
oxidative phosphorylation

oxidative phosphorylation (yuu. key., yuu. aiss.) yaa electron parivahan seey judey phosphorylation yaa antim okseekaran chayapachaya maarg haye jisamen koshikaaen poshak tatvon koo aukseekrit karane key liye enzymon kaa upayog karati hain, jisase adenosine trifosphate (aeye. tii. pee.) kaa utpaadan karane key liye rasayanik oorjaa jaari hoti haye. eukariotes mein, yeh mitochondria key ander hotaa haye. lagbhag sabhi aerobic jeev oxidative phosphorylation karate hain. yeh maarg itna vyaapak haye kyonki yeh avaayaviya glycolysis jaisi vaikalpik kinwan prakriyaon kii tulanaa mein adhik oorjaa jaari kartaa haye.
glucose key rasayanik bandhanon mein sangraheet oorjaa citric acid chakr mein carbon dioxide kaa utpaadan karane vaali koshika dwara jaari kii jaati haye, aur urjaavaan electron daataon nedh aur faadh. oxidative phosphorylation inn anuon aur oh2 kaa upayog aeye. tii. pee. kaa utpaadan karane key liye kartaa haye, joe jaba bhee oorjaa kii aavashyakta hoti haye tou poore koshika mein upayog kiya jaataa haye. oxidative phosphorylation key dauran, electrons koo electron daataon seey electron sweekaar karane vaalon kii ack shrinkhala mein sthanantarit kiya jaataa haye, joe oxygen mein samaapt honey vaali redox pratikriyaon kii ack shrinkhala mein hotaa haye, jisaki pratikriya kull oorjaa kaa aadhaa jaari karati haye.
eukariotes mein, yeye redox pratikriyaaen koshika kii mitochondria kii aantarik jhilli key bheetar protein parisaron kii ack shrinkhala dwara utprerit hoti hain, jabaki procariotes mein, yeye protein koshika kii baahari jhilli mein sthit hotey hain. protein key inn judey hue samuchchay koo electron parivahan shrinkhala kahaa jaataa haye. eukariotes mein, paanch mukhya protein parisar shamil hotey hain, jabaki procariotes mein kaee alag-alag enzyme maujood hotey hain, joe vibhinn prakaar key electron daataon aur sweekaar karane vaalon kaa upayog karate hain.
iss electron parivahan shrinkhala key madhyam seey bahane vaale electrons dwara sthanantarit oorjaa kaa upayog aantarik mitochondrial jhilli mein protons koo parivahan karane key liye kiya jaataa haye, jise "electron parivahan" kahaa jaataa haye. yeh ack ph pravanata key roop mein sambhaavit oorjaa aur iss jhilli key paar ack vidyut kshamata utpann kartaa haye. oorjaa key iss bhandar kaa upayog taba kiya jaataa haye jaba proton jhilli key paar vaapas pravaahit hotey hain aur sambhaavit oorjaa pravanata koo neeche karate hain, ack badee enzyme key madhyam seey jise aeye. tii. pee. synthes kahaa jaataa haye, jise chemiosmosis kahaa jaataa haye. aeye. tii. pee. synthes ack phosphorylation pratikriya mein adenosine diphosphate (aeye. dee. pee.) koo adenosine trifosphate mein badalane key liye oorjaa kaa upayog kartaa haye. pratikriya proton pravaah dwara sanchaalit hoti haye, joe enzyme key ack hisse key ghoornan koo majboor karati haye. aeye. tii. pee. synthes ack ghoornan yaantrik motor haye.
halanki oxidative phosphorylation chayapachaya kaa ack mahatvapurna hissa haye, yeh superoxide aur hydrogen peroxide jaisi pratikriyaasheel oxygen prajaatiyon kaa utpaadan kartaa haye, joe mukt kanon key prasaar, koshikaon koo nuksan pahunchaane aur roga mein yogdan karane aur sambhavatah, umr badhane aur vriddhavastha mein yogdan detaa haye. iss chayapachaya maarg koo puuraa karane vaale enzyme bhee kaee davaaon aur jaharon kaa lakshya hain joe unaki gatividhiyon koo rokte hain.
chemiosmosis.
oxidative phosphorylation oorjaa-mukt karane vaali rasayanik pratikriyaon kaa upayog karke oorjaa-aavashyak pratikriyaon koo sanchaalit karane key liye kaam kartaa haye. pratikriyaon key dou seton koo "yugmit" kahaa jaataa haye. iska matlab haye kii ack dusare key binaa naheen hoe sakata haye. redox pratikriyaon kii shrinkhala electron parivahan shrinkhala key madhyam seey electrons key pravaah koo chalaati haye, jaise kii naadh seey laker oxygen aur hydrogen (proton) jaise electron sweekaar karane vaalon taka, ack exergonic prakriya haye-yeh oorjaa jaari karati haye, jabaki aeye. tii. pee. kaa sanshleshan ack andergonic prakriya haye, jisake liye oorjaa key input kii aavashyakta hoti haye. electron parivahan shrinkhala aur aeye. tii. pee. synthes donon ack jhilli mein antarnihit hotey hain, aur oorjaa koo iss jhilli mein proton kii gatividhiyon dwara electron parivahan shrinkhala seey aeye. tii. pee. synthes mein sthanantarit kiya jaataa haye, jise "chemiosmosis" kahaa jaataa haye. protons kii ack dhaara electron parivahan shrinkhala key proton-pumping enzymon key madhyam seey jhilli key nakaratmak aine-side seey sakaratmak pee-side taka sanchaalit hoti haye. protons kii gati jhilli key paar ack vidyut rasayanik pravanata banaati haye, jise proton-prerak bull kahaa jaataa haye. isake dou ghatak hainh proton sandrata mein antar (ack aich + pravanata, δph) aur vidyut kshamata mein antar, jisamen aine-side mein nakaratmak avesh hotaa haye.
aeye. tii. pee. synthes iss sangraheet oorjaa koo paripath koo puuraa karke aur proton koo vidyut rasayanik pravanata seey neeche, jhilli key aine-side mein vaapas jaane kii anumati dekar jaari kartaa haye. vidyut rasayanik dhaal enzyme kii sanrachana key hisse key ghoornan koo sanchaalit kartaa haye aur iss gati koo aeye. tii. pee. key sanshleshan key liye jodata haye.
proton-prerak bull key dou ghatak ushmaagatikiya roop seey samatulya hainh mitochondria mein, oorjaa kaa sabse badaa hissa kshamata dwara pradaan kiya jaataa haye; kshaariya bacteria mein vidyut oorjaa koo ack prati-kaary vyutkram ph antar kii bharpai bhee karni hoti haye. isake vipareet, chloroplast mukhya roop seey δph parr kaam karate hain. haalaanki, unhein aeye. tii. pee. sanshleshan key gativigyaan key liye ack chhoti jhilli kshamata kii bhee aavashyakta hoti haye. fusobacterium "propionigenium modamtum" key mamle mein yeh aeye. tii. pee. synthes key aff. oh. motor key upa-ikaaiyon aeye aur see key prati-ghoornan koo sanchaalit kartaa haye.
avaayaviya kinwan dwara utpaadit matra kii tulanaa mein oxidative phosphorylation dwara jaari oorjaa kii matra adhik hoti haye. glycolysis kewal 2 aeye. tii. pee. anuon kaa utpaadan kartaa haye, lekin kaheen naa kaheen 10 naadh key oxidative phosphorylation aur 2 sukinet anuon dwara utpaadit kiye jaate hain joe glucose key ack anu koo carbon dioxide aur paani mein parivartit karke banaae jaate hain, jabaki ack fatty acid key beeta okseekaran key pratyek chakr seey lagbhag 14 aeye. tii. pee. aiss. kii paidawar hoti haye. yeye aeye. tii. pee. paidawar saiddhaantik adhikatam moolya hain; vyavhaar mein, kuchh proton jhilli key paar risate hain, joe aeye. tii. pee. kii paidawar koo cumm karate hain.
electron aur proton hastaantaran anu.
electron parivahan shrinkhala proton aur electron donon koo leey jaati haye, daataon seey sweekaar karane vaalon taka electrons koo leey jaati haye, aur ack jhilli mein protons koo leey jaati haye. yeye prakriyaaen ghulansheel aur protein-baddh hastaantaran anuon donon kaa upayog karati hain. mitochondria mein, electrons koo jall-ghulansheel electron hastaantaran protein cytochrome see dwara antahpatal sthaan key bheetar sthanantarit kiya jaataa haye. yeh kewal electrons koo wahan kartaa haye, aur yeye ack lauh paramanu kii kamee aur okseekaran dwara sthanantarit kiye jaate hain jise protein apani sanrachana mein ack heim samooh key bheetar rakhta haye. cytochrome see kuchh bacteria mein bhee paaya jaataa haye, jahan yeh periplasmic sthaan key bheetar sthit hotaa haye.
aantarik mitochondrial jhilli key bheetar, lipid-ghulansheel electron vaahak saha-enzyme q10 (q) ack redox chakr dwara electron aur proton donon koo wahan kartaa haye. yeh chhota benzoquinone anu bahut hydrophobic haye, isaliye yeh jhilli key bheetar swatantra roop seey failata haye. jaba q dou electrons aur dou protons koo sweekaar kartaa haye, tou yeh "ubiquinol" roop (qh2) mein cumm hoe jaataa haye; jaba qh2 dou electrons aur dou protons koo jaari kartaa haye, tou yeh "ubiquinone" (q) roop mein vaapas aukseekrit hoe jaataa haye. parinamswarup, yadi dou enzymon koo vyavasthit kiya jaataa haye taaki jhilli key ack taraf q cumm hoe jaae aur doosari taraf qh2 aukseekrit hoe jaae, tou ubquinone inn pratikriyaon aur shuttle proton koo jhilli key paar jodega. kuchh jeevaanu electron parivahan shrinkhalaaen ubquinone key alawa vibhinn quinon kaa upayog karati hain, jaise kii menaquinone.
protein key bheetar, electron flavin coffector, iron-sulfur samoohon aur cytochrome key beach sthanantarit hotey hain. kaee prakaar key lauh-sulfur samooh hain. electron sthanantaran shrinkhala mein paae jaane vaale sabse saral prakaar mein dou lauh paramanu hotey hain joe acarbonic sulfur key dou parmaanuon seey judey hotey hain; inhen [2fe-2s] samooh kahaa jaataa haye. dusare prakaar, jise [4fe-4s] kahaa jaataa haye, mein chaar lohe key parmaanuon aur chaar sulfur parmaanuon kaa ack ghana hotaa haye. inn samoohon mein pratyek lauh paramanu ack atirikt amino acid dwara samanvit kiya jaataa haye, aamtaur parr cysteine key sulfur paramanu dwara. dhaatu aayan saha-kaarak binaa proton koo baandhane yaa chhodane key redox pratikriyaon seey gujarate hain, isaliye electron parivahan shrinkhala mein way kewal protein key madhyam seey electrons koo parivahan karane key liye kaam karate hain. inn saha-karakon kii shrinkhalaon key saath koodkar electron protein key madhyam seey kaafee lambi doori taya karate hain. yeh quantum surang dwara hotaa haye, joe 1.4 meater seey cumm kii doori parr teji seey hotaa haye.
eukariotic electron parivahan shrinkhalaaen.
kaee catabolic jaiv rasayanik prakriyaaen, jaise glycolysis, citric acid chakr aur beeta okseekaran, cumm saha-enzyme naadh kaa utpaadan karate hain. iss saha-enzyme mein aise electron hotey hain jinamen uchch sthanantaran kshamata hoti haye; dusare shabdon mein, way okseekaran parr badee matra mein oorjaa chhodenge. haalaanki, koshika iss oorjaa koo ack baar mein naheen chhodati haye, kyonki yeh ack aniyantrit pratikriya hogi. isake bajaay, electrons koo naad seey hataa diyaa jaataa haye aur enzymon kii ack shrinkhala key madhyam seey oxygen mein paarit kiya jaataa haye joe pratyek oorjaa kii ack chhoti matra chhodata haye. enzymon kaa yeh samooh, jisamen i seey IV taka key parisar hotey hain, koo electron parivahan shrinkhala kahaa jaataa haye aur yeh mitochondrian kii aantarik jhilli mein paaya jaataa haye. sukinet koo electron parivahan shrinkhala dwara bhee aukseekrit kiya jaataa haye, lekin ack alag bindu parr maarg mein feed kiya jaataa haye.
eukariotes mein, iss electron parivahan pranali mein enzyme mitochondrian kii aantarik jhilli mein proton pump karane key liye oh2 seey nah dwara jaari oorjaa kaa upayog karate hain. yeh proton koo antahpatal sthaan mein banaane kaa kaaran banata haye, aur jhilli key paar ack vidyut rasayanik dhaal utpann kartaa haye. iss kshamata mein sangraheet oorjaa kaa upayog aeye. tii. pee. synthes dwara aeye. tii. pee. kaa utpaadan karane key liye kiya jaataa haye. eukariotic mitochondrian mein oxidative phosphorylation iss prakriya kaa sabse achchha udaaharan haye. mitochondrian lagbhag sabhi eukariotes mein maujood hotaa haye, avaayaviya protozoa jaise "trichomonas yoni" key apavaad key saath joe isake bajaay ack avashesh mitochondrian mein proton koo hydrogen mein cumm curr detaa haye jise hydrogensome kahaa jaataa haye.
naadh-coenzyme q oxidoriductase (complexes i).
naadh-coenzyme kyu oxidoriductase, jise "naadh dehydrogenase" yaa "complexes aaee" key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye, electron parivahan shrinkhala mein pahala protein haye. complexes i ack vishal enzyme haye jisamen standhari complexes i mein 46 upa-ikaaiyaan aur lagbhag 1,000 kilodalton (kda) kaa aanvik dravyamaan haye. sanrachana koo kewal ack jeevaanu seey vistaar seey jaanaa jaataa haye; adhikansh jeevon mein yeh parisar ack boot jaisa dikhta haye jisamen ack badee "gend" jhilli seey mitochondrian mein nikalati haye. vyaktigat protein koo kootbaddh karane vaale jeane koshika naabhik aur mitochondrial genome donon mein nihit hotey hain, jaisa kii mitochondrian mein maujood kaee enzymon key mamle mein hotaa haye.
iss enzyme dwara utprerit honey vaali pratikriya coenzyme q10 yaa "ubquinone" (neeche diye gaye sameekaran mein q key roop mein darshaaya gayaa) dwara naadh kaa dou electron okseekaran haye, ack lipid-ghulansheel quinon joe mitochondrian jhilli mein paaya jaataa haih
pratikriya kii shuruat, aur vaastav mein poori electron shrinkhala kii shuruat, ack naadh anu kaa jatil i seey bandhan aur dou electrons kaa daan haye. electrons koo jatil, flavin mononucleotide (aff. aim. aine.) seey judey ack kritrim samooh key madhyam seey jatil mein pravesh karna hotaa haye. aff. aim. aine. mein electrons kaa judanaa ise isake cumm roop, aff. aim. aine. aich. 2 mein parivartit kartaa haye. electrons koo phir lohe-sulfur samoohon kii ack shrinkhala key madhyam seey sthanantarit kiya jaataa haih parisar mein maujood doosari tarah kaa kritrim samooh. [2fe-2s] aur [4fe-4s] donon hii lauh-sulfur samooh hain.
jaise hii electron iss parisar seey gujarate hain, chaar proton koo matricks seey intermembrane space mein pump kiya jaataa haye. yeh kaise hotaa haye, yeh spasht naheen haye, lekin aisaa lagata haye kii isamen jatil i mein anuroop parivartan shamil hain joe protein koo jhilli key aine-side parr proton koo baandhane aur unhein jhilli key pee-side parr chhodane kaa kaaran banata haye. anta mein, electrons koo lohe-sulfur samoohon kii shrinkhala seey jhilli mein ack ubquinone anu mein sthanantarit kiya jaataa haye. ubquinone kii kamee ack proton pravanata key utpaadan mein bhee yogdan detee haye, kyonki dou proton koo matricks seey liya jaataa haye kyonki yeh ubquinol (qh2) mein cumm hoe jaataa haye.
sukinet-kyu oxidoriductase (complexes II).
sukinet-kyu oxidoriductase, jise "complexes II" yaa "sukinet dehydrogenase" key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye, electron parivahan shrinkhala kaa doosara pravesh bindu haye. yeh asamanya haye kyonki yeh ekmatra enzyme haye joe citric acid chakr aur electron parivahan shrinkhala donon kaa hissa haye. complexes II mein chaar protein upa-ikaaiyaan hoti hain aur isamen ack baadhya flavin adenine dynucleotide (faid) coffector, iron-sulfur cluster aur ack heim samooh hotaa haye joe coenzyme q mein electron hastaantaran mein bhaag naheen letaa haye, lekin maanaa jaataa haye kii pratikriyaasheel oxygen prajaatiyon key utpaadan koo cumm karane mein mahatvapurna haye. yeh fumourate mein okseekaran kartaa haye aur ubquinone koo cumm kartaa haye. choonki yeh pratikriya naadh key okseekaran kii tulanaa mein cumm oorjaa jaari karati haye, isaliye jatil II jhilli key paar proton kaa parivahan naheen kartaa haye aur proton pravanata mein yogdan naheen detaa haye.
kuchh eukariotes mein, jaise kii parjivi krimi "escaris syum", jatil II key samaan ack enzyme, fumourate reductase (menaquinolah fumourate)
oxidoriductase, yaa kyu. aff. aar.), ubquinol koo aukseekrit karane aur fumourate koo cumm karane key liye vipareet roop seey kaam kartaa haye. yeh krimi koo badee aant key avaayaviya vatavaran mein jeevit rahane kii anumati detaa haye, joe electron sweekaarak key roop mein fumourate key saath avaayaviya oxidative phosphorylation koo leey jaataa haye. jatil II kaa ack anya aparamparaagat kaary maleria parjivi "plasmodium falsiperum" mein dekhaa jaataa haye. yahaan, ack oxidase key roop mein jatil II kii vipareet kriya ubquinol koo punarjeevit karane mein mahatvapurna haye, jiska upayog parjivi pyrimidine jaiv sanshleshan key ack asamanya roop mein kartaa haye.
electron sthanantaran flavoprotein-kyu oxidoriductase.
electron sthanantaran flavoprotein-ubikinon oxidoriductase (atuff-kyu oxidoriductase), jise "electron sthanantaran-flavoprotein dehydrogenase" key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye, electron parivahan shrinkhala mein ack teesara pravesh bindu haye. yeh ack enzyme haye joe mitochondrial matricks mein electron-sthanantaran flavoprotein seey electrons koo sweekaar kartaa haye, aur inn electrons kaa upayog ubquinone koo cumm karane key liye kartaa haye. iss enzyme mein ack flavin aur ack [4fe-4aiss] cluster hotaa haye, lekin, anya shwasan parisaron key vipareet, yeh jhilli kii satah seey juda jaataa haye aur lipid dwi parat koo paar naheen kartaa haye.
standhaariyon mein, yeh chayapachaya maarg fatty acid key beeta okseekaran aur amino acid aur collin key catabolism mein mahatvapurna haye, kyonki yeh kaee acetyl-coa dehydrogenase seey electrons koo sweekaar kartaa haye. paudhon mein, chayapachaya pratikriyaon mein atuff-kyu oxidoriductase bhee mahatvapurna haye joe andhere kii vistaarit avadhi mein jeevit rahane kii anumati detaa haye.
kyu-cytochrome see oxidoriductase (jatil III).
kyu-cytochrome see oxidoriductase koo "cytochrome see reductase", "cytochrome bee. see. 1 complexes" yaa buss "complexes III" key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye. standhaariyon mein, yeh enzyme ack diamer haye, jisamen pratyek upa-ikai parisar mein 11 protein upa-ikaaiyaan, ack [2fe-2aiss] iron-sulfur cluster aur teen cytochrome hotey hainh ack cytochrome see1 aur dou bee cytochrome. cytochrome ack prakaar kaa electron-hastaantaran protein haye jisamen cumm seey cumm ack heim samooh hotaa haye. jatil III key heim samoohon key ander lohe key paramanu ack cumm lauh (+ 2) aur aukseekrit ferric (+ 3) avastha key beach vaikalpik hotey hain kyonki electron protein key madhyam seey sthanantarit hotey hain.
jatil III dwara utprerit pratikriya ubquinol key ack anu kaa okseekaran aur cytochrome see key dou anuon kii kamee haye, joe ack heim protein haye joe mitochondrian seey shithil roop seey judaa huaa haye. saha-enzyme q key vipareet, joe dou electrons koo wahan kartaa haye, cytochrome c kewal ack electron wahan kartaa haye.
choonki ack samay mein kewal ack electron koo qh2 daataa seey ack cytochrome see sweekaarak mein sthanantarit kiya jaa sakata haye, isaliye jatil III kii pratikriya tantra anya shwasan parisaron kii tulanaa mein adhik vistrit haye, aur dou charanon mein hoti haye jinhen q chakr kahaa jaataa haye. pahale charan mein, enzyme teen substrate koo baandhata haye, pahale, qh2, jise phir aukseekrit kiya jaataa haye, jisamen ack electron koo dusare substrate, cytochrome see mein paarit kiya jaataa haye. qh2 seey chhode gaye dou proton antar-jhilli sthaan mein jaate hain. teesara substrate q haye, joe qh2 seey dusare electron koo sweekaar kartaa haye aur q taka cumm hoe jaataa haye.-, joe ubisemicinone mukt kann haye. pahale dou substrate jaari kiye jaate hain, lekin yeh ubisemicinone madhyavarti baadhya rahata haye. dusare charan mein, qh2 kaa doosara anu bandha hotaa haye aur phir seey apane pahale electron koo ack cytochrome see sweekaar karane vaale koo paarit kartaa haye. doosara electron baadhya ubisemicinone koo paarit kiya jaataa haye, joe ise qh2 taka cumm curr detaa haye kyonki yeh mitochondrial matricks seey dou proton praapt kartaa haye. yeh qh2 taba enzyme seey chhoda jaataa haye.
jaise hii saha-enzyme q jhilli key aantarik bhaag mein ubquinol mein cumm hoe jaataa haye aur doosari or ubquinone mein aukseekrit hoe jaataa haye, jhilli key paar proton kaa ack shuddh hastaantaran hotaa haye, joe proton pravanata mein jodata haye. balki jatil dou-charaniya tantra jisake dwara yeh hotaa haye, mahatvapurna haye, kyonki yeh proton hastaantaran kii dakshata koo badhaata haye. yadi, q chakr key bajaay, qh2 key ack anu kaa upayog cytochrome c key dou anuon koo seedhe cumm karane key liye kiya jaataa, tou dakshata aadhi hoe jaayegi, jisamen prati cytochrome c mein kewal ack proton sthanantarit kiya jaayega.
cytochrome see oxidase (jatil IV).
cytochrome see oxidase, jise "complexes IV" key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye, electron parivahan shrinkhala mein antim protein complexes haye. standhari enzyme kii sanrachana behad jatil hoti haye aur isamen 13 upa-ikaaiyaan, dou heim samooh, saath hii kaee dhaatu aayan saha-kaarak hotey hain-kull milakar, tambe key teen paramanu, ack magnicium aur ack jastaa.
yeh enzyme electron parivahan shrinkhala mein antim pratikriya kaa madhyasthata kartaa haye aur jhilli mein proton koo pump karate hue electrons koo oxygen aur hydrogen (proton) mein sthanantarit kartaa haye. iss charan mein antim electron grahan karane vaalaa oxygen paani mein cumm hoe jaataa haye. proton kii pratyaksh pumping aur oxygen kii kamee mein matricks proton kii khapat donon proton pravanata mein yogdan karate hain. utprerit pratikriya cytochrome see kaa okseekaran aur oxygen kii kamee haih
vaikalpik reductase aur oxidase.
kaee eukariotic jeevon mein electron parivahan shrinkhalaaen hoti hain joe oopar varnit bahut adhik adhyayan kiye gaye stanpaayi enzymon seey alag hoti hain. udaaharan key liye, paudhon mein vaikalpik naadh oxidase hotey hain, joe mitochondrial matricks key bajaay cytosol mein naadh koo aukseekrit karate hain, aur inn electrons koo ubquinone pool mein paarit karate hain. yeye enzyme proton kaa parivahan naheen karate hain, aur isaliye, aantarik jhilli mein vidyut rasayanik pravanata koo badale binaa ubquinone koo cumm karate hain.
ack alag electron parivahan shrinkhala kaa ack aur udaaharan "vaikalpik oxidase" haye, joe paudhon key saath-saath kuchh kavak, proteast aur sambhavatah kuchh jaanvaron mein paaya jaataa haye. yeh enzyme seedhe ubquinol seey oxygen mein electrons koo sthanantarit kartaa haye.
inn vaikalpik naadh aur ubquinone oxidase dwara utpaadit electron parivahan maargon mein poorna maarg kii tulanaa mein cumm aeye. tii. pee. upaj hoti haye. ack sankshipt maarg seey utpann laabh poori tarah seey spasht naheen hain. haalaanki, vaikalpik oxidase kaa utpaadan thhand, pratikriyaasheel oxygen prajaatiyon aur rogjanakon dwara sankraman jaise tanaavon key saath-saath poorna electron parivahan shrinkhala koo rokane vaale anya karakon key jawab mein kiya jaataa haye. vaikalpik maarg, isaliye, oxidative tanaav koo cumm karke, chot key prati ack jeev key pratirodh koo badhaa sakate hain.
parisaron kaa sangathan.
shwasan shrinkhala parisaron koo kaise vyavasthit kiya jaataa haye, iska mool model yeh thaa kii way mitochondrial jhilli mein swatantra roop seey aur swatantra roop seey failate hain. haalaanki, haal key aankadon seey pataa chalata haye kii parisar uchch-crum sanrachanaaen banaa sakate hain jinhen supercomplexes yaa "shwasan" kahaa jaataa haye. iss model mein, vibhinn parisar antahkriya karane vaale enzymon key sangathit sett key roop mein maujood hain. yeye sangh vibhinn enzyme parisaron key beach substrate key channeling kii anumati dey sakate hain, jisase electron hastaantaran kii darr aur dakshata mein vriddhi hoe sakati haye. iss tarah key standhari supercomplexes key bheetar, kuchh ghatak dusaron kii tulanaa mein adhik matra mein maujood honge, kuchh detta key saath joe complexes i/ii/iii/iv aur lagbhag 1:1:3:7:4 key aeye. tii. pee. synthes key beach anupaat kaa sujhaav dete hain. haalaanki, iss supercomplexes parikalpana parr bahas poori tarah seey hull naheen hui haye, kyonki kuchh detta iss model key saath fitt naheen lagate hain.
procariotic electron parivahan shrinkhalaaen.
eukariotes mein electron parivahan shrinkhalaon kii sanrachana aur kaary mein samanya samaantaa key vipareet, bacteria aur archia mein electron-hastaantaran enzymon kii ack badee vividhata hoti haye. yeye substrate key roop mein rasayanon key samaan roop seey vyaapak samooh kaa upayog karate hain. eukariotes key saath samanya roop seey, procariotic electron parivahan ack jhilli key paar ayanon koo pump karane aur ack vidyut rasayanik pravanata utpann karane key liye ack substrate key okseekaran seey jaari oorjaa kaa upayog kartaa haye. bacteria mein, "escarichia kolai" mein oxidative phosphorylation koo sabse vistaar seey samajha jaataa haye, jabaki archaeal system koo vartamaan mein bahut cumm samajha jaataa haye.
eukariotic aur procariotic oxidative phosphorylation key beach mukhya antar yeh haye kii bacteria aur archia electrons koo daan karane yaa sweekaar karane key liye kaee alag-alag padarthon kaa upayog karate hain. yeh procariotes koo vibhinn prakaar kii paryavaraniya sthitiyon mein badhane kii anumati detaa haye. ee mein. kolai, "udaaharan key liye, oxidative phosphorylation koo badee sankhya mein cumm karane vaale agents aur okseekaran agents key jode dwara sanchaalit kiya jaa sakata haye, joe neeche soochibaddh hain. ack rasayanik kii madhya bindu kshamata yeh maapati haye kii jaba yeh aukseekrit yaa cumm hoe jaataa haye tou kitni oorjaa jaari kii jaati haye, jisamen cumm karane vaale agents mein nakaratmak kshamata aur okseekaran agents mein sakaratmak kshamata hoti haye.
jaisa kii oopar dikhaaya gayaa haye, "ee. kolai "cumm karane vaale agents jaise formatt, hydrogen, yaa lactate koo electron daataon key roop mein, aur nitrate, dee. aim. aiss. oh., yaa oxygen koo sweekaar karane vaale key roop mein vikasit curr sakata haye. okseekaran aur cumm karane vaale agent key beach madhya bindu kshamata mein jitna badaa antar hoga, utani hii adhik oorjaa taba jaari kii jaayegi jaba way pratikriya karenge. inn yaugikon mein seey, sukinet/fumourate jodee asamanya haye, kyonki isaki madhya bindu kshamata shoonya key karib haye. isaliye yadi oxygen jaise majboot okseekaran agent upalabdh haye, yaa formatt jaise majboot cumm karane vaale agent kaa upayog karke fumate koo cumm karke fumate kiya jaa sakata haye, tou sukinet koo fumate mein aukseekrit kiya jaa sakata haye. inn vaikalpik pratikriyaon koo kramshah sukeen dehydrogenase aur fumourate reductage dwara utprerit kiya jaataa haye.
kuchh procariotes redox jode kaa upayog karate hain jinamen madhya bindu kshamata mein kewal ack chhota saa antar hotaa haye. udaaharan key liye, nitrifying bacteria jaise "nitrobacter" nitrite koo nitrate mein aukseekrit karate hain, electrons koo oxygen mein daan karate hain. iss pratikriya mein jaari oorjaa kii chhoti matra proton pump karane aur aeye. tii. pee. utpann karane key liye paryaapt haye, lekin anabolism mein upayog key liye seedhe naadh yaa nadaf kaa utpaadan karane key liye paryaapt naheen haye. iss samasya koo nitrite oxidoriductase kaa upayog karke paryaapt proton-prerak bull kaa utpaadan karke hull kiya jaataa haye taaki electron parivahan shrinkhala key hisse koo vipareet roop seey chalaaya jaa sakey, jisase jatil i seey nad utpann hotaa haye.
procariotes paryavaraniya sthitiyon key jawab mein inn electron daataon aur sweekaar karane vaalon key upayog koo alag-alag enzymon key utpaadan seey niyantrit karate hain. yeh lachilaapan sambhav haye kyonki vibhinn oxidase aur reductase ack hii ubquinone pool kaa upayog karate hain. yeh enzymon key kaee sanyojanon koo ack saath kaary karane kii anumati detaa haye, joe samanya ubquinol madhyavarti dwara judaa huaa haye. isaliye inn shwasan shrinkhalaon mein ack modular design hotaa haye, jisamen enzyme pranaliyon key aasaani seey vinimeya sett hotey hain.
iss chayapachaya vividhata key alawa, procariotes mein isozymes kii ack shrinkhala bhee hoti haye-vibhinn enzyme joe ack hii pratikriya koo utprerit karate hain. udaaharan key liye, "ee" mein. kolai, "dou alag-alag prakaar key ubquinol oxidase hain joe ack electron sweekaarak key roop mein oxygen kaa upayog karate hain. atyadhik aerobic sthitiyon mein, koshika oxygen key liye cumm aatmiyata key saath ack oxidase kaa upayog karati haye joe prati electron dou proton kaa parivahan curr sakati haye. haalaanki, yadi oxygen kaa star girata haye, tou way ack oxidase mein badal jaate hain joe prati electron kewal ack proton koo sthanantarit kartaa haye, lekin oxygen key liye ack uchch sambandh haye.
aeye. tii. pee. synthes (jatil vee).
aeye. tii. pee. synthes, jise "complexes vee" bhee kahaa jaataa haye, oxidative phosphorylation maarg mein antim enzyme haye. yeh enzyme jeevan key sabhi roopon mein paaya jaataa haye aur procariotes aur eukariotes donon mein ack hii tarah seey kaary kartaa haye. enzyme aeye. dee. pee. aur phosphat (pee. aaee.) seey aeye. tii. pee. key sanshleshan koo chalaane key liye ack jhilli key paar ack proton pravanata mein sangraheet oorjaa kaa upayog kartaa haye. ack aeye. tii. pee. koo sanshleshit karane key liye aavashyak protons kii sankhya key anuman teen seey chaar taka hain, kuchh sujhaav dete hain kii koshikaaen iss anupaat koo alag-alag sthitiyon key anuroop badal sakati hain.
yeh phosphorylation pratikriya ack santulan haye, jise proton-prerak bull koo badalkar sthanantarit kiya jaa sakata haye. proton-prerak bull kii anupasthiti mein, aeye. tii. pee. synthes pratikriya daaen seey baaen taka chalati haye, aeye. tii. pee. koo hydrolyse karati haye aur jhilli key paar matricks seey proton koo baahar nikaalati haye. haalaanki, jaba proton-prerak bull adhik hotaa haye, tou pratikriya vipareet disha mein chalane key liye majboor hoti haye; yeh baaen seey daaen aage badhati haye, jisase proton apani ekagrata pravanata koo neeche pravaahit curr sakate hain aur aeye. tii. pee. mein badal sakate hain. vaastav mein, nikatata seey sambandhit vacular prakaar aich +-atpaces mein, hydrolysis pratikriya kaa upayog proton pump karke aur aeye. tii. pee. hydrolycing karke cellular dibbon koo amleeya banaane key liye kiya jaataa haye.
aeye. tii. pee. synthes ack badey paimaane parr protein parisar haye joe mashroom jaise aakar kaa hotaa haye. standhari enzyme parisar mein 16 upa-ikaaiyaan hoti hain aur iska dravyamaan lagbhag 600 kilodalton hotaa haye. jhilli key bheetar antarnihit hisse koo phau kahaa jaataa haye aur isamen see upa-ikaaiyon aur proton channel kaa ack valay hotaa haye. danthal aur gend key aakar key sir koo aff1 kahaa jaataa haye aur yeh aeye. tii. pee. sanshleshan kaa sthaan haye. aff1 bhaag key anta mein gend key aakar key parisar mein dou alag-alag prakaar key chhah protein hotey hain (teen α upa-ikaaiyaan aur teen β upa-ikaaiyaan), jabaki "danthal" mein ack protein hotaa haih γ upa-ikai, jisamen danthal kii noke α aur β upa-ikaaiyon kii gend mein faili hoti haye. donon α aur β upa-ikaaiyaan nucleotides koo baandhati hain, lekin kewal β upa-ikaaiyaan aeye. tii. pee. sanshleshan pratikriya koo utprerit karati hain. aff1 bhaag key kinare taka pahunchana aur jhilli mein vaapas aanaa ack lambi chhad jaisi upa-ikai haye joe α aur β upa-ikaaiyon koo enzyme key aadhar mein lunger daalati haye.
jaise hii proton aeye. tii. pee. synthes key aadhar mein channel key madhyam seey jhilli koo paar karate hain, phau proton-sanchaalit motor ghoomati haye. see upa-ikaaiyon key valay mein emino acid key ayanan mein parivartan key kaaran ghoornan hoe sakata haye jisase sthir vidyut antahkriya hoti haye joe see upa-ikaaiyon key valay koo proton channel seey aage badhaati haye. yeh ghoornan ring badale mein α aur β upa-ikaaiyon key bheetar kendriya aksh (γ upa-ikai danthal) key ghoornan koo chalaati haye. α aur β upa-ikaaiyon koo side-arm dwara khud koo ghumaane seey rokaa jaataa haye, joe ack stater key roop mein kaary kartaa haye. α aur β upa-ikaaiyon kii gend key bheetar γ upa-ikai kii noke kii yeh gati β upa-ikaaiyon mein sakriya sthalon key liye oorjaa pradaan karati haye joe andolanon key ack chakr seey gujarati haye joe utpann karati haye aur phir aeye. tii. pee. jaari karati haye.
iss aeye. tii. pee. sanshleshan pratikriya koo "badhyakari parivartan tantra" kahaa jaataa haye aur isamen teen avasthaon key beach ack β upa-ikai chakran kaa sakriya sthal shamil hotaa haye. khuli" sthiti mein, aeye. dee. pee. aur phosphat sakriya sthal mein pravesh karate hain (aarekh mein bhoore rung mein dikhaaya gayaa haye). protein taba anuon key chaaron or bund hoe jaataa haye aur unhein dheeli tarah seey baandh detaa haye-"dheeli" sthiti (laal rung mein dikhaaya gayaa). enzyme phir seey aakar badalata haye aur inn anuon koo ack saath majboor kartaa haye, jisake parinamswarup sakriya sthal "tanga" sthiti (gulabi mein dikhaaya gayaa) mein nae utpaadit aeye. tii. pee. anu koo bahut uchch aatmiyata key saath baandhata haye. anta mein, sakriya sthal chakr khule raajya mein vaapas aaa jaataa haye, atp koo chhodata haye aur agale chakr key liye taiyar adhik adp aur phosphat koo baandhata haye.
kuchh bacteria aur archia mein, aeye. tii. pee. sanshleshan protons key andolan key bajaay koshika jhilli key madhyam seey sodium ayanon key andolan seey sanchaalit hotaa haye. methanococcus" jaise archia mein aeye1oh synthes bhee hotaa haye, joe enzyme kaa ack roop haye jisamen anya jeevaanu aur eukariotic aeye. tii. pee. synthes upa-ikaaiyon key anukram mein bahut cumm samaantaa vaale atirikt protein hotey hain. yeh sambhav haye kii kuchh prajaatiyon mein, enzyme kaa aeye1oh roop ack vishesh sodium-sanchaalit aeye. tii. pee. synthes haye, lekin yeh sabhi mamalon mein sach naheen hoe sakata haye.
oxidative phosphorylation-oorjaa.
redox jodee nad +/nadh seey antim redox jodee 1/2 o2/h2o taka electrons key parivahan koo sankshep mein iss prakaar prastut kiya jaa sakata haye -
1/2 o2 + nadh + h + → h2o + nad+
inn dou redox jode key beach sambhaavit antar 1.14 volt haye, joe-52 kcal/mol yaa-2600 kj prati 6 mol o2 key barabar haye.
jaba ack naadh koo electron hastaantaran shrinkhala key madhyam seey aukseekrit kiya jaataa haye, tou teen attups kaa utpaadan hotaa haye, joe 7.3 kilocallery/moll x3 = 21.9 kilocallery/moll key barabar hotaa haye.
oorjaa key sanrakshan kii ganana nimnalikhit sootra seey kii jaa sakati haye -
dakshata = (21.9 x 100%)/52 = 42%
isaliye humm yeh nishkarsh nikaal sakate hain kii jaba naadh aukseekrit hotaa haye, tou lagbhag 42 pratishat oorjaa teen attups key roop mein sanrakshit hoti haye aur shesh (58 pratishat) oorjaa garmi key roop mein khou jaati haye (jaba taka kii shaaririk sthitiyon key tahat atop kii rasayanik oorjaa koo cumm naheen aanka jaataa thaa).
pratikriyaasheel oxygen prajaatiyan.
aanvik oxygen ack achchha antim electron sweekaarak haye kyonki yeh ack majboot okseekaran agent haye. oxygen kii kamee mein sambhaavit roop seey hanikarak madhyavarti shamil hotey hain. halanki chaar electrons aur chaar protons key hastaantaran seey oxygen koo paani mein cumm curr diyaa jaataa haye, joe haanirahit haye, ack yaa dou electrons key hastaantaran seey superoxide yaa peroxide aayan paida hotey hain, joe khatarnak roop seey pratikriyaasheel hotey hain.
yeye pratikriyaasheel oxygen prajaatiyan aur unake pratikriya utpaad, jaise hydroxyl radical, koshikaon key liye bahut hanikarak hain, kyonki way protein kaa okseekaran karate hain aur dna mein utparivartan kaa kaaran banate hain. yeh koshikiya kshati roga mein yogdan curr sakati haye aur ise umr badhane key ack kaaran key roop mein prastaavit kiya gayaa haye.
cytochrome see oxidase complexes oxygen koo paani mein cumm karane mein atyadhik kushal haye, aur yeh bahut cumm aanshik roop seey cumm madhyavarti chhodata haye; haalaanki electron parivahan shrinkhala dwara superoxide aayan aur peroxide kii chhoti matra kaa utpaadan kiya jaataa haye. vishesh roop seey mahatvapurna haye kii jatil III mein saha-enzyme q kii kamee, kyonki ack atyadhik pratikriyaasheel ubisemicinone mukt kann q chakr mein ack madhyavarti key roop mein banata haye. yeh asthir prajaati electron "risaav" kaa kaaran bunn sakati haye jaba electron seedhe oxygen mein sthanantarit hoe jaate hain, jisase superoxide banata haye. choonki inn proton-pumping parisaron dwara pratikriyaasheel oxygen prajaatiyon kaa utpaadan uchch jhilli kshamata parr sabse badaa haye, isaliye yeh prastaav kiya gayaa haye kii mitochondria jhilli kshamata koo ack sankeern seema key bheetar banaae rakhane key liye unaki gatividhi koo niyantrit kartaa haye joe oxidant utpaadan key khilaf aeye. tii. pee. utpaadan koo santulit kartaa haye. udaaharan key liye, oxidant uncoopling protein koo sakriya curr sakate hain joe jhilli kshamata koo cumm karate hain.
inn pratikriyaasheel oxygen prajaatiyon kaa mukabala karane key liye, koshikaon mein kaee antioxidant pranaliyan hoti hain, jinamen antioxidant vitamin jaise vitamin see aur vitamin ee, aur antioxidant enzyme jaise superoxide dismutage, catalage aur peroxidase shamil hain, joe pratikriyaasheel prajaatiyon koo vishaakt karate hain, jisase koshika koo nuksan seemit hotaa haye.
hypoxic sthitiyon mein oxidative phosphorylation.
oxidative phosphorylation key liye oxygen maulik haye, isaliye oh2 star mein kamee seey utpaadan darr mein badalaav honey kii sambhavana haye. haalaanki, proton prerak bull aur aeye. tii. pee. utpaadan koo intracellular acidosis dwara banaae rakhaa jaa sakata haye. cytosolic proton joe aeye. tii. pee. hydrolysis aur lactic acidosis key saath jamaa hue hain, way swatantra roop seey mitochondrial baahari-jhilli mein fail sakate hain aur antar-jhilli sthaan koo amleeya banaa sakate hain, isaliye seedhe proton prerak bull aur aeye. tii. pee. utpaadan mein yogdan karate hain.
avarodhak.
kaee prasiddh davaaen aur vishaakt padaarth hain joe oxidative phosphorylation koo rokte hain. haalaanki inmein seey koee bhee vishaakt padaarth electron parivahan shrinkhala mein kewal ack enzyme koo rokta haye, iss prakriya mein kissy bhee charan kaa avrodh baaki prakriya koo roque dega. udaaharan key liye, yadi oligomycin aeye. tii. pee. synthes koo rokta haye, tou proton mitochondrian mein vaapas naheen jaa sakate hain. natijatan, proton pump kaam karane mein asamarth hotey hain, kyonki dhaal unake liye door karane key liye bahut majboot hoe jaataa haye. taba naadh kaa okseekaran naheen hotaa haye aur citric acid chakr kaam karna bund curr detaa haye kyonki naad + kii sandrata usa sandrata seey cumm hoe jaati haye jiska upayog yeye enzyme curr sakate hain.
electron parivahan shrinkhala key kaee site-vishisht avrodhakon ney mitochondrial shwasan key vartamaan gyaan mein yogdan diyaa haye. aeye. tii. pee. kaa sanshleshan bhee electron parivahan shrinkhala parr nirbhar kartaa haye, isaliye sabhi site-vishisht avarodhak bhee aeye. tii. pee. gathan koo rokte hain. machhali kaa jahar rotenon, barbiturate dawa amital, aur antibiotic piericidine ack avrodh naad aur coenzyme kyu.
carbon monoxide, sinide, hydrogen sulphide aur azide cytochrome oxidase koo prabhaavi roop seey rokte hain. carbon monoxide cytochrome key cumm roop key saath pratikriya kartaa haye jabaki sinide aur azide aukseekrit roop key saath pratikriya karate hain. ack antibiotic, antimycin aeye, aur british anty-levicite, rasayanik hathiyaron key khilaf upayog kiya jaane vaalaa ack antidote, cytochrome bee aur see1 key beach site key dou mahatvapurna avarodhak hain.
oxidative phosphorylation key sabhi avarodhak vishaakt padaarth naheen hain. braun edipose ootak mein, aniyantrit protein naamak viniyamit proton channel aeye. tii. pee. sanshleshan seey shwas koo alag curr sakate hain. yeh teji seey shwasan garmi paida kartaa haye, aur vishesh roop seey sheetnidra vaale jaanvaron key liye shareer key tapman koo banaae rakhane key tareeke key roop mein mahatvapurna haye, halanki inn proteins kaa tanaav key liye koshikaon kii pratikriyaon mein adhik samanya kaary bhee hoe sakata haye.
itihas.
oxidative phosphorylation kaa kshetra 1906 mein arther harden dwara cellular kinwan mein phosphat key liye ack mahatvapurna bhoomika kii report key saath shuru huaa, lekin shuru mein kewal cheeni phosphat shamil honey key liye jaanaa jaataa thaa. haalaanki, 1940 key dashak kii shuruat mein, sharkara key okseekaran aur aeye. tii. pee. kii peedhi key beach kii kadee koo herman kalkar dwara dridhata seey sthaapit kiya gayaa thaa, joe oorjaa hastaantaran mein aeye. tii. pee. kii kendriya bhoomika kii pushti kartaa haye jise 1941 mein fritz albert lipman dwara prastaavit kiya gayaa thaa. baad mein, 1949 mein, morris friedkin aur elbert ell. lehinger ney saabit kiya kii saha-enzyme naadh chayapachaya maargon jaise citric acid chakr aur aeye. tii. pee. key sanshleshan seey judaa huaa haye. oxidative phosphorylation" shabd 1939 mein gadhaa gayaa thaa.
agale bees varshon taka, jiss tantra dwara aeye. tii. pee. utpann hotaa haye, vaha rahasyamay banaa rhaa, jisamen vaigyaanik ack mayawi "uchch-oorjaa madhyavarti" kii khoj curr rahey they joe okseekaran aur phosphorylation pratikriyaon koo jodd dega. iss paheli koo peater dee dwara hull kiya gayaa thaa. 1961 mein chemiosmotic siddhant key prakaashan key saath michel. pahale, yeh prastaav atyadhik vivadaspad thaa, lekin ise dheere-dheere sweekaar curr liya gayaa aur michel koo 1978 mein nobel puraskar seey sammaanit kiya gayaa. baad key shodh mein shamil enzymon koo shuddh karane aur unaki visheshtaon parr dhyaan kendrit kiya gayaa, jisamen david ee dwara pramukh yogdan diyaa gayaa. electron-parivahan shrinkhala key parisaron parr haraa, saath hii aeye. tii. pee. synthes parr ephraim racker. aeye. tii. pee. synthes key tantra koo hull karane kii disha mein ack mahatvapurna kadam paul dee dwara pradaan kiya gayaa thaa. boyer, 1973 mein "badhyakari parivartan" tantra key vikas key baad, 1982 mein ghoornan utpreran key unake kattarpanthi prastaav key baad. haal key kaam mein johnn ee dwara oxidative phosphorylation mein shamil enzymon parr sanrachanaatmak adhyayan shamil hain. walker aur boyer koo 1997 mein nobel puraskar seey sammaanit kiya gayaa thaa.

