vishvaas kii naitikta

vishvaas kii naitikta sambandhit muddon key ack samooh koo sandarbhit karati haye joe tarksangat vishvaas, bauddhik utkrishtata aur kartavyanishth vishvaas-nirmaan key manakon parr dhyaan kendrit karati haye. iss kshetra mein sambodhit prashnon mein seey hainh
bahas kii utpattih clifford banaam. james.
vishvaas kii naitikta kii samkaaleen charchaaen kaafee hudd taka british ganitshastri aur daarshanik doubleu key beach unnisvin shatabdi key ack prasiddh adaan-pradaan seey utpann hoti hain. key. clifford aur americi daarshanik villium james. 1877 mein clifford ney "samkaaleen sameeksha" naamak ack patrika mein "vishvaas kii naitikta" sheershak seey ack lekh prakaashit kiya. vahaan clifford ney spashtavaad key ack sakht roop key liye tark diyaa kii unhone ack prasiddh kathan mein saransh diyaah "yeh hamesha galat haye, harr jagah, aur kissy key liye bhee aparyaapt saboot parr kuchh bhee vishvaas karna."jaisa kii clifford ney dekhaa, logon key paas bauddhik key saath-saath naitik kartavya bhee hain, aur donon hii behad maang vaale hain. joe loga apani ichchhaon, swarth, andhe vishvaas yaa aise anya avishvasaniya aadharon parr apani maanyataon koo aadhar banaate hain, way kewal bauddhik roop seey hii naheen hain; way anaitik hain. aisee buri bauddhik aadaten khud koo aur samaaj donon koo nuksan pahunchaati hain. humm apane naitik aur bauddhik kartavya key khilaf gambhir roop seey paap karate hain jaba humm aparyaapt sakshya parr vishvaas banaate hain, yaa hamaare vishvaason key liye praasangik sakshya koo nazarandaj yaa khariz karate hain.
clifford key lekh ney harvard daarshanik aur manovaigyaanik villium james seey ack utsaahi jawab koo uksaayaa. apane 1896 key nibandh 'dha will too bilief' mein james ney tark diyaa kii aise samay hotey hain jaba ack vishvaas banaane kii anumati hoti haye, yaa yahaan taka kii anivarya bhee, bhale hii hamaare paas isake liye paryaapt sabooton kii kamee hoe. ack prakaar kaa udaaharan vaha "poorvavarti vishvaas" kaa hawala dete hain, jaba vishvaas sakshya seey aage chalata haye lekin safalata key liye aavashyak hotaa haye (jaise.jee., ack khilaadi mein seema rekha-atyadhik aatmavishvaas). james ney spasht curr diyaa kii vaha ichcha kii soch kaa samarthan naheen curr rahey they. unhone bauddhik roop seey paryaapt sakshya key binaa vishvaas karna sahee honey parr sakht shartein nirdhaarit keen. vishesh roop seey, james ney nirdhaarit kiya kii (1) koee thhos saboot ack yaa dusare tareeke seey naheen honah chaahiye (i.ee.(2) donon vikalp praasangik chayankarta key liye "pratyaksh parikalpanaaen" honey chaahiye (i.ee.chayankarta kissy bhee vikalp parr imandari seey vishvaas curr sakata haye), (3) chayan koo iss arth mein "majboor" kiya jaanaa chaahiye kii dou vikalpon mein seey ack koo nishchit roop seey chunaa jaanaa chaahiye, aur chunane seey incar karna dou vikalpon mein seey ack koo chunane key barabar haye, aur (4) chayan "mahatvapurna" honah chaahiye (i.ee., chayankarta key liye bahut mahatvapurna yaa mahatvapurna). prasiddh roop seey, james ney tark diyaa kii kaee logon key liye bhagwan mein vishvaas karna yaa naheen karna inn chaar sharton koo santusht kartaa haye. james kaa daavaa haye kii aise logon koo bhagwan mein vishvaas karane kaa bauddhik aur naitik adhikaar haye, bhale hii unake apane sweekaar seey iss vikalp koo sahee thaharaane key liye unake paas paryaapt saboot naheen hain.
pahale vishvaas kii naitikta parr kaam karein.
clifford aur james seey pahale kaee vicharakon key paas vishvaas kii naitikta key baare mein kahane key liye mahatvapurna baatein theen. pracheen yunan mein, socretis ney aatm-pariksha, gyaan kii khoj aur yeh sweekaar karane key mahatva parr jore diyaa kii kitna cumm loga jaanate hain. pracheen sandehiyon jaise kii piro, arcesillos aur sextus empericus ney tark diyaa kii hamein sabse vivadaspad mamalon parr nirnay koo nilambit curr denaa chaahiye kyonki donon pakshon parr hamesha shaktishali aur shayed samaan roop seey sammohak tark diye jaa sakate hain. aadhunik samay mein, rene descartes ney apane "pravachan parr vidhi" (1637) mein bauddhik jaanch key maandandon parr vyaapak roop seey likhaa, jaisa kii johnn loke ney apani "maanav samajh seey sambandhit nibandh" (1690) kii pustak 4 mein kiya thaa. teen mahatvapurna vicharakon-blaze pascal, emmanuel kaant, aur soren kierkegaard-ney sakshyavaad koo aswikar karane aur yeh tark dene mein james kaa anuman lagaaya kii aise mahatvapurna mamle hain jinn parr, vyaavhaarik yaa astitva key aadhar parr, hamein paryaapt sabooton kii kamee honey parr bhee vishvaas karna chaahiye.
mahamari mandand.
niyam yaa maanak joe jimmedaar vishvaas-nirmaan aur bauddhik utkrishtata kii khoj koo thheek seey niyantrit karate hain, unhein daarshanik gyanatmak (yaa "doxastic") mandand kahate hain. vyaapak roop seey sweekrit mahamari maandandon mein shamil hainh

