
antim mudda

aaparaadhik kaanoon mein ack antim mudda ack aparaadh key abhiyojan mein daanv parr lagaa huaa ack kanuni mudda haye jisake liye ack visheshagya gawah gawahi dey rhaa haye.
udaaharan key liye.
yadi mudda aparaadh key samay prativaadi kii mansik sthiti haye, tou antim mudda aparaadh key dauran prativaadi kii vivek yaa pagalpan hoga. ateet mein, visheshagya gavaahon koo antim muddon parr gawahi dene kii anumati dee gaee thee, jaise kii ack vishesh prativaadi key liye pagalpan bachaav kii prayojyata. haalaanki, 1982 mein johnn hinkley, junier key mukadame key baad., sakshya key sanghiya niyamon koo badal diyaa gayaa. abb sanyukt raajya america mein, sanghiya adalaton aur kuchh raajyon mein sakshya key niyam hain joe vishesh roop seey visheshagya gavaahon dwara unaki gawahi mein liye gaye kanuni nishkarshon koo khariz karate hain. haalaanki, iss niyam koo lagu karane key tareeke mein badee matra mein nyaayik vivekadhikar kii anumati haye, jisake parinamswarup adhikaar kshetron mein niyamon kaa asman anuprayog hotaa haye.
paribhasha.
sanghiya niyam yeh naheen kahate kii antim mudde kii paribhasha key bheetar kyaa aataa haye."halanki, iss vishay parr mamle key kaanoon kaa ack lamba itihas bataata haye kii ack visheshagya gawah usee shabd (kanuni arth vaale shabd) kaa upayog kartaa haye joe antatah juurii key saamane prastut kiya jaayega. ack adalat ney abhiyojan paksh key gawah kii vishvasaniyata parr ack manovaigyaanik key sakshya koo iss aadhar parr baahar curr diyaa kii yeh ack "antim raay" key barabar thaa, jiska arth haye kii yeh ack aisee raay thee jise kewal ack juurii dwara thheek seey pahuncha jaa sakata thaa.
visheshagya gawah kii gawahi iss baat parr raay dene taka seemit haye kii kyaa prativaadi koo aparaadh key samay gambhir mansik vikaar thaa, aur prativaadi kii mansik sthiti ("purush ree") aur prerana key sambandh mein anya gawahi sahit diye gaye kissy bhee nidan key lakshnon aur visheshtaon koo samajhaana. visheshagya gawah iss mudde koo sambodhit karate hue bayaan naheen dey sakata haye kii kyaa pagalpan key liye kanuni pareekshan puuraa kiya gayaa haye. yeh nyayadhish aur juurii parr chhod diyaa jaataa haye. antim muddon parr visheshagya kii raay key pratibandh mein aaparaadhik tatvon parr koee bhee gawahi shamil haye, jisamen aisee gawahi bhee shamil haye joe prativaadi kii mansik sthiti parr nirbhar karegi joe tathya key antim kanuni nirnayon key liye praasangik haye.
itihas.
1975 mein apanaae gaye sakshya key sanghiya niyamon (aur unake raajya samkakshon) ney spasht roop seey visheshagya gawahi koo antim muddon parr bayaan shamil karane kii anumati dee, yadi aise bayaan nyayadhish yaa juurii key liye sahayak honge. 1984 mein, johnn hinkley, junier key mukadame key baad saboot kaa sanghiya niyam 704 (bee) jodaa gayaa thaa. yuu kii hatyaa key prayaas key liye.aiss. rashtrapati ronald reegan. parivartan kuchh hudd taka saarvajanik pratikriya kaa parinam they kyonki hinkley ney pagalpan raksha key safal upayog key kaaran. yeye parivartan, vishesh roop seey niyam 704 (bee) mein, visheshagya gawah kii gawahi parr seemaaen lagaate hain. 
sakshya key nae niyam antim mudde parr anumat gawahi koo pratibandhit karate hain. niyam 704 (bee) mein kahaa gayaa haye kii mansik swaasthya visheshagya prativaadi key mansik vikaar yaa dosh aur usake lakshnon kii gawahi dey sakata haye, lekin prativaadi kii vivek yaa pagalpan jaise antim mudde parr koee nishkarsh naheen dey sakata haye. visheshagya gawah koo kewal juurii koo ack nishkarsh dene seey bachana chaahiye joe kanuni muddon seey sambandhit haye aur kanuni nishkarshon (antim muddon) kii gawahi naheen dey sakata haye, iska kaaran yeh haye kii mansik swaasthya peshevar vakeel naheen hain. nyaayik vivekadhikar gawahi kii seemaon koo nirdhaarit karane mein bhee banaa rahata haye, jaise kii koee bhee gawahi joe "samay barbad karati haye" yaa aprasangik haye, usey pratibandhit kiya jaa sakata haye. iss pratibandh key liye tark niyam key vidhaayi itihas mein nimnalikhit key roop mein kahaa gayaa thaah
parinam yeh haye kii badey dhusar kshetra iss baare mein baney rahate hain kii kyaa gawahi kii anumati haye. udaaharan key liye, sanyukt raajya america banaam mein appeal kaa teesara circuit nyayalaya. rutland ney faisala sunaaya kii "ack asadharan roop seey yogya hastakshar visheshagya" kii gawahi "pramukh dastavejon key lekhak key antim mudde" parr sweekarya thee.
jeffrey aar. mcdonald trial.
sakshya key niyamon mein yeh parivartan mukadame kii gawahi koo kaise prabhaavit curr sakata haye, iska ack udaaharan 1979 key jeffrey aar key mukadame key vishleshan mein pradarshit kiya gayaa haye. mcdonald, ack chikitsak, apani patni aur bachchon kii hatyaa key liye, aggar uska mukadama aaj huaa. usa mukadame mein, ack visheshagya ney raksha parikalpana key samarthan mein gawahi dee kii kissy aur ney hatyaaen keen. visheshagya gawahi kii prativaadi kaa vyaktitva "[usake] parivaar kii apmaanjanak aur murkhtapurna hatyaon key saath asangat thaa", usa samay prabhaav mein sakshya key niyamon key tahat anumati naheen thee kyonki ise bhramit karane vaalaa aur bhraamak maanaa jaataa thaa. haalaanki, niyam 704 (bee) key tahat iss charitra kii gawahi koo pratibandhit naheen kiya jaayega kyonki "vyaktitva vinyas" key sambandh mein gawahi samanya manovaigyaanik saboot haye joe kissy bhee antim mudde jaise iraade yaa durbhavanapurna poorv vichaar seey asambandhit haye. isake alawa, ack visheshagya gawah aaj upayog mein 704 (bee) kaa ullanghan naheen karega yadi vaha prativaadi key sakaratmak vyavhaaron key baare mein gawahi detaa haye, jaise kii ack pyaar karane vaale pitaa aur pati kii tarah vyavhaar karna, joe yeh dhaarana paida curr sakata haye kii vaha aisaa aparaadh karane mein saksham naheen thaa, lekin ack raay haye joe aparaadh seey asambandhit haye.
nishkarsh nikaalate hain.
sakshya key niyam yeh jaanchne key liye hotey hain kii juurii kiss sakshya parr vichaar curr sakati haye taaki gawahi koo rokaa jaa sakey joe juurii nirnay lene key kshetra kaa ullanghan karane seey kewal raay haye. niyam 704 (bee) ney antim mudde parr visheshagyon kii gawahi kii anumati dene kii pravritti koo ulat diyaa. choonki juurii pranali mein itna vishvaas rakhaa jaataa haye, isaliye juurii key vikalpon koo seemit karane key liye juurii kyaa vichaar curr sakati haye. ateet kii tarah, gawah kewal tathyon key liye gawahi dey sakate hain.
niyam 704 (bee) kaa parinam manovaigyanikon aur manochikitsakon jaise visheshagya gavaahon koo iss baare mein gawahi dene seey rokna haye kii prativaadi kii mansik sthiti ney aparaadh key ack tatva yaa bachaav key ack tatva koo kaise prabhaavit kiya. yeh nirnay diyaa gayaa haye kii 704 (bee) anya tatvon koo prabhaavit karane vaali mansik sthitiyon parr visheshagya raay parr pratibandh lagaata haye, naa kewal pagalpan key prashnon parr, balki sabhi mansik sthitiyon parr bhee, joe ack aparaadh yaa bachaav key tatva kaa nirmaan karate hain, jaise kii hatyaa key mamle mein poorv-chintan yaa vishisht irada aur purush ree.
angreji kaanoon.
angreji kaanoon key tahat sthiti sanyukt raajya america seey alag haye kyonki ingland aur wells mein 'antim mudde' parr raay dene seey kissy visheshagya koo rokane vaalaa koee niyam naheen haye. isaki pushti angreji adalaton dwara aaparaadhik aur diwani donon mamalon mein kii gaee haye.

