
aavart saarani

aavart saarani, jise tatvon kii aavart saarani key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye, rasayanik tatvon koo panktiyon ("avadhi") aur stambhon ("samooh") mein vyavasthit karati haye. yeh rasayan vigyaan kaa ack sangathanaatmak prateek haye aur iska vyaapak roop seey bhautiki aur anya vigyaanon mein upayog kiya jaataa haye. yeh aavadhik niyam kaa chitran haye, joe kahata haye kii jaba tatvon koo unaki paramanu sankhya key crum mein vyavasthit kiya jaataa haye tou unake gunon kii anumaanit punaravritti spasht hoti haye. talika koo chaar motey taur parr aaytaakaar kshetron mein vibhajit kiya gayaa haye jinhen khand kahaa jaataa haye. ack hii samooh key tatva samaan rasayanik visheshataaen dikhaate hain.
urdhvaadhar, kshaitij aur vikarn rujhaan aavart saarani koo darshaate hain. dhaatu kaa charitra ack samooh key neeche jaane seey badhata haye aur ack avadhi mein baaen seey daaen ghatata jaataa haye. adhaatu charitra aavart saarani key neeche baaen seey oopar daaen kii or badhata haye.
aam taur parr sweekaar kii jaane vaali pahali aavart saarani 1869 mein russie rasaayanagya dimitra mendeleev kii thee; unhone paramanu dravyamaan parr rasayanik gunon kii nirbharta key roop mein aavart niyam taiyar kiya. jaisa kii taba sabhi tatvon koo naheen jaanaa jaataa thaa, unaki aavart saarani mein antaral they, aur mendeleev ney kuchh laapata tatvon key kuchh gunon kii bhavishyavani karane key liye aavart niyam kaa safaltapurvak upayog kiya. 19veen shatabdi key anta mein aavadhik kaanoon koo ack maulik khoj key roop mein maanyata dee gaee thee. ise 20veen shatabdi kii shuruat mein samajhaaya gayaa thaa, paramanu sankhyaon kii khoj aur quantum yantriki mein sambandhit agrani kaary donon vichaaron ney paramanu kii aantarik sanrachana koo rotion karane mein madad kii thee. 1945 mein glain tii key saath mez kaa ack aadhunik roop praapt kiya gayaa thaa. seaborg kii khoj haye kii actinide vaastav mein dee-block tatvon key bajaay aff-block they. aavart saarani aur niyam abb aadhunik rasayan vigyaan kaa ack kendriya aur apariharya hissa hain.
vigyaan kii pragati key saath aavart saarani kaa vikas jaari haye. prakriti mein, kewal paramanu sankhya 94 taka key tatva maujood hain; aage jaane key liye, prayogshala mein nae tatvon koo sanshleshit karna aavashyak thaa. aaj, jabaki sabhi pahale 118 tatvon koo jaanaa jaataa haye, jisase talika kii pahali saat panktiyon koo puuraa kiya jaataa haye, sabse bhaari tatvon key liye rasayanik lakshan varnan kii aavashyakta abhee bhee haye taaki yeh pushti kii jaa sakey kii unake guna unaki sthiti seey mell khaate hain. yeh abhee taka gyaat naheen haye kii talika inn saat panktiyon seey kitni door jaayegi aur kyaa talika key gyaat hisse key pattern iss agyaat kshetra mein jaari rahenge. kuchh vaigyaanik charcha iss baare mein bhee jaari haye kii kyaa kuchh tatva aaj kii talika mein sahee tareeke seey sthit hain. aavartak niyam key kaee vaikalpik pratinidhitva maujood hain, aur iss baare mein kuchh charcha haye kii kyaa aavart saarani kaa ack ishtatam roop haye.
avalokan.
pratyek rasayanik tatva kii ack vishisht paramanu sankhya ("z") hoti haye joe isake naabhik mein proton kii sankhya kaa pratinidhitva karati haye. adhikansh tatvon mein kaee samasthaanik hotey hain, jinamen proton kii sankhya samaan hoti haye lekin neutron kii sankhya alag hoti haye. udaaharan key liye, carbon mein teen praakritik roop seey paae jaane vaale samasthaanik hainh isake sabhi parmaanuon mein chhah proton hotey hain aur adhikansh mein chhah neutron bhee hotey hain, lekin lagbhag ack pratishat mein saat neutron hotey hain, aur ack bahut chhote ansh mein aathh neutron hotey hain. samasthaanik kabhi bhee aavart saarani mein alag naheen hotey hain; way hamesha ack tatva key tahat ack saath samoohbaddh hotey hain. jaba paramanu dravyamaan dikhaaya jaataa haye, tou yeh aamtaur parr praakritik roop seey honey vaale samsthaanikon kaa bhaarit ausat hotaa haye; lekin yadi koee naheen haye, tou sabse sthir samasthaanik kaa dravyamaan aamtaur parr koshthakon mein dikhaai detaa haye.
maanak aavart saarani mein, tatvon koo paramanu sankhya "z" key crum mein soochibaddh kiya gayaa haye. ack naee pankti ("avadhi") taba shuru hoti haye jaba ack nae electron kosh kaa pahala electron hotaa haye. stambh ("samooh") paramanu key electron vinyas dwara nirdhaarit kiye jaate hain; ack vishesh upkosh mein samaan sankhya mein electrons vaale tatva ack hii stambh mein aatey hain (ee.jee. oxygen aur selenium ack hii stambh mein hain kyonki donon key sabse baahari pee-subshell mein chaar electron hain). samaan rasayanik gunon vaale tatva aam taur parr aavart saarani mein ack hii samooh mein aatey hain, halanki aff-block mein, aur kuchh sandarbh mein dee-block mein, usee avadhi key tatvon mein bhee samaan guna hotey hain. iss prakaar, kissy tatva key rasayanik gunon kaa anuman lagaana apekshaakrit aasaan haye yadi koee usake aspas key tatvon key gunon koo jaanata haye.
pahale 94 tatva praakritik roop seey hotey hain; shesh 24, americium seey ogeneson (95-118), kewal taba hotey hain jaba prayogshalaon mein sanshleshit kiya jaataa haye. praakritik roop seey paae jaane vaale 94 tatvon mein seey 83 adim hain aur 11 kewal adim tatvon kii kshay shrinkhalaon mein hotey hain. insteinium (tatva 99) seey bhaari koee bhee tatva kabhi bhee apane shuddh roop mein macroscopic matra mein naheen dekhaa gayaa haye, naa hii estatin (tatva 85) haye; francium (tatva 87) koo kewal sookshm maatraon (300,000 parmaanuon) seey utsarjit prakaash key roop mein photograph kiya gayaa haye.
samooh key naam aur sankhyaaen.
ack antarrashtriya namkaran parampara key tahat, samoohon koo sabse baaen stambh (kshaariya dhaatu) seey laker sabse daaen stambh (mahaan gais) taka sankhyaatmak roop seey 1 seey 18 taka ginaa jaataa haye. iss sankhya mein aff-block samoohon koo nazarandaj curr diyaa jaataa haye. samoohon koo unake pahale tatva, ee dwara bhee naamit kiya jaa sakata haye.jee. samooh 3 key liye "scandium samooh". pahale, samoohon koo roman ankon dwara jaanaa jaataa thaa. america mein, roman ankon key baad yaa tou "aeye" thaa yadi samooh aiss-yaa pee-block mein thaa, yaa ack "bee" thaa yadi samooh dee-block mein thaa. upayog kiye jaane vaale roman ank aaj key namkaran parampara key antim ank (ee.jee. samooh 4 tatva samooh IVB they, aur samooh 14 tatva samooh iva they). europe mein, akshar samaan they, sivaay isake kii "aeye" kaa upayog taba kiya jaataa thaa jaba samooh 10 seey pahale hotaa thaa, aur "bee" kaa upayog samooh 10 sahit aur usake baad key samoohon key liye kiya jaataa thaa. isake alawa, samooh 8,9 aur 10 koo ack tihare aakar key samooh key roop mein maanaa jaataa thaa, jise saamoohik roop seey donon sanketanon mein samooh VIII key roop mein jaanaa jaataa thaa. 1988 mein, naee ipac (shuddh aur anuprayukt rasayan vigyaan kaa antarrashtriya sangh) namkaran pranali (1-18) kaa upayog kiya gayaa, aur puraane samooh key naam (i-viii) koo hataa diyaa gayaa.
prastuti prapatra.
32 stambh
18 stambh
sthaan key karanon seey, aavart saarani koo aamtaur parr aff-block tatvon key saath prastut kiya jaataa haye aur mukhya shareer key neeche ack alag hisse key roop mein rakhaa jaataa haye. yeh tatva stambhon kii sankhya koo 32 seey ghataakar 18 curr detaa haye.
donon roop ack hii aavart saarani kaa pratinidhitva karate hain. mukhya bhaag mein shamil aff-block key saath form koo kabhi-kabhi 32-collum yaa lamba form kahaa jaataa haye; aff-block key saath form 18-collum yaa madhyam-lambe form koo kaatata haye. 32-collum roop mein sabhi tatvon koo unake sahee anukram mein dikhaane kaa laabh haye, lekin isamen adhik sthaan kii aavashyakta kaa nuksan haye. chunaa gayaa roop ack sampadakiya vikalp haye, aur vaigyaanik daave yaa bayaan key kissy bhee parivartan kaa sanket naheen detaa haye. udaaharan key liye, samooh 3 kii sanrachana parr charcha karate samay, donon roopon mein vikalpon koo samaan roop seey (nishpaksh) dikhaaya jaa sakata haye.
aavart saarani aamtaur parr cumm seey cumm tatvon key prateekon koo dikhaati haye; kaee tatvon key baare mein poorak jaankaari bhee pradaan karate hain, yaa tou rung-coding key madhyam seey yaa koshikaon mein detta key roop mein. uparokt talika tatvon key naam aur paramanu sankhya, aur unake khand, praakritik ghatanaaen aur maanak paramanu bhaar bhee darshaati haye. maanak paramanu bhaar key binaa alpakaalik tatvon key liye, isake bajaay sabse sthir gyaat samasthaanik kii dravyamaan sankhya kaa upayog kiya jaataa haye. anya taalikaon mein padaarth kii sthiti, pighalane aur kwathnank, ghanatva jaise guna shamil hoe sakate hain, saath hii tatvon key vibhinn vargeekaran bhee hoe sakate hain.
tatvon kii paramanu sanrachanaaen.
naabhik aur usake aspas key electron.
sabhi samanya padarthon key sabse chhote ghatakon koo paramanu key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye. paramanu bahut chhote hotey hain, ack meater key lagbhag ack arabaven hisse mein hotey hain; iss prakaar unaki aantarik sanrachana quantum yantriki dwara niyantrit hoti haye. parmaanuon mein ack chhota sakaratmak aaveshit naabhik hotaa haye, joe sakaratmak aaveshit proton aur binaa aaveshit neutron seey banaa hotaa haye, joe nakaratmak aaveshit electrons key baadal seey ghiraa hotaa haye; avesh radd hoe jaate hain, isaliye paramanu tatasth hotey hain. electron rasayanik pratikriyaon mein bhaag lete hain, lekin naabhik naheen. jaba paramanu rasayanik pratikriyaon mein bhaag lete hain, tou way yaa tou sakaratmak yaa nakaratmak roop seey charge kiye gaye ayanon koo banaane key liye electrons koo praapt karate hain yaa khou dete hain; yaa ack dusare key saath electrons koo saajha karate hain.
parmaanuon koo protons kii sankhya (aur iss prakaar electrons) key aadhar parr vibhinn prakaron mein vibhajit kiya jaa sakata haye. ise paramanu sankhya kahaa jaataa haye, jise aksar "z" ("zahal" key liye-"sankhya" key liye german) key roop mein darshaaya jaataa haye. isaliye pratyek vishisht paramanu sankhya paramanu key ack varg seey mell khaati haih inn vargon koo rasayanik tatva kahaa jaataa haye. rasayanik tatva way hain jinhen aavart saarani vargeekrit aur vyavasthit karati haye. hydrogen paramanu sankhya 1 vaalaa tatva haye; helium, paramanu sankhya 2; lithium, paramanu sankhya 3; aur isi tarah. inmein seey pratyek naam koo ack yaa dou-akshar vaale rasayanik prateek dwara aur sankshipt kiya jaa sakata haye; hydrogen, helium aur lithium key liye kramshah aich, haye aur lii hain. neutron paramanu kii rasayanik pehchaan koo prabhaavit naheen karate hain, lekin isake vajan koo prabhaavit karate hain. proton kii samaan sankhya vaale lekin neutron kii alag-alag sankhya vaale parmaanuon koo ack hii rasayanik tatva kaa samasthaanik kahaa jaataa haye. praakritik roop seey paae jaane vaale tatva aamtaur parr vibhinn samsthaanikon key mishran key roop mein hotey hain; kyonki pratyek samasthaanik aamtaur parr ack visheshta prachurta key saath hotaa haye, praakritik roop seey paae jaane vaale tatvon mein achchi tarah seey paribhaashit paramanu bhaar hotaa haye, jise usa tatva key praakritik roop seey paae jaane vaale paramanu key ausat dravyamaan key roop mein paribhaashit kiya jaataa haye.
aaj 118 tatva gyaat hain, jinamen seey pahale 94 tatva vartamaan mein prithvi parr praakritik roop seey paae jaate hain. 94 praakritik tatvon mein seey, assie mein ack sthir samasthaanik haye aur ack aur (bismuth) mein lagbhag sthir samasthaanik haye (brahmand kii ayu seey ack arab gunaa adhik ardh-jeevan key saath). dou aur, thorium aur euranium, mein prithvi kii ayu key tulaniya ardh-jeevan key saath radiodharmi kshay seey gujar rahey samasthaanik hain. sthir tatva aur bismuth, thorium aur euranium 83 adim tatva banaate hain joe prithvi key gathan seey butch gaye. shesh gyaarah praakritik tatva itani jaldi kshay hoe jaate hain kii unaki nirantar khoj mukhya roop seey thorium aur euranium key kshay key madhyavarti utpaadon key roop mein lagaatar punarjanan parr nirbhar karati haye. sabhi 24 gyaat kritrim tatva radiodharmi hain.
electron vinyas.
aavart saarani aavart niyam kaa ack graphic vivaran haye, joe bataata haye kii rasayanik tatvon key guna aur paramanu sanrachanaaen unaki paramanu sankhya kaa ack aavart kaary hain. tatvon koo unake electron vinyas key anusaar aavart saarani mein rakhaa jaataa haye, jisaki aavart punaravritti aavart saarani mein gunon mein rujhaanon kii vyakhya karati haye.
ack electron koo ack paramanu kakshiya mein rahane vaalaa maanaa jaa sakata haye, joe paramanu key aspas kissy vishesh kshetra mein paae jaane kii sambhavana koo darshaata haye. unaki urjaaon kii matra nirdhaarit kii jaati haye, jiska arth haye kii way kewal asatat moolya leey sakate hain. isake alawa, electron pauli bahishkaran siddhant kaa paalan karate hainh alag-alag electron hamesha alag-alag avasthaon mein honey chaahiye. yeh sambhaavit avasthaon key vargeekaran kii anumati detaa haye kii ack electron vibhinn oorjaa staron mein leey jaa sakata haye jise gole key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye, jise vyaktigat upkoshon mein vibhajit kiya jaataa haye, jinamen seey pratyek mein ack yaa adhik kakshiya hotey hain. pratyek kakshiya mein dou electron hoe sakate hainh way spin key roop mein jaani jaane vaali matra seey alag hotey hain, jinhen paaramparik roop seey "oopar" yaa "neeche" label kiya jaataa haye. ack thhande paramanu mein (ack apani jamini sthiti mein), electron khud koo iss tarah seey vyavasthit karate hain kii unake paas upalabdh sabse cumm oorjaa vaali kakshaon parr kabja karke kull oorjaa koo cumm kiya jaataa haye. kewal sabse baahari electrons (tathaakathit sanyojakta electrons) mein naabhik seey mukt honey aur anya parmaanuon key saath rasayanik pratikriyaon mein bhaag lene key liye paryaapt oorjaa hoti haye. anya koo core electron kahaa jaataa haye.
pahale saat gole taka key tatvon koo jaanaa jaataa haye. pahale khol mein kewal ack kakshiya, ack golakar kakshiya hotaa haye. choonki yeh pahale khol mein haye, ise 1s kakshiya kahaa jaataa haye. yeh dou electrons taka pakad sakata haye. dusare khol mein isi tarah ack 2s kakshiya hotaa haye, aur isamen teen dumble key aakar key 2p kakshiya bhee hotey hain, aur iss prakaar aathh electrons (2 × 1 + 2 × 3 = 8) taka bhar sakate hain. teesare kosh mein ack 3s kakshiya, teen 3p kakshiya aur paanch 3d kakshiya hotey hain, aur iss prakaar isaki kshamata 2 × 1 + 2 × 3 + 2 × 5 = 18 hoti haye. chauthe kosh mein ack 4s kakshiya, teen 4p kakshiya, paanch 4d kakshiya aur saat 4f kakshiya hotey hain, iss prakaar 2 × 1 + 2 × 3 + 2 × 5 + 2 × 7 = 32 kii kshamata hoti haye. uchch koshon mein adhik prakaar key kakshiya hotey hain joe pattern koo jaari rakhate hain, lekin iss tarah key kakshiya gyaat tatvon kii jamini avasthaon mein naheen bharey jaate hain. upkosh prakaron kii visheshta quantum sankhyaaen hain. chaar sankhyaaen ack paramanu mein ack kakshiya kaa poori tarah seey varnan karati hainh pramukh quantum sankhya "aine", azimuthal quantum sankhya ell (kakshiya prakaar), chumbakiya quantum sankhya "aim" ell, aur spin quantum sankhya "aiss".
upa-kosh bharane kaa crum.
jiss crum mein upkosh bharey jaate hain, vaha adhikansh mamalon mein aufabaau siddhant dwara diyaa jaataa haye, jise kramshah madelung yaa klechkovsky niyam (erwin madelung aur vsvoload klechkovsky key baad) key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye. iss niyam koo pahali baar madelung dwara anubhavjanya roop seey dekhaa gayaa thaa, aur klechkovsky aur baad mein lekhakon ney ise saiddhaantik auchitya diyaa. gole oorjaa mein overlap hotey hain, aur madelung niyam bharane key crum koo nirdisht kartaa haih
yahaan saain kaa arth haye "bahut cumm" key vipareet <jiska arth haye "cumm seey cumm". alag tareeke seey, electron "n" + l koo badhaane key crum mein kakshiyon mein pravesh karate hain, aur yadi dou kakshiya "n" + l key samaan moolya key saath upalabdh hain, tou cumm "n" vaale kakshiya kaksh pahale kabja curr liya jaataa haye. samanya taur parr, "n" + l key samaan moolya vaale kakshiya oorjaa mein samaan hotey hain, lekin s-kakshiyon (l = 0 key saath) key mamle mein, quantum prabhaav agali "n" + l samooh key drishtikon key liye apani oorjaa badhaate hain. isaliye aavart saarani koo aamtaur parr pratyek pankti (jise aksar ack avadhi kahaa jaataa haye) koo ack nae aiss-orbital key bharane key saath shuru karane key liye kheencha jaataa haye, joe ack nae khol kii shuruat seey mell khaata haye. iss prakaar, pahali pankti key apavaad key saath, pratyek avadhi kii lambai dou baar dikhaai detee haih
ativyaapi usa bindu parr kaafee karib hoe jaate hain jahan dee-orbitals chitra mein pravesh karate hain, aur crum paramanu sankhya aur paramanu avesh key saath thodaa badal sakata haye.
sabse saral paramanu seey shuru karate hue, yeh hamein ekal parmaanuon key mamalon parr vichaar karke paramanu sankhya key crum mein ack samay mein aavart saarani kaa nirmaan karane detaa haye. hydrogen mein, kewal ack electron hotaa haye, joe sabse cumm oorjaa vaali kaksha 1s mein jaanaa chaahiye. iss electron vinyas koo 1s1 likhaa gayaa haye, jahan superscript upkosh mein electrons kii sankhya koo ingit kartaa haye. helium ack doosara electron jodata haye, joe 1s mein bhee jaataa haye, pahale khol koo poori tarah seey bharata haye aur vinyas 1s2 detaa haye.
teesare tatva, lithium seey shuru hocker, pahala khol bharaa huaa haye, isaliye iska teesara electron 2s kakshiya parr kabja curr letaa haye, joe 1s22s1 vinyas detaa haye. 2s electron lithium kaa ekmatra sanyojakta electron haye, kyonki 1s upkosh abb anya parmaanuon key saath rasayanik bandhan mein bhaag lene key liye naabhik seey bahut kaskar bandha huaa haye. iss prakaar bharey hue pahale khol koo isake liye aur sabhi bhaari tatvon key liye "core khol" kahaa jaataa haye. 2s upkosh agale tatva beryllium (1s2 2s2) dwara puuraa kiya jaataa haye. nimnalikhit tatva phir 2pee upkosh koo bharane key liye aage badhate hain. boron (1s2 2s2 2p1) apane nae electron koo 2p kakshiya mein rakhta haye; carbon (1s2 2s2 2p2) dusare 2p kakshiya koo bhar detaa haye; aur nitrogen (1s2 2s2 2p3) key saath sabhi teen 2p kakshiya akele bhar jaate hain. yeh hund key niyam key anuroop haye, joe bataata haye kii paramanu aamtaur parr dusare electron seey bharane seey pahale ack hii prakaar key pratyek kakshiya parr kabja karna pasand karate hain. oxygen (1s2 2s2 2p4), florin (1s2 2s2 2p5), aur neon (1s2 2s2 2p6) phir pahale seey hii akele bharey hue 2p kakshiyon koo puuraa karate hain; inmein seey antim dusare khol koo poori tarah seey bhar detaa haye.
tatva 11, sodium seey shuru hocker, doosara khol bharaa hotaa haye, jisase doosara khol isake liye ack mukhya khol bunn jaataa haye aur sabhi bhaari tatva. gyaarahavaan electron 3s kakshiya parr kabja karke teesare kosh koo bharna shuru kartaa haye, joe sodium key liye 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 kaa vinyas detaa haye. iss vinyas koo sankshipt roop seey [ne] 3s1 kahaa jaataa haye, jahan [ne] neon key vinyas kaa pratinidhitva kartaa haye. magnicium ([nee] 3s2) iss 3s kakshiya koo samaapt kartaa haye, aur nimnalikhit chhah tatva aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine aur argan teen 3p kakshiyon ([nee] 3s2 3p1 seey [nee] 3s2 3p6) koo bharate hain. yeh ack anuroop shrinkhala banaata haye jisamen argan key madhyam seey sodium kii baahari khol sanrachanaaen neon key madhyam seey lithium key samaan hoti hain, aur rasayanik gunon kii aavadhikta kaa aadhar haye joe aavart saarani darshaati haih paramanu sankhyaon key niyamit lekin badalate antaral parr, rasayanik tatvon key guna lagbhag dohrate hain.
iss prakaar pahale athaarah tatvon koo aavart saarani key praarambh key roop mein vyavasthit kiya jaa sakata haye. ack hii stambh mein tatvon mein valence electrons kii sankhya samaan hoti haye aur unamen anuroop valence electron vinyas hotey hainh inn stambhon koo samooh kahaa jaataa haye. ekal apavaad helium haye, jisamen beryllium aur magnicium jaise dou sanyojakta electron hotey hain, lekin aamtaur parr neon aur argan key stambh mein iss baat parr jore dene key liye rakhaa jaataa haye kii iska baahari khol bharaa huaa haye. (kuchh samkaaleen lekhak iss ekal apavaad parr bhee sawal uthaate hain, joe lagaatar sanyojakta vinyas kaa paalan karna pasand karate hain aur beryllium parr helium koo rakhna pasand karate hain.) iss aavart saarani key tukade mein aathh stambh hain, joe adhikatam aathh baahari-kosh electrons key anuroop hain. ack avadhi taba shuru hoti haye jaba ack nayaa khol bharna shuru hoe jaataa haye. anta mein, rung khandon koo darshaata haih aiss-block (rangeen laal) mein tatva aiss-orbitals koo bhar rahey hain, jabaki pee-block (rangeen peela) mein way pee-orbitals koo bhar rahey hain.
agali pankti seey shuru karate hue, potasium aur calcium key liye 4s upkosh oorjaa mein sabse cumm haye, aur isaliye way ise bharate hain. potasium 4s khol ([ar] 4s1) mein ack electron jodata haye, aur calcium phir ise puuraa kartaa haye ([ar] 4s2). haalaanki, scandium ([ar] 3d1 4s2) seey shuru hocker 3d upkosh oorjaa mein agala uchchatam bunn jaataa haye. 4s aur 3d upkoshon mein lagbhag samaan oorjaa hoti haye aur way electrons koo bharane key liye pratispardha karate hain, aur isaliye vyavasaay ack samay mein 3d kakshiyon koo lagaatar naheen bhar rhaa haye. 3d aur 4s kaa sateek oorjaa crum pankti key saath badalata haye, aur yeh bhee iss baat parr nirbhar kartaa haye kii paramanu seey kitane electron hataae jaate hain. udaaharan key liye, 3d electrons aur 4s key beach pratikarshan key kaaran, chromium parr 4s oorjaa star 3d seey thodaa adhik hoe jaataa haye, aur isaliye ack [ar] 3d5 4s1 vinyas honah adhik laabhdaayak hoe jaataa haye. isi tarah kii visangati tambe mein hoti haye. yeye muddling niyam kaa ullanghan hain. haalaanki aisee visangatiyon kaa koee rasayanik mahatva naheen haye, kyonki vibhinn vinyas ack dusare key oorjaa mein itane karib hain kii paas key paramanu kii upasthiti santulan koo badal sakati haye. isaliye aavart saarani inhen nazarandaj karati haye aur kewal aadarsh vinyas parr vichaar karati haye.
jastaa ([ar] 3d10 4s2) parr, 3d kakshiya poori tarah seey kull duss electrons seey bharey hotey hain. isake baad 4p orbitals aatey hain, joe pankti koo puuraa karate hain, joe pichhale pee-block tatvon key anuroop tareeke seey crypton ([ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6) key madhyam seey gallium ([ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1) dwara uttarottar bharey jaate hain. gallium seey, 3dee kakshiya electronic core kaa hissa banate hain, aur abb rasayan vigyaan mein bhaag naheen lete hain. aiss-aur pee-block tatva, joe apane baahari koshon koo bharate hain, unhein mukhya-samooh tatva kahaa jaataa haye; dee-block tatva (neeche rangeen neela), joe ack aantarik kosh koo bharate hain, unhein sankraman tatva (yaa sankraman dhaatu kahaa jaataa haye, kyonki way sabhi dhaatuen hain).
agale athaarah tatva 5s kakshiya (rubedium aur strontium) koo bharate hain, phir 4d (cademium key madhyam seey yatrium, phir seey raaste mein kuchh visangatiyon key saath), aur phir 5p (indium key madhyam seey zenon). phir seey, indium seey aage 4 dee orbitals core mein hain. isaliye paanchvin pankti kii sanrachana chauthi key samaan haye.
isi tarah talika kii chhathi pankti dou aiss-block tatvon seey shuru hoti haih caesium aur berrium. isake baad, pahale aff-block tatva (neeche harey rung key) dikhaai dene lagate hain, joe lanthanum seey shuru hotey hain. inhen kabhi-kabhi aantarik sankraman tatva kahaa jaataa haye. choonki abb naa kewal 4aff balki 5dee aur 6aiss upkosh bhee samaan urjaaon parr hain, pratispardha ack baar phir kaee aniyamit vinyason key saath hoti haye; isake parinamswarup kuchh vivaad hotaa haye kii aff-block koo vaastav mein kahaan seey shuru honah haye, lekin adhikansh joe mamle kaa adhyayan karate hain way sahmat hain kii yeh aufbau siddhant key anusaar lanthanum seey shuru hotaa haye. bhale hii lanthanum swayam 4aff upkosh koo ack paramanu key roop mein naheen bharata haye, kyonki electrons key beach pratikarshan key kaaran, isake 4aff kakshiya rasayan vigyaan mein bhaag lene key liye oorjaa mein paryaapt cumm hain. ytterbium mein, saat 4aff kakshiya poori tarah seey chaudah electrons seey bharey hotey hain; isake baad, duss sankraman tatvon (paare key madhyam seey lutatium) kii ack shrinkhala aatee haye, aur anta mein chhah mukhya-samooh tatva (raydon key madhyam seey thallium) avadhi koo puuraa karate hain. lutatium seey 4aff orbitals core mein hotey hain, aur thallium seey 5dee orbitals bhee hotey hain.
saatvin pankti chhathi pankti key anuroop haih 7s bharata haye (francium aur radium), phir 5f (actinium seey nobelium), phir 6d (laurentium seey copernisium), aur anta mein 7p (nehonium seey augnesone). laurentium seey shuru hocker 5aff orbitals core mein hotey hain, aur shayed 6dee orbitals nehonium seey shuru hocker core mein shamil hoe jaate hain. phir seey raaste mein kuchh visangatiyaan hainh udaaharan key liye, kyonki ekal paramanu naa tou actinium aur naa hii thorium vaastav mein 5aff upkosh koo bharate hain, aur laurentium 6dee kosh koo naheen bharata haye, lekin yeye sabhi upkosh abhee bhee rasayanik vatavaran mein bhar sakate hain. bahut lambe samay taka, saatvin pankti adhuri thee kyonki isake adhikansh tatva prakriti mein naheen hotey hain. euranium seey parey laapata tatvon koo 1940 mein prayogshala mein sanshleshit kiya jaanaa shuru huaa, jaba neptunium banaaya gayaa thaa. pankti 2010 mein tenanesine key sanshleshan key saath poori hui thee (antim tatva ogeneson pahale hii 2002 mein banaaya jaa chuka thaa), aur iss saatvin pankti mein antim tatvon koo 2016 mein naam diye gaye they.
yeh aadhunik aavart saarani koo puuraa kartaa haye, jisamen sabhi saat panktiyaan poori tarah seey kshamata seey bharee hoti hain.
electron vinyas talika.
nimnalikhit talika pratyek tatva key tatasth gais-charan paramanu key electron vinyas koo darshaati haye. vibhinn rasayanik vatavaran mein vibhinn vinyason kaa samarthan kiya jaa sakata haye. mukhya-samooh tatvon mein poori tarah seey niyamit electron vinyas hotey hain; sankraman aur aantarik sankraman tatva oorjaa star key karib upkoshon key beach uparokt pratispardha key kaaran bees aniyamitataaen dikhaate hain. antim duss tatvon (109-118) key liye, prayogaatmak detta kii kamee haye aur isaliye ganana kiye gaye vinyas koo isake bajaay dikhaaya gayaa haye. poori tarah seey bharey hue upkoshon koo dhusar curr diyaa gayaa haye.
vividhataaen.
avadhi 1.
haalaanki aadhunik aavart saarani aaj maanak haye, lekin avadhi 1 tatvon hydrogen aur helium kaa sthaan charcha key tahat ack khula mudda banaa huaa haye, aur kuchh bhinnata paaee jaa sakati haye. electron vinyas key baad, hydrogen koo samooh 1 mein rakhaa jaayega, aur helium koo samooh 2 mein rakhaa jaayega. samooh 1 mein hydrogen kaa sthaan samanya haye, lekin helium koo lagbhag hamesha anya mahaan gasses key saath samooh 18 mein rakhaa jaataa haye. bahas kaa sambandh iss baat kii paraspar virodhi samajh seey haye kii kiss hudd taka rasayanik yaa electronic gunon koo aavart saarani sthaan nirdhaaran karna chaahiye.
samooh 1 dhatuon kii tarah, hydrogen key sabse baahari kosh mein ack electron hotaa haye aur aam taur parr rasayanik pratikriyaon mein apana ekmatra electron khou detaa haye. hydrogen mein kuchh dhaatu jaise rasayanik guna hotey hain, joe kuchh dhatuon koo unake lavanon seey visthaapit karane mein saksham hotey hain. lekin yeh maanak sthitiyon mein ack dwiparmanvik adhaatu gais banaata haye, kshaariya dhatuon key vipareet joe pratikriyaasheel thhos dhaatu hain. yeh aur hydrogen kaa hydride kaa gathan, jisamen yeh ack electron praapt kartaa haye, ise helogen key gunon key karib laataa haye joe aisaa karate hain (halanki hydrogen key liye aich-seey aich + banaana durlabh haye). isake alawa, sabse halke dou helogen (florin aur chlorine) maanak sthitiyon mein hydrogen kii tarah gaisiya hotey hain. hydrogen key kuchh guna kissy bhee samooh key liye upayukt naheen hainh hydrogen naa tou atyadhik okseekaran kartaa haye aur naa hii atyadhik cumm kartaa haye aur paani key saath pratikriyaasheel naheen haye. iss prakaar hydrogen mein kshaariya dhatuon aur helogen donon key anuroop guna hotey hain, lekin donon samooh poori tarah seey mell naheen khaate hain, aur iss prakaar isake rasayan vigyaan dwara sthaapit karna mushkil haye. isaliye, jabaki samooh 1 mein hydrogen kaa electronic sthaan pramukh haye, kuchh durlabh vyavasthaaen yaa tou samooh 17 mein hydrogen, donon samoohon 1 aur 17 mein hydrogen kii nakal, yaa ise sabhi samoohon seey alag seey tairati hain. iss antim vikalp kii phir bhee rasaayanshaastri aur vigyaan key daarshanik erich skerry dwara iss aadhar parr aalochana kii gaee haye kii iska matlab yeh prateet hotaa haye kii hydrogen anya sabhi tatvon key vipareet, poori tarah seey aavadhik niyam seey oopar haye. 
helium ekmatra tatva haye joe niyamit roop seey aavart saarani mein ack sthiti mein rahata haye joe isaki electronic sanrachana key anuroop naheen haye. isake sabse baahari khol mein dou electron hain, jabaki anya utkrisht gasses mein aathh hain; aur yeh ack aiss-block tatva haye, jabaki anya sabhi utkrisht gaisen pee-block tatva hain. haalaanki yeh maanak sthitiyon mein aprabhaavi haye, aur iska ack poorna baahari khol haih yeye guna samooh 18 mein utkrisht gasses kii tarah hain, lekin samooh 2 kii pratikriyaasheel kshaariya prithvi dhatuon kii tarah bilkul naheen hain. inn karanon seey helium koo lagbhag saarvbhaumik roop seey samooh 18 mein rakhaa gayaa haye joe isake sabse achche gunon seey mell khaata haye; helium koo samooh 2 mein sthanantarit karane key prastaav koo 1988 mein ipac dwara inn karanon seey aswikar curr diyaa gayaa thaa. phir bhee, helium koo aaj bhee kabhi-kabhi samooh 2 mein rakhaa jaataa haye, aur isake kuchh bhautik aur rasayanik guna samooh 2 tatvon key karib hain aur electronic placement kaa samarthan karate hain. thhos helium ack shatkon nikat-paik sanrachana mein kristaliya hoe jaataa haye, joe samooh 2 mein beryllium aur magnicium seey mell khaata haye, lekin samooh 18 mein anya mahaan gasses seey mell naheen khaata haye. utkrisht gais rasayan vigyaan mein haal key saiddhaantik vikas, jisamen helium seey neon kii tulanaa mein cumm jadata dikhaane aur (heo) (jeevan) 2 banane kii ummeed haye, jisake parinamswarup analogus beryllium yaugik (lekin koee apekshit neon analogue key saath) key samaan sanrachana key saath, adhik rasaayanagya samooh 2 mein helium key sthaan kii vakaalat karate hain. aavart saarani mein pahali pankti visangati koo iss punarnirdharan key samarthan mein uddhrit kiya jaataa haye, kyonki helium kshaariya prithvi seey pahale pahale aiss-block tatva key roop mein iss tarah seey visangat haye kii helium pahali mahaan gais key roop mein naheen haye. udaaharan key liye, pratyek mukhya samooh key pahale aur dusare sadasyon key beach paramanu trijya mein ack badaa antar samooh 1 aur 13-17 mein dekhaa jaataa haih yeh neon aur argan key beach aur helium aur beryllium key beach maujood haye, lekin helium aur neon key beach naheen. helium koo samooh 2 mein sthanantarit karane seey yeh pravritti samooh 2 aur 18 mein bhee susangat hoe jaati haye. sabhi samoohon key baahar hydrogen aur helium donon tairane vaali taalikaon kaa shayed hii kabhi saamana kiya jaa sakata haye.
samooh 3.
kaee aavart saarani mein, aff-block koo ack tatva koo daaeen or sthanantarit kiya jaataa haye, taaki lanthanum aur actinium samooh 3 mein dee-block tatva bunn jaaen, aur see. ee.-ell. yuu aur tii. aich. ell. aar. aff-block kaa nirmaan karein jisase dee-block koo dou bahut hii asman bhaagon mein vibhajit kiya jaa sakey. yeh electron vinyas key shuruati galat maapon seey ack avrodh haye. 4aff khol poori tarah seey ytterbium mein bharaa huaa haye, aur iss kaaran seey 1948 mein lev landau aur evageny lifeshitz ney aff-block tatva key roop mein samooh lutatium koo galat maanaa. unhone abhee taka dee-block seey bhee lanthanum koo hataane kaa kadam naheen uthaaya, lekin juuna kondo ney 1963 mein mahsoos kiya kii lanthanum kii cumm tapman kii atichaalaktaa isake 4aff khol kii gatividhi koo darshaati haye. 1965 mein, david see. hamilton ney iss avalokan koo aavart saarani mein apani sthiti seey jodaa, aur tark diyaa kii aff-block laa-wayab aur assie-noo tatvon seey banaa honah chaahiye. taba seey, bhautik, rasayanik aur electronic sakshya ney iss kaary kaa samarthan kiya haye, jaisa kii yahaan dikhaaya gayaa haye aur 1988 (jaba 1-18 samooh sankhya kii sifarish kii gaee thee) aur 2021 kii iupac reports dwara samarthit haye. phir bhee bhinnata abhee bhee maujood haye kyonki adhikansh paathyapustak lekhak iss mudde seey avagat naheen hain. kabhi-kabhi ack teesare roop kaa saamana kiya jaa sakata haye jisamen samooh 3 mein yatrium key neeche kii jagahen khaali chhod dee jaati hain, jaise kii ipac web site parr dikhaai dene vaali talika, lekin yeh aff-block 15 tatvon koo chauda (laa-luu aur assie-lr) banaakar quantum yantriki key saath asangat haye, bhale hii kewal 14 electron aff-subshell mein fitt hoe sakate hain.
saahitya mein aiss. see.-vaaee-laa-aeye. see. key paksh mein kaee tarkon kaa saamana kiya jaa sakata haye, lekin unhein taarkik roop seey asangat honey key roop mein chunauti dee gaee haye. udaaharan key liye, yeh tark diyaa gayaa haye kii lanthanum aur actinium aff-block tatva naheen hoe sakate hain kyonki unake parmaanuon ney aff-subshells koo bharna shuru naheen kiya haye. lekin thorium key baare mein bhee yahee sach haye joe kabhi bhee ack aff-block tatva key roop mein vivaadit naheen haye, aur yeh tark dusare chhor parr samasya koo nazarandaj kartaa haih kii aff-shales ytterbium aur nobelium (sc-vaaee-luu-lr roop seey mell khaate hue) parr poorna roop seey bharate hain, naa kii lutatium aur laurentium (sc-vaaee-laa-assie mein) parr. aise apvaadon koo kissy bhee mamle mein aavart saarani parr kissy anya tatva koo rakhane key liye praasangik naheen maanaa gayaa haye. placement key liye praasangik tathya yeh haye kii lanthanum aur actinium (thorium kii tarah) mein valence aff-orbitals hotey hain joe rasayanik vatavaran mein kabja curr sakate hain, jabaki lutasium aur laurentium naheen hotey hain. iss prakaar yatrium aur lanthanum key beach sambandh kewal samaan sankhya mein sanyojakta electrons vaale tatvon key beach ack maadhyamik sambandh haye, lekin vibhinn prakaar key sanyojakta kakshiya, jaise kii chromium aur euranium key beach; jabaki yatrium aur lutatium key beach sambandh praathamik haye, joe sanyojakta electron ganana aur sanyojakta kakshiya prakaar donon koo saajha kartaa haye.
aavadhik rujhaan.
jaisa kii rasayanik pratikriyaon mein sanyojakta electron shamil hotey hain, samaan baahari electron vinyas vaale tatvon seey isi tarah pratikriya karane aur unamen tatvon key samaan anupaat vaale yaugikon key nirmaan kii ummeed kii jaa sakati haye. aise tatvon koo ack hii samooh mein rakhaa jaataa haye, aur iss prakaar rasayanik vyavhaar mein spasht samaantaaen aur rujhaan hotey hain kyonki ack samooh neeche jaataa haye. jaise hii anuroop vinyas niyamit antaral parr hotey hain, tatvon key guna iss prakaar aavadhik punaravritti pradarshit karate hain, isaliye aavart saarani aur aavart niyam kaa naam. inn aavadhik punaraavrittiyon koo antarnihit siddhant key vikasit honey seey pahale achchi tarah seey dekhaa gayaa thaa joe unhein samajhaata haye.
paramanu trijya.
aitihaasik roop seey, parmaanuon kaa bhautik aakar 20veen shatabdi kii shuruat taka agyaat thaa. hydrogen kii paramanu trijya kaa pahala ganana kiya gayaa anuman bhautik vigyaani artur haas dwara 1910 mein sweekrit moolya key parimaan (10 key ack kaarak) key crum key bheetar, bohr trijya (~ 0.529 ā) key roop mein prakaashit kiya gayaa thaa. apane model mein, haas ney jey dwara prastaavit shaastriya paramanu model key aadhar parr ack ekal-electron vinyas kaa upayog kiya. jey. 1904 mein thomson, jise aksar plum-pudding model kahaa jaataa haye.
paramanu trijya (parmaanuon kaa aakar) unake sabse baahari kakshiyon key aakar parr nirbhar karati haye. way aam taur parr mukhya samooh key tatvon key saath baaen seey daaen jaane mein kamee karate hain, kyonki paramanu avesh badhata haye lekin baahari electron abhee bhee usee khol mein hotey hain. haalaanki, ack stambh seey neeche jaane parr, trijya aam taur parr badh jaati haye, kyonki sabse baahari electron uchch koshon mein hotey hain joe iss prakaar naabhik seey aur door hotey hain. pratyek khand kii pahali pankti asamanya roop seey chhoti hoti haye, kyonki ack prabhaav jise canosymmetry yaa primogenic repulsion kahaa jaataa haih 1s, 2p, 3d, aur 4f upkoshon mein koee aantarik anuroop naheen hotey hain jinake liye way orthogonal honge. uchch aiss-, pee-, dee-, aur aff-subshell apane aantarik anuroopon seey majboot pratikarshan kaa anubhav karate hain, jinamen charge kaa lagbhag samaan koniya vitaran hotaa haye, aur isase bachane key liye iska vistaar karna chaahiye. isase chhote 2pee tatvon key beach mahatvapurna antar utpann hotaa haye, joe kaee bandhan pasand karate hain, aur badey 3pee aur uchch pee-tatvon key beach, joe naheen karate hain. 1s, 2p, 3d, 4f aur kaalpanik tatvon key liye isi tarah kii visangatiyaan utpann hoti hainh iss pahali pankti visangati kii degree s-block key liye sabse adhik haye, p-block key liye madhyam haye, aur d-aur f-block key liye cumm spasht haye.
sankraman tatvon mein, ack aantarik khol bhar rhaa haye, lekin paramanu kaa aakar abhee bhee baahari electrons dwara nirdhaarit kiya jaataa haye. shrinkhala mein badhate paramanu avesh aur parirakshan key liye aantarik electrons kii badhati sankhya ack dusare kii kuchh hudd taka bharpai karati haye, isaliye trijya mein kamee cumm hoti haye. 4p aur 5d paramanu, joe pahale nae prakaar kii sankraman shrinkhalaon key shuru honey key turant baad aatey hain, ummeed seey chhote hotey hain, kyonki jode gaye core 3d aur 4f upkosh baahari electrons key liye paramanu avesh kaa kewal adhura sanrakshan pradaan karate hain. isaliye udaaharan key liye gallium paramanu aluminium parmaanuon kii tulanaa mein thode chhote hotey hain. canosymmetry key saath, isake parinamswarup avadhiyon key beach ack summ-visham antar (aiss-block koo chhodkar) hotaa haye jise kabhi-kabhi maadhyamik aavadhikta key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haih summ avadhiyon mein tatvon mein chhoti paramanu trijya hoti haye aur way cumm electrons koo khona pasand karate hain, jabaki visham avadhiyon mein tatva (pahale koo chhodkar) vipareet disha mein bhinn hotey hain. iss prakaar udaaharan key liye pee-block mein kaee guna samooh key saath ack chikani pravritti key bajaay ack zigzag dikhaate hain. udaaharan key liye, samooh 15 kii visham avadhi mein phosphorus aur antimony aasaani seey + 5 okseekaran avastha taka pahunch jaate hain, jabaki nitrogen, arsenic aur bismuth summ avadhi mein + 3 parr rehna pasand karate hain.
thallium aur seesa paramanu kramshah indium aur tinn parmaanuon key samaan aakar key hotey hain, lekin bismuth seey raydon taka 6p paramanu samaan 5p parmaanuon seey badey hotey hain. aisaa isaliye hotaa haye kyonki jaba paramanu naabhik atyadhik aaveshit hoe jaate hain, tou electron baadal parr naabhik key prabhaav koo maapane key liye vishesh saapekshata kii aavashyakta hoti haye. inn saapeksh prabhaavon key parinamswarup bhaari tatvon mein aavart saarani mein unake halke samroopata kii tulanaa mein teji seey alag-alag guna hotey hain. spin-orbit antahkriya pee-subshell koo vibhajit karati haih ack pee-orbital saapeksh roop seey sthir aur sikud jaataa haye (yeh thallium aur seese mein bhar jaataa haye), lekin anya dou (raydon key madhyam seey bismuth mein bharna) saapeksh roop seey asthir aur vistaarit hotey hain. saapeksh prabhaav yeh bhee bataate hain kii sonaa sunhara kyon haye aur paaraa kamare key tapman parr taral kyon haye. saatvin avadhi key anta mein unake bahut majboot honey kii ummeed haye, jisase sambhaavit roop seey aavadhikta kaa patan hoe sakata haye. electron vinyas kewal tatva 108 (hassium) taka spasht roop seey gyaat hain, aur 108 seey parey prayogaatmak rasayan vigyaan kewal 112 (coppernicium), 113 (nehonium), aur 114 (flerovium) key liye kiya gayaa haye, isaliye sabse bhaari tatvon kaa rasayanik lakshan varnan vartamaan shodh kaa ack vishay banaa huaa haye.
aayaneekaran oorjaa.
paramanu kii pahali aayaneekaran oorjaa usase ack electron koo hataane key liye aavashyak oorjaa haye. yeh paramanu trijya key saath bhinn hotaa haih aayaneekaran oorjaa baaen seey daaen aur neeche seey oopar taka badh jaati haye, kyonki naabhik key karib rahane vaale electron adhik kaskar pakade jaate hain aur unhein hataana adhik kathin hotaa haye. iss prakaar aayaneekaran oorjaa pratyek avadhi key pahale tatva-hydrogen aur kshaariya dhatuon-parr cumm seey cumm hoti haye aur phir aam taur parr taba taka badhati haye jaba taka kii yeh avadhi key daahine kinare parr mahaan gais taka naheen pahunch jaati haye. iss pravritti key kuchh apavaad hain, jaise kii oxygen, jahan electron koo hataaya jaa rhaa haye, usey jodaa jaataa haye aur iss prakaar antar-vidyut pratikarshan seey ise apekshit seey adhik aasaani seey hataaya jaa sakata haye.
sankraman shrinkhala mein, baahari electron adhimaantah khou jaate hain, bhale hii aantarik kakshiya bhar rahey houn. udaaharan key liye, 3dee shrinkhala mein, 4aiss electron pahale khou jaate hain, bhale hii 3dee kakshiya bhar rahey houn. ack atirikt 3dee electron jodane kaa parirakshan prabhaav lagbhag paramanu avesh mein vriddhi kii bharpai kartaa haye, aur isaliye ayanan oorjaa jyaadaatar sthir rahati haye, halanki vishesh roop seey pratyek sankraman shrinkhala key anta mein ack chhoti vriddhi hoti haye.
dhaatu paramanu rasayanik pratikriyaon mein electrons koo khou dete hain, aayaneekaran oorjaa aam taur parr rasayanik pratikriyashilta key saath sahsambaddh hoti haye, halanki isamen anya kaarak bhee shamil hotey hain.
electron aatmiyata.
ayanan oorjaa kaa vipareet guna electron aatmiyata haye, joe paramanu mein ack electron jodane parr jaari oorjaa haye. ack gujarta huaa electron ack paramanu kii or adhik aasaani seey aakarshit hoga yadi vaha naabhik key khinchaav koo adhik dridhata seey mahsoos kartaa haye, aur vishesh roop seey yadi ack aanshik roop seey bharaa huaa baahari kakshiya upalabdh haye joe ise samaayojit curr sakata haye. isaliye, electron aatmiyata neeche seey oopar aur baaen seey daaen taka badhati haye. apavaad antim stambh haye, utkrisht gaisen, jinamen ack poorna khol hotaa haye aur jisamen dusare electron key liye koee jagah naheen hoti haye. yeh agale-seey-antim stambh mein halogen koo uchchatam electron sambandh detaa haye.
kuchh parmaanuon mein, jaise kii mahaan gasses mein, koee electron sambandh naheen hotaa haih way sthir gais-charan aayan naheen banaa sakate hain. uchch aayaneekaran oorjaa aur koee electron sambandh naheen rakhane vaali utkrisht gasses kaa electron praapt karane yaa khone kii or bahut cumm jhukaav hotaa haye aur way aam taur parr aprabhaavi hoti hain.
rujhaanon key kuchh apavaad hotey hainh oxygen aur florin mein unake bhaari samroop sulfur aur chlorine kii tulanaa mein cumm electron sambandh hotey hain, kyonki way chhote paramanu hotey hain aur isaliye nae jode gaye electron pahale seey maujood electrons seey mahatvapurna pratikarshan kaa anubhav karenge. adhaatu tatvon key liye, electron sambandh isi tarah pratikriyashilta key saath kuchh hudd taka sahsambaddh haye, lekin poori tarah seey naheen kyonki anya kaarak shamil hain. udaaharan key liye, chlorine kii tulanaa mein florin mein electron kaa sambandh cumm hotaa haye (bahut chhote florin paramanu key liye atyadhik antar-vidyut vikarshan key kaaran), lekin adhik pratikriyaasheel hotaa haye.
sanyojakta aur okseekaran avasthaaen.
kissy tatva key sanyojakta koo yaa tou hydrogen parmaanuon kii sankhya key roop mein paribhaashit kiya jaa sakata haye joe isake saath ack sadharan dwiaadhaari hydride banaane key liye sanyojan curr sakate hain, yaa oxygen parmaanuon kii sankhya key roop mein doguna joe isake saath ack sadharan dwiaadhaari oxide banaane key liye sanyojan curr sakate hain (yaani, ack peroxide yaa ack superoxide naheen). mukhya samooh tatvon key sanyojak seedhe samooh sankhya seey sambandhit hainh mukhya samoohon mein hydride 1-2 aur 13-17 sootra mh, mh2, mh3, mh4, mh3, mh2, aur anta mein mh kaa paalan karate hain. isake bajaay sanyojakta mein uchchatam oxide kii vriddhi, sootra m2o, m2o, m2o3, m2o2, m2o5, m3, m2o7 key baad. aaj sanyojakta kii dhaarana koo okseekaran avastha dwara vistaarit kiya gayaa haye, joe ack tatva parr aupchaarik avesh haye jaba ack yaugik mein anya sabhi tatvon koo unake ayanon key roop mein hataa diyaa gayaa haye.
electron vinyas bandhan key liye upalabdh electrons kii sankhya seey ack taiyar spashteekaran kaa sujhaav detaa haye, halanki ack poorna spashteekaran key liye usa oorjaa parr vichaar karane kii aavashyakta hoti haye joe kewal electron vinyas parr vichaar karane key bajaay vibhinn sanyojaktaon key saath yaugikon koo banaane mein jaari kii jaayegi. udaaharan key liye, magnicium paani mein ghulane parr milligram + catayan key bajaay milligram + banaata haye, kyonki baad vaalaa swatah hii milligram aur milligram + catayan mein asman hoe jaataa haye. aisaa isaliye haye kyonki jall-sandhaaran kii anthelpy (jall anuon key saath catayan key aspas) aayan key avesh aur trijya key saath parimaan mein badh jaati haye. milligram + mein, sabse baahari kakshiya (joe ionic trijya nirdhaarit kartaa haye) abhee bhee 3s haye, isaliye hydration anthelpy chhota haye aur electron koo hataane key liye aavashyak oorjaa kii bharpai karane key liye aparyaapt haye; lekin phir seey milligram 2 + mein ayanan seey core 2pee upkosh koo ujagar kartaa haye, jisase hydration anthelpy kaafee badee hoe jaati haye jisase magnicium (ii) yaugikon koo banane diyaa jaa sakata haye. isi tarah key karanon seey, bhaari pee-block tatvon kii samanya okseekaran avasthaaen (jahaan ns electron np kii tulanaa mein oorjaa mein cumm hoe jaate hain) 2 key charanon seey bhinn hoti hain, kyonki yeh ack aantarik upkosh koo ujagar karane aur ionic trijya koo cumm karane key liye aavashyak haye (ee.jee. tl + 6aiss koo uncover kartaa haye, aur tl3 + 5dee koo uncover kartaa haye, isaliye ack baar jaba thallium dou electron khou detaa haye tou yeh teesara bhee khou detaa haye). kakshiya sankaran parr adharit anuroop tarkon kaa upayog cumm vidyut rinaatmak pee-block tatvon key liye kiya jaa sakata haye.
sankraman dhatuon key liye, samanya okseekaran avasthaaen lagbhag hamesha samaan karanon seey cumm seey cumm + 2 hoti hain (agale upkosh koo ujagar karate hue); yeh visangat dx + 1s1 yaa dx + 2s0 vinyas (chaandi koo chhodkar) vaali dhatuon key liye bhee lagu hotaa haye, kyonki d-electrons key beach pratikarshan kaa arth haye kii s-seey d-subshell taka dusare electron kii gati apani ayanan oorjaa koo mahatvapurna roop seey naheen badalati haye. kyonki sankraman dhatuon koo aage aayanit karane seey kissy bhee nae aantarik upkosh kaa pataa naheen chalata haye, unaki okseekaran avasthaaen isake bajaay 1 key charanon seey bhinn hoti hain. lanthanides aur lait actinides aam taur parr ack sthir + 3 okseekaran sthiti dikhaate hain, baahari aiss-electrons koo hataate hain aur phir (aamtaur parr) (aine-2) aff-orbitals seey ack electron, joe oorjaa mein ns key samaan hotey hain. dee-aur aff-block tatvon kii samanya aur adhikatam okseekaran avasthaaen ayanan oorjaa parr nirbhar karati hain. jaise-jaise (n−1) d aur ns kakshiyon key beach oorjaa kaa antar pratyek sankraman shrinkhala key saath badhata haye, yeh aage key electrons koo aayanit karane key liye cumm urjaavaan roop seey anukool hoe jaataa haye. iss prakaar, praarambhik sankraman dhaatu samooh uchch okseekaran avasthaon koo pasand karate hain, lekin + 2 okseekaran avastha dair seey sankraman dhaatu samoohon key liye adhik sthir hoe jaati haye. iss prakaar uchchatam aupchaarik okseekaran avastha pratyek dee-block pankti kii shuruat mein + 3 seey badhkar beach mein + 7 yaa + 8 hoe jaati haye (ee.jee. oso4), aur phir anta mein + 2 taka. lanthanides aur lait actinides mein aamtaur parr uchch chauthi ayanan oorjaa hoti haye aur isaliye shayed hii kabhi + 3 okseekaran avastha koo paar curr jaati haye, jabaki praarambhik actinides mein cumm chauthi ayanan oorjaa hoti haye aur isaliye udaaharan key liye neptunium aur plutonium + 7 taka pahunch sakate hain.
ack hii samooh key tatva ack hii sanyojakta vinyas saajha karate hain, way aamtaur parr samaan rasayanik vyavhaar pradarshit karate hain. udaaharan key liye, pahale samooh mein kshaariya dhatuon mein sabhi mein ack sanyojakta electron hotaa haye, aur tatvon kaa ack bahut hii sajaatiya varg banaata haih way sabhi naram aur pratikriyaasheel dhaatuen hain. haalaanki, isamen kaee kaarak shamil hain, aur samooh aksar visham hoe sakate hain. udaaharan key liye, hydrogen mein bhee ack sanyojakta electron hotaa haye aur yeh kshaariya dhatuon key samaan samooh mein hotaa haye, lekin iska rasayanik vyavhaar kaafee alag hotaa haye. samooh 14 key sthir tatvon mein ack adhaatu (carbon), dou ardhchaalak (silicon aur germanium), aur dou dhaatu (tinn aur seesa) shamil hain; way phir bhee chaar sanyojakta electrons key saath ekjut hain. yeh aksar adhikatam aur nyuntam okseekaran avasthaon (ee.jee. samooh 16 mein sulfur aur selenium donon mein adhikatam okseekaran avastha + 6 hoti haye, jaisa kii aiss. oh. 3 aur aiss. ee. oh. 3 mein haye, aur nyuntam okseekaran avastha-2, jaisa kii sulphide aur selenide mein hoti haye); lekin hamesha naheen (ee.jee. sulfur aur selenium key samaan samooh mein honey key bavjood oxygen okseekaran avastha + 6 banaane key liye gyaat naheen haye).
vidyut rinaatmaktaa.
tatvon kii ack anya mahatvapurna sampatti unaki vidyut rinaatmaktaa haye. paramanu jode mein electrons koo saajha karke ack dusare key saath sahsanyojak bandhan banaa sakate hain, jisase sanyojakta kakshiyon kaa ack ativyaapi nirmaan hotaa haye. pratyek paramanu saajha electron jodee koo kiss hudd taka aakarshit kartaa haye, yeh paramanu kii vidyut rinaatmaktaa parr nirbhar kartaa haye-electrons koo praapt karane yaa khone kii or ack paramanu kii pravritti. jitna adhik vidyut rinaatmak paramanu electron jodee koo adhik aakarshit karega, aur jitna cumm vidyut rinaatmak (yaa adhik vidyut dhanaatmak) paramanu ise cumm aakarshit karega. charam mamalon mein, electron koo adhik vidyut dhanaatmak paramanu seey adhik vidyut rinaatmak paramanu mein poori tarah seey paarit honey key roop mein socha jaa sakata haye, halanki yeh ack saralikaran haye. bandh taba dou ayanon koo baandhata haye, ack dhanaatmak (electron koo chhodane key baad) aur ack rinaatmak (ise sweekaar karane key baad), aur ise ionic bandhan kahaa jaataa haye.
vidyut rinaatmaktaa iss baat parr nirbhar karati haye kii naabhik ack electron jodee koo kitni dridhata seey aakarshit curr sakata haye, aur isaliye yeh pahale seey charcha kiye gaye anya gunon key samaan bhinnata pradarshit kartaa haih vidyut rinaatmaktaa oopar seey neeche jaane kii pravritti rakhti haye, aur baain seey daaeen or badhane kii pravritti rakhti haye. kshaariya aur kshaariya prithvi dhaatuen sabse adhik vidyut dhanaatmak tatvon mein seey hain, jabaki chalcogen, halogen aur utkrisht gaisen sabse adhik vidyut rinaatmak tatvon mein seey hain.
electrongativity koo aam taur parr polling paimaane parr maapa jaataa haye, jiss parr sabse adhik electronegative pratikriyaasheel paramanu (florin) koo electronegativity 4 diyaa jaataa haye, aur cumm seey cumm electronegative paramanu (caesium) koo electronegativity 0.79 dee jaati haye. vaastav mein neon sabse adhik electronegative tatva haye, lekin polling paimana apani electronegativity koo maap naheen sakata haye kyonki yeh adhikansh tatvon key saath sahsanyojak bandhan naheen banaata haye.
ack tatva kii vidyut rinaatmaktaa usa paramanu kii pehchaan aur sankhya key saath-saath bhinn hoti haye jisase vaha bandha huaa haye, saath hii saath yeh pahale seey hii kitane electron khou chuka haih ack paramanu adhik electron khone parr adhik vidyut rinaatmak hoe jaataa haye. yeh kabhi-kabhi ack badaa antar banaata haih + 2 okseekaran avastha mein seese mein vidyut rinaatmaktaa 1.87 haye, jabaki + 4 okseekaran avastha mein seese mein vidyut rinaatmaktaa 2.33 haye.
dhatuta.
ack saral padaarth ack rasayanik tatva key parmaanuon seey banaa padaarth haye. adhik vidyut rinaatmak parmaanuon key saral padaarth ack dusare key saath electrons (sahsanyojak bandhanon kaa nirmaan) koo saajha karate hain. way yaa tou chhote anu (jaise hydrogen yaa oxygen, jinake paramanu jode mein bandhate hain) yaa anishchit kaal taka faili vishal sanrachanaaen (jaise carbon yaa silicon) banaate hain. mahaan gaisen kewal ekal parmaanuon key roop mein rahati hain, kyonki unake paas pahale seey hii ack poorna khol hotaa haye. asatat anuon yaa ekal parmaanuon seey baney padaarth anuon key beach kamjor aakarshak balon dwara ack saath rakhe jaate hain, jaise kii landan failaav balah jaise-jaise electron anuon key bheetar jaate hain, way vidyut avesh key kshanik asantulan paida karate hain, joe paas key anuon parr samaan asantulan paida karate hain aur kaee padosi anuon mein electrons kii samkaalik gatividhiyon kaa nirmaan karate hain.
haalaanki, adhik vidyut dhanaatmak paramanu isake bajaay electrons koo khou dete hain, jisase electrons kaa ack "samudra" banata haye joe catayan koo gher letaa haye. ack paramanu key baahari kakshiya apane sabhi padosiyon key saath electrons koo saajha karane key liye ativyaapi hotey hain, jisase sabhi parmaanuon parr faile aanvik kakshiyon kii ack vishal sanrachana banati haye. yeh nakaratmak roop seey aaveshit "samudra" sabhi ayanon koo kheenchata haye aur unhein ack dhaatu bandhan mein ack saath rakhta haye. aise bandhan banaane vaale tatvon koo aksar dhaatu kahaa jaataa haye; joe naheen karate hain unhein aksar adhaatu kahaa jaataa haye. kuchh tatva vibhinn sanrachanaon key saath kaee saral padaarth banaa sakate hainh inhen allotrope kahaa jaataa haye. udaaharan key liye, heera aur graphite carbon key dou samaantar hain.
kissy tatva kii dhatuta kaa anuman electronic gunon seey lagaaya jaa sakata haye. jaba paramanu kakshiya dhaatu yaa sahsanyojak bandhan key dauran ativyaapi hotey hain, tou way uchch oorjaa key pratibandhak kakshiyon key saath samaan kshamata key bandhan aur pratibandhak aanvik kakshiya donon banaate hain. shuddh bandhan charitra taba hotaa haye jaba bandhan kakshon mein antibonding kakshon kii tulanaa mein adhik electron hotey hain. iss prakaar dhaatu bandhan taba sambhav haye jaba pratyek paramanu dwara delocalise kiye gaye electrons kii sankhya ativyaapi mein yogdan karane vaale kakshiyon kii sankhya seey doguni seey cumm hoe. yeh 1 seey 13 key samoohon mein tatvon key liye sthiti haye; unake paas vishal sahsanyojak sanrachanaon koo banaane key liye bahut cumm sanyojakta electron bhee hain jahaan sabhi paramanu samatulya sthiti lete hain, aur isaliye lagbhag sabhi way dhaatu bunn jaate hain. hydrogen aur boron apavaad hain, jinamen bahut adhik aayaneekaran oorjaa hoti haye. iss prakaar hydrogen ack sahsanyojak aich2 anu banaata haye, aur boron icosahedral bee12 samoohon parr adharit ack vishal sahsanyojak sanrachana banaata haye. ack dhaatu mein, bandhan aur antibonding orbitals mein ativyaapi oorjaaen hoti hain, jisase ack ekal baind banata haye jisase electron swatantra roop seey pravaahit hoe sakate hain, jisase vidyut chaalan kii anumati milati haye.
samooh 14 mein, dhaatu aur sahsanyojak bandhan donon sambhav hoe jaate hain. heere key sphatik mein, carbon parmaanuon key beach sahsanyojak bandhan majboot hotey hain, kyonki unaki paramanu trijya chhoti hoti haye aur iss prakaar naabhik electrons parr adhik pakad rakhta haye. isaliye, joe bandhan kakshiya parinam hotey hain, way pratibandh kakshiya kii tulanaa mein oorjaa mein bahut cumm hotey hain, aur koee ativyaapi naheen hotaa haye, isaliye vidyut chaalan asambhav hoe jaataa haih carbon ack adhaatu haye. haalaanki, badey parmaanuon key liye sahsanyojak bandhan kamjor hoe jaataa haye aur bandhan aur antibonding orbitals key beach oorjaa antar cumm hoe jaataa haye. isaliye, silicon aur germanium mein chhote baind antaral hotey hain aur yeye ardhchaalak hotey hainh jaba electron ushmiya roop seey uttejit hotey hain tou way antaral koo paar curr sakate hain. tinn mein baind kaa antar gayab hoe jaataa haye, jisase tinn aur seesa dhaatu bunn jaate hain.
samooh 15 seey 17 mein tatvon mein vishal sahsanyojak anu banaane key liye bahut saare electron hotey hain joe teenon aayamon mein faile hotey hain. halke tatvon key liye, chhote dwiparmanvik anuon mein bandhan itane majboot hotey hain kii ack sanghanit charan asweekrit hoe jaataa haih iss prakaar nitrogen (aine2), oxygen (oh2), safed phosphorus aur peela arsenic (pee4 aur aeye. aiss. 4), sulfur aur laal selenium (aiss8 aur seey8), aur sthir helogen (aff2, see. ell. 2, bee. aar. 2, aur aaee2) aasaani seey kuchh parmaanuon key saath sahsanyojak anu banaate hain. bhaari lambe janjir banaate hain (jaise.jee. laal phosphorus, gray selenium, tellurium) yaa paratdaar sanrachanaaen (ee.jee. carbon graphite, kaalaa phosphorus, gray arsenic, gray antimony, bismuth) key roop mein joe teen aayamon key bajaay kewal ack yaa dou mein failata haye. donon prakaar kii sanrachanaaen phosphorus, arsenic aur selenium key allotrope key roop mein paaee jaa sakati hain, halanki teenon mein lambi janjir vaale allotrope adhik sthir hain. choonki yeye sanrachanaaen bandhan key liye apane sabhi kakshiyon kaa upayog naheen karati hain, isaliye way badhati oorjaa key crum mein bandhan, gair-bandhan aur anty-bandhan baind key saath samaapt hoti hain. isi tarah samooh 14 key liye, bhaari tatvon key liye baind antaral sikud jaataa haye aur shrinkhalaon yaa paraton key beach electrons kii mukt gati sambhav hoe jaati haye. iss prakaar udaaharan key liye kaalaa phosphorus, kaalaa arsenic, gray selenium, tellurium aur iodene ardhchaalak hain; gray arsenic, gray antimony aur bismuth ardh-dhaatu hain (ack bahut hii chhote baind overlap key saath ardh-dhaatu chaalan kaa pradarshan karate hue); aur polonium aur shayed estatin vaastavik dhaatu hain. anta mein, praakritik samooh 18 tatva sabhi alag-alag parmaanuon key roop mein rahate hain.
dhatuon aur adhaatuon key beach vibhajan rekha lagbhag oopar baaen seey neeche daaen tirchhe hoti haye, jisamen sankraman shrinkhala iss vikarn key baaen dikhaai detee haye (kyonki unake paas ativyaapi honey key liye kaee upalabdh kakshiya hain). yeh apekshit haye, kyonki dhatuta vidyut-sthiti aur electrons koo khone kii ichcha key saath sahsambaddh hoti haye, joe daaen seey baaen aur neeche taka badh jaati haye. iss prakaar dhatuon kii sankhya adhaatuon seey bahut adhik haye. seema rekha key paas key tatvon koo vargeekrit karna mushkil haih unake paas aise guna hotey hain joe dhatuon aur adhaatuon key beach madhyavarti hotey hain, aur donon key kuchh guna hoe sakate hain. inhen aksar ardh-dhaatu yaa dhaatu kahaa jaataa haye. iss arth mein upayog kiye jaane vaale "ardh-dhaatu" shabd koo baind sanrachana key saath isake sakht bhautik arth key saath bhramit naheen kiya jaanaa chaahieh bismuth bhautik roop seey ack ardh-dhaatu haye, lekin aamtaur parr rasaayanagyon dwara ise ack dhaatu maanaa jaataa haye.
nimnalikhit talika maanak sthitiyon mein sabse sthir allotrope parr vichaar karati haye. peele rung key tatva saral padarthon kaa nirmaan karate hain joe dhaatu bandhan dwara achchi tarah seey chitrit hotey hain. halke neele rung key tatva vishal network sahsanyojak sanrachanaon kaa nirmaan karate hain, jabaki gahare neele rung key tatva chhote sahsanyojak bandhan vaale anu banaate hain joe kamjor vaine dair walls balon dwara ack saath rakhe jaate hain. utkrisht gaisen baingani rung mein hoti hainh unake anu ekal paramanu hotey hain aur koee sahsanyojak bandhan naheen hotaa haye. gray-out koshikaaen una tatvon key liye hoti hain jinhen iss tarah seey chihnit kiye jaane key liye unake sabse sthir allotrope key liye paryaapt matra mein taiyar naheen kiya gayaa haye. saiddhaantik vichaar aur vartamaan prayogaatmak sakshya bataate hain kii una sabhi tatvon kaa dhatukaran hoga yadi way sanghanit charanon kaa nirmaan curr sakate hain, shayed ogeneson koo chhodkar.
aam taur parr, dhaatuen chamakdaar aur ghanee hoti hain. dhaatu key bandhan kii taakat key kaaran unamen aamtaur parr uchch pighalane aur kwathnank hotey hain, aur aksar lacheele aur namaneey (aasaani seey faile aur aakar mein) hotey hain kyonki paramanu dhaatu key bandhan koo tode binaa ack dusare key saapeksh chala sakate hain. way bijli kaa sanchaalan karate hain kyonki unake electron teenon aayamon mein chalane key liye swatantra hain. isi tarah, way ooshmaa kaa sanchaalan karate hain, jise electrons dwara atirikt gatij oorjaa key roop mein sthanantarit kiya jaataa haih way teji seey aage badhate hain. yeye guna taral avastha mein baney rahate hain, jaise kii chrystal sanrachana pighalane parr nasht hoe jaati haye, paramanu abhee bhee sparsh karate hain aur dhaatu bandhan banaa rahata haye, halanki yeh kamjor hoe jaataa haye. dhaatuen adhaatuon key prati pratikriyaasheel hoti hain. inn samanyikaranon key liye kuchh apavaad paae jaa sakate hainh udaaharan key liye, manganese, arsenic, antimony aur bismuth bhangur hain; chromium behad kathor haye; gallium, rubedium, caesium aur paaraa kamare key tapman parr yaa usake karib taral hain; aur sonaa jaisi mahaan dhaatuen rasayanik roop seey bahut nishkriya hain.
adhaatu vibhinn guna pradarshit karate hain. vishal sahsanyojak chrystal banaane vaale uchch pighalane aur kwathnank pradarshit karate hain, kyonki yeh majboot sahsanyojak bandhanon koo door karane key liye kaafee oorjaa letaa haye. joe asatat anu banaate hain way jyaadaatar failaav balon dwara ack saath rakhe jaate hain, joe adhik aasaani seey door hoe jaate hain; iss prakaar unake pighalane aur kwathnank cumm hotey hain, aur kaee kamare key tapman parr taral yaa gaisen hoti hain. adhaatu aksar sust dikhane vaale hotey hain. way dhatuon key prati pratikriyaasheel hotey hain, sivaay una mahaan gasses key joe adhikansh padarthon key prati nishkriya hoti hain. jaba way thhos hotey hain tou way bhangur hotey hain kyonki unake paramanu kaskar rakhe jaate hain. way cumm ghaney hotey hain aur bijli kaa sanchaalan kharaab karate hain, kyonki koee gatishil electron naheen hotey hain. seema rekha key paas, baind antaral chhote hotey hain aur iss prakaar usa kshetra mein kaee tatva ardhchaalak hotey hain, jaise kii silicon, germanium, selenium aur tellurium. phir seey apavaad hain; udaaharan key liye, heere mein sabhi gyaat samagriyon kii uchchatam taapiya chaalakta haye, joe kissy bhee dhaatu seey adhik haye.
dhatuon aur adhaatuon key beach kii seema koo failaane vaale dhatuon key ack varg koo naamit karna aam baat haye, kyonki usa kshetra key tatva bhautik aur rasayanik donon gunon mein madhyavarti hain. haalaanki, saahitya mein koee aam sahamati naheen haye kii kinn tatvon koo iss tarah seey nirdisht kiya jaanaa chaahiye. jaba aisee shreni kaa upayog kiya jaataa haye, tou silicon, germanium, arsenic aur tellurium lagbhag hamesha shamil hotey hain, aur boron aur antimony aamtaur parr hotey hain; lekin adhikansh sroton mein anya tatva bhee shamil hotey hain, binaa kissy samjhaute key kii atirikt tatvon koo jodaa jaanaa chaahiye, aur isake bajaay kuchh anya iss soochi seey ghataate hain.
aavadhikta kii aage kii abhivyaktiyaan.
aavart saarani mein kuchh anya sambandh hain joe ack hii samooh mein naheen hain, jaise kii una tatvon key beach vikarn sambandh joe vikarn roop seey nikat hain (ee.jee. lithium aur magnicium). mukhya samoohon aur sankraman dhaatu samoohon key beach, yaa praarambhik actinide aur praarambhik sankraman dhatuon key beach kuchh samaantaaen bhee paaee jaa sakati hain, jaba tatvon mein valence electrons kii sankhya samaan hoti haye. iss prakaar euranium kuchh hudd taka samooh 6 mein chromium aur tungsten jaisa dikhta haye, kyonki teenon mein chhah sanyojakta electron hotey hain. samaan sankhya mein sanyojakta electrons key saath tatvon key beach sambandhon koo lekin vibhinn prakaar key sanyojakta kakshiya koo maadhyamik yaa samasthaanik sambandh kahaa gayaa haih unamen aamtaur parr samaan adhikatam okseekaran sthitiyaan hoti hain, lekin samaan nyuntam okseekaran sthitiyaan naheen hoti hain. udaaharan key liye, chlorine aur manganese donon mein unaki adhikatam okseekaran sthiti (ee.jee. see. ell. 2 oh. 7 aur aim. aine. 2 oh. 7), lekin unaki sambandhit nyuntam okseekaran avasthaaen −1 (ee.) hain.jee. aich. see. ell.) aur-3 (key2 [aim. aine. (koo) 4]). samaan sankhya mein sanyojak riktiyon vaale tatva lekin sanyojakta electrons kii alag-alag sankhya ack tritiyak yaa samagrahan sambandh seey sambandhit hainh unaki nyuntam sthiti samaan hoti haye lekin adhikatam okseekaran avastha naheen hoti haye. udaaharan key liye, hydrogen aur chlorine donon mein unaki nyuntam okseekaran sthiti (hydride aur chloride mein) key roop mein −1 hotaa haye, lekin hydrogen kii adhikatam okseekaran sthiti + 1 (e.) hoti haye.jee. aich2oh) jabaki chlorine + 7 haye.
tatvon key kaee anya bhautik guna aavadhik niyam key anusaar aavadhik bhinnata pradarshit karate hain, jaise pighalane key bindu, kwathnank, sanlayan kii ooshmaa, vashpikaran kii ooshmaa, paramanu oorjaa, aur isi tarah. tatvon key yaugikon key liye samaan aavadhik bhinnataaen dikhaai detee hain, jinhen hydride, oxide, sulphide, halloid aadi kii tulanaa karke dekhaa jaa sakata haye. rasayanik gunon kaa matratmak roop seey varnan karna adhik kathin haye, lekin isi tarah way apani aavadhiktaon koo pradarshit karate hain. udaharanon mein tatvon aur unake yaugikon key amleeya aur buniyaadi gunon mein bhinnata, yaugikon kii sthirata aur tatvon koo alag karane key tareeke shamil hain. agyaat nae tatvon aur nae yaugikon key gunon kii bhavishyavani karane key liye aavadhikta kaa bahut vyaapak roop seey upayog kiya jaataa haye aur yeh aadhunik rasayan vigyaan key liye kendriya haye.
tatvon kaa vargeekaran.
saahitya mein aise tatvon key samooh kaa varnan karane key liye kaee shabdon kaa upayog kiya gayaa haye joe samaan roop seey vyavhaar karate hain. samooh key naam "kshaariya dhaatu", "kshaariya prithvi dhaatu", "trikoniya", "tetrel", "nictogen", "chalcogen", "halogen" aur "utkrisht gais" koo ipac dwara sweekaar kiya jaataa haye; anya samoohon koo unaki sankhya, yaa unake pahale tatva (ee.jee.samooh 6 chromium samooh haye). kuchh loga pee-block tatvon koo dhatuta dwara 13 seey 16 samoohon seey vibhajit karate hain, halanki naa tou ack ipac paribhasha haye aur naa hii iss baat parr sateek sahamati haye kii kinn tatvon koo dhaatu, adhaatu yaa ardh-dhaatu (kabhi-kabhi dhaatu kahaa jaataa haye) maanaa jaanaa chaahiye. naa hii iss baat parr sahamati haye kii sankraman dhatuon key baad aaney vaali dhatuon koo kyaa kahaa jaanaa chaahiye, jisamen "sankraman key baad kii dhaatu" aur "kharaab dhaatu" kaa upayog kiya jaane kii sambhavanaen hain. kuchh unnat monograph samooh 12 key tatvon koo unake kabhi-kabhi kaafee alag rasayanik gunon key aadhar parr sankraman dhatuon seey baahar karate hain, lekin yeh ack saarvbhaumik abhyaas naheen haye aur ipac vartamaan mein ise apane "rasayanik namkaran key siddhanton" mein sweekarya key roop mein ullekh naheen kartaa haye.
lanthanides" koo laa-luu tatva maanaa jaataa haye, joe sabhi ack dusare key samaan hainh aitihaasik roop seey unamen kewal see. ee.-luu shamil thaa, lekin lanthanum samanya upayog dwara shamil hoe gayaa. durlabh prithvi tatva" (yaa durlabh prithvi dhaatu) lanthanides mein scandium aur yatrium jodate hain. samaan roop seey, "actinides" koo tatva assie-lr (aitihaasik roop seey th-lr) maanaa jaataa haye, halanki iss samooh mein gunon kii bhinnata lanthanides kii tulanaa mein bahut adhik haye. ipac aspashtata seey bachane key liye "lanthanoids" aur "actinoids" naamon kii sifarish kartaa haye, kyonki-side pratyay aamtaur parr ack nakaratmak aayan koo darshaata haye; haalaanki "lanthanides" aur "actinides" aam rahate hain. dee-block tatvon key roop mein lutatium aur laurentium kii badhati maanyata key saath, kuchh lekhakon ney lanthanides koo laa-vayabi key roop mein aur actinides koo assie-noo key roop mein paribhaashit karna shuru curr diyaa, joe aff-block seey mell khaata haye.
kaee aur vargeekaran maujood hain aur kuchh vishayon key anusaar upayog kiye jaate hain. khagol bhautiki mein, ack dhaatu koo 2, i seey adhik paramanu sankhya vaale kissy bhee tatva key roop mein paribhaashit kiya jaataa haye.ee. hydrogen aur helium koo chhodkar kuchh bhee. ardh-dhaatu" shabd kii rasayan vigyaan kii tulanaa mein bhautiki mein ack alag paribhasha haih bhautik paribhashaon key anusaar bismuth ack ardh-dhaatu haye, lekin rasaayanagya aamtaur parr ise ack dhaatu maanate hain. kuchh shabdon kaa vyaapak roop seey upayog kiya jaataa haye, lekin binaa kissy bahut hii aupchaarik paribhasha key, jaise kii "bhaari dhaatu", jise paribhashaon kii itani vistrit shrinkhala dee gaee haye kii isaki aalochana "prabhaavi roop seey arthaheen" key roop mein kii gaee haye.
shabdon kaa daira lekhakon key beach kaafee bhinn hotaa haye. udaaharan key liye, iupac key anusaar, mahaan gasses mein poore samooh koo shamil kiya jaataa haye, jisamen bahut hii radiodharmi atee-bhaari tatva ogeneson bhee shamil haye. haalaanki, joe loga bhaari tatvon mein visheshagyata rakhate hain, unamen yeh aksar naheen kiya jaataa haih iss mamle mein "mahaan gais" koo aamtaur parr samooh key halke tatvon key aprabhaavi vyavhaar koo ingit karane key liye liya jaataa haye. choonki ganana aam taur parr bhavishyavani karati haye kii saapeksh prabhaavon key kaaran ogeneson vishesh roop seey nishkriya naheen honah chaahiye, aur kamare key tapman parr gais bhee naheen hoe sakati haye yadi iska thoke mein utpaadan kiya jaa sakata haye, tou iss sandarbh mein ack mahaan gais key roop mein isaki sthiti parr aksar sawal uthaaya jaataa haye. isake alawa, kabhi-kabhi rashtriya vividhataon kaa saamana karna padata haih japan mein, kshaariya prithvi dhatuon mein aksar beryllium aur magnicium shamil naheen hotey hain kyonki unakaa vyavhaar bhaari samooh 2 dhatuon seey alag hotaa haye.
itihas.
praarambhik itihas.
1817 mein, german bhautik vigyaani johann wolfgang doberiner ney tatvon koo vargeekrit karane key shuruati prayason mein seey ack koo taiyar karna shuru kiya. 1829 mein, unhone paaya kii way kuchh tatvon koo teen key samoohon mein banaa sakate hain, jisamen pratyek samooh key sadasya sambandhit gunon vaale hotey hain. unhone inn samoohon koo trikoniya kahaa. chlorine, bromin aur iodene ney ack trayi kaa gathan kiya; jaisa kii calcium, strontium aur berrium; lithium, sodium aur potasium; aur sulfur, selenium aur tellurium. aaj, yeye sabhi trikoniya aadhunik samay key samoohon kaa hissa hain. vibhinn rasaayanvidon ney apana kaam jaari rakhaa aur tatvon key chhote samoohon key beach adhik seey adhik sambandhon kii pehchaan karane mein saksham they. haalaanki, way ack aisee yojana naheen banaa sakey jisamen way sabhi shamil houn.
johnn newlands ney farwari 1863 mein rasayanik tatvon key beach kii aavadhikta parr "rasayanik samachar" mein ack patra prakaashit kiya. 1864 mein newlands ney "rasayanik samachar" mein ack lekh prakaashit kiya jisamen dikhaaya gayaa kii yadi tatvon koo unake paramanu bhaar key crum mein vyavasthit kiya jaataa haye, tou lagaatar sankhya vaale loga yaa tou ack hii samooh key hain yaa vibhinn samoohon mein samaan sthiti mein hain, aur unhone bataaya kii diye gaye ack seey shuru honey vaalaa pratyek aathvaan tatva iss vyavastha mein pahale kii ack prakaar kii punaravritti haye, jaise sangeet mein ack saptak key aathven nott (ashtak kaa niyam). haalaanki, newlands kaa nirmaan kewal mukhya-samooh tatvon key liye achchi tarah seey kaam kartaa thaa, aur dusaron key saath gambhir samasyaon kaa saamana karna padaa.
german rasaayanshaastri lother meyer ney samaan rasayanik aur bhautik gunon key anukramon koo aavadhik antaral parr dohraya. unake anusaar, yadi paramanu bhaar koo adhyadesh key roop mein plot kiya gayaa thaa (i.ee. urdhvaadhar roop seey) aur paramanu aayatan absisa (i.ee. kshaitij roop seey)-adhikatam aur nyuntam kii ack shrinkhala praapt vakr-sabse vidyut dhanaatmak tatva apane paramanu bhaar key crum mein vakr kii chotiyon parr dikhaai denge. 1864 mein, unaki ack pustak prakaashit hui; isamen 28 tatvon vaali aavart saarani kaa ack praarambhik sanskaran thaa, aur tatvon koo unake sanyojan dwara chhah parivaaron mein vargeekrit kiya gayaa thaa-pahali baar, tatvon koo unake sanyojan key anusaar samoohbaddh kiya gayaa thaa. paramanu bhaar dwara tatvon koo vyavasthit karane kaa kaam taba taka paramanu bhaar key galat maap dwara baadhit kiya gayaa thaa. 1868 mein, unhone apani talika koo sanshodhit kiya, lekin yeh sanshodhan unaki mrityu key baad hii ack masaude key roop mein prakaashit kiya gayaa thaa.
mendeleev.
nishchit safalata russie rasaayanagya dimitra mendeleev seey millie. haalaanki anya rasaayanvidon (meyer sahit) ney lagbhag usee samay aavadhik pranali key kuchh anya sanskaran paae they, mendeleev apani pranali koo vikasit karane aur usaki raksha karane key liye sabse adhik samarpit they, aur yeh unaki pranali thee jisane vaigyaanik samudaay koo sabse adhik prabhaavit kiya. 17 farwari 1869 (gregorian calender mein 1 march 1869) koo, mendeleev ney tatvon koo vyavasthit karna aur unake paramanu bhaar seey unaki tulanaa karna shuru kiya. unhone kuchh tatvon key saath shuruat kii, aur dinn key dauran unaki pranali taba taka badhee jaba taka kii yeh adhikansh gyaat tatvon koo shamil naheen curr letee. ack susangat vyavastha milane key baad, unaki mudrit mez maee 1869 mein russie rasayanik samaaj kii patrika mein dikhaai dee. jaba tatva pranali mein fitt naheen dikhaai dete they, tou unhone saahaspoorvak bhavishyavani kii kii yaa tou sanyojakta yaa paramanu bhaar koo galat tareeke seey maapa gayaa thaa, yaa kii ack laapata tatva abhee taka khoja naheen gayaa thaa. 1871 mein, mendeleev ney ack lamba lekh prakaashit kiya, jisamen unaki talika kaa ack adyatan roop bhee shamil thaa, jisane agyaat tatvon key liye unaki bhavishyavaniyon koo spasht curr diyaa. mendeleev ney inn agyaat tatvon mein seey teen key gunon kii vistaar seey bhavishyavani keeh kyonki way boron, aluminium aur silicon key bhaari samroopata koo khou denge, unhone unhein ack-boron, ack-aluminium aur ack-silicon ("ack" key liye sanskrit honey key kaaran) naam diyaa.
1875 mein, francisi rasaayanagya paul-emil lekok dee boisboudron ney mendeleev kii bhavishyavani key baare mein jaankaari key binaa kaam karate hue, khanij sphalarite key ack namoone mein ack nae tatva kii khoj kii, aur iska naam gallium rakhaa. unhone tatva koo alag kiya aur isake gunon kaa nirdhaaran karna shuru curr diyaa. mendeleev ney dee boisbaudran key prakaashan koo padhkar ack patra bheja jisamen daavaa kiya gayaa thaa kii gallium unaki bhavishyavani kii gaee ack-aluminium thee. halanki lekok dee boisbaudran shuru mein sandeh mein they, aur unhein sandeh thaa kii mendeleev apani khoj kaa shreya lene kii koshish curr rahey they, lekin baad mein unhone sweekaar kiya kii mendeleev sahee they. 1879 mein, swedish rasaayanagya lars fredrick nilson ney ack nae tatva kii khoj kii, jise unhone scandium naam diyaah yeh ack-boron nikla. ack-silicon 1886 mein german rasaayanagya clemens winkler dwara paaya gayaa thaa, jinhone ise germanium naam diyaa thaa. gallium, scandium aur germanium key gunon kaa milan mendeleev ney joe bhavishyavani kii thee, usase huaa. 1889 mein, mendeleev ney landan mein shaahi sansthaan koo diye gaye fairade vyakhyan mein kahaa kii unhein lambe samay taka jeene kii ummeed naheen thee "mahaan britten key rasayanik samaaj mein unaki khoj kaa ullekh aavadhik kaanoon kii sateekta aur vyaapaktaa kii pushti key roop mein karane key liye. yahaan taka kii 19veen shatabdi key anta mein mahaan gasses kii khoj, jisaki mendeleev ney bhavishyavani naheen kii thee, aathven mukhya samooh key roop mein unaki yojana mein badey kareene seey fitt hoe gaee.
phir bhee mendeleev koo apani yojana mein gyaat lanthanides koo fitt karane mein kuchh pareshani hui, kyonki way anya tatvon kii tarah sanyojaktaon mein aavadhik parivartan kaa pradarshan naheen karate they. bahut jaanch key baad, check rasaayanagya bohuslav brauner ney 1902 mein sujhaav diyaa kii sabhi lanthanides koo aavart saarani parr ack samooh mein ack saath rakhaa jaa sakata haye. unhone ise ack khagoliya saadrishya key roop mein "kshudragrah parikalpana" naam diyaah jaise mangal aur jupiter key beach ack grah key bajaay ack kshudragrah belt haye, isaliye yatrium key neeche kii jagah koo kewal ack tatva key bajaay sabhi lanthanides dwara kabja kiya gayaa thaa.
paramanu sankhya.
paramanu kii aantarik sanrachana kii jaanch key baad, shaukiya dutch bhautik vigyaani antonius vaine daine broke ney 1913 mein prastaav diyaa kii paramanu avesh aavart saarani mein tatvon key sthaan koo nirdhaarit kartaa haye. newzealand key bhautik vigyaani ernest rutherford ney iss paramanu avesh key liye "paramanu sankhya" shabd gadhaa. vaine dair broke key prakaashit lekh mein unhone pahali electronic aavart saarani kaa chitran kiya jisamen tatvon koo unake electrons kii sankhya key anusaar vyavasthit dikhaaya gayaa thaa. rutherford ney apane 1914 key pepper mein pushti kii kii bohr ney vaine dair broke key drishtikon koo sweekaar curr liya thaa. 
usee varsh, angreji bhautik vigyaani heinry mosley ney aiks-ray spectroscopy kaa upayog karke vaine daine broeck key prastaav kii prayogaatmak roop seey pushti kii. mosley ney aluminium seey soney taka pratyek tatva key paramanu avesh kaa moolya nirdhaarit kiya aur dikhaaya kii mendeleev kaa crum vaastav mein paramanu avesh dwara tatvon koo kramik crum mein rakhta haye. paramanu avesh proton ginati key samaan hotaa haye aur pratyek tatva kii paramanu sankhya ("z") kaa moolya nirdhaarit kartaa haye. paramanu sankhya kaa upayog karane seey tatvon key liye ack nishchit, purnank-adharit anukram milata haye. mosley key shodh ney paramanu vajan aur rasayanik gunon key beach visangatiyon koo turant hull curr diyaa; yeye tellurium aur iodene jaise mamle they, jahaan paramanu sankhya badh jaati haye lekin paramanu vajan cumm hoe jaataa haye. haalaanki pratham vishva yuddh mein jald hii mosley maare gaye they, swedish bhautik vigyaani mainane sigban ney euranium taka apana kaam jaari rakhaa, aur sthaapit kiya kii yeh taba gyaat uchchatam paramanu sankhya (92) vaalaa tatva thaa. mosley aur sigban key shodh key aadhar parr, yeh bhee gyaat thaa kii kaun see paramanu sankhyaaen abhee taka paae jaane vaale laapata tatvon key anuroop theen.
electron key gole.
dennish bhautik vigyaani niels bohr ney paramanu parr matra nirdhaaran key max plank key vichaar koo lagu kiya. unhone nishkarsh nikala kii electrons key oorjaa staron kii matra nirdhaarit kii gaee theeh kewal sthir oorjaa avasthaon key ack asatat samooh kii anumati thee. bohr ney taba electron vinyas key madhyam seey aavadhikta koo samajhane kaa prayaas kiya, 1913 mein anuman lagaaya kii aantarik electron tatva key rasayanik gunon key liye jimmedaar honey chaahiye. 1913 mein, unhone ack quantum paramanu parr adharit pahali electronic aavart saarani kaa utpaadan kiya.
bohr ney 1913 mein apane electron koshon koo "rings" kahaah unake grah model key samay koshon key bheetar paramanu kakshiya maujood naheen they. bohr ney apane prasiddh 1913 key pepper key bhaag 3 mein bataaya kii ack khol mein adhikatam electron aathh hain, likhate hue, "humm aage dekhate hain, kii n electrons kaa ack valay ack hii valay mein charge key naabhik key ack goal mein naheen ghoom sakata haye jaba taka kii n <8". chhote parmaanuon key liye, electron key gole iss prakaar bharey jaaengeh "electrons key valay kewal tabhi judenge jaba unamen electrons kii samaan sankhya hogi; aur tadnusar aantarik valay parr electrons kii sankhya kewal 2,4,8 hogi", halanki, badey parmaanuon mein sabse aantarik kosh mein aathh electron hongeh "doosari or, tatvon kii aavadhik pranali dridhata seey sujhaav detee haye kii pahale seey hii neon n = 10 mein aathh electrons kaa ack aantarik valay hoga."parmaanuon key liye unake prastaavit electron vinyas (daaeen or dikhaae gaye) jyaadaatar abb gyaat parmaanuon key anuroop naheen hain.
bohr key paramanu siddhant kii rasayanik kshamata kaa vyavasthit roop seey vistaar aur sudhaar karane vaalaa pahala vyakti 1914 mein aur 1916 mein walther kosel thaa. kosel ney samajhaaya kii aavart saarani mein nae tatvon kaa nirmaan kiya jaayega kyonki baahari khol mein electron jode gaye they. kosel key pepper mein, vaha likhate hainh "yeh iss nishkarsh parr pahunchata haye kii electron, jinhen aage jodaa jaataa haye, koo kendrit valay yaa gole mein rakhaa jaanaa chaahiye, jinamen seey pratyek parr... kewal ack nishchit sankhya mein electrons koo vyavasthit kiya jaanaa chaahiye-arthaat, hamaare mamle mein aathh-. jaise hii ack valay yaa kosh puuraa hotaa haye, agale tatva key liye ack nayaa aarambh karna padata haye; electrons kii sankhya, joe sabse aasaani seey sulabh hain, aur sabse baahari paridhi mein sthit hain, tatva seey tatva mein phir seey badh jaati haye aur isaliye, pratyek nae kosh key gathan mein rasayanik aavartakta koo dohraya jaataa haye."
1919 key ack pepper mein, irving langmuir ney "koshikaon" key astitva koo prastut kiya, jise humm abb kakshiya kahate hain, jinamen seey pratyek mein kewal dou electron hoe sakate hain, aur inhen "samaan doori kii paraton" mein vyavasthit kiya gayaa thaa, jinhen humm abb gole kahate hain. unhone pahale khol key liye kewal dou electrons koo shamil karane key liye ack apavaad banaaya. rasaayanshaastri charles rujeli ney 1921 mein sujhaav diyaa kii ack khol mein aathh aur athaarah electron sthir vinyas banaate hain. dafan prastaav thaa kii sankraman tatva mein electron vinyas unake baahari kosh mein sanyojakta electrons parr nirbhar kartaa haye. unhone una tatvon kaa varnan karane key liye "sankraman" shabd kii shuruat kii jinhen abb sankraman dhaatu yaa sankraman tatvon key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye.
bohr dwara prerit, wolfgang pauli ney 1923 mein electron vinyas kii samasya koo uthaaya. pauli ney chaar quantum sankhyaon kaa upayog karane key liye bohr kii yojana koo vistaarit kiya, aur apane bahishkaran siddhant koo taiyar kiya jisamen kahaa gayaa kii kissy bhee dou electrons mein samaan chaar quantum sankhya naheen hoe sakati thee. isane aavart saarani (2,8,18 aur 32) mein avadhiyon kii lambai koo samajhaaya, joe pratyek khol mein rahane vaale electrons kii sankhya key anuroop thee. 1925 mein, aadhunik key karib fredrick hund vinyas parr pahunche. inn pragati key parinamswarup, aavadhikta tatvon key sanyojakta key bajaay rasayanik roop seey sakriya yaa sanyojakta electrons kii sankhya parr adharit hoe gaee. tatvon key electron vinyas kaa varnan karane vaalaa aufabaau siddhant pahali baar 1926 mein irvin madelung dwara anubhavjanya roop seey dekhaa gayaa thaa, halanki ise prakaashit karane vaalaa pahala 1930 mein vladmir carapetoff thaa. 1961 mein, vevoload klechkovsky ney thomas-fermi model seey madelung niyam (joe kakshaaen "aine" + ell koo badhaane key crum mein bharati hain) kaa pahala bhaag praapt kiya; puuraa niyam 1971 mein yuri aine dwara isi tarah kii kshamata seey praapt kiya gayaa thaa. demkov aur valentin aine. ostrovsky.
quantum siddhant ney parivartan dhatuon aur lanthanides koo spasht kiya kii way apane swayam key alag samoohon kaa nirmaan karate hain, mukhya samoohon key beach sankraman, halanki kuchh rasaayanvidon ney pahale hii unhein iss tarah seey dikhaane vaali taalikaon kaa prastaav diyaa thaah angreji rasaayanagya heinry basset ney 1892 mein aisaa kiya thaa, 1895 mein dennish rasaayanagya julius thomson aur 1905 mein swiss rasaayanshaastri alfred werner ney apane 1922 key nobel vyakhyan mein thomson key roop kaa upayog kiya thaa; werner kaa roop aadhunik 32-collum roop key samaan haye. vishesh roop seey, iss brauners asteroidal parikalpana koo pratisthaapit kiya gayaa.
lanthanides kii sateek sthiti, aur iss prakaar samooh 3 kii sanrachana, dashakon taka vivaad mein rahee kyonki unake electron vinyas koo shuru mein galat tareeke seey maapa gayaa thaa. rasayanik aadharon parr basset, werner, aur lanthanum key bajaay lutatium key saath samoohbaddh scandium aur yatrium koo dafanaane (poorv donon ney yatrium key neeche ack khaali jagah chhod dee kyonki lutatium kii khoj abhee taka naheen hui thee). hund ney 1927 mein maanaa kii sabhi lanthanide parmaanuon mein unaki prachalit tribhujata key kaaran vinyas [xe] 4f0−145d16s2 thaa (abb yeh gyaat haye kii rasayan vigyaan aur electron vinyas key beach sambandh usase adhik jatil haye). praarambhik spectroscopic sakshya isaki pushti karate prateet hotey hain, aur iss prakaar aavart saarani koo samooh 3 key roop mein scandium, yatrium, lanthanum aur actinium key roop mein sanrachit kiya gayaa thaa, jisamen chaudah aff-tatva lanthanum aur hafnium key beach dee-block koo todate hain. lekin baad mein yeh pataa chalaa kii yeh pandrah mein seey kewal chaar lanthanides (lanthanum, cerium, gadolinium aur lutatium) key liye sach haye, aur anya lanthanide parmaanuon mein dee-electron naheen haye. vishesh roop seey, ytterbium 4aff khol koo puuraa kartaa haye aur iss prakaar soviyat bhautikavidon lev landau aur evageny lifeshitz ney 1948 mein nott kiya kii lutatium koo ack aff-block tatva key bajaay dee-block key roop mein sahee maanaa jaataa haye; kii bulk lanthanum ack aff-metal haye, pahali baar 1963 mein juuna kondo dwara isaki cumm tapman superconductivity key aadhar parr sujhaaya gayaa thaa. isane parmaanuon kii nimn-sthit uttejit avasthaon koo dekhane key mahatva koo spasht kiya joe rasayanik vatavaran mein ack bhoomika nibha sakate hain jaba tatvon koo block dwara vargeekrit karate hain aur unhein mez parr rakhate hain. kaee lekhakon ney baad mein bhautik, rasayanik aur electronic chintaon key aadhar parr iss sudhaar kii phir seey khoj kii aur ise sabhi praasangik tatvon parr lagu kiya, iss prakaar samooh 3 mein scandium, yatrium, lutatium aur laurentium hotey hain aur ytterbium key madhyam seey lanthanum hotaa haye aur nobelium key madhyam seey actinium koo aff-block panktiyon key roop mein banaaya jaataa haih yeh sahee sanskaran madel niyam key saath sthirata praapt kartaa haye aur vandicates basset, werner aur dafanaane key praarambhik rasayanik sthaan key saath.
1988 mein, ipac ney samooh 3 kii iss sanrachana kaa samarthan karane vaali ack report jaari kii, ack nirnay jisaki pushti 2021 mein kii gaee thee. samooh 3 kii sanrachana parr pathyapustakon mein abhee bhee bhinnata paaee jaa sakati haye, aur iss praarup key khilaf kuchh tark aaj bhee prakaashit kiye gaye hain, lekin rasaayanagya aur bhautik vigyaani jinhone iss mamle koo badey paimaane parr samooh 3 parr sahmat maanaa haye jisamen scandium, yatrium, lutatium aur laurentium shamil hain aur prati-tark koo asangat honey key roop mein chunauti dete hain.
synthetic tatva.
1936 taka, hydrogen seey euranium taka laapata tatvon kaa pool chaar taka sikud gayaa thaah tatva 43,61,85, aur 87 gayab rahey. tatva 43 antatah prakriti mein khoje jaane key bajaay paramanu pratikriyaon key madhyam seey kritrim roop seey sanshleshit honey vaalaa pahala tatva bunn gayaa. isaki khoj 1937 mein italvi rasaayanagya emilio segri aur carlo perrier dwara kii gaee thee, jinhone apani khoj kaa naam "kritrim" key liye yunani shabd key naam parr technitium rakhaa thaa. isi tarah 1945 aur 1940 mein kramshah 61 (promethium) aur 85 (estatin) tatvon kaa kritrim roop seey utpaadan kiya gayaa thaa; tatva 87 (francium) 1939 mein francisi rasaayanagya marjuret perey dwara prakriti mein khoja jaane vaalaa antim tatva bunn gayaa thaa. euranium seey parey tatvon kii isi tarah kritrim roop seey khoj kii gaee thee, jisaki shuruat advin mcmillan aur phillip abelson kii 1940 mein neptunium kii khoj (neutron key saath euranium kii bambari key madhyam seey) seey hui thee. glain tii. seaborg aur laurence berkley rashtriya prayogshala (ell. bee. aine. ell.) mein unaki team ney 1941 mein plutonium seey shuru hocker transuranium tatvon kii khoj jaari rakhee, aur paaya kii pichhali soch key vipareet, actinium key baad key tatva sankraman dhatuon key bajaay lanthanides key janak they. basset (1892), werner (1905) aur francisi engineer charles genet (1928) ney pahale iska sujhaav diyaa thaa, lekin unake vichaaron koo taba samanya sweekriti naheen millie. iss prakaar seaborg unhein actinides kahata haye. 101 taka key tatvon (mendeleev key sammaan mein mendelivium naam diyaa gayaa) koo 1955 taka yaa tou neutron yaa alfa-kann vikiran key madhyam seey, yaa 99 (insteinium) aur 100 (fermium) key mamalon mein paramanu visfoton mein sanshleshit kiya gayaa thaa.
1960 aur 1970 key dashak mein 102 seey 106 tatvon key saath ack mahatvapurna vivaad paida huaa, kyonki ell. bee. aine. ell. team (abb albert ghiorso key netritva mein) aur georgy flyrov key netritva mein sanyukt paramanu anusandhaan sansthaan (ginner) mein soviyat vaigyaanikon kii ack team key beach pratispardha utpann hui. pratyek dall ney khoj kaa daavaa kiya, aur kuchh mamalon mein pratyek ney tatva key liye apana naam prastaavit kiya, jisase ack tatva namkaran vivaad paida huaa joe dashakon taka chalaa. inn tatvon koo prakaash ayanon key saath actinide kii bambari dwara banaaya gayaa thaa. iupac ney pahale ack vyaavhaarik drishtikon apanaaya, aur prateeksha karna pasand kiya aur dekhaa kii kyaa aam sahamati aaney vaali haye. yeh sheet yuddh kii oonchaai bhee thee, aur kuchh samay baad yeh spasht hoe gayaa kii aisaa naheen hoga. jaise, iupac aur shuddh aur anuprayukt bhautiki key antarrashtriya sangh (iupap) ney khoj key liye mandand nirdhaarit karane key liye 1985 mein ack sthanantaran kaary samooh (doubleu. doubleu. jee., fermium tatva 100 honey key naate) banaaya, joe 1991 mein prakaashit hue they. kuchh aur vivaad key baad, inn tatvon koo 1997 mein seaborgheum (106) sahit seaborg key sammaan mein unake antim naam praapt hue.
tii. doubleu. jee. key maandandon kaa upayog baad mein ell. bee. aine. ell. aur ginner key saath-saath germany (jee. aiss. aaee.) aur japan (rike) mein shodh sansthanon seey tatva khoj key daavon koo madhyasthata karane key liye kiya gayaa thaa. vartamaan mein, khoj daavon parr vichaar ack iupac/iupap sanyukt kaary dall dwara kiya jaataa haye. prathamikta diye jaane key baad, tatvon koo aadhikarik taur parr aavart saarani mein jodaa gayaa, aur khojkartaon koo unake naam prastaavit karane key liye aamantrit kiya gayaa. 2016 taka, yeh 118 taka key sabhi tatvon key liye huaa thaa, isaliye aavart saarani kii pahali saat panktiyon koo puuraa kiya. 106 seey parey key tatvon kii khojon koo ginner mein yuri oganesian dwara taiyar kii gaee takneekon dwara sambhav banaaya gayaa thaah colled fusion (bhaari ayanon dwara seesa aur bismuth kii bambari) ney jee. aiss. aaee. parr 107 seey 112 taka tatvon kii khoj koo sambhav banaaya aur unhone ginner team (americi vaigyaanikon key sahyog seey) kaa netritva kiya, jisamen unhone 1998-2010 mein germ sanlayan (calcium ayanon dwara actinide kii bambari) kaa upayog karke 114 seey 118 taka tatvon kii khoj kii. sabse bhaari gyaat tatva, ogeneson (118), kaa naam oganesian key sammaan mein rakhaa gayaa haye. tatva 114 koo unake poorvavarti aur maargdarshak flyrov key sammaan mein flerovium naam diyaa gayaa haye.
aavart saarani kii 150veen varshgaanth key utsav mein, sanyukt rashtra ney varsh 2019 koo aavart saarani key antarrashtriya varsh key roop mein ghoshit kiya, joe "vigyaan mein sabse mahatvapurna uplabdhiyon mein seey ack" kaa utsav haye. praayogik aur saiddhaantik pragati key jawab mein 2020 mein doubleu. jee. dwara nirdhaarit khoj mandand koo adyatan kiya gayaa thaa, jiska 1991 mein purvanuman naheen lagaaya gayaa thaa. aaj, aavart saarani rasayan vigyaan key sabse pahchaanane yogya prateekon mein seey ack haye. iupac aaj aavart saarani seey sambandhit kaee prakriyaon key saath shamil haih nae tatvon kii pehchaan aur namkaran, samooh sankhya aur saamoohik naamon kii sifarish karna, aur paramanu bhaar koo adyatan karna.
bhavishya mein saatvin avadhi seey aage vistaar.
sabse haal hii mein naamit tatvon-nehonium (113), moskovium (115), tenesin (117), aur ogeneson (118)-ney aavart saarani kii saatvin pankti koo puuraa kiya. bhavishya key tatvon koo aathvin pankti shuru karni hogi. inn tatvon koo unaki paramanu sankhya (ee.jee. "tatva 119"), yaa 1978 mein apanaae gaye ipac vyavasthit tatva naamon dwara, joe seedhe paramanu sankhyaon (ee.jee. "ekmusht" tatva 119 key liye, lattin "" anupayogi "" ack, "" yunani "" ania "" nau ", aur dhaatu tatvon key liye paaramparik" "-aayam" pratyay seey vyutpann).  aise tatvon koo sanshleshit karane key sabhi prayaas abb taka whiffle rahey hain. japan key ricken shodh sansthaan mein 2018 seey tatva 119 banaane kaa prayaas jaari haye. roose mein paramanu anusandhaan key liye sanyukt sansthaan ney bhee pahale kuchh avadhi 8 tatvon koo sanshleshit karane key apane prayaas karane kii yojana banaai haye.
yadi aathvin avadhi pahale kii avadhi dwara nirdhaarit pattern kaa anusaran karati haye, tou isamen pachas tatva honge, joe usa crum mein 8s, 6f, 7d aur anta mein 8p upkoshon koo bharenge. lekin iss baare mein vartamaan charcha haye kii kyaa yeh vaastav mein mamla hoga, kyonki gananaon mein anuman lagaaya gayaa haye kii iss bindu seey saapeksh prabhaavon key parinamswarup madelung niyam seey mahatvapurna vichalan honah chaahiye. vibhinn model sujhaae gaye hain. sabhi iss baat parr sahmat hain kii aathvin avadhi dou 8s tatvon key saath pichhale kii tarah shuru honey chaahiye, aur phir kakshiyon koo bharane vaale jee-block tatvon kii ack naee shrinkhala kaa paalan karna chaahiye, lekin inn tatvon key liye ganana kii gaee sateek vinyas sroton key beach vyaapak roop seey bhinn hoti haye. iss shrinkhala key alawa, gananaaen iss baat parr sahmat naheen hain kii vaastav mein kyaa honah chaahiye. 6f, 7d aur 8p gole koo bharna vaastav mein lagbhag usa crum mein honey kii ummeed haye, lekin way ack dusare key saath aur 9s aur 9p upkoshon key saath mishrit honey kii sambhavana haye, taaki yeh spasht naa hoe kii kaun seey tatva abb kiss samooh mein jaane chaahiye. erich skerry ney yeh sawal uthaaya haye kii kyaa ack vistaarit aavart saarani koo iss kshetra mein madelung niyam kii viphalata koo dhyaan mein rakhna chaahiye, yaa kyaa aise apvaadon koo nazarandaj kiya jaanaa chaahiye. iss bindu parr khol sanrachana bhee kaafee aupchaarik hoe sakati haih pahale seey hii ack augneson paramanu mein electron vitaran key bajaay samaan honey kii ummeed haye, jisamen koee spasht khol sanrachana naheen haye.
paramanu sthirata sambhaavit tatvon kii sankhya koo seemit karane vaalaa ack nirnaayak kaarak saabit hogi. yeh proton aur majboot bull key beach vidyut pratikarshan key beach santulan parr nirbhar kartaa haye joe proton aur neutron koo ack saath baandhata haye. proton aur neutron koo electrons kii tarah hii gole mein vyavasthit kiya jaataa haye, aur isaliye ack bund khol sthirata koo kaafee badhaa sakata haih gyaat atee-bhaari naabhik iss tarah key khol bund honey key kaaran maujood hain. way shayed sthirata key ack anumaanit dweep key karib hain, jahan superhavy nucleid kaa aadhaa jeevan kaafee lamba honah chaahieh bhavishyavaniyaan minut yaa dinon seey laker laakhon yaa arabon varshon taka hoti hain. haalaanki, jaise-jaise proton kii sankhya lagbhag 126 seey adhik badhati haye, yeh sthirikaran prabhaav gayab hoe jaanaa chaahiye kyonki ack bund khol paarit hoe jaataa haye. yeh spasht naheen haye kii kyaa aage koee khol bund hoe sakata haye, kyonki alag-alag paramanu gole seey apekshit dhabba nikalata haye (jaisa kii pahale seey hii ogeneson mein electron gole key liye apekshit haye). isake alawa, bhale hii baad mein khol bund hoe, yeh spasht naheen haye kii kyaa way aise bhaari tatvon koo maujood rahane denge. iss prakaar, yeh hoe sakata haye kii aavart saarani vyaavhaarik roop seey tatva 120 key aspas samaapt hoe jaae, kyonki tatva avalokan karane key liye bahut cumm samay key liye hoe jaate hain; iss prakaar nae tatvon kii khoj kaa yug apane anta key karib hoga.
vaikalpik roop seey, kwark padaarth uchch dravyamaan sankhya mein sthir hoe sakata haye, jisamen naabhik proton aur neutron mein baandhane key bajaay swatantra roop seey oopar aur neeche bahane vaale kwark seey banaa hotaa haye; yeh ack dweep key bajaay sthirata kaa ack mahadweep banaayega. anya prabhaav khel mein aaa sakate hainh udaaharan key liye, bahut bhaari tatvon mein 1s electrons key naabhik key itane karib samay bitaane kii sambhavana haye kii way vaastav mein isake ander hain, joe unhein electron pakadane key liye asurakshit banaa dega.
aggar aathvin pankti key tatva bhee maujood hoe sakate hain, tou unakaa utpaadan karna mushkil honey kii sambhavana haye, aur paramanu sankhya badhane parr yeh aur bhee kathin hoe jaanaa chaahiye. haalaanki 8s tatvon key vartamaan sadhanon key saath pahunchane yogya honey kii ummeed haye, lekin pahale kuchh tatvon koo naee takneek kii aavashyakta hogi, yadi unakaa utpaadan kiya jaa sakata haye. inn tatvon koo rasayanik roop seey prayog karane seey bhee ack badee chunauti hogi.
vaikalpik aavart saarani.
aavart niyam koo kaee tarikon seey darshaaya jaa sakata haye, jinamen seey maanak aavart saarani kewal ack haye. 1869 mein mendeleev kii mez key dikhane key 100 varshon key bheetar, edward jee. mazuuron ney aavart saarani key anumaanit 700 vibhinn prakaashit sanskaranon koo ekatra kiya thaa. kaee roop aaytaakaar sanrachana koo banaae rakhate hain, jisamen charles janette kii baain-charan aavart saarani (neeche chitrit), aur mendeleev key mool 8-collum leout kaa aadhunik roop joe abhee bhee roose mein aam haye. anya aavart saarani praarupon koo bahut adhik baahari roop seey aakar diyaa gayaa haye, jaise kii sarpil (daaeen or chitrit otto theoder bemphe), vritt aur trikon.
vaikalpik aavart saarani aksar una tatvon key rasayanik yaa bhautik gunon koo ujagar karane yaa una parr jore dene key liye vikasit kii jaati haye joe paaramparik aavart saarani mein utane spasht naheen hain, jisamen vibhinn tatva donon chhoron parr rasayan vigyaan yaa bhautiki parr adhik jore dene kii or jhukate hain. maanak roop, joe abb taka sabse aam haye, kaheen naa kaheen beach mein haye.
aavart saarani key kaee alag-alag roopon ney iss sawal koo prerit kiya haye kii kyaa aavart saarani kaa ack ishtatam yaa nishchit roop haye, aur yadi aisaa haye, tou yeh kyaa hoe sakata haye. donon hii prashnon key liye koee vartamaan sarvasammati seey uttar naheen hain. genet kii left-step table parr teji seey ishtatam yaa sabse maulik roop honey key liye ack ummidwar key roop mein charcha kii jaa rahee haye; skerry ney isake samarthan mein likhaa haye, kyonki yeh ack aiss-block tatva key roop mein helium kii prakriti koo spasht kartaa haye, sabhi avadhi kii lambai koo dohrakar niyamitata badhaata haye, pratyek avadhi koo + key ack moolya key anuroop banaakar vishvaspurvak madelung key niyam kaa paalan kartaa haye, aur paramanu sankhya tribhuj aur pahali pankti visangati pravritti koo niyamit kartaa haye. jabaki way nott karate hain kii kshaariya prithvi dhatuon key oopar helium kii sthiti koo rasayanik drishtikon seey ack nuksan key roop mein dekhaa jaa sakata haye, way pahali pankti kii visangati koo aakarshit karke iska mukabala karate hain, yeh ingit karate hue kii aavart saarani "maulik roop seey quantum yantriki mein cumm hoe jaati haye", aur yeh "amoort tatvon" seey sambandhit haye aur isaliye macroscopic gunon key bajaay paramanu guna.

