
vellam

velam pashuon kii twacha yaa jhilli key roop mein taiyar kiya jaataa haye, jiska upayog aamtaur parr lekhan samagri key roop mein kiya jaataa haye. yeh charmpatra seey alag hotaa haye jaba ise anya jaanvaron seey baney charmpatra seey banaaya jaataa haye, naa kii jaba yeh naheen hotaa haye tou uchch gunavatta vaalaa hotaa haye. vellam koo likhane aur chhaapane key liye taiyar kiya jaataa haye aur iska upayog ekal prishthon, scroll, kodis yaa pustakon key liye kiya jaataa haye. 
aadhunik vidwan aur visheshagya samanya aur sambhaavit roop seey bhramit karane vaale shabd "jhilli" kaa adhik baar upayog karate hain. kagaj banaane key tareeke key aadhar parr prayogshala mein gaye binaa isamen shamil pashu prajaatiyon (isaki umr koo tou chhodiye) kaa nirdhaaran karna bahut mushkil hoe sakata haye. iss prakaar yeh shabd velam aur charmpatra key beach key antar seey bachaata haye.
velam aam taur parr chikna aur tikaau hotaa haye, lekin isaki banaavat mein bahut bhinnataaen hain joe ise banaane key tareeke aur twacha kii gunavatta seey prabhaavit hoti hain. banaane mein safai, bleaching, ack frame (ack "hersey") parr failana aur ardhchandrakar aakar key chaku (ack "lunarium" yaa "lunalam") seey twacha koo khurachana shamil haye. tanaav paida karane key liye, prakriya scrapping, geele aur sukhaane key beach aage-peechhe jaati haye. pumis seey satah koo kharonch karna, aur ise likhane yaa syaahi chhaapane key liye upayukt banaane key liye choone yaa chaak seey upchaar karna ack antim roop banaa sakata haye.
aadhunik "pepper velam" synthetic paadap samagri seey banaa haye, aur iska naam isake samaan upayog aur uchch gunavatta seey milata haye. iska upayog tracing, takniki chitra, yojanaaen aur khaaka sahit vibhinn uddeshyon key liye kiya jaataa haye.
shabdawali.
vellam" shabd puraane francisi "velin" "'kalfskin" "seey liya gayaa haye, joe lattin shabd" "vitulinum" "' calf seey banaa 'seey liya gayaa haye. haalaanki, europe mein, roman kaal seey, iss shabd kaa upayog taiyar twacha kii sarvottam gunavatta key liye kiya jaataa thaa, chaahe vaha janwar koee bhee hoe jisase khaal praapt kii gaee thee. bachhada, bhed aur bakri sabhi kaa upayog aam taur parr kiya jaataa thaa, aur suar, hiran, gadhe, ghode yaa oont sahit anya jaanvaron kaa upayog kiya jaataa thaa. kahaa jaataa haye kii sabse achchi gunavatta vaalaa, "garbhashay vellam", mrit yaa ajanme jaanvaron kii khaal seey banaaya jaataa thaa, halanki yeh shabd chhote jaanvaron seey bunny achchi gunavatta vaali khaal parr bhee lagu kiya jaataa thaa. haalaanki, inn shabdon key beach kii seemaon mein lambe samay seey bahut dhundhlapan rhaa haye. 1519 mein, villium harmon apane "vulgaria" mein likh sakate hainh "vaha stoff jise humm kaatate hain, aur joe beastice skine seey banaa haye, usey somitime kahaa jaataa haye jise parchment, somitime velem, somitime abortive, somitime membrane kahaa jaataa haye."1936 mein likhate hue, lii ustic ney samajhaaya kih
mool vyutpatti key karib, francisi srot "velin" koo kewal bachhade seey paribhaashit karate hain, jabaki british maanak sansthaan charmpatra koo kaee prajaatiyon kii vibhajit twacha seey baney roop mein paribhaashit kartaa haye, aur velam koo aprabhedya twacha seey. lekhan, prakaash, akshar aur pustak bandhan key kalaatmak shilp key aadhunik vyavsaayiyon key upayog mein, "vellam" aamtaur parr bachhade kii twacha key liye aarakshit haye, jabaki kissy bhee anya twacha koo "charmpatra" kahaa jaataa haye.
nirmaan.
velam kuchh prakaash koo isake madhyam seey gujarane detaa haye. yeh ack yuva janwar kii twacha seey banaaya jaataa haye. twacha koo paani aur choone (calcium hydroxide) seey dhoya jaataa haye, phir baalon koo naram karane aur hataane key liye kaee dinon taka choone mein bhigo diyaa jaataa haye. 
ack baar saaf honey key baad, twacha key donon pahalu alag hotey hainh shareer kaa paksh aur baalon vaalaa paksh. twacha kaa "shareer key ander kaa hissa" aamtaur parr donon mein seey halka aur adhik parishkrit hotaa haye. jaba janwar jeevit thaa taba key kissy bhee nishan key saath, baalon key rome baahari taraf dikhaai dey sakate hain. jhilli janwar key nus network key pattern koo bhee dikhaa sakati haye jise sheet kaa "nus" kahaa jaataa haye.
nirmaata kissy bhee shesh baal ("scudding") koo hataa dete hain aur twacha koo ack frame (ack "hersey") seey jodkar sukhaa dete hain. way twacha koo kinare key aspas key binduon parr doriyon seey jodate hain aur inn binduon key buggle key hisse koo ack kankad (ack "pipin") key chaaron or lapetate hain. isake baad way kissy bhee shesh baal koo saaf karane key liye ack ardhchandrakar chaku (ack "lunarium" yaa "lunalam") kaa upayog karate hain.
nirmaata twacha koo achchi tarah seey saaf karate hain aur poori tarah seey sookhane key baad ise chadaron mein sansaadhit karate hain. way twacha key tukade seey kaee chaadaren nikaal sakate hain. chadaron kii sankhya twacha key aakar aur pratyek alag-alag chaadar kii aavashyak lambai aur saans parr nirbhar karati haye. udaaharan key liye, ausat bachhade kii twacha lekhan samagri kii lagbhag saadhe teen madhyam sheet pradaan curr sakati haye. nirmaata ise taba doguna curr sakate hain jaba way twacha koo dou sanyugmit pattiyon mein modate hain, jinhen bipholium key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye. itihaskaron koo pandulipiyon key pramaan mille hain jahan lekhak ney madhyayugeen nirdeshon koo likhaa thaa jinka abb aadhunik jhilli nirmaataon dwara paalan kiya jaataa haye. nirmaataon ney unhein ack goal, sapaat vastu ("uchhal") seey ragad diyaa taaki yeh sunishchit kiya jaa sakey kii syaahi satah seey chipkegi. phir bhee, syaahi dheere-dheere jhilli seey baahar nickle jaayegi, khaskar aggar iska upayog ack scroll mein kiya jaataa thaa jise aksar ghumaaya aur utaar diyaa jaataa thaa.
paandulipiyaan.
paandulipiyaan taiyar karna.
ack baar jaba velam taiyar hoe jaataa haye, tou paaramparik roop seey kaee sheets key samooh seey ack quire banata haye. raymond clemens aur timothi graham ney apane "pandulipi adhyayan key parichay" mein bataaya kii "poore madhya yug mein prashn lekhak kii mool lekhan ikai thee. isake baad jhilli parr dishanirdesh banaae jaate hain. way dhyaan dete hain kii 'chubhana' apane nirnay kii taiyari mein charmpatra (yaa jhilli) kii ack chaadar mein chhed karane kii prakriya haye. phir chubhan key nishan key beach shasson karke rekhaaen banaai gaeen...paath darj karane key liye ack maargdarshak key roop mein kaary karane key liye prishth parr nirdhaarit panktiyon koo darj karane kii prakriya. adhikansh pandulipiyon koo kshaitij rekhaaon key saath shaasit kiya gayaa thaa joe aadhar rekhaaon key roop mein kaary karati theen jinn parr paath darj kiya gayaa thaa aur urdhvaadhar seema rekhaaon key saath joe stambhon kii seemaon koo chihnit karati theen.
upayog karein.
madhyayugeen pandulipiyon key adhikansh sookshm prakaar, chaahe way prakaashit houn yaa naa houn, velam parr likhe gaye they. kuchh gandhar bauddh granth vellam parr likhe gaye they, aur sabhi sifrei torah (hibruh ссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссссс
1455 mein chala prakaar key saath mudrit johannes guttenberg kii pahali bible key 180 prati sanskaran kaa ack chauthai hissa bhee velam parr mudrit kiya gayaa thaa, sambhavatah isaliye kii unake bajar koo ack uchch gunavatta vaali pustak key liye isaki ummeed thee. adhikansh pustak-mudran key liye kagaj kaa upayog kiya jaataa thaa, kyonki ise mudran press key madhyam seey sansaadhit karna aur baandhana sastaa aur aasaan thaa.
baarahavin shatabdi kii winchester bible 250 bachhadon kii khaal parr chhapi thee, jisamen bible kii taiyari aur nirmaan key liye 2,000 seey adhik khaal ekatra karane kii aavashyakta thee.
kalaa mein, vellam kaa upayog chitron key liye kiya jaataa thaa, vishesh roop seey yadi unhein lambi doori taka bhejane kii aavashyakta hoti thee, isase pahale kii lagbhag 1500 mein canvas kaa vyaapak roop seey upayog kiya jaataa thaa, aur chitra aur jall rangon key liye iska upayog jaari rhaa. cumm seey cumm satrahavin shatabdi taka puraane master print kabhi-kabhi vellam parr mudrit kiye jaate they, vishesh roop seey prastuti pratiyon key liye.
16veen aur 17veen shatabdi mein limp vellam yaa limp-charmpatra binding kaa aksar upayog kiya jaataa thaa, aur kabhi-kabhi gilt hotey they lekin aksar alankrit bhee naheen hotey they. baad kii shataabdiyon mein velam kaa upayog aamtaur parr chamade kii tarah kiya jaataa haye, yaani kathor board binding key liye aavaran key roop mein. velam parr lagbhag kissy bhee rung kaa daag lagaaya jaa sakata haye, lekin shayed hii kabhi isaki sundarta aur aakarshan kaa ack badaa hissa isake mund anaaj aur baalon key nishan key saath-saath isaki garmajoshi aur sadgi mein rahata haye.
1, 000 seey adhik varshon taka chalane vaalaa-udaaharan key liye, "dehaati dekhbhal" (troy, bibliothech municipel, ms 504), lagbhag 600 seey haye aur utkrisht sthiti mein haye-pashu velam kagaj kii tulanaa mein kaheen adhik tikaau hoe sakata haye. iss kaaran seey, pashu velam parr kaee mahatvapurna dastavej likhe jaate hain, jaise diploma. ack diploma koo "bhed kii khaal" key roop mein sandarbhit karna usa samay kaa sanket detaa haye jaba pashuon kii khaal seey baney velam parr diploma likhe jaate they.
aadhunik upayog.
sansad key british adhiniyam abhee bhee abhilekhiya uddeshyon key liye vellam parr mudrit hotey hain, jaisa kii ireland ganarajya key hain. farwari 2016 mein, britten key house off lords ney ghoshana kii kii aprail 2016 seey paaramparik vellam key bajaay sangrah patra parr kaanoon mudrit kiya jaayega. haalaanki, cabinet karyalaya mantri maithyu hancock ney cabinet karyalaya key bajat seey vellam key nirantar upayog key liye dhana jutaane parr sahamati vyakt kii. 2017 mein, house off commons commission ney sahamati vyakt kii kii vaha adhiniyamon kii record pratiyon key liye saamane aur peechhe key velam cover pradaan karega. 
aaj, cumm maang aur jatil nirmaan prakriya key kaaran, pashu velam mahanga haye aur ise dhoondhana mushkil haye. britten kii ekmatra company joe abhee bhee paaramparik charmpatra aur velam kaa utpaadan karati haye, vaha villium kauli (1870 mein sthaapit) haye, joe newport pagnel, buckinghamshire mein sthit haye. ack aadhunik nakal kapas seey bunny haye. pepper velam key roop mein jaanaa jaane vaalaa, yeh samagri pashu velam kii tulanaa mein kaafee sastee haye aur adhikansh kalaa aur drafting aapoorti dukaanon mein paaee jaa sakati haye. kuchh brand key lekhan kagaj aur anya prakaar key kagaj gunavatta kaa sujhaav dene key liye "vellam" shabd kaa upayog karate hain.
vellam kaa upayog abhee bhee yahudi scroll key liye kiya jaataa haye, vishesh roop seey torah key liye, vilasita pustak-bandhan, smaarak pustakon aur sulekh mein vibhinn dastavejon key liye. iska upayog bainjo aur bodharan jaise upkaranon parr bhee kiya jaataa haye, halanki inn upkaranon key liye synthetic khaal upalabdh hain aur inca adhik upayog kiya jaataa haye.
catholic church abhee bhee vellam parr apane adhikaariyon key liye apane farman aur diploma jaari kartaa haye.
pepper velam.
aadhunik anukaran vellam plastickrit kapade key kapas yaa pedh kii chhaal key ander seey reshe seey banaaya jaataa haye. shabdon mein shamil hainh pepper welm, japani welm aur sabji welm. paaramparik vellam kii tarah, pepper vellam aamtaur parr parbhasi hotaa haye. isake vibhinn aakaron kaa upayog aksar una jagahon parr kiya jaataa haye jahaan anurekhan kii aavashyakta hoti haye, jaise kii imaraton key liye yojanaaen kyonki isake ayam linnon yaa pepper sheet kii tulanaa mein adhik sthir hotey hain. yeh guna taba bhee mahatvapurna hotaa haye jaba badey paimaane parr chitra jaise kii blueprint koo punah prastut kiya jaataa haye. haathon yaa rasayanon koo punah utpann karate samay yojanaon kii pratiyon koo banaane aur vitarit karane mein pepper velam bhee behad mahatvapurna hoe gayaa haye. uchch gunavatta vaale paaramparik velam kii tarah, pepper velam kaa utpaadan itna patala kiya jaa sakata haye kii yeh vastutah pardarshi seey majboot prakaash hoe, jisase ack srot rekhaachitra kaa upayog seedhe kshetra-upayog kiye gaye chitron koo punah utpann karane key liye kiya jaa sakey.
sanrakshan.
velam aadarsh roop seey sthir tapman aur 30 pratishat (±5 pratishat) saapeksh aardrata key saath ack sthir vatavaran mein sangraheet kiya jaataa haye. yadi velam koo 11 pratishat seey cumm saapeksh aardrata vaale vatavaran mein sangraheet kiya jaataa haye, tou yeh najuk hoe jaataa haye, aur yaantrik tanaavon key prati samvedansheel hoe jaataa haye. haalaanki, yadi ise 40 pratishat seey adhik saapeksh aardrata vaale vatavaran mein sangraheet kiya jaataa haye, tou yeh gelsion aur mould yaa kavak key vikas key liye asurakshit hoe jaataa haye. velam key uchit bhandaran key liye ishtatam saapeksh aardrata kagaj key tapman koo overlap naheen karati haye, joe pustakalayon key liye ack chunauti haye. velam koo rakhane key liye ishtatam tapman lagbhag haye.

