
chhota khand

bhashavigyan mein, ack chhote khand mein ack vishay aur usake vidheya hotey hain, lekin isamen kaal kii spasht abhivyakti kaa abhaav hotaa haye. chhote khandon mein ack khand kii shabdarth vishay-anumaanit visheshtaen hoti hain, aur kuchh hotey hain, lekin sabhi naheen, ack ghatak key guna hotey hain. chhote khandon key sanrachanaatmak vishleshan iss baat key anusaar bhinn hotey hain kii kyaa ack sapaat yaa starit vishleshan kiya jaataa haye. chhota khand vastu koo oopar uthaane, asadharan mamle koo chihnit karane, aarop saha anant aur vastu niyantran kii ghatnaaon seey sambandhit haye.
itihas.
chhote khandon key dou mukhya vishleshan advin williams (1975,1980) aur timothi stowell (1981) seey utpann hotey hain. williams kaa vishleshan bhavishyavani key siddhant kaa anusaran kartaa haye, jahan "vishay" "ack adhikatam prakshepan kaa baahari tark" haye. isake vipareet, stowell kaa siddhant chhote khandon key siddhant kaa anusaran kartaa haye, jise chomsky, art aur kitagawa jaise bhashavidon dwara samarthit kiya gayaa haye. yeh siddhant chhote khandon koo ghatakon key roop mein maanane key liye aiks-baar siddhant kaa upayog kartaa haye. bhashavid iss baat parr bahas karate hain kii kiss vishleshan koo aage badhaana haye, kyonki bahas key donon pakshon key liye saboot hain.
williams (1975,1980).
chhota khand" shabd 1975 mein advin williams dwara gadhaa gayaa thaa, jinhone vishesh roop seey "cumm rishtedaar, kriyavisheshan parivartak vakyanshon aur ankurit vakyanshon" koo dekhaa thaa. nimnalikhit teen udaharanon koo williams key 1975 key pepper mein "chhote khand" key roop mein maanaa gayaa haye, jaisa kii balaz 2012 mein uddhrit kiya gayaa haye. haalaanki, sabhi bhashavid inn shabd kii aadhunik paribhasha key anusaar inhen chhote khand naheen maanate hain.
ack chhote khand kii aadhunik paribhasha ack poorvasoochak sambandh mein ack [aine. pee. aiks. pee.] haye. iss paribhasha koo 1980 mein advin williams dwara prastaavit kiya gayaa thaa, jinhone bhavishyavani kii avadharana pesh kii thee. unhone prastaav diyaa kii vishay aine. pee. aur vidheya aiks. pee. saha-soochkaank key madhyam seey sambandhit hain, joe see-kamaand dwara sambhav haye. williams key vishleshan mein, ack chhote khand kaa [aine. pee. aiks. pee.] ack ghatak naheen haye.
stowell (1981).
1981 mein timothi stowell ney ack ghatak key roop mein chhote khand kaa vishleshan kiya, aur aiks-baar siddhant kaa upayog karke ack sanrachana kaa prastaav rakhaa. stowell kaa prastaav haye kii vishay koo ack nirdisht karane vaali sthiti mein honey vaale aine. pee. key roop mein paribhaashit kiya gayaa haye, usa mamle koo nirdisht karane vaali sthiti mein saunpa gayaa haye, aur sabhi shreniyon mein vishay naheen hain. unakaa vishleshan bataata haye kii cases-maark kiye gaye vishay anant khandon mein kyon naheen hoe sakate hain, halanki nps koo ack anant khand kii vinirdisht sthiti taka prakshepit kiya jaa sakata haye. stowell nimnalikhit udaharanon koo chhote khand aur ghatak maanate hain.
sandarbh.
ack chhote khand key roop mein kyaa yogya haye aur kyaa naheen saahitya mein bhinn hotaa haih (8) mein udaaharan vaakyon mein chhote khand hotey hain (vaakya rachana key kuchh siddhant kyaa hotey hain). pratyek udaaharan mein, prastut chhota khand boldface mein haye, aur rekhaankit abhivyakti isake baain or turant nammatra parr ack vidheya key roop mein kaary karati haye, joe vishay haye. kriyaaen joe chhote khandon koo licenses detee hain, ack visham samooh hain, aur paanch vargon mein aatee hainh
(8a-b-c) mein udaharanon mein ack visheshta haye kii chhote khand mein ack kriya kaa abhaav haye. vaastav mein, ise kabhi-kabhi chhote khandon key ack paribhaashit pahalu key roop mein liya jaataa haye.ee. ack chhote khand key roop mein arhata praapt karane key liye, ack kriya anupasthit honey chaahiye. haalaanki, yadi koee ack chhote khand koo ack kriya rakhane kii anumati detaa haye, tou (8d-e) mein vaakyon koo chhote khandon vaale key roop mein bhee maanaa jaa sakata haih vaakyon (8a-b-c) aur (8d-e) mein samaantaa spasht haye, kyonki inn sabhi vaakyon mein ack hii vishay-anumaanit sambandh maujood haye. isaliye yadi koee vaakyon (8aeye-bee-see) koo chhote khandon vaale key roop mein maanata haye, tou koee vaakyon (50ee-aff) koo chhote khandon vaale key roop mein bhee maan sakata haye. angreji key sabhi paanch sandarbhon kii ack paribhaashit visheshta (8a-b-c-d-e) mein chhote khand yeh haye kii seemit khandon seey judaa kaal, jisamen ack seemit kriya hoti haye, anupasthit haye.
sanrachanaatmak vishleshan.
motey taur parr, chhote khandon kii sanrachana key teen pratispardhi vishleshan hain.
samtal sanrachana.
samtal sanrachana dou alag-alag sahayak ghatakon mein chhote khand samagri koo vyavasthit karati haye.
baain or aeye-pedh vakyansh sanrachana pedh hain, aur daaeen or bee-pedh nirbharta pedh hain. inn sanrachanaon kaa pramukh pahalu yeh haye kii chhote khand samagri mein dou alag-alag sahayogi ghatak hotey hain.
sapaat vishleshan koo una logon dwara pasand kiya jaataa haye joe nirbharta vyaakaran aur pratinidhitva vakyansh sanrachana vyaakaran (ee.jee. saamaanyikrit vakyansh sanrachana vyaakaran aur mukhya-sanchaalit vakyansh sanrachana vyaakaran).
paratdaar sanrachana.
starit sanrachana chhote khand samagri koo ack ghatak mein vyavasthit karati haye. vakyansh sanrachana pedh phir seey baain or hain, aur nirbharta pedh daaeen or hain. vakyansh sanrachana vrikshon mein chhote khand koo chihnit karane key liye, node label aiss. see. kaa upayog kiya jaataa haye.
starit vishleshan koo sarkaar mein kaam karane vaalon aur badhyakari dhaanche aur isaki parampara dwara pasand kiya jaataa haye, udaaharan key liye chomsky, ouhallah, kulikovar, hazman aur geron dekhein.
aiks-baar siddhant sanrachanaaen.
aiks-baar siddhant bhavishyavani kartaa haye kii ack sheersh (aiks) ack madhyavarti ghatak (aiks ') aur ack adhikatam prakshepan (xp) mein prakshepit hoga. aiks-baar siddhant key tahat ack chhote khand kii aantarik sanrachana key teen samanya vishleshan they. yahaan unhein vaakya mein aine. pee. aeye. pee. chhote khand key poorak key roop mein prastut kiya gayaa haye (bolled mein highlight kiya gayaa), "main (aine. pee.) mairi (aeye. pee.) smart maanata huun":
vishleshan 1: samamit ghatak.
iss vishleshan mein, naa tou ghatak shreni kaa nirdhaaran karate hain, jiska arth haye kii yeh ack bahirmukhi nirmaan haye. kuchh bhashavidon kaa maanana haye kii iss sanrachana kaa label ghatakon dwara samamit roop seey nirdhaarit kiya jaa sakata haye, aur anya kaa maanana haye kii iss sanrachana mein poori tarah seey ack label kaa abhaav haye. vishay (iss mamle mein, aine. pee. mairi) aur vidheya (aeye. pee. smart) key beach ack pravan sambandh koo ingit karane key liye, kuchh ney saha-soochkaank kii ack pranali kaa sujhaav diyaa haye, jahaan vishay koo isase judey kissy bhee vidheya koo see-kamaand karna chaahiye.
yeh vishleshan aiks-baar siddhant key saath sangat naheen haye kyonki aiks-baar siddhant headless ghatakon key liye anumati naheen detaa haye, isake alawa yeh sanrachana ack chhote khand kaa sateek pratinidhitva naheen hoe sakati haye kyonki isamen ack madhyavarti karyatmak tatva kaa abhaav haye joe vishay koo vidheya key saath jodata haye. iss tatva key sakshya koo vibhinn bhaashaon jaise velsh, norwegian aur angreji mein ack spasht sakshatkar key roop mein dekhaa jaa sakata haye, jaisa kii neeche diye gaye udaharanon mein (bolled mein ujagar kii gaee pratyaksh karyatmak shreni key saath):
kuchh logon ney ise iss baat key pramaan key roop mein liya haye kii yeh sanrachana ack chhote khand kii sanrachana koo paryaapt roop seey chitrit naheen karati haye, aur ack behtar sanrachana mein kuchh madhyavarti prakshepan shamil honah chaahiye joe vishay aur vidheya koo jodata haye joe ghatak koo ack sheersh nirdhaarit karega.
vishleshan 2: vidheya kaa prakshepan.
iss vishleshan mein, chhote khand koo vidheya key prakshepan key roop mein pahachaana jaa sakata haye (iss udaaharan mein, vidheya 'mairi smart' mein 'smart' hoga). iss drishtikon mein, sanrachana kaa vinirdeshak (iss mamle mein, aine. pee. 'mairi') sheersh kaa vishay haye (iss mamle mein, ack 'smart'). yeh vishleshan chomsky key vakyansh sanrachana key model parr adharit haye aur ise stowell aur contreras dwara prastaavit kiya gayaa haye.
vishleshan 3: ack karyatmak shreni kaa prakshepan.
pee. aar. pee. (vidheya vakyansh) shreni (aeye. jee. aar. pee., anuman aur sootra _ 1pee key roop mein bhee vishleshan kiya gayaa), kuchh karanon seey prastaavit kii gaee thee, jinamen seey kuchh neeche ullikhit hainh
isake alawa, kuchh logon ney yeh siddhant diyaa haye kii teen sanrachanaon kaa ack sanyojan yeh spasht curr sakata haye kii maukhik chhote khandon aur visheshan chhote khandon key vishay alag-alag vyavhaar kyon karate hain, jaisa kii basilico dwara nott kiya gayaa haih
yahaan, udaaharan (13) aur (14) seey pataa chalata haye kii ack visheshan chhote khand kaa vishay-hamaare binaa saha-sootra "hoe" key-matricks vishay sthiti taka badhaa sakata haye. haalaanki, ack maukhik khand key saath, "too" koo anant karane seey avyaakaran kii or jaataa haye, jaisa kii achchi tarah seey gathit (15) aur kharaab roop (16) key beach key antar seey dikhaaya gayaa haye, jahaan tarankan (*) avyaakaran koo chihnit kartaa haye. iss sakshya seey, kuchh bhashavidon ney siddhant diyaa haye kii visheshan aur maukhik chhote khandon key vishay vaakya rachana kii sthiti mein bhinn honey chaahiye. iss nishkarsh koo iss gyaan seey bull milata haye kii maukhik aur visheshan chhote khand apane purvaanumaanak roopon mein bhinn hotey hain. jabaki visheshan chhote khandon mein shrenibaddh bhavishyavani shamil hoti haye jahaan vidheya vishay key liye ack sampatti kaa varnan kartaa haye, maukhik chhote khandon mein vishayagat bhavishyavani shamil hoti haye jahaan ack ghatana jisamen vishay bhaag leey rhaa haye, report kii jaati haye. basilico iska upayog yeh tark dene key liye kartaa haye kii ack chhote khand kaa vishleshan ack vishay vakyansh key roop mein kiya jaanaa chaahiye, jise vishay vakyansh key vinirdeshak key roop mein prastut kiye gaye vishay key saath vidheya sheersh (vishay) seey prakshepit kiya jaataa haye. iss tarah, unakaa tark haye kii ack visheshan chhote khand mein, ack vyaktigat vishay key liye vidheya banaaya jaataa haye, aur ack maukhik chhote khand mein ghatanaaen ack munch vishay key liye ghatnaaon kaa ack vidheya banaati hain, joe iss baat kaa kaaran haye kii maukhik chhote khandon koo kyon naheen uthaaya jaa sakata haye.
pehchaan pareekshan.
ack chhota khand dou ghatakon mein vibhajit hotaa haih vishay aur uska vidheya. jabaki chhote khand cross-bhashai roop seey hotey hain, vibhinn bhaashaon mein alag-alag pratibandh hotey hain kii kyaa ack achchi tarah seey banaaya jaa sakata haye aur kyaa naheen hoe sakata haye (i.ee., vyaakaranik) chhota khand. ack chhote khand kii pehchaan karane key liye maandandon mein shamil hainh
tanaav-chinhan kii anupasthiti.
ack chhote khand koo dou ghatakon aine. pee. aur aiks. pee. key roop mein chihnit kiya jaataa haye joe ack pravan sambandh mein pravesh karate hain, lekin seemit kaal aur/yaa ack kriya kii kamee hoti haye. chhote khandon mein sambhaavit purvanumeya mein aamtaur parr visheshan vakyansh (aeye. pee.), poorvaniyojit vakyansh (pee. pee. aiss.), sangya vakyansh (aine. pee. aiss.), yaa nirdhaarak vakyansh (dee. pee. aiss.) shamil hotey hain (dee. pee. aiss. key astitva key sambandh mein bahas parr nirdhaarak vakyansh prishth dekhein).
aine. pee. vee. pee. nirmaan key sambandh mein dou vichaar hain. kuchh bhashavidon kaa maanana haye kii ack chhote khand mein charitragat roop seey ack kriya kaa abhaav hotaa haye, jabaki anya kaa maanana haye kii ack chhote khand mein ack kriya hoe sakati haye lekin isamen anuprabhaavit kaal kaa abhaav hotaa haye. nimnalikhit udaaharan, jinamen sabhi kriyaon kii kamee haye, [np ap] (17), [np dp] (18), aur [np pp] (19) key saath chhote khandon koo darshaate hainh
(17) seey (19) mein chhote khand key udaaharan (20) seey (22) mein udaharanon key vipareet hain, jisamen mahatvapurna antar saha-kriya "bee" seey pahale "infinitival" seey haih
kuchh vishleshanon mein copular kriya aur kaal (anant "seey") kii upasthiti bolled kiye gaye bhaagon koo ack chhote khand key bajaay ack poorna khand banaati haye. haalaanki, anya vishleshan anant khandon koo ack prakaar key chhote khand key roop mein maanate hain. baad vaale drishtikon mein prastaav diyaa gayaa haye kii chhote khandon mein anuprabhaavit kaal kii kamee hoti haye lekin ack nangi anant kriya hoe sakati haye. iss siddhant key tahat, aine. pee. vee. pee. nirmaan kii anumati haye. nimnalikhit udaaharan seemit kriyaon key saath mukhya khandon key saath gair-anant kriyaon key saath chhote khandon key vipareet hain.
yahaan tarankan yeh darshaata haye kii vaakya (24) koo aam taur parr deshi angreji bolane vaalon dwara avyaakaranik maanaa jaataa haye.
chayan pratibandh.
matricks kriya dwara chunaa gayaa.
chhote khand vyaakaranik honey key liye mukhya khand mein kriya kii chayan aavashyaktaon koo puuraa karate hain.
kriyaon kii tark sanrachana chhote khand nirmaanon seey santusht haye. nimnalikhit dou udaharanon seey pataa chalata haye kii kaise "vichaar" kriya kii tark sanrachana prabhaavit karati haye kii chhote khand mein kyaa vidheya hoe sakata haye.
udaaharan (18) avyaakaran haye kyonki "vichaar karein" kriya ack aine. pee. poorak letee haye, lekin ack pee. pee. poorak naheen.
haalaanki, chayan sambandhi aavashyakta kaa yeh siddhant bhee vivaadit haye, kyonki vibhinn chhote khandon key pratisthaapan seey vyaakaran sambandhi pathan hoe sakate hain. donon udaaharan (28) aur (29) pee. pee. poorak lete hain, phir bhee (28) vyaakaranik haye lekin (29) naheen haye.
matricks kriya kaa mamle kaa chayan bhee iss siddhant kaa samarthan kartaa haye kii matricks kriya kii chayan sambandhi aavashyaktaaen chhote khand licenses koo prabhaavit karati hain. (30) mein "vichaar karein" kriya chhote khand key vishay aine. pee. parr aropatmak mamle koo chihnit karati haye. iss nishkarsh koo sarvanam-pratisthaapan dwara samarthit kiya jaataa haye, jahaan aropatmak mamle kaa roop vyaakaranik (31) haye, lekin namsoochak mamle kaa roop (32) naheen haye.
serb-croatian mein, kriya 'smetrati' 'parr vichaar karane key liye' apane vishay tark key liye aropatmak mamle key liye chayan kartaa haye aur isake poorak tark key roop mein vaadya mamla.
shabdarthik roop seey nirdhaarit.
chhote khandon key vyaakaran nirnay unake shabdarth moolya seey prabhaavit hotey hain.
nimnalikhit udaharanon seey pataa chalata haye kii kaise shabdarth chayan ack chhote khand key purvanuman koo bhee prabhaavit kartaa haye.
kuchh chhote khand joe avyaakaranik prateet hotey hain, uchit sandarbh koo dekhate hue achchi tarah seey banaae jaa sakate hain. isase pataa chalata haye kii mukhya kriya aur chhote khand kaa shabdarth sambandh vaakyon kii vyakaranikta koo prabhaavit kartaa haye.
nishedh.
chhote khandon koo nakaratmak model yaa sahayak kriya dwara nakaar naheen diyaa jaa sakata haye, jaise kii "mutt karo, naheen" yaa "naheen curr sakata". chhote khandon koo kewal nakaratmak kanon dwara nakaar diyaa jaa sakata haye, jaise kii "naheen".
nirvaachan kshetra.
aise kaee vichaar hain joe ack yaa dusare vishleshan kaa samarthan yaa khandan karate hain. starit vishleshan, joe phir seey, chhote khand koo ack ghatak key roop mein dekhta haye, iss buniyaadi antardrishti seey samarthit haye kii chhota khand ack ekal shabdarth ikai key roop mein kaary kartaa haye, i.ee. ack khand key roop mein jisamen ack vishay aur ack vidheya shamil haye.
samanvaya.
kewal ack samaan prakaar key ghatakon koo samanvaya key madhyam seey jodaa jaa sakata haye. chhote khandon koo samanvit kiya jaa sakata haye, joe sujhaav detaa haye kii way ack samaan prakaar key ghatak hain, lekin ack nirvaachan kshetra pareekshan key roop mein samanvaya kii prabhavsheelta aur sateekta key sambandh mein vivaad parr samanvaya (bhashavigyan) dekhein. nimnalikhit udaaharan [aine. pee. aeye. pee.] (32), aur [aine. pee. aine. pee./dee. pee.] (33) chhote khandon key liye chhote khand samanvaya koo darshaate hain.
vishay-vastu.
starit vishleshan iss tathya seey bhee samarthit haye kii kuchh mamalon mein, ack chhota khand badey khand, ee key vishay key roop mein kaary curr sakata haye.jee.
vaakya rachana key adhikansh siddhant vishayon koo ekal ghatak maanate hain, isaliye yahaan chhote khand "chakr key peechhe bill" aur "saim drunk" koo ack ghatak key roop mein maanaa jaanaa chaahiye. vishay sthiti mein chhote khandon key baare mein, kulikovar, hegman aur geron dekhein.
key saath" kaa poorak.
isake alawa, chhote khand "key saath", ee key poorak key roop mein dikhaai dey sakate hain.jee.:
yadi chhota khand ack ghatak haye tou inn aankadon koo samaayojit karna bhee aasaan haye.
andolan.
haalaanki, koee yeh tark dey sakata haye kii vishay sthiti mein aur "key saath" key poorak key roop mein chhote khand maulik roop seey vastu sthiti mein chhote khandon seey alag hain. kuchh datapoint mein matricks kriya key baad chhota khand hotaa haye, jisake tahat chhote khand kaa vishay bhee matricks khand kaa uddeshya hotaa haye. aise mamalon mein, matricks kriya apane object sangya (vakyansh) key liye upashreneekaran prateet hoti haye, joe taba chhote khand key vishay key roop mein kaary karati haye. iss sambandh mein, kaee avalokan hain joe sujhaav dete hain kii vastu/vishay sangya vakyansh matricks kriya parr pratyaksh roop seey nirbhar haye. yadi aisaa haye, tou iska matlab haye kii sapaat sanrachana sahee vishleshan haye. yeh usa tathya koo darshaata haye, jaise kii (47) mein sachitra, iss tarah key vastu/vishay sangya vakyanshon key saath, chhota khand aam taur parr andolan nidan key sambandh mein ack ekal ghatak key roop mein vyavhaar naheen kartaa haye. iss prakaar, ack chhote khand kaa "vishay" saamyikakaran (47bee), vichhedan (47see), chhadm-safai (47dee) mein bhaag naheen leey sakata haye, aur naa hii yeh uttar tukade (47ee) key roop mein kaary curr sakata haye. isake alawa, sadharan object nps kii tarah, ack chhote khand kaa "vishay" sambandhit nishkriya vaakya (47aff) kaa vishay bunn sakata haye, aur ise ack prativart sarvanam key roop mein mahsoos kiya jaa sakata haye joe matricks vishay (47jee) key saath saha-anukramit haye.
(47b-g) mein detta point chhote khandon key sapaat vishleshan key anuroop hainh iss tarah key vishleshan mein matricks khand kaa uddeshya dohri bhoomika nibhaata haye kyonki yeh antarnihit vidheya kaa vishay bhee haye.
prativaad.
laghu khandon key nirvaachan kshetra kii sthiti parr bhashavidon dwara sahamati naheen haye. kuchh bhashavidon kaa tark haye kii chhote khand ack ghatak naheen banaate hain, balki ack sangya vakyansh banaate hain.
ack tark yeh haye kii [aine. pee. aeye. pee. small] khand binaa sanshodhan key vishay sthiti mein naheen hoe sakate hain, jaisa kii (48) key avyaakaranik roop seey dikhaaya gayaa haye. haalaanki, yeye [aine. pee. aeye. pee.] chhote khand kriya key baad hoe sakate hain yadi way sanshodhit hain, jaise kii udaaharan (49).
doosara tark yeh haye kii samanvaya pareekshan nirvaachan kshetra key baare mein galat bhavishyavaniyaan karate hain, vishesh roop seey chhote khandon key sambandh mein. yeh ghatakon key roop mein chhote khandon kii sthiti parr sandeh paida kartaa haye.
nirvaachan kshetra kaa ack aur prati-udaaharan varnanatmak maadhyamik purvaanumaanon koo dekhta haye.
ack vichardhara kaa tark haye kii iss udaaharan mein [paani oopar] ack ghatak chhote khand key roop mein vyavhaar kartaa haye, jabaki ack anya vichardhara kaa tark haye kii kriya "spunge" ack chhote khand key liye chayan naheen karati haye, aur yeh kii "paani oopar" shabdarthik roop seey, lekin vakyatmak roop seey naheen, kriya kii parinami sthiti koo darshaata haye.
cross-bhashai bhinnata.
vastu koo oopar uthaana.
poorak chhote khand vastu koo oopar uthaane kii ghatana seey sambandhit hain, isaliye iss siddhant parr angreji aur koriyai key liye adhik vistaar seey charcha kii jaayegi.
angrezi.
ack pratyaksh vastu key saath vastu koo oopar uthaana (52) mein "saabit" kriya key saath sachitra haye."bolled ghatak vaakya key chhote khand kaa pratinidhitva karate hain. parikalpana dwara, vishay-seey-vastu vishleshan chhote khand key vishay koo antarnihit chhote khand seey mukhya khand taka uthaaye jaane key roop mein maanata haye." 
meck out" nirmaan key liye chhote khandon mein (bhashavigyan) badhaana anivarya haye. yeh (i) kii vyakaranikta aur (ii) kii avyakaranikta seey spasht haye, jaisa kii neeche dee gaee talika mein dikhaaya gayaa haih
dayare kii seema bhee chhote khandon mein uthaane key vishay koo nihit curr sakati haye. shabdarthik roop seey, vyaapak dayare mein ack samanya sthiti shamil hoti haye, udaaharan key liye, "jahaan harr kissy key paas kuchh aisaa vyakti hotaa haye jise way pyaar karate hain", jabaki sankeern dayare mein ack vishisht sthiti nihit hoti haye, udaaharan key liye, "jahaan harr koee ack hii vyakti seey pyaar kartaa haye. kewal kriyaheen chhote khandon koo dhyaan mein rakhate hue, chhote khand kewal mukhya kriya key sambandh mein vyaapak dayare key saath sulabh hain.
koriyai.
koriyai mein, poorak khandon key saath vastu koo uthaana vaikalpik haye, lekin poorak chhote khandon key saath anivarya haye. ack poori tarah seey parivartit poorak khand (55) mein diyaa gayaa haye, aur vastu "mairi" koo yaa tou namsoochak mamle (55aeye) yaa aropatmak mamle (55bee) key saath chihnit kiya jaa sakata haye. isake vipareet, (56) mein ack poorak chhote khand key saath, chhote khand key vishay koo kewal aarop key saath chihnit kiya jaa sakata haye; iss prakaar (56aeye) kharaab roop seey banaa haye, (56bee) achchi tarah seey banaa haye.
spasht pratibandh.
french (romans).
pahali nazar mein, francisi chhote khandon koo ack chhote khand key saapeksh apratibandhit prateet hotaa haye. udaaharan key liye neeche diye gaye hainh [aine. pee. aeye. pee.] chhote khand (57); [aine. pee. pee.] chhote khand (58), saath hii [aine. pee. vee. pee.] chhote khand (59) hain.
haalaanki, aine. pee. vee. pee. nirmaan parr kuchh pratibandh hain. udaaharan mein kriya (59) anant haye, binaa kissy anuprabhaavit kaal key, aur ack pee. pee. poorak letee haye. haalaanki, nimnalikhit udaaharan (dee) ack aine. pee. vee. pee. chhota khand nirmaan haye joe avyaakaran haye. haalaanki yahaan kriya anant haye, yeh vyaakaranik roop seey ack appy poorak naheen leey sakati haye.
francisi mein samanvaya pareekshan chhote khandon key nirvaachan kshetra key liye susangat pramaan pradaan naheen karate hain. neeche ack udaaharan (ee) haye joe chhote khandon key nirvaachan kshetra koo saabit kartaa haye. iss udaaharan mein dou chhote khand ack aine. pee. aeye. pee. nirmaan kaa upayog karate hain.
haalaanki, neeche diye gaye udaaharan (chaa) seey nirvaachan kshetra key baare mein galat bhavishyavani kii gaee haye.
sportishe iss detta kii dou sambhaavit vyaakhyaaen pradaan kartaa haih yaa tou samanvaya ack vishvasaniya nirvaachan kshetra pareekshan naheen haye yaa nirvaachan kshetra key vartamaan siddhant koo oopar bhavishyavani kiye gaye taaron koo shamil karane key liye sanshodhit kiya jaanaa chaahiye.
lithuanian (balto-slavic).
lithuanian chhote khand aine. pee. aine. pee. yaa aine. pee. aeye. pee. nirmaan mein hoe sakate hain. aine. pee. pee. nirmaan lithuanian mein chhote khand naheen hain kyonki pee. pee. aine. pee. key saath ack poorvasoochak sambandh mein pravesh naheen kartaa haye. neeche diyaa gayaa udaaharan (aeye) ack aine. pee. aine. pee. nirmaan kaa haye. neeche diyaa gayaa udaaharan (bee) ack aine. pee. aeye. pee. nirmaan kaa haye. jabaki vaakya key angreji anuvaad mein sahayak kriya "thee" shamil haye, yeh lithuanian mein maujood naheen haye.
lithuanian mein, vishay banane key liye chhote khandon koo vaakya key saamane leey jaaya jaa sakata haye. isase pataa chalata haye kii chhota khand ack ikai yaa ack ghatak key roop mein kaam kartaa haye. dhyaan dein kii angreji mein udaaharan (see) mein vaakya avyaakaranik haye isaliye ise ack tarankan chihn key saath chihnit kiya gayaa haye, lekin vaakya lithuanian mein vyaakaranik haye.
vakyansh "uska ack aparipakva bratt" koo udaaharan (dee) mein vibhajit naheen kiya jaa sakata haye, joe aage iss baat kaa saboot pradaan kartaa haye kii chhota khand ack ikai key roop mein vyavhaar kartaa haye.
mandarin (synic).
mandarin mein, ack chhote khand mein naa kewal ack kriya aur kaal kii kamee hoti haye, balki karyatmak anumaanon kii upasthiti bhee hoti haye. iska kaaran yeh haye kii mandarin mein vishesh sangyaon key liye shaabdik pravishtiyon mein naa kewal sangyaon key liye, balki kriyaon key liye bhee shrenibaddh visheshta hoti haye. iss prakaar karyatmak anumaanon kii kamee key saath bhee, ack chhote khand mein nammatra purvanumeya hoe sakate hain. (aeye) ack poorak chhote khand koo darshaata haih isamen koee kaal-ankan naheen haye, kewal ack dee. pee. vishay aur ack aine. pee. vidheya haye. haalaanki, mandarin cheeni aur angreji key beach key shabdarth antar koo isake chhote khandon key sambandh mein udaaharan (bee) aur (see) dwara darshaaya jaataa haye. halanki (bee) pichhale udaaharan mein antarnihit chhota khand haye, yeh ack matricks khand naheen hoe sakata haye. samaan vaakya sanrachana honey key bavjood, ack chhota khand jisamen ack dee. pee. aur ack aine. pee. hotaa haye, ack nammatra abhivyakti kii kshamata key kaaran bhee kriya kii doosari shreni seey sambandhit honey key kaaran, udaaharan (see) ack vyaakaranik vaakya haye. yeh iss baat kaa pramaan haye kii mandarin cheeni mein ack chhota khand maane jaane vaale parr adhik pratibandhaatmak baadhaaen hain, jisake liye aage key shodh kii aavashyakta haye.
neeche swatvabodhak kriya "yuu" key saath upayog kiye jaane vaale chhote khand key vishesh upayog kaa mamla haye. chhote khand koo rekhaankit kiya gayaa haye.
yahaan, swatvabodhak kriya "yuu" vishay aur apratyaksh vastu key beach ack degree tulanaa karane key liye ack chhota khand poorak letee haye. nimnalikhit ap "gaao" key kaaran, yahaan swatvabodhak kriya "yúu" oonchaai kii degree kii seema koo vyakt karati haye. yeh kewal ack chhote seey khand key poorak key saath haye kii swatvabodhak kriya key iss asamanya degree upayog koo sampreshit kiya jaa sakata haye.
parivartaniya ghatak crum.
brazilian purtagaali.
brazilian purtagaali mein, dou prakaar key chhote khand hainh mukt chhote khand aur aashrit chhote khand.
aashrit chhote khand angreji key samaan hotey hain jisamen way ack poorvasoochak sambandh mein ack aine. pee. aiks. pee. seey baney hotey hain. kaee anya romans bhaashaon kii tarah, brazilian purtagaali mein mukt vishay-anumaanit vyutkram haye, halanki yeh yahaan ekal tarkon key saath kriyaon taka seemit haye. aashrit chhote khand yaa tou ack maanak mein dikhaai dey sakate hain, udaaharan key liye (aeye), yaa ack ulte roop mein, udaaharan key liye (bee).
isake vipareet, mukt chhote khand vishay-anumaanit crum key saath naheen hoe sakate hainh udaaharan key liye (see), ack [aine. pee. aeye. pee.] crum kaa upayog karke vaakya koo prastut kartaa haye. mukt chhote khand kewal ulte roop mein hotey hainh udaaharan key liye (dee) chhote khand mein ack [xp np] crum hotaa haye, vishesh roop seey ack [appy np] crum. mukt chhote khandon key vargeekaran parr bahas chala rahee haye. kuchh bhashavidon kaa tark haye kii yeye mukt chhote khand vaastav mein seemit kaal key saath vichhedit vaakya hain, jabaki anya bhashavidon kaa maanana haye kii mukt chhote khand satah parr vikshepit kaal key binaa tanaavpurna vakyansh hain.
spanish.
spanish mein, kaee romans bhaashaon kii tarah, shabd crum mein lachilepan key kaaran chhote khand nirmaan mein kuchh lachilaapan haye. yeh iss tathya key kaaran maanaa jaataa haye kii spanish ack aisee bhasha kaa udaaharan haye joe pravachan-pramukh aur sahamati-unmukh haye. v parr visheshtaon kaa yeh paarit karna kriya seey vastu koo alag karane kii anumati detaa haye jaba vaakya kaa dhyaan badalata haye. ack vaakya mein antim sthiti dhyaan kendrit karane key liye aarakshit haye jaisa kii (aeye) aur (bee) mein antar seey dekhaa jaataa haye. 
ack nirmaan key liye dusare parr vareeyata mein antar ([xp np] banaam [np xp]) pravachan visheshtaon dwara nirdhaarit kiya jaataa haye. nimnalikhit dou udaharanon kaa ullekh karein. (gaga) iss mamle mein sthaapit vishay xp, ap haye, jiska arth haye kii humm joe jaankaari maang rahey hain vaha np haye. 
jawab dein. 
nimnalikhit udaaharan (ee) mein vipareet satya haye. hamein prashn mein aine. pee. diyaa gayaa haye aur humm aiks. pee. kii jaankaari maang rahey hain.
jawab dein.
(dee) aur (aff) mein notice karein kii angreji uttar prashn kii parwah kiye binaa samaan rahata haye, lekin spanish mein, ack crum koo dusare parr prathamikta dee jaati haye. jaba naee jaankaari prastut kii jaa rahee haye tou xp haye, nirmaan koo prathamikta dee jaati haye [np xp]. aisaa isaliye haye kyonki vaakya-antim sthiti dhyaan kendrit karane key liye aarakshit haye.
yeh dhyaan dene yogya haye kii gair-pasandida sanrachanaon (dee) (aaee) aur (aff) (aaee) koo vyaakaran key roop mein sweekaar kiya jaa sakata haye yadi naee jaankaari koo prosodic tanaav diyaa jaataa haye yaa sthaapit jaankaari nasht hoe jaati haye, aur donon ghatakon key beach ack lamba viram hotaa haye, jisase yeh sahee sthanantarit hoe jaataa haye.
yunani.
yunani ack aisee bhasha kaa ack aur udaaharan haye joe pravachan-pramukh aur sahamati-unmukh haye, jisase visheshtaon koo vee parr paarit kiya jaa sakata haye. yeh chhote khand key badalate dhyaan key aadhar parr shabd crum mein lachilepan kii anumati detaa haye. iss udaaharan koo (aeye) aur (bee) mein dikhaaya jaa sakata haye. nirmaan yaa tou [xp np] yaa [np xp] sanrachanaon koo leey sakata haye jisamen kendrit ghatak vaakya-antim roop seey dikhaai detaa haye.
ack nirmaan key liye dusare parr vareeyata mein antar pravachan visheshtaon dwara nirdhaarit kiya jaataa haye. naee dee gaee jaankaari koo vaakya kaa kendra maanaa jaataa haye aur isaliye vaakya-antim sthiti mein ise prathamikta dee jaati haye. udaaharan (see) aur (ee) kaa ullekh karein. (gaga) hamein joe jaankaari dee gaee haye vaha xp (iss mamle mein appy) haye aur humm joe jaankaari maang rahey hain vaha dp haye. iska matlab haye kii pasandida nirmaan [xp dp] haye. udaaharan (ee) key vipareet sach haye.
jawab dein.
jawab dein.
yeh dhyaan dene yogya haye kii gair-pasandida sanrachanaon (dee) (aaee) aur (aff) (aaee) koo vyaakaran key roop mein sweekaar kiya jaa sakata haye yadi vaakya-antim sthiti mein naee jaankaari koo jordar tanaav diyaa jaataa haye.
abhivyanjak exclammatives.
angrezi.
aiss. see. aiss. jaise abhivyanjak chhote khand kriyaheen hotey hain aur sangya mein varnanatmak samagri naheen hoti haye, balki isake bajaay abhivyanjak samagri hoti haye. abhivyanjak chhote khand iss baat key pramaan hain kii praarambhik vikas mein seekhe gaye chhote khand, bhasha bolane vaalon key liye vayaskata taka rahate hain. aiss. see. koo (aeye) mein darshaaya gayaa haye. abhivyaktipurna chhote khandon kaa upayog kabhi bhee vakyansh kii tark sthiti mein naheen kiya jaataa haye jaisa kii (bee-aaee) mein dekhaa gayaa haye aur aam taur parr ack vaakya key antarnihit khand key bheetar naheen hotaa haye jaisa kii (bee-aaee) mein dekhaa gayaa haye. neeche diye gaye donon udaaharan avyaakaran hain. bolled ghatak esk hain.
angreji mein aiss. see. key vipareet, japani aiss. see. dou tarikon seey bhinn hotey hainh dusare vyakti sarvanam kaa upayog naheen kiya jaataa haye, aur aiss. see. kabhi-kabhi tark kii sthiti mein dikhaai dete hain. neeche diyaa gayaa udaaharan japani mein ack achchi tarah seey gathit esk koo darshaata haye.
japani.
(aeye) mein vakyansh japani aiss. see. mein paae jaane vaale pattern koo darshaata haih [aine. pee. 1 "-naheen-" aine. pee. 2]. (aeye) aine. pee. 1 sthiti mein ack nikatvarti pradarshan key upayog koo darshaata haye. isake alawa, pratham vyakti sarvanam, natedari shabd, uchit naam, aur ack mukhar upayog key saath anya sangyaaen aine. pee. 1 sthiti mein dikhaai dene mein saksham hain-"madhyavarti pradarshan" tou "(vaha/vaha) koo chhodkar jisaki aiss. see. mein anumati naheen haye. 
jabaki (bee) avyaakaran naheen haye, yeh ajib lagata haye aur asamanya roop seey upayog kiya jaataa haye. yeh japani mein anya dusare vyakti sarvanamon key baare mein bhee sach haih "ome", "kisama", aur "tame" (uttarottar asabhya roopon mein). 
(gaga) tark sthiti mein ack esk key upayog koo darshaata haye. vishesh roop seey, tark sthitiyon mein niyamit roop seey milane vaali praasangik aavashyaktaon kii kamee hoti haye. japani esk joe tark sthiti mein naheen paae jaate hain, unhein praaptakarta koo aine. pee. 1 sthiti mein sangya key samaan honey kii aavashyakta hoti haye. (gaga) yeh darshaata haye kii vaakya (yamda) kaa praaptakarta tark sthiti (tanka) mein aiss. see. key sandarbh key samaan honey kii aavashyakta naheen haye.
soochana sanrachana.
angrezeeh swar.
kyonki angreji samjhauton key liye pramukh haye, isaliye isamen lacheele shabd crum aur swargat dhyaan kendrit karane kaa bahut mahatva haye. haalaanki angreji mein donon uttar ack hii shabd kaa upayog karate hain, lekin dhyaan prosodic tanaav dwara diyaa jaataa haye.
spanish shabd crum aur swar.
spanish mein ack lachila aiss. see. shabd crum hotaa haye, aur shabd crum dhyaan nirdhaarit kartaa haye lekin prosodic tanaav kaa upayog gair-pasandida nirmaanon koo sammaanit karane key liye kiya jaa sakata haye. yeye udaaharan gair-vishvasaniya nirmaan koo darshaate hain, lekin yadi rekhaankit ghatakon koo jore dekar tanaav diyaa jaataa haye aur ack lambe viram seey pahale unhein vaktaaon dwara sweekaar kiya jaataa haye.

