
haashiye kaa bhaav

seemantvad arthshastra kaa ack siddhant haye joe vastuon aur sevaaon key moolya mein visangati koo unaki maadhyamik, yaa seemant, upayogita key sandarbh mein samajhaane kaa prayaas kartaa haye. isamen kahaa gayaa haye kii heere kii keemat paani kii tulanaa mein adhik honey kaa kaaran, udaaharan key liye, paani parr heere kii adhik atirikt santushti haye. iss prakaar, jabaki paani kii kull upayogita adhik haye, heere kii adhik seemant upayogita haye.
halanki seemantwad kii kendriya avadharana seemant upayogita haye, lekin seemantvadiyon ney alfred marshel key netritva kaa paalan karate hue laagat key spashteekaran mein seemant bhautik utpaadaktaa key vichaar koo aakarshit kiya. british seemantwad seey ubhari navshastriya parampara ney upayogita kii avadharana koo chhod diyaa aur pratisthaapan kii seemant daron koo vishleshan mein adhik maulik bhoomika dee. seemantvad mukhyadhara key aarthik siddhant kaa ack abhinn anga haye.
mahatvapurna seemant avadhaaranaaen.
haashiye parr.
seemantata key muddon key liye, baadhaon kii avadharana "seema" yaa "seema" key roop mein kii jaati haye. kissy bhee vyakti key liye margine kaa sthaan usake "endoment" seey mell khaata haye, jisaki vyaapak roop seey avsaron koo shamil karane key liye kalpana kii gaee haye. yeh daan kaee cheejon dwara nirdhaarit kiya jaataa haye jisamen bhautik kaanoon (joe oorjaa aur padaarth key roopon koo kaise parivartit kiya jaa sakata haye), prakriti kii durghatanaaen (joe praakritik sansadhanon kii upasthiti koo nirdhaarit karati hain), aur dusaron dwara aur vyakti dwara kiye gaye pichhale nirnayon key parinam shamil hain.
ack aisaa moolya joe vishesh baadhaon koo dekhate hue sahee haye, ack "seemant" moolya haye. ack parivartan joe una baadhaon koo ack vishisht dheel yaa kasna key roop mein yaa usase prabhaavit hoga, ack "seemant" parivartan haye.
neoclassical arthshastra aamtaur parr yeh maanata haye kii seemant parivartan aseem yaa seemaaen hain. haalaanki yeh dhaarana vishleshan koo cumm majboot banaati haye, lekin yeh maarg-kshamata koo badhaati haye. isaliye aksar kahaa jaataa haye kii "seemant" "bahut chhote" kaa paryaay haye, halanki adhik samanya vishleshan mein yeh vyaavhaarik roop seey sach naheen hoe sakata haye aur kissy bhee mamle mein shaabdik roop seey sach naheen hoga. aksar, aarthik vishleshan ack sansaadhan kii ack ikai key parivartan seey judey seemant moolyon seey sambandhit hotaa haye, kyonki nirnay aksar ikaaiyon key sandarbh mein liye jaate hain; haashiye parr rahane vaale loga aise seemant moolyon key sandarbh mein ikai kii kimaton kii vyakhya karna chaahte hain.
mamuli upayog.
kissy vastu yaa seva kaa seemant upayog vaha vishisht upayog haye jisake liye ack agent ack dee gaee vriddhi karega, yaa vastu yaa seva kaa vishisht upayog joe ack dee gaee kamee key jawab mein chhod diyaa jaayega.
kissy bhee abhikarta key liye, aarthik tarksangatata aur duniya kii sambhaavit sthitiyon kaa ack crum, joe kissy bhee baadhaon key samooh key liye, ack praapya sthiti haye joe usa abhikarta kii nazar mein sabse achchi haye, koo haashiye parr maanaa jaataa haye. varnanatmak hashievad kaa kahana haye kii una vishisht sadhanon key beach chayan jisake dwara duniya kii vibhinn pratyaashit vishisht sthitiyaan (parinam) prabhaavit hoe sakati hain, kewal una vishisht parinamon key beach key antar dwara shaasit hoti haye; nirdeshaatmak hashievad kaa kahana haye kii iss tarah key vikalp koo "iss tarah seey niyantrit kiya jaanaa chaahiye".
aisee dhaaranaon parr, pratyek vriddhi koo sabse badee prathamikta key vishisht, vyavharya, pahale avaastavik upayog parr rakhaa jaayega, aur pratyek kamee key parinamswarup una upayogon mein seey sabse cumm prathamikta key upayog koo tyag diyaa jaayega jinake liye vastu yaa seva koo rakhaa gayaa thaa.
seemant upayogita.
kissy vastu yaa seva kii seemant upayogita usake seemant upayog kii upayogita haye. aarthik tarksangatata kii dhaarana key tahat, yeh apane cumm seey cumm tatkaal upayog kii upayogita haye "karyon key sarvottam vyavharya sanyojan seey jisamen iska upayog shamil haye.
20veen shatabdi key mukhyadhara key arthshastra mein, "upayogita" shabd koo aupchaarik roop seey raajyon, vastuon, sevaaon yaa uchch prathamikta vaale anuprayogon koo adhik matra mein nirdhaarit karke prathmiktaon koo pakadane vaale "matratmak" key roop mein paribhaashit kiya gayaa haye. lekin seemantwad aur seemant upayogita kii avadharana arthshastra key bheetar iss parampara kii sthaapana seey pahale kii haye. upayogita kii adhik samanya avadharana "upayog" yaa "upayogita" kii haye, aur yeh avadharana haashiye parr haye; "seemant upayogita" shabd german "grenadentzen" key anuvaad seey utpann huaa, jiska shaabdik arth haye "seema upayog", seedhe haashiye parr upayog kaa ullekh karate hue, aur seemant upayogita key adhik samanya sutrikaran matratmakta koo ack "aavashyak" visheshta key roop mein naheen maanate hain. doosari or, praarambhik seemanton mein seey kissy ney bhee iss baat parr jore naheen diyaa kii upayogita "matratmak naheen" thee, kuchh ney vaastav mein matratmakta koo ack aavashyak visheshta key roop mein maanaa, aur jinhone abhee bhee vyakhyatmak uddeshyon key liye matratmakta kii dhaarana kaa upayog naheen kiya. iss sandarbh mein, kaee prastutiyon koo dhoondhana aashcharyajanak naheen haye joe adhik samanya drishtikon koo pahchaanane mein whiffle rahati hain.
parimaanikrit seemant upayogita.
vishesh mamle key tahat jisamen upayogita koo matratmak kiya jaa sakata haye, avastha sootra _ 1 seey avastha sootra _ 2 mein jaane kii upayogita mein parivartan haye
isake alawa, yadi sootra _ 1 aur sootra _ 2 kewal ack charr sootra _ 6 key moolyon seey alag kiye jaa sakate hain joe swayam matratmak haye, tou sootra _ 6 mein parivartan kii seemant upayogita key anupaat aur usa parivartan key aakar key baare mein baat karna sambhav hoe jaataa haih
(jahan "see.pee."yeh ingit kartaa haye kii parivartan key liye" "ekmatra" "swatantra charr sootra _ 6 haye).
mukhyadhara key navshastriya arthshastra aamtaur parr yeh maan lenge kii
achchi tarah seey paribhaashit haye, aur aanshik vyutpann koo sandarbhit karane key liye "seemant upayogita" kaa upayog karein
ghatati seemant upayogita kaa kaanoon.
ghatati seemant upayogita kaa kaanoon, jise gosen key pahale niyam key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye, yeh haye kii "citeris paribus", kyonki upalabdh sansadhanon mein kissy vastu yaa seva kii atirikt matra jodee jaati haye, unaki seemant upayogitaaen cumm hoe rahee hain. iss kaanoon koo kabhi-kabhi ack swarasrishti key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye, kabhi-kabhi aatmanireekshan dwara siddh kuchh key roop mein, yaa kabhi-kabhi kewal ack upkaran dhaarana key roop mein, kewal isaki anumaanit prabhavkarita key liye apanaaya jaataa haye. yeh inmein seey koee bhee cheej naheen haye, halanki isamen pratyek key pahalu hoe sakate hain. kaanoon sabhi paristhitiyon mein lagu naheen hotaa haye, isaliye yeh naa tou ack swarasrishti haye aur naa hii anyatha saabit hoe sakata haye; lekin iska poorv avalokan mein ack aadhar haye.
ack vyakti aam taur parr kissy vastu yaa seva key sambhaavit upayogon koo aanshik roop seey order karane mein saksham hoga. yadi kamee haye, tou ack tarksangat agent uchchatam sambhav prathamikta kii ichchhaon koo puuraa karega, taaki "cumm" prathamikta kii aavashyakta koo puuraa karane key liye kissy bhee ichcha kaa tyag naa kiya jaae. upayogon mein poorakta key abhaav mein, iska matlab yeh hoga kii kissy bhee atirikt raashi key upayog kii prathamikta sthaapit upayogon kii prathamikta seey cumm hogi, jaisa kii iss prasiddh udaaharan mein haih
haalaanki, yadi upayogon mein ack poorakta haye, tou ack raashi jodee gaee haye vaha cheejon koo ack vaanchhit tipping point seey aage laa sakati haye, yaa ghataai gaee raashi unhein cumm curr sakati haye. aise mamalon mein, kissy vastu yaa seva kii seemant upayogita vaastav mein "badh rahee" hoe sakati haye.
upayogita kii matra nirdhaarit honey kii dhaarana key binaa, upayogita key "ghatate" honey koo swayam ack ankganitiya ghataav naheen maanaa jaanaa chaahiye. yeh uchch seey nimn prathamikta key upayog seey andolan haye, aur vishuddh roop seey kramik parivartan seey adhik naheen hoe sakata haye.
jaba upayogita kii matratmakta maani jaati haye, tou ghatati seemant upayogita ack upayogita kaary key anuroop hoti haye jiska "dhalaan" lagaatar yaa lagaatar cumm hoe rhaa hotaa haye. baad key mamle mein, yadi kaary bhee sucharu haye, tou kaanoon koo iss prakaar vyakt kiya jaa sakata haye
neoclassical arthshastra aamtaur parr udasinta vakr key saath seemant upayogita kii charcha koo poorak yaa pratisthaapit kartaa haye, joe mool roop seey upayogita karyon key star vakr key roop mein praapt kiye gaye they, yaa matratmakta kii dhaarana key binaa utpaadit kiye jaa sakate hain, lekin aksar kewal swayamsiddh key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye. vastuon yaa sevaaon kii poorakta key abhaav mein, ghatati seemant upayogita kaa arth haye udasinta vakr kii uttalata, halanki iss tarah kii uttalata upayogita kaary kii quasiconavity seey bhee hogi.
pratisthaapan kii seemant darr.
pratisthaapan kii darr" "cumm seey cumm anukool" darr haye jiss parr ack agent ack vastu yaa seva kii ikaaiyon koo dusare kii ikaaiyon key liye badalane key liye taiyar hotaa haye. pratisthaapan kii "seemant" darr (aim. aar. aiss.) margine parr pratisthaapan kii darr haye; dusare shabdon mein, kuchh baadhaon koo dekhate hue.
jaba vastuein aur sevaayen alag hoti hain, tou cumm seey cumm anukool darr jiss parr ack agent aeye key liye bee kaa vyaapaar karega, aamtaur parr usa darr seey alag hogi jiss parr vaha bee key liye bee kaa vyaapaar karegeeh
jaba seemit mamle mein vastuein aur sevaayen lagaatar vibhaajya houn
aur pratisthaapan kii seemant darr udasinta vakr kii dhalaan haye (sootra _ 15 seey gunaa).
udaaharan key liye, aggar leesa dou bhed seey cumm key liye ack bakri kaa vyaapaar naheen karegi, tou vaha
aggar vaha dou bakariyon seey cumm key liye ack bhed kaa vyaapaar naheen karegi, tou vaha
haalaanki, aggar vaha ack graam kele kaa ack auns icecream key liye vyaapaar karati "aur isake vipareet", tou
jaba udasinta vakr (joe anivarya roop seey pratisthaapan kii tatkalik daron key graph hain) aur una vakron kii uttalata koo diye gaye anusaar naheen liya jaataa haye, tou ghatati seemant upayogita key "kaanoon" koo pratisthaapan kii ghatati seemant daron kii vyakhya karane key liye lagu kiya jaataa haye-formula 20 key pratisthaapan mein vastu yaa seva sootra kii cumm ikaaiyon koo sweekaar karane kii ichcha key roop mein sootra 20 kii tulanaa mein kissy kii holdings key roop mein formula 19 kii vriddhi hoti haye. yadi kissy vyakti key paas kissy vastu yaa seva kaa stock yaa pravaah haye jisaki seemant upayogita kissy anya vastu yaa seva kii tulanaa mein cumm haye jisake liye vaha vyaapaar curr sakata haye, tou usa vyaapaar koo prabhaavit karna usake yaa usake hita mein haye. choonki ack cheez kaa vyaapaar door hotaa haye aur doosari cheez kaa adhigrahan kiya jaataa haye, isaliye aage key vyaapaar seey sambandhit seemant laabh yaa nuksan abb badal jaate hain. iss dhaarana parr kii ack kii seemant upayogita cumm hoe rahee haye, aur doosari naheen badh rahee haye, baaki sub samaan honey key kaaran, ack vyakti usa key badhate anupaat kii maang karega joe arjit kiya jaataa haye aur joe balidan kiya jaataa haye. ack mahatvapurna tarika jisamen baaki sub samaan naheen hoe sakate hain, vaha haye jaba ack vastu yaa seva kaa upayog dusare key poorak hoe. aise mamalon mein, vinimay anupaat sthir hoe sakata haye. yadi koee vyaapaari vaanchhit vastuon yaa sevaaon key saath anya vyapariyon koo adhik anukool vinimay kii peshkash karke apani seemant sthiti koo behtar banaa sakata haye, tou vaha aisaa karega.
seemant laagat.
samanyata key uchchatam star parr, ack seemant laagat ack seemant avsar laagat haye. adhikansh sandarbhon mein, seemant laagat seemant "aarthik" laagat koo sandarbhit karati haye, jiska arth haye kii seemant laagat koo maaf kiye gaye dhana dwara maapa jaataa haye.
ack poorna roop seey seemantata seemant upayogita koo cumm karane key kaanoon key tahat seemant laagat koo badhati hui dekhti haye, kyonki ack anuprayog parr sansadhanon koo lagu karane seey anya anuprayogon key liye unaki upalabdhata cumm hoe jaati haye. navshastriya arthshastra iss tark koo nazarandaj kartaa haye, lekin ghatate laabh key parinamswarup seemant laagat koo badhata huaa dekhta haye.
moolya siddhant key liye anuprayog.
seemantwad aur navshastriya arthshastra aam taur parr aapoorti aur maang key vakr yaa anusoochiyon kii paraspar kriya key madhyam seey vyaapak roop seey moolya nirmaan kii vyakhya karate hain. kissy bhee mamle mein kharidaaron koo aam taur parr cumm matra mein bechane key roop mein model kiya jaataa haye, aur vikreta aamtaur parr adhik matra mein peshkash karate hain, kyonki keemat mein vriddhi hoti haye, pratyek taba taka vyaapaar karane key liye taiyar rahata haye jaba taka kii way jiss cheez key liye vyaapaar karenge, usake seemant moolya seey adhik naa hoe jaae.
maang.
maang vakron koo pratisthaapan kii seemant daron key sandarbh mein seemantata dwara samajhaaya jaataa haye.
kissy bhee keemat parr, ack sambhaavit kharidar key paas vastu yaa seva key liye paise key pratisthaapan kii kuchh seemant darr hoti haye. ghatati seemant upayogita key "kaanoon" koo dekhate hue, yaa anyatha bahirmukhi udasinta vakr koo dekhate hue, darein aisee hain kii achche yaa seva key liye paisa chhodane kii ichcha cumm hoe jaati haye kyonki kharidar key paas hamesha adhik achchha yaa seva aur cumm paisa hotaa haye. isaliye, kissy bhee kharidar kii maang anusuchi hoti haye joe aam taur parr keemat key jawab mein cumm hoe jaati haye (cumm seey cumm jaba taka maang kii matra shoonya taka naheen pahunch jaati). sabhi kharidaaron dwara maangi gaee kull matra, kissy bhee keemat parr, kewal vyaktigat kharidaaron dwara maangi gaee matra kaa yog haye, isaliye yeh bhee keemat badhane key saath cumm hoe jaati haye.
aapoorti.
navshastriya arthshastra aur poori tarah seey seemantwad donon koo seemant laagat key sandarbh mein aapoorti vakr kii vyakhya karane key liye kahaa jaa sakata haye; haalaanki, usa laagat kii avadhaaranaon mein ullekhaniya antar hain.
marshal aur neoclassical arthshastriyon kii parampara mein seemant loga kissy bhee utpaadak key liye aapoorti vakr kaa pratinidhitva bhautik prakriyaon dwara vastunishth roop seey nirdhaarit seemant aarthik lagaton key vakr key roop mein karate hain, jisamen ghatate laabh dwara nirdhaarit ack oopar kii or dhalaan hoti haye.
ack adhik gahan roop seey seemantata aapoorti vakr koo ack "poorak maang vakr" key roop mein darshaati haye-jahaan maang "dhana key liye" haye aur khareed "ack achchi yaa seva key saath kii jaati haye. usa vakr kaa aakar taba usa vastu yaa seva key liye dhana key pratisthaapan kii seemant daron dwara nirdhaarit kiya jaataa haye.
bazar.
khud koo una mamalon taka seemit karke jinamen vikreta yaa kharidar donon "moolya lene vaale" hain-taaki maang kaary aapoorti karyon koo nazarandaj curr dein yaa "isake vipareet"-marshley seemant aur navshastriya arthshastriyon ney "shuddh" yaa "paripurna" pratispardha key aur "apoorna" pratispardha key vibhinn roopon key tractable model kaa utpaadan kiya, joe model aamtaur parr apekshaakrit saral graph dwara pakade jaate hain. anya seemanton ney joe adhik yathaarthvaadi vyakhya key roop mein socha thaa usey prastut karane kii koshish kii haye, lekin yeh kaam aarthik vichaar kii mukhyadhara parr apekshaakrit asangat rhaa haye.
paani aur heere kaa virodhabhas.
kahaa jaataa haye kii ghatati seemant upayogita key niyam seey paani aur heere key virodhabhas kii vyakhya kii jaati haye, joe aamtaur parr addam smith seey judey hotey hain, halanki ise pahale key vicharakon dwara maanyata dee gaee thee. manushya paani key binaa bhee jeevit naheen reh sakate hain, jabaki heere, smith key dinon mein, alankaran yaa utkirnan key tukade they. phir bhee paani kii keemat bahut cumm thee, aur heere kii keemat bahut badee thee. seemanton ney samajhaaya kii yeh kissy bhee matra kii "seemant" upayogita haye joe "varg" yaa "samagrata" kii upayogita key bajaay mayane rakhti haye. adhikansh logon key liye, paani paryaapt roop seey prachur matra mein thaa kii ack gallen kaa nuksan yaa laabh vaapas leey legaa yaa yadi koee hoe tou kewal kuchh bahut hii mamuli upayog jodd dega, jabaki heere bahut adhik seemit aapoorti mein they, taaki nuksan yaa laabh bahut adhik thaa.
iska matlab yeh naheen haye kii kissy bhee vastu yaa seva kii keemat kewal usa seemant upayogita kaa kaary haye joe kissy ack vyakti key liye haye aur naa hii kissy vishisht vyakti key liye. balki, vyakti una vastuon kii sambandhit seemant upayogitaon key aadhar parr vyaapaar karane key liye taiyar hain joe unake paas hain yaa joe way chaahte hain (inn seemant upayogitaon key saath pratyek sambhaavit vyaapaari key liye alag hain), aur iss prakaar keematen inn seemant upayogitaon dwara baadhit hoti hain.
itihas.
proto-marginalist drishtikon.
shayed ghatati seemant upayogita kii dhaarana kaa saar abhijaat varg kii "rajneeti" mein paaya jaa sakata haye, jisamen way likhate hain 
abhijaat varg key moolya siddhant mein vikas aur seemant vichaaron kii bhoomika key baare mein spasht asahamati rahee haye.
arthshastriyon kii ack badee vividhata ney nishkarsh nikala kii upayogita aur durlabhata key beach "kuchh" prakaar kaa antar-sambandh thaa joe aarthik nirnayon koo prabhaavit kartaa thaa, aur badale mein kimaton key nirdhaaran koo soochit kartaa thaa.
athaarahavin shatabdi key italvi vyaapaari, jaise kii antonio genovacy, giameria orts, pietro verry, sizere bekkeriya aur jiyovanni rinaldo, ney maanaa kii moolya koo samanya upayogita aur kamee key sandarbh mein samajhaaya gayaa thaa, halanki way aam taur parr iss siddhant parr kaam naheen karate they kii yeye kaise paraspar kriya karate hain. della moneta" (1751) mein, genovacy key ack chhaatr, ababe ferdinando galliani ney dou anupaaton, "upayogita" aur "kamee" key anupaat key roop mein moolya koo samajhaane kaa prayaas kiya, jisamen baad vaalaa ghatak anupaat upayog karane key liye matra kaa anupaat thaa.
aine robert jacks turgot ney "reflexions sur laa formation aitt laa distribution dee ritch" (1769) mein kahaa kii vartamaan aur bhavishya kii ichchhaon kii tulanaa mein aur khareed mein anumaanit kathinaaiyon seey usa varg kii samanya upayogita seey praapt moolya joe ack achchha haye.
italvi vyaapaari kii tarah, étienne bonnot de condillac kaa moolya usa varg seey judee upayogita dwara nirdhaarit kiya jaataa haye jisase achchha sambandhit haye, aur anumaanit kamee dwara. dee commers aitt leey governance" (1776) mein, condylack ney iss baat parr jore diyaa kii moolya laagat parr adharit naheen haye, balki moolya key kaaran laagat kaa bhugtan kiya gayaa thaa.
iss antim bindu koo 19veen shatabdi key adim-seemantwadi richard whatley dwara prasiddh roop seey dohraya gayaa thaa, jinhone "raajneetik arthavyavastha parr parichayaatmak vyakhyan" (1832) mein nimnanusar likhaa thaah 
whatley key chhaatr nassaau villium senior koo neeche ack praarambhik seemant key roop mein nott kiya gayaa haye.
apane "aarthik samanjasya" (1850) key adhyaay v aur xi mein fredrick bastiat ney kull upayogita key bajaay upayogita badhaane vaali sevaaon key beach anupaat key roop mein moolya kaa ack siddhant bhee vikasit kiya haye.
kranti seey pahale key seemant.
kissy bhee prakaar kii seemant upayogita key siddhant kaa pahala spasht prakaashit kathan daniel bernauli dwara "namuna thiria nova dee mensura sortis" mein thaa. yeh pepper 1738 mein prakaashit huaa thaa, lekin ack masauda 1731 yaa 1732 mein likhaa gayaa thaa. 1728 mein, gabriel crammer ney ack niji patra mein mool roop seey ack hii siddhant kaa utpaadan kiya. pratyek ney aiss. tii. koo hull karane kii koshish kii thee. pietersberg virodhabhas, aur yeh nishkarsh nikala thaa kii dhana kii seemant vaanchhaniyataa cumm hoe gaee kyonki yeh sanchit kiya gayaa thaa, vishesh roop seey iss tarah kii ack raashi kii vaanchhaniyataa praakritik logridam (bernauli) yaa vargamool (crammer) thee. haalaanki, iss parikalpana key adhik samanya nihitarth kaa pataa naheen chalaa aur kaam aspasht hoe gayaa.
1833 mein diye gaye aur" jansankhya, moolya, kharaab kaanoon aur kiraya "(1837) parr vyakhyanon mein shamil" naa kewal upayogita seey, balki vinimay mein moolya seey bhee alag moolya kii dhaarana parr ack vyakhyan mein, villium forster lloyd ney spasht roop seey ack samanya seemant upayogita siddhant kii peshkash kii, lekin isaki vyutpatti kii peshkash naheen kii aur naa hii isake nihitarth koo vistrit kiya. aisaa lagata haye kii unake bayaan kaa mahatva 20veen shatabdi kii shuruat taka sabhi (lloyd sahit) parr khou gayaa thaa, usa samay taka anya logon ney swatantra roop seey usee antardrishti koo vikasit aur lokpriya banaa diyaa thaa.
raajneetik arthavyavastha key vigyaan kii ack ruprekha" (1836) mein, nassau villium senior ney jore dekar kahaa kii seemant upayogitaaen maang key antim nirdhaarak they, phir bhee jahir taur parr nihitarth koo aage naheen badhaate they, halanki kuchh loga unake kaam kii vyakhya vaastav mein aisaa karane key roop mein karate hain.
dee laa mesur dee ll 'utility days travax public" (1844) mein, jools dupute ney pull toll nirdhaarit karane kii samasya key liye seemant upayogita kii avadharana koo lagu kiya.
1854 mein, herman heinrich gosen ney "dye antwicklung dair gassetz days mensclehane workers aind dair darous fleesanden regellen phur menscliches handellan" prakaashit kiya, jisane ack seemant upayogita siddhant prastut kiya aur bahut hudd taka bajar arthavyavastha key vyavhaar key liye isake nihitarth parr kaam kiya. haalaanki, gosen key kaam koo unake samay kii germany mein achchi tarah seey praapt naheen kiya gayaa thaa, adhikansh pratiyaan binaa bikin nasht curr dee gaeen theen, aur tathaakathit seemant kranti key baad phir seey khoje jaane taka unhein lagbhag bhulaa diyaa gayaa thaa.
seemant kranti.
ack aupchaarik siddhant key roop mein seemantwad koo teen arthshastriyon, ingland mein jevon, austriya mein menger aur switzerland mein valras key kaam key liye jimmedaar thaharaaya jaa sakata haye. villium steinly javens ney pahali baar 1863 aur 1871 mein lekhon mein siddhant kaa prastaav rakhaa. isi tarah, carle menger ney 1871 mein siddhant prastut kiya. menger ney samajhaaya kii vyakti vyaapaar-vinimay key beach nirnay lene key liye seemant upayogita kaa upayog kyon karate hain, lekin unake udaaharan upayogita koo matratmak roop seey prastut karate hain, lekin unaki aavashyak dhaaranaaen naheen karati hain. lyon valras ney "élément d 'enomie politique pure" mein siddhant pesh kiya, jiska pahala bhaag 1874 mein prakaashit huaa thaa. americi johnn bates clark bhee haashiye kii utpatti seey judaa huaa haye, lekin siddhant koo aage badhaane key liye bahut cumm kiya. yeh nayaa sochane kaa tarika arthshastra key shaastriya school seey soch mein ack bahut hii kathor badalaav thaa, jisaki sthaapana kuchh hudd taka addam smith, david ricardo aur thomas malthus dwara kii gaee thee. arthshastra key shaastriya school kaa maanana thaa kii shram siddhant naamak ack avadharana mein vishvaas thaa, joe iss vichaar parr jore detee thee kii ack achche utpaadan mein lagane vaale samay kii matra usa achche kaa moolya nirdhaarit karati haye. doosari or, iss avadharana kii pratidvandi, seemant upayogita, usa moolya parr kendrit thee joe upabhokta koo usake moolya kaa nirdhaaran karate samay achche seey praapt hotaa haye. seemant loga joe samajhate they vaha yeh thaa kii vastuon key vinimay moolya kaa upayog vastuon key upayog moolya kaa varnan karane key liye kiya jaa sakata haye. meghnad desai ise iss tarah seey rakhate hain, "vyakti apani dainik gatividhi mein apane sansadhanon kaa prabandhan iss tarah seey karate hain kii way seemant upayogita-ack vastu kii atirikt ikai seey praapt upayogita (upayog moolya) koo santulit karate hain joe unhone upbhog kiya thaa-isake liye unhone joe moolya (vinimay moolya) diyaa thaa. iss prakaar, jaba kissy vastu kii khapat badhati haye, tou usa vastu kii upayogita cumm hoe jaati haye kyonki iska sevan kiya jaataa haye. pratyek vyakti taba taka upbhog karna jaari rakhega jaba taka kii seemant upayogita moolya key barabar naheen hoe jaati. javens ack moolya siddhant bhee taiyar karna chaahte they joe iss seemant upayogita key liye jimmedaar thaa aur nimnalikhit kii khoj keeh laagat utpaadan aapoorti nirdhaarit kartaa haye; aapoorti upayogita kii antim degree nirdhaarit karati haye; aur upayogita kii antim degree moolya nirdhaarit karati haye. valras yeh maanate hue kii upayogita pratyek vastu kii khapat seey judee hui thee, jevan aur menger kii tulanaa mein upabhokta kii upayogita koo adhikatam karane mein saksham thaa.
doosari peedhi.
halanki seemant kranti jevon, menger aur valras key kaam seey hui thee, lekin unakaa kaam mukhyadhara mein pravesh karane mein whiffle rhaa hoga aggar yeh arthshastriyon kii doosari peedhi key liye naheen hotaa. ingland mein, doosari peedhi kaa udaaharan phillip victist, villium smart aur alfred marshel dwara diyaa gayaa thaa; austriya mein usen boham wonn bawark aur friedrich wonn visor dwara; switzerland mein wilfredo pereto dwara; aur america mein herbert joseph devenport aur frank aeye dwara. fantum.
jevan, menger aur valras key drishtikon key beach mahatvapurna, vishisht visheshtaen theen, lekin doosari peedhi ney rashtriya yaa bhashai rekhaaon key saath antar banaae naheen rakhaa. wonn visor kaa kaam valras seey bahut prabhaavit thaa. wickstead menger seey bahut prabhaavit thaa. fenter ney khud koo aur devenport koo "americi manovaigyaanik school" key hisse key roop mein sandarbhit kiya, jiska naam austriyai "manovaigyaanik school" kii nakal mein rakhaa gayaa haye. isi tarah iss avadhi seey clark kaa kaam bhee manger kaa bhaari prabhaav dikhaata haye. villium smart ney angreji bhasha key pathakon key liye austriyai school siddhant key ack vaahak key roop mein shuruat kii, halanki vaha marshal key prabhaav mein teji seey gir gayaa.
boham-baverk shayed menger kii avadharana kaa sabse saksham pratipaadak thaa. unhein samay kii ghatati seemant utpaadaktaa aur samay kii vareeyata key saath ghatati seemant upayogita key paraspar kriya key aadhar parr santulan mein byaaj aur laabh key siddhant key utpaadan key liye aage jaanaa gayaa. (iss siddhant koo poori tarah seey apanaaya gayaa thaa aur phir nutt vixel dwara aur vixel key americi pratidvandi irving fishers dwara samay-vareeyata key liye aupchaarik upeksha sahit sanshodhanon key saath aage vikasit kiya gayaa thaa.)
marshal doosari peedhi key seemant they, jinaki seemant upayogita parr kaam ney navshastriya arthshastra kii mukhyadhara koo soochit kiya, vishesh roop seey unake "arthshastra key siddhanton" key madhyam seey, jiska pahala khand 1890 mein prakaashit huaa thaa. marshal ney iss dhaarana kii sahaayata seey maang vakr kaa nirmaan kiya kii upayogita kii matra nirdhaarit kii gaee thee, aur yeh kii dhana kii seemant upayogita sthir thee, yaa lagbhag aisaa hii thaa. javens kii tarah, marshal ney seemant upayogita key siddhant mein aapoorti key liye koee spashteekaran naheen dekhaa, isaliye unhone aapoorti key adhik shaastriya spashteekaran key saath maang key liye ack seemant spashteekaran koo jodaa, jisamen lagaton koo vastunishth roop seey nirdhaarit kiya gayaa thaa. marshel ney baad mein sakriya roop seey iss aalochana koo galat tareeke seey varnit kiya kii yeye laagaten antatah seemant upayogitaon dwara nirdhaarit kii gaee theen.
samaajvaad kii pratikriya key roop mein seemant kranti.
seemantwad aur seemant kranti key siddhanton kii vyakhya aksar shramik andolan, markswadi arthshastra aur shram key shoshan key pahale key (dhanee) samajwadi siddhanton key uday kii pratikriya key roop mein kii jaati haye. daas rajdhani" kaa pahala khand julaai 1867 taka prakaashit naheen huaa thaa, jaba seemantwad pahale seey hii vikasit hoe rhaa thaa, lekin markswadi arthshastra key aagaman seey pahale, gosen jaise proto-marginalvadi vichaar kaafee hudd taka badhir hoe gaye they. yeh kewal 1880 key dashak mein thaa, jaba markswad shramikon key andolan key mukhya aarthik siddhant key roop mein saamane aaya thaa, jise (maranoparant) maanyata millie thee.
markswad key uday key alawa, ee. screpanti aur aiss. zaamaagni haashiye parr rahane kii safalata key liye ack alag 'baahari' kaaran kii or ishara kartaa haye, joe samajik shaanti kii 1848-1870 avadhi key baad sabhi vikasit poonjiwadi arthvyavasthaon mein lambe avasaad aur varg sangharsh key punrutthan key liye isaki safal pratikriya haye. seemantwad, screpanti aur zamagni kaa tark haye kii mukt bajar key siddhant koo sahee key roop mein prastut kiya gayaa, sansadhanon key ishtatam aavantan key roop mein, jabaki isane arthshastriyon koo bajar key uchit kamkaj mein shramikon key gathbandhan key hastakshep parr lassays-fair arthshastra key kissy bhee pratikool prabhaav koo dosh dene kii anumati dee.
vidvaanon ney sujhaav diyaa haye kii kranti key updeshakon kaa paalan karane vaali peedhi kii safalata markswadi aarthik siddhant key prati seedhi pratikriya taiyar karane kii unaki kshamata thee. inmein seey sabse prasiddh boham-bawark "(1896)" thaa, lekin pahala wickstead kaa "moolya kaa markswadi siddhant" thaa. "daas capital": ack aalochana "(1884, jisake baad 1885 mein" dha jevonian critices off maarksah aeye resoinder "). sabse prasiddh praarambhik markswadi pratikriyaaen rudolf hilfording (1904) aur nikolai bukharin dwara "avkash varg kaa aarthik siddhant" (1914) theen.
grahan.
apane 1881 key kaam "ganitiya manovigyaan" mein, francis yasidro azworth ney udasinta vakr prastut kiya, joe seemant siddhant seey isake gunon koo praapt kartaa haye, joe upayogita koo matratmak vastuon aur sevaaon kaa ack bhinn kaary maanata haye. lekin yeh dekhaa gayaa kii udasinta vakr koo kissy bhee tarah seey "diyaa gayaa" maanaa jaa sakata haye, upayogita kii dhaaranaon key saath pareshan kiye binaa.
1915 mein, usen slutsky ney kewal udasinta vakr key gunon seey upabhokta pasand kaa ack siddhant praapt kiya. vishva yuddh, bolshevik kranti aur usake baad unaki ruchi key nuksan key kaaran, slutsky key kaam parr lagbhag koee dhyaan naheen diyaa gayaa, lekin 1934 mein johnn hicks aur aar dwara isi tarah key kaam parr dhyaan diyaa gayaa. jee. dee. ellen ney bahut saare samaan parinam praapt kiye aur ack mahatvapurna darshak paaya. ellen ney baad mein slutsky kii pahale kii upalabdhi kii or dhyaan aakarshit kiya.
halanki austriyai school arthshastriyon kii teesari peedhi key kuchh logon ney 1911 taka upayogita kii matra koo khariz curr diyaa thaa, jabaki seemant upayogita key sandarbh mein sochana jaari rakhaa thaa, adhikansh arthshastriyon ney maanaa kii upayogita ack prakaar kii matra honey chaahiye. udasinta vakr vishleshan matratmak anumaanon key saath vitaran key ack tareeke kaa pratinidhitva kartaa prateet hotaa haye, halanki pratisthaapan kii ghatati seemant daron key baare mein ack manmana dhaarana (hicks dwara "topi seey khargosh" honey key liye sweekaar kiya gayaa) taba udasinta vakr kii uttalata key liye pesh kii jaani chaahiye.
una logon key liye jinhone sweekaar kiya kii seemant upayogita vishleshan koo udasinta vakr vishleshan dwara pratisthaapit kiya gayaa thaa, poorv paramanu key bohr model key liye kuchh hudd taka samaan hoe gayaa-shayed shaikshanik roop seey upayogi, lekin "puraane fashion" aur antatah galat.
punrutthan.
jaba crammer aur bernauli ney ghatati seemant upayogita kii dhaarana pesh kii, tou yeh moolya key virodhabhas key bajaay juaa key virodhabhas koo sambodhit karane key liye thaa. haalaanki, kranti key seemant aupchaarik roop seey una samasyaon seey chintit they jinamen naa tou jokhim thaa aur naa hii anishchitata. slutsky, hicks aur elen key udasinta vakr vishleshan key saath bhee.
20veen shatabdi key vibhinn vicharakon dwara bernauli "aitt alai" kii apekshit upayogita parikalpana koo punarjeevit kiya gayaa thaa, jisamen frank ramsey (1926), johnn wonn neuman aur auskar morgenstern (1944), aur leonard savage (1954) shamil they. haalaanki yeh parikalpana vivadaspad bunny hui haye, yeh naa kewal upayogita balki isaki ack matratmak avadharana koo aarthik vichaar kii mukhyadhara mein vaapas laati haye, aur achemistic tark koo bhej degi. yeh shayed dhyaan diyaa jaanaa chaahiye kii apekshit upayogita vishleshan mein ghatati seemant upayogita kaa niyam jokhim seey ghrina key anuroop haye.
aalochana.
seemantwad kii markswadi aalochana.
carle marks kii mrityu seemantwad key mukhyadhara key arthshastra dwara sweekaar kiye gaye aarthik moolya kii vyakhya banane seey pahale hoe gaee thee. unakaa siddhant moolya key shram siddhant parr adharit thaa, joe vinimay moolya aur upayog moolya key beach antar kartaa haye. apani "poonji" mein, unhone aapoorti aur maang dwara deerghakaalik bajar moolyon key spashteekaran koo aswikar curr diyaah
seemantwad key prati apani praarambhik pratikriya mein, nikolai bukharin ney tark diyaa kii "jiss vyaktinishth mulyankan seey keemat vaastav mein iss keemat seey shuru hoti haye", nishkarsh nikaalah
isi tarah baad mein markswadi aalochak, ernest mandel ney tark diyaa kii haashiye parr rahane vaale logon ney "vaastaviktaa seey alag" hoe gaye they, utpaadan kii bhoomika koo nazarandaj curr diyaa, aage tark diyaah
mauris dobb ney tark diyaa kii seemantata key madhyam seey praapt keematen aaya key vitaran parr nirbhar karati hain. apani prathmiktaon koo vyakt karane kii upbhoktaon kii kshamata unaki kharch karane kii shakti parr nirbhar karati haye. jaisa kii siddhant yeh daavaa kartaa haye kii vinimay key kaary mein keematen utpann hoti hain, dobb kaa tark haye kii yeh yeh naheen samajha sakata kii aaya kaa vitaran kimaton koo kaise prabhaavit kartaa haye aur parinamswarup kimaton kii vyakhya naheen curr sakata haye.
dobb ney seemant upayogita siddhant key peechhe key "uddeshyon" kii bhee aalochana kii. udaaharan key liye, javens ney likhaa, "jahaan taka pratyek samudaay mein dhana kii asamaanta key anuroop haye, sabhi vastuon koo vinimay dwara vitarit kiya jaataa haye taaki adhikatam samajik laabh paida kiya jaa sakey."(kalyan arthshastra key maulik pramey dekhein.) dobb ney tark diyaa kii iss bayaan seey sanket milata haye kii haashiye parr rahane kaa uddeshya kimaton koo dee gaee aaya vitaran kaa swabhavik parinam banaakar bajar arthshastra koo aalochana seey bachaana haye.
markswadi seemantvad key liye anukoolan.
kuchh arthshastriyon ney marxian parampara seey dridhata seey prabhaavit kiya haye jaise kii auskar laing, vloadzimears brus aur michael kaleki ney ise shaastriya raajneetik arthavyavastha, haashiye parr rahane aur navshastriya arthshastra kii antardrishti key saath ekikrit karane kaa prayaas kiya haye. unakaa maanana thaa kii marks mein kimaton key ack parishkrit siddhant kii kamee haye, aur navshastriya arthshastra mein aarthik gatividhi key samajik dhaanche key siddhant kii kamee haye. kuchh anya marksvadiyon ney yeh bhee tark diyaa haye kii ack star parr seemantwad aur markswad key beach koee sangharsh naheen haye kyonki koee bhee markswadi dhaarana kii ack badee tasveer samajh key sandarbh mein aapoorti aur maang key ack seemant siddhant koo niyojit curr sakata haye kii poonjiwadi adhishesh shram kaa shoshan karate hain.

