye kiya jaataa thaa, jabaki charmpatra kaa upayog vilasita sanskaranon key liye kiya jaataa thaa.
mudran press.
1440 key aspas johann fust, peater scofer aur johannes guttenberg dwara mudran press parr chalane yogya prakaar kaa aavishkaar audyogik yug mein pustak key pravesh koo chihnit kartaa haye. paschimi pustak abb ack bhee vastu naheen thee, jise anurodh dwara likhaa yaa punah prastut kiya gayaa thaa. ack pustak kaa prakaashan ack udyam bunn gayaa, jisake liye isaki praapti key liye poonji aur isake vitaran key liye ack bajar kii aavashyakta thee. pratyek pustak kii laagat (ack badey sanskaran mein) bahut cumm curr dee gaee, jisase pustakon key vitaran mein vriddhi hui. codex key roop mein aur kagaj parr mudrit pustak, jaisa kii humm aaj jaanate hain, 15veen shatabdi kii haye. 1 janwari, 1501 seey pahale mudrit pustakon koo akunbal kahaa jaataa haye. poore europe mein pustak mudran kaa prasaar apekshaakrit teji seey huaa, lekin adhikansh pustaken abhee bhee lattin mein mudrit theen. sthaaniya bhasha mein pustakon koo chhaapane kii avadharana kaa prasaar kuchh dheemi prakriya thee.
paschimi asia aur uttar africa.
praarambhik avadhi.
7veen shatabdi esvi seey, kurran koo likhane key liye charmpatra kaa upayog codex roop mein kiya jaataa thaa. way saarvajanik paath key liye upayog kiye jaane vaale badey aakar key honey seey laker pockett aakar key honey taka they. iss samay avadhi mein banaai gaee pustakon ney chhavi kii tulanaa mein paath koo adhik mahatva diyaa. kaee mamalon mein, charmpatra koo rangaa gayaa thaa (jaise kii neela kurran), jise shuru mein isai byzantine pandulipiyon mein nishpaadit kiya gayaa thaa. pahale kii kurran paandulipiyaan urdhvaadhar roop seey unmukh theen, jisamen pustak kii oonchaai isaki chaudaai seey adhik thee. haalaanki, baad mein maanak kshaitij abhivinyas sthaapit kiya gayaa thaa.
madhyayugeen kaal.
11veen shatabdi esvi key dauran madhyayugeen islami kaal mein ack anushasana key roop mein pustak kii kalaa sthaapit hui. iska shreya kagaj kii badhati upalabdhata koo diyaa jaataa haye jisane charmpatra koo badal diyaa aur sambhalana aur vitarit karna aasaan thaa, aur usa goal lipiyon ney pahale kii koniya lipiyon kii jagah leey lii. iss avadhi mein, kurran key alawa vaigyaanik tippaniyon, kavitaon aur saahityik aakhyanon sahit kaee prakaar kii pustaken taiyar kii gaeen.
13veen shatabdi esvi mein mangol abhijaat varg key sadasyon key islam mein dharmaantaran seey ilkhanat kaa gathan karane key liye tabriz aur baghdad seey pustak utpaadan aur vitaran key liye sanrakshan mein vriddhi hui. baghdadi kagaj kii upalabdhata key kaaran kuraanon key utpaadan kaa badey paimaane parr sanchaalan sambhav huaa. utpaadit pustakon kii matra mein vriddhi kaa upayog ilkhaanon dwara sthaapit kagaj banaane vaali milon key kaam key baare mein prachaar karane key liye ack upkaran key roop mein kiya gayaa thaa. isake saath hii, anya karigar pustak kalaa (sulekh, pustak-baandhane vaale, prakaash-yantra aadi) key saath milkar kaam curr rahey hain.) sabhi koo badhe hue utpaadan seey laabh huaa. chitron key saath-saath prakaashit pandulipiyon parr chitra dikhaai dene lagey, joe kewal sulekh naheen, balki pustak kaa kendra bindu bunn gayaa. ilkhanon dwara nirmit pustakon kii bhoomika kaa uddeshya dharm yaa viraasat koo badhaava denaa thaa aur pavitra pustakon seey laker aitihaasik pustakon taka.
baad kii avadhi.
16veen aur 17veen shatabdi mein pandulipi utpaadan koo aarthik shakti key saath shaahi karyashalaon kii or nirdeshit kiya gayaa thaa. pustak vitaran kissy key sangrah mein sthiti prateek key roop mein, yaa aarthik nivesh aur daan key roop mein unake upayog seey judaa huaa haye. ack pandulipi key utpaadan kii prakriya karyashala nideshak dwara samagr leout koo design karane key saath shuru hui, jisake baad kagaj banaane kii prakriya (joe soney kii parat yaa sangamarmar hoe sakata haye), lekhak paath likhate hain aur anta mein kaee karigar laghu chitron, banners aur sajaae gaye agrabhag key saath prishthon koo chitrit karate hain. prishthon koo jalaane key baad, bookbinder ney agra aavaran, reedh aur prishth key saath prishth aavaran koo silvaya.
baghdad ottoman samrajya mein pustak nirmaan key kendra key roop mein ubhara. ottoman karyashalaon mein utpaadit pustakon mein jeevani, yatra vrittaant aur vanshavali shamil they. 16veen shatabdi key anta mein aarthik sankat key kaaran kalaa key sanrakshan mein girawat aaee, jisamen pustak nirmaan bhee shamil thaa. ahmet III key shasson key tahat kalaa koo punarjeevit kiya gayaa, jinhone naee pandulipiyon koo commission karane key liye logon mein topkapi mahal pustakalaya kii sthaapana kii. inn pustakon mein upayog kii jaane vaali chhaviyon kaa prabhaav samkaaleen europeeya nakkashi seey padane lagaa. 1500 key dashak key anta taka, mudrit pustakon kii upalabdhata mein vriddhi hui, lekin mudran press kii sweekriti naheen hui, kyonki lekhakon aur sulekhakon koo lagaa kii aggar ise pesh kiya jaae tou way kaam seey baahar hoe jaayenge.
farsi safavid pustak kalaa key liye bahut mahatva rakhate they aur ack sampann pustak sanskriti thee. iss yug mein, "kitab-khaana" ("book house") teen paribhashaon koo puuraa karane vaalaa ack shabd thaa-pahala, yeh pustakon key bhandaran aur sanrakshan key liye ack saarvajanik pustakalaya thaa; doosara, yeh ack vyakti key apane niji pustak sangrah koo bhee sandarbhit kartaa thaa; aur teesara ack karyashala mein jahaan sulekhakon, bookbinders aur papermakers key saath kitaaben banaai jaati theen. pandulipi chitron kii safaavid shally, kaalaatit kaal kii kalaaon seey apani shally key nirmaan mein vikasit hui. safaavidon dwara banaai gaee sabse prasiddh pandulipi "shahnama" haye, joe ferdausi kii kavita parr adharit haye.
mudran kaa parichay.
arabi lipi mein chala prakaar shuru mein europeeya mudran press dwara banaaya gayaa thaa. 1530 key dashak mein, pahala kurran moortipoojak moortipoojak dwara venis mein mudrit kiya gayaa thaa. teen shataabdiyon pahale europe mein pesh kiye jaane key bavjood, arab aur farsi duniya mein aam janata dwara mudran press kaa alingan 18 veen shatabdi esvi mein huaa thaa. sultan ahmed key shasankal mein 1720 mein constantinople mein pahala arabi mudran press sthaapit kiya gayaa thaa.
1815 mein, muhammad allie paasha ney misra mein ack press sthaapit karane key liye mudran key siddhanton koo seekhane key liye kaarigaron koo milan bheja. bulak press kii sthaapana 1822 mein hui thee aur iska netritva seeriya key nikula all-masabiki ney kiya thaa, jinhone arabi prakaron koo design kiya thaa. mudran press dwara prakaashit pahali pustak ack italvi-arabi shabdakosh thee.
lithographic printmaking koo 19veen shatabdi esvi taka paath aur chhavi key yaantrik prajanan key ack tareeke key roop mein pesh kiya gayaa thaa, bavaria key raajya mein isake aavishkaar key turant baad. lithography dwara mudrit honey vaali pahali farsi pustak kurran kii ack prati thee, jisamen roose seey tabriz shahar mein aayatit ack mudran press kaa upayog kiya gayaa thaa. 1852 aur 1872 key beach chala tankan kaa upayog cumm honey key bavjood, islami pustak utpaadan mein patthar kii shilalekhon seey mudran kii prakriya panpi. lithography key laabh mein paaramparik islami pandulipiyon mein paaee jaane vaali achchi tarah seey sthaapit kalaatmak paramparaon koo anukoolit karane key liye madhyam achchi tarah seey upayukt honah shamil thaa. 1800 key dashak key madhya mein faras mein, kaee "mishrit-media" kodis banaae gaye they, jisamen hastalikhit likhit bhaagon aur mudrit padaarth donon kii ack sankar shrinkhala kaa upayog kiya gayaa thaa.
1800 key dashak key anta taka chala prakaar kii lokpriyata phir seey badh gaee. misra mein, 1822 seey 1900 taka mudrit 10,205 pustakon mein seey adhikansh patra-patrika mudran key madhyam seey theen. 20veen shatabdi esvi mein laghu chitrakala aur pustak bandhan jaisi pandulipi utpaadan seey sambandhit kalaaon kii lokpriyata mein kamee aaee, sulekh aur lekhan kii kalaa abhee bhee lokpriya haye.
dakshin asia.
praarambhik paandulipiyaan.
pracheen kaal mein lekhan key liye patthar key slab kaa upayog kiya jaataa thaa. sabse purani jeevit pustaken 10veen shatabdi esvi seey aatee hain, joe bauddh pandulipi parampara seey sambandhit sabse purani hain. kagaj koo apanaane seey pahale, yeye taad key patton parr likhe gaye they, joe upmahadweep key dakshini bhaag mein praakritik roop seey prachur matra mein paaya jaane vaalaa sansaadhan thaa. prishth aamtaur parr teen feat chaude aur dou inch lambe hotey they. taad key patton koo taiyar karane kii prakriya mein sukhana, chamkana aur starch key saath upchaar karna shamil thaa taaki lekhan key liye upayukt satah banaai jaa sakey. prishthon koo chhote kinare parr ack hii dhaage key tukade seey ack saath bandha gayaa thaa, aur upayogkarta kii chhaati key saath chalane vaali pandulipi key lambe kinare key saath rakhaa gayaa thaa.
kagajon koo misra aur arab praaydweep seey bhaaratiya upmahadweep mein 11veen shatabdi esvi mein gujaraat key saath vyaapaar karane vaale vyapariyon dwara pesh kiya gayaa thaa. samarkand seey aaney vaale kaarigaron dwara 15veen shatabdi esvi mein pahali kagaj banaane vaali milon kii sthaapana kii gaee thee. haalaanki, taad key patton kaa upayog purvi aur dakshini bhaarat aur srilanka key kuchh hisson mein pandulipiyon key liye ack substrate key roop mein kiya jaataa rhaa. 15veen shatabdi esvi key baad seey jaine pandulipi parampara mein kagaj kaa upayog kiya jaataa thaa. taad key patte kii pandulipiyon key lambe anupaat koo kagaj key upayog seey sambhav hue patale roopon key liye chhod diyaa gayaa thaa, halanki, prishthon mein abhee bhee ack kshaitij abhivinyas kaa upayog kiya jaataa thaa. chhaviyaan prishth key lagbhag ack tihai hisse mein lii gaeen, baaki paath seey bharee hui theen.
mugal yug.
pahale mugal samrat baabar kalaa key badey sanrakshak naheen they, haalaanki, unhone "babarnama" naamak ack jeevani pandulipi mein apane prayason kaa varnan kiya. safavid samrajya mein apane nirvaasan key baad, 1540 mein baabar key uttaradhikari humaayun ney sachitra farsi pandulipiyon key kaarigaron koo mugal darbar mein vaapas laaya.
swayam anpadh honey key bavjood, pustak kalaa mugal samrat akbar key sanrakshan mein falati-phoolati rahee. unhone 15veen shatabdi esvi key anta mein bhagyapur sikri mein shaahi pustakalaya aur attellier key buggle mein ack chitrakala karyashala kii sthaapana kii, jisase pustak aur sachitra pandulipi kaa utpaadan adhik kushalata seey hoe sakaa. badey paimaane parr poster-aakar key pandulipi chitron kaa upayog prasiddh kahaaniyon aur aakhyanon key paath key roop mein kiya jaataa thaa, jaise kii "hamaznama". akbar key potey shaah jahaan ney ack pandulipi sajawat parampara sthaapit kii jisamen unake poorvavartiyon kii tulanaa mein paath parr majboot jore diyaa gayaa, saath hii saath foolon aur vanaspati kii chhaviyon seey bharey margine bhee shamil they. shaahjahaan key shasankal key samay taka pandulipi utpaadan apane charam seey cumm hoe gayaa thaa aur pustak chitrakaron aur kaarigaron koo bikaner, bandee aur kotaa key kshetriya rajasthani darbaaron mein niyukt kiya gayaa thaa.
17veen shatabdi esvi key dauran, sachitra pustak kaa prabhaav cumm hoe gayaa. ekal sheet kalaakritiyaan adhik lokpriya hoe gaeen kyonki way utpaadan aur khareed key liye adhik laagat prabhaavi theen, aur baad mein sajawati tatvon key saath albums mein ikattha kiye gaye.
aadhunik yug.
aadhunik kaal key anta mein.
aadhunik kaal key anta mein pustakon key prakaron mein bahut vikas dekhaa gayaa. chapbook-saste kagaj parr laghu kritiyaan-nimn-varg key pathakon key liye lakshit theen aur inmein vibhinn vishayon koo shamil kiya gayaa thaa. mithak aur pariyon kii kahaaniyon seey laker vyaavhaarik aur chikitsa salah aur prarthanaon taka sub kuchh ack sthir maang mein yogdan detaa haye jisane nichale vargon key beach saksharta failaane mein madad kii. 1890 taka paschimi europe, australia aur sanyukt raajya america mein lagbhag saarvbhaumik saksharta darr key saath saksharta samanya roop seey badh rahee thee, jisamen 1900 taka purushon aur mahilaaon kii saksharta key beach asamaanta barabar honey luggy thee.
mudran yantra teji seey yantrikrit hoe gayaa. dhaatu aur bhaap seey chalane vaale mudran yantron key liye praarambhik design 19veen shatabdi kii shuruat mein friederich coenig aur charles steinhop jaise aavishkarakon dwara pesh kiye gaye they. haalaanki, way 1830 key dashak taka vyaapak roop seey apanaae gaye, vishesh roop seey landan times jaise samachar patron dwara. lagbhag usee samay, heinry fordrinear aur thomas gilpin dwara kagaj utpaadan mein ack kranti shuru kii gaee thee, jinaki naee kagaj banaane kii masheenen kagaj key bahut vyaapak nirantar roll kaa utpaadan karati hain. pustak nirmaan mein ekmatra baadha rachana kii samay lene vaali prakriya thee. yeh antatah otmar mergantheller aur tolbert lanston dwara hull kiya gayaa thaa jinhone kramshah linotype aur monotype machines kaa utpaadan kiya thaa. inn baadhaon key kaaran pustak utpaadan mein visfot huaa.
prakaashan key kshetra mein badee pragati shuru hui kyonki lekhakon ney copyrite sanrakshan key shuruati roopon kaa anand lena shuru curr diyaa. lekhak kii bauddhik sampada key liye buniyaadi adhikaaron kii sthaapana karate hue 1710 mein annie kaa kaanoon paarit kiya gayaa thaa. ise 1814 key copyrite adhiniyam dwara pratisthaapit curr diyaa gayaa thaa jisane prakaashan key baad atthais varshon key liye mudran kaary key ekmatra adhikaar hastaantarit curr diye they. ise 1842 mein lekhak key jivankal key saath-saath saat saal, yaa pahale prakaashan key 42 saal baad taka badhaaya gayaa thaa.
gyaan praapti key dauran europeeya presses mein adhik pustaken daalane lageen, jisase kaee pathakon key liye soochana kaa ack praarambhik roop adhibhar paida huaa. yeh gyaan praapti scotland seey adhik kaheen naheen thaa, jahan chhatron koo unaki shiksha key dauran vibhinn prakaar kii pustakon kaa pataa chalaa thaa. british aur videshi bible samaaj (1804 mein sthaapit), americi bible samaaj (1816 mein sthaapit) aur anya gair-sampradayik prakashakon kii bhaari matra mein saste granthon kii maangon ney kaee navacharon koo janm diyaa. 1820 seey thodaa pahale bhaap mudran press kii shuruat, nae bhaap kagaj milon dwara bariki seey anusaran, dou sabse pramukh navacharon kaa gathan kiya. inn sub key kaaran pustakon kii keematen gireen aur pustakon kii sankhya mein kaafee vriddhi hui. iss naee utpaadan vidhi seey kaee granth soochi sambandhi visheshtaen, jaise sheershak aur upasheershak kii sthiti aur nirmaan bhee prabhaavit hue. 19veen shatabdi mein baad mein nae prakaar key dastaavez saamane aaeh photography, dhwani recording aur film.
samkaaleen kaal.
typewriter aur antatah, computer-adharit word processor aur printer logon koo apane swayam key dastaavezon koo print karane aur ack saath rakhane dete hain. 21veen sadee mein desktop prakaashan aam haye.
1990 key dashak mein hue vikas kii ack shrinkhala key beach, digital multimedia kaa prasaar, joe ack advitiya aur saral roop mein granthon, chhaviyon, animation aur dhwaniyon koo kootbaddh kartaa haye, pustak prakaashan udyog key liye ullekhaniya thaa. hypertext ney jaankaari taka pahunch mein aur sudhaar kiya. anta mein, internet ney utpaadan aur vitaran laagat koo cumm curr diyaa.
ee-pustaken aur pustak kaa bhavishya.
tez-tarrar takniki parivartan key yug mein pustak key bhavishya kaa anuman lagaana mushkil haye. pustakon kii mrityu" key baare mein chintaaen madhyam key poore itihas mein vyakt kii gaee hain, jinhen radio, television aur internet jaise pratispardhi media dwara khatare key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye. haalaanki, yeye vichaar aam taur parr atiranjit hain, aur "fetishwad, manavtavad key anta aur takniki-kattarpanthi pragati key vichaaron key baare mein aashankaon kaa prabhutva haye. print book madhyam bahut lachila aur anukoolaniya saabit huaa haye. 2020 key dashak mein, mudrit pustaken abhee bhee adhikansh deshon mein ee-pustakon seey kaafee adhik bikati hain aur ack bahu-arab dollar kaa udyog bunny hui hain.
udaaharan key liye vishvakosh, anukramik padhane key bajaay pratyaksh pahunch key liye design kii gaee sandarbh samagri kaa ack achchha sauda, pustakon key roop mein cumm seey cumm maujood haye aur web parr teji seey badh rhaa haye. avkash padhane kii samagri teji seey ee-reader praarupon mein prakaashit hoe rahee haye.
halanki electronic pustakon yaa ee-pustakon koo shuruati varshon mein seemit safalata millie thee, aur paathak shuru mein pratirodhi they, iss praarup mein pustakon kii maang naatakiya roop seey badhee haye, mukhya roop seey ee-reader upkaranon kii lokpriyata key kaaran aur iss praarup mein upalabdh shirshakon kii sankhya mein vriddhi hui haye. 2007 mein amazon kindle key jaari honey key baad seey, ee-book ack digital ghatana bunn gaee haye aur kaee loga maanate hain kii yeh bhavishya mein hardback aur pepper books parr haavi hoe jaayegi. ee-pustaken bahut adhik sulabh aur khareedane mein aasaan hain aur kagji kharchon mein katauti key kaaran ee-pustak kharidana isake bhautik samkaksh kii tulanaa mein sastaa bhee haye. ee-reader kii badhati lokpriyata mein ack aur mahatvapurna kaarak iska nirantar vividhikaran haye. kaee ee-paathak abb buniyaadi operating system kaa samarthan karate hain, joe email aur anya saral karyon koo suvidhajanak banaate hain. ipad iss pravritti kaa sabse spasht udaaharan haye, lekin mobile phone bhee ee-reeding software kii mejbani curr sakate hain.
andhe key liye padhana.
brail anguli key yuktiyon key upayog key madhyam seey padhane aur likhane kii ack pranali haye. brail koo netraheen aur aanshik roop seey netraheen key liye kushal sanchaar pranali key roop mein vikasit kiya gayaa thaa. pranali mein 63 varna hotey hain aur ise baaen seey daaen padhaa jaataa haye. inn varnon koo pratyek akshar kaa pratinidhitva karane key liye ack aadhunik dominos key samaan dou stambhon mein chhote uthaaye gaye binduon key saath banaaya jaataa haye. paathak dou ungaliyon seey paatron kii pehchaan curr sakate hain. padhane kii gati ausatan ack sou panchish shabd prati minut haye aur prati minut dou sou shabdon taka pahunch sakati haye.
brail kaa nirmaan.
brail kaa naam france mein 1824 mein isake nirmaata luis brail key naam parr rakhaa gayaa thaa. brail ney teen saal kii umr mein apane pitaa key chamade key aujaaron seey khud koo aankho mein chaku maar liya. brail ney nau saal sanchaar kii pichhali pranali parr kaam kiya jise charles barbier dwara raat lekhan kahaa jaataa thaa. brail ney apani pustak "shabd, sangeet aur maidani geet likhane kii prakriya" 1829 mein prakaashit kii. 1854 mein france ney brail koo "netraheen vyaktiyon key liye aadhikarik sanchaar pranali" banaa diyaa. valentin haye ack pustak key roop mein kagaj parr brail rakhane vaale pahale vyakti they. 1932 mein brail sweekaar kiya gayaa aur angreji bolane vaale deshon mein upayog kiya gayaa. 1965 mein brail ganit aur vaigyaanik sanketan kaa nemeth code banaaya gayaa thaa. code koo unnat ganitiya sanketanon aur sanchaalan key liye prateekon koo nirdisht karane key liye vikasit kiya gayaa thaa. yeh pranali vahee rahee haye, isake nirmaan key baad seey isamen kewal mamuli samaayojan kiye gaye hain.
bolly jaane vaali kitaaben.
yeh bolly jaane vaali pustak mool roop seey 1930 key dashak mein netraheen aur drishtibaadhit logon koo pustakon kaa anand lene key liye ack madhyam pradaan karane key liye banaai gaee thee. 1932 mein american foundation forr dha blind ney vinail record parr bolly jaane vaali pustakon kii pahali recording banaai. 1935 mein, ack british-adharit foundation, royal national institute forr dha blind (aar. aine. aaee. bee.), vinail record parr andhe logon koo baat karane vaali kitaaben dene vaalaa pahala sansthaan thaa. pratyek record mein donon taraf lagbhag tees minut kaa audio thaa, aur record ack gramophone parr bajaaye jaate they. 1960 key dashak mein vinail record seey casset tape mein sankraman key saath bolly jaane vaali pustakon ney madhyamon koo badal diyaa. bolly jaane vaali pustakon kii agali pragati 1980 key dashak mein compact disk key vyaapak upayog key saath hui. compact disk adhik logon taka pahunchin aur kaar mein kitaaben sunana sambhav banaa diyaa. 1995 mein audiobook shabd udyog maanak bunn gayaa. anta mein, internet-saksham audiobook adhik sulabh aur portable bunn jaati hain. audiobook koo abb kaee discon parr vibhajit karane key bajaay poori tarah seey chalaaya jaa sakata haye.

