
harappa

harappa (urdu/) panjab, pakistan mein sahiwal key paschim mein ack puraataatvik sthal haye. kansya yug kii hadappa sabhyata, jise abb aksar sindhu ghaati sabhyata kahaa jaataa haye, kaa naam iss sthal key naam parr rakhaa gayaa haye, joe raavi nadee key poorv pravaah key paas ack aadhunik gaanv seey apana naam letaa haye, joe abb uttar kii or bahata haye. hadappa sabhyata kaa mool dakshin mein gujaraat seey laker sindh aur rajsthan taka aur panjab aur hariyana taka faile ack badey kshetra mein faila huaa thaa. kaee sthal mool kshetra key baahar paae gaye hain, jinamen seey kuchh sudur poorv mein uttar pradesh aur sudur paschim mein baluchistan key makran tata parr sutkajen-door taka, iran seey bahut door naheen hain.
pracheen shahar key sthal parr kansya yug key kileband shahar key khandahar hain, joe sindh aur panjab mein kendrit hadappa sabhyata kaa hissa thaa, aur phir kabristan sanskriti. aisaa maanaa jaataa haye kii shahar mein 23,500 nivasi they aur paripakva hadappa charan (2600 eesaa poorv-1900 eesaa poorv) key dauran mitty kii eenton key gharon key saath apane sabse badey paimaane parr kabja curr liya thaa, jise apane samay key liye badaa maanaa jaataa haye. pahale khudai kiye gaye sthaan dwara ack agyaat sabhyata key namkaran key puraataatvik parampara key anusaar, sindhu ghaati sabhyata koo hadappa sabhyata bhee kahaa jaataa haye.
british shasson key tahat pracheen shahar harappa koo bhaari nuksan pahuncha thaa, jaba khandharon kii eenton kaa upayog lahaur-multan railway key nirmaan mein track ballast key roop mein kiya gayaa thaa. vartamaan mein harappa gaanv pracheen sthal seey cumm haye. haalaanki aadhunik harappa mein british raaj kaal kaa ack paaramparik railway station haye, lekin yeh aaj 15,000 logon kaa ack chhota chauraha shahar haye. 2005 mein, iss sthal parr ack vivadaspad manoranjan udyaan yojana koo taba chhod diyaa gayaa thaa jaba builders ney nirmaan kaary key shuruati charanon key dauran kaee puraataatvik kalakritiyon kaa pataa lagaaya thaa.
itihas.
hadappa sabhyata kii jadein lagbhag 6000 eesaa poorv mein mehargarh jaisi sanskritiyon mein hain. panjab aur sindh mein sindhu nadee ghaati key saath dou sabse badey shahar, mohenjodaro aur harappa ubhare. 1920 key dashak mein bhee larkana key paas sindh key mohanjodaro aur lahaur key dakshin mein paschim panjab key harappa mein khudai key baad ack sambhaavit lekhan pranali, shahari kendron, jall nikasi buniyaadi dhaanche aur vividh samajik aur aarthik pranali key saath sabhyata kii phir seey khoj kii gaee thee. uttar mein bhaarat key purvi panjab mein himalaya kii talhati seey laker dakshin aur poorv mein gujaraat aur paschim mein pakistani baluchistan taka faile kaee anya sthalon kii bhee khoj aur adhyayan kiya gayaa haye. haalaanki harappa mein puraataatvik sthal 1857 mein kshatigrast hoe gayaa thaa jaba lahaur-multan railmarg kaa nirmaan karane vaale engineeron ney track ballast key liye harappa khandharon seey eenton kaa upayog kiya thaa, phir bhee bahut saaree kalaakritiyaan paaee gaee hain.
samudra key star mein kamee key kaaran hadappa kaal key anta mein kuchh kshetron koo chhod diyaa gayaa thaa 
. anta mein hadappa sabhyata ney lekhan aur hydrolic engineering jaisi visheshtaon koo khou diyaa. isake parinamswarup gangaa ghaati kii basti koo pramukhta millie aur gangaa key shaharon kaa vikas huaa.
sabse pahale maanyata praapt hadappa sthal 3500 eesaa poorv key hain. yeh praarambhik charan lagbhag 2600 eesaa poorv taka rahata haye. phir humm 2600 eesaa poorv seey 2000 eesaa poorv taka paripakva charan mein pravesh karate hain. yeh taba haye jaba mahaan shahar apani oonchaai parr they. phir, lagbhag 2000 eesaa poorv seey hamara ack sthir vighatan hotaa haye joe 1400 eesaa poorv taka rahata haye-jise aamtaur parr lait harappa kahaa jaataa haye. iss baat kaa koee sanket naheen haye kii hadappa shaharon koo aakramankariyon dwara barbad curr diyaa gayaa thaa. sakshya praakritik karanon kii or dridhata seey ishara karate hain. kaee adhyayanon seey pataa chalata haye kii aaj joe kshetra thaar registan haye, vaha kabhi bahut geela thaa aur jalavaayu dheere-dheere sookhi hoe gaee thee.
sanskriti aur arthavyavastha.
sindhu ghaati sabhyata mool roop seey ack shahari sanskriti thee joe adhishesh krishi utpaadan aur vanijya dwara kayam thee, jisamen baad vaalaa dakshini mesopotamia mein elam aur sumer key saath vyaapaar bhee shamil thaa. mohenjodaro aur harappa donon koo aam taur parr alag-alag rahane vaale awas, sapaat chhat vaale eenton key ghar aur kileband prashaasnik yaa dhaarmik kendron key roop mein varnit kiya jaataa haye."halanki iss tarah kii samaantaon ney shahari leout aur yojana kii ack maankeekrit pranali key astitva key liye tarkon koo janm diyaa haye, samaantaaen kaafee hudd taka ack ardh-uttar-kshetriya prakaar key nagrik leout kii upasthiti key kaaran hain, aur mohenjodaro aur harappa key leout kii tulanaa seey pataa chalata haye kii way vaastav mein kaafee alag tareeke seey vyavasthit hain.
doosari or, sindhu ghaati sabhyata key vajan aur maap atyadhik maankeekrit they, aur ack nirdhaarit paimaane key anuroop they. anya anuprayogon key alawa, vishisht muharon kaa upayog sampatti kii pehchaan aur maal key shipment key liye kiya jaataa thaa. halanki tambe aur kansya kaa upayog kiya jaataa thaa, phir bhee lohe kaa upayog naheen kiya jaataa thaa. "kapadon key liye kapas bunaa aur rangaa jaataa thaa; gehuun, chawal aur vibhinn prakaar kii sabjiyon aur falon kii kheti kii jaati thee; aur koobad vaale bail sahit kaee jaanvaron koo paltu banaaya jaataa thaa, saath hii saath "ladane key liye murgi". chakr-nirmit mitty key bartan-jinamen seey kuchh pashu aur jyaamitiya rupankanon seey sajaae gaye hain-sabhi pramukh indus sthalon parr prachur matra mein paae gaye hain. pratyek shahar key liye ack kendrikrit prashaasan, halanki poori sabhyata naheen, kaa anuman saanskritik ekroopata seey lagaaya gayaa haye; haalaanki, yeh anishchit haye kii kyaa adhikaar ack vaanijyik alpajantra key saath haye. harappan key paas sindhu nadee key saath kaee vyaapaar maarg they joe faras kii khaadi, mesopotamia aur misra taka gaye they. kuchh sabse moolyavaan vastuon kaa vyaapaar carnelian aur lapis lajuli mein hotaa thaa.
joe spasht haye vaha yeh haye kii harappa samaaj poori tarah seey shantipurna naheen thaa, maanav kankal avashesh dakshin asiai pragaitihasik kaal mein paaee jaane vaali chot kii uchchatam darr (15.5%) kaa pradarshan karate hain. hadappa kankalon kii jaanch mein aksar aise ghaav paae gaye hain joe yuddh mein lagaae jaane kii sambhavana haye. jeevaashm vigyaan key vishleshan seey pataa chalaa kii harappa mein kushth roga aur tapedik maujood they, jisamen kshetra jee (shahar kii divaaron key dakshin-poorv mein sthit ack asthipanjar) seey kankalon mein roga aur aghaat donon kaa sabse adhik prasaar thaa. isake alawa, samay key saath chraniophacial aghaat aur sankraman kii darr mein vriddhi hui, joe darshaati haye kii bimari aur chot key beach sabhyata dhwast hoe gaee. avasheshon kii jaanch karane vaale jaiv puraatatvidon ney sujhaav diyaa haye kii murdaghar upchaar aur mahamari vigyaan mein antar key liye sanyukt sakshya ingit karate hain kii harappa mein kuchh vyaktiyon aur samudaayon koo swaasthya aur suraksha jaise buniyaadi sansadhanon taka pahunch seey baahar rakhaa gayaa thaa.
vyaapaar.
harappan logon ney anya kshetron key beach pracheen mesopotamia, vishesh roop seey elam key saath vyaapaar kiya thaa. sooti vastra aur krishi utpaad praathamik vyaparik vastuein theen. hadappa vyapariyon key paas mesopotamia mein bhee khareed kaaloniyan theen, joe vyaapaar kendron key roop mein kaam karati theen. way dakshin bhaarat mein rahane vaale logon key saath bhee badey paimaane parr vyaapaar karate they, aadhunik karnatak key paas, unase sonaa aur tamba khareedane key liye.
puraatatva.
sthal key utkhanankartaon ney harappa key vyavasaay key nimnalikhit kalakram kaa prastaav diyaa haih
avadhi 1 kaa vyavasaay lagbhag 7 seey 10 hectare maanaa jaataa thaa, lekin khudai aur tealey mein mitty key bartanon key nishkarshon key baad, pahale paae gaye tealey key saath mitty key bartanon seey pataa chalata haye kii raavi/hakra charan koo donon teelon mein ack saath 25 hectare taka badhaaya gayaa hoga.
avadhi 2, coat deeji charan, 27 hectare seey adhik kshetra mein faile, abb aur ee, donon teelon mein vistaarit kiya gayaa thaa.
3, hadappa charan mein, basti 150 hectare taka pahunch gaee.
abb taka sabse utkrisht aur aspasht kalaakritiyaan maanav yaa pashu rupankanon key saath utkeern chhoti, vargakar steatite (sabun kaa patthar) muharen hain. mohenjodaro aur harappa jaise sthalon parr badee sankhya mein muharen paaee gaee hain. kaee chitraatmak shilalekh aamtaur parr lekhan yaa lipi kaa ack roop maane jaate hain. duniya key sabhi hisson key bhasha vigyaaniyon key prayason key bavjood, aur aadhunik gupt lipi vishleshan key upayog key bavjood, sanket aspasht hain. yeh bhee agyaat haye kii kyaa way proto-dravid yaa anya gair-vaidik bhasha (oun) koo pratibimbit karate hain. iss tarah key daavon key liye apekshaakrit kamjor puraataatvik sakshya key saath-saath kshetra key puraataatvik record parr aadhunik dakshin asiai raajneetik chintaon key prakshepan key kaaran, aitihaasik roop seey gyaat sanskritiyon key liye sindhu ghaati sabhyata kii pratima aur shilalekh kaa varnan behad samasyagrast haye. yeh vishesh roop seey harappa bhautik sanskriti kii maulik roop seey alag-alag vyakhyaon mein spasht haye jaisa kii pakistan aur bhaarat sthit vidvaanon donon seey dekhaa jaataa haye.
farwari 2006 mein tamilanadu key sambian-kandiyur gaanv mein ack school shikshak ney ack patthar key khambhe (upkaran) kii khoj kii, jisamen ack shilalekh 3,500 saal purana honey kaa anuman haye.
 bhaaratiya shilalekhkar iravatham mahadevan ney kahaa kii chaar sanket sindhu lipi mein they aur iss khoj koo "tamilanadu mein ack sadee kii sabse badee puraataatvik khoj" kahaa. iss sakshya key aadhar parr vaha sujhaav dete hain kii sindhu ghaati mein upayog kii jaane vaali bhasha dravid mool kii thee. haalaanki, dakshin bhaarat mein kansya yug kii anupasthiti, sindhu ghaati sanskritiyon mein kansya banaane kii takneekon key gyaan key vipareet, iss parikalpana kii vaidhata parr sawal uthaata haye.
hadappa kaal key anta mein afghanistan key dayamabad, maharashtra aur badakhshan kshetron key kshetra shamil they. iss sabhyata dwara aachchhaadit kshetra bahut badaa hotaa aur aspas kii doori hoti.
praarambhik prateek indus lipi key samaan hain.
harappa mein mitty aur patthar kii goliyaan millie hain, joe carbon-dinaankit 3300-3200 BC theen.isamen trishul key aakar key aur paudhe jaise nishan hotey hain. "dow. ney kahaa, "yeh ack badaa sawal haye kii kyaa humm usey sahee lekhan kaha sakate hain, lekin hamein aise prateek mille hain joe usa seey samaantaa rakhate hain joe indus lipi bunn gaee. harvard vishvavidyalaya key richard mido, harappa puraatatva anusandhaan pariyojana key nideshak. yeye adim prateek hain
mesopotamia key sumerian key adim lekhan kii tulanaa mein thodaa pahale rakhaa gayaa, dinaankit c.3100 eesaa poorv. inn nishaanon mein baad mein joe indus lipi bunn gaee, usase samaantaa haye, jise abhee taka poori tarah seey samajhaaya naheen gayaa haye.