moolya-roop

moolya-roop yaa moolya kaa roop () carle marks kii raajneetik arthavyavastha kii aalochana mein ack avadharana haye. marks key moolya-roop key vivaran koo markswad key baad key roopon mein, frankfurt school mein aur uttar-markswad mein alag-alag tareeke seey apanaaya gayaa haye. jaba samajik shram koo swatantra udyamon mein vibhajit kiya jaataa haye aur poonjiwadi roop seey sangathit kiya jaataa haye, tou isake utpaad vibhinn prakaar kii "vastuon" key samooh kaa roop leey lete hain, joe bajar mein ack dusare kaa saamana karate hain.
utpaadan aur adaan-pradaan vichaaron aur tathyon dwara niyantrit hotey hain joe iss prakaar key roopon mein vyakt kiye jaa sakate hainh
uparokt sootra 'moolya kii abhivyaktiyaan' ('vertosdruck') hain. "moolya", "moolya" aur "samkaksh" koo poonjipati jeevan kii shreniyaan kahaa jaataa haye. joe vastuein ack taraf yaa doosari taraf pravesh karati hain, yahaan "linnon", "coat" aur "dollar", unhein alag-alag vishisht moolya-roopon key liye kahaa jaataa haye. kissy cheez kii kalpana mein ack moolya-roop hoe sakata haye-ee.jee. ack bunkar key tark mein joe ack coat praapt karane key liye 20 gaj linnon bunata haye, yeh sochkar kii "20 gaj linnon ack coat key laayak haye" yaa ack firm key apane utpaadon key liye kimaton koo jodata haye (keematen joe sweekaar kii jaa sakati hain yaa naheen). (moolya tagg key saath ack vastu kalpana mein moolya roop mein pravesh curr gaee haye.) lekin cheejon koo inn roopon koo vastunishth roop seey darj karane key liye bhee kahaa jaa sakata haye, jaba yeh kewal ack tathya haye kii ee.jee.
moolya-roop shram key utpaad key "samajik roop" hain joe samajik roop seey, niji roop seey aur poonjiwadi roop seey sangathit hain. yadi ack poonjiwadi restaraan shrinkhala kaa nashte kaa menu iss prakaar haih
taba toast ney poonjigat roop seey judey shram key utpaad key roop mein ack moolya roop grahan kiya haye. lekin ack ghar mein, ee.jee. bachchon koo khilaate samay, toast banaane kaa kaam-vahee 'upayogi shram'-alag tarah seey judaa huaa haye. aisaa koee vichaar bhojan banaane vaale key dimag mein naheen aayega, joe seedhe bachchon kii jarooraton key baare mein sochega. toast moolya kaa ack roop naheen legaa.
moolya roop bhee 'roop key roop' hain (german gaanaa.: "erscheinungsform"). agent unake saath kaam karate hain, unake sandarbh mein nirnay lete hain, aur ack arth mein unake saath cheejon koo maapate hain. jeevan kaa poonjiwadi sangathan apane dharakon key liye apane aap mein iss 'roop' key madhyam seey sanchaalit hotaa haye. kissy vastu kaa moolya-roop 'upayog moolya' yaa achche-ee key roop mein isaki bhautik visheshtaon key vipareet hotaa haye.jee. (aage) utpaadan key saadhan key roop mein yaa jeevan key saadhan key roop mein. kissy vastu kii bhautik visheshataaen seedhe avalokan yogya hoti hain, aur way isake pratyaksh upayog mein pravesh karati hain, lekin iska samajik roop iss prakaar bodhgamya naheen haye aur naa hii usa vastu mein antarnihit haye.
samanya cheejon key vyaapaar key saadhan banane parr virodhabhasi vichitrataon aur aadhyatmik achchaaiyon kaa varnan karate hue, marks aarthik moolya kii shreni kii ack sankshipt rupiki pradaan karna chaahata haye-iska padaarth vaastav mein kyaa haye, yeh padaarth kaun seey roop letaa haye, aur iska parimaan kaise nirdhaarit yaa vyakt kiya jaataa haye. vaha vastuon kii dou maatraon key beach maujood moolya-sambandh key arth parr vichaar karke pahali baar mein moolya key roopon kaa vishleshan kartaa haye.
buniyaadi vyakhya.
jaba "poonji, aayatan i" key pahale adhyaay mein moolya key roop kii avadharana pesh kii jaati haye, tou marks spasht kartaa haye kii aarthik moolya kewal utpaadon key adaan-pradaan dwara sthaapit moolya key "roop" key madhyam seey ack vastunishth tareeke seey prakat hotaa haye. loga achchi tarah seey jaanate hain kii koee bhee utpaad ack moolya kaa pratinidhitva kartaa haye.ee. utpaad kii aapoorti kii ack aarthik laagat hoti haye (kuchh logon koo iska utpaadan aur aapoorti karane key liye kaam karna padata haye, taaki anya loga iska upayog curr sakein). halanki, marks sawal kartaa haye kii moolya kii matra kaise nirdhaarit kii jaa sakati haye, yeh kaise maujood hoe sakata haye, iska srot kyaa haye, aur moolya mein antar koo kaise samajhaaya jaa sakata haye.
moolya sambandh.
aarthik roop seey kissy cheez kaa kyaa moolya haye, usey kewal anya vyaapaar yogya vastuon (yaa shram prayaas, sansaadhan yaa una vastuon key dhana key yog) seey sambandhit, vajan, tulanaa aur barabari karke "apekshaakrit" vyakt kiya jaa sakata haye. utpaadon kaa moolya unake "vinimay-moolya" dwara vyakt kiya jaataa haih way kisake liye vyaapaar curr sakate hain, lekin usa vinimay-moolya koo kaee alag-alag tarikon seey vyakt kiya jaa sakata haye. choonki vinimay-moolya koo aksar "dhana-moolya" dwara vyakt kiya jaataa haye, isaliye aisaa lagata haye kii "vinimay moolya", "moolya", "moolya" aur "dhana" vaastav mein ack hii baat haye. lekin marks kaa tark haye kii way ack hii cheejen naheen hain.
yeh bindu aarthik moolya aur baajaron kii samajh mein mahatvapurna haye. marks ney tark diyaa kii thheek isaliye kii raajneetik arthashastri sabse buniyaadi aarthik shreniyon koo bhramit aur bhramit karate rahey, way arthavyavastha kaa poori tarah seey susangat siddhant pradaan karane mein asamarth they. koee bhee vyakti aarthik ghatnaaon kii matra nirdhaarit karane aur maapane mein saksham hoe sakata haye, lekin iska matlab yeh naheen haye kii unhein iss tarah seey maapa jaataa haye kii way poori tarah seey samajh mein aaa jaaen.
capital, volume aaee" key pahale sanskaran kii prastaavana mein marks ney kahaah
marks iss pracheen paheli key liye vibhinn kaaran detaa haye. mukhya baadha yeh prateet hoti haye kii vyaparik sambandh samajik sambandhon koo sandarbhit karate hain joe seedhe taur parr avalokan yogya naheen hain. yeye samajik sambandh kyaa hain, unaki avadharana amoort vichaaron key saath kii jaani chaahiye. vastuon aur dhana key beach vyaapaar anupaat nishchit roop seey kimaton aur lenden detta key madhyam seey avalokan yogya hain. phir bhee vyaapaar kii jaane vaali cheejon kaa moolya vaastav mein kaise milata haye, yeh avalokan yogya naheen haye. aisaa lagata haye kii "bajar" aisaa kartaa haye, lekin bajar kyaa haye, aur yeh kaise hotaa haye, yeh aspasht rahata haye. yeh kahani iss vichaar seey jyada aage naheen jaati haye kii cheejon kaa moolya haye, kyonki loga unhein rakhna chaahte hain, aur unake liye paise dene key liye taiyar hain.
marks kii tippani spasht karati haye kii marks key anusaar vastuon kaa moolya-roop kewal audyogik poonjeevaad kii ack visheshta naheen haye. yeh vastu vyaapaar key poore itihas ("2,000 seey adhik varshon") seey judaa huaa haye. marks ney daavaa kiya kii moolya key mudra-roop kii utpatti koo poonjipati arthshastra dwara pahale kabhi samajhaaya naheen gayaa thaa, aur ack baar jaba moolya-sambandhon key vikas kaa pataa isaki saral shuruat seey lagaaya jaataa haye tou "dhana kaa rahasya turant gayab hoe jaayega". yeh shayed ack vyarth aashaa thee, kyonki jaisa kii neeche charcha kii gaee haye, aaj bhee arthashastri aur aarthik itihaaskaar iss baare mein sahmat naheen hoe sakate hain kii dhana kaa sahee siddhant kyaa haye. wolfgang streak kaa kahana haye kii "paisa aasaani seey sabse apratyaashit aur cumm seey cumm niyantrit maanav sansthaan haye jise humm kabhi jaanate hain. dusare tareeke seey kahein tou kissy bhee prakaar key vyaapaar yaa saude kii vyavastha karane kii sambhavanaen behad vividh hain; kewal parichaalan aavashyakta yeh haye kii vyaparik bhagidar vyavastha kii sharton seey sahmat houn, chaahe vaha kitna bhee saral yaa jatil kyon naa hoe. yeh iss prakaar haye kii dee gaee vyavastha mein dhana kii kyaa vishisht bhoomika haye, yeh bahut bhinn hoe sakata haye.
kewal tabhi jaba bajar utpaadan aur isaki sambandhit kanuni pranali atyadhik vikasit hoti haye, kyaa yeh samajhana sambhav hoe jaataa haye kii "aarthik moolya" kaa vaastav mein vyaapak aur saiddhaantik roop seey susangat tareeke seey kyaa arth haye, joe anya prakaar key moolyon (jaise saundarya moolya yaa naitik moolya) seey alag haye. iska kaaran yeh haye kii, kaafee hudd taka, vibhinn prakaar key moolya vyaavhaarik roop seey vaastaviktaa mein alag hoe gaye hain aur unake anuprayogon mein teji seey saarvbhaumik hoe gaye hain. jaba marks "moolya" koo manushyon key aarthik itihas mein ack samanya samajik roop key roop mein maanata haye, tou i.ee. "moolya kaa roop iss tarah", vaha sabhi vishesh abhivyaktiyon seey amoort haye joe isamen hoe sakate hain.
marks ney sweekaar kiya kii moolya kaa roop kuchh kathin dhaarana thee, lekin unhone maanaa kii "ack paathak joe kuchh nayaa seekhane key liye taiyar haye aur isaliye apane liye sochane key liye taiyar haye."capital, volume aaee" key dusare sanskaran kii prastaavana mein, marks ney daavaa kiya kii unhone apane upchaar koo "poori tarah seey sanshodhit" kiya thaa, kyonki unake dost dow. luis kuggelman ney unhein aashvast kiya thaa kii "moolya key roop kii adhik upadeshaatmak vyakhya" kii aavashyakta thee. aamtaur parr marks-vidwan kissy bhee tarah seey donon sanskaranon koo sandarbhit karate hain, kyonki unamen seey pratyek kuchh atirikt jaankaari pradaan kartaa haye joe dusare sanskaran mein naheen hoti haye.
vastu kaa roop.
marks vastu roop koo moolya key ack buniyaadi roop key roop mein, "poonjiwadi samaaj kaa aarthik koshika-roop" kahate hain, jiska arth haye kii yeh sabse saral aarthik ikai haye jisamen seey paschim europeeya poonjiwadi sabhyata kaa "nikaay" vikasit aur nirmit kiya gayaa thaa, chhah shataabdiyon mein. iss vyaapaar seey adhik seey adhik dhana banata haye aur bajar adhik seey adhik kshetron taka pahunchate hain-samaaj koo vyavasaay kii duniya mein badalana.
utpaadan key poonjiwadi tareeke koo "saamaanyikrit" (yaa saarvbhaumik) vastu utpaadan key roop mein dekhaa jaataa haye.ee. vastuon key madhyam seey vastuon kaa utpaadan, karyon aur lenden key ack paripatra swa-prajanan pravaah mein (vastuon key liye dhana kaa adaan-pradaan kiya jaataa haye (vastu shram shakti sahit), adhik dhana key liye naee vastuon kaa utpaadan karane key liye upayog kiya jaataa haye, adhik utpaadan aur khapat key liye vittaposhan). pahale seey hii 1858 kii apani "kathor" pandulipi mein, marks ney apani antardrishti parr kaam kiya kii "pahali shreni jisamen poonjipati dhana khud koo prastut kartaa haye vaha" vastu "haye aur yeh unake 1859 kii" aalochana "aur" poonji "(1867) key pahale khand kaa praarambhik vaakya bunn gayaa.
vastuon" key "moolya key roop" kewal samajik roopon kii ack shrinkhala kaa pahala roop haye joe "daas poonji" mein vishleshan kartaa haye, jaise kii dhana key roop, poonji key roop, majdoori key roop aur laabh key roop. yeye sabhi moolya key vibhinn roop hain, joe aam taur parr kimaton dwara vyakt kiye jaate hain, phir bhee way sabhi vyaapaar yogya maal key adaan-pradaan koo purvanirdhaarit karate hain. marks kii dwandwaatmak kahani mein, inmein seey pratyek roop koo anya roopon seey vikasit (yaa "parivartit") hotey hue dikhaaya gayaa haye, aur isaliye sabhi roop charan-darr-charan, taarkik aur aitihaasik roop seey ack-dusare seey judey hue hain.
pratyek roop koo shreniyon key saath vyakt kiya jaataa haye, jisaki samagri nae antaron yaa paristhitiyon key jawab mein kuchh hudd taka vikasit yaa utparivartit hoti haye. kahani key anta mein, sabhi roop ack aatm-prajanan mein ack dusare key saath nirbaadh roop seey ekikrit dikhaai dete hain, lagaatar vistaar curr rahee poonjiwadi pranali, jiska door kaa aitihaasik mool chhipa huaa aur aspasht hoe gayaa haye; poori tarah seey vikasit pranali vaastav mein isake alawa anya dikhaai detee haye, aur pardarshi roop seey isaki vaastavik prakriti kaa khulasa naheen karati haye.
marks kaa tark haye kii aggar poonjiwadi pranali kaa kaam poori tarah seey spasht aur pardarshi hotaa, tou kissy vishesh aarthik "vigyaan" kii koee aavashyakta naheen hoti; ack tou kewal bayanbaji hogi. way aage kii jaanch key liye prerit karate hain, kyonki way utane spasht naheen hotey hain jitna way prateet hotey hain, aur vaastav mein aage key pratibimb parr balki ulajhan yaa yahaan taka kii dimag koo bhee chaunka dete hain. arthashastri lagaatar yeh anuman lagaane kii koshish curr rahey hain kii bajar kyaa karega, aur laine-daine key pattern key samagr prabhaav kyaa hoe sakate hain, lekin sach mein way aksar jyotishiyon seey behtar safal naheen hotey hain. phir una samanya ghatnaaon key liye ack mahatvapurna punah pariksha kii aavashyakta hoti haye jinhen pahale halke mein liya gayaa thaa.
kahani bataane key apane pahale gupt prayaas (168 prishthon mein) key asafal honey key baad jaba unhone ise germany mein prakaashit kiya, tou marks ney ise ack aur baar bataane kaa sankalp liya, bahut adhik dilchasp, dilchasp aur vistrit tareeke seey, taaki loga vaastav mein isake mahatva koo samajh sakein-thheek usee shuruati bindu seey shuru. joe "daas rajdhani" (1867-1894) bunn gayaa, jise aaj bhee padhaa aur charcha kii jaa rahee haye.
marks shuru mein maanav shram key ack utpaad koo paribhaashit kartaa haye joe ack vastu bunn gayaa haye (german menh "coffware", i.ee.maal, bikri key liye saman) ack saathah
moolya kaa roop" (hegel dwara upayog kiye jaane vaale shaastriya daarshanik arth mein ghatana vigyaan kaa ack sandarbh bhee) taba una vishisht tarikon koo sandarbhit kartaa haye jinake madhyam seey "ack vastu kaa moolya kyaa haye" koo vyaapaar prakriyaon mein samajik roop seey vyakt kiya jaataa haye, jaba vibhinn utpaadon aur parisampattiyon kii tulanaa ack dusare key saath kii jaati haye.
vyaavhaarik roop seey, marks kaa tark haye kii utpaad "moolyon" koo seedhe naheen dekhaa jaa sakata haye aur kewal vinimay-moolyon key roop mein hii prakat hoe sakata haye.ee.saapeksh abhivyaktiyon key roop mein, anya vastuon key saath unake moolya kii tulanaa karke unakaa vyaapaar kiya jaa sakata haye (aamtaur parr dhana kii kimaton key madhyam seey). isase loga yeh sochate hain kii moolya aur vinimay-moolya ack hii baat haye, lekin marks kaa tark haye kii way naheen hain; samagri, parimaan aur moolya key roop koo alag kiya jaanaa chaahiye, aur moolya key kaanoon key anusaar, vyaapaar kiye jaa rahey utpaadon kaa vinimay moolya unake moolya dwara nirdhaarit aur viniyamit kiya jaataa haye. unakaa tark haye kii kissy vastu kii bajar keematen usake moolya key aspas dolan karengi, aur iska moolya iska utpaadan karane key liye ausat, samanya shram aavashyaktaon kaa parinam haye.
rupantar.
marks kaa tark haye kii moolya key roop "sthir" yaa "hamesha key liye nishchit" naheen hain, balki way bahut saral, adim abhivyaktiyon seey laker bahut jatil yaa parishkrit abhivyaktiyon taka vyaapaar prakriyaon mein taarkik aur aitihaasik roop seey vikasit hotey hain. baad mein, vaha poonji dwara liye gaye vibhinn roopon, majdoori key roopon, laabh key roopon aadi kii bhee jaanch kartaa haye. pratyek mamle mein, roop yeh darshaata haye kii logon key beach ack vishisht samajik yaa aarthik sambandh kaise vyakt kiya jaataa haye yaa prateek haye.
parisancharan, utpaadan, vitaran aur khapat kii prakriya mein, moolya ack roop seey dusare roop mein parivartit hotaa haye. moolya key vibhinn roop-mudraaen, vastuen aur poonji-ack dusare key liye sabhi vyaapaar, jahaan kharidar aur vikreta paise koo vastuon mein aur vastuon koo paise mein parivartit karate hain, yaa ack prakaar kii poonji sampatti koo dusare prakaar kii poonji sampatti mein parivartit karate hain, una baajaron mein jahaan kimaton mein harr samay utaar-chadhaav hotaa haye.
marks key anusaar, vyaktigat vinimay key kaary apane aap mein vastuon aur parisampattiyon key antarnihit "moolya" koo naheen badal sakate hain, cumm seey cumm samanya sthiti mein tou naheen. alag tarah seey kahein tou, moolya koo aam taur parr vinimay key kramik karyon (ack "sanrakshan siddhant") key madhyam seey "sanrakshit" kiya jaataa haye, bhale hii moolya lene vaale roop badal sakate hain. yadi maal aur parisampattiyon kaa cumm seey cumm vinimay parr moolya naheen rahata haye, tou bhandaran, maal dhulai aur vaanijyik vyaapaar hii tootane kii bahut sambhavana haye. yeh antardrishti pracheen kaal mein pahale seey hii maujood thee. halanki, satta gatividhi mein sanrakshan siddhant hamesha sach naheen hotaa haye.
adim vinimay.
shuru mein, adim vinimay mein, aarthik moolya key roop mein koee bhee keemat shamil naheen hoti haye, kyonki kuchh "moolya" bahut saralata seey kuchh anya achche (ack saamyik vastu vinimay sambandh) mein vyakt kiya jaataa haye. kuchh vidwan, jaise kii huns-jyorg backhoss, tark dete hain kii iss kaaran seey una samajon mein moolya maujood naheen thaa jahaan dhana kaa upayog naheen kiya jaataa thaa, yaa jahaan yeh kewal ack seemant bhoomika nibhaata thaa. puraane friedrich engels ney daavaa kiya kii "adim saamyvaad mein moolya agyaat thaa", kyonki koee niyamit vastu vyaapaar naheen thaa.
halanki, marks ney sweekaar kiya kii adim arthvyavasthaon mein "ack prakaar key utpaad-moolya" maujood they, halanki aise samudaayon mein ack alag "cheez" key roop mein moolya maujood naheen thaa. way kahate hain kii "utpaadon kii keemat kitni thee", yeh sthaapit karane key liye, vishuddh roop seey anya utpaadon key moolya key saath tulanaa karane yaa paise key saath ganana karane key bajaay "prathaagat prathaon" kaa paalan kiya gayaa; iss prakaar, utpaadon kaa mulyankan ack alag tareeke seey vyakt kiya gayaa thaa (vyaapaar kaa puraatatva bhee dekhein). shram-samay kii arthavyavastha" astitva mein thee, halanki kaary prayaas, samay, bhandaran aur oorjaa key liye koee sarvocch sateek upaay upalabdh naheen they. harr samay, yaani, loga achchi tarah seey jaanate they kii unake utpaadon kaa moolya haye, kyonki unhein badalane key liye mehnat-prayaas karna padata haye, aur parinamswarup, way apane utpaadon koo bhee mahatva dete hain. way bahut pratikool sharton parr utpaadon kaa vyaapaar karane kaa kharch shayed hii uthaa sakate they, kyonki yeh unhein unake apane upalabdh kaary-samay kii seema seey parey leey jaayega; yeh mayane rakhta haye, kyonki ausat shram utpaadaktaa cumm thee-bhojan, kapade, aashray, upkaran aur hathiyaron kaa utpaadan karane mein bahut samay lagata thaa. joe bhee vyaapaar kii pratha thee, usey cumm seey cumm astitva kii aavashyaktaon key saath sangat honah thaa. yadi naheen, tou pratha samaapt hoe jaayegi.
samajik sambandh.
moolya key roopon kaa vishleshan karke, marks kaa uddeshya yeh dikhaana haye kii jaba loga apane utpaadon koo bajar vyaapaar mein ack-dusare key sambandh mein laate hain, tou way vishisht tarikon seey samajik roop seey bhee sambandhit hotey hain (chaahe way ise pasand karate hain yaa naheen, aur kyaa way isake baare mein jaanate hain yaa naheen), aur yeh tathya bahut dridhata seey usa tareeke koo prabhaavit kartaa haye jisamen way "sochate hain" kii way kaise sambandhit hain. yeh prabhaavit kartaa haye kii way dene aur praapt karane, lene aur praapt karane, saajha karane aur chhodane, sweekaar karane aur aswikar karane kii poori maanav samvaadaatmak prakriya koo kaise dekhenge-aur una sabhi koo kaise santulit kiya jaae.
kuchh samajik sambandh jinhen humm chunate hain aur khud koo banaate hain, lekin humm kewal ack samudaay aur ack rashtra (yaa ack parivaar, ack sangathan aadi kaa hissa) kaa hissa honey key kaaran samajik roop seey bhee sambandhit hain.), chaahe humm ise pasand karein yaa naheen. vyaparik bhoomikaon mein, logon koo iss prakaar key samajik sambandhon key "donon" seey nipatna padata haye-saath hii saath sabse achchha sauda praapt karane key liye pratispardha karna padata haye, aur joe way chaahte hain usey praapt karane key liye sahyog karna padata haye. vyaapaar prakriya mein ack swaichhik pahalu (swatantrata, chunane key liye cheejen) aur ack anaichhik pahalu (baadhaaen, cheejen jinake saath sauda karane key liye kaam karna padata haye) donon hotey hain. vyaapaar karane key liye, kharidaaron aur vikretaon koo apani sampatti key liye ack-dusare key adhikaar kaa sammaan karna chaahiye, aur kaanoon, reeti-rivaajon aur maandandon key dhaanche key bheetar apani sampatti key saath joe way chaahte hain, karane key unake adhikaar kaa sammaan karna chaahiye (marks "kathorta" mein bajar abhinetaon kii aupchaarik samaantaa kii dhaarana parr charcha kartaa haye). yadi bajar key abhineta dusaron seey saman chheen lete hain, tou yeh vyaapaar naheen hoga, balki dakaiti hogi (joe sabhya aacharan key roop mein yogya naheen hogi, aur ack pratishtha jokhim key saath-saath kanuni pratibandhon key adheen hogi).
utpaadon key moolya key roop kewal vastuon key vyaparik mulyankan koo sandarbhit naheen karate hain; way maanav vishayon key beach sambandh yaa baatchit key ack nishchit tareeke aur ack mansikta koo bhee sandarbhit karate hain, joe moolya key roopon koo aantarik roop dete hain, taaki aarthik moolya kii abhivyaktiyon koo maanav baatchit mein poori tarah seey samanya, praakritik aur swa-spasht maanaa jaae (ack "bajar sanskriti", joe bhasha key upayog mein bhee parilakshit hoti haye). marks swayam avaastavik roop seey "vastuon kii bhasha" koo sandarbhit kartaa haye, joe baatchit aur sanket way vyaapaar prakriyaon kii sheersh-vikrit duniya ("workeheart velt") mein bhejate aur praapt karate hain, aur vaha ack futnote mein vyangyapurna roop seey jodata haye kii "ack nishchit arth mein, loga vastuon key samaan sthiti mein hain...". sujhaav yeh haye kii, saadrishya seey, ack vyakti kii pehchaan aur moolya kii maanyata kewal anya logon key sampark key madhyam seey hoti haye, aur ack vyakti dusare key liye prajaati-model bunn jaataa haye, jaise kii vastuon koo ack dusare seey sambandhit honey kii aavashyakta hoti haye aur unake moolya kaa parimaan sthaapit karane key liye dhana.
jins vinimay mein kyaa hotaa haye, isake baare mein marks kaa vivaran naa kewal iss baat parr prakaash daaltaa haye kii moolya sambandhon kaa astitva moolya nirdhaaran karane vaalon seey kaafee swatantra roop seey vastuon key beach prateet hotaa haye, balki yeh bhee kii loga sweekaar karate hain kii yeye sambandh maujood hain, bhale hii way vaastav mein naheen samajhate hain kii way kyaa hain, yaa way kyon maujood hain. humm jaanate hain kii ack vishesh bajar maujood haye, aggar kharidar aur vikreta hain. anubhav key saath, humm unaki pehchaan curr sakate hain, aur ack samanya karobar kaa anuman lagaa sakate hain. haalaanki, sabhi baajaron mein ack saath baatchit aur lenden kii samagrata, aasaani seey ack athah amurtata key roop mein dikhaai dey sakati haye.
moolya key roopon kii utpatti.
marks vyaapaar utpaadon kii prakriya mein chaar kramik charanon key beach antar kartaa haye, arthaat.ee.vastuon key parisancharan mein, jisake madhyam seey kaafee sthir aur vastunishth "moolya aanupaatikta" (german mein "wortwerhaltniss") banati haye joe vyakt karati haye kii "kaun seey utpaad hain
laayak. yeye kadam hainh
yeye roop vyaapaar aur laagat/laabh ganana koo suvidhajanak banaane key liye vastuon key moolya kaa prateek aur pratinidhitva karane key vibhinn tareeke hain. moolya key saral roop mein (yaa jaruri naheen kii) dhana-sandarbh shamil naa hoe, aur vistaarit aur samanya roop ack gair-maudrik aur aarthik moolya kii maudrik abhivyakti key beach madhyasth abhivyaktiyaan hain. chaar charan ack amoort saransh hain kii jaba utpaadon mein vyaapaar badhata haye aur aakasmik vinimay seey parey vikasit hotaa haye tou anivarya roop seey vyaparik sambandh key saath kyaa hotaa haye.
moolya kaa saral roop.
marks key aarthik arth mein moolya sambandh taba ubharana shuru hotaa haye, jaba humm yeh kahane mein saksham hotey hain kii upayog-moolyon kaa ack bundle (alag) upayog-moolyon key dusare bundle key samaan haye. aisaa taba hotaa haye jaba utpaadon key bandalon kaa niyamit roop seey ack-dusare key liye vyaapaar kiya jaataa haye, aur iss prakaar unhein vyaapaar key saadhan key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye. yeh maatraon key beach ack matratmak sambandh haye, joe maap kii ack hii ikai mein nihit roop seey vyakt kiya jaataa haye. moolya key roop kii sabse saral abhivyakti koo nimnalikhit sameekaran key roop mein kahaa jaa sakata haih
jahan x {a} kaa maan "apekshaakrit" vyakt kiya jaataa haye, kyonki yeh b kii ack nishchit matra key barabar hotaa haye, jiska arth haye kii x {a} moolya kaa "saapeksh" roop haye aur y {b} moolya kaa "samkaksh" roop haye, taaki b prabhaavi roop seey "(a key moolya koo vyakt kartaa haye) kaa moolya-roop" hoe. aggar humm poochhen kii "vastu kii x matra kaa moolya kitna haye?"iska uttar haye" "vastu kii y matra b" ".
yeh saral sameekaran, utpaadon key beach ack saral "moolya anupaat" koo vyakt kartaa haye, halanki utpaadon key parisancharan key bheetar ubharate mulyankan mein antar kii kaee sambhaavanaon kii anumati detaa haih
mulyankan mein yeye sambhaavit parivartan hamein pahale seey hii yeh samajhane mein saksham banaate hain kii koee bhee vishesh utpaad kisake liye vyaapaar karega, yeh iss baat seey pariseemit haye kii "anya" utpaad kisake liye vyaapaar karenge, iss baat seey kaafee swatantra roop seey kii kharidar kitna bhugtan karna chaahega, yaa vikreta badale mein kitna praapt karna chaahega.
"moolya" koo yahaan "moolya" key saath bhramit naheen kiya jaanaa chaahiye, halanki, kyonki utpaadon kaa vyaapaar unake moolya seey oopar yaa neeche kii kimaton parr kiya jaa sakata haye (moolya-moolya vichalan kaa arth haye; yeh tasveer koo jatil banaata haye aur kewal "daas rajdhani" kii teesari matra mein vistrit kiya jaataa haye). moolya-sanrachanaaen aur moolya-sanrachanaaen hain. saralata key liye, marks shuru mein yeh maanata haye kii kissy vastu kii mudra-keemat usake moolya key barabar hogi (aamtaur parr, moolya-moolya vichalan bahut achchha naheen hoga); lekin "poonji, matra III" mein yeh spasht hoe jaataa haye kii unake moolya seey oopar yaa neeche kii vastuon kii bikri kaa kull laabh parr mahatvapurna prabhaav padata haye.
moolya key saral "saapeksh" roop key mukhya nihitarth yeh hainh
marks kaa yeh bhee tark haye kii, usee samay, iss tarah kaa aarthik sameekaran dou anya cheejon koo puuraa kartaa haih
prabhaavi roop seey, ack "samajik sambandh" (ack samajik sambandh yaa bandhan) sthaapit kiya jaataa haye aur bajar mein moolya-samaantaon key madhyam seey pushti kii jaati haye, joe saapeksh shram laagat (maanav kaary oorjaa key vyay) koo moolya kaa vaastavik padaarth banaata haye. jahir haye, kuchh parisampattiyaan maanav shram dwara bilkul bhee utpaadit naheen kii jaati hain, lekin unakaa vyaavsaayik roop seey moolya kaise rakhaa jaataa haye, phir bhee spasht roop seey yaa nihit roop seey, pratyaksh yaa apratyaksh roop seey, sambandhit parisampattiyon kii tulanaatmak laagat sanrachana koo sandarbhit karega joe shram-utpaad hain.
amazon varsha vann key beach mein ack pedh kaa koee vyaavsaayik moolya naheen haye jahan yeh khadaa haye. humm isake moolya kaa anuman kewal yeh anuman lagaakar lagaa sakate hain kii isamen katauti karane mein kitna kharch aayega, yeh baajaron mein kiss keemat parr bechega, yaa vartamaan mein humm isase kyaa aaya praapt curr sakate hain-yaa humm ise dekhane key liye logon seey kitna shulk leey sakate hain. pedh parr "sweekarya moolya" lagaate hue, yeh maan liya jaataa haye kii lakadi yaa jangalon mein pahale seey hii ack bajar maujood haye, joe hamein bataata haye kii pedh kaa moolya aam taur parr kyaa hoga.
moolya kaa vistaarit roop.
moolya key vistaarit roop mein, vibhinn vastuon kii maatraon key beach sameekaran prakriya koo kewal kramik roop seey jaari rakhaa jaataa haye, taaki ack dusare key saapeksh unake moolya sthaapit hoe sakein, aur way sabhi kissy naa kissy vastu-samatulya mein vyakt kiye jaa sakein. vistaarit moolya-roop abhivyakti vaastav mein kewal saral moolya roop key vistaar kaa pratinidhitva karati haye, jahaan utpaad ack dusare key barabar honey key liye saapeksh aur samkaksh roopon key roop mein vaikalpik hotey hain.
marks kaa tark haye kii, iss tarah, moolya kaa vistaarit roop vyaavhaarik roop seey aparyaapt haye, kyonki kissy bhee vastu key moolya koo vyakt karane key liye abb tulanaa kii ack poori "shrinkhala" kii ganana kii aavashyakta hoe sakati haye, i.ee.
iska kyaa arth haye, kii yadi a kaa samanya roop seey b key liye vyaapaar kiya jaataa haye, aur b kaa samanya roop seey c key liye vyaapaar kiya jaataa haye, tou yeh pataa lagaane key liye kii c key sandarbh mein a kaa moolya kitna haye, hamein pahale raashi koo b mein badalana hoga (aur shayed kaee aur madhyavarti kadam). yeh spasht roop seey aksham haye yadi ack hii samay mein kaee vastuon kaa vyaapaar kiya jaataa haye.
moolya kaa samanya roop.
isaliye vyaapaar mein vyaavhaarik samadhan moolya key ack samanya roop kaa udbhav haye, jisamen sabhi prakaar kii vastuon key bandalon key moolyon koo ack maanak vastu (yaa kewal kuchh manakon) kii matra mein vyakt kiya jaa sakata haye joe ack samanya samkaksh key roop mein kaary karate hain. samanya samatulya kaa anya vastuon key saath samaan moolya kaa koee saapeksh roop naheen haye; isake bajaay iska moolya kewal anya vastuon key asankhya mein vyakt kiya jaataa haye.
sootra _ 1 = sootra _ 2
pracheen sabhyataon mein jahaan kaafee bajar vyaapaar hotaa thaa, aamtaur parr kuchh prakaar kii vastuen hoti theen joe moolya key samanya maanak key roop mein kaary curr sakati theen. yeh maanak moolya tulanaa key liye upayog kiya jaataa haye; iska matlab yeh naheen thaa kii vastuon kaa vaastav mein maanak vastu key liye vyaapaar kiya jaataa thaa. iss balki bojhil drishtikon koo "paise" kii shuruat key saath hull kiya jaataa haye-ack utpaad kaa malik ise paise key liye betch sakata haye, aur paise seey doosara utpaad khareed sakata haye, iss baare mein chinta kiye binaa kii kyaa apane swayam key utpaad key badale mein dee jaane vaali cheez vaastav mein vaha utpaad haye joe vaha khud chaahata haye. abb, vyaapaar kii ekmatra seema bajar kaa vikas aur vikas darr haye.
moolya kaa dhana-roop.
sirf isaliye kii vastuon kii matra koo ack samanya samkaksh kii matra mein vyakt kiya jaa sakata haye, joe ack sandarbh key roop mein kaary kartaa haye, iska matlab yeh naheen haye kii una sabhi kaa aavashyak roop seey usa samkaksh key liye vyaapaar kiya jaa sakata haye. samanya samatulya kewal ack prakaar kii maap hoe sakati haye jiska upayog vastuon kii keemat kii tulanaa karane key liye kiya jaataa haye. isaliye, vyavhaar mein samanya samatulya roop dhana-vastu koo raasta detaa haye, joe ack saarvbhaumik samatulya haye, jiska arth haye kii (basharte loga vyaapaar karane key liye taiyar houn) isamen sateek roop seey maapi gaee matra mein pratyaksh aur saarvbhaumik vinimay kii visheshta haye.
sootra _ 1 = sootra _ 4
lekin maanav sabhyata key adhikansh itihas key liye, dhana kaa vaastav mein saarvbhaumik roop seey upayog naheen kiya gayaa thaa, aanshik roop seey kyonki sampatti adhikaaron aur saanskritik prathaon kii prachalit pranaliyon ney kaee vastuon koo paise key liye bechane kii anumati naheen dee thee, aur aanshik roop seey kyonki kaee utpaadon koo vitarit kiya gayaa thaa aur paise kaa upayog kiye binaa vyaapaar kiya gayaa thaa. saath hii, kaee alag-alag "mudraon" kaa aksar saath-saath upayog kiya jaataa thaa. marks swayam maanate they kii khanabdosh loga moolya key dhana-roop (vyaapaar mein ack saarvbhaumik samkaksh key arth mein) koo vikasit karane vaale pahale vyakti they kyonki unaki sabhi sampatti gatishil thee, aur kyonki way niyamit roop seey vibhinn samudaayon key sampark mein they, jisase utpaadon key adaan-pradaan koo protsaahit kiya gayaa thaa.
jaba aam taur parr vyaapaar mein dhana kaa upayog kiya jaataa haye, tou dhana vyaapaar kiye jaa rahey maal key moolya key roop kii samanya abhivyakti bunn jaati haye; aamtaur parr yeh kanuni mudra jaari karane vaale raajya pradhikaran key udbhav seey judaa hotaa haye. usa samay moolya key roop ney kissy vishesh vyaapaar vastu seey poori tarah seey swatantra, alag astitva praapt kiya haye (haalaanki, iss swaayatta key peechhe raajya adhikaariyon yaa niji agencies kii vittiya daavon koo "lagu" karane kii shakti haye).
ack baar dhana-vastu (ee.jee.sonaa, chaandi, kansya) koo vinimay key ack sthir madhyam key roop mein surakshit roop seey sthaapit kiya gayaa haye, prateekaatmak mudra-tokan (jaise.jee.raajya, vyaparik gharanon yaa nigamon dwara jaari baink nott aur rinn daave) siddhant roop mein "vaastavik cheez" key liye kagji dhana yaa rinn daayitvon koo niyamit aadhar parr pratisthaapit curr sakate hain.
sabse pahale, yeye "kagji daave" (kanuni nivida) kaanoon dwara soney, chaandi aadi kii matra mein parivartit kiye jaa sakate hain., aur way keemati dhatuon key saath-saath ghoomate hain. lekin dheere-dheere aisee mudraaen upayog mein aatee hain joe itani parivartaniya naheen hain, i.ee.nyasi dhana" yaa fiet dhana joe samajik vishvaas parr nirbhar kartaa haye kii loga apane laine-daine key daayitvon kaa sammaan karenge. iss prakaar kaa nyasi dhana swayam dhana-tokan key moolya (vastu dhana key roop mein) parr nirbhar naheen kartaa haye, balki vittiya daavon aur anubandhon koo lagu karane kii kshamata parr nirbhar kartaa haye, mukhya roop seey raajya kii shakti aur kaanoonon key madhyam seey, balki anya sansthaagat tarikon seey bhee. antatah, jaisa kii 1844 mein marks ney anuman lagaaya thaa, keemati dhaatuen maudrik pranali mein bahut cumm bhoomika nibhaati hain.
fiet munny key saath-saath credit munny bhee adhik seey adhik vikasit hotaa haye. rinn raashi, halanki mudra ikaaiyon mein vyakt kii jaati haye, isamen dhana tokan naheen hotey hain. isamen vittiya daave shamil hain, jisamen sabhi prakaar key rinn pramaan patra (vachan patra) shamil hain, joe dhaarak koo anubandh dwara nirdisht sharton key tahat bhavishya kii aaya key liye hakdar banaate hain. inn daavon kaa laabh key liye khud vyaapaar kiya jaa sakata haye. pracheen duniya mein rinn vyavastha pahale seey hii maujood thee, lekin rinn daayitvon mein bahut badey paimaane parr vyaapaar naheen thaa. aadhunik duniya mein, adhikansh dhana mein abb dhana tokan naheen, balki rinn dhana hotaa haye. marks rinn raashi kii bhoomika key baare mein kaafee jaanate they, lekin unhone iska gaharaai seey vishleshan naheen kiya. unaki chinta kewal iss baat parr thee kii rinn pranali ney poonjiwadi utpaadan prakriya koo seedhe kaise prabhaavit kiya.
marks key anusaar antim saarvbhaumik samatulya "vishva dhana" haye.ee.vittiya saadhan joe harr jagah vyaapaar uddeshyon key liye sweekaar kiye jaate hain aur upayog karane yogya hotey hain, jaise kii sarrafa. vishva bajar mein, vastuon kaa moolya ack saarvbhaumik maanak dwara vyakt kiya jaataa haye, taaki unakaa "swatantra moolya-roop" vyapariyon koo "saarvbhaumik dhana" key roop mein dikhaai dey. aajkal americi dollar, euro aur japani yenn kaa vyaapak roop seey "vishva mudraon" key roop mein upayog kiya jaataa haye joe lagbhag saarvbhaumik maanak aur moolya kaa maap pradaan karate hain. inca upayog duniya bhar mein vinimay key saadhan key roop mein kiya jaataa haye, aur isake parinamswarup adhikansh sarkaaron key paas inn mudraon key liye mahatvapurna bhandar yaa daave hain.
prabhaav.
moolya key roop mein vikas mein marks key chaar charan mukhya roop seey ack "vishleshanatmak" yaa taarkik pragati hain, joe hamesha "vaastavik" aitihaasik prakriyaon key anuroop naheen hoe sakati hain, jinake dwara vastuen apekshaakrit sthir moolya praapt karna shuru curr detee hain aur vastuon key roop mein vyaapaar kii jaati hain. teen kaaran hainh
yeh sirf itna haye kii, aam taur parr, ack poori tarah seey naee tarah kii vastu kaa samajik roop seey sweekrit moolya kyaa hoga, isake liye ack niyamit vyaapaar prakriya key vyaavhaarik "pareekshan" kii aavashyakta hoti haye, yeh maanate hue kii utpadakon dwara niyamit aapoorti aur isaki niyamit maang hoti haye, joe utpaadan laagat key anuroop ack vyaapaar "maanak" sthaapit kartaa haye. ack naee vastu jiska pahale vyaapaar naheen kiya gayaa thaa, uska vyaapaar usake vaastavik moolya seey bahut oopar yaa neeche kiya jaa sakata haye, jaba taka kii isaki aapoorti aur maang sthir naheen hoe jaati haye, aur isake vinimay-moolya mein kewal apekshaakrit sankeern margine key bheetar utaar-chadhaav hotaa haye (roodhivaadi arthshastra mein, iss prakriya koo moolya khoj key roop mein sweekaar kiya jaataa haye).
vyaapaar prakriyaon key vikas key madhyam seey moolya key roop key vikas mein ack nirantar dohri barabari aur saapekshata prakriya shamil hoti haye (ise kabhi-kabhi "bajar samaayojan" key ack prakaar key roop mein sandarbhit kiya jaataa haye):
isake chhah mukhya prabhaav hainh
saamaanyikrit vastu utpaadan.
shaharon mein poonjiwadi karkhanon key ubharane seey hajaaron saal pahale seey hii vyaparik poonji key roop mein poonji maujood thee; isake malik (chaahe way kirayedar houn, vyaapaari houn yaa raajya key padadhikari) aksar vastu utpadakon key beach "madhyasth" key roop mein kaam karate they. unhone ack keemat key liye vinimay kii suvidha pradaan kii-unhone vyaapaar seey paisa kamaaya. marks utpaadan key poonjiwadi tareeke koo "saamaanyikrit (yaa saarvbhaumik) vastu utpaadan" key roop mein paribhaashit kartaa haye, jiska arth haye kii adhikansh vastuon aur sevaaon kaa utpaadan mukhya roop seey vaanijyik uddeshyon key liye kiya jaataa haye, ack saarvbhaumik bajar mein laabhdaayak bajar bikri key liye.
iska parinam yeh haye kii utpaadan key nivesh aur utpaadan (shram shakti sahit) donon hii kimaton key saath vyaapaar yogya vastu bunn jaate hain, aur "poore utpaadan" koo vaanijyik siddhanton key anusaar punargathit kiya jaataa haye. jabaki mool roop seey vaanijyik vyaapaar vibhinn samudaayon kii seemaon parr episodic roop seey huaa, marks kaa tark haye, antatah vanijya una samudaayon kii poori utpaadan prakriya koo gher letaa haye aur phir seey aakar detaa haye. isamen shram bull key ack badey hisse kaa vetan-shram (ack vastu key roop mein shram shakti kii bikri) mein parivartan aur niyojit shram kaa poonjikaran (adhishesh shram adhishesh moolya paida kartaa haye) shamil haye.
badale mein, iska matlab haye kii kissy utpaad kaa utpaadan kiya jaayega yaa naheen, aur iska utpaadan kaise kiya jaayega, yeh kewal iss baat parr nirbhar naheen kartaa haye kii iska utpaadan karna bhautik roop seey sambhav haye yaa logon koo isaki aavashyakta haye yaa naheen, balki isaki utpaadan kii vittiya laagat parr, kyaa paryaapt raashi bechi jaa sakati haye, aur kyaa isake utpaadan seey paryaapt laabh aaya hoti haye. yahee kaaran haye kii marks ney vyaktigat vastu koo, joe ack saath moolya aur upayog-moolya kaa pratinidhitva kartaa haye, poonjeevaad key "shareer" mein "koshika" (yaa "koshika-roop") key roop mein maanaa. vikreta mukhya roop seey apane utpaad key liye paisa chaahata haye aur vaastav mein isaki khapat yaa upayog (bikri karane key drishtikon key alawa) seey chintit naheen haye; kharidar utpaad kaa upayog yaa upbhog karna chaahata haye, aur paisa kissy bhee suvidhajanak srot seey ise praapt karane kaa saadhan haye.
iss prakaar vikreta kaa uddeshya seedhe kharidar kii aavashyakta koo puuraa karna naheen haye, naa hii kharidar kaa uddeshya vikreta koo samriddh karna haye. balki, kharidar aur vikreta ack-dusare key liye dhana yaa saman praapt karane kaa saadhan hain. ack parinam key roop mein, utpaadan maanav aavashyaktaon koo puuraa karane key liye ack rachanaatmak gatividhi cumm seey cumm hoe sakata haye, lekin kewal paisa kamaane yaa vastuon aur sevaaon taka pahunch praapt karane kaa ack saadhan hoe sakata haye. richard senate poonjiwadi samaaj mein shilp kaushal kii lupt hoti kalaa key liye ack prashansa pradaan karate hain. isake vipareet, utpaadon koo spasht roop seey taba taka naheen becha jaa sakata jaba taka kii logon koo unaki aavashyakta naa hoe, aur jaba taka kii usa aavashyakta koo vyaavhaarik roop seey sweekaar naheen kiya jaataa haye. samajik prabhaav yeh haye kii vyaapaar key uddeshya kuchh yaa anya hudd taka chhipe hoe sakate hain, yaa way vaastav mein kyaa hain usase kuchh alag dikhaai dey sakate hain (iss arth mein, marks "charitra mask" kii avadharana kaa upayog kartaa haye).
punarsanchayit karna.
moolya key roop kii avadharana seey pataa chalata haye kii kaise, vastu vyaapaar key vikas key saath, logon key liye ack upayogita key saath kissy bhee cheez koo ack amoort moolya mein badala jaa sakata haye, joe dhana key yog key roop mein vastunishth roop seey vyakt kiya jaa sakata haye; lekin, yeh bhee kii yeh parivartan shram key sangathan koo apani moolya-nirmaan kshamata koo adhikatam karane key liye kaise badalata haye, yeh kaise samajik baatchit koo badalata haye aur jiss tarah seey loga apani baatchit key baare mein jagrook hain.
haalaanki, vastuon kii matratmakta aur maatraon mein herfer seey unake gunaatmak gunon mein vikriti (punarnirdharan) hoti haye. parimaan key ack maap koo praapt karane key liye, yeh aksar maanaa jaataa haye kii vastuein matratmak hain, lekin matratmak prakriya mein, vibhinn gunaatmak pahaluon koo suvidhajanak roop seey nazarandaj curr diyaa jaataa haye yaa unase door curr diyaa jaataa haye. jahir haye kii dhana kii kimaton mein harr cheej kii abhivyakti kewal ack hii mulyankan naheen haye joe kiya jaa sakata haye yaa kiya jaanaa chaahiye. aarthik vishleshan key liye ganit bahut mahatvapurna haye, lekin yeh sambhaavit roop seey antim punruddhar kaa ack durjeya srot bhee haye (kyonki ack aarthik ghatana koo ack amoort sankhya mein cumm karna ise samajhane key liye aavashyak lagbhag harr cheej kii upeksha curr sakata haye).
anivarya roop seey, marks kaa tark haye kii yadi cheejon key moolya samajik sambandhon koo vyakt karane key liye hain, tou, vyaparik gatividhi mein, logon koo anivarya roop seey prateekaatmak roop seey iss tarah seey "kaary" karna hoga joe vastuon aur vishayon key beach sambandhon koo ulat detaa haye, chaahe way isake baare mein jaanate houn yaa naheen. unhein ack rishte key saath aisaa vyavhaar karna hoga jaise kii yeh apane aap mein ack cheej haye. udaaharan key liye, ack vigyaapan mein, ack vittiya sansthaan kaha sakata haye kii "hamaare saath, aapka paisa aapke liye kaam kartaa haye", lekin paisa "kaam" naheen kartaa haye, loga karate hain. ack sambandh koo ack cheej key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye, aur logon key beach ack sambandh cheejon key beach ack sambandh key roop mein vyakt kiya jaataa haye.
vipanan.
moolya key roopon key vikas key kull nihitarth iss lekh mein varnit kiye jaane kii tulanaa mein bahut adhik doorgaami hain, kyonki (1) jinn prakriyaon dwara loga jinn cheejon kaa upayog karate hain unhein vyaapaar kii vastuon mein badal diyaa jaataa haye (jinhen aksar vastu-nirmaan, vyaavsaayikaran yaa vipanan kahaa jaataa haye) aur (2) inn prakriyaon key samajik prabhaav, donon hii atyant vividh hain. sabhi prakaar key kshetron mein vyaavsaayik sambandhon key vikas key baare mein ack bahut badaa saahitya maujood haye, joe pragati aur paaramparik tarikon key vinash donon koo ujagar kartaa haye.
poonjeevaad key astitva key liye, baajaron koo badhana chaahiye, lekin bajar vikas key liye logon key samajik roop seey sambandhit honey key tareeke mein parivartan aur sampatti key adhikaaron mein parivartan kii aavashyakta hoti haye. yeh aksar ack samasya-bharaa aur sangharsh-grast prakriya hoti haye, jaisa kii marks ney apani kahani mein adim sanchay key baare mein varnan kiya haye. 20veen shatabdi key dauran, duniya mein kaheen bhee yuddhon key binaa shayed hii koee varsh thaa. jaise-jaise vyaavsaayik pratispardha key vaishvik vistaar ney harr jagah paaramparik samajik sanrachanaon aur paaramparik sampatti adhikaaron koo toda diyaa, isane raajneetik asthirta aur samajik vargon, jaatiya samoohon, dharmon aur rashtron key beach, vibhinn sthaanon parr, saath hii saath kraantiyon aur takhtapalat kii ack shrinkhala kaa kaaran banaa.jee. theda skokpol aur charles tilly jaise samajshastriyon dwara). 20veen shatabdi mein prakat honey vaale lagbhag sabhi samajwadi desh yuddhon seey utpann hue.
yuddh aam taur parr vyaapaar key liye kharaab hotey hain (sainya udyog aur isake aapurtikartaon koo chhodkar), koee bhee unhein pasand naheen kartaa haye, aur sarkaaren unhein rokane kii koshish karati hain, lekin vaastav mein duniya kaa vipanan aksar ack bahut hii aakramak, hinsak prakriya rahee haye. aam taur parr, isaliye, shantipurna bajar vyaapaar key samarthak saamoohik hinsa key visfoton key liye "bajar key alawa sub kuchh" koo doshi thaharaate hain, iss vaade key saath kii, aggar loga buss baithenge aur ack saude parr baatchit karenge, tou unhein bull kaa upayog naheen karna hoga. yeh maanata haye kii bajar vyaapaar raajneetik shakti seey kaafee alag haye, kyonki "yeh bajar-vyaapaar haye, i.ee. vyaapaar bhagidaron key beach ack mukt baatchit joe bajar mein barabar hain.
moolya-roop aur moolya-roop.
apani kahani mein, marks "moolya" key parimaan koo kewal utpaad kii bhautik matra aur ausat shram-samay kii matra key anupaat key roop mein paribhaashit kartaa haye, joe soney-dhana kii matra (dusare shabdon mein, ack scalar) key barabar haih
unhone pahale hii sweekaar curr liya thaa kii soney-dhana kii dhaarana ack saiddhaantik saralikaran haye, kyonki dhana tokan kii kray shakti una karanon seey bhinn hoe sakati haye jinka utpaadan pranali seey koee lena-denaa naheen haye (kuchh seemaon key bheetar, x, y aur z ack dusare seey swatantra roop seey bhinn hoe sakate hain); lekin unhone socha kii yeh utpaadan key poonjiwadi mode mein shamil aarthik sambandhon kii sanrachana koo prakat karane key liye upayogi thaa, joe samagr roop seey pranali kii gati kaa vishleshan karane key liye ack prastaavana key roop mein thaa; aur, unakaa maanana thaa kii dhana kii kray shakti mein bhinnata ney usa sanrachana koo bilkul bhee naheen badala, kyonki kamkaji aabaadi koo jeevit rahane key liye utpaadan karane key liye majboor kiya gayaa thaa, aur aisaa karane mein unaki ichcha seey swatantra utpaadan key samajik sambandhon mein pravesh kiya gayaa thaa; sampatti adhikaaron kii buniyaadi pranali samaan rahee, chaahe utpaad aur shram kaa vyaapaar uchch yaa cumm moolya key liye kiya gayaa thaa.
haalaanki, jaisa kii koee bhee banker yaa sattebaaj jaanata haye, kissy cheez key moolya kii mudra-ikaaiyon kii matra key roop mein abhivyakti kissy bhee tarah seey "moolya kii antim aur antim abhivyakti" naheen haye.
antatah vittiya vyaapaar itna jatil hoe jaataa haye kii ack vittiya sampatti kaa moolya aksar sabhi prakaar kii yogyataon key binaa kissy bhee sateek matra mein (ack "nakad moolya") vyakt naheen kiya jaa sakata haye, aur iska moolya poori tarah seey isaki apekshit aaya kshamata parr sashart hoe jaataa haye.
capital volume 3" mein, jise unhone "volume i" seey pahale taiyar kiya thaa, marks seey pataa chalata haye kii vaha isake baare mein achchi tarah seey jaanate they. unhone naa kewal "vaastavik poonji" (bhautik, moort poonji parisampattiyaan) aur "dhana poonji" key beach antar kiya, balki "kaalpanik poonji" aur chhadm-vastuon key astitva parr bhee dhyaan diyaa, jinka sakhti seey kewal prateekaatmak moolya haye. marks kaa maanana thaa kii moolya key roopon koo sahee dhang seey siddhant banaane mein viphalata key kaaran "dhana key baare mein sabse ajib aur sabse virodhabhasi vichaar" saamane aae, joe "teji seey ubharate hain... banking key siddhant mein, jahan paise kii samanya paribhaashaaen abb paani naheen rakhti hain.
moolya-roop.
isake anuroop, marks ney spasht roop seey "moolya" key roop aur "moolya-roop" key beach ack antar "aayatan i" mein shuru mein pesh kiya. seedhe shabdon mein kahein tou moolya-roop vyaapaar kaa ack madhyasth haye joe utpaadon key moolya key roopon seey alag aur alag haye. moolya mudra kii ikaaiyon mein vinimay-moolya koo vyakt karate hain. ack moolya ack "sanket" haye joe yaa tou ack sambhaavit yaa ack vaastavik lenden (yaa ack hii samay mein donon) key baare mein jaankaari detaa haye. jaankaari sahee yaa galat hoe sakati haye; yeh avalokan yogya yaa gair-avalokan yogya koo sandarbhit curr sakati haye; yeh anumaanit, anumaanit yaa sambhaavit hoe sakati haye. haalaanki, kyonki keematen bhee sankhyaaen hain, isaliye unhein unake apane adhikaar mein herfer karane yogya "cheejon" key roop mein maanana aasaan haye, unake uchit sandarbh seey amoort roop mein. jaisa kii victor meyer-sconberger kahate hain, "...jaankaari koo keemat taka aasavan karane kii prakriya mein, kaee vivaran khou jaate hain."
lattin mool.
moolya" kii aadhunik avadharana kii aspashtata pahale seey hii roman samay mein shabd key lattin mool arth mein maujood thee. yeh aadhunik samay mein banaa huaa haye. iss prakaar, udaaharan key liye, 1912 mein, frank fatter ney arthshastriyon dwara upayog kii jaane vaali "moolya" kii 117 "alag-alag" paribhashaon koo ekatra kiya, jinhen unhone teen shreniyon key tahat vargeekrit kiyaah vastunishth vinimay-moolya, vyaktiparak moolya aur vinimay kaa anupaat. dha 
pris" yaa "prix" (french), "prece" (german), "prizzo" (italvi), "precio" (spanish), "preco" (purtagaali) aur "price" (angreji) sabhi seedhe yaa vaaya-viye, lattin samkaksh "pretium" yaa "precium" (joe sambhavatah 'yaa', i kaa sankuchan thaa.ee., ack exchange mein, joe kharidar seey vikreta taka jaataa haye). lattin kriya "itio" kaa arth haye "jaanaa, yatra karna", jaisa kii "yatra karyakram" mein haye, aur lattin vyutpatti "preteosus" kaa arth haye "moolyavaan yaa mahanga".
"pretium", moolya key liye lattin shabd, sandarbh key aadhar parr duss seey cumm asatat arth naheen thaah
inn duss prakaar key moolya vichaaron mein seey pratyek vibhinn samajik sambandhon koo sandarbhit kartaa haye. pratyek samajik sambandh mein, badale mein, kissy naa kissy prakaar kaa lenden shamil hotaa haye-ack vinimay, ack nivesh, ack puraskar, ack anudan, ack jurmana, ack samvitaran yaa hastaantaran, ack muaavaje kaa bhugtan aadi. lenden" shabd swayam lattin "lenden" seey liya gayaa haye, jiska arth haye "samjhauta", "ack upalabdhi", "ack sauda kiya gayaa. lattin shabd "transector" kissy prakaar key saude mein madhyasth yaa madhyasth sanchaalak koo sandarbhit kartaa haye, aur "transectus" kaa arth haye "chhed", "bhed", yaa "atak" (kaee roman sikkon mein unake madhyam seey chhed they, ack string parr bhandaran key liye, yaa sajawati uddeshyon key liye).
pretium" shabd yaa ack moolya sankhya, itna spasht naheen karati haye. phir bhee, moolya kii shaastriya avadharana pahale seey hii ack aarthik yaa saadhan ayam, aur ack naitik ayam donon koo spasht roop seey pradarshit karati haye (kuchh keematen upayukt hain aur kuchh uchit naheen hain). stephen goodeman key anusaar, kimaton key prati bhranti kaa ack pahalu taba prakat hoe sakata haye jaba "keematen kewal khud koo sandarbhit karati hain. keematen kewal tabhi khud koo sandarbhit karati hain, jaba way laine-daine aur samajik sandarbh seey baahar nikalati hain, jisase way utpann hoti hain, aur ack swatantra vaastaviktaa praapt karati hain, jahaan moolya sankhya kewal anya moolya sankhyaon seey sambandhit hoti haye. iss mayane mein, keemat kii sankhya utani hii chhip sakati haye jitani way prakat karate hain. jabaki loga sankhya parr dhyaan kendrit karate hain, way vaastavik sandarbh key baare mein bhool jaate hain joe sankhya koo janm detaa haye. jaba taka moolya sankhya yeh taya karati haye kii loga kaise sambandhit honge, taba taka moolyon ney maanav mamalon mein ack jabardast shakti praapt curr lii haye.
ganana key parinamswarup moolya koo ack lenden kaa prateek (pratinidhitva) maanaa jaa sakata haye, yaa ack baar mein kaee lenden, lekin iss "moolya amurtata" kii vaidhata iss baat parr nirbhar karati haye kii kyaa computational prakriya aur mulyankan vidhi sweekaar kii jaati haye. kissy cheez kii keemat" kii aadhunik dhaarana aksar vibhinn vibhinn vittiya shreniyon (jaise.jee. ack khareed yaa bikri laagat, ack deyata kii raashi, muaavaje kii raashi, ack parisampatti moolya, ack parisampatti kii upaj, ack byaaj darr aadi.). ack arthashastri key liye bhee yeh pataa lagaana mushkil hoe sakata haye kii keemat kaa vaastav mein kyaa arth haye, aur keemat kii jaankaari bhraamak hoe sakati haye.
(1) yeh spasht roop seey vyakt kartaa haye kii kissy utpaad, sampatti yaa seva koo praapt karane key liye kitna paisa diyaa jaanaa haye, aur yadi (2) iska arth sabhi sambandhit logon dwara usee tarah samajha jaataa haye, tou (saral) moolya pardarshi haye. cheejen adhik jatil hoe jaati hain, yadi kuchh moolya (ack samagr kull moolya) key liye kaee kimaton koo jodana, ghataana, vibhajit karna aur gunaa karna padata haye. yahaan, moolya ganana kii ack vidhi shamil haye joe paramparaon, paribhashaon aur avadhaaranaon koo maanati haye joe kuchh yaa anya seema taka bhinn hoe sakati hain. iss keemat koo samajhane key liye, yeh samajhana aavashyak haye kii yeh kaise aaya haye, aur kyaa vidhi sweekarya haye yaa sahee haye.
moolya banaam keemat.
marks key anusaar, moolya-roop moolya key dhana-roop kii aadarsh (prateekaatmak) abhivyakti haye jiska upayog vyaapaar cheejon mein kiya jaataa haye, laagat aur laabhon kii ganana kii jaati haye, aur yeh aaklan kiya jaataa haye kii cheejon kaa moolya kyaa haye. iss prakaar, yeh moolya key roop kaa "aage kaa vikas" naheen haye, aur paanch karanon seey baad vaale seey swatantra roop seey maujood haih
marks key utpaadan key poonjiwadi tareeke key siddhant mein, aarthik arth mein kissy bhee cheez kaa moolya naheen haye, bhale hii cheejon kii keemat nirdhaarit kii jaa sakati hoe. kewal maanav shram key utpaadon key paas moolya kii sampatti hoti haye, aur unakaa "moolya" ausatan unhein banaane mein shamil kull vartamaan shram laagat haye. vittiya parisampattiyon koo moolya key liye vyaapaar yogya daave key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye, jinhen moort parisampattiyon key liye badala jaa sakata haye. vittiya parisampatti kaa "moolya" iss baat seey paribhaashit hotaa haye kii yadi parisampatti kaa vyaapaar/bikri kii jaati haye tou malik kyaa aur kitna khareed sakata haye.
bhautik utpaadon yaa shram-sevaaon aur bhautik parisampattiyon key beach moolya sambandh-unhein banaane mein shamil vartamaan shram prayaas key anupaat key roop mein-moolya jaankaari seey kaafee swatantra roop seey marks key anusaar maujood hain, aur keematen aarthik moolyon key aspas sabhi prakaar key tarikon seey yaa vaastav mein unase kaafee swatantra roop seey dolan curr sakati hain. haalaanki, adhikansh mamalon mein dhana-ikaaiyon mein kimaton dwara utpaad-moolya kii abhivyakti vaastavik moolya seey bahut alag naheen hoti haye; yadi bahut badaa antar hotaa, tou loga unhein (aparyaapt aaya) naheen betch paate, yaa way unhein naheen khareed paate (anya vikalpon key saapeksh bahut mahanga).
yadi utpaadon kii keematen badhati hain, tou kaam key ghante badh sakate hain, aur yadi keematen girati hain, tou kaam key ghante gir sakate hain (kabhi-kabhi vipareet bhee hoe sakata haye, iss hudd taka kii atirikt ghante kaam kiye jaate hain, cumm kimaton key parinamswarup cumm aaya kii bharpai karane key liye, yaa yadi adhik bikri hoti haye kyonki keematen cumm hoti hain). iss mayane mein, yeh nishchit roop seey sach haye kii utpaad-moolya aur utpaad-moolya ack dusare koo paraspar prabhaavit karate hain. yeh sirf itna haye kii, marks key anusaar, utpaad-moolya kissy vishesh udyam key shram-prayason dwara nirdhaarit naheen hotey hain, balki una sabhi key sanyukt parinam seey nirdhaarit hotey hain.
vaastavik keematen aur aadarsh keematen.
vibhinn masauda pandulipiyon mein kimaton key roop parr charcha karate hue aur "daas rajdhani" mein, marks ney vaastavik moolyon key beach ack aavashyak antar kiya, arthaat.ee., way keematen joe yeh darshaati hain kii vaastav mein kitna paisa badal gayaa haye, aur vibhinn "aadarsh keematen" (kaalpanik yaa kaalpanik keematen).
kyonki keematen kamobesh usee tarah seey prateek yaa sanketak hain jaise traffic light hain, way kuchh aisaa prateek banaa sakate hain joe vaastav mein maujood haye (ee.jee., kathor nakadi) lekin way kuchh aisaa bhee prateek banaa sakate hain joe maujood naheen haye, yaa anya prateekon kaa prateek bhee hoe sakate hain. moolya kii avadharana kaa upayog aksar sabhi prakaar kii laine-daine kii sambhaavanaon koo sandarbhit karane key liye bahut hii dheele arthon mein kiya jaataa haye. joe kimaton key roopon koo atyadhik vividh, lacheele aur samajhane key liye jatil banaa sakata haye, lekin sambhaavit roop seey bahut bhraamak bhee hoe sakata haye, joe vaastavik sambandhon koo prachhann curr sakata haye.
aadhunik arthshastra kaafee hudd taka ack "moolya vigyaan" ("moolya vyavhaar" kaa ack vigyaan) haye, jisamen arthashastri vibhinn prakaar kii kimaton key beach sambandhon kaa vishleshan, vyakhya aur bhavishyavani karane kaa prayaas karate hain-aapoorti aur maang key niyamon koo ack maargdarshak siddhant key roop mein upayog karate hain. yeye keematen jyaadaatar kewal sankhyaaen hain, jahan maanaa jaataa haye kii yeye sankhyaaen kissy naa kissy tarah seey ack aadarsh key roop mein vaastavik kimaton kaa pratinidhitva karati hain. ganit taba ack taarkik bhasha pradaan kartaa haye, iss baare mein baat karane key liye kii yeye keematen kyaa curr sakati hain, aur moolya nirdhaaran prabhaavon kii ganana karane key liye. haalaanki yeh marks kii praathamik chinta naheen thee; unhone ack samajik pranali key roop mein poonjeevaad kii sanrachana aur gatishilata parr dhyaan kendrit kiya. unaki chinta samagr parinamon key saath thee joe bajar gatividhi maanav samaaj mein netritva karegi.
jise marks ney "ashleel arthshastra" kahaa, kimaton kii avadharana kii jatilata koo nazarandaj curr diyaa gayaa haye, halanki, marks ney "adhishesh moolya key siddhanton" aur anya lekhan mein daavaa kiya haye, ashleel arthshastriyon ney maanaa haih
raajneetik arthavyavastha kii apani aalochana mein, marks ney iss baat seey incar kiya kii inmein seey koee bhee dhaarana vaigyaanik roop seey sach thee (aage vaastavik keematen aur aadarsh keematen dekhein). unhone moolyon, vinimay moolyon, bajar moolyon, bajar moolyon aur vastuon key utpaadan kii kimaton key beach saavdhaanipoorvak antar kiya.
haalaanki, unhone una sabhi vibhinn roopon kaa vishleshan naheen kiya joe keematen leey sakati hain (udaaharan key liye, bajar-sanchaalit keematen, prashaasit keematen, lekhankan moolya, baatchit aur nishchit keematen, anumaanit keematen, nammatra kii keematen, yaa mudrasfeeti-samaayojit keematen) mukhya roop seey moolya anupaat parr dhyaan kendrit karate hue joe unhone ack samajik pranali key roop mein utpaadan key poonjiwadi mode key kamkaj key liye kendriya maanaa. iss chook kaa prabhaav yeh thaa kii marks key moolya siddhant kii prasangikta key baare mein bahas bhramit hoe gaee, aur marksvadiyon ney unheen vichaaron koo dohraya jinhen marks ney khud "ashleel arthshastra" key roop mein khariz curr diyaa thaa. dusare shabdon mein, unhone keemat kii ack ashleel avadharana koo sweekaar kiya. corey Çalııskan tippani karate hainh "ack rahasyamay nishchitata hamaare jeevan parr haavi haye joe baad mein poonjiwadi aadhunikta mein haih keemat. ack bhee dinn binaa seekhane, banaane aur lene key naheen gujarta haye. phir bhee hamaare aspas kimaton kii vyaapak upasthiti key bavjood, humm unake baare mein jyada naheen jaanate hain."
moolya sanketon mein utaar-chadhaav ack dusare key liye utpaad-moolyon aur shram prayason koo samaayojit karane key liye lagbhag kaam kartaa haye; iss arth mein keematen madhyasth hain. lekin joe madhyasthata kartaa haye usey madhyasthata key saath bhramit naheen kiya jaanaa chaahiye. iss prakaar, yadi avalokan yogya moolya-sambandhon koo kewal ankit moolya parr liya jaataa haye, tou way sabse achchi tarah seey ack vikrit tasveer banaa sakate hain, aur sabse buri tarah seey aarthik gatividhi kii poori tarah seey galat tasveer banaa sakate hain, jiska way ullekh karate hain. satah parr, moolya samuchchay matratmak roop seey ack aarthik sambandh koo saraltam tareeke seey vyakt curr sakate hain, lekin iss prakriya mein way aarthik sambandh kii anya visheshtaon seey door hoe sakate hain joe jaanane key liye bhee bahut aavashyak hain. vaastav mein, yeh ack aur mahatvapurna kaaran haye kii marks kaa aarthik moolya kaa vishleshan badey paimaane parr moolya utaar-chadhaav kii jatilataon kii upeksha kartaa haye; yeh moolya utaar-chadhaav key peechhe vaastavik aarthik andolan kii khoj karna chaahata haye.
srot.
aristotal aur saimuel bellie.
marks ney moolya key roop kaa vichaar yunani daarshanik aristotal (lagbhag 384-322 bc) seey liya, jinhone apani "nicomatchi naitikta" mein pustak 5 key adhyaay 5 mein vinimay moolya kii prakriti parr vichaar kiya. abhijaat varg ney upayog-moolya aur vinimay-moolya (addam smith dwara liya gayaa ack antar) kii avadhaaranaon key beach spasht roop seey antar kiya. aristotal ney dhana kaa ack kaafee parishkrit siddhant vikasit kiya, aur apani "rajneeti" kii pustak 1 key adhyaay 9 mein, unhone vastu vyaapaar see-aim-see '("arthshastra") aur aim-see-aim' ("chrematisticon") key paripathon kaa varnan kiya haye. haalaanki, marks ney abhijaat varg key vichaaron kii mool tareeke seey aalochana kii aur unhein vikasit kiya.
aisaa karate hue, marks bhee prabhaavit thaa, aur europe mein jins moolyon aur dhana koo niyantrit karane vaale aarthik kaanoonon key baare mein "shaastriya" raajneetik arthavyavastha key vimarsh kaa jawab dete hue, villium petty key "dhana seey sambandhit matra" (1682) key saath (marks key drishtikon mein), addam smith key "rashtron kii sampatti kii prakriti aur karanon kii jaanch" (1776) mein ack uchch bindu taka pahunch gayaa aur david ricardo key "raajneetik arthavyavastha aur karadhan key siddhanton" (1817) key saath samaapt huaa.
vishesh roop seey, moolya key roopon key baare mein marks key vichaar saimuel bellie kii ricardo key moolya key siddhant kii aalochana seey prabhaavit they. capital, volume I" mein, marks ney kahaa kii bellie una kuchh raajneetik arthshastriyon mein seey ack they jinhone moolya key roop key vishleshan key saath khud koo chintit kiya thaa. lekin marks ney kahaa kii kissy bhee raajneetik arthashastri koo iska arth samajh mein naheen aaya thaa, kyonki unhone "moolya key roop" koo "moolya key saath" bhramit kiya thaa, aur kyonki unhone kewal ghatana key matratmak paksh parr dhyaan diyaa thaa, naa kii gunaatmak paksh parr. capital, volume II" mein, marks ney bellie kii phir seey aalochana kii "unaki samanya galatfahmi key liye, jisake anusaar vinimay-moolya moolya key barabar haye, moolya kaa roop hii moolya haye", iss galat vishvaas kii or leey jaataa haye kii "vastu moolyon kii tulniyata taba samaapt hoe jaati haye jaba way abb sakriya roop seey vinimay-moolyon key roop mein kaary naheen karate hain, aur vaastav mein ack dusare key liye unakaa adaan-pradaan naheen kiya jaa sakata haye.
marks key anusaar, aristotal ney pahale seey hii moolya key roop kii mool baaton kaa varnan kiya thaa jaba unhone tark diyaa thaa kii "5 bistar = 1 ghar" jaisi abhivyakti "5 bistar = aisee aur itani raashi" seey alag naheen haye, lekin marks key anusaar, aristotal key vishleshan koo "jahaaj tootane" kaa saamana karna padaa kyonki unake paas moolya kii spasht avadharana naheen thee. iss marks kaa matlab thaa kii abhijaat moolya key "padaarth" koo spasht karane mein asamarth thaa, i.ee.jaba vibhinn vastuon key saapeksh moolya kaa moolya nirdhaarit kiya jaataa haye, tou moolya-tulan mein vaastav mein kyaa barabar kiya jaa rhaa thaa, yaa vyaapaar uddeshyon key liye vibhinn vastuon kii adhikta key liye samaan samaan samaan kyaa thaa. abhijaat varg ney socha kii saman kii maang yaa aavashyakta hii samanya kaarak honey chaahiye, kyonki aisee vastuon kii maang key binaa joe kuchh aavashyakta yaa ichcha koo puuraa curr sakati hain, unakaa adaan-pradaan naheen kiya jaayega.
marks key anusaar, utpaad-moolya kaa saar samanya roop seey maanav shram-samay, shram-inn-dha-abstract yaa "amoort shram" haye. yeh moolya (usa samay maujood utpadakon kii samanya utpaadaktaa key aadhar parr shram-samay mein ack ausat vartamaan pratisthaapan laagat) maanav shram key utpaadon kii ack visheshta key roop mein maujood haye joe vishesh roopon seey kaafee swatantra roop seey hoe sakata haye joe vinimay leey sakata haye, halanki spasht roop seey moolya hamesha kissy naa kissy roop mein vyakt kiya jaataa haye. aggar humm kewal ack hii vastu parr vichaar karate hain tou yeh shayed bahut dilchasp antardrishti naheen haye, lekin yeh bahut adhik ruchi kaa vishay haye jaba humm ack hii samay mein vyaapaar kii jaa rahee vastuon kii ack vishal vividhata kaa saamana karate hain.
praarambhik lekhan.
marks key moolya-roop vichaar kaa pataa unaki 1857 kii kathor pandulipi seey lagaaya jaa sakata haye, jahan unhone vinimay key liye utpaadan key saath sampradayik utpaadan kii tulanaa kii thee. kuchh manavtawadi markswadi sochate hain kii iss vichaar kii utpatti vaastav mein samay mein aage jaati haye, marks kii 1844 peris pandulipiyon mein, vishesh roop seey "dhana kii shakti" parr khand jahaan marks goethe key naatak "fost" aur shekspeare key naatak "tyman off athens" mein dhana parr anshon kaa vishleshan kartaa haye.
marks ney mahsoos kiya kii natakkaron ney paise key samajik arth koo bahut achchi tarah seey vyakt kiya thaa, aur vaha paise kii jadui shakti parr charcha karate hainh paisa ack "topsy-turvy duniya" ("workeheart velt") kyon banaa sakata haye joe logon koo ekjut kartaa haye, moorkh banaata haye, yaa cheejon koo unake vipareet mein badal detaa haye. haalaanki iss paathgat vyakhya koo althusserian marksvadiyon dwara aswikar curr diyaa gayaa haye, kyonki "avaigyaanik yuva marks" (janm seey 27 varsh kii ayu taka) key charan koo "vaigyaanik paripakva marks" (1846-1883,28 varsh kii ayu seey 65 varsh kii ayu taka) key charan seey alag curr diyaa gayaa haye. althusserians key anusaar, inn natakkaron kaa moolya siddhant seey koee lena-denaa naheen haye, kyonki way kewal avaigyaanik star seey sambandhit hain, naa kii samajwadi yathaarthvaad yaa vaigyaanik samaajvaad seey.
marks kii 1859 kii pustak "raajneetik arthavyavastha kii aalochana mein yogdan" mein bhee moolya key roop kaa ullekh kiya gayaa haye. yeh unaki "adhishesh moolya key siddhanton" (1861-63) kii pandulipi mein spasht haye. juuna 1867 mein friedrich engels key saath patrachar mein, marks ney moolya key roop mein apane paath kii pahali ruprekha pradaan kii. marks ney pahale spasht roop seey capital key pahale (1867) sanskaran key parishisht mein avadharana kaa varnan kiya, khand i, lekin iss parishisht koo dusare sanskaran mein chhod diyaa gayaa thaa, jahaan pahale adhyaay koo ack vishesh khand koo shamil karane key liye phir seey likhaa gayaa thaa (balki jaldbaji mein) anta mein moolya key roop mein.
engels aur during.
marks key vichaar key mahatva kii vyakhya karane vaale pahale "moolya-roop siddhantkar" unake mitra friedrich engels they, jinhone 1878 key apane "anty-during" polmic mein tark diyaa (jaba marks abhee bhee jeevit thaa) kii "utpaadon kaa moolya roop... pahale seey hii bhroon mein utpaadan kaa puuraa poonjiwadi roop, poonjipatiyon aur majdoori-shramikon key beach virodh, audyogik aarakshit senaa, sankat shamil hain..."moolya key roop kii avadharana, utpatti aur vikas parr charcha karate hue, engels kaa uddeshya yeh pradarshit karna thaa kii vaastavik samaajvaad mein ack samajwadi samudaay kii aarthik pranali mein unake sachet ekikaran key bajaay vastu utpaadan aur moolya key kaanoon kaa" unmoolan "shamil thaa, jaisa kii usen during ney prastaavit kiya thaa.
jaisa kii neeche diye gaye iss lekh mein charcha kii gaee haye, russie kranti key pahale kuchh varshon mein, bolshevikon aur unake siddhantkaron ney usa vichaar koo bahut shaabdik roop seey liya. ise lenin kii naee aarthik neeti key dauran bund curr diyaa gayaa thaa, lekin baad mein see. pee. aiss. yuu. ney lagbhag sabhi niji udyamon koo samaapt karane aur lagbhag sabhi vyaapaar koo raajya key niyantran mein laane key baare mein nirdhaarit kiya. naitik arthon mein, vaanijyik gatividhi koo aantarik roop seey kharaab, algavkari, shoshankari aur damankari key roop mein dekhaa jaane lagaa, kyonki isane kuchh logon koo anya logon key kaam seey ameer banane mein saksham banaaya. vichaar yeh thaa kii ack baar vanijya seey chhutkara milane key baad, yeh poori samasya abb maujood naheen rahegi; raajya sabhi niji sanchay koo roque dega, yaa cumm seey cumm ise kewal bahut hii mamuli paimaane parr bardasht kiya jaayega.
raajya-nirdeshit utpaadan saamyavaadi aadhuniktavadiyon key liye kushal aur prabhaavi lugg rhaa thaa, vishesh roop seey pichhade roose mein. yadi buniyaadi dhaanche key nirmaan kii aavashyakta hoti haye, tou raajya ney ise banaane kaa adesh diyaa, chaahe vaha laabh arjit karey yaa naheen. jaba taka yeh ack varsh key anta mein paryaapt laabh naheen kamaata, taba taka vyavasaay ney iska nirmaan kabhi naheen kiya hotaa. taba communists key liye kendriya samasya yeh thee kii unhein shramikon koo "sahyog" karane aur balidan karane key liye, bhavishya mein behtar jeevan key vaadon key saath cheejon kaa nirmaan karane key liye laana thaa. party ney isaki avadharana mukhya roop seey adhikaar, shiksha, vaichaarik dridhata, anukaraniya abhyaas, protsaahan aur dund key mamle key roop mein kii.
yadi shramikon ney sahyog naheen kiya, kyonki unhein lagaa kii yeh unake swarth key khilaf haye (kissy bhee kaaran seey), tou unhein shaanti key samay aur yuddh key samay mein aisaa karane key liye "majboor" kiya gayaa thaa. choonki shramikon ney iska virodh kiya, isaliye cheejon kaa utpaadan aksar bahut cumm kushal hoe gayaa, aur utpaadan kii gunavatta koo nuksan huaa. yeh antaheen prabandhan samasyaon kaa kaaran banaa, aur yeh sunishchit karane key liye kii cheejen hoe gaeen, badey paimaane parr "policing" kii aavashyakta thee (jaisa kii paschimi itihaskaron dwara pralekhit kiya gayaa haye jaise aar. doubleu. david aur donald aeye. filter). kabhi naa khatm honey vaale sudhaaron aur neetigat parivartanon key bavjood, sahyog kii samasya vaastav mein kabhi hull naheen hui. soviyat samaaj mein isake baare mein bahut see bhaavanaon kaa abhaav thaa, taba bhee jaba jeevan dheere-dheere behtar hotaa gayaa aur jeevan star mein sudhaar hotaa gayaa. 30 octuber 2007 koo, russie rashtrapati vladmir puteen ney mahaan aatank key dinon mein stallin kii tanashahi key tahat maare gaye sabhi logon koo apana sammaan diyaa. putin ney kahaah "saikadon hajaaron, laakhon logon koo maar diyaa gayaa aur shiviron mein bhej diyaa gayaa, goli maar dee gaee aur unhein prataadit kiya gayaa. yeye apane vichaaron vaale loga they, jinake baare mein bolane mein way nidder they. way rashtra key cream they."
1940 aur 1950 key dashak mein soviyat sangh mein samaajvaad mein moolya kii bhoomika key baare mein engels aur during key beach saiddhaantik sangharsh phir seey saamane aaya. 1930 key dashak taka, russie communists koo aam taur parr ummeed thee kii moolya kii shreniyan aur moolya kaa kaanoon samaajvaad key tahat gayab hoe jaayega. yeh dekhate hue kii joseph stallin ney 1936 mein ghoshana kii kii poori arthavyavastha parr poorna raajya niyantran key saath, samaajvaad hassil curr liya gayaa thaa, yeh sochana taarkik thaa kii vastu utpaadan aur moolya kaa kaanoon bhee abb maujood naheen thaa. haalaanki, 1941 seey yeh vichaar vivaad mein thaa.
kuchh russie arthshastriyon ney soviyat samajwadi ganrajyon mein moolya key kaanoon key astitva seey incar kiya, anya ney isake astitva kii pushti kii, aur phir bhee anya ney kahaa kii kaanoon "parivartit" tareeke seey maujood thaa. 1951 mein, stallin ney aadhikarik roop seey yeh pushti karate hue mamle koo sulajha liya kii vastu utpaadan aur moolya kaa kaanoon samaajvaad key tahat maujood thaa, jiska nihitarth yeh thaa kii yojana adhikaariyon koo utpaadon, parisampattiyon aur vetan key sahee moolya nirdhaaran key aadhar key roop mein, vaastavik shram laagat key liye thheek seey lekha denaa chaahiye. usa arth mein, anta mein stallin ney engels key khilaf during kaa paksh liya. halanki, stallin ney spasht roop seey daavaa kiya kii moolya key kaanoon koo mukhya roop seey khapat key kshetra mein cumm kiya jaanaa haye. ise engels key "shram pramanpatron" key vichaar key saath jodaa jaa sakata haye joe paise kii classic bhoomika seey vanchit hain, jisase adhishesh moolya kaa nishkarshan naheen hotaa haye, isaliye samajwadi honey key kaaran. iss drishtikon key anusaar moolya kaa kaanoon kaam karna jaari rakhta haye lekin samajwadi bunn jaataa haye.
vyakhya key mudde.
samanya kathinaaiyaan.
markswadi shikshaavidon koo aksar moolya kii avadharana key baare mein marks key apane granthon key saath kathinaaiyaan hoti theen kyonki, amoort roop seey, "aarthik moolya" ack hii samay mein kaee alag-alag cheejon koo sandarbhit curr sakata haih
isaliye "moolya" abhivyakti key upayog seey yeh turant spasht naheen hoe sakata haye kii "kiss prakaar kaa mulyankan yaa abhivyakti sandarbhit kii jaa rahee haye, yeh saiddhaantik sandarbh parr nirbhar kartaa haye. 
prasiddh "parivartan samasya" vivaad key pravartak ladyslaus wonn bortkiviz ney aatmavishvaas seey daavaa kiya kii marks key paath mein, "sandarbh hamesha spasht roop seey prakat kartaa haye kii kaun saa moolya haye. phir bhee, vishesh anshon mein marks kaa vaastav mein kyaa arth thaa, iss baare mein bahut lambi akaadamik bahas hui haye. moolya" kii avadharana kii kadee jaanch kii gaee, joe ack "saaf-suthri lekhankan avadharana" naheen haye jise ganitiya sateekta key saath herfer kiya jaa sakata haye; ise ganitiya sateekta key saath kewal tabhi herfer kiya jaa sakata haye jaba paribhashaon kii ack shrinkhala pahale seey hii taya hoe aur maan lii jaae (yeh ack aspasht avadharana haye).
apane jeevan key anta mein, david ricardo koo "balki dukhad roop seey nishkarsh nikaalana padaa, kii 'prakriti mein moolya key ack poorna upaay key roop mein aisee koee cheej naheen haye'... moolya kaa koee aparivartaniya maanak naheen haye. marks mein, "yeh shuru seey hii samajha jaataa haye kii siddhant roop mein bhee moolya kaa ack aparivartaniya maanak naheen hoe sakata haye (yeh taarkik roop seey moolya key roop key vishleshan seey anusaran kartaa haye). yadyapi moolya key gathan kii poorna seemaaen hain, moolya saar mein ack "saapeksh" parimaan haye, jiska samay aur sthaan mein koee poorna sthiraank naheen haye. yadi soney jaise moolya kaa maanak apanaaya jaataa haye (joe marks kartaa haye), tou yeh kewal tark key liye kiya jaataa haye, aur vyakhya yaa ganana kii saralata key liye (jiss yug mein marks rahata thaa, bahut cumm moolya mudrasfeeti thee).
roodhivaadi arthshastra aamtaur parr ise iss baat key liye maanata haye kii vinimay prakriyaaen jinn parr bajar "pahale seey maujood hain" aur hongi, aur way keematen "pahale seey maujood hain", yaa lagaae jaa sakate hain. arthshastriyon dwara ise aksar "sakal pratisthaapan swayamsiddh" kahaa jaataa haih iss pramey kaa nihitarth yeh haye kii "sabhi" utpaad, siddhant roop mein, "sabhi" anya utpaadon key saath parasparik roop seey vinimeya honey chaahiye, aur isaliye "moolya tantra" sansadhanon koo iss tarah seey aavantit curr sakata haye, kii bajar santulan aapoorti aur maang key kaanoonon dwara sunishchit kiya jaataa haye. yeh dhaarana kewal vishesh mamalon mein palat jaati haye, jahaan baajaron koo abhee bhee astitva mein laaya jaanaa chaahiye aur "moolya khoj" kii prakriya hoti haye. aadhunik arthshastra mein, kissy cheez key "moolya" koo yaa tou dhana-moolya key roop mein, yaa vyaktigat (vyaktiparak) mulyankan key roop mein paribhaashit kiya gayaa haye, aur utpaadon kii vinimayasheelata koee vishesh samasya prastut naheen karati haye; yeh aam taur parr kissy vishesh jaanch key yogya naheen haye kyonki vinimayasheelata koo halke mein liya jaataa haye (vaastavik duniya mein, yeh sakhti seey sach naheen haye kii kissy bhee vastu kaa vyaapaar kissy anya achche key liye, kanuni, rasad aur takniki karanon seey kiya jaa sakata haye).
paaramparik arthshastra mein, dhana upayogita-adhikatam karane vaale vyaktiyon key beach barter kii lenden laagat koo cumm karane key liye vinimay key madhyam key roop mein kaary kartaa haye. iss tarah kaa drishtikon moolya key gathan kii marks kii aitihaasik vyakhya seey bahut alag haye. marks key siddhant mein, ack utpaad kaa "moolya" kuchh alag haye aur "moolya" seey alag haye joe ise laane key liye hotaa haye (maal unake moolya seey adhik yaa cumm mein betch sakata haye, i.ee., way aavashyak roop seey isake laayak naheen hain kii way kiss liye bechate hain).
samasyagrast.
marks key moolya-roop vishleshan kaa uddeshya iss sawal kaa jawab denaa haye kii utpaadon key moolya-sambandhon koo una tarikon seey kaise vyakt kiya jaataa haye joe apane swayam key adhikaar mein ack vastunishth astitva praapt karate hain (antatah dhana kii matra, yaa dhana-moolyon key beach sambandhon key roop mein), inn sambandhon key tareeke kyaa hain, aur yeye utpaad-moolya kaise badal sakate hain, swatantra roop seey una moolyadaataon seey joe unamen vyaapaar karate hain. marks ney tark diyaa kii naa tou shaastriya raajneetik arthashastri aur naa hii unake baad aaney vaale ashleel arthashastri santoshjanak roop seey yeh samajhaane mein saksham they kii yeh kaise kaam kartaa haye, jisake parinamswarup gambhir saiddhaantik trutiyaan huin.
raajneetik arthshastriyon ney moolya key aparivartaniya maanak key liye vyarth kii maang kii, aur dhana key aise siddhant prastaavit kiye joe shayed hii prashansaniya they. marks key anusaar, trutiyon key peechhe kaa kaaran yeh thaa kii jaise-jaise bajar vyaapaar vikasit huaa, vastu-moolyon aur dhana key beach aarthik sambandh teji seey ack ulte, punarnirmit tareeke seey dikhaai diyaa. vaastav mein, aarthik moolya maanav vishayon key beach ack samajik sambandh kaa prateek haye, jaisa kii kissy cheez seey parilakshit hotaa haye yaa cheejon key beach sambandh seey vyakt hotaa haye. phir bhee yeh aksar adhik moolyavaan lagata haye joe samajik sambandh banaata haye. vaastavik kaaran sambandhon koo samajhane key liye, naa kewal aarthik ganana, balki vishay kii ack aitihaasik aur samajik samajh kii bhee aavashyakta thee.
ashleel markswadi arthshastra mein, vastu kewal upayog-moolya aur vinimay-moolya kaa ack sanyojan haye. yeh marks kaa apana tark naheen haye. jaisa kii way "poonji, khand III" mein bataate hain, utpadakon key beach samagr arth mein vyaavsaayik pratispardha utpaadan mein vastuon key samajik roop seey sthaapit "moolyon" aur bajar mein prakat unake vishesh "vinimay-moolyon" key beach visangatiyon parr kendrit haye. maal kaa vyaapaar unake moolya seey oopar yaa neeche kiya jaa sakata haye, aur joe laabh key liye mayane rakhta haye. marks kaa maanana thaa kii utpaad-moolya key shram siddhant key taarkik susangatta key liye moolya key roop aur samagri key beach sahee antar karna aavashyak thaa, aur unhone vishesh roop seey addam smith kii aalochana kii kyonki smithah
smith ney pushti kii thee kii shram "sabhi vastuon key vinimay yogya moolya kaa vaastavik maap haye", lekin, jaisa kii david ricardo ney baad mein tark diyaa, smith kii paribhasha ney shram koo ack vastu mein "sannihit" curr diyaa jaba iska utpaadan kiya jaataa thaa, shram key saath bhramit curr diyaa jaba vastu kaa adaan-pradaan kiya jaataa thaa. marks kaa maanana thaa kii smith aur ricardo nishchit roop seey shram koo vastu moolya key padaarth key roop mein pahchaanane key liye sahee they, lekin marks ney pahale hii mahsoos curr liya kii inn donon raajneetik arthshastriyon kii paribhaashaaen sahee naheen hoe sakati theen. iska mool kaaran yeh thaa kii donon arthshastriyon ney "moolya" koo "vinimay moolya" aur "moolya" key saath milaaya (aur vaastavik kimaton koo saiddhaantik kimaton key saath bhee milaaya). arthaat, way moolya key roopon aur padaarth koo milaate hain, kyonki way unake beach gunaatmak roop seey alag cheejon key roop mein sahee dhang seey antar karane mein whiffle rahey.
marks ney tark diyaa kii utpaad-moolya key shram siddhant koo susangat aur susangat banaaya jaa sakata haye, kewal tabhi jaba yeh samajha gayaa kii utpaad-moolya, utpaadan kii keematen aur vastuon kii bajar keematen ack dusare seey swatantra roop seey bhinn hoe sakati hain. utpaad-moolyon kaa udyamon kii vaastavik laabhpradata kaa nirdhaaran karane vaali laagat-moolya aur bikri-moolyon key beach sambandh key saath pratyaksh roop seey kuchh bhee karna aavashyak naheen thaa, kyonki nivesh aur utpaadan donon kaa laabhprad roop seey unake moolya seey "oopar" yaa "neeche" parr vyaapaar kiya jaa sakata thaa, joe ack diye gaye samay antaral mein bikri karobar kii raashi aur bajar kii sthiti parr nirbhar kartaa haye. yeh adhik thaa kii anta mein utpaadon kii aapoorti key liye samanya shram aavashyaktaon ney moolya-seema aur una sharton kii seema nirdhaarit kii jinn parr utpaadon kaa vyaavsaayik roop seey vyaapaar kiya jaa sakata thaa.
althusserian vyakhya.
moolya key roop koo aksar vidvaanon dwara ack kathin, aspasht yaa yahaan taka kii goodh vichaar (markswad kaa "pavitra grail") key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye. saiman clark ney 1989 mein tippani kii kii "pichhale kuchh varshon kii moolya bahas hamesha seey adhik goodh hoe gaee haye."johnn weaks ney 2010 mein" "marks kii moolya kii vaigyaanik jaanch kii anivarya roop seey goodh prakriti" "kaa ullekh kiya, jiska arth haye gair-sevya key baare mein baat karna. moolya-roop avadharana key vaastavik saiddhaantik mahatva key baare mein kaafee bahas hui haye.
marks ney khud vivaad kii shuruat taba kii jaba unhone iss baat parr jore diyaa kii "capital, volume i" koo samajhana mushkil naheen thaa, "moolya key roop parr khand key apavaad key saath."capital volume kii apani" prastaavana "mein. 1, "francisi daarshanik lui althusar ney marks kii nakal kii, aur kahaa kih
althusar key sujhaavon koo kaee nae vaam marksvadiyon dwara liya gayaa thaa, jiska arth thaa kii marks key moolya key roop aur isake mahatva key siddhant koo shayed hii kabhi padhaaya gayaa thaa. paresh chattopadhyay kaa kahana haye kii "marks adhyayan kii anglo-americi parampara mein bahut cumm lekhakon ney marks key moolya roop key mahatvapurna vishleshan parr dhyaan diyaa haye. haalaanki, marks ney apane pahale adhyaayon mein vastu vyaapaar kii apani vyakhya koo poorna spashtata key saath bataane kaa bahut jaanboojhkar aur spasht roop seey prayaas kiya. marks kaa uddeshya yeh pradarshit karna haye kii "moolya kaa shram siddhant" joe arthavyavastha kii vyakhya karane mein shaastriya raajneetik arthshastriyon kaa margadarshan kartaa haye "sahee naheen hoe sakata haye, kyonki aarthik moolya kii avadharana koo hii galat samajha jaataa haye.
marks ney kabhi bhee apane swayam key moolya key siddhant koo ack baar bhee "moolya key shram siddhant" key roop mein sandarbhit naheen kiya, yeh achchi tarah seey jaanate hue kii kaee parisampattiyon kaa moolya shram-samay dwara nirdhaarit naheen kiya jaataa haye. moolya key siddhant koo sahee mayane mein samajhane seey pahale raajneetik arthshastriyon key vichaaron koo bahut adhik sanshodhit karna padaa. haalaanki, jaba sanshodhan kiye gaye, tou poonjiwadi aarthik jeevan kii pichhali samajh bhee palat gaee. isaliye marks key apane siddhant ney ack hii samay mein shaastriya parampara key saath nirantarta aur kattarpanthi asantulan donon koo dikhaaya. yeh kaee vivaadon kaa kaaran rhaa haye kii marks ney aarthik moolya key baare mein raajneetik arthshastriyon key pichhale siddhanton koo kiss hudd taka toda diyaa yaa sweekaar kiya.
fetishism.
moolya key roopon kaa siddhant marks kii vaanijyik fetishwad yaa aarthik punruddhar kii avadharana kaa aadhar haye. yeh iss baare mein haye kii vyaapaar yogya vastuon (aur bajar sambandhon dwara) key "moolya" dwara arjit swatantra shaktiyaan kaise maanav vichaar mein vaapas pratibimbit hoti hain, aur vishesh roop seey bajar arthavyavastha key baare mein raajneetik arthshastriyon key siddhanton mein. marks ney swayam kabhi bhee "vastu fetishism" abhivyakti kaa upayog ack samanya shreni ("warrenfetishismus") key roop mein naheen kiya, balki unhone vastuon, dhana aur poonji key fatish (-vaad) kaa ullekh kiya. sabhi prakaar kii moolyavaan vastuon koo "faticiesed" kiya jaa sakata haye.
halanki, althusserian siddhant mein, yeh arth agyaat haye, kyonki althusserian siddhant "fetishism" kii avadharana koo moolya key roop kii avadharana seey alag kartaa haye. markswadi-lenwadi pratyakshavaadi vigyaan kii parampara mein, althusar ney marks key naatakiya, naatakiya aur dhaarmik rupakon koo "avaigyaanik" saha-rachana key roop mein maanaa, jisamen vastunishthata kii kamee thee. jins fetishism kii lagbhag koee bhee naee vaam charcha kissy bhee vishleshanatmak gaharaai mein marks key moolya-roop vishleshan kaa ullekh naheen karati haye.
raajneetik arthshastriyon aur ashleel marksvadiyon kii punah paribhaashit dhaarana mein, utpaadon kaa moolya haye "kyonki" way paise-kimaton mein vyakt kiye jaa sakate hain, lekin marks kaa tark haye kii vaastav mein yeh sirf dusare tareeke seey haih kyonki vastuon kaa moolya haye, i.ee. kyonki way sabhi utpaad samajik shram kii pratisthaapan laagat key saath hain, unake moolyon koo aam taur parr sweekaar kiye gaye dhana-moolyon dwara vyakt kiya jaa sakata haye, sateek yaa naheen.
marks key anusaar, vaastavik sambandh kaa pataa tabhi lagaaya jaa sakata haye jaba aarthik vinimay key aitihaasik vikas koo isaki sabse saral shuruat seey laker isake sabse vikasit roopon taka maanaa jaae. bajar vikas kaa antim parinam poori tarah seey "mudrikrit" arthavyavastha haye (ack "nakad arthavyavastha", halanki aajkal baink card banknotes aur sikkon kii jagah lete hain), lekin sookshm star parr vyakti koo iska kaam kaise dikhaai detaa haye, aksar macro-star parr isake kaaran gatishil kaa vipareet yaa alag hotaa haye. marks key anusaar, yeh aarthik siddhant mein bahut saare bhram paida kartaa haye.
marks key siddhant kaa ack uddeshya yeh samajhaana haye kii bajar arthavyavastha kii prakriti swayam kaise aakar letee haye jisase loga ise samajhenge. moolya key roop kaa rahasya yeh haye kii jiss "roop" mein utpaadon kaa moolya vyakt kiya jaataa haye (vyaapaar kii jaane vaali vastuon key beach sambandh key roop mein), vaha ack saath utpaadon key moolya key "padaarth" koo aspasht aur chhipa detaa haye. yeh spasht naheen kartaa haye kii utpaadon kaa moolya kaise banata haye, aur cheejon key beach sambandhon key peechhe maujood logon key beach samajik sambandh.
yeh jaanana kii moolya kaa samajik tatva kyaa haye, vaastav mein, vyaapaar key uddeshya key liye poori tarah seey anaavashyak haye. bajar mein jaane key liye kewal laagat moolyon, bikri moolyon, moolya ausat aur kyaa keematen oopar yaa neeche jaa rahee hain, iska gyaan aavashyak haye. vinimay moolya key saath moolya kaa vilay, moolya key saath aur dhana key saath vastu vyaapaar key sambandhon seey hii swatah badhata haye.
paaristhitiki.
paaristhitik markswadi paul berket ney poonjeevaad aur prakriti key beach sambandhon koo samajhane key liye ack "moolya-roop drishtikon" banaane kii koshish kii haye. unakaa tark haye kih
isake vipareet, elmar altwaiter ney tark diyaa kii raajneetik arthavyavastha kii ack paaristhitik aalochana "upayog-moolya key vishleshan parr nirbhar karati haye.
prakriti key saath maanav chayapachaya parr dhyaan kendrit karate hue, kohei saito ney 2017 mein tark diyaa kih
johnn belami ney 2018 mein kahaa kih
hairi rothman ney apani 1972 kii pustak "hatyare providence" mein kahaa haih
mahilaaon kii padhaai.
1977 key apane kattarpanthi siddhant kii aalochana key adhyaay 8 mein, "yeh ling joe ack naheen haye", luce irigare ney vastuon key moolya, phalocacy aur sambandh pranaliyon key roop key baare mein marks kii kahani key beach sambandhon kii kuchh vistaar seey jaanch kii. unhone tark diyaa kii "poonjiwadi dhana key praathamik roop key roop mein vastuon kaa marks kaa vishleshan curr sakata haye... tathaakathit pitrisattaatmak samajon mein mahila kii sthiti kii vyakhya key roop mein bhee samajha jaanaa chaahiye."vishesh roop seey," pitrisattaatmak samajon koo sangathit karane vaali vinimay kii sabhi pranaaliyan aur inn samajon mein maanyata praapt, moolyavaan aur puraskrit utpaadak kaary key sabhi tareeke purushon key vyavasaay hain."jaba mahilaaon koo prabandhit kiya jaataa haye, baahar nikala jaataa haye aur purushon dwara vyaapaar kiya jaataa haye, tou mahilaaon key shareer ack herfer yogya amoort bunn sakate hain. irigaare ney tark diyaa kii vastuon key roop mein, mahilaaen "upayogitaavaadi vastuein aur moolya key vaahak" bunn jaati hain. ack maan ack upayog moolya bunn jaati haye; ack kunwari ack vinimay moolya bunn jaati haye; aur ack veshya upayog-moolya aur vinimay moolya donon bunn jaati haye. mudde swatantrata, maanav garima, samajik mulyankan, shoshan aur utpeedan key baare mein hain.
irigaare kaa yeh matlab jaruri naheen thaa kii sabhi mahilaaen shaabdik roop seey "vastuen hain, lekin yeh kii (1) unhein aksar" vaastavik "vyavhaar kiya jaataa haye jaise kii" way vyaapaar yogya maal hain, (2) mahilaaon koo aksar sabhi prakaar key anaupchaarik vyaapaar key adheen kiya jaataa haye, taaki unhein joe chaahiye vaha praapt kiya jaa sakey, (3) vastu roop maanav munn aur antarang sambandhon mein gaharaai seey doob jaataa haye, jisase ack laine-daine kii mansikta paida hoti haye joe damankari haye. irigare ney sawal uthaaya kii mahilaaon key shoshan key binaa samajik vyavastha kaa kyaa hoga. loga "prakriti, padaarth, shareer, bhasha aur ichcha key sambandh mein ack alag tareeke seey samajikta" karenge.
halanki irigaare kii kahani kaa prabhaav taba padaa jaba yeh pahali baar prakaashit hui thee, lekin isaki appeal lambe samay taka naheen rahee. anya baaton key alawa, unaki kahani bahut gambhir aur udas haye. maanav prakriti kaa manovishleshak model abb vyaapak roop seey sweekaar naheen kiya gayaa haye. mahilaaon koo aam taur parr kewal vastuon yaa peediton key roop mein naheen maanaa jaataa haye, unake paas kanuni adhikaar hain, aur unake paas vyaktigat roop seey aur saamoohik roop seey kaafee shakti aur niyantran haye. halanki "lingon kii ladaai" jaari haye (pratispardha), purushon aur mahilaaon koo bhee ack-dusare kii aavashyakta hoti haye aur way ack-dusare (sahyog) parr nirbhar hotey hain. isaliye, vaastavik duniya mein (akaadamik kaalpanik key vipareet), "purush prabhutva" kii nishchit seemaaen hain, aur mahilaaen vaapas ladatee hain.
sabse badhkar, yeh irigare kii kahani seey spasht naheen thaa kii behtar maanav sambandh banaane key liye sabse prabhaavi tareeke kyaa honge, aur purush aur mahilaaen unhein vyavhaar mein laane key liye safaltapurvak kaise kaam curr sakate hain. aksar aisaa lagata thaa kii irigaare aadhyatmik star parr adhik likh rahey they, aur paathak isase vaha leey sakate they joe unhein pasand thaa. moolya key roop mein ack uttar-aadhunik markswadi pathan katja defenback dwara prastut kiya jaataa haye. iran mein islami hizab key apane aalochanatmak vishleshan mein, professor rebekka rooth kaa daavaa haye kii "vastu key liye vinimay moolya ayam mahatvapurna roop seey hizab-key-vastu kii sanrachana kartaa haye.
markswadi mahilaaon aur purushon ney aksar tark diyaa haye kii mahilaaon kaa ghar kaa kaam, kharidari kaa kaam, bachchon kaa paalan-poshan aur swayamsevi kaam naa tou aarthik roop seey atyadhik moolyavaan haye aur naa hii poonjiwadi vichardhara mein bahut adhik dikhaai detaa haye, "thheek isaliye kii yeh khud ack naukari key roop mein bhugtan aur shulk naheen liya jaataa haye. mahilaaon kii tathaakathit "gair-bajar" gatividhi rashtriya khaaton mein bhee panjikrit naheen hoti haye, halanki iska bajar moolya (samay-upayog sarvekshanon aur vyaavsaayik aankadon seey anumaanit) bahut badaa haye. mahilaaon key "gair-bajar" kaam mein shamil moolya aur mulyankan aksar vaanijyik moolyon seey kaafee alag hotey hain. isaliye poonjiwadi bajar moolya aur mahilaaon key apane mulyankan vibhinn sthitiyon mein takraav curr sakate hain. kaathi saptah aur christin ghodsi aadhunik bahason kaa ack avalokan pradaan karate hain.
iska samanya nihitarth yeh haye kii yadi bahut saaree mahilaaen "kyaa karati hain" bahut adhik moolyavaan naheen haye (kyonki yeh vaastav mein paisa naheen kamaati haye, aadi.), phir mahilaaon kii samajik "sthiti" bhee peedit hoti haye-way vaastavik duniya mein purushon key barabar naheen hain. siddhant yaa siddhant mein, poonjeevaad purushon aur mahilaaon key beach poorna samaantaa key saath kaafee sangat haye, jisamen mahilaaon aur purushon key beach aavashyak antaron koo sweekaar kiya jaataa haye. vaastav mein, aupchaarik roop seey, paschim mein sabhi nagrikon koo bajar mein samaan adhikaar hain, aur nyaay pranali key tahat samaan darja haye. lekin vyavhaar mein, poonjiwadi samaaj ack varg samaaj haye, joe asman sthiti vaale bajar abhinetaon key beach bajar pratispardha dwara sanrachit haye. pratiyogiyon kaa saamana karate hue, loga iss baat parr dhyaan kendrit karenge kii way khud kahaan sabse majboot hain, aur way pratidvandiyon parr thheek usee jagah hamla karenge jahan pratidvandi sabse kamjor aur sabse kamjor hain.
samanya samagr prabhaav yeh haye kii joe pahale seey hii sabse kamjor sthiti mein hain, way sabse adhik khou denge; joe sabse majboot sthiti mein hain, way apani taakat kaa upayog curr sakate hain, aur bhee majboot hoe sakate hain. yeh samanya parinam kewal prem aur ichcha (anukaraniya ichcha sahit), daan, paropkar, sarkari praavdhaanon, trade yuniyanon, credit yuniyanon aur samajik nyaay vakaalat samoohon (yaa raajneetik dalon) dwara cumm kiya jaataa haye. vyaktigat mamle asamaanta key saankhyikiya pattern kaa khandan curr sakate hain, lekin poori aabaadi key liye asamaanta key saankhyikiya pattern kaafee sthaayi hain. yeh mahilaaon key liye bahut mahatvapurna haye, kewal isaliye naheen kii way purushon key samaan nagrik adhikaar chaahte hain, balki isaliye kii samajik-aarthik asamaanta kaa bachchon koo janm dene aur unaki parvarish parr bahut buraa prabhaav padata haye.
moolya-roop aur oorjaa kaa ksharan.
aaee. dee. 1. key vaishvik vittiya sankat key baad, adhik paschimi markswadi siddhantkar aur uttar-markswadi moolya-roop key tootane aur atigaman key bhoot parr charcha curr rahey hain. peater kenedi kaa daavaa haye kii "samajik shram mein parivartan" aur "moolya roop kaa ksharan" hoe rhaa haye. seedhe shabdon mein kahein tou "moolya key roopon koo todane" key siddhant kaa arth haye kih
samanya parinam yeh hoga kii maankeekrit kimaton dwara sansadhanon kaa bajar aavantan visthaapit, sanyukt yaa gair-bajar aavantan siddhanton key saath pratisthaapit kiya jaataa haye-sabhi prakaar key "saudon" koo vyavasthit kiya jaa sakata haye, jisamen kaee logon key beach dhana kewal ack hii vichaar haye.
usa mamle mein sansadhanon taka pahunch praapt karna, abb kewal unhein khareedane key liye apani jeb mein paryaapt paisa rakhane kii baat naheen haye. akele paisa abb sansadhanon taka pahunch kii guaranti naheen dey sakata haye. yeh sub iss baat parr nirbhar kartaa haye kii kissy koo kiss tarah kaa sahyog mill sakata haye, kissy tarah kaa sauda karane key liye. yadi, kissy bhee kaaran seey, loga sahyog naheen karate hain, tou koee sauda naheen haye. safal vyaapaar taba adhik seey adhik iss baat parr nirbhar kartaa haye kii kuchh praapt karane key ichchuk logon aur kuchh aapoorti karane kii peshkash karane vaale logon key beach kiss tarah key maanviya (yaa raajneetik) sambandh hain.
vyaapaar key itihas mein, bajar nishchit roop seey kaee baar toot gaye hain. isaliye yeh ghatana bilkul naee naheen haye. lekin tark yeh haye kii yeh ghatana anivarya roop seey vaishvik star parr lambe samay mein "badey aur badey paimaane" parr hoe rahee haye, taaki poonjeevaad key poore kaary koo "sanrachanaatmak" tareeke seey badala jaa sakey. arthashastri apane aarthik model key liye sabhi prakaar kii jatil moolya gananaon kii ganana curr sakate hain, lekin, yeh tark diyaa jaataa haye kii way gananaaen abb arthavyavastha mein sansadhanon koo "vaastav mein" aavantit karane key tareeke kii paryaapt vyakhya naheen curr sakati hain. paise-kimaton kaa isase cumm aur cumm lena-denaa hoe sakata haye.
duss vyaapak rujhaanon kaa ullekh kiya jaa sakata haye joe moolya key roopon key ksharan kii disha mein haye.
bajar kaa ksharan.
british uttar-markswadi patrakaar paul messon ney "dha guardian" mein daavaa kiya kii "hamein dhyaan diye binaa, humm uttar-poonjiwadi yug mein pravesh curr rahey hain. unhone daavaa kiya kii usa badalaav kaa ack hissa yeh haye kii "jaankaari bajar kii kimaton koo sahee dhang seey banaane kii kshamata koo kharaab curr rahee haye... kyonki bajar kamee parr adharit hotey hain jabaki jaankaari prachur matra mein hoti haye. (...) aarthik jeevan kaa puuraa hissa ack alag lay mein jaane lagaa haye."dave elder-vaas kaa kahana haye kii...upahaar, sahyogaatmak aur sankar roopon sahit arthavyavastha key vishal kshetra... naee digital arthavyavastha mein adhik paaramparik poonjeevaad key saath saha-astitva."jermi rifkin kaa kahana haye kii internet off things utpaadan kii lagbhag shoonya seemant laagat key saath baajaron seey ack sahayogi commons mein aarthik badalaav kii suvidha pradaan curr sakata haye.
inn dinon bahut saaree "muft cheejen" upalabdh hain jinhen loga bahut teji seey pakad sakate hain-aggar way jaankaari key baare mein apana raasta jaanate hain. way aksar ise bahut jaldi bhee duniya bhar mein saajha curr sakate hain-baajaron, dhana aur kaanoonon koo darkinar karate hue. jaba jaankaari saajha kii jaati haye, tou dene vaalon aur praaptakartaon donon key paas jaankaari hoti haye, joe ack videshi vastu key swaamitva hastaantaran key vipareet hoti haye. aggar logon koo bahut saaree cheejen muft mein mill sakati hain, tou unhein cheejen bechana adhik kathin honey vaalaa haye. badale mein, yeh samanya vaanijyik vyaapaar, moolya nirdhaaran aur bajar key kamkaj koo baadhit kartaa haye, taaki "jaankaari moolya koo kharaab curr dey."
isake vipareet, halanki, heykian victor meyer-sconberger "soochana-samriddh" baajaron kii kshamata key baare mein ashawadi haye. naa kewal internet off things logon aur vastuon koo bahut sateek aur jaldi seey jodd sakata haye. naee takneek logon key sampatti adhikaaron aur unake bajar vyavhaar koo bhee pulis curr sakati haye, jisase vaastavik samay mein iska jawab dene kii sambhavana paida hoe sakati haye. nae niyam, jaise kii europeeya sangh mein digital ekal bajar mein copyrite parr nirdesh, "muft saman" koo avaruddh curr sakate hain.
harvard daarshanik michael sandle ney kahaa kii "badalaav key baare mein poori tarah seey jagrook hue binaa, americi bajar arthavyavastha seey bajar samaaj banane kii or badh gaye hain... jahan lagbhag sub kuchh bikri key liye haye... jeevan kaa ack aisaa tarika jahan bajar moolya jeevan key lagbhag harr kshetra mein pravesh karate hain aur kabhi-kabhi mahatvapurna moolyon, gair-bajar moolyon koo todate hain."iss mamle mein, bajar moolya gair-bajar moolyon seey naheen kharaab hotey hain, lekin gair-bajar moolya bajar moolyon seey kharaab hotey hain.
arthashastri keneth teer ney samajhaaya kii baajaron koo prabhaavi dhang seey sanchaalit karane key liye maanav vishvaas kii aavashyakta hoti haye, lekin yeh vishvaas bajar kii gatividhi seey hii swabhavik roop seey utpann naheen hoe sakata haih
yadi yeh sweekaar kiya jaataa haye kii gair-bajar moolya bajar moolyon dwara kharaab kiye jaate hain, jaisa kii sandle daavaa kartaa haye, tou swasth naitik gunon aur nyaaypurna kaanoonon seey prerit ack "samajik sanrachana" bhee kharaab hoe jaati haye. isake parinamswarup, yeh taba avasarvaad aur vyaparik gatividhi mein bhrashtachar key dayare koo badhaayega, jisase kushal bajar vyaapaar key liye mahatvapurna vishvaas koo "cumm" kiya jaa sakega. antarrashtriya vishvaas staron kaa sarvekshan aajkal ranneeti key edelman trust barometer dwara kiya jaataa haye. vittiya samay" aur "bloomberg samachar" key saath ack varishth nivesh stambhakaar aur sampaadak johnn authers ney 2018 mein kahaa kih
iska prativaad yeh haye kii kissy chhal yaa beimani key aadhar parr vyaapaar pratishtha kaa jokhim paida kartaa haye. sandigdh saudon kaa matlab yeh hoe sakata haye kii loga saman khareedane aur bechane key liye kaheen aur jaate hain (yadi unake paas vaha vikalp haye), tou sandigdh vyapariyon koo grahakon yaa aapurtikartaon key binaa chhod dete hain. raajya dwara pulis vyavastha key bavjood, imandar vyaapaar aur beiman vyaapaar hamesha saha-astitva mein rahey hain, lekin nirashajanak baat yeh haye kii yeh anishchit hoe gayaa haye kii bhavishya mein donon mein seey kaun saa prabal honey kii sambhavana haye.
moolya kaa nuksan.
vaishvik vittiya sankat key baad seey, iss baat koo laker chinta badh rahee haye kii kyaa duniya mein kissy bhee prakaar kii sampatti bachee haye, joe vishvasaniya roop seey apana moolya banaae rakh sakati haye. mudraon key liye ack swarn maanak chalaa gayaa haye. mudra vinimay daron mein bahut utaar-chadhaav hoe sakata haye, jisase sthaaniya kimaton mein badalaav hoe sakata haye. vaishvik rinn vaishvik moolya vardhit kii tulanaa mein bahut teji seey badh rhaa haye, saath hii vittiya bulbule kaa ack crum joe aarthik tabahi kaa kaaran banata haye aur parisampattiyon kaa avamoolyan kartaa haye jaba way fatate hain. aaee. aim. aff. shodhkartaon ney iss avadhi key liye 147 pranaaleegat banking sankaton, 211 mudra sankaton aur 55 samprabhu rinn sankaton kii pehchaan kii. bahut cumm byaaj darein baink key munafe koo nuksan pahunchaati hain, lekin moolya mudrasfeeti kii darr seey cumm byaaj daron parr baink graahak ise baink mein rakhane seey hii paise khou dete hain. america mein, robinhood saha-ceo baiju bhatt ney kahaah "iss desh mein cumm paisa honah adhik mahanga haye. humm sochate hain kii yeh galat haye."halanki loga apani bachat key saath kuchh bhee karane key liye anichhuk hoe jaate hain, lekin vittiya drishtikon seey unhein vyaapaar karna chaahiye, moolya banaae rakhna chaahiye yaa ise badhaana chaahiye.
2016 key madhya mein, fitch ratings ney anuman lagaaya kii, halanki vaishvik arthavyavastha mein sudhaar huaa thaa, abb vaastavik roop seey "nakaratmak" byaaj daron vaale bonned mein 11.7 trillion dollar kaa nivesh thaa, joe vikasit deshon mein jaari kiye gaye sabhi samprabhu bonned kaa lagbhag aadhaa hissa haye. navambar 2018 mein, "bloomberg news" ney ack "kroor vaishvik bajar" key baare mein tippani keeh
 vittiya press ney ack "credit root" kii baat keeh credit baajaron ney "vaishvik vittiya sankat key baad seey sabse kharaab varsh" kaa score kiya thaa, jisamen stock, bonned aur vastuon parr upaj sabhi peechhe hatane mein thee, joe aksar nakaratmak hoe jaati thee. uchch-upaj aur nivesh-shreni key nott "euro aur dollar donon mein nuksan key liye" they, pahali baar sabhi chaar parisampatti vargon ney "bloomberg barkley soochkaank key aadhar parr 2008 key baad seey nakaratmak kull return post kiya. yuu.aiss. nivesh-shreni key bondon ney 2018 mein kull nakaratmak return 3.71 pratishat darj kiya. morgan steinley ney ganana kii kii, 1970 key dashak key baad pahali baar, duniya bhar mein 2018 key liye 21 pramukh parisampatti vargon key liye upaj vaastavik roop seey "nakaratmak" thee. morgan steinly ney faisala kiya kii 2018 mein nakadi (jiska arth haye baink jamaa aur bahut alpakaalik baand) sabse achchha pradarshan karane vaali parisampatti shreni thee.
michael hudson ney nott kiya kii 2018 key madhya mein americi treasury nott ack ulte upaj vakr key karib aaa rahey they-alpakaalik americi treasury bilon key liye upaj lagbhag deerghakaalik bilon seey adhik thee. hudson ney kahaa kii niveshakon koo arthavyavastha mein teji seey koee vishvaas naheen thaa, aur way sirf "apane paise koo surakshit roop seey rakhna chaahte they. vaastavik arthavyavastha naheen badh rahee thee, kewal ack cheej joe badh rahee thee vaha thee rinn. jey. pee. morgan key aankadon seey pataa chalaa kii bonned key liye "vaishvik" upaj vakr pahale seey hii ulta hoe gayaa thaa (1 seey 3 saal kii paripakvata vaale bonned key liye paidawar mein antar aur 7 seey 10 saal kii paripakvata vaale bonned shoonya hoe gaye they). vittiya samay" ney kahaa kii "vaishvik matratmak sahajata ney paanch seey 10 saal key khajaane key liye ack atript maang paida kii haye, jisase paidawar mein girawat aaee haye. anya logon ney tark diyaa kii upaj vakr abhee taka ulta naheen thaa, buss sapaat thaa. morgan steinly key aankadon seey pataa chalaa kii 2018 mein videshi sansthaan hamein cheeni sarkari bonned mein 100 arab dollar daal rahey they. america mein pahala vaastavik vyutkram disambar 2018 mein dekhaa gayaa thaa, jaba paanch saal key americi treasury noton parr upaj dou saal key noton seey cumm hoe gaee thee. kuchh hii samay baad, 2-varsheeya aur 10-varsheeya treasury noton (nishchit sanketak) key beach upaj mein antar duss aadhar ankon seey neeche gir gayaa. wall street journal" ney niveshakon koo spasht roop seey ghabaraane kii salah naheen dee, kyonki yeh ghatana kewal ack "asthaayi kink" hoe sakati haye jisamen "koee bhavishyavani karane kii shakti naheen thee"
michael hudson ney joe vyaapak sawal uthaaya, vaha yeh thaa kii yeh ajib baat kyon hoe sakati haye, aur yeh iss sthiti key baare mein kyaa kahata haye kii hamaare vyavasaay kaa pramukh hissa niveshakon kii mansikta aadi mein haye. sanyukt raajya america mein, dwiteeya vishva yuddh key baad seey mandee aur avasaad (abb taka kull 11 mandee, ausatan harr 6.6 saal mein honey vaali) aamtaur parr treasury noton key liye ack ulta upaj vakr (21 maheene kii ausat samay-seema key bheetar) seey pahale hotey hain. arabpati niveshak stein drukenmiller ney sitambar 2018 mein kahaa kii agala vittiya sankat pichhale vittiya sankat seey bhee badatar honey kii sambhavana haye, kyonki curge kaa bojh aasmaan chhoo rhaa haye. "unhone kahaa, "hamaare paas iss badey curge kii samasya haye. humm teen gunaa cumm curr diye kii [antim] sankat kyaa thaa. aur humm vaishvik star parr ise teen gunaa cumm curr chuke hain."iss prakaar kii apekshaon key baad, kaee niveshak apana paisa sarkari bonned mein daalate hain, bhale hii bonned parr vaastavik upaj shoonya yaa nakaratmak key karib hoe.
2007-2009 key durghatanagrast honey parr, hamaare gharon kii sampatti moolya ausatan lagbhag 30 pratishat gir gaee, aur harr paanch girvi rakhe gaye gharon mein seey lagbhag ack achaanak "paani key neeche" thaa (jahaan rinn raashi ghar key anumaanit bajar moolya seey cumm seey cumm 25 pratishat adhik thee-"samanya" sthiti mein, 50 girvi rakhe gaye gharon mein seey adhikatam 1 "paani key neeche" hoga). 2007 aur 2016 key beach sanyukt raajya america mein girvi rakhe gaye gharon key 7.8 laakh foreclosure they, jahan vittiya dabaav mein parivaaron koo majburan baahar nikaal diyaa gayaa thaa. yeh sabhi girvi rakhe gaye gharon key lagbhag ack chauthai key barabar thaa. baad mein, awas bajar mein sudhaar huaa. phir bhee duss saal baad, 50 laakh seey adhik americi girvi rakhe gaye ghar (duss maalikon dwara kabja kiye gaye girvi rakhe gaye gharon mein seey ack) abhee bhee gambhir roop seey "paani key neeche" they.
nae school shodhkartaon ney paaya kii 2009 key vasant aur 2011 key patan key beach, adhyayan kiye gaye lagbhag 45 pratishat americi shramikon ney apane sevaanivritti khaate-santulan mein hajaaron dollar kii kamee dekhi. kaee shramikon key liye, 2008 kii vittiya durghatana key baad pension nidhi mein nae sire seey laabh kewal aanshik roop seey nuksan kii bharpai curr sakata thaa. puraane poonjeevaad mein, kamkaji logon koo paise bachaane key liye "puraskrit" kiya jaataa thaa, lekin nae vitteeyakrit poonjeevaad mein, unhein aksar bachat key liye "dandit" kiya jaataa haye. abb yeh nishchit naheen haye kii jaba way sevaanivritt honge tou unaki bachat kaa moolya kyaa hoga. yeh nishchit haye kii dwiteeya vishva yuddh key baad seey vartamaan peedhi key pensionbhogi pahali peedhi hain joe pichhali peedhi kii tulanaa mein aarthik roop seey badatar haye. europe aur japan mein sthiti bahut hudd taka ack jaisi haye.
moolya asthirta.
moolya asthirta sattebaajon key liye ack vardan hoe sakati haye (yadi pravritti unake raaste parr jaati haye), lekin kaee vyavsaayiyon key liye yeh ack dard haye, jaisa kii udaaharan key liye brexit vivaad mein spasht hoe gayaa. vaishvik utpaadan kaa adhikansh hissa abb bauddhik sampada adhikaaron (aaee. pee. aar. aiss.) key adheen haye, phir bhee gyaan, detta aur jaankaari kaa vaanijyik moolya asthir hoe sakata haye. jaba logon kii gopaniyata nasht hoe jaati haye tou hamlaavaron key khilaf bachaav karna aksar mushkil hotaa haye. gyaan aur jaankaari naa kewal moolya mein vriddhi curr sakati haye, balki jaldi seey bekaar bhee hoe sakati haye. abb kaee vittiya utpaad maujood hain, jaise kii star 3 parisampattiyaan aur cryptocurrency, jinka sateek moolya agyaat yaa atyadhik parivartaniya haye. vaishvik bajar kii asthirta teji seey kharbon dollar key moolya koo mitaa sakati haye. "financial times" key sampaadak gillion tett ney bataaya kih
share bajar kii asthirta koo wicks (see. bee. oh. ee. asthirta soochkaank) dwara maapa jaataa haye, jise bolchal kii bhasha mein "bhaya soochkaank" yaa "bhaya maap" key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye. vittiya samudaay aur raajneetik varg samaaj kii sthirata banaae rakhane key liye apana sarvshreshth prayaas karate hain, lekin way poori tarah seey niyantrit naheen curr sakate hain kii sabhi loga aur sabhi bajar kyaa karane jaa rahey hain. udaaharan key liye, adhikansh british logon ney apratyaashit roop seey ack brexit key liye matdan kiya, jisase kaam mein ack spanner lagaa. 28 janwari 2018 key baad, share baajaron mein lagbhag 4 trillion dollar moolya kaa stock moolya ack saptah seey thodaa adhik samay mein gayab hoe gayaa, halanki baad mein share bajar mein sudhaar huaa.
achchi tarah seey beemit ameer logon key liye, yeh itna vinashkari naheen hoe sakata haye yadi way apani poonji kaa ack hissa khou dete hain (way aksar kuchh varshon key bheetar ise punarpraapt curr sakate hain, unake paas abhee bhee poonji kaa upayog karke), lekin chinta yeh haye kii achaanak, bahut badaa nuksan vishva arthavyavastha key liye kyaa curr sakata haye. vyaapaar (videshi mudra daron sahit) parr moolya asthirta kaa parimaan aur nakaratmak prabhaav aamtaur parr cumm vikasit (garib) deshon mein adhik hotaa haye, kyonki unamen ack parishkrit vittiya pranali, mudra jokhim koo cumm karane key liye bachaav suvidhaon aur achaanak, kimaton mein badey parivartanon seey nipatane key liye vittiya buffer kii kamee hoti haye.
17veen shatabdi mein thomas hobbs ney apana "leviathan" likhate hue tippani kii kih
ack digital, vaishvik 21veen sadee kii duniya mein, judane yaa disconnect karane kii sambhaavanaon key saath, loga "khud" koo-gambhirta seey yaa atiyathaarthvaadi roop seey-samajik bajar mein ack prakaar key "stock" key roop mein maanana shuru curr sakate hain, ack "asthir" moolya key saath, joe harr samay oopar aur neeche jaataa haye-chaahe way aisaa karna pasand karein, yaa naheen. saarvajanik yaa niji dhaaranaon key aadhar parr kii way apane saath kyaa karate hain yaa naheen karate hain, unakaa moolya badh jaataa haye, yaa yeh neeche chalaa jaataa haye, aur yeh cumm yaa jyada turant aisaa curr sakata haye. ack vyakti kaa moolya joe ack baahari haye, yoyo kii tarah oopar aur neeche jaa sakata haye, kyonki moolya khoj kii prakriya mushkil haye. yadi ise niyantrit karna yaa taalna mushkil haye tou yeh ack chunauti bunn sakati haye, jisase anishchitata, asuvidha yaa dwidha bhaav paida hoe sakata haye. yeh anya logon key prabhaavon koo "prabandhit" karane key liye dabaav paida kartaa haye (prabhaav prabandhan bhee dekhein). yeh logon key kapade pahanane key tareeke, way kahaan jaate hain, way kisake saath judate hain, aur isi tarah koo prabhaavit curr sakata haye, joe sabhi unake "moolya" kii dhaaranaon koo prabhaavit curr sakate hain, aur isake parinamswarup unhein samarthan yaa asweekriti milati haye yaa naheen.
moolya asthirta" key inn sabhi roopon seey pataa chalata haye kii "moolya" kaa ack ayam abb pramukhta praapt curr rhaa haye, joe ack mahatvapurna hudd taka apratyaashit, kapati, aniyantrit aur mayawi haye, joe kabhi-kabhi sabse shaktishali sarkari sansthanon koo bhee dhokha detaa haye. samajshastri zigment bauman "taral aadhunikta" key ack nae yug koo sandarbhit karate hain, joe vyaktiyon key khud koo dekhane key poore tareeke aur dusaron aur duniya key saath unake sambandhon koo badal detaa haye.
avishvasaniya mulyankan.
pratiyogiyon koo haraane key liye, karon koo chakma dene aur niveshakon koo khush karane key liye, vyavasaay teji seey apane khaaton mein nivesh karate hain aur apane sanchaalan key kuchh hisson koo chhipaate hain. kaee sahayak yaa sambaddh companiyon dwara sahaayata praapt-aksar vibhinn deshon mein sthit-company kii hissedari, aaya aur sanchaalan koo "badala" jaa sakata haih dendaariyon koo parisampattiyon mein badala jaa sakata haye, parisampattiyon koo dendaariyon mein badala jaa sakata haye; aaya koo laagat mein badala jaa sakata haye, aur laagat koo aaya mein badala jaa sakata haye; aur parichaalan nakadi pravaah koo badala jaa sakata haye-usa prakaar kii lekha vidhi key anusaar joe vyavasaay samooh key liye sabse anukool haye (rachanaatmak lekha bhee dekhein). 2004 mein, traver aiss. morgan steinly key mukhya lekhankan vishleshak harris ney kahaa kii "vittiya reporting pranali poori tarah seey toot gaee haye."yeh bajar gatividhi mein laagat aur laabhon kii paaramparik aarthik tarksangatata koo pareshan karna shuru curr detaa haye (vishesh roop seey, rinn laabh key madhyam seey ameer honah kanuni roop seey sambhav hoe jaataa haye joe anya logon koo rinn detaa haye).
yadi niveshakon key liye kissy company key moolya koo "bhavishya key nakadi pravaah" key "vartamaan" moolya key roop mein paribhaashit kiya jaataa haye, tou yeh mukhya roop seey mahatvapurna naheen haye kii company ney "vartamaan" mein vittiya roop seey kyaa hassil kiya haye, balki yeh mahatvapurna haye kii usa upalabdhi kaa "bhavishya" mein kyaa moolya honey kii "sambhavana" haye. yeh companiyon koo niveshakon key liye aakarshak sankhya prastut karane key liye prerit kartaa haye. australia mein, 2016 mein "vittiya sameeksha" mein bataaya gayaa kii sheersh-500 companiyon mein seey 40 pratishat "gair-maanak" vittiya upaayon jaise "antarnihit laabh" aur "antarnihit aaya" kaa upayog karate hain, joe samaan lekha manakon key uddeshya parr sawal uthaate hain. key. pee. aim. jee. shodhkartaon ney paaya kii kaee aeye. aiss. aiks. 200 companiyan niveshakon koo vittiya detta kii report karane key liye sarkari dishaanirdeshon kaa poori tarah seey paalan naheen curr rahee theen. isi tarah kii kahaaniyan adhikansh anya deshon mein paaee jaa sakati hain. vittiya samay" ney ack lekha pariksha firm key ack board sadasya key havaale seey kahaa kii "uchit moolya lekhankan key saath samasya yeh haye kii maark-too-market, maark-too-model aur maark-too-myth key beach antar karna bahut mushkil haye."
stock buyback key madhyam seey ack company apane share kii keemat badhaa sakati haye, aur company key pradarshan mein kissy bhee badalaav key binaa sharedharakon koo aaya pradaan curr sakati haye-yadi corporate adhikaariyon koo stock aur stock vikalpon mein bhugtan kiya jaataa haye, tou unhein harr baar stock kaa moolya badhane parr vetan vriddhi milati haye. farwari 2018 mein, americi senate democrate ney ack vishesh report jaari kii jisamen kahaa gayaa thaa kii kewal 33 nigamon kaa ack namuna 2018 mein 209 arab dollar moolya key punarkhareed kii yojana banaa rhaa thaa, jabaki usee samay badee sankhya mein shramikon koo hataa rhaa thaa. goldman sax key anusaar, americi companiyon ney 2018 mein 1 trillion dollar moolya key stock buyback koo adhikrit kiya, jabaki europe, kanada, japan aur audyogik purvi asiai desh bhee 2018 kii pahali chhamaahi mein sanyukt roop seey 248 billion dollar kii khareed key saath iss adhiniyam mein shamil hue. vaishvik equity bajar "cumm seey cumm dou dashakon mein sabse tej gati seey sikud rhaa thaa" halanki iska kull moolya abhee bhee badh rhaa thaa, aanshik roop seey stock kii kimaton koo aage badhaane key kaaran. vittiya samay" ney "saarvajanik share baajaron kii dheemi mrityu" kaa darr paida curr diyaah
samanya prabhaav yeh haye kii vyavasaay kaa vaastavik aarthik moolya yaa laabh, jaanana adhik kathin hoe jaataa haye; paardarshita kii kamee haye. sharedharakon koo company mein vishvaas rakhane key liye protsaahit kiya jaataa haye, halanki vaastav mein company key sanchaalan kaa koee vishvasaniya mulyankan maujood naheen hoe sakata haye. octuber 2010 mein, europeeya sangh ney vittiya lenden curr (ack tobin curr yaa robbin hood curr) key vichaar koo chhod diyaa, isake karanon mein antarrashtriya lenden kii vismayakaari jatilata kaa hawala dete hue, joe curr koo lagu karane aur lagu karane koo bahut kathin aur mahanga banaata haye.
aam logon koo.
samanya poonjiwadi tark nae prakaar key "ardh-saarvajanik" saamanon key liye kissy bhee sahmat maanak mulyankan, yaa sampatti adhikaar pradaan karane mein whiffle rahata haye, jinhen bahut adhik aarthik moolya maanaa jaataa haye, jaise kii samajik network, saamoohik bauddhik aur saanskritik parisampattiyan, paaristhitiki tantra, aur gair-navikaraniya praakritik sansadhanon key stock. inn sansadhanon koo aksar "aam" kahaa jaataa haye (koee bhee unakaa malik naheen haye, yaa harr koee unakaa malik haye, isaliye koee unhein leey sakata haye).
vyavasaay dwara yathaarthvaadi moolya nirdhaaran yeh maanata haye kii cheejen niji swaamitva mein hoe sakati hain aur bechi jaa sakati hain (yaa patte parr dee jaa sakati hain, kiraaye parr lii jaa sakati hain, kiraaye parr lii jaa sakati hain aadi).). yadi sansadhanon koo binaa kissy laagat key praapt aur upayog kiya jaa sakata haye (kyonki way "muft saman" hain) yaa lagbhag shoonya laagat parr sulabh hain, tou unake lootane yaa barbad honey kii adhik sambhavana haye. udaaharan key liye, prashant mahasagar mein, khule samudra mein bahut saaree machhaliyan hain, koee bhee unake malik naheen haye, aur unhein vishal drainet key saath audyogik machhali pakadane kii takneekon kaa upayog karke kaataa jaataa haye. iska parinam yeh haye kii machhali kaa bhandar bahut teji seey cumm hoe rhaa haye (khaadya jaal mein machhali pakadana bhee dekhein). naee machhali aabaadi paida karane kii vyavaharyata iss baat parr nirbhar karati haye kii kyaa khaadya shrinkhala jiss parr machhali nirbhar haye, vaha abhee bhee haye yaa naheen.
vaishvik carbon utsarjan vyaapaar kii ack saral pranali kaa aavishkaar, jisane carbon utsarjan kii keemat nirdhaarit kii, aur pradooshan mein vyaapaar koo badhaava diyaa, jisase humm jiss havaa mein saans lete hain, usamen pradooshan koo cumm kiya jaa sakey, apane lakshya taka pahunchane mein whiffle rhaa. varsh 2015 key liye, swaasthya visheshagyon ney roodhivaadi roop seey anuman lagaaya kii duniya mein 90 laakh samay seey pahale mautein (joe prati varsh duniya mein honey vaali sabhi mauton kaa 16 pratishat haye, arthaat.ee. prati varsh pratyek 25 mauton mein seey 4 mautein) pradooshan key kaaran hoti theen, jisamen vayu pradooshan sabse badaa ghaatak thaa. pradooshan seey honey vaali mauton kii sabse badee sankhya africa, chean, bhaarat, pakistan aur bangladesh mein hoti haye. prati varsh pradooshan seey kewal lagbhag 155,000 americi marate hain (prati varsh 2.7 laakh mauton mein seey, arthaat.ee. prati varsh pratyek 17 mauton mein lagbhag 1 pradooshan mrityu)-paschim mein, pradooshan kii samasya "radar seey hutt gaee", kyonki vaishvik tapman vriddhi parr dhyaan kendrit kiya gayaa thaa.
facebook aur linkedin jaisi network saaiten seedhe anya logon kii dosti taka pahunch seey apana paisa naheen kamaati hain, balki jaankaari, vigyaapan, prasaran, khel, prayojan aur pahunch visheshadhikaron koo bechane seey kamaati hain. facebook-cambridge vishleshanatmak detta ghotale ney sanket diyaa kii laabh key liye, logon key gyaat vyaktigat network key baare mein jaankaari kaa kanuni dakaiti aur dohan-anya cheejon key alawa unhein dakshinpanthi raajnetaon key liye matdan karane key liye dhokha denaa-antarrashtriya star parr ack badaa vyavasaay bunn gayaa haye. aajkal harr saal badee sankhya mein detta chori hoti haye, lekin peediton koo kabhi pataa naheen chalega kii unakaa detta aur kaam chori hoe gayaa thaa, yaa ise kisane churaaya thaa. 2016 mein, yeh bataaya gayaa thaa kii hackers dwara anumaanit 4 arab detta record chori kiye gaye they. haalaanki, jaba loga googal, amazon, facebook, microsoft aadi key saath khaaton key liye saain upp karate hain. unhein iss baat kaa koee andaja naheen haye kii unake vyaktigat detta (kharbon record) kaa upayog kiss liye kiya jaa rhaa haye. aksar loga apane computer kaa upayog naa karane key alawa apane detta yaa apani gopaniyata kii raksha karna bhee naheen jaanate hain. nigam kanuni roop seey vishal matra mein vyaktigat jaankaari koo "scrap" curr sakate hain, aur isake saath vahee curr sakate hain joe unhein pasand haye-logon koo shayed kabhi pataa naheen chalega kii kyaa huaa, aur way yeh naheen pataa lagaa sakate kii kyaa huaa, bhale hii unhone koshish kii hoe.
kaam kaa galat mulyankan.
trade union key loga shikayat karate hain kii kaam key prayaas key liye puraskar aur mulyankan anupaat seey baahar chaley gaye hain, isaliye kaee loga lambe ghanton taka bahut mehnat karate hain, kewal kuchh dollar kamaane key liye, jabaki anya logon koo kewal baatchit karane, upasthit honey yaa thodaa dhyaan dene key liye badee raashi kaa bhugtan kiya jaataa haye. 
taba tark yeh haye kii yadi kaary prayaas key liye vittiya protsaahan aur protsaahan poori tarah seey ghata gaye hain, tou bajar sansadhanon kaa uchit aur kushal aavantan naheen curr sakate hain.
bajar kii viphalata.
sarkaaren bajar kii viphalata koo door karane mein adhik seey adhik shamil hain (aur isake liye tab chunein-leman samaajvaad bhee dekhein). vittiya samay key ack sampaadak, martin wolf ney vittiya kshetra key baare mein prasiddh tippani kii kii "kissy bhee [anya] udyog mein laabh key nijikaran aur nuksan key samajikkaran key liye tulaniya pratibha naheen haye."kuchh varshon baad, unhone samajhaaya kii" aaj key baink apani taarkik seemaon taka laabh kii talash karane vaale vyavhaar key avtaar kaa pratinidhitva karate hain, jisamen varishth karmchaariyon dwara poochha jaane vaalaa ekmatra sawal yeh naheen haye kii unakaa kartavya yaa unaki jimmedaari kyaa haye, balki way kyaa curr sakate hain."phir bhee baink sevaaon kii bhoomika vishal laine-daine kii matra koo sanchaalit karane key liye mahatvapurna haye, aur nijikaran, raajya bhrashtachar, aur raajya key dhana kii loot yaa niji hiton dwara curr-chakma (rishwat, nijikaran, suar kaa maans bairal rajneeti, lobby samooh shakti, nigameekaran, pratibhootikaran, kiraya-maang, manmaane bajat katauti, vittiya bellout, pratigaami curr, curr chori aadi) key kaaran vyaapaar kshati kii marammat key liye sarkaaron key paas cumm seey cumm sansaadhan upalabdh hain.).
duniya bhar key logon koo abb bazaron seey baahar curr diyaa jaa rhaa haye, naa kewal garib deshon mein, balki ameer deshon mein bhee. 
vitteeyakrit poonjeevaad kii vikrit moolya sanrachanaaen duniya bhar mein badey samajik avyavasthaon aur takniki parivartan kaa kaaran banati jaa rahee hain, kyonki badey bhaugolik kshetron key bheetar badey paimaane parr logon key liye samanya tareeke seey rehna aur kaam karna aarthik roop seey sambhav naheen haye. unhein apani jeevan shally mein bhaari badalaav karna padata haye, yaa majboor hocker baahar nikaal diyaa jaataa haye.
ameer loga sunder kshetron koo khareedate hain, aur garibon koo badsurat, malin aur pradooshit kshetron mein rehna padata haye. choonki ameer loga sabse adhik pradooshan kaa kaaran banate hain, kaee garib loga prakriti kii raksha karane key uddeshya seey poonjipati paryavaranvad key baare mein ack aspasht drishtikon rakhate hain.
phir bhee badee garibi paryaavaran key liye vinashkari bhee hoe sakati haye. zimbabwe dollar key atee mudrasfeeti aur poorna garibi seey peedit, zimbabwe mein logon kii bheed ney jangal, vanyajeev shikaar aur soney yaa heere key khanan koo apani pahal parr kaatane kaa prayaas kiya, taaki aajeevika banaai jaa sakey aur jeevit reh sakey (marenz heere key kheton koo bhee dekhein). yeh anuman lagaaya gayaa haye kii 1990 aur 2005 key beach, zimbabwe ney apane vann kshetra kaa 21 pratishat (ack-paanchvaan) khou diyaa.ee. 4.7 "million" hectare), aur vartamaan mein harr saal 313,000 hectare jangal gayab hoe jaate hain. 2013 mein, 15 pratishat vanon kii kataai tambaku-kheti key liye bhoomi-safai aur tambaku-upchaar key liye jalaau lakadi praapt karane seey sambandhit thee. juuna 2007 mein zimbabwe sanrakshan kaary bull kii ack report key anusaar, 2000 seey zimbabwe key sabhi vanyajeevon mein seey aadhe seey adhik kii avaidh shikaar aur vanon kii kataai key kaaran mrityu hoe gaee thee. bhoomi ksharan seey mitty kaa badaa ksharan honey kii ummeed haye, saath hii baadh aur bhujal-pradooshan kii samasyaaen, rahane yogya krishi bhoomi kshetra koo kaafee cumm curr sakati hain.
ameer loga bhee teji seey aage badh rahey hain, uchch karon, asurakshit sthitiyon, paryavaraniya khatron aur samajik-raajneetik asthirta seey bachane kii koshish curr rahey hain. vaishvik dhana pravaas sameeksha 2018" key anusaar, 2017 mein lagbhag 95,000 karodpati (hnvi) pravaas curr gaye, sheersh gantavya uttari america, australia, sanyukt arab amirat, israel, switzerland aur singapur they. ameer logon key baahar nikalane seey mukhya roop seey chean, bhaarat, turkey, united kingdam, france, roose, brazil, indoneshiya, saudi arab, nigeria aur venezuela prabhaavit hue.
sangathanaatmak asthirta.
vyavasaay aur sarkari sangathanon donon kaa prabandhan sthaayi roop seey asthir hoe gayaa haye, aur punargathan aajkal ack kabhi naa khatm honey vaali prakriya haye, taaki karmchaariyon koo lagaatar badala yaa sthanantarit kiya jaa rhaa haye, jabaki kaary pranaliyon koo harr samay phir seey design kiya jaa rhaa haye-shikayaton koo janm dete hue kii kuchh bhee abb kaam naheen kartaa haye. aggar naukari kii suraksha chully jaati haye, tou shramikon koo cumm swatantrata hoti haye, kyonki bhavishya mein unake jeevan mein kyaa hoga yaa hoe sakata haye, iss parr unakaa cumm niyantran hotaa haye; unake liye achche jeevan-vikalp aur yojanaaen banaana adhik kathin hoe jaataa haye, aggar unake paas aarthik roop seey yaa anyatha kyaa honey kii sambhavana haye, isake baare mein uchit roop seey achchi jaankaari bhee naheen haye. yadi cheejen badalati hain, yaa arajakta mein hain, tou yeh jaanana mushkil hoe jaataa haye kii kyaa hotaa haye aur cheejon koo achchi tarah seey aankane key anubhav seey kyaa nishkarsh nikala jaa sakata haye. naee sthitiyon key liye rachanaatmak roop seey seekhane aur anukoolit karane mein saksham honey key liye paryaapt crum aur bhavishyavani kii aavashyakta haye.
dutch kendriya baink key anusaar, desh key kull moolya-vardhit dutch vetan-hissedari mein aadhi girawat "shram bajar key lachilepan" key kaaran hui.
haalaanki samasyaon parr adhik paisa fenkana bahut adhik sangathanaatmak roop seey hull naheen hoe sakata haye, haalaanki karmchari atirikt nakadi key liye aabhaari hain. baar-baar paisa buss ack chhed key neeche gayab hoe jaataa haye. jaba america key kuchh sabse shaktishali aur achchi tarah seey sansaadhan vaale nigamon koo iraq key punarnirmaan key liye arabon dollar kaa bhugtan kiya gayaa, tou yeh pataa chalaa kii way bijli, paani aur gais koo phir seey jodane jaisi buniyaadi cheejon koo thheek seey vyavasthit bhee naheen curr sakate they.
bhavishya mein kyaa hoe sakata haye, iss baare mein bahut anishchitata aur bechaini haye, kyonki koee bhee vaastav mein nishchit roop seey naheen jaanata kii kyaa hoga, sivaay isake kii nae sankaton kii sambhavana haye. abhijaat vishva aarthik munch samooh kii vaishvik jokhim report 2018 mein "vyaapaar kii mrityu" yaa "vyaapaar key anta" key paridrishya kii parikalpana kii gaee haye jaisa kii humm jaanate hain. isamen badhate vyaapaar yuddh, mudra yuddh aur bhoo-raajneetik uthal-puthal shamil hogi joe duniya bhar mein teji seey fail gaee, jisamen kamjor niyaamak nikaay kuchh bhee hull karane mein asamarth they. antarrashtriya kaanoonon, samjhauton aur sammelanon parr abb dhyaan naheen diyaa jaayega; vaanijyik vyaapaar jangal aur sainya shakti key kaanoon dwara shaasit hoga.
isi tarah, aprail 2018 mein, aaee. aim. aff. key prabandh nideshak christine leggard ney bhavishya mein kuchh varshon key liye vaishvik vyaapaar aur shulk yuddhon key baare mein chintaon kaa ullekh kiya. unhone kahaa kii rashtriya sanrakshanvaadi neetiyaan vaishvik vyaapaar koo niyantrit karane vaale sansthaagat aur kanuni dhaanche koo toda sakati hain.
anaupchaarik paripath.
vaishvik star parr, chhaaya arthavyavastha, anaupchaarik kshetra, aaparaadhik gatividhi kaa daira, bhrashtachar aur berojgar "adhishesh aabaadi" sabhi bahut badee bunny hui hain. bahut saare chhote aparaadh abb darj yaa darj naheen kiye jaate hain, kyonki pulis key paas isase nipatane key liye sansaadhan naheen hain, aur peedit abb isaki report karane kii jahmat naheen uthaate hain. kickie seokhi yoon kaa kahana haye kii "jahan taka hamari jaankaari haye, aparaadh kii soochana milane kii sambhavana lagbhag 50 pratishat yaa usase cumm haye."dost aur anya. (2017) kaa kahana haye kii "aparaadh koo maapana samajik vaigyaanikon key liye ack chunautipurna mudda haye.
cnn munny" key anusaar, tathaakathit "whiffle honey key liye bahut badey" bainkon key sheersh adhikaariyon ney kissy bhee aaparaadhik aarop seey bachaa haye, bhale hii unake bainkon ney vittiya sankat kii or leey jaane vaale galat kaam key aaropon koo nipataane key liye dasiyon arab dollar kaa jurmana lagaaya hoe."
halanki, friedrich snider kaa daavaa haye kii lambe samay mein chhaaya arthavyavastha cumm hoe rahee haye.
bhrashtachar dhaarana soochkaank arthavyavastha key "saarvajanik" kshetra mein bhrashtachar kaa kewal ack sanketak haye, naa kii niji kshetra mein bhrashtachar kaa, bhale hii niji kshetra saarvajanik kshetra kii tulanaa mein bahut badaa hoe. yeh soochkaank yeh naheen dikhaa sakata kii vaishvik star parr bhrashtachar kii kull matra badh rahee haye, lagaatar badh rahee haye yaa cumm hoe rahee haye. ack adhik vyaapak upaay vaishvik bhrashtachar barometer haye.
"ack aaparaadhik poonjeevaad mein, jahaan raajya aur niji kshetra logon koo lootane aur unakaa shoshan karane key liye teji seey milkar kaam karate hain, aparaadh kaa bhugtan hotaa haye. phir bhee poonjipati moolyon kaa kshay behtar moolyon key liye sangharsh koo swachaalit roop seey prerit naheen kartaa haye. yeh "sabhi" maanviya moolyon key deerghakaalik patan, manavtavad key vinash aur maanav jeevan kii pavitrata aur maanav garima kii raksha mein vishvaas key gayab honey kaa kaaran bhee bunn sakata haye."
vikalp.
jeevan banaane key uddeshya seey, sansadhanon key aavantan key liye, kaam key liye aur utpaadan key ayojan key liye (arthavyavastha koo saajha karna bhee dekhein) adhik seey adhik vikalp utpaadan key poonjiwadi tareeke key liye vikasit hoe rahey hain. yadi loga pratispardha karane key bajaay saajha karate hain, tou way aksar apani laagat cumm curr sakate hain. yeh antardrishti logon key liye vishesh roop seey mahatvapurna haye jaba way garib hoe gaye hain.
sambhaavanaaen.
poonjivaadi moolya sambandhon key liye inn duss rujhaanon kaa samagr aarthik mahatva anya baaton key saath-saath vivaadit haye kyonki way hamesha kissy naa kissy hudd taka maujood rahey hain. yeh spasht naheen haye kii kiss arth mein "matratmak" parivartan bhee poonjiwadi samaaj key kamkaj mein "gunaatmak" parivartanon koo darshaate hain, yaa kiss hudd taka "gunaatmak" parivartan "matratmak roop seey" mahatvapurna hain.
isaliye poonjeevaad key bhavishya key baare mein koee samjhauta naheen haye, purvaanumaanon koo saabit karna mushkil haye, aur sabhi prakaar kii cheejen aakasmik roop seey hoe sakati hain. sabhi alag-alag drishtikon satya kaa hissa hoe sakate hain. samajwadi patrika 'key sampaadak hillel tiktin vaishvik sthiti koo "ack sankramankalin duniya mein ack madhyavarti avadhi" key roop mein varnit karate hain."maark blogg ney tark diyaa kii" "aadhunik arthshastra kii kendriya kamjori" "una siddhanton koo utpann karane key liye anichha haye joe spasht roop seey khandan yogya nihitarth paida karate hain, jisake baad tathyon key saath una nihitarthon kaa saamana karane key liye ack samanya anichha hoti haye."inn dinon sateek aur vyaapak purvanuman badee matra mein dhana key laayak hain, aur isaliye, iss tarah key purvanuman aksar ack achchi tarah seey sanrakshit rahasya bunn jaate hain. bahut saare shodh abb naheen kiye jaa rahey hain, kyonki yadi yeh kiya jaataa haye, tou yeh turant binaa kissy nishan key chori hoe jaataa haye (hackers aur choron dwara joe vaastavik samay mein apane utpaadan key bindu parr sabse unnat vichaaron koo bund karna chaahte hain). 2018 mein, arthashastri khufiya ikai ney vaishvik arthavyavastha key liye sheersh 10 jokhimon mein ack gambhir cyber hamale koo nigamit aur sarkari gatividhiyon koo pangu banaa diyaa. sookshm star parr, dutch shodhkartaon ney 2018 mein 12 seey 18 varsh kii ayu key 1,058 yuvaaon key ack namoone kaa adhyayan kiya, aur paaya kii 5.1% yuvaaon ney kahaa kii unhone kabhi-kabhi email khaaton mein anumati key binaa, 15,2% ney mobile phone mein aur 5,4% ney network mein hack kiya thaa. lagbhag 12 pratishat ney kahaa kii unhone aisaa naheen kiya thaa, lekin way aisaa curr sakate they. 54.6 pratishat ney kahaa kii way "kabhi hack naheen karenge", lekin 45.4% ney kahaa kii way ise aajma sakate hain.
pratyek badey poonjiwadi sankat key maddenajar, marksvadiyon aur gair-marksvadiyon donon ney poonjeevaad key anta kii bhavishyavani kii haye.
isake vipareet, vighatan siddhanton key alochakon kaa tark haye kii pranaaleegat sankat, halanki shayed hii sukhad hain, thheek vahee tarika haye jisake madhyam seey vikasatmak samasyaon aur poonjiwadi vyavasaay key badhate dard koo hull kiya jaataa haye. pratyek sankat koo dukh key kaaran key roop mein naheen, balki cheejon koo alag tarah seey karane key avsar key roop mein, yaa una cheejon koo mahsoos karane key liye bhee dekhaa jaa sakata haye joe shaktishali loga lambe samay seey pahale seey hii karna chaahte they. cheejen "sankat mein parh jaati hain" aur jaba way aisaa karate hain, tou vyaparik netaaon aur raajnetaon koo unake baare mein kuchh karna padata haye. bhayaanak kathinaaiyon key madhyam seey, logon key prabandhan, niyantran aur shoshan key liye naee takneeken vikasit kii jaati hain, joe baad mein mukhyadhara mein aatee hain. aur, poonjipatiyon, shramikon, raajyon aur rashtron seey judee ack bheeshan pratispardha (yaa ack yuddh) key baad, aarthik vikas kaa ack nayaa yug aamtaur parr khulata haye. nae yug mein, aam taur parr poonjipatiyon kaa ack poori tarah seey nayaa samooh driving seat letaa haye.
isaliye halanki aisaa lugg sakata haye kii poonjeevaad kaa anta nikat haye, yeh kewal ack nae prakaar key poonjeevaad kii or ack sankraman bhee hoe sakata haye-ack nayaa poonjiwadi shasson, joe pahale seey hii vikasit huaa thaa, lekin jisake baare mein kuchh logon ney socha thaa, isake ubharane seey pahale. ack aavantan siddhant key roop mein, moolya key roop sambhavatah marksvadiyon aur samajvadiyon key vichaar seey adhik sthaayi aur lambe samay taka chalane vaale hoe sakate hain, bhale hii way nae vinyason mein parivartit houn.
yeh bhee sambhav haye kii bhavishya mein samaajvaad aur saamyvaad kii ack naee vaigyaanik samajh abhee bhee ubharegi, joe maanav samaaj mein moolya kii bhoomika parr naee roshni daalati haye. abb taka, iss samajh koo paschimi markswadi shikshaavidon dwara sakriya roop seey avaruddh aur dabaa diyaa gayaa haye, anya cheejon key alawa kyonki unakaa maanana haye kii samaajvaad kabhi maujood naheen thaa aur/yaa maujood naheen hoe sakata, aur yeh moolya, bajar aur paisa mool roop seey ack hii cheejen hain. kuchh logon kaa tark haye kii samaajvaad kaa astitva naheen honah chaahiye, kewal poorna saamyvaad kaa astitva honah chaahiye-kaee achche kapade, ghar, ferrari, naukaaen aadi key saath. ernest mandel kaa kahana haye kii, stalinwadi yug mein sheersh saamyavaadi kaaryakartaon key liye, ack bhavna thee jisamen saamyvaad pahale seey hii maujood thaa. sabse pahale, jaba bhee inn communist netaaon ney cheejen khareedane key liye apane sarkari baink khaate seey dhana nikala, tou unakaa debit usee raashi key nae credit key saath swachaalit roop seey radd hoe gayaa. doosara, way vishesh dukaanon parr jaa sakate they joe aam janata key liye sulabh naheen theen, jahan way lagbhag kuchh bhee khareed sakate they joe way chaahte they. nikita khrushchev kii sarkaar ney kuleen banking pratha koo roque diyaa thaa.
ushmaagatiki.
johnn belami foster aind paul burket (2018) kahate hain kii...aaj humm vastuon key moolya koo naa kewal maanav shram key utpaad key roop mein, balki samanya roop seey pashu shram key utpaad key roop mein aur usase parey, samanya roop seey oorjaa key roop mein avadharana karane key kaee prayason koo dekh rahey hain. 2016 seey, uttar-keynesian arthashastri steve ney tark diyaa haye kii moolya kaa koee bhee vishvasaniya siddhant, chaahe vaha shaastriya hoe, nava-shaastriya hoe yaa visham-paaramparik, ushmaagatiki key bhautik niyamon key anuroop honah chaahiye. unakaa daavaa haye kii "navshastriya seey laker markswadi taka harr vichaar iss mudde parr galat thaa, aur aarthik moolya key sabhi pichhale siddhant usa kaaran seey trutipurna hain.
yeh koee nayaa vichaar naheen haye (ise 1991 mein elmar ultwaiter, 1971 mein nicolas jorgescu-roggen aur 1921 mein fredrick soddy dwara uthaaya gayaa thaa) lekin ack nae prakaar key utpaadan kaary kaa prastaav haye, jisamen oorjaa ack aavashyak bhoomika nibhaati haye. arthashastri anwar sheikh halanki utpaadan kaary kii nava-shaastriya avadharana koo sudoku khel key roop mein khariz karate hain, anubhavjanya tathyon aur aarthik sakshya parr adharit ack punarnirmaan shaastriya arthshastra koo prathamikta dete hain.

