
aanvik paaristhitiki

aanvik paaristhitiki vikaasvaadi jeev vigyaan kaa ack kshetra haye joe aanvik jansankhya aanuvanshiki, aanvik phylogenetics aur haal hii mein paaramparik paaristhitik prashnon (jaise.jee., prajaatiyon kaa nidan, jaiv vividhata kaa sanrakshan aur mulyankan, prajaati-kshetra sambandh, aur vyavhaar paaristhitiki mein kaee prashn). yeh vastutah "paaristhitik aanuvanshiki" key kshetra kaa paryaay haye jaisa kii theodosius dobzansky, ee. dwara agrani haye. bee. ford, godfrey aim. havit, aur anya. prayogshala key vipareet aanuvanshik-adharit prashnon kaa adhyayan karane key apane prayaas mein yeye kshetra ekjut hain. aanvik paaristhitiki sanrakshan aanuvanshiki key kshetra seey sambandhit haye.
aksar vidhiyon mein jeane pravaah aur aabaadi key beach sankaran nirdhaarit karane key liye sookshm upgrahon kaa upayog karna shamil haye. aanvik paaristhitiki kaa vikas dee. aine. aeye. sookshm aire key upayog seey bhee nikatata seey sambandhit haye, joe hajaaron vibhinn jeenon kii abhivyakti key ack saath vishleshan kii anumati detaa haye. paryavaraniya sthitiyon mein parivartan yaa alag-alag roop seey anukoolit vyaktiyon dwara alag-alag pratikriyaon key parinamswarup jeane abhivyakti kaa vishleshan karane key liye bhee matratmak pee. see. aar. kaa upayog kiya jaa sakata haye.
aanvik paaristhitiki jaiv bhugol, genomics, sanrakshan aanuvanshiki aur vyavhaar paaristhitiki seey sambandhit paaristhitik prashn kaa uttar dene key liye aanvik aanuvanshik detta kaa upayog karati haye. adhyayan jyaadaatar deoxyribonucleic acid anukram (dee. aine. aeye.) parr adharit detta kaa upayog karate hain. iss drishtikon koo kaee varshon mein badhaaya gayaa haye taaki shodhkartaon koo shuruati dna kii ack chhoti matra seey hajaaron jeane kaa anukram karane kii anumati mill sakey. elil aakar ack aur tarika haye jisase shodhkarta vyaktiyon aur aabaadi kii tulanaa karane mein saksham hain joe unhein aabaadi key bheetar aanuvanshik vividhata aur aabaadi key beach aanuvanshik samaantaon kii matra nirdhaarit karane kii anumati detaa haye.
jeevaanu vividhata.
aanvik paaristhitik takneekon kaa upayog jeevaanu vividhata key "inn seetu" prashnon kaa adhyayan karane key liye kiya jaataa haye. kaee sookshmajeev prayogshala mein samvardhit upbhedon key roop mein aasaani seey praapt naheen kiye jaa sakate hain, joe pehchaan aur lakshan varnan kii anumati denge. yeh pee. see. aar. takneek key vikas seey bhee upaji haye, joe aanuvanshik samagri key teji seey pravardhan kii anumati detee haye.
samanya yaa samooh-vishisht primer kaa upayog karke paryavaraniya namoonon seey dna key pravardhan seey aanuvanshik samagri kaa mishran hotaa haye, jise anukraman aur pehchaan seey pahale chhantaai kii aavashyakta hoti haye. ise praapt karane kii utkrisht takneek cloning key madhyam seey haye, jisamen pravardhit dna tukadon koo bacterial plasmid mein shamil karna shamil haye. tapman pravanata jail electrophoresis jaisi takneeken teji seey parinam dene mein madad karati hain. haal hii mein, apekshaakrit cumm laagat vaali, agali peedhi kii dee. aine. aeye. anukraman praudyogikiyon, jaise kii 454 aur roshni platforms key aagaman ney mahadvipiya paimaane parr paryavaraniya pravanata jaise pee. aich. key baare mein jeevaanu paaristhitiki key anveshan kii anumati dee haye joe paaramparik praudyogiki key saath sambhav naheen thaa.
kavak vividhata.
inn seetu" kavak vividhata key anveshan koo bhee agali peedhi kii dee. aine. aeye. anukraman praudyogikiyon seey laabh huaa haye. 2009 mein kshetra mein unake upayog key pahale prakaashan key baad seey kavak paaristhitiki samudaay dwara uchch-utpaadan anukraman takneekon kaa upayog vyaapak roop seey apanaaya gayaa haye. jeevaanu vividhata key anveshan key samaan, inn takneekon ney kavak paaristhitiki mein maulik prashnon key uchch-samadhan adhyayan kii anumati dee haye jaise kii jaati bhugol, vann mitty mein kavak vividhata, mitty key kshitij mein kavak samudaayon kaa stareekaran, aur paudhon key kachare koo sadaane parr kavak uttaradhikar.
agali peedhi key anukraman drishtikon kaa laabh uthaane vaale adhikansh kavak paaristhitiki anusandhaan mein dee. aine. aeye. (i.) key sanrakshit kshetron key pee. see. aar. emplican kaa anukraman shamil haye.ee. marker jeane) prashnagat kavak samudaay mein vargeekaran samoohon key vitaran kii pehchaan karane aur varnan karane key liye, halanki haal key shodh ney karyatmak jeane emplican (ee.jee. baldrian aur anya. 2012). kavak samudaayon kii vargeekaran sanrachana key vivaran key liye pasand kaa sthaan paaramparik roop seey ribosomal aar. aine. aeye. jeane kaa aantarik pratilekhit spacer (iska) kshetra rhaa haye kyonki isaki upayogita kavak kii pehchaan karane mein genus yaa prajaati vargeekaran staron kii haye, aur saarvajanik anukram databases mein iska uchch pratinidhitva haye. doosara vyaapak roop seey upayog kiya jaane vaalaa sthaan (ee.jee. sanshodhan aur anya. 2010, webber aitt all. 2013), 28 key ribosomal aar. aine. aeye. jeane kaa dee1-dee. 3 kshetra, isake nimn vargeekaran star key vargeekaran kii anumati naheen dey sakata haye, lekin anukram sanrekhan aur phylogenetics mein behtar pradarshan pradarshit kartaa haye. isake alawa, dee1-dee3 kshetra roshni anukraman praudyogikiyon key saath anukraman key liye ack behtar ummidwar hoe sakata haye. poras-alfaro aur anya. yeh dikhaaya kii isake yaa dee1-dee3 kshetra anukramon key vargeekaran kii sateekta kaafee hudd taka tulanaa key liye upayog kiye jaane vaale anukram sanrachana aur databases kii gunavatta parr adharit thee, aur saarvajanik databases mein kharaab-gunavatta vaale anukram aur anukram kii galat pehchaan ack pramukh chinta kaa vishay haye. anukram databases kaa nirmaan joe kavak mein vyaapak pratinidhitva kartaa haye, aur joe vargeekaran visheshagyon dwara taiyar kiya jaataa haye, ack mahatvapurna agala kadam haye.
agali peedhi kii anukraman praudyogikiyaan badee matra mein detta utpann karati hain, aur kavak marker-jeane detta kaa vishleshan anusandhaan kaa ack sakriya kshetra haye. chinta key dou praathamik kshetra anukram samaantaa aur anukram detta key gunavatta niyantran dwara parichaalan vargeekaran ikaaiyon mein anukramon koo ekatrit karane key tareeke hain. vartamaan mein, clustering key liye pasandida tarikon parr koee aam sahamati naheen haye, aur clustering aur anukram prasanskaran vidhiyaan parinamon koo mahatvapurna roop seey prabhaavit curr sakati hain, vishesh roop seey isake kshetra kii charr-lambai key liye. isake alawa, kavak prajaatiyan apane kshetra kii antar-vishisht anukram samaantaa mein bhinn hoti hain. haal key shodh lacheele clustering protocol key vikas key liye samarpit kiye gaye hain joe vargeekaran samoohon dwara anukram samaantaa seema koo badalane kii anumati dete hain, joe saarvajanik anukram databases mein achchi tarah seey ullikhit anukramon dwara samarthit hain.
atirikt jodee nishechan.
haal key varshon mein, aanvik detta aur vishleshan vyavhaar paaristhitiki key paaramparik drishtikon, isaki paaristhitiki aur vikaasvaadi itihas key sambandh mein pashu vyavhaar key adhyayan koo poorak banaane mein saksham hue hain. ack vyavhaar jise aanvik detta ney vaigyaanikon koo behtar dhang seey samajhane mein madad kii haye, vaha haye atirikt-jodee nishechan (ee. pee. aff. aiss.), jise atirikt-jodee sahasanyojan (ee. pee. see.) key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye. yeye sambhog kii ghatanaaen hain joe ack samajik bandhan key baahar hoti hain, jaise kii ekvivaah aur unakaa avalokan karna kathin haye. ee. pee. aff. mein bhaag lene vaale vyaktiyon kii vyaapaktaa koo samajhane key liye aanvik detta mahatvapurna rhaa haye.
jabaki adhikansh pakshi prajaatiyan samajik roop seey ack-vivaahita hain, aanvik aankadon seey pataa chalaa haye kii inmein seey 25 pratishat seey bhee cumm prajaatiyan aanuvanshik roop seey ack-vivaahita hain. ee. pee. aff. mamle koo jatil banaate hain, vishesh roop seey purush vyaktiyon key liye, kyonki kissy vyakti key liye una santanon kii dekhbhal karna samajhadaari naheen haye joe unaki apani naheen hain. adhyayanon mein paaya gayaa haye kii purush apane pitritva mein parivartan key jawab mein apane maataa-pitaa kii dekhbhal koo samaayojit karenge. anya adhyayanon seey pataa chalaa haye kii samajik roop seey ack-vivaah prajaati mein, kuchh vyakti prajanan roop seey safal honey key liye ack vaikalpik ranneeti kaa upayog karenge kyonki ack samajik bandhan hamesha prajanan safalata key barabar naheen hotaa haye.
aisaa prateet hotaa haye kii kuchh prajaatiyon mein ee. pee. aff. achchi jeane parikalpana dwara sanchaalit hoti haye, laal-peeth shrike ("lanius colurio") mein atirikt-jodee vaale purushon mein jodd vaale purushon kii tulanaa mein kaafee lamba tarcy thaa, aur sabhi atirikt-jodee vaali santaanen purush theen, iss bhavishyavani kaa samarthan karate hue kii jaba way ack "aakarshak" purush key saath sambhog karengi tou mahilaaen purushon key prati apane pakad kaa pakshapaat karengi. house vrain ("troglodites adone)" mein, atirikt-jodee santan bhee inn-off-spring kii tulanaa mein purush-pakshapaatpurna paaee gaee.
aanvik paaristhitiki key binaa, ee. pee. aff. mein bhaag lene vaale vyaktiyon aur ee. pee. aff. seey utpann honey vaali santanon kii pehchaan karna asambhav hoga.
doori key aadhar parr algaav.
prajanan algaav kii tarah doori (aaee. bee. dee.) dwara algaav, aabaadi key liye bhautik baadhaon kaa prabhaav haye joe pravaas aur cumm jeane pravaah koo seemit kartaa haye. aabaadi key beach kii doori jitani cumm hogi, vyaktiyon key failane aur sambhog karane kii adhik sambhavana hogi aur iss prakaar, jeane pravaah mein vriddhi hogi. aanvik detta kaa upayog, vishesh roop seey aabaadi key beach unaki bhaugolik doori key sambandh mein vyaktiyon kii elil aavrittiyon seey ling-pakshapaatit failaav, vinirdeshan aur paridrishya aanuvanshiki jaisi avadhaaranaon koo samajhaane mein madad milati haye.
maintel pareekshan ack aisaa mulyankan haye joe bhaugolik doori key saath aanuvanshik doori kii tulanaa kartaa haye aur sabse upayukt haye kyonki yeh naheen maanata kii tulanaa ack dusare seey swatantra haye. teen mukhya kaarak hain joe aaee. bee. dee. key sahsambandh koo khojane kii sambhavana koo prabhaavit karate hain, jinamen namuna aakar, chayapachaya aur vargeekaran shamil hain. udaaharan key liye, metaa-vishleshan key aadhar parr, ectotherm adhik aaee. bee. dee. pradarshit karane key liye endotherm kii tulanaa mein adhik sambhavana rakhate hain.
metapopulation siddhant.
metapopulation siddhant yeh nirdhaarit kartaa haye kii ack metapopulation mein sthaanik roop seey alag aabaadi hoti haye joe kissy star parr ack dusare key saath baatchit karati haye aur vilupt honey aur punar-upanivesh key chakr seey gujarati haye (i.ee. failaav key madhyam seey). sabse aam metapopulation model vilupt honey-punarvichhedan model haye joe una pranaliyon kii vyakhya kartaa haye jinamen sthaanik roop seey alag aabaadi jansankhya key aakar mein yaadrichhik parivartanon seey gujarati haye joe jansankhya star parr vilupt honey kaa kaaran bunn sakati haye. ack baar aisaa honey key baad, anya aabaadi seey vyaktiyon koo titar-bitar karane seey usa sthaan parr aabaadi koo "bachaaya" jaayega. anya metapopulation model mein srot-sink model (dweep-mukhya bhoomi model) shamil haye jahaan ack (yaa kaee) badee kendriya aabaadi (oun) chhoti upgrah aabaadi mein failati haye jinaki jansankhya vriddhi darr ack seey cumm haye aur mukhya aabaadi seey pravaah key binaa bunny naheen reh sakati haye.
metapopulation sanrachana aur baar-baar vilupt honey aur punar upanivesh ack aabaadi kii aanuvanshik sanrachana koo mahatvapurna roop seey prabhaavit curr sakate hain. kuchh failaavakon dwara punah upanivesheekaran jansankhya kii baadhaon kii or leey jaataa haye joe prabhaavi jansankhya key aakar (aine. ee.) koo cumm karega, aanuvanshik pravaah mein teji laayega aur aanuvanshik bhinnata koo cumm karega. haalaanki, metapopulation mein aabaadi key beach failaav inn prakriyaon koo lambe samay taka ulat yaa roque sakata haye. isaliye, vyaktigat upa-aabaadi koo swasth rahane key liye, unake paas yaa tou badee aabaadi kaa aakar honah chaahiye yaa anya upa-aabaadi key saath failaav kii darr apekshaakrit uchch honey chaahiye. aanvik paaristhitiki aabaadi key beach failaav kii darr nirdhaarit karane key liye parikshanon kaa upayog karane parr kendrit haye aur yeh nirdhaarit karane key liye aanvik ghadiyon kaa upayog curr sakati haye kii aitihaasik adachanen kaba aaeen. jaise-jaise nivaas sthaan adhik khandit hoe jaayega, aabaadi key beach failaav teji seey durlabh hoe jaayega. isaliye, upa-jansankhya joe aitihaasik roop seey ack metapopulation sanrachana dwara sanrakshit kii gaee hoe sakati haye, mein girawat shuru hoe sakati haye. jansankhya key moolyon aur elilic samriddhi key saath failaav kii nigrani key liye mitochondrial yaa paramanu markers kaa upayog karna iss baat kii antardrishti pradaan curr sakata haye kii ack aabaadi kitna achchha pradarshan curr rahee haye aur yeh bhavishya mein kaise pradarshan karegi.
aanvik ghadee parikalpana.
aanvik ghadee parikalpana bataati haye kii dee. aine. aeye. anukram lagbhag ack hii darr seey vikasit hotey hain aur iss vajah seey dou anukramon key beach kii bhinnata kaa upayog yeh bataane key liye kiya jaa sakata haye kii way kitane samay pahale ack dusare seey alag hoe gaye they. aanvik ghadee kaa upayog karane mein pahala kadam yeh haye kii ise adhyayan kiye gaye dou panktiyon key alag honey key anumaanit samay key aadhar parr calibrate kiya jaanaa chaahiye. aamtaur parr aanvik ghadiyon koo maapane key liye upayog kiye jaane vaale srot ateet mein jeevaashm yaa gyaat bhoovaigyaanik ghatanaaen hain. ghadee koo anshankan karane key baad agala kadam anumaanit samay koo vibhajit karke vichalan samay kii ganana karna haye kyonki anukram vichalan kii matra seey vichalan hotey hain. parinami sankhya vaha anumaanit darr haye jiss parr aanvik vikas hoe rhaa haye. sabse vyaapak roop seey uddhrit aanvik ghadee harr duss laakh varshon mein lagbhag dou pratishat anukram vichalan kii ack 'saarvbhaumik' aim. tii. dee. aine. aeye. ghadee haye. haalaanki ise ack saarvbhaumik ghadee key roop mein sandarbhit kiya jaataa haye, lekin dee. aine. aeye. kshetron key bheetar vikas kii darr koo dekhate hue "saarvbhaumik" ghadee kaa yeh vichaar sambhav naheen haye. aanvik ghadiyon kaa upayog karane mein ack aur kamee yeh haye kii unhein aadarsh roop seey aanvik detta key alawa detta key ack swatantra srot seey anshankan karane kii aavashyakta haye. yeh una taxes key liye ack samasya paida kartaa haye joe aasaani seey jeevaashm/sanrakshit naheen hotey hain, jisase unaki aanvik ghadee koo maapana lagbhag asambhav hoe jaataa haye. inn asuvidhaon key bavjood, aanvik ghadee parikalpana kaa upayog aaj bhee kiya jaataa haye. aanvik ghadee 65 million varsh pahale taka honey vaali ghatnaaon mein safal rahee haye.
saathi chayan parikalpanaaen.
saathi chayan kii avadharana bataati haye kii kaise jeev dou mukhya tarikon key aadhar parr apane saathi kaa chayan karate hain; achchi jeane parikalpana aur aanuvanshik sangatata. achchi jeane parikalpana, jise kamuk putra parikalpana key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye, bataati haye kii mahilaaen ack aise purush kaa chayan karengi joe ack santan paida karey jisamen swaasthya laabh aur aanuvanshik vyavaharyata mein vriddhi hogi. isaliye, joe saathi adhik 'aakarshak' hain, unake sambhog key liye chune jaane aur apani jeane koo agali peedhi taka pahunchaane kii adhik sambhavana haye. jinn prajaatiyon mein bahuvriksh pradarshit hotaa haye, unamen maadaaen sabse upayukt narr aur punah saathi kii khoj karengi jaba taka kii unhein apane andon koo nishechit karane key liye sabse achchha shukranu naheen mill jaataa. aanuvanshik sangatata vaha jagah haye jahan saathi apane genotype kii sangatata key aadhar parr apane saathi kaa chayan curr rahey hain. joe saathi chayan curr rhaa haye, usey upayukt saathi kaa chayan karane key liye apane swayam key genotype key saath-saath sambhaavit saathi key genotype koo bhee jaanana chaahiye. adhikansh udaharanon mein aanuvanshik sangatata vishisht lakshnon taka seemit haye, jaise kii standhaariyon mein pramukh histocompatibility jatil, kyonki jatil aanuvanshik antahkriyaaen hoti hain. yeh vyavhaar sambhaavit roop seey manushyon mein dekhaa jaataa haye. shareer kii gandh key aadhar parr purushon mein mahilaaon kii pasand koo dekhane vaale ack adhyayan ney nishkarsh nikala kii gandh kii sugandh aim. aich. see. seey prabhaavit thee aur way maanav aabaadi mein saathi kii pasand koo prabhaavit karate hain.
ling-pakshapaatpurna failaav.
ling-pakshapaatpurna failaav, yaa ack ling kii aabaadi key beach doosari kii tulanaa mein adhik baar failane kii pravritti, shodhkartaon dwara adhyayan kiya gayaa ack samanya vyavhaar haye. vartamaan mein teen pramukh parikalpanaaen maujood hain joe ling-pakshapaatpurna failaav kii vyakhya karane mein madad karati hain. sansaadhan-pratispardha parikalpana yeh anuman lagaati haye kii prajanan key dauran kewal janm key jamini sansadhanon seey parichit honey seey adhik philopetric sex (ling key apane janm key aadhar parr rahane kii adhik sambhavana) laabh hotaa haye. ling-pakshapaatpurna failaav key liye doosara prastaav sthaaniya saathi pratispardha parikalpana haye, joe iss vichaar kaa parichay detee haye kii vyakti apane janm key aadhar seey door rishtedaron key saath cumm saathi pratispardha kaa saamana karate hain. aur prajanan seey bachane kii parikalpana bataati haye kii vyakti prajanan mein kamee key liye fail jaate hain.
inn parikalpanaon kaa adhyayan karna kathin hoe sakata haye kyonki pratyek vyakti aur aabaadi key bheetar aur unake beach unake thikaane kaa pataa rakhna lagbhag asambhav haye. iss samay lene vaali vidhi kaa mukabala karane key liye, vaigyaanikon ney ling-pakshapaatpurna failaav kaa adhyayan karane key liye kaee aanvik paaristhitiki takneekon kii bharti kii haye. ack vidhi aabaadi key beach paramanu aur mitochondrial markers key beach antar kii tulanaa haye. uchch star key antar dikhaane vaale marker adhik philopetric ling kaa sanket dete hain; yaani, janm key aadhar parr jitna adhik ling banaa rahega, unake marker utane hii adhik ack advitiya aaee parr leey jaayenge.dee, usa marker key sambandh mein jeane pravaah kii kamee key kaaran. shodhkarta aabaadi key bheetar purush-purush aur mahila-mahila jodee key sambandh kii matra bhee nirdhaarit curr sakate hain taaki yeh samajha jaa sakey kii kiss ling key failane kii adhik sambhavana haye. ack ling mein lagaatar cumm moolyon vaale jode failate ling koo ingit karate hain. aisaa isaliye haye kyonki failate ling mein adhik jeane pravaah hotaa haye aur unake marker ack hii aabaadi mein ack hii ling key vyaktiyon kii tulanaa mein cumm samaan hotey hain, joe cumm sambandhitata moolya paida karate hain. aff. aiss. tii. moolyon kaa upayog pratyek ling key liye aff. aiss. tii. moolya kii ganana karke failaav vyavhaaron koo samajhane key liye bhee kiya jaataa haye. adhik failaane vaalaa ling ack cumm aff. aiss. tii. moolya pradarshit kartaa haye, joe upa-jansankhya aur kull jansankhya key beach prajanan key star koo maapata haye. isake alawa, assignment parikshanon kaa upayog anya aabaadi mein ack nishchit ling key vyaktiyon kii sankhya koo nirdhaarit karane key liye kiya jaa sakata haye. aanvik star parr ling-pakshapaatpurna failaav kii matra nirdhaarit karane key liye ack adhik ganitiya drishtikon sthaanik swa-sambandh kaa upayog haye. yeh sahsambandh bhaugolik doori aur sthaanik doori key beach key sambandh kaa vishleshan kartaa haye. ack sahsambandh gunank, yaa r moolya kii ganana kii jaati haye aur doori key khilaf r kaa plot ack dusare seey adhik sambandhit yaa cumm sambandhit vyaktiyon kaa sanket pradaan kartaa haye.
matratmak visheshta sthaan.
ack matratmak visheshta locus (qtl) jeane key ack samooh koo sandarbhit kartaa haye joe ack matratmak visheshta koo niyantrit kartaa haye. ack matratmak visheshta vaha haye joe kewal ack yaa dou key vipareet kaee alag-alag jeenon seey prabhaavit hoti haye. qtl kaa vishleshan qst kaa upayog karke kiya jaataa haye. qst dhyaan mein lakshnon kii sambandhitata koo dekhta haye. kyu. tii. ell. key mamle mein, cline kaa vishleshan kyu. aiss. tii. dwara kiya jaataa haye. cline (jeev vigyaan) bhaugolik doori key paar elil aavritti mein parivartan haye. elil aavritti mein yeh parivartan madhyavarti alag-alag phenotype kii ack shrinkhala kaa kaaran banata haye joe kuchh paryavaraniya sthitiyon seey judey honey parr chayan kaa sanket dey sakata haye. yeh chayan sthaaniya anukoolan kaa kaaran banata haye, lekin uchch jeane pravaah abhee bhee cline key saath maujood honey kii ummeed haye.
udaaharan key liye, europe mein baarn ullu apane plumage rung key sandarbh mein ack cline pradarshit karate hain. unake pankh dakshin-paschim seey laker poorvottar taka bhoovaigyaanik seema mein safed seey laker laal-bhoore rung key hotey hain. iss adhyayan ney yeh pataa lagaane kii koshish kii kii kyaa yeh phenotypic bhinnata ullu kii aabaadi mein qst moolyon kii ganana karke chayan key kaaran thee. kyonki iss cline key saath uchch jeane pravaah kaa abhee bhee anuman thaa, chayan seey kewal una qtls parr kaary karane kii ummeed thee joe sthaaniya roop seey anukuli phenotypic lakshnon koo shamil karate hain. ise qst moolyon kii tulanaa fst (nirdhaaran soochkaank) moolyon seey karke nirdhaarit kiya jaa sakata haye. yadi yeye donon moolya samaan hain aur fst tatasth markers parr adharit haye tou yeh maanaa jaa sakata haye kii qtl tatasth markers (chayan key tahat yaa sthaaniya roop seey anukoolit marker naheen) parr bhee adharit they. haalaanki, baarn ullu key mamle mein qst moolya fst moolya seey bahut adhik thaa. iska matlab haye kii uchch jeane pravaah maujood thaa jisase tatasth marker samaan hoe sakate they, joe cumm fst moolya dwara ingit kiya gayaa thaa. lekin, chayan key kaaran sthaaniya anukoolan bhee maujood thaa, alag-alag pankhon key rung key roop mein kyonki qst moolya adhik thaa, joe inn gair-tatasth sthaan mein antar kaa sanket detaa haye. dusare shabdon mein, pankhon key rung kii iss cline kaa pakshiyon key liye kuchh prakaar kaa anukuli moolya haye.
nirdhaaran soochkaank.
kull jansankhya key bheetar upa-aabaadi key beach aanuvanshik antar key star kaa nirdhaaran karate samay nirdhaaran soochkaankon kaa upayog kiya jaataa haye. sootra kaa upayog karate samay iss soochkaank koo darshaane key liye upayog kii jaane vaali lipi fst haih
iss sameekaran mein, aich. tii. kull jansankhya kii apekshit vishamyugmata kaa pratinidhitva kartaa haye aur aich. aiss. ack upa-jansankhya kii apekshit vishamyugmata haye. vishamyugmata key donon maap ack sthaan parr maape jaate hain. sameekaran mein, kull jansankhya seey apekshit vishamyugmata moolyon kii tulanaa iss kull jansankhya key bheetar upa-aabaadi key dekhe gaye vishamyugmata moolyon seey kii jaati haye. badey aff. aiss. tii. moolyon kaa tatparya haye kii kull jansankhya key bheetar upa-aabaadi key beach aanuvanshik antar kaa star adhik mahatvapurna haye. vibhedan kaa star upa-aabaadi key beach jeane pravaah (ghatata vibhedan) aur inn upa-aabaadi key bheetar aanuvanshik pravaah (badhata vibhedan) key beach santulan kaa parinam haye; haalaanki, kuchh aanvik paaristhitikivid dhyaan dete hain kii yeh naheen maanaa jaa sakata haye kii yeye kaarak santulan mein hain. aff. aiss. tii. koo upa-aabaadi key bheetar prajanan kii matra kii tulanaa kull aabaadi key liye prajanan kii matra seey karane key ack tareeke key roop mein bhee dekhaa jaa sakata haye aur kabhi-kabhi ise prajanan gunank key roop mein sandarbhit kiya jaataa haye. inn mamalon mein, uchch aff. aiss. tii. maan aamtaur parr upa-aabaadi key bheetar prajanan kii uchch matra koo darshaate hain. anya kaarak jaise chayan dabaav bhee aff. aiss. tii. moolyon koo prabhaavit curr sakate hain.
aff. aiss. tii. maanon key saath kaee anuroop sameekaran (aff. aaee. aiss., jee. aiss. tii., aadi) hotey hain.). inn atirikt upaayon kii vyakhya aff. aiss. tii. moolyon key samaan tareeke seey kii jaati haye; haalaanki, unhein anya karakon key saath samaayojit kiya jaataa haye joe aff. aiss. tii. naheen hoe sakate hain, jaise kii kaee sthaanon key liye lekhankan.
prajanan avasaad.
prajanan avasaad nikatata seey sambandhit maataa-pitaa seey santanon kii cumm fitness aur uttarjeevita haye. prajanan aamtaur parr chhoti aabaadi mein dekhaa jaataa haye kyonki seemit saathi kii pasand key kaaran ack rishtedaar key saath sambhog kii adhik sambhavana hoti haye. prajanan, vishesh roop seey chhoti aabaadi mein, aanuvanshik pravaah kii uchch darr key parinamswarup honey kii adhik sambhavana haye, jisase aabaadi mein sabhi sthaanon parr samroopata kii uchch darr hoti haye aur vishamyugmata mein kamee aatee haye. prajanan kii darr vishamjaivikta mein kamee parr adharit haye. dusare shabdon mein, aanuvanshik bahaav key kaaran jansankhya seey vishamjaivikta kii darr jansankhya mein prajanan kii darr key barabar haye. pravaas key abhaav mein, prajanan ack aisee darr seey jamaa hoga joe jansankhya key aakar key vipareet aanupaatik haye.
dou tareeke hain jinase prajanan avasaad hoe sakata haye. inmein seey pahala prabhutva key madhyam seey haye, jahaan laabhkaari elil aamtaur parr pramukh hotey hain aur hanikarak elil aamtaur parr aprabhaavi hotey hain. prajanan key parinamswarup badhati samroopata kaa matlab haye kii hanikarak elil koo samroopata key roop mein vyakt kiye jaane kii adhik sambhavana haye, aur hanikarak prabhaavon koo laabhkaari pramukh elil dwara chhipa naheen jaa sakata haye. doosari vidhi jisake madhyam seey prajanan avasaad hotaa haye, vaha haye adhikta, yaa vishamjaivik laabh. joe vyakti kissy vishesh sthaan parr vishamyugma hotey hain, unaki usa sthaan parr samayugma kii tulanaa mein adhik yogyata hoti haye. prajanan seey vishamjaivikta mein kamee aatee haye, aur isaliye swaasthya mein kamee aatee haye.
hanikarak elil koo aanuvanshik shuddhikaran key madhyam seey nasl kii aabaadi seey praakritik chayan dwara saaf kiya jaa sakata haye. jaise-jaise samroopata badhati haye, cumm fitt vyaktiyon koo isake khilaf chunaa jaayega aur iss prakaar way hanikarak elil aabaadi seey khou jaayenge.
prajanan avasaad.
prajanan avasaad door seey sambandhit maataa-pitaa kii santanon mein cumm javic yogyata haye. prajanan key kaaran swaasthya mein girawat kaa kaaran codepted jeane complexes yaa anukool epistatic sambandh tootana haye. prajanan avasaad key vipareet, prajanan avasaad unake bheetar key bajaay sthaaniya key beach baatchit parr jore detaa haye. prajanan aur prajanan avasaad ack hii samay mein hoe sakate hain. aabaadi key beach badhati doori key saath bahirjanan avasaad kaa jokhim badh jaataa haye. aanuvanshik bachaav key dauran bahirjanan avasaad kaa jokhim aksar ack chhote yaa khandit jeane pool kii aanuvanshik vividhata koo badhaane kii kshamata koo seemit kartaa haye. dou yaa adhik anukoolit lakshnon key madhyavarti kaa ankuran anukoolan koo maataa-pitaa key anukoolan kii tulanaa mein cumm prabhaavi banaa sakata haye. teen mukhya tantra prajanan avasaad koo prabhaavit karate hain; aanuvanshik pravaah, jansankhya kii baadha, anukoolan kaa antar, aur gunasutron kii bhinnataon koo nirdhaarit karein jisake parinamswarup sterile santan hoti haye. yadi prajanan seemit haye aur jansankhya kaafee badee haye, tou pratyek peedhi parr kaam karane vaalaa chayanaatmak dabaav swaasthya koo bahaal karane mein saksham hoe sakata haye. haalaanki, jansankhya mein samagr swaasthya mein kaee peedhiyon kii girawat kaa anubhav honey kii sambhavana haye kyonki lakshnon key chayan mein kaee peedhiyaan lagati hain. chayan paryaavaran key anukool honey key liye badhee hui vividhata kaa upayog karke vansh-vansh kii peedhiyon parr kaary kartaa haye. isake parinamswarup mool maataa-pitaa key prakaar kii tulanaa mein santanon mein adhik swaasthya hoe sakata haye.
sanrakshan ikaaiyaan.
sanrakshan ikaaiyaan vargeekaran hain jinka upayog aksar sanrakshan jeev vigyaan, sanrakshan aanuvanshiki aur aanvik paaristhitiki mein kiya jaataa haye taaki aanuvanshik bhinnata aur sanrakshan key liye mahatva key aadhar parr vibhinn prajaatiyon yaa aabaadi koo alag aur samooh mein rakhaa jaa sakey. dou sabse aam prakaar kii sanrakshan ikaaiyaan hainh
sanrakshan ikaaiyon kii pehchaan aksar tatasth aur gair-tatasth aanuvanshik marker donon kaa upayog karke kii jaati haye, jinamen seey pratyek key apane faayade hotey hain. ikai pehchaan key dauran tatasth markers kaa upayog aanuvanshik pravaah aur samay key liye prajaatiyon aur aabaadi key beach prajanan algaav kii nishpaksh dhaaranaaen pradaan curr sakata haye, jabaki gair-tatasth markers kaa upayog anukoolan vikaasvaadi vichalan kaa adhik sateek anuman pradaan curr sakata haye, joe ack nishchit nivaas key bheetar anukoolan karane key liye ack sanrakshan ikai kii kshamata koo nirdhaarit karane mein madad curr sakata haye.
sanrakshan ikaaiyon key kaaran, jinn aabaadi aur prajaatiyon mein aanuvanshik bhinnata key uchch yaa alag-alag star hain, unhein pratyek koo vyaktigat roop seey prabandhit karane key liye alag kiya jaa sakata haye, joe antatah kaee karakon key aadhar parr bhinn hoe sakate hain. ack udaaharan mein, fundy kii khaadi key bheetar sthit atlantic salmon koo vibhinn aabaadi key beach paae jaane vaale aanuvanshik anukramon mein antar key aadhar parr vikaasvaadi mahatva diyaa gayaa thaa. vikaasvaadi mahatva kaa yeh pataa lagaane seey salmon kii pratyek aabaadi koo bhaugolik sthiti key jawab mein unaki anukuli vishishtata key aadhar parr anukoolit sanrakshan aur suraksha praapt karane mein madad mill sakati haye.
jatijanan aur samudayik paaristhitiki.
jatijanan ack jeev kaa vikaasvaadi itihas haye, jise jaati bhugol key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye. ack jatijanya vriksh ack aisaa vriksh haye joe aanuvanshik yaa bhautik lakshnon key beach samaantaon/antar key aadhar parr vibhinn prajaatiyon key beach vikaasvaadi sambandhon koo darshaata haye. samudayik paaristhitiki saha-astitva vaali prajaatiyon key beach vikaasvaadi sambandhon key gyaan parr adharit haye. jatijanan mein samay (vikaasvaadi sambandh) aur sthaan (bhaugolik vitaran) donon key pahalu shamil hain. aam taur parr jatijanya pedon mein tips shamil hotey hain, joe vanshajon kii prajaatiyon key samoohon kaa pratinidhitva karate hain, aur nodes, joe una vanshajon key samanya poorvajon kaa pratinidhitva karate hain. yadi dou vanshaj ack hii node seey vibhajit hoe jaate hain, tou unhein bahan samooh kahaa jaataa haye. unamen ack baahari samooh, ruchi key samooh key baahar ack prajaati bhee shamil hoe sakati haye. pedh clade koo darshaate hain, joe jeevon kaa ack samooh haye jisamen ack poorvaj aur usa poorvaj key sabhi vanshaj shamil hain. adhikatam parcimony vriksh sabse saral vriksh haye jisamen nyuntam sambhav kadam hain.
jatijanan mahatvapurna aitihaasik prakriyaaen pradaan karate hain joe jeane aur prajaatiyon key vartamaan vitaran koo aakar detee hain. jaba dou prajaatiyan ack dusare seey alag hoe jaati hain tou way kuchh samaan paitrik elil koo banaae rakhti hain jinhen elil sharing key roop mein bhee jaanaa jaataa haye. vansh krambaddh karane aur sankaran key kaaran yugmavikalpon koo saajha kiya jaa sakata haye. vansh vargeekaran aanuvanshik pravaah dwara sanchaalit hotaa haye aur elil key prajaati vishisht banane seey pahale honah chaahiye. inmein seey kuchh elil samay key saath buss khou jaayenge, yaa way fail sakate hain. sankaran ack prajaati seey doosari prajaati mein elil key antahprakshep kii or leey jaataa haye.
samudayik paaristhitiki praakritik itihas aur jansankhya jeev vigyaan seey ubhari haye. isamen naa kewal prajaatiyon key beach baatchit kaa adhyayan shamil haye, balki yeh parasparikta, shikaar aur samudaayon key bheetar pratispardha jaisi paaristhitik avadhaaranaon parr bhee dhyaan kendrit kartaa haye. iska upayog vividhata, prabhutva aur samudaay kii sanrachana jaise gunon koo spasht karane key liye kiya jaataa haye. samudayik sangathanon key adhyayan mein jatijanya jaankaari koo ekikrit karane key liye teen praathamik drishtikon hain. pahala drishtikon samudayik sabhaon kii jatijanya sanrachana kii jaanch parr kendrit haye. doosara drishtikon samudayik vishisht sanrachanaon key jatijanya aadhar kii khoj parr kendrit haye. visheshta vikas aur jaiv bhugol key adhyayan mein ack samudayik sandarbh jodane key liye antim tareeke seey kshetra.
prajaatiyon kii avadhaaranaaen.
aanvik paaristhitiki key kshetra mein prajaatiyon kii avadhaaranaaen bahas kaa vishay hain. vargeekaran kii shuruat key baad seey, vaigyaanik prajaatiyon koo paribhaashit karane key tareeke koo maankeekrit aur paripurna karna chaahte hain. aisee kaee prajaatiyon kii avadhaaranaaen hain joe yeh nirdhaarit karati hain kii paaristhitikivid ack achchi prajaati kaa nirdhaaran kaise karate hain. sabse adhik upayog kii jaane vaali avadharana javic prajaati avadharana haye joe ack prajaati koo vaastav mein yaa sambhaavit roop seey antar-prajanan praakritik aabaadi key samoohon key roop mein paribhaashit karati haye, joe aise anya samoohon (meyer, 1942) seey prajanan roop seey alag hain. yeh avadharana hamesha upayogi naheen hoti haye, vishesh roop seey jaba sankar kii baat aatee haye. anya prajaatiyon kii avadhaaranaon mein phylogenetic prajaati avadharana shamil haye joe ack prajaati koo jeevon key sabse chhote pehchaan yogya monophylatic samooh key roop mein varnit karati haye jisake bheetar vansh aur vansh kaa ack maataa-pitaa kaa pattern hotaa haye. yeh avadharana pehchaan yogya parr prajaatiyon koo paribhaashit karati haye. yeh bhee sujhaav dega kii jaba taka dou pehchaan yogya samooh vaastav mein santan paida naheen karate, way alag-alag prajaatiyan baney rahate hain. 1999 mein, johnn avis aur glain johns ney pichhale vishishtata key aadhar parr prajaatiyon koo paribhaashit karane aur samay parr nirbhar javic vargeekaran koo maapane key liye ack maankeekrit vidhi kaa sujhaav diyaa. unaki vidhi ney genus, parivaar aur crum banaane key liye asthaayi banding kaa upayog kiya, joe iss baat parr adharit thaa kii kitane laakhon saal pahale pratyek prajaati key parinamswarup vinirdeshan ghatana hui thee.
paridrishya aanuvanshiki.
paridrishya aanuvanshiki aanvik paaristhitiki key bheetar ack teji seey ubharata huaa antahvishay kshetra haye. paridrishya aanuvanshiki aanuvanshiki koo paridrishya visheshtaon seey sambandhit karati haye, jaise kii bhoomi-aavaran upayog (vann, krishi, sadaken, aadi).), baadhaon kii upasthiti, aur galiyaron, nadiyon, oonchaai, aadi. paridrishya aanuvanshiki iss baat kaa jawab detee haye kii paridrishya failaav aur jeane pravaah koo kaise prabhaavit kartaa haye.
baadhaaen koee bhee paridrishya visheshataaen hain joe failaav koo rokti hain. sthaliya prajaatiyon key liye baadhaon mein pahaad, nadiyaan, sadaken aur krishi kshetra jaise anupayukt bhoobhaag shamil hoe sakate hain. jaleey prajaatiyon key liye baadhaon mein dweep yaa baandh shamil hoe sakate hain. baadhaaen vishisht prajaatiyan hain; udaaharan key liye ack nadee ack kshetra choohe key liye ack baadha haye, jabaki ack baaz ack nadee key oopar seey uda sakata haye. galiyare way kshetra hain jinn parr failaav sambhav haye. galiyare upayukt awas key hisse hain aur maanav nirmit bhee hoe sakate hain, jaise kii sadakon parr overpass aur baandhon parr machhali kii seedhi.
paridrishya aanuvanshiki key liye upayog kiye jaane vaale bhaugolik detta mein vimaanon mein radar dwara ekatra kiye gaye detta, bhoomi upgrah detta, noa dwara ekatra kiye gaye samudri detta key saath-saath koee anya paaristhitik detta shamil hoe sakata haye. paridrishya aanuvanshiki mein shodhkarta aksar ack prajaati key liye bindu aeye seey bindu bee taka yatra karane kaa sabse achchha tarika nirdhaarit karane kaa prayaas karane key liye vibhinn vishleshanon kaa upayog karate hain. cumm seey cumm laagat path vishleshan ack bindu seey dusare bindu taka sabse kushal maarg nirdhaarit karane key liye bhaugolik detta kaa upayog kartaa haye. paripath aakriti vishleshan sabhi sambhaavit maargon aur bindu aeye aur bindu bee key beach pratyek path key upayog kii sambhavana kii bhavishyavani kartaa haye. inn vishleshanon kaa upayog yeh nirdhaarit karane key liye kiya jaataa haye kii ack vyakti key failane vaale maarg parr yatra karane kii sambhavana haye.
vanyajeev sanrakshan prayason mein paridrishya aanuvanshiki ack teji seey mahatvapurna upkaran banata jaa rhaa haye. iska upayog yeh nirdhaarit karane key liye kiya jaa rhaa haye kii nivaas sthaan kii haani aur vikhandan prajaatiyon key andolan koo kaise prabhaavit kartaa haye. iska upayog yeh nirdhaarit karane key liye bhee kiya jaataa haye kii kiss prajaati koo prabandhit karane kii aavashyakta haye aur kyaa upa-aabaadi koo unake jeane pravaah key anusaar samaan yaa alag tareeke seey prabandhit karna haye.