
seemant upayogita

arthshastra mein, upayogita usa santushti yaa laabh koo sandarbhit karati haye joe upabhokta kissy utpaad yaa seva key upbhog seey praapt karate hain. doosari or, seemant upayogita, kissy vastu yaa seva kii ack ikai kii khapat mein vriddhi yaa kamee key parinamswarup anand yaa santushti mein parivartan kaa varnan karati haye. seemant upayogita sakaratmak, nakaratmak yaa shoonya hoe sakati haye.
udaaharan key liye, pizza khaate samay, doosara tukada pahale kii tulanaa mein adhik santushti laataa haye, joe sakaratmak seemant upayogita kaa sanket detaa haye. haalaanki, teesare yaa chauthe tukade key baad, santushti kaa star cumm honey lagata haye, joe shoonya yaa nakaratmak seemant upayogita kaa sanket detaa haye. nakaratmak seemant upayogita kaa tatparya haye kii upbhog kii jaane vaali pratyek atirikt ikai achche seey adhik nuksan kaa kaaran banati haye, jisase samagr upayogita mein kamee aatee haye. isake vipareet, sakaratmak seemant upayogita ney sanket diyaa kii khapat kii jaane vaali pratyek atirikt ikai samagr upayogita koo badhaati haye.
mukhya upayogita key sandarbh mein, arthashastri ghatati seemant upayogita key niyam kaa pratipaadan karate hain. iss kaanoon mein kahaa gayaa haye kii kissy vastu yaa seva kii khapat kii pahali ikai baad kii ikaaiyon kii tulanaa mein adhik santushti yaa upayogita pradaan karati haye, aur adhik matra key liye santushti yaa upayogita mein nirantar kamee aatee haye. jaise-jaise khapat badhati haye, khapat kii jaane vaali pratyek atirikt ikai seey praapt atirikt santushti yaa upayogita cumm hoe jaati haye, ack avadharana jise ghatati seemant upayogita key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye. iss vichaar kaa upayog arthshastra dwara kissy vastu yaa seva kii ishtatam matra nirdhaarit karane key liye kiya jaataa haye jise ack upabhokta khareedane key liye taiyar haye.
haashiye parr.
arthshastra key adhyayan mein, "seemant" shabd ack chhote seey parivartan koo sandarbhit kartaa haye, joe kuchh aadhaarbhut star seey shuru hotaa haye. phillip wixtead ney iss shabd koo iss prakaar samajhaayah
seemant vichaar way vichaar hain joe hamaare paas yaa vichaar curr rahey kissy bhee stock kii thodi vriddhi yaa kamee seey sambandhit hain.
seemant shabd key baare mein sochane kaa ack aur tarika haye upayog kii gaee yaa khapat kii gaee agali ikai kii laagat yaa laabh, udaaharan key liye chocolet key ack tukade key sevan seey aapako joe laabh mill sakata haye. seemantata koo samajhane kii kunji seemant vishleshan key madhyam seey haye. seemant vishleshan usee gatividhi dwara banaae gaye atirikt lagaton kii tulanaa mein kissy gatividhi key atirikt laabhon kii jaanch kartaa haye. vyavhaar mein, companiyan apane sambhaavit laabh koo adhikatam karane mein sahaayata key liye seemant vishleshan kaa upayog karati hain aur aksar utpaadan key vistaar yaa kamee key baare mein nirnay lete samay iska upayog karati hain.
upayogita.
upayogita ack aarthik avadharana haye joe kissy vishesh vastu yaa seva key upbhog seey praapt santushti yaa laabh key star koo sandarbhit karati haye, jise upayogita key roop mein jaani jaane vaali ikaaiyon ("upayogi" key liye spanish shabd seey vyutpann) kaa upayog karke aanki jaati haye. haalaanki, upayogita key sateek star kaa nirdhaaran karna joe ack upabhokta anubhav kartaa haye, ack chunautipurna aur amoort kaary hoe sakata haye. iss chunauti koo door karane key liye, arthashastri prakat prathmiktaon kii sahamati parr bharosa karate hain, jahaan way upbhoktaon dwara kiye gaye vikalpon kaa nireekshan karate hain aur iss jaankaari kaa upayog cumm seey cumm pasandida seey sabse vaanchhaniya taka upbhog vikalpon koo shrenibaddh karane key liye karate hain.
shuru mein, upayogita shabd ney naitik daarshnikon, jeremi bentham aur johnn stuart mill dwara anand key utpaadan aur dard seey bachane key saath upayogita kii tulanaa kii. iss darshan key anuroop, upayogita kii avadharana koo "anand aur dard kii bhaavanaon" key roop mein paribhaashit kiya gayaa thaa aur aage bhavna kii "matra" key roop mein.
samkaaleen mukhyadhara kaa aarthik siddhant aksar aadhyatmik prashnon koo taalata haye, aur kewal yeh nott kartaa haye yaa maanata haye kii kuchh niyamon key anuroop vareeyata sanrachanaon koo vastuon, sevaaon yaa unake upayogon koo matra key saath jodkar upayogi roop seey "chhadm" kiya jaa sakata haye, aur upayogita koo iss tarah key parimanikaran key roop mein "paribhaashit" kartaa haye.
kissy bhee maanak dhaanche mein, ack hii vastu kii alag-alag logon key liye alag-alag seemant upayogitaaen hoe sakati hain, joe alag-alag prathmiktaon yaa vyaktigat paristhitiyon koo darshaati hain.
ghatati seemant upayogita kaa kaanoon.
ack british arthashastri alfred marshel ney kahaa kii jaise-jaise aap kuchh adhik jamaa karate hain, vaise-vaise aapaki usake liye ichcha cumm hoe jaati haye. arthashastri iss ghatana koo ghatati seemant upayogita key roop mein sandarbhit karate hain. anivarya roop seey, aapke dwara upbhog kii jaane vaali kissy vastu yaa seva kii pratyek atirikt ikai aapaki samagr santushti mein cumm seey cumm jodati haye. udaaharan key liye, candy key teen kaatane dou kaatane seey behtar hotey hain, lekin beesavin kaatane seey unneesven key baad key anubhav mein bahut kuchh naheen judataa haye (aur yeh ise aur bhee kharaab curr sakata haye). yeh siddhant itna achchi tarah seey sthaapit haye kii arthashastri ise "ghatati seemant upayogita kaa niyam" kahate hain aur yeh adhikansh upayogita karyon key avtal aakar mein parilakshit hotaa haye. yeh avadharana vibhinn prakaar kii aarthik ghatnaaon koo samajhane key liye maulik haye, jaise kii samay vareeyata aur vastuon kaa moolya. vishesh roop seey, kaanoon mein kahaa gayaa haye, pahala, kii pratyek sajaatiya ikai kii seemant upayogita ghatati jaati haye kyonki ikaaiyon kii aapoorti badhati haye (aur isake vipareet); doosara, kii ack badey aakar kii ikai kii seemant upayogita ack chhote aakar kii ikai kii seemant upayogita seey adhik haye (aur isake vipareet). pahala niyam ghatati seemant upayogita key niyam koo darshaata haye; doosara niyam kull upayogita badhaane key niyam koo darshaata haye."
aadhunik arthshastra ack vishisht samay parr nishchitata key tahat nirnay lene key model key liye samanya upayogita kaa upayog kartaa haye. iss drishtikon mein, kissy vishesh sthiti key liye kissy vyakti kii upayogita key liye sankhya assignment kaa apane aap mein koee mahatva naheen haye. balki, mahatva dou alag-alag paristhitiyon aur kisaki adhik upayogita haye, key beach kii tulanaa mein nihit haye. samanya upayogita key saath, ack vyakti kii prathmiktaon kii ack advitiya seemant upayogita naheen hoti haye, jisase seemant upayogita mein kamee kii avadharana aprasangik hoe jaati haye. doosari or, seemant upayogita mein kamee ack mahatvapurna avadharana haye, jiska upayog aadhunik aarthik siddhant mein antar-asthaayi vikalp, anishchitata key tahat vikalp aur samajik kalyan kaa vishleshan karane key liye kiya jaataa haye.
ghatati seemant upayogita kaa niyam yeh haye kii vyaktiparak moolya shoonya ankon key paas sabse adhik gatishil roop seey badalata haye aur jaise-jaise laabh (yaa nuksan) jamaa hotaa haye, teji seey star cumm hoe jaataa haye. aur yeh adhikansh vyaktiparak upayogita karyon key avtal aakar mein parilakshit hotaa haye.
vastunishth laabh (x-aksh) aur vyaktiparak moolya (y-aksh) key beach ack avtal sambandh koo dekhate hue, pratyek ack-ikai laabh ack samaan ikai key pichhale laabh kii tulanaa mein vyaktiparak moolya mein cumm vriddhi paida kartaa haye. laabh badhane key saath seemant upayogita, yaa maujooda star seey oopar vyaktiparak moolya mein parivartan cumm hoe jaataa haye.
jaise-jaise vastu adhigrahan kii darr badhati haye, "seemant" upayogita cumm hoe jaati haye. yadi vastuon kii khapat badhati rahati haye, tou seemant upayogita antatah shoonya taka pahunch jaayegi, aur kull upayogita apane adhikatam star parr hogi. usa bindu key baad, vastu kii khapat mein koee bhee aur vriddhi nakaratmak seemant upayogita kii or leey jaati haye, joe asantosh kaa pratinidhitva karati haye. udaaharan key liye, kuchh samay key baad, antibiotic davaaon kii aage kii khuraak kissy bhee rogjanak koo bilkul naheen maaregi aur shareer key liye hanikarak bhee hoe sakati haye. ghatati seemant upayogita paaramparik roop seey ack sookshm aarthik avadharana haye aur aksar kissy vyakti key liye lagu hoti haye, halanki kissy vastu yaa seva kii seemant upayogita bhee "badh rahee" hoe sakati haye. udaaharan key liye, antibiotic davaaon kii khuraak, jahaan bahut cumm goliyaan lene seey bacteria adhik pratirodh key saath reh jaate hain, lekin ack poorna aapoorti ack ilaaj koo prabhaavit curr sakati haye.
jaisa kii iss lekh mein pahale ullekh kiya gayaa haye, aise udaaharan hain jahaan seemant upayogita vyaapak aarthik star parr badh sakati haye. udaaharan key liye, ack seva kii peshkash kewal tabhi sambhav hoe sakati haye jaba yeh bahusankhyak yaa poori aabaadi key liye sulabh hoe. jiss bindu parr yeh ack vaastaviktaa bunn jaati haye, seva pradaan karane key liye aavashyak kachche maal kii seemant upayogita mein kaafee vriddhi hogi. yeh vimaan vaahak jaisi vishal vastuon seey judee sthitiyon key samaan haye, jahaan aisee vastuon kii matra itani cumm haye kii seemant upayogita kii avadharana aprasangik hoe jaati haye, aur unhein praapt karane kaa nirnay "haan" yaa "naheen" key beach ack saral dwiaadhaari vikalp haye.
seemantwadi siddhant.
seemantvad ack aarthik siddhant aur vishleshan kii vidhi haye joe bataati haye kii vyakti kissy vastu yaa seva kii atirikt ikai key upbhog key laabhon koo praapt karane kii laagat key mukabale taulkar aarthik nirnay lete hain. dusare shabdon mein, moolya pratyek atirikt ikai dwara pradaan kii gaee santushti kii atirikt upayogita seey nirdhaarit hotaa haye.
bajar moolya aur ghatati seemant upayogita.
yadi kissy vyakti key paas koee aisee vastu yaa seva haye jiska moolya kissy anya vastu yaa seva kii tulanaa mein cumm haye, jisake liye vaha vyaapaar curr sakata haye, tou usa vyaapaar koo karna unake liye fayademand hoga. vastuon key adaan-pradaan key saath aage key vyaparon seey seemant laabh yaa nuksan alag-alag honge. yadi ack vastu kii seemant upayogita cumm hoe rahee haye jabaki doosari naheen badh rahee haye, tou vyakti usa vastu kii tulanaa mein adhik matra kii maang karega joe way praapt curr rahey hain jise way chhod rahey hain. haalaanki, yadi donon vastuein ack dusare key poorak hain, tou vinimay anupaat sthir reh sakata haye. aisee sthitiyon mein jahaan vyaapaari poorak vyapariyon key liye adhik anukool vyaapaar kii peshkash karke apani sthiti mein sudhaar curr sakate hain, unake aisaa karane kii sambhavana haye.
ack aisee arthavyavastha mein joe dhana kaa upayog karati haye, kissy dee gaee raashi kii seemant upayogita usa dhana seey kharidi jaa sakane vaali sarvottam vastu yaa seva kii seemant upayogita key barabar hoti haye. yeh avadharana aapoorti aur maang key siddhanton koo samajhaane mein sahayak haye, aur apoorna pratispardha key model key aavashyak pahalu hain.
paani aur heere kaa virodhabhas.
paani aur heere kaa virodhabhas" aamtaur parr addam smith seey judaa huaa haye, halanki ise pahale key vicharakon dwara maanyata dee gaee thee. spasht virodhabhas iss tathya mein nihit haye kii paani kaa aarthik moolya heere kii tulanaa mein cumm haye, bhale hii paani maanav astitva key liye kaheen adhik mahatvapurna haye. smith ney sujhaav diyaa kii kissy cheez key 'upayog moolya' aur 'vinimay moolya' key beach ack ataarkik vibhajan thaa. jinn vastuon kaa upayog aksar sabse adhik hotaa haye, unake badale mein bahut cumm yaa koee moolya naheen hotaa haye aur isi tarah, jinn cheejon kaa vinimay mein sabse adhik moolya hotaa haye, unakaa upayog aksar cumm yaa koee moolya naheen hotaa haye. paani seey jyada upayogi kuchh bhee naheen haih lekin yeh shayed hii kuchh khareedega. heere kaa upayog karane mein shayed hii koee vyaavhaarik moolya hoe, lekin isake badale mein badee matra mein anya saman mill sakate hain.
keemat seemant upayogita aur seemant laagat donon dwara nirdhaarit kii jaati haye, aur yahaan spasht virodhabhas kii kunji haye. paani kii seemant laagat heere kii seemant laagat seey cumm haye. iska matlab yeh naheen haye kii kissy bhee vastu yaa seva kii keemat kewal usa seemant upayogita kaa ack kaary haye joe kissy ack vyakti yaa kissy spasht roop seey vishisht vyakti key liye haye. balki, vyakti una vastuon kii sambandhit seemant upayogitaon key aadhar parr vyaapaar karane key liye taiyar hain joe unake paas hain yaa joe way chaahte hain (yeye seemant upayogitaaen pratyek sambhaavit vyaapaari key liye alag hain), aur iss prakaar keematen inn seemant upayogitaon dwara baadhit hoti hain.
seemantvad kii seemaaen.
kaee aarthik siddhanton kii tarah haashiye parr rahane kii bhee kaee seemaaen hain. arthashastri aksar sawal karate hain kii kyaa loga siddhant key bheetar chitrit kiye gaye anusaar kaary karate hain. yeh samajhana kii kissy koo ack vishisht matra mein upayogita kyaa dey rhaa haye, behad jatil haye aur vyakti seey vyakti mein bhinn hotaa haye aur sthir naheen hoe sakata haye. ack anya seema seemant parivartan key maapan seey sambandhit haye. jabaki paise koo maapana haashiye parr rahane kaa vishleshan karane kaa ack seedha tarika haye, kyonki iska koee seedha vikalp naheen haye, yeh bhojan jaisi anya vastuon seey praapt upayogita kaa aaklan karane kaa prayaas karate samay seemit hoe jaataa haye. aisaa isaliye haye kyonki bahut saare vikalp hain, aur vyaktigat praathamiktaaen sateekta mein baadha daal sakati hain.
parimaanikrit seemant upayogita.
vishesh mamle key tahat jisamen upayogita koo maapa jaa sakata haye, avastha sootra _ 1 seey avastha sootra _ 2 mein jaane kii upayogita mein parivartan haye
isake alawa, yadi sootra _ 1 aur sootra _ 2 kewal ack charr sootra _ 6 key moolyon seey alag kiye jaa sakate hain joe swayam matratmak haye, tou sootra _ 6 mein parivartan kii seemant upayogita key anupaat aur usa parivartan key aakar key baare mein baat karna sambhav hoe jaataa haih
(jahan "see.pee."yeh ingit kartaa haye kii parivartan key liye" "ekmatra" "swatantra charr sootra _ 6 haye).
mukhyadhara key navshastriya arthshastra aamtaur parr maan lenge kii seema
maujood haye, aur aanshik vyutpann koo sandarbhit karane key liye "seemant upayogita" kaa upayog kartaa haye
tadnusar, ghatati seemant upayogita shart key anuroop haye
itihas.
arthshastriyon ney yeh samajhaane kii koshish kii kii keematen kaise nirdhaarit kii jaati hain, aur iss prayaas mein, unhone seemant upayogita kii avadharana vikasit kii. seemant upayogita" shabd, jiska shreya alfred marshel dwara austriyai arthashastri friedrich wonn vicer koo diyaa jaataa haye, vicer key shabd ("seema-upayog") kaa anuvaad thaa.
proto-marginalist drishtikon.
shayed ghatati seemant upayogita kii dhaarana kaa saar aristotal kii "rajneeti" mein paaya jaa sakata haye, jisamen way likhate hain 
aristotal key moolya siddhant mein seemant vichaaron key vikas aur bhoomika key baare mein spasht asahamati rahee haye.
kaee arthshastriyon ney upayogita aur durlabhata key beach ack sambandh sthaapit kiya haye, joe aarthik nirnayon aur moolya nirdhaaran koo prabhaavit kartaa haye. heere kii keemat paani seey adhik hoti haye kyonki unaki seemant upayogita paani seey adhik hoti haye.
athaarahavin shatabdi key italvi vyaapaari, jaise kii antonio genovacy, giameria orts, pietro verry, marches sizere dee bekaria aur count jiyovanni rinaldo carley, kaa maanana thaa kii moolya koo samanya upayogita aur kamee key sandarbh mein samajhaaya gayaa thaa, halanki unhone aam taur parr iss siddhant parr kaam naheen kiya kii yeye kaise paraspar kriya karate hain. della moneta" (1751) mein, genovacy key ack chhaatr, abey ferdinando galliani ney dou anupaaton, "upayogita" aur "kamee" key anupaat key roop mein moolya kii vyakhya karane kaa prayaas kiya, jisamen baad vaalaa ghatak anupaat upayog karane key liye matra kaa anupaat thaa.
annie robbert jacks turgot ney "(1769) mein kahaa kii vartamaan aur bhavishya kii jarooraton kii tulanaa aur khareed mein pratyaashit kathinaaiyon seey usa varg kii samanya upayogita seey praapt moolya, jisase koee vastu sambandhit haye.
italvi vyaapaari kii tarah, attien bonot, abby dee condylack ney moolya koo usa varg seey judee upayogita dwara nirdhaarit kiya jisase achche sambandhit hain, aur anumaanit kamee dwara. (1776) mein, condylack ney iss baat parr jore diyaa kii moolya laagat parr adharit naheen haye, balki moolya key kaaran laagat kaa bhugtan kiya gayaa thaa.
iss antim bindu koo unnisvin shatabdi key adim-alpsankhyak, richard whatley dwara prasiddh roop seey dohraya gayaa thaa, jinhone "raajneetik arthavyavastha parr parichayaatmak vyakhyan" (1832) mein likhaa thaah (watley key chhaatr varishth koo neeche ack praarambhik seemantwadi key roop mein nott kiya gayaa haye.)
kranti seey pahale key seemant.
daniel bernauli koo apane pepper, "namuna theoria nova dee mensura sortis" mein seemant upayogita key siddhant parr pahala spasht bayaan prakaashit karane kaa shreya diyaa jaataa haye, joe 1738 mein jaari kiya gayaa thaa, halanki unhone ise 1731 yaa 1732 mein taiyar kiya thaa. gabriel crammer ney 1728 mein ack niji patra mein isi tarah kaa siddhant vikasit kiya thaa, jiska uddeshya sent koo hull karna thaa. pietersberg virodhabhas. bernauli aur crammer donon ney nishkarsh nikala kii dhana kii vaanchhaniyataa cumm hoe jaati haye kyonki yeh jamaa hotaa haye, praakritik laghuganak (bernauli) yaa vargamool (crammer) ack raashi kii vaanchhaniyataa key maap key roop mein kaary kartaa haye. haalaanki, iss parikalpana key vyaapak nihitarth kaa pataa naheen lagaaya gayaa thaa, aur kaam aspashtata mein badal gayaa thaa.
1833 mein diye gaye aur "jansankhya, moolya, kharaab kaanoon aur kiraya" (1837) parr vyakhyanon mein shamil "naa kewal upayogita seey, balki vinimay mein moolya seey bhee alag moolya kii dhaarana" parr ack vyakhyan mein, villium forster lloyd ney spasht roop seey ack samanya seemant upayogita siddhant kii peshkash kii, lekin isaki vyutpatti kii peshkash naheen kii aur naa hii isake nihitarth koo vistrit kiya. aisaa lagata haye kii unake bayaan kaa mahatva 20veen shatabdi kii shuruat taka sabhi (lloyd sahit) parr khou gayaa thaa, usa samay taka anya logon ney swatantra roop seey usee antardrishti koo vikasit aur lokpriya banaa diyaa thaa.
raajneetik arthavyavastha key vigyaan kii ack ruprekha" (1836) mein, nassau villium senior ney jore dekar kahaa kii seemant upayogitaaen maang kaa antim nirdhaarak theen, phir bhee spasht roop seey nihitarth kaa peechha naheen kiya, halanki kuchh loga unake kaam kii vyakhya vaastav mein aisaa karane key roop mein karate hain.
(1844) mein, jools dupute ney pull toll nirdhaarit karane kii samasya key liye seemant upayogita kii avadharana koo lagu kiya.
1854 mein, herman heinrich gosen ney ack seemant upayogita siddhant prastut kiya aur bahut hudd taka bajar arthavyavastha key vyavhaar key liye isake prabhaavon parr kaam kiya. haalaanki, gosen key kaam koo unake samay key germany mein achchi tarah seey sweekaar naheen kiya gayaa thaa, adhikansh pratiyaan binaa bikane key nasht curr dee gaeen theen, aur tathaakathit seemant kranti key baad phir seey khoje jaane taka unhein lagbhag bhulaa diyaa gayaa thaa.
seemant kranti.
haashiye parr rahane vaale logon ney antatah teen arthshastriyon, ingland mein jevon, austriya mein menger aur switzerland mein valras key kaam key madhyam seey pair jamaaye.
villium steinly javens ney pahali baar "raajneetik arthavyavastha key ack samanya ganitiya siddhant" mein siddhant kaa prastaav rakhaa, ack pepper 1862 mein prastut kiya gayaa aur 1863 mein prakaashit huaa, jisake baad 1871 mein unaki pustak "raajneetik arthavyavastha kaa siddhant" mein samaapt honey vaale karyon kii ack shrinkhala ney usa samay key ack pramukh raajneetik arthashastri aur tarkashastri key roop mein unaki pratishtha sthaapit kii. upayogita kii javens kii avadharana jeremi bentham aur johnn stuart mill kii upayogitaavaadi parampara mein thee, lekin vaha apane shaastriya poorvavartiyon seey iss baat parr jore dene mein alag they kii "moolya poori tarah seey upayogita parr nirbhar kartaa haye", vishesh roop seey, "antim upayogita parr jiss parr arthshastra kaa siddhant badal jaayega."baad mein unhone iss parinam koo praapt karane key liye ise yogya banaaya kii vinimay santulan key ack model mein, moolya anupaat naa kewal" "upayogita kii antim degree" "key anupaat key samanupati hoga, balki utpaadan kii laagat key liye bhee hoga.
carle menger ney 1871 mein "grundsetz dair wolkswortschaftsler" (jiska anuvaad "arthshastra key siddhant" key roop mein kiya gayaa haye) mein siddhant prastut kiya. menger kii prastuti dou binduon parr vishesh roop seey ullekhaniya haye. pahale, unhone yeh samajhaane key liye vishesh prayaas kiye kii "kyon" vyaktiyon seey sambhaavit upayogon koo shrenibaddh karane aur phir vyaapaar-vinimay key beach nirnay lene key liye seemant upayogita kaa upayog karane kii apeksha kii jaani chaahiye. (iss kaaran seey, menger aur unake anuyaayiyon koo kabhi-kabhi "manovaigyaanik school" kahaa jaataa haye, halanki unhein aksar "austriyai school" yaa "vienna school" key roop mein jaanaa jaataa haye.) doosara, jabaki unake drishtaantaatmak udaaharan upayogita koo matratmak roop seey prastut karate hain, unaki aavashyak dhaaranaaen naheen karati hain. (vaastav mein menger ney prakaashit "grundsetz" kii apani prati mein sankhyaatmak taalikaon koo paar kiya.) menger ney ghatati seemant upayogita kaa kaanoon bhee vikasit kiya. menger key kaam koo ack mahatvapurna aur saraahaniya darshak mille.
mairi-aspirit-leone valras ney iss siddhant koo pesh kiya, jiska pahala bhaag 1874 mein ack apekshaakrit ganitiya pradarshani mein prakaashit huaa thaa. valras key kaam koo usa samay apekshaakrit cumm paathak mille, lekin dou dashak baad ise pereto aur bairan key kaam mein maanyata dee gaee aur shamil kiya gayaa.
kabhi-kabhi ack americi, johnn bates clark kaa bhee ullekh kiya jaataa haye. lekin, jabaki clark swatantra roop seey ack seemant upayogita siddhant parr pahunche, unhone ise aage badhaane key liye bahut cumm kiya jaba taka kii yeh spasht naheen hoe gayaa kii jevon, menger aur valras key anuyaayi arthshastra mein kranti laa rahey they. phir bhee, usake baad unakaa yogdan gahara thaa.
doosari peedhi.
halanki seemant kranti jevon, menger aur valras key kaam seey hui thee, lekin aggar arthshastriyon kii doosari peedhi key liye naheen hotaa tou unakaa kaam mukhyadhara mein pravesh karane mein whiffle rhaa hotaa. ingland mein, doosari peedhi kaa udaaharan phillip heinry wixtead, villium smart aur alfred marshel dwara diyaa gayaa thaa; austriya mein usen wonn boham-baverk aur friedrich wonn vicer dwara; switzerland mein wilfredo pereto dwara; aur america mein herbert joseph devenport aur frank aeye dwara. bandhan.
jabaki jevon, menger aur valras key drishtikon mein ullekhaniya antar they, arthshastriyon kii doosari peedhi ney rashtriya yaa bhashai seemaon key aadhar parr inn antaron koo banaae naheen rakhaa. wonn vicer kaa kaam valras seey kaafee prabhaavit thaa, jabaki wixtead menger seey bahut prabhaavit thaa. fatter aur devenport ney khud koo "americi manovaigyaanik school" key hisse key roop mein pahachaana, jiska naam austriyai "manovaigyaanik school" key naam parr rakhaa gayaa thaa, jabaki iss avadhi key dauran clark kaa kaam bhee menger seey bahut prabhaavit thaa. villium smart ney shuru mein angreji bolane vaale pathakon key liye austriyai school key vichaaron key liye ack madhyam key roop mein kaam kiya, lekin dheere-dheere marshel key vichaaron key prabhaav mein aaa gayaa.
boham-baverk shayed menger kii avadharana key sabse saksham pratipaadak they. unhein samay kii ghatati seemant utpaadaktaa aur samay vareeyata key saath ghatati seemant upayogita key paraspar kriya key aadhar parr santulan mein byaaj aur laabh key siddhant key nirmaan key liye bhee jaanaa jaataa thaa. iss siddhant koo poori tarah seey apanaaya gayaa aur phir nutt vixel dwara aur vixel key americi pratidvandi irving fisher dwara samay-vareeyata key liye aupchaarik upeksha sahit sanshodhanon key saath aage vikasit kiya gayaa.
marshel doosari peedhi key seemantwadi they, jinaki seemant upayogita parr kaam ney navshastriya arthshastra kii mukhyadhara koo soochit kiya, vishesh roop seey unake "arthshastra key siddhanton" key madhyam seey, jiska pahala khand 1890 mein prakaashit huaa thaa. marshel ney iss dhaarana kii sahaayata seey maang vakr kaa nirmaan kiya kii upayogita kii matra nirdhaarit kii gaee thee, aur yeh kii dhana kii seemant upayogita sthir (yaa lagbhag) thee. jevon kii tarah, marshel ney seemant upayogita key siddhant mein aapoorti key liye koee spashteekaran naheen dekhaa, isaliye unhone maang kii vyakhya koo sanshleshit kiya, iss prakaar aapoorti koo adhik shaastriya tareeke seey samajhaaya gayaa, joe una lagaton dwara nirdhaarit kiya gayaa jinhen vastunishth roop seey nirdhaarit kiya gayaa thaa. marshel ney baad mein sakriya roop seey iss aalochana koo galat tareeke seey varnit kiya kii yeye laagaten antatah seemant upayogitaon dwara nirdhaarit kii gaee theen.
seemant kranti aur markswad.
carle marks ney sweekaar kiya kii "upayogita kaa uddeshya baney binaa kissy bhee cheez kaa moolya naheen hoe sakata haye", lekin unake vishleshan mein "upayog-moolya raajneetik arthavyavastha kii jaanch key kshetra seey baahar haye", jisamen shram poonjeevaad key tahat moolya kaa pramukh nirdhaarak haye.
kaee vidwan markswadi arthshastra kii pratikriya key roop mein haashiye parr rahane aur haashiye parr aaney vaali kranti key siddhanton kii vyakhya karate hain. haalaanki, yeh vichaar kuchh hudd taka trutipurna haye, kyonki "daas capital" kaa pahala khand julaai 1867 taka prakaashit naheen huaa thaa, joe kii jevon, menger aur valrus key karyon key yaa tou likhane key baad thaa yaa chala rhaa thaa (valrus 1874 mein prakaashit huaa aur carle menger ney 1871 mein "arthshastra key siddhant" prakaashit kiye); marks taba bhee apekshaakrit mamuli vyakti they jaba yeye kaary poore hoe gaye they aur yeh sambhavana naheen haye kii inmein seey kissy bhee arthashastri koo unake baare mein kuchh pataa thaa. kuchh vidwan, jaise, friedrich hayek aur doubleu. doubleu. bartley III ney sujhaav diyaa haye kii marks koo british sangrahalaya mein padhate samay inmein seey ack yaa adhik arthshastriyon key karyon kaa pataa chalaa hoga. haalaanki, yeh bhee sambhav haye kii marks kii ack vyavharya aalochana taiyar karane mein asamarthata unaki mrityu seey pahale "capital" key kissy bhee aage key khand koo puuraa karane mein unaki viphalata key liye jimmedaar hoe sakati haye.
iss tathya key bavjood kii markswadi arthshastra haashiye parr rahane vaalon key liye tatkaal lakshya naheen thaa, yeh tark denaa sambhav haye kii arthshastriyon kii naee peedhi aanshik roop seey safal hui kyonki way markswadi aarthik siddhant key liye saral pratikriya pradaan karane mein saksham they. sabse prasiddh pratikriyaon mein seey ack boham-baverk (1896) thee, lekin pahali pratikriya vaastav mein wickstead kaa "moolya kaa markswadi siddhant" thaa. "daas capital": ack aalochana "(1884), jisake baad 1885 mein" dha jevonian critices off maarksah aeye resoinder "). shuru mein, haashiye parr kewal kuchh markswadi pratikriyaaen theen, jinamen rudolf hilfording kii "boham-bawarks marks-sanskritik" (1904) aur nikolai bukharin dwara "polythescoy economy raante" (1914) shamil they. haalaanki, 20veen shatabdi key dauran, saahitya kaa ack mahatvapurna nikaay haashiye parr rahane aur moolya key shram siddhant key beach sangharsh parr ubhara. haashiye parr jaane kii ack mahatvapurna aalochana nava-cardian arthashastri piero srafa ney kii.
yeh ullekh karna ullekhaniya haye kii heinry george key vichaaron key kuchh anuyaayi haashiye parr rahane aur navshastriya arthshastra koo "pragati aur garibi" kii pratikriya key roop mein dekhate hain, joe 1879 mein prakaashit huaa thaa.
1980 key dashak mein johnn romer aur anya vishleshanatmak marksvadiyon ney ack haashiye kii neenv parr markswadi shodh prabandhon key punarnirmaan key liye kaam kiya haye.
sudhaar.
apane 1881 key kaam "ganitiya manovigyaan" mein, francis yasidro azworth ney udasinta vakr prastut kiya, joe isake gunon koo haashiye key siddhant seey praapt kartaa haye, joe upayogita koo matratmak vastuon aur sevaaon kaa ack vibhedak kaary maanata haye. baad mein kiye gaye kaam ney upayogita key gair-avalokan yogya upaayon seey bachane key liye upayogita aur seemant upayogita key udasinta vakr sutrikaran koo samanya banaane kaa prayaas kiya.
1915 mein, usen slutsky ney kewal udasinta vakr key gunon seey upabhokta pasand kaa ack siddhant praapt kiya. vishva yuddh, bolshevik kranti aur usake baad unaki ruchi key nuksan key kaaran, slutsky key kaam parr lagbhag koee dhyaan naheen diyaa gayaa, lekin 1934 mein johnn richard hicks aur aar. jee. dee. ellen ney kaafee hudd taka samaan parinam praapt kiye aur ack mahatvapurna darshak paaya. (elen ney baad mein slutsky kii pichhali upalabdhi kii or dhyaan aakarshit kiya.)
halanki austriyai school arthshastriyon kii teesari peedhi mein seey kuchh ney 1911 taka seemant upayogita key sandarbh mein sochana jaari rakhate hue upayogita key parimanikaran koo khariz curr diyaa thaa, adhikansh arthshastriyon ney maanaa kii upayogita ack prakaar kii matra honey chaahiye. udasinta vakr vishleshan matratmak anumaanon koo samaapt karane key ack tareeke kaa pratinidhitva kartaa prateet hotaa haye, halanki pratisthaapan kii ghatati seemant daron key baare mein ack manmana dhaarana (hicks dwara "topi seey khargosh" key roop mein sweekaar kiya gayaa) taba udasinta vakr kii uttalata key liye pesh karna hoga.
una logon key liye jinhone sweekaar kiya kii udasinta vakr vishleshan ney pahale key seemant upayogita vishleshan koo hataa diyaa, baad vaalaa shayed shaikshanik roop seey upayogi hoe gayaa, lekin "puraane jamaane" aur avalokan key liye anaavashyak hoe gayaa.
punrutthan.
jaba crammer aur bernauli ney ghatati seemant upayogita kii dhaarana kii shuruat kii, tou yeh moolya key virodhabhas key bajaay juaa key virodhabhas koo sambodhit karane key liye thaa. haalaanki, kranti key haashiye parr rahane vaale loga aupchaarik roop seey una samasyaon seey chintit they jinamen naa tou jokhim thaa aur naa hii anishchitata. slutsky, hicks aur elen key udasinta vakr vishleshan key saath bhee.
20veen shatabdi key vibhinn vicharakon dwara, ramsey (1926), wonn neuman aind morgenstern (1944) aur savage (1954) key praarambhik yogdan key saath, bernauli aur anya kii apekshit upayogita parikalpana koo punarjeevit kiya gayaa thaa. haalaanki yeh parikalpana vivadaspad bunny hui haye, yeh naa kewal upayogita koo, balki upayogita (mukhya upayogita) kii ack matratmak avadharana koo aarthik vichaar kii mukhyadhara mein vaapas laati haye.
aaj upayogita key matratmak model key prabhaavshaali honey kaa ack pramukh kaaran yeh haye kii jokhim aur anishchitata koo samkaaleen aarthik siddhant mein kendriya vishayon key roop mein maanyata dee gaee haye. matratmak upayogita model ghatati seemant upayogita aur jokhim seey ghrina key beach ack kadee sthaapit karke jokhim bharey nirnay kaa vishleshan karane key liye ack saral drishtikon pradaan karate hain. vaastav mein, bachat aur portfolio chayan key kaee samkaaleen vishleshanon key liye cumm hoti seemant upayogita kii tulanaa mein majboot dhaaranaon kii aavashyakta hoti haye, jaise kii vivek kii dhaarana, jiska arth haye uttal seemant upayogita.
iss beach, austriyai school ney seemant upayogita vishleshan kii apani kramik dhaaranaon koo vikasit karna jaari rakhaa, aupchaarik roop seey yeh pradarshit karate hue kii unase udasinta vakron key pratisthaapan kii ghatati seemant darr aage badhati haye.

