
islam kaa itihas

islam kaa yeh itihas islami sabhyata key raajneetik, samajik, aarthik, sainya aur saanskritik vikas seey sambandhit haye. adhikansh itihaskaron kaa maanana haye kii islam kii utpatti makka aur madina mein 7veen shatabdi esvi kii shuruat mein hui thee. musalman islam koo abraham key paigambaron jaise aadam, noa, abraham, moosa, david, soloman aur yeeshu key mool vishvaas kii or lautane key roop mein maanate hain, jisamen ishwar kii ichcha key adheenata ("islam") hoti haye.
paaramparik vivaran key anusaar, islami paigambar muhammad ney 610 esvi mein ack ishwar key adheen honey, aasann antim nirnay kii apeksha, aur garibon aur jaruratmandon kii dekhbhal key liye ahwan karate hue, jise musalman divya rahasyodghatan maanate hain, usey praapt karna shuru curr diyaa. muhammad key sandesh ney mutthi bhar anuyaayiyon ("sahba") koo jeet liya aur makka key prasiddh logon key badhate virodh kaa saamana karna padaa. 622 esvi mein, apane prabhaavshaali chaacha abulib ibn abad all-mutalib kii mrityu key saath suraksha khone key kuchh varshon baad, muhammad yathrib shahar (abb madina key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye) mein chaley gaye. 632 esvi mein muhammad kii mrityu key saath, iss baat parr asahamati fail gaee kii shahidun khalifa key dauran muslim samudaay key netaa key roop mein unakaa uttaradhikari kaun hoga.
praarambhik muslim vijay islam key prasaar key liye jimmedaar they. 8veen shatabdi esvi taka, umayyad khalifa paschim mein muslim iberia seey poorv mein sindhu nadee taka faila huaa thaa. umayyad aur abbasi khalifa (madhya poorv mein aur baad mein spen aur dakshini itali mein), fatimid, seljuk, ayubid aur mamluk jaisi rajneeti duniya kii sabse prabhaavshaali shaktiyon mein seey they. samani, ghazanaavid aur ghureed dwara nirmit atyadhik farsi samrajyon ney takniki aur prashaasnik vikas mein mahatvapurna yogdan diyaa. islami swarn yug ney sanskriti aur vigyaan key kaee kendron koo janm diyaa aur madhya yug key dauran ullekhaniya bahu-vidwan, khagolvid, ganitshastri, chikitsak aur daarshanik paida kiye.
13veen shatabdi kii shuruat taka, dilli saltanat ney uttari bhaaratiya upmahadweep parr vijay praapt kii, jabaki rumm aur artukid key saltanat jaise turkey rajvanshon ney 11veen aur 12veen shatabdi key dauran byzantine samrajya seey adhikansh anatolia parr vijay praapt kii. 13veen aur 14veen shatabdi mein, vinashkari mangol akramanon aur poorv seey tamarlen (taimur) key akramanon key saath-saath kaali mrityu key kaaran jansankhya key nuksan ney musalman duniya key paaramparik kendron koo bahut kamjor curr diyaa, joe faras seey misra taka faila huaa thaa, lekin timurid punarjagaran aur pramukh vaishvik aarthik shaktiyon jaise paschim africa mein maali samrajya aur dakshin asia mein bangal saltanat kaa uday dekhaa. sisili aur anya italvi kshetron key amirat seey muslim moors key nirvaasan aur gulami key baad, islami iberia koo dheere-dheere isai balon dwara punarnimaan key dauran jeet liya gayaa thaa. phir bhee, praarambhik aadhunik kaal mein, islami bandukdhariyon key yug key raajya-ottoman turkey, mugal bhaarat aur safavid iran-vishva shaktiyon key roop mein ubhare.
19veen aur 20veen shatabdi kii shuruat mein, adhikansh muslim duniya europeeya mahaan shaktiyon key prabhaav yaa pratyaksh niyantran mein aaa gaee. pichhali dou shataabdiyon key dauran swatantrata praapt karane aur aadhunik rashtra-raajyon key nirmaan key unake kuchh prayaas aaj bhee pratidhwanit hotey rahey hain, saath hii philistine, kashmir, shinziang, chechanya, madhya africa, bosnia aur myanmar jaise kshetron mein eendhan sangharsh-kshetron mein bhee. tail mein teji ney khaadi sahyog parishad key arab raajyon (jisamen bahreen, kuwait, oman, katar, saudi arab aur sanyukt arab amirat shamil hain) koo sthir curr diyaa, jisase way duniya key sabse badey tail utpaadak aur niryaatak bunn gaye, joe poonjeevaad, mukt vyaapaar aur paryatan parr dhyaan kendrit karate hain.
samayrekha.
nimnalikhit samayrekha pratham vishva yuddh seey pahale islami duniya mein sabse mahatvapurna rajneeti key liye ack motey drishya maargdarshak key roop mein kaam curr sakati haye. isamen arab, mesopotamia (aadhunik iraq), faras (aadhunik iran), levent (aadhunik seeriya, lebnan, jorden aur israel/philistine), misra, magreb (uttar-paschim africa), sahel (paschim africa-madhya africa-poorv africa), swahili tata, all-pundlus (iberia), transoxania (madhya asia), hindustan (aadhunik pakistan, uttar bhaarat aur bangladesh sahit), aur anatolia (aadhunik turkey) sahit shakti aur sanskriti key pramukh aitihaasik kendra shamil hain. yeh aavashyak roop seey ack anuman haye, kyonki kuchh kshetron parr shasson kabhi-kabhi shakti key vibhinn kendron key beach vibhajit kiya jaataa thaa, aur badee rajneeti mein adhikaar aksar kaee rajvanshon key beach vitarit kiya jaataa thaa. udaaharan key liye, abbasid khalifa key baad key charanon key dauran, baghdad kii rajdhani shahar parr bhee anya rajvanshon jaise kii bayid aur seljukon dwara prabhaavi roop seey shasson kiya gayaa thaa, jabaki ottoman turkon ney aamtaur parr baahari praanton parr karyakari adhikaar sthaaniya shaktishali logon koo saunp diyaa thaa, jaise kii algiers key deeze, tunis key beez aur iraq key mamlux.
praarambhik srot aur itihaslekhan.
islami itihas mein praarambhik avadhiyon kaa adhyayan sroton kii kamee key kaaran kathin hoe gayaa haye. udaaharan key liye, islam kii utpatti key liye sabse mahatvapurna aitihaasik srot all-tabari kaa kaam haye. jabaki all-tabari koo unake samay aur sthaan key manakon key anusaar ack utkrisht itihaaskaar maanaa jaataa haye, unhone vishay vastu kii pauranik, pauranik, roodhivaadi, vikrit aur vivadaspad prastutiyon kaa udaar upayog kiya-jinhen haalaanki islami roop seey sweekarya maanaa jaataa haye-aur kaee peedhiyon dwara islam kii shuruat key baare mein unakaa varnan, all-tabari kii mrityu 923 esvi mein hui thee.
upalabdh sroton seey nipatane key baare mein alag-alag vichaaron key kaaran praarambhik islam key itihas mein chaar alag-alag drishtikon vikasit hue hain. aaj sabhi chaar tarikon kaa kuchh star kaa samarthan haye. 
aajkal, niyojit vibhinn tarikon kii lokpriyata vicharadhin karyon key dayare parr bhinn hoti haye. praarambhik islam key itihas key avalokan upchaar key liye, varnanatmak drishtikon adhik lokpriya haye. islam kii shuruat koo gaharaai seey dekhane vaale vidvaanon key liye, srot aalochanatmak aur parampara mahatvapurna tarikon kaa adhik baar paalan kiya jaataa haye.
8veen shatabdi esvi key baad, sroton kii gunavatta mein sudhaar hotaa haye. way srot joe pahale key samay mein ack badey laukik aur saanskritik antar key saath vyavhaar karate they, abb aise vivaran denaa shuru curr dete hain joe adhik samkaaleen hain, upalabdh aitihaasik vivaranon kii shally kii gunavatta mein sudhaar hotaa haye, aur nae dastaveji srot-jaise aadhikarik dastavej, patrachar aur kavita-dikhaai dete hain. islam kii shuruat seey pahale key samay key liye-chhathi shatabdi esvi mein-srot bhee behtar hain, aggar abhee bhee mishrit gunavatta key hain. vishesh roop seey, chhathi shatabdi esvi mein prabhaav key sasani kshetra koo cover karane vaale srot kharaab hain, jabaki usa samay key byzantine kshetron key srot ack sammaanjanak gunavatta key hain, aur seeriya aur iraq key liye siriyai isai sroton dwara poorak hain.
islam kii utpatti.
praarambhik islam kaa uday madhya poorv mein pracheen kaal key aitihaasik, samajik, raajneetik, aarthik aur dhaarmik sandarbh mein huaa. chhathi shatabdi key uttaraardh mein poorv-islami arab praaydweep mein raajneetik avyavastha dekhi gaee aur sanchaar maarg abb surakshit naheen they. sankat mein dhaarmik vibhajanon ney mahatvapurna bhoomika nibhai. lagbhag 380 esvi key baad yaman mein yahudi dharm himyar samrajya kaa pramukh dharm bunn gayaa, jabaki isai dharm ney faras kii khaadi mein jadein jamaa leen. dharm key aadhyatmik roop" key liye bhee ack lalsa thee, aur "dharm kaa chayan teji seey ack saamoohik mudde key bajaay ack vyakti bunn gayaa."jabaki kuchh arab videshi dharm mein parivartit honey key liye anichhuk they, una abrahamik dharmon ney" "pramukh bauddhik aur aadhyatmik sandarbh bindu" "pradaan kiye, aur arami seey yahudi aur isai udhaar shabd poore praaydweep mein arabi kii purani moortipoojak shabdawali koo pratisthaapit karane lagey. hanīf" ("" tyag ""), ekeshwarvaadiyon kaa ack samooh joe videshi abrahamik dharmon aur paaramparik arab bahudevaad donon seey khud koo alag karane kii maang curr rhaa thaa, poorv-islami arabi dharmon koo badalane key liye ack nae dhaarmik vishva drishtikon kii talash curr rhaa thaa, "" sabhi koo gherne vaale pitaa bhagwan allah "" parr dhyaan kendrit curr rahey they, jinhen way swatantra roop seey yahudi yahweh aur isai jehovah key saath barabari karate they. "unake vichaar mein, makka mool roop seey iss ekeshwarwadi vishvaas key liye samarpit thaa kii way ack sachcha dharm maanate they, jise kulpita abraham dwara sthaapit kiya gayaa thaa.
paaramparik vivaran key anusaar, islami paigambar muhammad kaa janm makka mein varsh 570 esvi key aspas huaa thaa. unakaa parivaar quraish key arab kabile seey sambandhit thaa, joe makka kii mukhya janjaati thee aur paschimi arab mein ack pramukh bull thee. arajakta key prabhaavon kaa mukabala karane key liye, unhone "pavitra maheenon" kii sanstha koo barkarar rakhaa jaba sabhi hinsa koo pratibandhit kiya gayaa thaa aur yatra surakshit thee. makka aur aspas key kshetra mein bahudevaadi kaaba mandir ack lokpriya teerth sthal thaa, jisake shahar key liye mahatvapurna aarthik parinam they.
sambhavatah muhammad "yahudi vishvaas aur prathaon seey antarang roop seey avagat they", aur "hanīf" seey parichit they. hanīf" kii tarah, muhammad ney "tahanth" kaa abhyaas kiya, heera parvat parr ekant mein samay bitaaya aur "murtipuja seey door hoe gaye."jaba vaha lagbhag 40 varsh key they, tou unhone heera parvat parr praapt karna shuru curr diyaa jise musalman swargadoot gabriel key madhyam seey diye gaye divya rahasyodghatan key roop mein maanate hain, joe baad mein kurran kaa nirmaan karega. inn preranaon ney unase ack sakht ekeshwarwadi vishvaas kii ghoshana karane kaa aagrah kiya, jaisa kii pahale yahudi dharm aur isai dharm key pavitra granthon mein samhitaabaddh bibil key bhavishyavakta kii antim abhivyakti; apane hamvatanon koo aasann nirnay divas key baare mein chetavani dene key liye; aur apane shahar key samajik anyaayon koo dosh dene key liye. muhammad key sandesh ney mutthi bhar anuyaayiyon ("sahba") koo jeet liya aur makka key prasiddh logon key badhate virodh kaa saamana karna padaa. 622 esvi mein, apane prabhaavshaali chaacha abulib ibn abad all-mutalib kii mrityu key saath suraksha khone key kuchh varshon baad, muhammad yathrib shahar (baad mein madina kahaa jaataa haye) chaley gaye, jahan unake anuyaayiyon ney unake saath bhaag liya. baad kii peedhiyaan iss ghatana koo, jise "hijada" key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye, islami yug kii shuruat key roop mein maanengi.
yatrib mein, jahan unhein madina key samvidhaan kii sharton key tahat shahar key vibhinn samudaayon key beach ack madhyasth key roop mein sweekaar kiya gayaa thaa, muhammad ney nae islami samaaj kii neenv rakhna shuru curr diyaa, nae kurran key chhandon kii madad seey joe kaanoon aur dhaarmik paalan key mamalon parr margadarshan pradaan karate they. iss avadhi key sooron ney bibil key paigambaron kii lambi pankti key beach unake sthaan parr jore diyaa, lekin kurran key sandesh koo isai dharm aur yahudi dharm key pavitra granthon seey bhee alag kiya. arab makkan aur yathrib kshetra kii yahudi janjaatiyon key saath sashastr sangharsh jald hii shuru hoe gayaa. sainya takraav aur raajneetik paintarebaazi kii ack shrinkhala key baad, muhammad 629 esvi mein makka aur quraishi kii nishtha parr niyantran hassil karane mein saksham they. 632 esvi mein unaki mrityu taka shesh samay mein, arab praaydweep key adiwasi pramukhon ney unake saath vibhinn samjhauton mein pravesh kiya, kuchh gathbandhan kii sharton key tahat, anya ney unake bhavishyavani key daavon koo sweekaar kiya aur islami prathaon kaa paalan karane key liye sahmat hue, jisamen unaki sarkaar koo bhiksha shulk kaa bhugtan karna shamil thaa, jisamen kaee pratinidhi, vishvaasiyon kii ack senaa aur ack saarvajanik khajaana shamil thaa.
islam key prasaar, isake raajneetik upakram aur unake jivankal key dauran unaki missionary gatividhi ("daavaa") key sambandh mein muhammad key vaastavik iraade bahas kaa ack vivadaspad vishay hain, jinn parr islami adhyayan key shaikshanik kshetra mein muslim vidvaanon aur gair-muslim vidvaanon donon key beach vyaapak roop seey charcha kii gaee haye. vibhinn lekhakon, islami kaaryakartaon aur islam key itihaskaron ney poorv-islami arab samaaj aur apane swayam key dharm kii sthaapana key sandarbh mein muhammad key dhaarmik-raajneetik mission key sambandh mein unake iraade aur mahatvakankshaon kii kaee samajh kaa prastaav rakhaa haih
rashidun khalifa.
632 esvi mein muhammad kii mrityu key baad, unake samudaay koo ack nae netaa koo niyukt karane kii aavashyakta thee, jisase "khalifa" () kii upaadhi koo janm diyaa gayaa. iss prakaar, baad key islami samrajyon koo "khalifaaon" key roop mein jaanaa jaataa thaa, aur chaar khalifaaon kii ack shrinkhala ney praarambhik islami samrajya koo shaasit kiyaah aboo bucker (632-634), umar ibn all-khattab (Âumar í, 634-644), Âuthman ibn Âffān (644-656), aur Âalī ibn abii talib (656-661). inn netaaon koo sunni islam mein "rashidun" ("sahee disha mein nirdeshit") khalifa key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye. unhone praarambhik muslim vijayon key praarambhik charan kaa nireekshan kiya, joe faras, levent, misra aur uttari africa key madhyam seey aage badh rahey they.
umayyad khalifa key vikas key saath-saath, iss avadhi mein praarambhik islam key bheetar pramukh raajneetik vikas sampradayik vibhajan aur kharizait, sunee aur shiya musalmaanon key beach raajneetik vibhajan thaa; isaki jadein khalifa kii bhoomika key liye uttaradhikar parr vivaad mein theen. sunee kaa maanana thaa kii khalifa nirvaachit thaa aur muhammad key kabile, quraishi key arab kabile seey koee bhee musalman, ack key roop mein kaam curr sakata haye. doosari or, shiyaon kaa maanana thaa kii khalifa kaa khitaab muhammad key rakt rekha mein vanshaanugat honah chaahiye, aur iss prakaar muhammad key chachere bhaai aur damad allie ibn abii talib aur unake pahale bete hassan koo chhodkar sabhi khalifa vaastav mein avaidh hadap lene vaale they. haalaanki, iran aur oman key apavaad key saath, muslim duniya key adhikansh kshetron mein sunni sampradaay vijayi key roop mein ubhara. muhammad key sabse karibi saathi ("shahba"), chaar "sahee-nirdeshit" khalifa joe unake uttaradhikari baney, unhone islami samrajya kaa vistaar karna jaari rakhaa taaki jerusalam, ttesphone aur damishk koo shamil kiya jaa sakey aur sindh kshetra taka ack arab muslim senaa bheji jaa sakey. praarambhik islami samrajya umayyad rajvansh key shasankal mein all-pundlus (muslim iberia) seey laker panjab kshetra taka faila huaa thaa.
muhammad kii mrityu key baad, unake sabse karibi sahyogiyon mein seey ack, aboo bucker koo pahale khalifa ("uttaradhikari") key roop mein chunaa gayaa thaa. haalaanki khalifa key karyalaya ney dhaarmik adhikaar kii ack aabha koo banaae rakhaa, lekin isane bhavishyavani kaa koee daavaa naheen kiya. kaee adiwasi arab netaaon ney muhammad key saath kiye gaye samjhauton koo aboo bucker taka badhaane seey incar curr diyaa, daan shulk kaa bhugtan bund curr diyaa aur kuchh mamalon mein apane swayam key adhikaar mein paigambar honey kaa daavaa kiya. aboo bucker ney ack safal sainya abhiyaan mein apane adhikaar kaa daavaa kiya jise ridda yuddhon key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye, jisaki gati koo byzantine aur sasani samrajyon kii bhoomi mein leey jaaya gayaa thaa. dusare khalifa umar ibn all-khattaab key shasankal key anta taka, arab muslim senaayen, jinake yuddh-kathor rank abb parajit vidrohiyon aur poorv shaahi sahayak sainikon dwara badhaa diye gaye they, ney seeriya aur misra key purvi byzantine praanton parr aakraman kiya, jabaki sasaanidon ney apane paschimi kshetron koo khou diyaa, jisake baad jald hii baaki faras kaa anusaran karna padaa.
umar ibn all-khattab ney navodit islami samrajya key prashaasan mein sudhaar kiya, sinchai network mein sudhaar kaa adesh diyaa aur basra jaise shaharon kii neenv mein bhoomika nibhai. garibon key karib rahane key liye, vaha binaa darvaajon key ack sadharan mitty kii jhopadi mein rahata thaa aur harr shaam sadakon parr chalata thaa. garibon seey paramarsh karane key baad, umar ney "bait all-maal" kii sthaapana kii, joe musalman aur gair-muslim garibon, jaruratmandon, bujurgon, anathon, vidhvaaon aur viklangon key liye ack kalyankari sansthaan thaa. bait all-maal" 7veen shatabdi esvi mein rashidun khalifa key tahat saikadon varshon taka chalaa aur umayyad kaal key madhyam seey aur abbasid yug mein achchi tarah seey jaari rhaa. kumar ney bachchon key liye baal laabh aur bujurgon key liye pension bhee shuru kii. jaba unhein lagaa kii koee rajyapal yaa senapati dhana kii or aakarshit hoe rhaa haye yaa aavashyak prashaasnik manakon koo puuraa naheen curr rhaa haye, tou unhone unhein apane pada seey hataa diyaa. arab aur levent mein badey akaal aur plaig key varshon key dauran kramshah 638 aur 639 esvi key beach vistaar aanshik roop seey roque diyaa gayaa thaa, lekin umar key shasankal key anta taka, seeriya, misra, mesopotamia aur faras key adhikansh hisse koo praarambhik islami samrajya mein shamil curr liya gayaa thaa.
yahudi aur swadeshi isaaiyon kii sthaaniya aabaadi, joe dhaarmik alpsankhyakon key roop mein rahate they aur jinhen musalman shasson key tahat "jizyaa" curr kaa bhugtan karane key liye majboor kiya jaataa thaa taaki byzantine aur sasaniyon key saath yuddhon kaa vittaposhan kiya jaa sakey, aksar musalmaanon koo apani bhoomi parr kabja karane mein sahaayata kii jaa sakey. jaise-jaise nae kshetron parr vijay praapt hui, unhein badhate islami samrajya key anya kshetron key saath mukt vyaapaar seey bhee laabh huaa, jahan vanijya koo protsaahit karane key liye, vyaapaar key bajaay dhana parr curr lagu kiye gaye. musalman garibon key laabh key liye apani sampatti parr "zakaat" dete they. islami paigambar muhammad dwara taiyar kiye gaye madina key samvidhaan key baad seey, yahoodiyon aur isaaiyon ney apane swayam key kaanoonon kaa upayog karna jaari rakhaa aur unake apane nyayadhish they.
239 esvi mein, umar ney muaviya ibn abii sufyan koo seeriya kaa rajyapal niyukt kiya, jaba pichhale rajyapal kii 25,000 anya logon key saath plaig mein mrityu hoe gaee thee. arab-byzantine yuddhon key dauran samudra seey byzantine utpeedan koo rokane key liye, 649 mein muaviya ney ack nausena kii sthaapana kii, jisamen monophysite isai, misra key coptic isai aur jacobite siriyai isai navik aur muslim sanic shamil they, jinhone 655 esvi mein maast kii ladaai mein byzantine nausena koo haraaya, jisase bhoomadhya sagar koo muslim jahaajon key liye khol diyaa gayaa.
praarambhik muslim senaayen shaharon seey door shiviron mein raheen kyonki umar koo darr thaa kii way dhana aur vilasita kii or aakarshit hoe sakate hain, bhagwan kii pooja seey door jaa sakate hain, dhana jamaa curr sakate hain aur rajvansh sthaapit curr sakate hain. shaharon seey door inn shiviron mein rahane seey yeh bhee sunishchit huaa kii sthaaniya aabaadi parr koee dabaav naa hoe joe swaayatt reh sakey. inmein seey kuchh shivir baad mein iraq mein basra aur kufa aur misra mein fustaat jaise shaharon mein vikasit hue.
jaba 644 esvi mein umar kii hatyaa curr dee gaee, tou muhammad key dusare chachere bhaai aur dou baar damad, uthman ibn afhan, teesare khalifa bunn gaye. jaisa kii arabi bhasha swaron key binaa likhi jaati haye, vibhinn arabi boliyon aur anya bhaashaon key vaktaaon ney dhvanyaatmak vividhataon key saath kurran kaa paath kiya joe paath key arth koo badal sakata haye. jaba uthman koo iss baat kaa pataa chalaa, tou unhone kurran kii ack maanak prati taiyar karane kaa adesh diyaa. unake shasankal key dauran shuru huaa, kurran kaa sankalan 650 aur 656 esvi key beach kuchh samay key liye puuraa kiya gayaa thaa, aur pratiyaan vistaarit islami samrajya key vibhinn kendron koo bheji gaeen. muhammad kii mrityu key baad, arabon key beach puraane adiwasi matbhed phir seey ubharane lagey. roman-farsi yuddhon aur byzantine-sasanian yuddhon key baad, iraq (poorv mein sasanian samrajya key tahat) aur seeriya (poorv mein byzantine samrajya key tahat) key beach gahare antar bhee maujood they. pratyek nava sthaapit islami samrajya kii rajdhani apane kshetra mein rakhna chaahata thaa.
jaise hii uthman bahut boodhaa hoe gayaa, mervan I, muaviya kaa ack rishtedaar, shoonya mein fisal gayaa, uska sachiv bunn gayaa aur dheere-dheere adhik niyantran grahan curr liya. jaba 656 esvi mein uthman kii hatyaa curr dee gaee, tou muhammad key chachere bhaai aur damad allie ibn abii talib ney khalifa kaa pada grahan kiya aur rajdhani koo iraq mein kufa mein sthanantarit curr diyaa. seeriya key rajyapal muaviya I aur marwan I ney doshiyon kii giraftari kii maang kii. marwan pratham ney harr ack mein herfer kiya aur sangharsh paida kiya, jisake parinamswarup pahala muslim grih yuddh ("pahala fitna") huaa. 661 esvi mein khareejiyon dwara allie kii hatyaa curr dee gaee thee. chhah maheene baad, allie key pahale bete hassan ney shaanti key hita mein muaviya key saath shaanti sandhi kii. hassan-muvia sandhi mein, hassan ibn allie ney muvia koo iss shart parr satta saunp dee kii vaha logon key liye hii hoga aur apani mrityu key baad ack rajvansh sthaapit naheen karega. muaviya pratham ney baad mein samjhaute kii sharton koo toda diyaa aur damascus mein ack rajdhani key saath umayyad rajvansh kii sthaapana kii. hussain ibn allie, taba taka muhammad key ekmatra jeevit potey ney umayyadon key prati nishtha kii shapath lene seey incar curr diyaa thaa; vaha usee varsh karbala kii ladaai mein maaraa gayaa thaa, ack ghatana mein joe abhee bhee ashura key dinn shiya musalmaanon dwara shoke vyakt kartaa thaa. raajneetik ashanti jise doosara muslim grihyuddh ("doosara fitna") kahaa jaataa thaa, jaari rhaa, lekin muslim shasson koo muaviya I key tahat roads, crete, kabul, bukhara aur samarkand taka badhaaya gayaa aur uttar africa mein iska vistaar huaa. 664 esvi mein, arab muslim senaaon ney kabul parr vijay praapt kii, aur 665 esvi mein magreb mein aage badhaa diyaa.
umayyad khalifa.
umayyad rajvansh (yaa omiyad), jiska naam pahale umayyad khalifa key pardada umayya ibn abd shums seey liya gayaa haye, ney 661 seey 750 esvi taka shasson kiya. haalaanki umayyad parivaar makka shahar seey aaya thaa, lekin damishk isaki rajdhani thee. 666 mein abdul-rahman ibn aboo bucker kii mrityu key baad, muaviya pratham ney apani shakti koo majboot kiya. muaviya pratham ney apani rajdhani koo madina seey damishk mein sthanantarit curr diyaa, jisase samrajya mein gahara badalaav aaya. isi tarah, baad kii tarikh mein, damishk seey baghdad mein khalifa key hastaantaran ney ack nae parivaar key satta mein aaney koo chihnit kiya.
jaise-jaise raajya kaa vikas huaa, raajya key kharchon mein vriddhi hui. isake alawa, musalman aur gair-muslim garibon, jaruratmandon, bujurgon, anathon, vidhvaaon aur viklangon kii sahaayata key liye bait all-maal aur kalyankari raajya key kharchon mein vriddhi hui, umayyadon ney nae dharmantariton (mawali) seey chunaav curr kaa bhugtan jaari rakhane key liye kahaa. umayyad shasson, apani sampatti aur vilasita key saath, muhammad dwara prachaarit islami sandesh key saath bhee vipareet prateet hotaa thaa. yeh sub asantosh badhaa. muhammad key chaacha abbas ibn abd all-muttalib key vanshajon ney "mawali", garib arabon aur kuchh shiyaon koo umayyadon key khilaf ekjut kiya aur general aboo muslim kii madad seey unhein ukhaad fenka, 750 mein abbasid rajvansh kaa udghaatan kiya, jisane rajdhani koo baghdad mein sthanantarit curr diyaa. umayad parivaar kii ack shakha uttar africa mein all-andalus bhaag gaee, jahan unhone cordoba kii khilafat kii sthaapana kii, joe all-andalus key fitna key kaaran girane seey pahale 1031 taka chully. bett all-maal, kalyankari raajya taba abbasid key adheen jaari rhaa.
apane sabse badey vistaar mein, umayyad rajvansh ney ise duniya key sabse badey samrajyon mein seey ack aur abb taka kaa paanchvaan sabse badaa sannihit samrajya banaane seey kaheen adhik cover kiya.
muwaiyah ney damishk koo sunder banaaya aur sthir logon key pratidvandi key liye ack darbar vikasit kiya. unhone samrajya kii seemaon kaa vistaar kiya, ack bindu parr sthir logon key kinare taka pahunch gaye, halanki byzantine ney unhein peechhe dhakel diyaa aur vaha anatolia mein kissy bhee kshetra koo pakadane mein asamarth they. sunni musalman unhein grihyuddh key baad kii arajakta seey navodit muslim rashtra koo bachaane kaa shreya dete hain. haalaanki, shiya musalman una parr yuddh koo bhadkane, umma koo vibhajit karke muslim rashtra koo kamjor karane, paigambar key parivaar kii ninda karate hue aatm-vriddhi karane vaale pakhandon koo gadhane aur yahaan taka kii apane muslim alochakon koo bhee byzantine samrajya mein gulami mein bechane kaa aarop lagaate hain. muaviya kii sabse vivadaspad aur sthaayi virasaton mein seey ack apane bete yazeed koo apane uttaradhikari key roop mein naamit karane kaa unakaa nirnay thaa. shiya siddhant key anusaar, yeh hassan ibn allie key saath kii gaee sandhi kaa spasht ullanghan thaa.
682 mein, yazid ney uttar africa key rajyapal key roop mein ukba ibn naafi koo bahaal kiya. ukba ney berbers aur byzantine key khilaf ladaai jeeti. vahaan seey ukba ney hajaaron meal paschim kii or tangier kii or cooch kiya, jahan vaha atlantic tata parr pahuncha, aur phir atlus pahaadon key madhyam seey poorv kii or cooch kiya. lagbhag 300 ghudsavaaron key saath, vaha biscra kii or badhaa, jahan usey casal key tahat ack berber bull dwara ghaat lagaaya gayaa. ukba aur usake sabhi loga ladate hue maare gaye. barbaron ney uttar africa seey musalmaanon parr hamla kiya aur unhein ack avadhi key liye bhagaa diyaa. grih yuddhon seey kamjor hue umayyad ney samudra mein varchasva khou diyaa aur unhein roads aur crate key dweepon koo chhodana padaa. yazeed pratham key shasson key tahat, kufa mein kuchh musalman yeh sochane lagey kii aggar muhammad key vanshaj hussain ibn allie unake shaasak hotey, tou vaha adhik nyaaypurna hotey. unhein kufa mein aamantrit kiya gayaa thaa lekin baad mein unhein dhokha diyaa gayaa aur maar diyaa gayaa. imam hussain key bete, imam allie ibn hussain, hussain kii bahan aur anya mahilaaon key saath karbala yuddh mein kaid they. janata key virodh key kaaran unhein baad mein riha curr diyaa gayaa aur unhein apane mool sthaan madina jaane kii anumati dee gaee. imam hussain kii peedhi mein ack key baad ack imam jaari rahey, lekin imam abdullah all-mahadi billah jaba taka uttar africa mein fatimid key pahale khalifa key roop mein satta mein naheen aae, taba taka unake pratidvandiyon key roop mein way usa samay key khalifaaon dwara virodh kiye gaye they. inn imamon koo shiya islam dwara imam allie koo pahale khalifa/imam key roop mein sweekaar kiya gayaa thaa aur ise safaavidon aur kaee samaan sansthanon dwara sansthaagat kiya gayaa haye jinka naam abb ismaili, twelver aadi haye.
muaviya dwiteeya key tahat avadhi grih yuddhon (dwiteeya fitna) dwara chihnit kii gaee thee. yeh ack sushikshit aur saksham shaasak abd all-malik ibn marwan key shasankal mein aasaan hoe jaayega. unake shasson mein baadha daalane vaali kaee raajneetik samasyaon key bavjood, sabhi mahatvapurna abhilekhon kaa arabi mein anuvaad kiya gayaa thaa. unake shasankal mein, muslim duniya key liye ack mudra banaai gaee thee. isake kaaran asia minor mein 692 mein justinian II (sebastopolis kii ladaai) key tahat byzantine samrajya key saath yuddh huaa. slavon key ack badey dall key dalbadal key baad khalifa dwara byzantine koo nirnaayak roop seey haraaya gayaa thaa. islami mudra koo taba muslim duniya mein vishesh mudra banaaya gayaa thaa. unhone krishi aur vanijya mein sudhaar kiya. abd all-malik ney muslim shasson koo samekit kiya aur ise vistaarit kiya, arabi koo raajya bhasha banaa diyaa aur ack niyamit daak seva kaa ayojan kiya.
 all-valeed pratham ney islami vijayon kaa agala charan shuru kiya. unake adheen praarambhik islami samrajya apani sabse door taka pahunch gayaa. unhone byzantine samrajya seey misra key kuchh hisson koo phir seey jeet liya aur carthage mein aur uttar africa key paschim mein chaley gaye. taarik ibn ziyaad key netritva mein muslim senaaon ney gibralter kii jaldamroomadhya koo paar kiya aur uttar african berber senaaon kaa upayog karke iberian praaydweep koo jeetana shuru curr diyaa. jaba umayyad ney lisban parr vijay praapt kii tou iberian praaydweep key visigoth parajit hoe gaye. iberian praaydweep europe key islami niyantran kaa sabse door kaa kshetra thaa (unhein paryatan kii ladaai mein roque diyaa gayaa thaa). poorv mein, muhammad ibn all-kasim key netritva mein islami senaaon ney ise sindhu ghaati taka banaa diyaa. all-valeed key adheen, khalifa samrajya iberian praaydweep seey bhaarat taka faila huaa thaa. all-hajjaj ibn yousaf ney sainya commanders key sangathan aur chayan mein mahatvapurna bhoomika nibhai. all-valeed ney umayyad yug mein sabse majboot nausena key nirmaan key liye ack sangathit senaa key vistaar parr bahut dhyaan diyaa. yeh ranneeti iberian praaydweep key vistaar key liye mahatvapurna thee. unake shasankal koo islami shakti kaa sheersh maanaa jaataa haye.
jiss dinn all-valeed kii mrityu hui, usa dinn suleiman ibn abd all-malik koo khalifa key roop mein sammaanit kiya gayaa thaa. unhone yazeed ibn all-muhallab koo mesopotamia kaa rajyapal niyukt kiya. suleiman ney all-hajjaj key parivaar kii giraftari aur fansi kaa adesh diyaa, dou pramukh netaaon mein seey ack (doosara qutuyaba ibn muslim thaa) jisane suleiman key bajaay all-valeed key bete yazeed key uttaradhikar kaa samarthan kiya thaa. all-hajjaj ney all-valeed seey pahale hii dumm toda diyaa thaa, isaliye usane koee khatra paida naheen kiya. qutaibah ney suleiman key prati nishtha kaa tyag curr diyaa, haalaanki unake sainikon ney vidroh karane kii unaki appeal koo aswikar curr diyaa. unhone usey maar daala aur uska sir suleiman key paas bhej diyaa. suleiman khalifa banane parr damascus naheen gayaa, aur ramla mein reh gayaa. suleiman ney basentine rajdhani (constantinople kii gherabandi) parr hamla karane key liye maslama ibn abd all-malik koo bheja. byzantine paksh parr bulgaria kaa hastakshep nirnaayak saabit huaa. musalmaanon koo bhaari nuksan huaa. 717 mein suleiman kii achaanak mrityu hoe gaee.
yazeed dwiteeya umar dwiteeya kii mrityu parr satta mein aaya. yazeed ney kaarijiyon seey ladaai ladee, jinake saath umar baatchit curr rahey they, aur khaarij netaa shaudhab koo maar daala. yazeed key shasankal mein, samrajya key vibhinn hisson mein grih yuddh shuru hue. 724 mein marane seey pahale, yazeed ney khaleefaa key kshetra kaa vistaar cocus mein kiya. apane bhaai seey khaleefaa viraasat mein paakar, hizham ibn abd all-malik ney kaee samasyaon key saath ack samrajya parr shasson kiya. way inn samasyaon koo sambodhit karane mein prabhaavi they, aur umayyad samrajya koo ack ikai key roop mein jaari rakhane kii anumati dene mein prabhaavi they. unakaa lamba shasson ack prabhaavi thaa, aur umar dwiteeya dwara nae sire seey sudhaar kiye gaye. hizaam key shasson key tahat, byzantine key khilaf niyamit chhaape jaari rahey. uttari africa mein, jareejiyon kii shikshaon ney sthaaniya bechaini key saath milkar berber vidroh paida kiya. unhein zayed ibn allie key vidroh kaa bhee saamana karna padaa thaa. unake dwara donon vidrohon koo dabaa diyaa gayaa. abbasid khurasan aur iraq mein satta hassil karna jaari rakhate they. haalaanki, way abhee taka ack kadam uthaane key liye paryaapt majboot naheen they. kuchh koo purvi rajyapalon dwara pakada gayaa aur dandit kiya gayaa yaa unhein maar diyaa gayaa. acroinan kii ladaai, ack nirnaayak bassentine jeet, umayyad rajvansh key antim abhiyaan key dauran thee. 743 mein hizham kii mrityu hoe gaee.
all-valeed dwiteeya ney apane shasankal key dauran raajneetik sazish dekhi. yazeed III ney apane chachere bhaai valid kii "anaitikta" key khilaf baat kii, jisamen yumeniyon aur gair-arab musalmaanon key khilaf baanu qaay arabon kii or seey bhedbhaav shamil thaa, aur yazeed koo qadariya aur murjiya (maanav swatantra ichcha mein vishvaas karane vaale) seey aur samarthan milaa. isake turant baad ack takhtapalat mein valid koo padchyut curr diyaa gayaa. yazeed ney khajaane seey dhana vitarit kiya aur khalifa koo sweekaar curr liya. unhone samajhaaya kii unhone bhagwan aur sunn kii pustak kii or seey vidroh kiya thaa. yazid ney kewal chhah maheene taka shasson kiya, jabaki vibhinn samoohon ney nishtha seey incar curr diyaa aur asantusht andolanon kaa uday huaa, jisake baad unaki mrityu hoe gaee. ibrahim ibn all-valeed, jise unake bhaai yazeed III dwara spasht uttaradhikari naamit kiya gayaa thaa, ney 744 mein tyag karane seey pahale thode samay key liye shasson kiya. marwan dwiteeya ney 744 seey shasson kiya jaba taka kii vaha 750 mein maare naheen gaye. vaha damascus seey shasson karane vaale antim umayyad shaasak they. marwan ney apane dou beton kaa naam ubaydallah aur abdullah uttaradhikari rakhaa. unhone rajyapalon koo niyukt kiya aur balpurvak apane adhikaar kaa daavaa kiya. umayyad virodhi bhavna bahut prachalit thee, vishesh roop seey iran aur iraq mein. abbasidon koo bahut samarthan milaa thaa. khalifa key roop mein marwan kaa shasankal lagbhag poori tarah seey umayyad samrajya koo ack saath rakhane kii koshish key liye samarpit thaa. unaki mrityu ney poorv mein umayyad shasson key anta kaa sanket diyaa, aur usake baad abbasid dwara umayyad kaa narsamhar kiya gayaa. lagbhag puuraa umayyad rajvansh maaraa gayaa thaa, sivaay pratibhashali rajkumar abd all-rahman key joe iberian praaydweep mein bhaag gaye aur vahaan ack rajvansh kii sthaapana kii.
abbasid khalifa key dauran islami duniya.
750 mein abbasid rajvansh satta mein aaya, jisane pahale key khalifaaon key laabh koo majboot kiya. shuru mein, unhone bhoomadhyasagariya dweepon parr vijay praapt kii, jisamen bellerics bhee shamil they aur isake baad, 827 mein dakshini itali parr vijay praapt kii. sattaaroodh dall abbasid krantikari aboo musalman dwara vikasit umayyadon key saath asantosh kii lahar parr satta mein aaya thaa. abbasiyon key adheen islami sabhyata panpi. sabse ullekhaniya arabi gadya aur kavita kaa vikas thaa, jise "islam key cambridge itihas" dwara iska "swarn yug" kahaa gayaa thaa. vanijya aur udyog (ack muslim krishi kranti maanaa jaataa haye) aur kalaa aur vigyaan (ack muslim vaigyaanik kranti maanaa jaataa haye) bhee abbasid khalifa all-mansur (shaasit 754-775), haaroon all-rasheed (shaasit 786-809), all-maamoon (shaasit 809-813) aur unake tatkaal uttaradhikariyon key tahat samriddh hue. kaee gair-musalman, jaise isai, yahudi aur sabian, ney vibhinn kshetron mein islami sabhyata mein yogdan diyaa, aur gyaan key ghar key roop mein jaani jaane vaali sanstha ney isai aur farsi vidvaanon koo arabi mein anuvaad karane aur nae gyaan koo vikasit karane key liye niyukt kiya.
faras aur transoxania mein purvi mamalon parr abbasid dwara rakhe gaye mahatva key kaaran rajdhani koo damishk seey baghdad mein sthanantarit curr diyaa gayaa thaa. iss samay khalifa ney kshetriya rajvanshon key uday key beach asthibhang key sanket dikhaae. haalaanki umayyad parivaar vidrohi abbasiyon dwara maaraa gayaa thaa, parivaar kaa ack sadasya, abd-rahman pratham, spen bhaag gayaa aur 756 mein vahaan ack swatantra khalifa kii sthaapana kii. maghreb mein, haaroon all-rasheed ney arab aghlabi koo vastutah swaayatt shasakon key roop mein niyukt kiya, halanki way kendriya pradhikaran koo maanyata denaa jaari rakhaa. aghlabi shasson alpakaalik thaa, aur unhein 909 mein shiya fatimid rajvansh dwara apadasth curr diyaa gayaa thaa. lagbhag 960 taka, fatimidon ney abasid misra parr vijay praapt curr lii thee, 973 mein vahaan ack rajdhani kaa nirmaan kiya thaa jise "all-kahira" kahaa jaataa thaa (jiska arth haye "vijay kaa grah", jise aaj carro key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye).
apane patan key dauran, abbasi khalifa chhote raajyon aur rajvanshon mein vighatit hoe gayaa, jaise kii tuluni aur ghaznavi rajvansh. ghaznavi rajvansh ack muslim rajvansh thaa jise ack anya islami samrajya, samani samrajya key turkey gulam-sainikon dwara sthaapit kiya gayaa thaa. farsi mein ghaznaavidon ney abbasid seey shakti chheen lii. abasid prabhaav kaa upbhog mahaan seljuk samrajya (ack muslim turkey kabila joe mukhya bhoomi faras mein pravaas curr gayaa thaa) dwara 1055 taka kiya gayaa thaa. dou anya turkey janjaatiyaan, karahani aur seljuk, 10veen shatabdi key dauran islam mein parivartit hoe gaye they. baad mein, unhein ottomans dwara vash mein curr liya gayaa, joe ack hii mool aur bhasha saajha karate hain. jaba shiawad ney apana prabhaav badhaaya tou seljukon ney sanvaad key punruddhar mein mahatvapurna bhoomika nibhai. seljuk sainya netaa aalp arsalan (1063-1072) ney vigyaan aur saahitya koo aarthik roop seey sahaayata pradaan kii aur baghdad mein nezaamiyeh vishvavidyalaya kii sthaapana kii.
vistaar jaari rhaa, kabhi balpurvak, kabhi shantipurna dharmaantaran dwara. bhaarat kii vijay kaa pahala charan varsh 1000 seey thheek pahale shuru huaa. lagbhag 200 (1193 seey 1209 taka) varshon baad, gangaa nadee taka kaa kshetra gir gayaa thaa. upa-sahaara paschim africa mein, islam kii sthaapana varsh 1000 key thheek baad hui thee. musalman shaasak 1081 aur 1097 key beach kuchh samay key liye kanem mein they, jisamen 1009 kii shuruat mein gaao key pramukh parr ack muslim rajkumar kii report thee. maali seey judey islami raajya 13veen shatabdi mein pramukhta taka pahunche.
abbasid ney adhik islami ekataa key uddeshya seey pahal vikasit kii. islami aastha aur masjidon key vibhinn sampradayon koo, siddhant, itihas aur abhyaas seey alag, sahyog karane key liye prerit kiya gayaa thaa. abbasi bhee umayyadon key naitik charitra aur prashaasan parr hamla karke khud koo umayyadon seey alag karate they. iraa lapidus key anusaar, "abbasi vidroh koo kaafee hudd taka arabon dwara samarthit kiya gayaa thaa, mukhya roop seey maarv key peedit basane vaalon ney yemeni gutt aur unake mawli koo jodaa thaa. abbasid ney gair-arab musalmaanon seey bhee appeal kii, jinhen "mawali" key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye, joe arabon key natedari-adharit samaaj seey baahar rahey aur jinhen umayyad samrajya key bheetar ack nimn varg key roop mein maanaa jaataa thaa. islami vishvavyaapivaad, jise abbasid dwara badhaava diyaa gayaa haye, shaabdik arth mein "ummah" kii ekataa key vichaar koo sandarbhit kartaa haih kii ack hii vishvaas thaa. islami darshan kaa vikas huaa kyonki shariya koo samhitaabaddh kiya gayaa thaa, aur chaar madahab sthaapit kiye gaye they. iss yug mein shaastriya sufivaad kaa uday bhee huaa. dhaarmik uplabdhiyon mein saheeh bukhari aur anya key hadis key vihit sangrah kaa puuraa honah shamil thaa. islam ney kuchh hudd taka abrahamik dharmon kii vaidhata koo maanyata dee, kurran ney yahoodiyon, isaaiyon, parsi aur sabian (aamtaur parr mandiyon key saath pehchaane jaane vaale) koo "pustak key logon" key roop mein pahachaana. uchch madhya yug kii shuruat mein, islam key dou pramukh sampradaay, soonni aur shiya key siddhant, thhos hue aur vishva key vibhajan dhaarmik roop seey baney. yeye rujhaan ksheen aur ayubid avadhi mein jaari rahenge.
raajneetik roop seey, abbasid khalifa ack islami rajshahi (sarkaar kii ekaatmak pranali) mein vikasit huaa.) kshetriya saltanat aur amirat key rajyapalon key astitva, vaidhata yaa vaidhata koo raajya kii ekataa key liye sweekaar kiya gayaa thaa. iberian umayyadon key praarambhik islami darshan mein, evro ney "nirnaayak granth" mein ack tark prastut kiya, joe aadhikarik ashri dharamshastra seey vigyaan aur darshan kii mukti key liye ack auchitya pradaan kartaa haye; iss prakaar, avrovad koo aadhunik dharmnirpekshata kaa agradoot maanaa gayaa haye.
golden baghdad abbasid.
"praarambhik madhya yug"
arab sroton key anusaar varsh 750 mein, abbasid khalifa key sansthaapak all-safah ney talas key paas khurasan praant seey umayyad khalifa key khilaf ack badey paimaane parr vidroh shuru kiya. poore umayyad parivaar koo samaapt karane aur zab kii ladaai mein jeet hassil karane key baad, all-safah aur usaki senaaon ney damishk mein cooch kiya aur ack nae rajvansh kii sthaapana kii. unaki senaaon ney kaee kshetriya shaktiyon kaa saamana kiya aur abbasid khalifa key kshetra koo samekit kiya.
all-mansur key samay mein farsi chhatravritti kaa uday huaa. kaee gair-arabon ney islam mein parivartit curr diyaa. umayyadon ney jizyaa key sangrah yaa gair-musalmaanon parr curr jaari rakhane key liye sakriya roop seey dharmaantaran koo hatotsaahit kiya. all-mansur key shasankal key anta taka islam apane kshetra mein lagbhag doguna hoe gayaa, joe 750 mein 8 pratishat nivaasiyon seey badhkar 15 pratishat hoe gayaa. all-mahadi, jinake naam kaa arth haye "sahee-nirdeshit" yaa "muktidata", koo khalifa ghoshit kiya gayaa thaa jaba unake pitaa unaki mrityu parr they. baghdad all-mahadi key shasankal key dauran khilata huaa duniya kaa sabse badaa shahar bunn gayaa. isane arab, iraq, seeriya, faras aur bhaarat aur spen key roop mein door seey apravasiyon koo aakarshit kiya. baghdad badhati muslim aabaadi key alawa isaaiyon, yahoodiyon, hinduon aur parsi logon kaa ghar thaa. apane pitaa kii tarah, all-haadi apane logon key liye khula thaa aur nagrikon koo baghdad key mahal mein usey sambodhit karane kii anumati dee. unhein ack "prabuddh shaasak" maanaa jaataa thaa, aur unhone apane poorvavartiyon kii neetiyon koo jaari rakhaa. unakaa sankshipt shasson sainya sanghrshon aur aantarik sazishon seey grast thaa. 
haaroon all-rasheed key shasson key roop mein sainya sangharsh cumm hoe gaye. unake shasankal mein vaigyaanik, saanskritik aur dhaarmik samriddhi thee. unhone pustakalaya bait all-hikma ("gyaan kaa ghar") kii sthaapana kii, aur unake shasankal key dauran kalaa aur sangeet kaa vikas huaa. barmakid parivaar ney khalifa kii sthaapana mein nirnaayak salaahkaar bhoomika nibhai, lekin rashid key shasson key dauran incar curr diyaa. 
all-ameen ney apane pitaa haaroon all-rasheed seey khalifa praapt kiya, lekin apane bhaaiyon key liye kii gaee vyavastha kaa sammaan karane mein whiffle rahey, jisase chautha fitanaa huaa. all-maamoon key senapati tahir ibn hussain ney baghdad koo leey liya aur all-ameen koo maar daala. yuddh key kaaran rajvansh kii pratishtha mein kamee aaee.
kshetriya shaktiyon kaa uday.
abasid jald hii coptic arabon, indo-persian aur apravasi turkon key beach teen-tarfa pratidvandvita mein funce gaye. isake alawa, ack badey samrajya koo chalaane kii laagat bahut adhik hoe gaee. turk, misra key loga aur arab sunnite sampradaay kaa paalan karate they; farsi, turkey samoohon kaa ack badaa hissa, aur bhaarat mein kaee rajkumar shiya they. islam kii raajneetik ekataa tootane luggy. abbasid khalifaaon key prabhaav mein, swatantra rajvansh muslim duniya mein prakat hue aur khalifaaon ney aise rajvanshon koo vaidh roop seey musalman key roop mein maanyata dee. pahala khorasana mein tahirid thaa, jisaki sthaapana khalifa all-mamun key shasankal key dauran hui thee. isi tarah key rajvanshon mein kusum, samani, ghaznavi aur seljuk shamil they. iss dauran khagol vigyaan, kavita, darshan, vigyaan aur ganit key kshetron mein pragati hui.
uchch baghdad abbasi.
"praarambhik madhya yug"
all-ameen kii mrityu key baad, all-mamun khalifa bunn gayaa. all-maamoon ney apane shasankal key dauran abbasid samrajya key kshetra kaa vistaar kiya aur vidrohon seey nipata. all-maamoon koo haaroon dwara khurasan kaa rajyapal naamit kiya gayaa thaa, aur satta mein aaney key baad, khalifa ney apani wafadari koo sunishchit karane key liye tahir koo apani sainya sevaaon kaa rajyapal naamit kiya. tahir aur unakaa parivaar irani rajneeti mein shamil hoe gaye aur shaktishali hoe gaye, joe all-mamoon kii kalifal shakti koo kendrikrit karane aur majboot karane kii ichcha koo nirashajanak banaa. tahirid parivaar kii badhati shakti ack khatra bunn gaee kyonki all-mamoon kii apani neetiyon ney unhein aur anya virodhiyon koo alag curr diyaa.
all-maamoon ney shakti koo kendrikrit karane aur ack sucharu uttaradhikar sunishchit karane key liye kaam kiya. all-mahadi ney ghoshana kii kii khalifa dharm-virodh key khilaf islam kaa rakshak thaa, aur roodhivaadita ghoshit karane kii kshamata kaa bhee daavaa kiya. dhaarmik vidvaanon ney kahaa kii all-mamoon "mihna" mein apani seema koo paar curr rhaa thaa, joe kii abasid poochtaachh thee jise unhone apani mrityu seey chaar maheene pahale 833 mein pesh kiya thaa. ulma" all-mamoon key shasankal key dauran islami rajneeti mein poochtaachh kaa virodh karane key liye ack shakti key roop mein ubhara. ulema" aur pramukh islami kaanoon schools ney all-maamoon kii avadhi mein aakar liya. samanantar mein, sunnivaad koo kaanoonon key dharm key roop mein paribhaashit kiya gayaa. sunee aur shiya islam key beach saiddhaantik antar adhik spasht hoe gaye.
all-mamoon shasson key dauran, seema yuddh badh gaye. all-maamoon ney ack badey abhiyaan kii taiyari kii, lekin sardis mein ack abhiyaan kaa netritva karate hue unaki mrityu hoe gaee. all-mamun ney baghdad mein kaee dharmon key vidvaanon koo ikattha kiya, jinake saath unhone achchha aur sahishnuta key saath vyavhaar kiya. unhone vahaan sabse prasiddh pandulipiyon koo ekatra karane key liye ack doot koo byzantine samrajya mein bheja, aur unakaa arabi mein anuvaad karaaya. unake vaigyaanikon ney rasvigyaan kii utpatti kii. unaki mrityu seey kuchh samay pahale, 832 mein misra kii yatra key dauran, khalifa ney gyaan aur khajaane kii khoj key liye geezaa key mahaan pyramid koo todane kaa adesh diyaa. jahan parampara mool pravesh dwaar parr sthit thee, vahaan shramikon ney surang bichhaai. all-maam 'munn kii baad mein sandigdh paristhitiyon mein tarsus key paas mrityu hoe gaee aur unake bete, all-abbas ibn all-maam' munn key bajaay unake sautele bhaai, all-muu 'tasim dwara unakaa uttaradhikari banaaya gayaa.
khalifa key roop mein, all-muu 'tasim ney turant taanaa mein all-maam' munn key sainya adde koo nasht karane kaa adesh diyaa. unhone khurramite vidrohon kaa saamana kiya. iss khalifa key saamane sabse kathin samasyaon mein seey ack baabak khorramdin kaa chala rhaa vidroh thaa. all-muu 'tasim ney vidrohiyon parr vijay praapt kii aur ack mahatvapurna jeet hassil kii. byzantine samrat theophilus ney abbasi kille key khilaf hamla kiya. all-muu 'tasim ney all-afshin koo bheja, joe enzen kii ladaai mein theophilus kii senaa seey milaa aur usey haraaya. apani vaapsee parr unhein ack gambhir sainya sajish key baare mein pataa chalaa, jisane unhein aur unake uttaradhikariyon koo turkey commanders aur gillman gulam-sainikon (mamluk pranali kii poorv-jhalak) parr bharosa karane key liye majboor kiya. khurramiya koo kabhi bhee poori tarah seey dabaa naheen diyaa gayaa thaa, halanki way baad key khalifaaon key shasankal key dauran dheere-dheere cumm hoe gaye they. all-muu 'tasim key jeevan key anta key karib philistine mein ack vidroh huaa, lekin unhone vidrohiyon koo haraaya.
all-muu 'tasim key shasankal key dauran, tahirid parivaar satta mein badhata rhaa. taahiridon koo kaee shraddhanjali aur nireekshan karyon seey chhoot dee gaee thee. unaki swatantrata ney poorv mein abbasi patan mein yogdan diyaa. vaichaarik roop seey, all-muu 'tasim ney apane sautele bhaai all-maam' munn kaa anusaran kiya. unhone islami mutzila sampradaay key liye apane poorvavarti kaa samarthan jaari rakhaa, vipaksh key khilaf kroor yaatana lagu kii. arab ganitshastri all-kindi koo all-muu 'tasim dwara niyukt kiya gayaa thaa aur khalifa key bete koo padhaaya gayaa thaa. all-kindi ney gyaan key ghar mein seva kii thee aur khalifa key sanrakshan mein yunani jyaamiti aur beejganit mein apana adhyayan jaari rakhaa thaa.
all-vaathik apane pitaa key uttaradhikari baney. all-vaathik ney arabia, seeriya, philistine aur baghdad mein virodh kaa saamana kiya. ack prasiddh talwar kaa upayog karate hue vaha vyaktigat roop seey baghdad vidrohiyon key nishpaadan mein shamil hoe gayaa. vidroh arab aabaadi aur turkey senaaon key beach teji seey badey antar kaa parinam thaa. vidrohon koo dabaaya gayaa, lekin donon samoohon key beach dushmani badh gaee, jaise-jaise turkey balon ney shakti praapt kii. unhone byzantine key saath ack bandee vinimay bhee hassil kiya. all-vaathik vidvaanon key saath-saath kalakaron key sanrakshak bhee they. unake paas vyaktigat roop seey sangeet kii pratibha thee aur way sou seey adhik geeton kii rachana karane key liye prasiddh hain.
jaba all-vaathik kii tej bukhaar seey mrityu hoe gaee, tou all-mutavakkil unake uttaradhikari baney. all-mutavakkil key shasankal koo kaee sudhaaron key liye yaad kiya jaataa haye aur ise ack swarn yug key roop mein dekhaa jaataa haye. vaha antim mahaan abbasid khalifa they; unaki mrityu key baad rajvansh kaa patan hoe gayaa. all-mutavakkil ney mihna koo samaapt curr diyaa. all-mutavakkil ney samra key poorv kii or vistaar key hisse key roop mein samra kii mahaan masjid kaa nirmaan kiya. apane shasankal key dauran, all-mutavakkil ney prasiddh dharamshastri daarshanik koo sangrodh mein rakhaa, jinhen samrat michael III dwara samrajya aur khalifa key beach rajanyik sambandhon koo majboot karane key liye bheja gayaa thaa. all-mutavakkil dhaarmik bahason mein khud koo shamil karate they, jaisa kii alpsankhyakon key khilaf unake karyon mein parilakshit hotaa haye. hussain ibn allie key mandir key vinash mein shamil daman kaa saamana karna padaa, ack aisee kaarravaai joe teerthyatraon koo rokane key liye kii gaee thee. all-mutavakkil ney vidrohon koo dabaane aur videshi samrajyon key khilaf ladaai kaa netritva karane key liye turkey raajnetaon aur gulam sainikon parr bharosa karna jaari rakhaa, vishesh roop seey byzantine seey sisili parr kabja curr liya. all-mutavakkil kii hatyaa ack turkey sanic ney curr dee thee.
all-muntsir usee dinn turkey gutt key samarthan seey khalifa banane mein safal rhaa, halanki usey hatyaa mein fansaaya gayaa thaa. turkey party ney apane pitaa kii hatyaa kaa badala lene key darr seey apane bhaaiyon koo uttaradhikar kii rekha seey hataa diyaa thaa. donon bhaaiyon ney tyag key bayaan likhe. apane shasankal key dauran, all-muntsir ney hassan aur hussain kii kabron kii tirthayatra parr pratibandh hataa diyaa aur waseef koo byzantine parr chhaapa maarne key liye bheja. all-muntsir kii agyaat karanon seey mrityu hoe gaee. turkey pramukhon ney all-mustain koo chunate hue apane uttaradhikari kaa chayan karane key liye ack parishad kaa ayojan kiya. baghdad key arab aur paschimi sanic iss pasand seey nakhush they aur una parr hamla kiya gayaa. haalaanki, khalifa abb arabi pasand parr nirbhar naheen thaa, lekin turkey samarthan parr nirbhar thaa. isaaiyon key khilaf asafal muslim abhiyaan key baad, logon ney turkon koo vishvaas parr aapada laane aur apane khalifaaon kii hatyaa key liye doshi thaharaaya. turkon dwara baghdad koo gherne key baad, all-mustain ney all-muu 'taaz koo gaddi chhodane kii yojana banaai, lekin usake adesh seey usey maar diyaa gayaa. all-muu 'taaz koo turkon dwara simhaasan parr bithaaya gayaa thaa, joe satta grahan karane vaale sabse cumm umr key abbasid khalifa bunn gaye they.
all-muu 'taaz apane turkey guruon key liye bahut upayukt chhaatr saabit hue, lekin ack-dusare seey irshya karane vaale dalon seey ghire hue they. samra mein, turkon koo "paschimi" (barbar aur moor) key saath samasyaaen theen, jabaki baghdad mein arab aur farsi, jinhone all-mustain kaa samarthan kiya thaa, donon koo samaan nafrat key saath maanate they. all-muu 'taaz ney apane bhaaiyon all-muu' yiyad aur aboo ahmed koo maar daala. shaasak ney laparwahi seey kharch kiya, jisase turk, african aur faarsiyon ney unake vetan key liye vidroh kiya. isake turant baad all-muu 'taaz koo berahami seey padchyut curr diyaa gayaa. all-muhtadi agala khalifa bunn gayaa. vaha pahale key khalifaaon kii tulanaa mein dridh aur gunee thaa, halanki turkon key paas shakti thee. turkon ney unake aarohan key turant baad unhein maar daala. all-muu 'taimid ney 23 varshon taka shasson kiya, halanki vaha badey paimaane parr kewal naam key shaasak they. zanz vidroh key baad, all-mutamid ney all-muwaafaak koo usaki madad karane key liye bulaaya. isake baad, all-muwafaq ney naam key alawa sabhi parr shasson kiya. hamdanid rajvansh kii sthaapana hamdan ibn hamdun dwara kii gaee thee jaba unhein 890 mein khalifaaon dwara anatolia mein mardin kaa rajyapal niyukt kiya gayaa thaa. all-muu 'taimid ney baad mein apane bete, all-muu' tadid koo adhikaar hastaantarit curr diyaa, aur kabhi satta hassil naheen kii. iss samay key dauran tootane parr tulunid islami misra mein pahala swatantra raajya bunn gayaa.
all-muu 'tadid ney khalifa koo kushalata seey prashaasit kiya. misra nishtha mein laut aaya aur mesopotamia koo vyavastha mein bahaal curr diyaa gayaa. vaha shee key prati sahishnu thaa, lekin umayyad samudaay key prati vaha itna nyaaypurna naheen thaa. all-muu 'tadid apane dandon mein kroor thaa, jinamen seey kuchh usake poorvavartiyon dwara paar naheen kiye gaye hain. udaaharan key liye, mosul mein kaarijiyon key netaa koo resham kaa vastra pahane baghdad key baare mein pared kiya gayaa thaa, jisamen kaarijiyon ney paappurn honey kii ninda kii aur phir unhein croose parr chadhaaya gayaa. all-muu 'tadid kii mrityu key baad, ack turkey gulam-ladki, all-muktafi dwara unakaa betaa simhaasan parr baithaa.
all-muktafi apani udaartaa aur apane pitaa kii gupt jailon, baghdad key aatank koo samaapt karane key liye logon kaa pasandida bunn gayaa. unake shasankal key dauran, khalifa ney carmethian jaise khatron parr kaaboo paa liya. all-muktafi kii mrityu key baad, vazeer ney all-muktadir koo chunaa. all-muktadir kaa shasankal terah vazeeron kaa ack nirantar uttaradhikar thaa, ack dusare key patan yaa hatyaa parr badh rhaa thaa. unake lambe shasankal ney samrajya koo apane sabse nichale star parr laa diyaa. africa khou gayaa thaa, aur misra lagbhag. mosul ney apani nirbharta koo samaapt curr diyaa, aur yoonaniyon ney asurakshit seema key paar chhaapa maaraa. poorv ney khalifa koo aupchaarik roop seey maanyata denaa jaari rakhaa, jisamen way loga bhee shamil they jinhone vastutah swatantrata kaa daavaa kiya thaa.
baghdad key praarambhik abbasi kaal key anta mein, maharani zho carboposina ney all-muktadir key saath yuddhaviram key liye dabaav daala aur muslim kaidi kii firauti kii vyavastha kii, jabaki byzantine seema koo bulgarian logon dwara dhamki dee gaee thee. isase kewal baghdad kaa vikaar badh gayaa. haalaanki logon dwara tiraskar kiya gayaa thaa, all-muktadir koo uthal-puthal key baad phir seey satta mein rakhaa gayaa thaa. all-muktadir koo antatah shahar key faatakon key baahar maar diyaa gayaa, jisake baad darbaariyon ney usake bhaai all-kaahir koo chunaa. vaha aur bhee buraa thaa. tyag karane seey incar karate hue, vaha andhaa hoe gayaa aur usey jail mein daal diyaa gayaa.
unake bete all-raadi ney kewal durbhagya key ack jharan kaa anubhav karane key liye padbhar sambhala. apani dharmanishtha key liye prashansa kii, vaha vaastavik shaasak mantri, ibn rack ("ameer all-umara"; 'ameeron kaa ameer') kaa aujaar bunn gayaa. ibn rack ney sarkaar kii bagdor sambhali aur saarvajanik prarthanaon mein unakaa naam khalifa key saath juda gayaa. iss avadhi key aspas, lokpriya bhaavanaon dwara samarthit, hambaliyon ney vaastav mein ack prakaar kii 'sunni poochtaachh' kii sthaapana kii. arr-raadi koo aamtaur parr vaastavik khalifaaon mein seey antim maanaa jaataa haih shukravaar kii seva mein bhaashan dene key liye, sabhaon kaa ayojan karane key liye, daarshnikon key saath samvaad karane key liye, dinn key prashnon parr charcha karane key liye, raajya key mamalon parr paramarsh lene key liye; bhiksha vitarit karane key liye, yaa kroor adhikaariyon kii gambhirta koo cumm karane key liye. iss prakaar praarambhik baghdad abbasiyon kaa anta hoe gayaa.
930 key dashak key madhya mein, misra key ikhshidiyon ney arabi upaadhi "vallie" dhaaran kii, joe abbasiyon kii or seey rajyapalon key roop mein unaki sthiti koo darshaati haye, pahale rajyapal (muhammad binn tugaj all-ikhsheed) koo abbasid khalifa dwara sthaapit kiya gayaa thaa. unhone unhein aur unake vanshajon koo 30 varshon key liye vilaaya diyaa. antim naam ikhshid "rajkumar" key liye sogadian haye.
930 key dashak mein bhee, allie ibn booh aur unake dou chhote bhaaiyon, all-hassan aur ahmed ney buurii sangh kii sthaapana kii. mool roop seey tabristan key ziyariyon kii seva mein ack sanic, allie 934 mein baghdad key yakut naamak ack turkey general koo haraane key liye ack senaa kii bharti karane mein saksham thaa. agale nau varshon mein teen bhaaiyon ney baghdad mein khalifa key nammatra key adhikaar koo sweekaar karate hue khalifa key shesh hisse parr niyantran hassil curr liya. booids ney badey kshetriya laabh arjit kiye. phaar aur jibal parr vijay praapt kii gaee. kendriya iraq ney 945 mein prastut kiya, isase pahale kii buidon ney karman (967), oman (967), jazira (979), tabaristan (980) aur gorgan (981) koo leey liya. isake baad booids dheere-dheere patan kii or badhe, sangh key tukade dheere-dheere toot gaye aur unake shasson key tahat sthaaniya rajvansh "vaastavik" swatantra hoe gaye.
madhya baghdad abbasid.
"praarambhik uchch madhya yug"
madhya baghdad abbasiyon kii shuruat mein, khalifa kaa mahatva cumm hoe gayaa thaa. ameer all-umara" bajkam ney apane sachiv koo baghdad bhejkar khud koo santusht kiya taaki ack uttaradhikari kaa chunaav karane key liye sthaaniya ganmaanya vyaktiyon koo ikattha kiya jaa sakey. chunaav all-muttaki parr padaa. bazkam koo ack shikaar dall mein marauding kurdon dwara maar diyaa gayaa thaa. baghdad mein honey vaali arajakta mein, ibn rack ney khalifa koo mosul bhaagne key liye raaji kiya, jahan hamdanidon ney unakaa swaagat kiya. unhone ibn rack kii hatyaa curr dee. hamdanid nasir all-davala baghdad kii or badhaa, jahan bhaade key sainikon aur suvyavasthit turkon ney unhein khaded diyaa. turkey general tuzun "ameer all-umara" bunn gayaa. turk kattar sunni they. ack naee sajish ney khalifa koo khatare mein daal diyaa. hamdanid sainikon ney aid-daula koo mosul aur phir nassibin bhaagne mein madad kii. tuzun aur hamdanid gatirodh mein they. all-muttaki rakka mein thaa, tuzun jaa rhaa thaa jahan usey padchyut curr diyaa gayaa thaa. tuzun ney andhe khalifa key chachere bhaai koo all-mustakafi kii upaadhi key saath uttaradhikari key roop mein sthaapit kiya. nae khalifa key saath, tuzun ney buvehid rajvansh aur hamdanid parr hamla kiya. isake turant baad, tuzun kii mrityu hoe gaee, aur usake ack senapati, aboo jaa 'faar dwara uttaradhikari banaaya gayaa. isake baad buvehidon ney baghdad parr hamla kiya aur aboo jaffar khalifa key saath chhip gaye. buvehid sultan muiz uda-daula ney khalifa koo ameer key adheen honey key liye majboor karate hue kamaan sambhali. antatah, all-mustakafi koo andhaa curr diyaa gayaa aur padchyut curr diyaa gayaa. shahar arajakta mein gir gayaa, aur khalifa key mahal koo luutaa gayaa.
ack baar jaba baghdad parr buvehiyon kaa niyantran hoe gayaa, tou all-mutee khalifa bunn gayaa. karyalaya vaastavik shakti seey vikshipt thaa aur shiya paalan sthaapit kiye gaye they. baghdad mein ack sadee seey adhik samay taka buvehid aayojit rahey. poore buvehid shasankal key dauran khalifa apane sabse nichale star parr thaa, lekin iberia koo chhodkar ise dhaarmik roop seey maanyata dee gaee thee. buvehid sultan muiz all-davala koo apani suraksha key darr seey aur rajdhani aur usase aage vidroh key darr seey ack shiya khalifa koo simhaasan parr bithaane seey rokaa gayaa thaa.
agale khalifa, all-taaee ney seeriya mein fatimiyon, turkon aur carmethians key beach gutbaji parr shasson kiya. gupt rajvansh bhee toot gayaa. abbasi seemaon kii raksha kewal chhote seemavarti raajyon dwara kii jaati thee. iraq key khid ameer, bahaa 'all-davala ney 991 mein all-taaee koo padchyut kiya aur all-qaadir koo nayaa khalifa ghoshit kiya.
all-kadir key khalifa key dauran, gajani key mahmoud ney samrajya kii dekhbhal kii. purvi prasiddhi key gajani key mahmoud khalifaaon key prati maitripurna they, aur bhaaratiya samrajya mein unaki jeet kii ghoshana tadnusar baghdad key palpit seey aabhaari aur chamakate shabdon mein kii gaee thee. all-kadir ney shiyawad key khilaf sunni sangharsh koo badhaava diyaa aur baghdad ghoshanapatra aur kurran key banaae jaane key siddhant jaise vidharmon koo gairkaanooni ghoshit kiya. unhone mutalia koo gairkaanooni ghoshit curr diyaa, jisase tarkvaadi muslim darshan key vikas kaa anta hoe gayaa. iss aur agali avadhi key dauran, islami saahitya, vishesh roop seey farsi saahitya, buvehiyon key sanrakshan mein falaa-phoola. 1000 taka, vaishvik musalman aabaadi duniya key lagbhag 4 pratishat taka pahunch gaee thee, jabaki isai aabaadi 10 pratishat thee.
all-qaaim key shasankal key dauran, buvehid shaasak aksar rajdhani seey bhaag jaataa thaa aur seljuk rajvansh ney satta hassil curr lii. togrul seeriya aur armenia parr haavi haye. isake baad vaha rajdhani mein pravesh kiya, jahan unhein pramukhon aur logon donon dwara achchi tarah seey praapt kiya gayaa thaa. bahreen mein, all-haasaa mein karmatian raajya dhwast hoe gayaa. arabia ney fatimids seey uber liya aur phir seey abbasids key aadhyatmik adhikaar kshetra koo sweekaar kiya. all-muktadi koo seljuk sultan malik-shaah pratham dwara sammaanit kiya gayaa thaa, jinake shasankal key dauran khalifa koo seljuk vijay kii vistaarit seema key dauran maanyata dee gaee thee. sultan raajya key mamalon mein khalifa key hastakshep kii aalochana kartaa thaa, lekin madhya baghdad key antim abbasid koo apadasth karane seey pahale usaki mrityu hoe gaee.
divangat baghdad abbasid.
"madhya yug key anta mein"
divangat baghdad abbasiyon ney dharmayuddh kii shuruat seey laker saatven dharmayuddh taka shasson kiya. pahala khalifa all-mustazir thaa. ghar mein nagrik sangharsh aur seeriya mein pahale dharmayuddh key bavjood, vaha raajneetik roop seey aprasangik they. tollues key raymond IV ney baghdad parr hamla karane kaa prayaas kiya, aur manazikert kii ladaai mein haar gaye. vaishvik musalman aabaadi 1100 taka 11 pratishat kii isai aabaadi key mukabale lagbhag 5 pratishat taka badh gaee. jerusalam parr dharmyuddhkariyon ney kabja curr liya jinhone isake nivaasiyon kaa narsamhar kiya. pracharakon ney poore khalifa mein yatra kii aur trasdi kii ghoshana kii aur all-aksa masjid parisar koo "frank" (europeeya dharmayoddha) seey punarpraapt karane key liye logon koo uksaayaa. nirvaasiton kii bheed ney kafir key khilaf yuddh key liye raili kii. naa tou sultan aur naa hii khalifa ney paschim mein senaa bheji.
all-mustarsheed ney adhik swatantrata praapt kii jabaki mahaan seljuk kaa sultan mahmoud dwiteeya poorv mein yuddh mein lagaa huaa thaa. baanu majeed (mazeed raajya) general, dubai ibn sadaka (all-hilla key ameer) ney bosra koo luutaa aur sultan key ack yuva bhaai, giath adha-deen masood key saath milkar baghdad parr hamla kiya. zengi rajvansh key sansthaapak zengi key tahat ack seljuk senaa ney dubai koo kuchal diyaa thaa. mahmoud kii mrityu key baad unake bete davood, unake bhatije masood aur atabegh toghrul dwiteeya key beach grihyuddh huaa. zengi koo poorv mein vaapas bulaaya gayaa, khalifa aur dabiyon dwara uttejit kiya gayaa, jahan unhein peeta gayaa thaa. khalifa ney taba teen maheene taka mosul kii gherabandi kii, binaa safalata key, masood aur zengi dwara virodh kiya gayaa. phir bhee yeh khalifa key sainya punruddhar mein ack meal kaa patthar thaa.
damascus (1134) kii gherabandi key baad, zengi ney seeriya mein abhiyaan chalaaya. all-mustarsheed ney paschimi seljuk key sultan masood parr hamla kiya aur usey bandee banaa liya gayaa. baad mein usaki hatyaa curr dee gaee. unakaa betaa, all-rasheed seljuk turkon seey swatantrata praapt karane mein whiffle rhaa. zengi ney, dabiyon kii hatyaa key kaaran, ack pratidvandi saltanat kii sthaapana kii. masood ney hamla kiya; khalifa aur zengi, safalata seey nirash, mosul bhaag gaye. sultan ney satta hassil curr lii, ack parishad aayojit kii gaee, khalifa koo padchyut curr diyaa gayaa, aur unake chaacha, all-muktafi key bete koo nae khalifa key roop mein niyukt kiya gayaa. arr-rasheed isfahan bhaag gayaa aur hashashashins dwara maar diyaa gayaa.
seljuk turkon key beach nirantar algaav aur pratiyogitaon ney all-muktafi koo baghdad mein niyantran banaae rakhane aur poore iraq mein iska vistaar karane kii anumati dee. 1139 mein, all-muktafi ney nestorian kulpita abdisho III koo suraksha pradaan kii. jaba dharmayuddh chhid gayaa, khalifa ney baghdad (1157) kii gherabandi mein seljuk key muhammad dwiteeya key khilaf baghdad kaa safaltapurvak bachaav kiya. sultan aur khalifa ney zengi kii appeal key jawab mein purushon koo bheja, lekin naa tou seljuk, naa hii khalifa, naa hii unake ameeron ney dharmyuddhkariyon kaa virodh karane kii himmat kii.
agale khalifa, all-mustanjid ney 260 varshon key baad saladin koo fatimid rajvansh koo bujhaate hue dekhaa, aur iss prakaar abbasid phir seey prabal hoe gaye. all-mustadi ney shasson kiya jaba saladin misra kaa sultan banaa aur abbasiyon key prati nishtha ghoshit kii.
ishwar key dharm key vijeta", ack-nasir ney khalifa koo apani pracheen pramukh bhoomika mein bahaal karane kaa prayaas kiya. unhone binaa kissy rukawat key iraq koo lagaatar tikrit seey khaadi taka rakhaa. unake sattalis saal key shasankal mein mukhya roop seey tartar pramukhon key saath mahatvakankshi aur bhrasht saude hue aur mangolon key unake khatarnak ahwan ney unake rajvansh koo samaapt curr diyaa. unakaa betaa, azz-zaheer, unaki mrityu seey pahale ack chhoti avadhi key liye khalifa thaa aur ack-nasir key potey, all-mustansir koo khalifa banaaya gayaa thaa.
all-mustansir ney mustansiriya madarse kii sthaapana kii. 1236 mein ogedei khaan ney khorasan koo badhaane aur herat koo aabaadi dene kaa adesh diyaa. mangol sainya rajyapalon ney jyaadaatar apana shivir mugan maidan, azerbaijan mein banaaya. mosul aur silician armenia key shasakon ney aatmasamarpan curr diyaa. chormakan ney sainya padanukram key aadhar parr dakshin coccus kshetra koo teen jilon mein vibhajit kiya. georgia mein, aabaadi koo asthaayi roop seey aathh tuman mein vibhajit kiya gayaa thaa. 1237 taka mangol samrajya ney abbasid iraq aur ismaili gadhon koo chhodkar, aur poore afghanistan aur kashmir koo chhodkar, faras key adhikansh hisse koo apane adheen curr liya thaa.
all-mustasim baghdad mein antim abbasid khalifa they aur saatven dharmayuddh key dauran misra key simhaasan parr shajar all-durr key uday key virodh key liye jaane jaate hain. poorv mein, hulagu khaan key tahat mangol senaayen transoxiana aur khorasana seey hocker beh gaeen. baghdad koo barkhast curr diyaa gayaa aur khalifa koo jald hii padchyut curr diyaa gayaa. mamluk sultaanon aur seeriya ney baad mein carro mein ack shaktiheen abbasid khalifa niyukt kiya.
carro key khalifa (1261-1517).
"carro key" "chhaaya" "khalifa"
"madhya yug key anta mein"
carro key abbasid "chhaaya" khalifa ney mamluk sultaanon key sanrakshan mein shasson kiya aur nammatra key shasakon ney mamluk sultaanon key vaastavik shasson koo vaidh banaaya. sabhi carren abbasid khalifa joe all-mustain seey pahale yaa baad mein aae they, way aadhyatmik pramukh they jinamen kissy bhee laukik shakti kii kamee thee. all-mustain ekmatra carro-adharit abbasid khalifa they jinake paas kuchh samay key liye raajneetik shakti bhee thee. all-mutavakkil III antim "chhaaya" khalifa thaa. 1517 mein, ottoman sultan saleem pratham ney mamluk saltanat koo haraaya, aur misra koo ottoman samrajya kaa hissa banaa diyaa.
fatimi khalifa.
fatimid kii utpatti ifricia (aadhunik tunisia aur purvi algeria) mein hui thee. rajvansh kii sthaapana 909 mein abdullah all-mahadi billah dwara kii gaee thee, jinhone apani betty fatima ass-zahara aur unake pati allie ibn-abii-talib, pahale shiya imam key madhyam seey muhammad seey vansh key madhyam seey apane daave koo vaidh banaaya, isaliye iska naam "all-fatimian" "fatimid" haye. abdullah all-mahadi kaa niyantran jald hii poore kendriya maghreb aur misra mein fail gayaa. usa samay key fatimid aur zaydi, hanfi nyayshastra kaa upayog karate they, jaisa kii adhikansh sunni karate they.
kshetra kii anya sarkaaron key vipareet, raajya karyalayon mein alpavikasit unnati aanuvanshikta kii tulanaa mein yogyata parr adhik adharit thee. sunniyon sahit islam kii anya shaakhaon key sadasyon koo shiyaon kii tarah sarkari padon parr niyukt kiye jaane kii sambhavana thee. sahishnuta mein isai aur yahudi jaise gair-musalman shamil they; unhone kshamata key aadhar parr sarkaar mein uchch star liya. haalaanki, sahishnuta key iss samanya ravaiye key apavaad they, vishesh roop seey all-hakeem bee-amr allah.
fatimid mahal dou bhaagon mein thaa. yeh binn all-quaserine sadak parr khaan all-khalili kshetra mein thaa.
futty khalifa.
"praarambhik aur uchch madhya yug"
madhya baghdad abbasiyon kii shuruat key dauran, fatimid khalifaaon ney naa kewal misra mein aadhyatmik varchasva kaa daavaa kiya, balki seeriya key dhaarmik netritva kaa bhee virodh kiya. baghdad mein abbasi samrajya kii shuruat mein, alidon koo sattaaroodh dall dwara gambhir utpeedan kaa saamana karna padaa kyonki way khalifa key liye ack seedha khatra they. abbasi poochtaachh key kaaran, poorvajon ney daavaa key astitva koo chhipaane kaa vikalp chunaa. baad mein, unhone irani pathaar kii or yatra kii aur raajneetik duniya key kendra seey khud koo door curr liya. all mahadi key pitaa, all hussain all mastur daavaa key mamalon koo niyantrit karane key liye laut aae. unhone yaman aur paschimi africa mein dou daaee bheje. all hussain key bete all mahadi key janm key turant baad unaki mrityu hoe gaee. sarkaar kii ack pranali ney uttar africa mein hue vikas parr all mahadi koo adyatan karane mein madad kii.
all mahadi abdullah all-mahadi billah ney fatimid rajvansh key pahale imam kii sthaapana kii. unhone hussain aur ismel key madhyam seey fatima key roop mein vanshavali kii utpatti kaa daavaa kiya. all mahadi ney salamiah mein apana mukhyalaya sthaapit kiya aur aghlabi shasson key tahat uttar-paschimi africa kii or badh gaye. mahadi key agradoot honey kaa daavaa karane kii unaki safalata uttar africa kii berber janjaatiyon, vishesh roop seey kutamah janjaati key beach mahatvapurna thee. all mahadi ney tunisia mein all-kierwan key upnagar rakkadah mein poorv aghlabi nivaas mein khud koo sthaapit kiya. 920 mein, all mahadi ney samrajya kii naee sthaapit rajdhani, all-mahdiah mein nivaas kiya. unaki mrityu key baad, all mahadi key baad unake bete, aboo all-kasim muhammad all-qaim ney apani vistaarvaadi neeti jaari rakhee. apani mrityu key samay unhone apana shasson idricids key saath-saath misra taka bhee badhaaya thaa. fatimid khalifa mein sisili shamil hoe gayaa aur atlantic mahasagar seey libia taka uttar africa mein fail gayaa. abdullah all-mahadi kaa niyantran jald hii poore kendriya maghreb parr fail gayaa, jisamen morakko, algeria, tunisia aur libia key aadhunik desh shamil they, jinn parr unhone tunisia mein mahadiya seey shasson kiya thaa. caroan, tunisia key paas navanirmit rajdhani all-mansuria, yaa mansuria, imam all-mansur billah (aar. 946-953) aur all-muiz lii-deen allah (r. 953-975).
fatimi general jabahaar ney 969 mein misra parr vijay praapt kii, aur unhone vahaan fyusat key paas ack nayaa mahal shahar banaaya, jise unhone all-mansurya bhee kahaa. all-muiz lidinillah key tahat, fatimids ney 969 mein "all-qahira" (carro) mein ack naee rajdhani kii sthaapana karate hue ikhshidid vilaaya (fatimid misra dekhein) parr vijay praapt kii. naam mars grah, "dha subder" kaa sandarbh thaa, joe usa samay akash mein pramukh thaa jaba shahar kaa nirmaan shuru huaa thaa. carro kaa uddeshya fatimid khalifa aur unaki senaa key liye ack shaahi gherabandi key roop mein thaa, halanki misra kii vaastavik prashaasnik aur aarthik rajdhani 1169 taka fustaat jaise shaharon mein thee. misra key baad, fatimid taba taka aspas key kshetron koo jeetate rahey jaba taka kii unhone tunisia seey seeriya taka shasson naheen kiya, saath hii sisili taka.
fatimids key tahat, misra ack aise samrajya kaa kendra bunn gayaa jisamen apane charam parr uttari africa, sisili, palestine, jorden, lebnan, seeriya, africa key laal samudra tata, tihama, hejaz aur yaman shamil they. misra falataa-phoolata gayaa aur fatimidon ney bhoomadhyasagariya aur bhaaratiya mahasagar donon mein ack vyaapak vyaapaar network vikasit kiya. unake vyaapaar aur rajanyik sambandhon kaa vistaar chean aur usake geet rajvansh taka huaa, jisane antatah uchch madhya yug key dauran misra kii aarthik disha nirdhaarit kii.
athaarahaven imam, all-mustansir billah key baad, nizaari sampradaay kaa maanana thaa kii unakaa betaa nizaar unakaa uttaradhikari thaa, jabaki ack anya isma shakha jise mustali key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye (jinase davudi bohra antatah utarenge), ney apane dusare bete, all-mustali kaa samarthan kiya. fatimid rajvansh ney all-mustali koo imam aur khalifa donon key roop mein jaari rakhaa, aur vaha sanyukt sthiti 20vein imam, all-ameer bee-ahkami ell-laa (1132) taka rahee. imam ameer kii mrityu parr, mustali dharm kii ack shakha ney daavaa kiya kii usane imam koo apane bete att-tayyab abii-all-kasim koo sthanantarit curr diyaa thaa, joe taba dou saal kaa thaa.
1160 key dashak mein futty raajneetik pranali key kshay key baad, zengi shaasak noor adha-deen ney apane senapati, shirkuh koo 1169 mein vajir shawar seey misra parr kabja curr liya. satta sambhaalane key dou maheene baad shirkuh kii mrityu hoe gaee, aur shasson unake bhatije, saladin key paas chalaa gayaa. isase misra aur seeriya kii ayyub saltanat shuru hui.
dharmayuddh.
8veen shatabdi kii shuruat mein, iberian isai raajyon ney moors seey all-andalus koo phir seey praapt karane key uddeshya seey punarmilan shuru kiya thaa. 1095 mein, pope urban II, isai balon dwara spen mein vijay seey prerit aur purvi roman samrat dwara poorv mein isai dharm kii raksha mein madad karane key liye anurodh kiya gayaa, paschimi europe seey pahale dharmayuddh kaa ahwan kiya gayaa jisane edessa, antioc, tripoli aur jerusalam key county parr kabja curr liya.
dharmyuddhon kii praarambhik avadhi mein, jerusalam kaa isai raajya ubhara aur kuchh samay key liye jerusalam koo niyantrit kiya. agale 90 varshon mein jerusalam aur anya chhote dharm-samarthak raajyon kaa raajya levent kii jatil rajneeti kaa hissa banaa, lekin islami khalifa aur naa hii kshetra kii anya shaktiyon koo khatra naheen thaa. sirkuh ney 1169 mein fatimi shasson koo samaapt karane key baad, ise seeriya key saath ekjut karate hue, dharm-yoddha raajyon koo ack khatare kaa saamana karna padaa, aur unake bhatije saladin ney 1187 mein adhikansh kshetra parr phir seey kabja curr liya, jisase dharm-senaniyon key paas kuchh bandargah reh gaye.
europe kii senaayen teesare dharmayuddh mein jerusalam parr phir seey kabja karane mein whiffle raheen, halanki dharm-samarthak raajya kaee dashakon taka rahey, aur anya dharm-yuddhon kaa paalan kiya. isai punrutthan all-andalus mein jaari rhaa, aur antatah 1492 mein grenada key patan key saath puuraa huaa. dharmayuddh kii nimn avadhi key dauran, chauthe dharmayuddh koo levent seey modd diyaa gayaa aur isake bajaay constantinople koo leey liya gayaa, jisase purvi roman samrajya (abb byzantine samrajya) poorv mein turkey logon key khilaf unake lambe sangharsh mein aur kamjor hoe gayaa. haalaanki, dharmayoddha islami khalifaaon koo nuksan pahunchaane mein kamyab rahey; malmesbury key villium key anusaar, unhein isaijagat mein aur vistaar karane aur mamlukon aur mangolon key lakshya banane seey rokte hue.
ayubid rajvansh.
ayubid rajvansh kii sthaapana saladin ney kii thee aur yeh misra mein kendrit thaa. 1174 mein, saladin ney khud koo sultan ghoshit kiya aur nikat purvi kshetra parr vijay praapt kii. ayubids ney 12veen aur 13veen shatabdi key dauran madhya poorv key adhikansh hisse parr shasson kiya, misra, seeriya, uttari mesopotamia, hejaz, yaman aur uttar african tata koo aadhunik tunisia kii seemaon taka niyantrit kiya. saladin key baad, unake beton ney saltanat parr niyantran kaa chunaav ladaa, lekin saladin key bhaai all-aadil ney antatah 1200 mein khud koo sthaapit kiya. 1230 key dashak mein, seeriya key ayyub shasakon ney misra seey swatantrata hassil karane kaa prayaas kiya aur taba taka vibhajit rahey jaba taka kii misra key sultan salih ayyub ney 1247 taka aleppo koo chhodkar adhikansh seeriya parr kabja karke ayubid ekataa koo bahaal naheen kiya. 1250 mein, misra kshetra mein rajvansh koo gulam resiments dwara ukhaad fenka gayaa thaa. ise thheek karane key kaee prayaas whiffle rahey, jiska netritva aleppo key ack-nasir yousaf ney kiya. 1260 mein, mangolon ney aleppo koo barkhast curr diyaa aur jald hii ayubi kshetron key bache hue kshetron parr niyantran curr liya.
mangol kaal.
mangol aakraman aur vijay.
jabaki all-vaathik (842-847) aur all-muu 'tadid (892-902) key shasankal key baad abbasid khalifa kaa patan huaa, mangol samrajya ney 1258 mein abbasid rajvansh kaa anta curr diyaa. mangol poore madhya asia aur faras mein fail gaye; isfahan kaa farsi shahar 1237 taka unake paas gir gayaa thaa. chingis vansh key ilkhan islam key rakshak honey kaa daavaa karate they, shayed abasid khalifa key uttaradhikari bhee. kuchh soofi musalman lekhak, jaise kii aflaki aur aboo bucker roomi, mangolon kii islami raajyon kii vijay aur muslim shasakon koo unaki sainya aur raajneetik shakti key adheen karane seey anukool roop seey prabhaavit they, unake akramanon aur vistaar koo bhagwan kii or seey ack vaidh divya sajaa key roop mein maanate hue, kyonki eurasian maidan key mangol aur turkey logon koo unake samay key muslim vidvaanon, tapasvi aur muftiyon kii tulanaa mein adhik pavitra maanaa jaataa thaa. iss yug key dauran, farsi soofi kavi aur rahasyavaadi jalaluddin roomi (1207-1273) ney apani utkrisht kriti, "masnavi" likhi, jise way bhagwan seey "neeche bheja" maanate they aur ise kurran ("tafseer") key uchit spashteekaran key roop mein samajhate they.
vibhinn aadhunik vidvaanon key anusaar, adhikansh mangol aur turkey logon ney 10veen aur 14veen shatabdi key beach farsi aur kendriya asiai sanskriti kii madhyasthata key saath-saath soofi musalman bhatakate tapasviyon aur rahasyavadiyon (fakir aur darvesh) key prachaar key madhyam seey islam mein parivartit kiya. turk aur mangol dharm apanaane vaalon koo charam, tapasvi soofiyon aur turkey-mangol shamanon kii prathaon key beach samaantaa millie. turkey aur mangol musalmaanon ney apane swadeshi dharm key tatvon, paaramparik turkey-mangol shamanvaad koo islam key turkey sanshleshan key bheetar shamil kiya, joe iss tarikh taka anya muslim samajon key beach prachalit islami dharm seey kaafee alag haye, aur ack naee islami vyakhya kaa hissa bunn gayaa. haal key varshon mein, swadeshi turkey-mangol shamanvaad aur islam key beach samanvaya key vichaar koo chunauti dee gaee haye. islam key baare mein ack "roodhivaadi" siddhant koo paribhaashit karane yaa lagu karane key adhikaar kii kamee koo dekhate hue, kuchh aadhunik vidvaanon kaa tark haye kii, 16 veen shatabdi seey pahale, islam mein koee nirdhaarit vishvaas naheen thaa, kewal nirdhaarit prathaaen theen. isaliye, poorv-islami aur swadeshi turkey-mangol shamanvaad key kuchh hisson koo ekeshwarwadi islami vishvaas mein ekikrit karna bahut aam thaa aur turkey aur mangol logon key beach vipareet naheen thaa.
haalaanki taalon kii ladaai (752) key dauran shamanwadi prabhaav pahale seey hii they, lekin musalman dharm-pratyarthiyon ney kabhi bhee shamanon kaa ullekh naheen kiya. mahilaaon kii sthiti mein ack badaa badalaav aaya. arab sanskriti key vipareet, turkey-mangol paramparaon ney samaaj mein mahilaaon koo uchch sammaan diyaa. turkey aur mangol logon ney soofi tapasvi aur unaki paaramparik shaman prathaon key beach bhee ullekhaniya samaantaaen paaee hongi. turkey-mangol shamanvaad ney anatolia, madhya asia mein roodhivaadi musalmaanon aur balkanon koo prabhaavit kiya, jinhone ise alevism kaa utpaadan karane key liye sweekaar kiya. parinamswarup, kaee shamnik paramparaon koo vaastavik roop seey islami maanaa jaataa thaa, jisamen pavitra prakriti, pedh, janwar aur videshi prakriti kii aatmaaen jaisi maanyataaen aaj taka vyaapak hain.
13veen seey 14veen shatabdi taka, sunee aur shee donon prathaaen aapas mein judee hui theen, aur aam taur parr sheeaa islam key itihas seey judee aitihaasik hastiyaan, jaise allie ibn abii talib aur jaffar all-saadik (kramshah, pahale aur chhathe sheete imam), ney muslim vishvaasiyon key liye "adrishya" ("all-ghaib") koo samajhane key liye lagbhag saarvbhaumik bhoomika nibhai. sunee, sheeaa aur visham paaramparik islami maanyataon key beach ack tej antar maujood naheen thaa.
islami mangol samrajya.
antatah, ilkhanat, sunhare dall aur chagtai khaanat-chaar pramukh mangol khaanat mein seey teen-ney islam koo apanaaya. seeriya, mesopotamia, faras aur aage poorv mein satta mein, 13 veen shatabdi key baaki hisson mein dheere-dheere sabhi islam mein parivartit hoe gaye. adhikansh ilkhani shasakon koo naee mangol shakti dwara pratisthaapit kiya gayaa thaa, jisaki sthaapana taimur (swayam ack musalman) ney kii thee, jinhone 1360 key dashak mein faras parr vijay praapt kii thee, aur bhaarat mein dilli saltanat aur anatolia mein ottoman turkon key khilaf kadam rakhaa thaa. taimur kii nirantar vijayon key saath krurta key pradarshan kewal chingis khaan key saath mell khaate they, jinake udaaharan taimur ney sachet roop seey anukaran kiya thaa. taimur key samrajya kii mahanagariya rajdhani samarkand unake shasson key tahat pahale kabhi naheen huaa, jabaki iran aur iraq koo badey paimaane parr tabahi kaa saamana karna padaa. madhya poorv abhee bhee kaali maut seey uber rhaa thaa, jisane iss kshetra mein ack tihai aabaadi koo maar daala hoga. plaig chean mein shuru huaa, aur 1347 mein misra mein alekjendar taka pahunch gayaa, joe agale varshon mein adhikansh islami kshetron mein fail gayaa. plaig aur yuddhon key sanyojan ney madhya purvi islami duniya koo gambhir roop seey kamjor sthiti mein chhod diyaa. taimuri rajvansh koo bhaarat key mugalon sahit islam key kaee majboot samrajya mille.
kaalaatit punarjagaran.
madhya asia mein sthit timurid samrajya mein, joe timurid rajvansh dwara shaasit thaa, kalaa aur vigyaan key kshetron mein jabardast vriddhi dekhi gaee, joe purvi aur paschimi donon duniya mein fail gaee.
ullekhaniya thaa tammerlane shatranj kaa aavishkaar, samarkand shahar kaa punarnirmaan, aur sultan shaah rukh key parivaar dwara kiya gayaa paryaapt yogdan, jisamen khagol vigyaan, ganit aur vastukala key kshetron mein gavaar shaad, polymath ulagh begg aur sultan hussain bayakaara shamil hain. samrajya koo kaee islami vidvaanon aur vaigyaanikon seey vyaapak samarthan milaa. kaee islami shikshan kendra aur masjiden banaai gaeen, vishesh roop seey ulug vedhshala.
kahaa jaataa haye kii herat shahar kii samriddhi ney saanskritik punarjanm key kendra key roop mein italvi punarjagaran key janmasthan florence key saath pratispardha kii haye.
timurid punarjagaran key pahaluon koo baad mein mugal samraton dwara mugal bhaarat mein laaya gayaa aur anya shesh islami barud samrajyon kii viraasat key roop mein seva kii gaeeh ottoman turkey aur safavid iran.
mamluk saltanat.
1250 mein, ayubid misra rajvansh koo gulam resiments dwara ukhaad fenka gayaa thaa, aur mamluk saltanat kaa janm huaa thaa. sainya pratishtha mamluk samaaj key kendra mein thee, aur isane levent key mangol akramanon key dauran mangol samrajya key saath takraav mein mahatvapurna bhoomika nibhai.
1260 key dashak mein, mangolon ney purvi kshetron key paas islami kshetron koo nasht curr diyaa aur niyantrit kiya. mangol aakramankariyon koo antatah 1260 mein yerushalam key uttar mein misra key mamlux dwara aina jaalut kii mahatvapurna ladaai mein roque diyaa gayaa thaa. 
mamlux, joe mukhya roop seey turkey, caucasian aur dakshinpurvi europeeya mool key gulam-sanic they (sakaliba dekhein), ayubid rajvansh key antim vinash key baad mangolon koo majboor karke (aina jaalut kii ladaai dekhein) baahar curr diyaa gayaa. mangolon koo phir seey kuchh maheenon baad unaki ladaai mein mamlukon dwara haraaya gayaa, aur phir unhein poori tarah seey seeriya seey baahar nikaal diyaa gayaa. isake saath, mamluk apani senaa koo kendrit karane aur levant mein antim yoddha raajyon koo jeetane mein saksham they. iss prakaar unhone abbasid aur ottoman samrajyon (1250-1517) key beach sabse lambe antaral key liye seeriya aur misra koo ekjut kiya.
mamlukon ney raajneetik sangharsh, sainya tanaav, chhadm yuddhon aur "muslim kshetra" (daar all-islam) aur "gair-muslim kshetra" (daar all-harab) key beach aarthik pratispardha kii nirantar sthiti kaa anubhav kiya. aina jaloot kii ladaai aur marge all-safaar (1303) kii shandar ladaai, joe aanshik roop seey imam ibn taimiyah key netritva mein hui thee, ney levent key mangol akramanon key anta koo chihnit kiya. inn sanghrshon key dauran diye gaye fatave ney raajneetik islam kii disha badal dee. islami roodhivaad key rakshakon key roop mein apani chuni hui bhoomika key hisse key roop mein, mamlukon ney masjidon, madrason aur khankah sahit kaee dhaarmik bhavanon koo praayojit kiya. halanki kuchh nirmaan praanton mein huaa, lekin inn pariyojanaon key vishal hisse ney rajdhani kaa vistaar kiya. carro mein kaee mamluk imaaraten aaj taka jeevit hain, vishesh roop seey puraane carro mein (aage kii jaankaari key liye, mamluk vastukala dekhein).
proto-salafism.
vidvaanon mein, ibn taimiya (1263-1328), jinhone mangolon key sunni dharm mein roopaantaran koo sweekaar naheen kiya, islam kii akhandata key baare mein chintit they aur islam koo isake kathit parivartanon seey shuddh karane key liye ack dhaarmik siddhant sthaapit karane kii koshish kii. samkaaleen vidvata key vipareet, joe praarambhik islam kii paramparaon aur aitihaasik aakhyanon parr nirbhar thee, ibn taimiya kii karyapranali hadis key chayanaatmak upayog aur kurran kii shaabdik samajh kaa mishran thee. unhone islam key liye adhikansh daarshanik drishtikonon koo aswikar curr diyaa aur isake bajaay ack spasht, saral aur hathdharmi dharamshastra kaa prastaav rakhaa. unake dharamshastriya drishtikon kii ack aur pramukh visheshta ney ack ishwarshasit raajya key mahatva parr jore diyaa. jabaki prachalit raay thee kii ack raajya key liye dhaarmik gyaan aavashyak thaa, ibn taimiya ney raajneetik shakti koo dhaarmik utkrishtata key liye aavashyak maanaa. unhone apane samay key dauran musalmaanon key beach prasaarit kaee hadison koo aswikar curr diyaa aur ashaariya siddhant kaa khandan karane key liye baar-baar kewal "sahee bukhari" aur "sahee musalman" parr bharosa kiya. dharmayoddhaon aur mangolon dwara khatare mein mahsoos karate hue, ibn taimiya ney kahaa kii musalmaanon key liye gair-musalmaanon key khilaf shaaririk jihad mein shamil honah anivarya hoga. isamen naa kewal aakramankari shamil they, balki shiya, ashrite aur daarshnikon sahit musalmaanon key beach "vidharmiyon" koo bhee shamil kiya gayaa, jinhen ibn taimiya ney islam key bigadane key liye doshi thaharaaya. phir bhee, unake lekhan ney unake jivankal key dauran kewal ack mamuli bhoomika nibhai. maanav-devta devta dwara una parr baar-baar ishninda kaa aarop lagaaya gayaa thaa, aur unake shishya ibn katheer ney khud koo apane guru seey door curr liya aur apani shikshaon key usa pahalu koo nakaar diyaa. phir bhee, ibn taimiya key kuchh shikshan ney shayed ibn katheer kii karyapranali koo unake tafseer mein vyakhya parr prabhaavit kiya, jisane taba seey bahut adhik vyakhya parampara koo cumm curr diyaa. ibn taimiya aur ibn katheer key lekhan wahabiwad aur 21veen sadee key salafi dharamshastra key liye mahatvapurna srot bunn gaye.
all-andalus.
arabon ney, barbar general taarik ibn ziyaad kii kamaan mein, pahali baar 711 mein dakshini spen yaa all-andalus parr apani vijay shuru kii. taarik key netritva mein ack hamla karane vaale dall koo unake spen mein vizigothic raajya mein ack grih yuddh mein hastakshep karane key liye bheja gayaa thaa. gibralter kii jaldamroomadhya (general key naam parr) koo paar karate hue, isane 711 kii garmiyon mein ack nirnaayak jeet hassil kii jaba 19 julaai koo gwadalte kii ladaai mein vijigothik raajaa rhoderic koo haraaya gayaa aur maar diyaa gayaa. taarik key commander, moosa binn nusair ney paryaapt sudridhikaran key saath paar kiya, aur 718 taka praaydweep key adhikansh hisson mein musalmaanon kaa varchasva thaa. kuchh baad key arabi aur isai srot 710 mein ack nishchit tarif dwara pahale kii chhapemari prastut karate hain aur "alphonso III key itihas" kaa aid sebastianum recantion, wamba (672-80) key shasankal key dauran ervig dwara uksaayaa gayaa ack arab hamla haye. nirnaayak ladaai ladane seey pahale dou badee senaayen dakshin mein ack saal seey hoe sakati hain.
all-pundlus key shasakon koo damascus mein umayyad khalifa all-valeed pratham dwara ameer kaa pada diyaa gayaa thaa. abbasi satta mein aaney key baad, kuchh umayyad khud koo sthaapit karane key liye musalman spen bhaag gaye. 10veen shatabdi key anta taka, shaasak abd all-rahman III ney "cordoba key khalifa" (912-961) kii upaadhi leey lii. isake turant baad, umayyad apani rajdhani cordoba key saath ack majboot raajya vikasit karane lagey. all-hakam dwiteeya 961 mein apane pitaa abd arr-rahman III kii mrityu key baad khalifa banane mein safal rahey. unhone uttari iberia key isai raajyon key saath shaanti hassil kii, aur sinchai karyon key nirmaan key madhyam seey krishi koo vikasit karane key liye sthirata kaa upayog kiya. sadakon koo chauda karane aur baajaron key nirmaan key madhyam seey aarthik vikas koo bhee protsaahit kiya gayaa. khalifa key shasson koo praaydweep mein muslim upasthiti key sunhare dinn key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye.
1031 mein hitcham dwiteeya key shasson key dauran raajneetik vibhajan aur nagrik ashanti key kaaran umayyad khalifa kaa patan hoe gayaa, jise usaki shithilata key kaaran bedkhal curr diyaa gayaa thaa. all-andalus taba kaee raajyon mein toot gayaa jinhen "taifa raajya" (arabi, "muluk all-taavaa"; angreji, chhote raajya) kahaa jaataa haye. una chhote raajyon mein khalifa key vighatan ney uttar key isai raajyon key saath-saath iberian praaydweep mein musalmaanon koo kamjor curr diyaa. seville jaise kuchh "taifa" koo isai rajkumaron key saath gathbandhan karane aur castill koo paise mein shraddhanjali dene key liye majboor kiya gayaa thaa.
all-andalus key ameer.
abd all-rahman pratham aur bedar (ack poorv yunani gulam) abbasid kranti key roop mein jaane jaane vaale lokpriya vidroh key baad apane jeevan key saath bhaag gaye. rahman pratham dakshin mein palestine, sinai aur phir misra mein jaari rhaa. rahman aaee iss samay ifricia kii khatarnak yatra karane vaale kaee jeevit umayyad parivaar key sadasyon mein seey ack they. rahman aaee aur bedder seuta key paas aadhunik morakko pahunche. agala kadam samudra koo paar karke all-pundlus jaanaa hoga, jahan rahman main nishchit naheen hoe sakata thaa kii uska swaagat kiya jaayega yaa naheen. berber vidroh (740 key dashak) key baad, praant bhram kii sthiti mein thaa, jisamen arabon key beach adiwasi matbhed aur arabon aur barbaron key beach nasleeya tanaav key kaaran umma toot gayaa thaa. bedar ney teen siriyai commanders koo kataar mein khadaa kiya-obed allah ibn uthman aur abd allah ibn khalid, donon mool roop seey damishk key, aur qinsin key yousaf ibn bukht ney apani sahamati praapt karane key liye all-sumayal (taba zaragoza mein) seey sampark kiya, lekin all-sumail ney incar curr diyaa, iss darr seey kii rahman main khud koo ameer banaane kii koshish karega. yaman key commanders key saath charcha key baad, rahman pratham koo all-pundlus jaane key liye kahaa gayaa. isake turant baad, vaha bedder aur anuyaayiyon key ack chhote samooh key saath europe key liye ravaana hoe gaye. abd all-rahman malaga key poorv mein all-andalus mein almunekar mein utaraa.
malaga mein apane sankshipt samay key dauran, unhone jaldi seey sthaaniya samarthan praapt kiya. rajkumar key aagaman kii khabar poore praaydweep mein fail gaee. satta mein apane aarohan koo gati dene mein madad karane key liye, unhone jhagadon aur matbhedon kaa laabh uthaaya. haalaanki, isase pahale kii kuchh bhee kiya jaa sakey, uttari all-andalus mein pareshani shuru hoe gaee. abd all-rahman aur unake anuyaayi zaragoza koo niyantrit karane mein saksham they. rahman pratham ney musara (musara kii ladaai) key maidanon mein cordoba key thheek baahar, gwadalquivir nadee mein ack ladaai mein all-pundlus parr shasson karane key liye ladaai ladee. rahman pratham vijayi thaa, apani senaa key kuchh hisson key saath maidan seey apane dushmanon kaa peechha curr rhaa thaa. rahman pratham ney rajdhani, cordoba mein ack jawabi hamale seey ladate hue march kiya, lekin baatchit ney takraav koo samaapt curr diyaa. rahman pratham key samekit shakti key baad, unhone khud koo all-pandalas ameer ghoshit kiya. halanki, rahman ney musalman khalifa kaa daavaa naheen kiya. antim kadam all-fihri key senapati, all-sumayal koo cordoba kii jail mein kaid karna thaa. all-undless umayya key ghar key liye ack surakshit aashray thaa joe abbaseed seey bachane mein kamyab rhaa.
baghdad mein, abbasid khalifa all-mansur ney ameer koo padchyut karane kii yojana banaai thee. rahman pratham aur usaki senaa ney abbasiyon kaa saamana kiya, jisamen adhikansh abbasid senaa maare gaye. mukhya abbasi netaaon kaa sir kaat diyaa gayaa thaa, unake sir namak mein sanrakshit they, unake kaanon mein pehchaan key tagg lagaae gaye they. siron koo ack bheeshan package mein rakhaa gayaa aur makka mein tirthayatra parr gaye abbasid khalifa key paas bheja gayaa. rahman pratham ney all-pundlus mein baar-baar vidrohon koo shaant kiya. unhone mahaan masjid [cordova] kaa nirmaan shuru kiya, aur tata key saath jahaaj-yard banaae; isake alawa kahaa jaataa haye kii way spen kii anukool jalavaayu mein taad aur anaar koo pratyaaropit karane vaale pahale vyakti theh aur unhone apane raajyon mein vigyaan aur saahitya koo protsaahit kiya. chauntis saal aur ack maheene key shasankal key baad 29 sitambar 788 koo unaki mrityu hoe gaee.
rahman aaee kaa uttaradhikari unakaa betaa hisham aaee thaa. cordoba mein janme, unhone kaee masjidon kaa nirmaan kiya aur mezquita koo puuraa kiya. unhone ack jihad kaa ahwan kiya jisake parinamswarup asturias key raajya aur tolus key county key khilaf ack abhiyaan chalaaya gayaa; iss dusare abhiyaan mein unhein orange mein villium off gelon dwara haraaya gayaa, joe charlemen key pahale chachere bhaai they. unake uttaradhikari all-hakam I satta mein aae aur unake chaachaon, rahman I key anya beton dwara unhein chunauti dee gaee. ack, abdullah, sahaayata key liye baatchit karane key liye aiks-laa-chappel mein charlemen key darbar mein gayaa. iss beach cordoba parr hamla kiya gayaa, lekin uska bachaav kiya gayaa. hakam I ney apane shasankal kaa adhikansh samay toldo, saragosa aur merida mein vidrohiyon koo dabaane mein bitaaya.
abd arr-rahman dwiteeya apane pitaa key uttaradhikari baney aur asturias key alphonso dwiteeya key khilaf lagbhag nirantar yuddh mein lagey rahey, jisaki dakshin kii or pragati koo unhone roque diyaa. rahman dwiteeya ney wikings dwara kiye gaye hamale koo peechhe chhod diyaa, jinhone cadies mein utarkar seville (isake gadh koo chhodkar) parr vijay praapt kii aur cordoba parr hamla kiya. isake baad unhone bhavishya key chhaapon koo peechhe hataane key liye seville mein ack bede aur nausena shastragar kaa nirmaan kiya. unhone charles dha balled key namankan key khilaf apane sangharsh mein sahaayata key liye septimania key villium key anurodhon kaa jawab diyaa.
muhammad pratham key shasankal mein muwalad (jaatiya iberian musalman) aur mojrab (muslim-iberia isai) key andolanon ney chihnit kiya thaa. muhammad pratham key baad unake putra mundhir pratham ney padbhar sambhala. apane pitaa key shasankal key dauran, mundhir pratham ney padosi isai raajyon aur muwalad vidrohiyon key khilaf sainya abhiyaanon kii kamaan sambhali. apane pitaa kii mrityu parr, unhein simhaasan viraasat mein milaa. apane dou saal key shasankal key dauran, mundhir pratham ney umar ibn hafsun key khilaf ladaai ladee. 888 mein bobastro mein unaki mrityu hoe gaee, unake baad unake bhaai abdullah ibn muhammad all-umaavi ney padbhar sambhala.
umaavi ney una logon koo nipataane key liye koee anichha naheen dikhaai jinhen vaha ack khatare key roop mein dekhate they. unaki sarkaar mein arabon, barbaron aur muwalad key beach lagaatar yuddh hotey rahey. ameer key roop mein unaki shakti cordoba key kshetra taka seemit thee, jabaki baaki koo vidrohi parivaaron dwara jabt curr liya gayaa thaa. jiss bete koo usane uttaradhikari key roop mein naamit kiya thaa, usey umaavi key bhaaiyon mein seey ack ney maar daala thaa. baad vaale koo umaavi key pitaa dwara maar diyaa gayaa thaa, jinhone umaavi key maare gaye bete key bete, abd arr-rahman III koo uttaradhikari key roop mein naamit kiya thaa.
africa mein islam.
uttar africa kii umayyad vijay ney 632 mein muhammad kii mrityu key baad teji seey muslim sainya vistaar kii shatabdi jaari rakhee. 640 taka arabon ney mesopotamia parr aakraman curr diyaa thaa, aur zantaain seeriya parr apani vijay kaa samaapan curr rahey they. damascus umayyad khalifa kaa kendra thaa. 641 key anta taka puuraa misra arab key haathon mein thaa. halanki makuria key nubian raajya koo jeetane key baad key prayaas koo peechhe hataa diyaa gayaa thaa.
magreb.
tunisia mein caroan, musalman dwara magreb mein sthaapit pahala shahar thaa. arab general ukba ibn naafi ney shahar (670 mein) kaa nirmaan kiya aur usee samay, caroan kii mahaan masjid koo paschimi islami duniya mein sabse purana aur sabse pratishthit abhayaranya maanaa jaataa haye.
islami kshetra key iss hisse mein adhikansh islami itihas key dauran swatantra sarkaaren rahee hain. idrisid paschimi maghreb (morakko) mein pahale arab shaasak they, jinhone 788 seey 985 taka shasson kiya. rajvansh kaa naam isake pahale sultan idris key naam parr rakhaa gayaa haye.
11veen shatabdi key dauran uttar-paschimi africa aur iberian praaydweep key ack vistrit kshetra mein phalane-phoolane vaalaa almoravid rajvansh, sahaara kaa ack berber rajvansh thaa. iss rajvansh key tahat moorish samrajya kaa vistaar vartamaan morakko, paschimi sahaara, mauritania, gibralter, telman (algeria mein) aur dakshin mein abb senegal aur maali kaa ack hissa, aur uttar mein spen aur portugal mein kiya gayaa thaa.
almohad rajvansh yaa "ektaavaadi", ack berber muslim dhaarmik shakti thee jisane 12veen shatabdi mein paanchven moorish rajvansh kii sthaapana kii, aur all-andalus key saath misra taka key sabhi uttari africa parr vijay praapt kii.
africa kaa horn.
africa key seeng mein islam kaa itihas lagbhag utanaa hii purana haye jitna kii vishvaas. laal samudra key doosari or, arab praaydweep mein apane parivartit muslim vyaparik bhagidaron key saath vyaapak vyaapaar aur samajik baatchit key madhyam seey, seeng kshetra mein vyaapaari aur navik dheere-dheere nae dharm key prabhaav mein aaa gaye.
praarambhik islami shishya aksum key samrat key darbar mein quraish seey suraksha praapt karane key liye aadhunik uttari somalia mein zelaa key bandargah shahar mein bhaag gaye. kahaa jaataa haye kii kuchh musalman jinhen suraksha dee gaee thee, way dharm koo badhaava dene key liye horn kshetra key kaee hisson mein buss gaye they. 7veen shatabdi mein quraish parr musalmaanon kii jeet kaa sthaaniya vyapariyon aur naavikon parr mahatvapurna prabhaav padaa, kyonki arab mein unake vyaparik bhagidaron ney taba taka sabhi islam koo apana liya thaa, aur bhoomadhyasagariya aur laal samudra mein pramukh vyaparik maarg muslim khalifa key prabhaav mein aaa gaye they. arab praaydweep mein asthirta ney praarambhik muslim parivaaron key aage somali samudra tata parr pravaas koo dekhaa. yeye kull utprerak key roop mein kaam karane key liye aae, vishvaas koo seeng kshetra key badey hisson mein aage badhaaya.
badee jheelen.
islam dakshin purvi africa key mahaan jheelon key kshetra mein maujooda vyaapaar maargon key saath aaya. unhone unase musalmaanon key shishtachar koo seekha aur isase musalman arabon ney unakaa dharm parivartan kiya.
sthaaniya islami sarkaaren tanzania (taba zaanzeebaar) mein kendrit theen. zayed" key loga musalman they joe mahaan jheelon key kshetra mein pravaas curr gaye they. poorv-aupaniveshik kaal mein, yahaan islami adhikaar kii sanrachana "ulema" (swahili bhasha mein "vanavyonis") key madhyam seey rakhee gaee thee. kshetriya seemaon kii sthaapana seey pahale inn netaaon key paas dakshin poorv africa mein adhikansh musalmaanon parr kuchh hudd taka adhikaar thaa. vahaan key pramukh kaadi koo antim dhaarmik adhikaar key liye maanyata dee gaee thee.
purvi asia mein islam.
bhaaratiya upmahadweep.
bhaaratiya upmahadweep mein, islam pahali baar praaydweep key dakshin-paschimi chhor parr, aaj key keral raajya mein dikhaai diyaa. muhammad key janm seey pahale hii arabon ney malabar key saath vyaapaar kiya thaa. deshi kinvadantiyon kaa kahana haye kii malik ibn deenar key netritva mein sahabon kaa ack samooh malabar tata parr aaya aur islam kaa prachaar kiya. usa kinvadanti key anusaar, bhaarat kii pahali masjid kaa nirmaan dusare cheraa raajaa cheraman perumal ney kiya thaa, jinhone islam sweekaar kiya aur "tajuddin" naam praapt kiya. aitihaasik abhilekhon seey pataa chalata haye kii cheraman perumal masjid lagbhag 629 mein banaai gaee thee.
islami shasson pahali baar 8veen shatabdi mein bhaaratiya upmahadweep mein aaya, jaba muhammad binn kasim ney sindh parr vijay praapt kii, halanki yeh bhaaratiya kshetra kaa ack alpakaalik samekan thaa. 12veen shatabdi esvi mein ghazni key mahmoud key tahat islami vijayon kaa vistaar huaa, jisake parinamswarup sindhu nadee besin mein ghaznavi samrajya kii sthaapana hui aur baad mein lahaur koo ghaznavi sanskriti aur shasson key purvi gadh key roop mein pramukhta millie. ghaznavi shasson koo muhammad off ghor aur giath all-deen muhammad key ghuri samrajya dwara grahan kiya gayaa thaa, jiska kshetra muhammad binn bakhtiyar khalji kii vijay key tahat bangal taka vistaarit thaa, jahan bhaaratiya islami missionaryon ney daavaa aur islam mein parivartit honey vaalon kii sankhya key mamle mein apani sabse badee safalata hassil kii. qutub-uda-deen ayabak ney 1206 mein dilli parr vijay praapt kii aur dilli saltanat key shasankal kii shuruat kii, rajvanshon kii ack kramik shrinkhala jisane africa aur eurasia key vyaapak vaanijyik aur saanskritik network key saath bhaaratiya sabhyata koo sanshleshit kiya, bhaarat mein jansankhyikiya aur aarthik vikas mein bahut vriddhi kii aur samriddh indo-gangetic maidan mein mangol aakraman koo rokaa aur kuchh mahila muslim shasakon mein seey ack, raziyaa sultan koo simhaasan parr bithaaya.
kaee pramukh saltanaton aur amiraaton ney 13veen seey 16veen shatabdi taka bhaaratiya upmahadweep key vibhinn kshetron koo prashaasit kiya, jaise kii qutub shaahi, gujaraat, kashmir, bangal, bijapur aur bahmani saltanat, lekin kissy ney bhee mugal samrajya kii shakti aur vyaapak pahunch koo apane charam parr naheen pahunchaaya. vishesh roop seey bangal saltanat duniya kaa ack pramukh vaishvik vyaparik rashtra thaa, jise europeeya logon dwara "vyaapaar karane key liye sabse ameer desh" key roop mein varnit kiya gayaa thaa, jabaki shaah meer rajvansh ney kashmiriyon key dheere-dheere islam mein parivartan koo sunishchit kiya.
islami prashaasan aur iran aur madhya asia seey sainikon, naukarshahon, vyapariyon, soofiyon, kalakaron, kaviyon, shikshakon aur vastukaron key aapravaasan key kaaran farsi sanskriti, kalaa, bhasha, vyanjan aur saahitya bhaarat mein pramukhta seey badhe, jisake parinamswarup indo-farsi sanskriti kaa praarambhik vikas huaa.
dakshin-poorv asia.
islam pahali baar 7veen shatabdi mein makka seey vyapariyon key madhyam seey samudri dakshin poorv asia taka pahuncha, vishesh roop seey paschimi bhaag key madhyam seey joe abb indoneshiya haye. yaman key arab vyapariyon kii pahale seey hii asia mein vyaapaar aur samudra dwara yatra key madhyam seey upasthiti thee, joe europe aur africa seey aaney-jaane vaale madhyasth vyapariyon key roop mein seva karate they. way naa kewal arab key saman kaa vyaapaar karate they, balki africa, bhaarat aur isi tarah key saamanon kaa bhee vyaapaar karate they, jisamen hathidant, sugandh, masaale aur sonaa shamil they.
tii key anusaar. doubleu. islami calender kii doosari shatabdi taka, arab vyaapaari aadhunik srilanka key sealon key nivaasiyon key saath vyaapaar curr rahey they. yahee tark dow. ney bataaya haye. bee.aich. berger aur dow. shree. sejjarah aconomis sociologis indoneshiya" (indoneshiya key samajik aarthik kaa itihas) mein prajudi. bhoogolvetta all-biruni (973-1048) dwara banaae gaye ack atlus key anusaar, bhaaratiya yaa indoneshiyai mahasagar koo farsi mahasagar kahaa jaataa thaa. paschimi samrajyavadi shasson key baad, iss naam koo aaj upayog kiye jaane vaale naam koo pratibimbit karane key liye badal diyaa gayaa thaa; bhaaratiya mahasagar.
jald hii, kaee soofi missionaryon ney shaastriya soofi saahitya kaa arabi aur farsi seey malay mein anuvaad kiya; iska ack thhos utpaad jaavi lipi haye. malay mein mool islami saahitya kii rachana key saath, isane malay koo ack islami bhasha mein badalane kaa maarg prashast kiya. 1292 taka, jaba marco polo ney sumatra kaa daura kiya, tou adhikansh nivaasiyon ney islam mein dharmaantaran curr liya thaa. malakka kii saltanat kii sthaapana malay praaydweep parr ack srivijaya rajkumar parameshwar dwara kii gaee thee.
vyaapaar aur vanijya key madhyam seey, islam phir bornio aur jaava mein fail gayaa. 15veen shatabdi key anta taka, mindanao key dakshini dweep key madhyam seey phillippeans mein islam kii shuruat hui thee. isake parinamswarup sabse pramukh samajik-saanskritik muslim sansthaaen sulu kii saltanat aur maguindanao kii saltanat hain; uttari luzon dweep mein islamikrit raajya, jaise kii mayanila kaa raajya aur tondo kaa raajya, baad mein 16 veen shatabdi kii shuruat mein spanish upaniveshvadiyon dwara dweepsamuh key adhikansh hisson key saath jeetaa gayaa aur isaikrit kiya gayaa.
jaise-jaise islam failata gayaa, vyaktigat dharmaantaran seey samajik parivartan vikasit hue, aur paanch shataabdiyon baad yeh kshetra mein ack pramukh saanskritik aur raajneetik shakti key roop mein ubhara. teen mukhya muslim raajneetik shaktiyaan ubhari. aiss saltanat sabse mahatvapurna thee, joe uttari sumatra mein apane kendra seey dakshin poorv asia aur bhaarat key beach key adhikansh kshetra koo niyantrit karati thee. saltanat ney soofi kaviyon koo bhee aakarshit kiya. doosari muslim shakti malay praaydweep parr malakka kii saltanat thee. jaava parr demak kii saltanat teesari shakti thee, jahan ubharate hue muslim balon ney 16veen shatabdi kii shuruat mein sthaaniya majapahit raajya koo haraaya thaa. haalaanki saltanat kuchh hudd taka apane kshetra kaa vistaar karane mein kamyab rahee, lekin iska shasson sankshipt rhaa.
purtagaali balon ney 1511 mein nausena key general afonso dee albuquerq key tahat malakka parr kabja curr liya. malakka key vash mein honey key saath, aiss saltanat aur brunei samrajya ney dakshin poorv asia mein islam key kendron key roop mein khud koo sthaapit kiya. saltanat kaa kshetra, halanki bahut cumm hoe gayaa haye, aaj bhee brunei darussalam key aadhunik raajya key roop mein barkarar haye.
chean.
chean mein, chaar sahabon (saad ibn abii vakas, wahab aboo kabcha, jaffar ibn aboo talib aur jaahash ibn riyab) ney 616/17 mein upadesh diyaa aur 615/16 mein abyssinia seey naukaayan karane key baad chittagong-kaamroop-manipur maarg kaa anusaran karane key baad. 636 mein persia parr vijay praapt karane key baad, saad ibn abii vakas saeed ibn zaid, cases ibn saad aur hassan ibn thaabit key saath 637 mein poorna kurran lete hue chean gaye. khalifa uthman dwara chean mein ack dutawas kaa netritva karane key liye kahey jaane key baad saad ibn abii vakas teesari baar chean key liye ravaana hue, jise cheeni samrat ney praapt kiya.
praarambhik aadhunik kaal.
15veen aur 16veen shatabdi mein teen pramukh muslim samrajyon kaa gathan huaah anatolia, balcon, madhya poorv aur uttar africa mein ottoman samrajya; adhik seey adhik iran mein safavid samrajya; aur dakshin asia mein mugal samrajya. inn shaahi shaktiyon koo barud kii khoj aur dohan aur adhik kushal prashaasan dwara sambhav banaaya gayaa thaa.
ottoman samrajya.
ottoman itihaslekhan key anusaar, ack shaasak kii vaidhata kaa shreya sheikh adably koo diyaa jaataa haye, jinhone usman gaazi key sapane koo apane shasankal kii bhagwan kii vaidhata key roop mein vyakhya kii thee. 1362 mein murad pratham kii edirne kii vijay key baad seey, samrajya key turkey sultaanon dwara khalifa parr daavaa kiya gayaa thaa. ottoman vikas kii avadhi key dauran, khalifal pradhikaran parr daavon koo 1517 mein maanyata dee gaee thee kyonki saleem I muslim bhoomi parr vijay aur ekikaran key madhyam seey makka aur madina mein "dou pavitra masjidon kaa sanrakshak" bunn gayaa thaa, jisase muslim duniya mein khalifa key liye unake daave koo majbooti millie thee.
13veen shatabdi key uttaraardh mein, anatolia parr mangol aakraman key baad, seljuk turkon mein girawat aaee. isake parinamswarup kaee turkey riyasaton kii sthaapana hui, jinhen bailix key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye. ottoman rajvansh key sansthaapak usman pratham ney 13veen shatabdi key anta mein apane pitaa ertugrul key baad inn riyasaton (sott) mein seey ack kaa netritva grahan kiya. usman pratham ney baad mein byzantine samrajya key saath kaee ladaaiyon mein iska netritva kiya. 1331 taka, ottoman turkon ney osman key bete aur uttaradhikari, orhan aaee key netritva mein, poorv byzantine rajdhani, nikea parr kabja curr liya thaa. 1389 mein serbian samrajya key khilaf kosovo kii ladaai mein jeet ney europe mein unake vistaar koo sugam banaaya. ottomans koo usee varsh satta mein aaney taka balcon aur anatolia mein sthaapit kiya gayaa thaa, abb ack badhate samrajya key sheersh parr.
jaba mangol sardar taimur (jise "temerlane" key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye) ney 1402 mein ankara kii ladaai mein bayezeed I parr kabja curr liya, tou ottoman intergrenum kii shuruat hui. iss prakaran kii visheshta thee kii ottoman kshetra kaa vibhajan bayezid key beton key beach huaa, jinhone timurid pradhikaran key samaksh samarpan kiya. jaba kaee ottoman kshetron ney swatantra sthiti hassil kii, tou samrajya key liye vinash kii sthiti paida hoe gaee. haalaanki, samrajya ney apane shaasak bhaaiyon key khilaf aakramak abhiyaan chalaaya, jisase asia minor kaa punarmilan huaa aur 1413 mein khud koo sultan ghoshit kiya. 1512 key aspas ottoman nausena kaa bedaa selim aaee key shasson key tahat vikasit huaa, jisase ottoman turk venis ganarajya koo chunauti dene mein saksham they, ack nausena shakti jisane bhoomadhya kshetra parr anya italvi samudri ganrajyon key saath apane thalasocracy kii sthaapana kii. unhone balcon koo phir seey jeetane kaa bhee prayaas kiya. mehmed aaee key potey, mehmed II (shaasit 1444-1446; 1451-1481) key samay taka, ottoman loga byzantium kii rajdhani constantinople kii gherabandi curr sakate they. iss gherabandi kaa ack kaaran ottomans dwara pesh kiye gaye bandookon aur badee topon kaa upayog thaa. 54 dinon kii gherabandi key baad 1453 mein byzantine kille ney dumm toda diyaa. apani rajdhani key binaa byzantine samrajya vighatit hoe gayaa. ottoman aur baad key samrajyon kii bhavishya kii safalataaen barud key dohan parr nirbhar karengi.
16veen shatabdi kii shuruat mein, shiya safavid rajvansh ney 1501 mein sattaaroodh turkman sangh aka kwonlu (jise "safed bhed turkman" bhee kahaa jaataa haye) koo harakar shaah ismel I key netritva mein faras mein niyantran praapt kiya. ottoman sultan selim I ney 1514 mein kaldiran kii ladaai mein unhein chunauti dete hue aur haraate hue safavid vistaar koo peechhe hataane kii koshish kii. selim I ney misra mein sattaaroodh mamlukon koo bhee padchyut curr diyaa, 1517 mein apane kshetron koo avashoshit curr liya. suleiman I (upnaam "suleiman shandar"), selim I key uttaradhikari ney purvi seema parr ujbekon key liye safavid dhyaan key modd kaa laabh uthaaya aur baghdad koo phir seey kabja curr liya, joe safavid niyantran mein aaa gayaa thaa. isake bavjood, safavid shakti paryaapt bunny rahee, joe ottomans seey pratidvandi thee. suleiman pratham 1526 mein mohak kii ladaai key baad hangri mein gaharaai seey aage badhaa-usake baad vienna key dwaar taka pahuncha, aur 10 saal baad pavitra roman samrajya key charles banaam key khilaf france key francis pratham key saath ack franco-ottoman gathbandhan parr hastakshar kiye. jabaki suleiman pratham key shasson (1520-1566) koo aksar ottoman shakti key sheersh key roop mein pahachaana jaataa haye, 18 veen shatabdi key uttaraardh mein apani sainya shakti mein saapeksh girawat taka samrajya shaktishali aur prabhaavshaali banaa rhaa.
safavid samrajya.
1501 mein tabriz mein sheete safaavid rajvansh satta mein aaya aur baad mein baaki iran parr vijay praapt kii. way mishrit vansh key they, mool roop seey kurdish, lekin unake shasson key dauran turk, georgia, circussian aur pontic yoonaniyon key saath antar-vivaahit they. safavid rajvansh kii utpatti sufivaad key safavid crum mein hui thee, jabaki irani aabaadi kaafee hudd taka sunni musalmaanon dwara banaai gaee thee. kaldiran kii ladaai mein sunni ottomans key haathon unaki haar key baad, unake peechhe key faarsiyon koo ekjut karane key liye, shaah ismel ney iran kii badee sankhya mein sunni aabaadi key liye shiya islam key dou sampradayon mein dharmaantaran anivarya curr diyaa taaki vaha unhein sunni ottomans key khilaf ladane key liye praapt curr sakey.
isake parinamswarup iran kaa safavid roop seey shiya islam mein roopaantaran huaa. irani zaydi, joe safaavid shasson seey pahale shiya musalmaanon mein sabse badaa samooh thaa, koo bhee shiya islam key dou sampradayon mein parivartit honey key liye majboor kiya gayaa thaa. usa samay key jayadiyon ney bhee, jaisa kii adhikansh sunni ney kiya thaa, hanafi nyayshastra koo apanaaya aur unake beach achche sambandh they. aboo hanifah aur zayed ibn allie bhee bahut achche dost they. azerbaijan key safavid rajvansh ney 1501 seey 1736 taka shasson kiya; unhone safavid iran key aadhikarik dharm key roop mein twelver sheem kii sthaapana kii aur isake praanton koo ack samprabhuta key tahat ekjut kiya, jisase farsi pehchaan parr shasson huaa.
1524 mein, tehmasp ney simhaasan parr baith curr kalaa key punrutthan kii shuruat kii. kaaleen banaana ack pramukh udyog bunn gayaa. pandulipiyon mein farsi laghu chitrakaari kii parampara apane charam parr pahunch gaee, jaba taka kii madhya yug mein tahmasp sakht dhaarmik paalan kii or muda gayaa, sharaab aur hashish key sevan koo pratibandhit kiya aur casino, saraay aur veshyalayon koo hataa diyaa. tehmasp key bhatije ibrahim mirja ney unaki hatyaa honey taka kalaa key antim foolon koo sanrakshan denaa jaari rakhaa, jisake baad mugal rajvansh dwara kaee kalakaron kii bharti kii gaee.
tehmasp key potey, shaah abbas pratham ney mashahad mein aathven twelver sheete imam, allie all-ridha key mandir koo bahaal kiya aur ardabil mein rajvansh key mandir koo bahaal kiya. donon mandiron koo gahane, badhiya paandulipiyaan aur cheeni cheeni mitty key bartan praapt hue. abbas ney rajdhani koo isfahan mein sthanantarit curr diyaa, puraane bandargaahon koo punarjeevit kiya aur europeeya logon key saath sampann vyaapaar sthaapit kiya. abbas kii sabse adhik dikhaai dene vaali saanskritik uplabdhiyon mein "naksh-aeye-jahan chauk" ("duniya kaa design") kaa nirmaan thaa. shukravaar kii masjid key paas sthit plaza koo dhaka diyaa gayaa. safavid rajvansh koo 1722 mein hotki rajvansh dwara ukhaad fenka gayaa thaa, jisane unake sunani kshetron koo balpurvak dohare sheem mein parivartit curr diyaa thaa.
mugal samrajya.
mugal samrajya ack aisee shakti thee jisamen lagbhag sabhi dakshin asia shamil they, jisaki sthaapana 1526 mein hui thee. isaki sthaapana aur shasson timuri rajvansh dwara kiya gayaa thaa, jisamen madhya asia seey turkey-mangol chagtai kii jadein theen, joe donon change khaan (unake bete chagtai khaan key madhyam seey) aur timur seey seedhe vansh kaa daavaa karati theen, aur vivaah gathbandhan key madhyam seey mahatvapurna bhaaratiya rajput aur farsi vansh key saath; pahale dou mugal samraton key maataa-pitaa donon kendriya asiai vansh key they, jabaki kramik samrat mukhya roop seey rajput aur farsi vansh key they. rajvansh sanskriti mein bhaaratiya-farsi thaa, joe apani darbari sanskriti aur prashaasnik reeti-rivaajon mein dikhaai dene vaale sthaaniya bhaaratiya saanskritik prabhaavon key saath farsi sanskriti kaa sanyojan kartaa thaa.
samrajya kii shuruat paaramparik roop seey panipat kii pahali ladaai (1526) mein dilli saltanat key antim shaasak ibrahim lodi parr isake sansthaapak baabar kii jeet key samay kii haye. baabar key uttaradhikari humaayun key shasankal key dauran, shher shaah suurii dwara sthaapit sur samrajya ney samrajya koo kuchh samay key liye baadhit curr diyaa, jinhone uttari bhaaratiya upmahadweep mein bhavya trunk road koo phir seey sthaapit kiya, rupaye kii mudra pranali kii shuruat kii aur mugal shasson key prabhaavi prashaasan kii neenv vikasit kii. mugal samrajya kaa "classic kaal" 1556 mein akbar key simhaasan parr baithane key saath shuru huaa. kuchh rajput raajyon ney uttar-paschimi bhaarat key mugal prabhutva key liye ack mahatvapurna khatra jaari rakhaa, lekin unamen seey adhikansh akbar dwara vash mein curr liye gaye. sabhi mugal samrat musalman they; haalaanki, akbar ney apane jeevan key uttaraardh mein deen-aeye-ilahi naamak ack samanvaya dharm kaa prastaav rakhaa, jaisa kii "aina-aeye-akbari" aur "dabistan-aeye-mazaahib" jaisi aitihaasik pustakon mein darj haye. mugal samrajya ney apane adhikansh astitva key dauran mool samajon mein hastakshep karane kii koshish naheen kii, balki unhein samanvayaatmak prashaasnik prathaon aur ack samanvayaatmak, samaveshi shaasak abhijaat varg key madhyam seey saha-chayan aur shaant karane kii koshish kii, jisase adhik vyavasthit, kendrikrit aur samaan shasson huaa. uttari aur paschimi bhaarat mein paaramparik aur nae susangat samajik samoohon, jaise kii maratha, rajput, pashtoon, hindu jaat aur sikhon ney mugal shasson key dauran sainya aur shaasi mahatvaakaankshaaen praapt keen, joe sahyog yaa pratikoolata key madhyam seey unhein maanyata aur sainya anubhav donon detee theen.
shaahjahaan (1628-1658) key shasankal mein mugal vastukala kii oonchaai kaa pratinidhitva kiya gayaa, jisamen unake shasankal key dauran taaj mahal, motee masjid, laal kilaa, jaama masjid aur lahaur kille jaise prasiddh smarakon kaa nirmaan kiya gayaa thaa.
muhammad auranzgeb key shariya shasankal mein fatwa-aeye-alamgiri kii sthaapana hui. muslim bhaarat duniya kii sabse badee arthavyavastha bunn gayaa, jiska moolya vishva jee. dee. pee. kaa 25 pratishat thaa. isake sabse ameer praant, bangal subah, joe ack vishva agrani arthavyavastha thee aur 18veen shatabdi key paschimi europe kii tulanaa mein behtar sthiti thee, ney poorv-audyogikaran kii avadhi key udbhav key madhyam seey audyogik kranti key sanket dikhaae. anglo-mugal yuddh jaise kaee sangharsh bhee dekhe gaye.
aurangzeb kii mrityu key baad, joe madhyayugeen bhaarat key anta aur bhaarat mein europeeya upaniveshvaad kii shuruat kaa prateek haye, samrajya kii prashaasnik aur aarthik pranaliyon kii kamjori key kaaran aantarik asantosh paida huaa, jisake kaaran bangal key nawab, avadh key nawab, hyderabad key nizam, pramukh aarthik aur sainya shakti, jise maisur key raajya key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye, dwara isake poorv praanton kii swatantrata kii ghoshana kii gaee. 1739 mein, mugalon koo farsi mein afsharid rajvansh key sansthaapak, naadar shaah kii senaaon dwara karnal kii ladaai mein kuchal curr haraaya gayaa thaa, aur dilli koo barkhast curr diyaa gayaa thaa aur loot liya gayaa thaa, jisase unake patan mein teji aaee thee.
1757 mein, east india company ney plassy kii ladaai mein bangal key soobe koo peechhe chhod diyaa. 18veen shatabdi key madhya taka, maraathon ney mugal senaaon koo parajit curr diyaa thaa aur panjab seey laker bangal taka kaee mugal praanton parr vijay praapt kii thee.
dakshin bhaarat mein sthit tipu sultan kaa maisur raajya, jisamen shariya adharit aarthik aur sainya neetiyon kii aanshik sthaapana dekhi gaee.ee. dakshin asia key pramukh aarthik kshetra key roop mein bangal key navaabon dwara shaasit bangal kii jagah fathul mujahideen ney leey lii. 
anglo-maisur yuddh hyder allie, unake bete tipu aur unake francisi sahyogiyon, jinamen napolean bonepart aur east india company shamil they, key beach ladey gaye they. rockett topkhaane aur duniya key pahale lohe seey baney rockett, massurian rockett, kaa upayog yuddh key dauran kiya gayaa thaa aur jihad adharit fathul mujahideen koo sankalit kiya gayaa thaa.
agali shatabdi key dauran mugal shakti gambhir roop seey seemit hoe gaee thee, aur antim samrat, bahadur shaah dwiteeya kaa kewal shahjahanabad shahar parr adhikaar thaa. bahadur ney 1857 key bhaaratiya vidroh kaa samarthan karate hue ack farman jaari kiya. vidroh kii haar key parinamswarup east india company key adhikaariyon ney unhein rajdroh key liye mukadama chalaaya, kaid curr liya aur rengoon mein nirvaasit curr diyaa. samrajya key antim avasheshon koo aupchaarik roop seey angrejon dwara leey liya gayaa thaa, aur british sansad ney bhaarat sarkaar adhiniyam koo paarit kiya taaki taaj koo aupchaarik roop seey east india company kaa rashtriyakaran karane aur nae british raaj key roop mein bhaarat kaa seedha niyantran grahan karane mein saksham banaaya jaa sakey.
aadhunik kaal.
aadhunik yug ney europe mein takniki aur sangathanaatmak parivartan laae jabaki islami kshetra ney pichhali shataabdiyon key pattern koo jaari rakhaa. europeeya mahaan shaktiyon ney aarthik roop seey vaishvikaran kiya aur iss kshetra key adhikansh hisse mein upanivesh sthaapit kiya.
ottoman samrajya vibhajan.
19veen shatabdi key anta taka ottoman samrajya kaa patan hoe gayaa thaa. pratham vishva yuddh mein germany koo samarthan dene key nirnay kaa matlab thaa kii unhone usa yuddh mein kendriya shaktiyon kii haar koo saajha kiya. iss haar key kaaran turkey rashtravadiyon dwara ottomans koo ukhaad fenka gayaa, jiska netritva gallipoli kii ladaai key vijayi senapati mustafa kemal ney kiya, joe apane logon key liye ataturk key roop mein jaane jaane lagey, joe turkon key pitaa they."ataturk koo savers (1920) kii sandhi parr phir seey baatchit karane kaa shreya diyaa gayaa thaa, jisane yuddh mein turkey kii bhagidari koo samaapt curr diyaa aur aadhunik turkey ganarajya kii sthaapana kii, jise lusaane (1923) kii sandhi mein sahyogiyon dwara maanyata dee gaee thee. ataturk ney aadhunikikaran key ack mahatvakankshi karyakram koo lagu kiya jisamen aarthik vikas aur dharmnirpekshata parr jore diyaa gayaa. unhone europeeya kaanoonon koo pratibimbit karane key liye turkey sanskriti koo badal diyaa, arabi ankon, lattin lipi koo apanaaya, dhaarmik pratishthaan koo raajya seey alag curr diyaa, aur mahila koo mukt kiya-yahaan taka kii unhein paschim mein mahilaaon key matadhikar key samanantar matdan karane kaa adhikaar bhee diyaa.
pratham vishva yuddh key dauran, sahyogiyon ney ottoman samrajya key khilaf ack arab pakshakaron key saath sahyog kiya, donon samooh ack saajha dushman key virodh mein ekjut they. iska sabse pramukh udaaharan arab vidroh key dauran thaa, jaba gupt khufiya agent tii. ee. laurence-jise "arab key laurence" key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye, ney ottoman balon key khilaf arab gurillaon key saath sahyog kiya, antatah 1918 taka kshetra seey sabhi ottoman sainikon kii vaapsee koo surakshit kiya. yuddh key anta key baad, asia minor key baahar poorv ottoman kshetra kaa vishal bahumat vijayi europeeya shaktiyon koo sanrakshak key roop mein saunp diyaa gayaa thaa. haalaanki, kaee arabon koo balfour ghoshana seey nirasha hui, joe seedhe taur parr ack saal pahale prachaarit mcmohan-hussain patrachar kaa khandan karati thee. ottoman uttaradhikari raajyon mein aaj key albania, bosnia aur herzegovina, bulgaria, misra, grees, iraq, israel, lebnan, romania, saudi arab, serbia, seeriya, jorden, turkey, balcon raajya, uttar africa aur kaalaa sagar key uttari tata shamil hain.
kaee muslim deshon ney europeeya raajneetik sangathan koo apanaane kii maang kii aur muslim duniya mein raashtravaad ubharane lagaa. misra, seeriya aur turkey jaise deshon ney apani sarkaaron koo sangathit kiya aur apane nagrikon key beach rashtriya gaurav vikasit karane kii maang kii. iraq jaise anya sthaan, ekataa kii kamee aur muslim sampradayon aur gair-musalmaanon key khilaf sadiyon puraane purvagrahon koo hull karane mein asamarthata key kaaran utane safal naheen they.
turkey aur misra jaise kuchh muslim deshon ney islam koo dharmnirpeksh sarkaar seey alag karane kii maang kii. anya mamalon mein, jaise kii saudi arab mein, sarkaar ney apane virodhiyon key liye vaahabvaad key roop mein jaane jaane vaale soonni islam key shuddh roop key punah uday mein dhaarmik abhivyakti koo saamane laaya, jisane saudi shaahi parivaar mein apana raasta banaa liya.
arab-israel sangharsh.
arab-israel sangharsh lagbhag ack sadee taka raajneetik tanaav aur khuli shatruta mein faila huaa haye. isamen ack yahudi rashtra raajya key roop mein israel key aadhunik raajya kii sthaapana, falastini logon kaa visthaapan aur arab aur muslim deshon seey yahudi palayan key saath-saath arab raajyon aur israel raajya key beach pratikool sambandh shamil hain (sambandhit israel-philistine sangharsh dekhein). pahale tou kewal israel kii seema seey lagey arab raajyon koo shamil karane key bavjood, israel aur anya mukhya roop seey muslim raajyon key beach bhee dushmani vikasit hui haye.
juuna 1967 kaa chhah divasiya yuddh israel aur padosi raajyon misra, jorden aur seeriya key beach ladaa gayaa thaa. arab deshon ney suez nahar koo bund curr diyaa aur isake baad maee 1970 mein saudi arab seey seeriya seey lebnan taka "tapline" koo bund curr diyaa gayaa. inn vikaason kaa libya mein petroleum key mahatva koo badhaane kaa prabhaav padaa, joe europe seey ack chhoti (aur nahar-mukt) shipping doori haye. 1970 mein, paschimi petroleum ney anya tail companiyon key saath sambandh toda diyaa aur moolya vriddhi key liye arab kii maangon koo sweekaar curr liya.
octuber 1973 mein, israel aur usake muslim padosiyon key beach ack nayaa yuddh, jise yom kippur yuddh key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye, taba shuru huaa jaba tail companiyon ney oh. pee. ee. see. netaaon key saath baithak shuru kii. oh. pee. ee. see. koo sadaat key abhiyaanon kii safalata seey protsaahan milaa aur yuddh ney unaki ekataa koo majboot kiya. paschim dwara aapaatkaaleen punah aapoorti prayaas key jawab mein, jisane israel koo misra aur siriyai balon key khilaf pratirodh karane mein saksham banaaya, arab duniya ney sanyukt raajya america aur paschimi europe key khilaf 1973 kaa tail pratibandh lagaa diyaa. faisal ney sahamati vyakt kii kii saudi arab apane tail dhana kaa kuchh upayog "agrim pankti key raajyon", joe israel kii seema seey lagey hue hain, koo unake sangharsh mein vittaposhit karane key liye karega. petroleum kii kendriyata, arab-israel sangharsh aur raajneetik aur aarthik asthirta aur anishchitata iss kshetra kii rajneeti kii nirantar visheshtaen bunny hui hain.
duniya key kaee desh, vyakti aur gair-sarkari sangathan islam, arab sanskriti, isai dharm, yahudi dharm, yahudi sanskriti, yaa vaichaarik, manvadhikar, yaa ranneetik karanon seey iss sangharsh mein shamil mahsoos karate hain. haalaanki kuchh loga arab-israel sangharsh koo paschimi duniya aur muslim duniya key beach sabhyataon key vyaapak takraav kaa hissa (yaa ack agradoot) maanate hain, anya loga iss drishtikon kaa virodh karate hain. iss sangharsh seey utpann shatruta ney duniya bhar key kaee deshon mein dusare paksh key samarthakon dwara pratyek paksh key samarthakon (yaa kathit samarthakon) parr kaee hamale kiye hain.
anya islami mamle.
1979 mein irani kranti ney ack shiya musalman maulavi aur "marja" ayatollah ruhollah khomaini key shasson key tahat iran koo ack samvaidhaanik rajshahi seey ack loklubhavan ishwarshasit islami ganarajya mein badal diyaa. kranti key baad, ack nae samvidhaan koo manjuri dee gaee aur ack janmat sangrah ney sarkaar kii sthaapana kii, jisamen ruhullah khomaini koo sarvocch netaa key roop mein chunaa gayaa. agale dou varshon key dauran, udaarvaadi, vampanthi aur islami samoohon ney ack-dusare seey ladaai ladee, aur islami logon ney satta parr kabja curr liya.
dou vipareet kinaaron kaa vikas, iran kaa shiya islam mein safavid roopaantaran, twelver shiya sanskaran, aur irani kranti aur saudi arab mein salafi dwara isake sudridhikaran, iran-saudi arab sambandhon key saath milkar inn sarkaaron ney apane raajneetik hiton koo badhaane key liye sampradayik sangharsh kaa upayog kiya. khaadi raajyon jaise saudi arab aur kuwait (iraq key prati shatrutapurna honey key bavjood) ney sadaam hussain koo iran parr aakraman karane key liye protsaahit kiya, jisake parinamswarup iran-iraq yuddh huaa, kyonki unhein darr thaa kii unaki apani seemaon key bheetar ack islami kranti hogi. kuchh irani nirvaasiton ney bhee sadaam koo yeh samajhaane mein madad kii kii aggar vaha aakraman kartaa haye, tou nayaa islami ganarajya jaldi hii dhwast hoe jaayega.
sandarbh.
srot.
pustaken, lekh aur patrikaaen
vishvakosh

