prati-tathyaatmak shart

prati-tathyaatmak shartein ("upa-sansoochak" yaa "aiks-maark" bhee) sashart vaakya hain joe charcha karate hain kii vibhinn paristhitiyon mein kyaa sach hotaa, jaise.jee. "aggar peater bhooton mein vishvaas kartaa, tou vaha yahaan honey seey dartaa."prati-tathya sanketon key vipareet hain, joe aam taur parr khuli sambhaavanaon parr charcha karane taka seemit hain. prati-tathyavaadi logon koo vyaakaran kii drishti seey nakali kaal aakriti vigyaan key upayog dwara chihnit kiya jaataa haye, jiska upayog kuchh bhaashaaen pahalu aur manodasha sahit anya prakaar key aakriti vigyaan key sanyojan mein karati hain.
daarshanik tark, aupchaarik shabdarth aur bhasha key darshan mein prati-tathya sabse adhik adhyayan kii jaane vaali ghatnaaon mein seey ack hain. una parr pahali baar sharton key bhautik sashart vishleshan key liye ack samasya key roop mein charcha kii gaee thee, joe una sabhi koo tuchchh roop seey sach maanata haye. 1960 key dashak seey, daarshnikon aur bhashavidon ney abb-shaastriya sambhaavit vishva drishtikon vikasit kiya, jisamen ack prati-tathya satya kuchh sambhaavit duniyaon mein apane parinami pakad parr nirbhar kartaa haye jahaan iska poorvavarti haye. haal key aupchaarik vishleshanon ney unhein karyakaran model aur gatishil shabdarth jaise upkaranon kaa upayog karke upchaarit kiya haye. anya shodhon ney itihas, vipanan aur mahamari vigyaan sahit kshetron mein kuchh parinami antardrishti koo lagu karate hue, unake aadhyatmik, manovaigyaanik aur vyaakaranik aadhar koo sambodhit kiya haye.
avalokan.
udaaharan.
soochak aur prati-tathyaatmak sharton key beach key antar koo nimnalikhit angreji nyuntam jodee dwara spasht kiya jaa sakata haih
yeye shartein roop aur arth donon mein bhinn hoti hain. soochak sashart vartamaan kaal roopon "malik" aur "taal" kaa upayog kartaa haye aur isaliye yeh bataata haye kii vaktaa iss baare mein agyeyavaadi haye kii kyaa saili vaastav mein ack gadhe kaa malik haye. prati-tathyaatmak udaaharan "yadi" khand mein "swaamitva" key nakali kaal roop kaa upayog kartaa haye aur "taba" khand mein "ateet-chayanit model" kaa upayog kartaa haye. natijatan, yeh bataata haye kii saili vaastav mein ack gadhe kaa malik naheen haye. angreji mein kaee anya vyaakaranik roop hain jinake arth kabhi-kabhi prati-vaastaviktaa kii chhatrachhaaya mein shamil kiye jaate hain. ack ateet kaa sahee prati-tathya haye, joe pluperfect morphology key upayog mein sanketkon aur saral pichhale prati-tathyon key vipareet haih
ack anya prakaar kaa sashart roop "they" kaa upayog kartaa haye, jise aam taur parr "avaastavik" yaa upa-sanyugma roop key roop mein sandarbhit kiya jaataa haye.
ateet key paripurna aur avaastavik prati-tathya "sashart vyutkram" seey gujar sakate hainh
shabdawali.
prati-tathyaatmak sashart" shabd kaa vyaapak roop seey oopar dikhaae gaye vaakyon key prakaar key liye ack chhatra shabd key roop mein upayog kiya jaataa haye. haalaanki, iss prakaar kii sabhi shartein vipareet-seey-tathya arthon koo vyakt naheen karati hain. udaaharan key liye, "anderson cases" key roop mein jaane jaane vaale utkrisht udaaharan mein ack prati-tathyaatmak sashart kaa vishisht vyaakaranik roop haye, lekin yeh naheen bataata haye kii iska poorvavarti galat yaa asambhav haye.
iss tarah kii sharton koo vyaapak roop seey "upa-sanyugma sharton" key roop mein bhee sandarbhit kiya jaataa haye, halanki iss shabd koo isi tarah una logon dwara bhee galat naam key roop mein sweekaar kiya jaataa haye joe iska upayog karate hain. kaee bhaashaon mein ack roopaatmak upa-sanyugma naheen hotaa haye (ee.jee. dennish aur dutch) aur kaee jinake paas yeh haye, way iss tarah key sashart (ee.jee. french, swahili, sabhi indo-aryan bhaashaaen jinamen ack upa-sanyugma haye). isake alawa, aisee sharton key liye upa-sanyugma kaa upayog karane vaali bhaashaaen kewal tabhi aisaa karati hain jaba unakaa ack vishisht ateet upa-sanyugma roop hoe. iss prakaar, iss shreni kii sadasyata key liye subjunctive marking naa tou aavashyak haye aur naa hii paryaapt haye.
prati-tathya" aur "upa-sansoochak" shabdon koo kabhi-kabhi adhik vishisht upayogon key liye punah niyojit kiya gayaa haye. udaaharan key liye, "prati-tathya" shabd kabhi-kabhi una sharton parr lagu kiya jaataa haye joe unake vyaakaranik sanrachana kii parwah kiye binaa, vipareet-seey-tathya arth koo vyakt karate hain. isi tarah, "subjunctive" shabd kaa upayog kabhi-kabhi una sharton koo sandarbhit karane key liye kiya jaataa haye joe nakali ateet yaa avaastavik ankan koo dhaaran karate hain, chaahe way joe bhee arth vyakt karate hain.
haal hii mein "aiks-maark" shabd koo ack pratisthaapan key roop mein prastaavit kiya gayaa haye, joe inn sharton koo dhaaran karane vaale "aiks" tray koo chihnit kartaa haye. iss shabdawali koo apanaane vaale sanketaatmak sharton koo "oh-maark" sharton key roop mein sandarbhit karate hain, joe unake ankan koo darshaate hain.
ack sashart key "poorvavarti" koo kabhi-kabhi isake "yadi"-khand "yaa" protesis "key roop mein sandarbhit kiya jaataa haye. ack sashart key "parinami" koo kabhi-kabhi "taba"-clause yaa apodosis key roop mein sandarbhit kiya jaataa haye.
tark aur shabdarth.
shaastriya tark mein upayog kii jaane vaali bhautik shart key liye ack samasya key roop mein pahali baar nelson goodman dwara prati-tathyon parr charcha kii gaee thee. inn samasyaon key kaaran, doubleu key roop mein praarambhik kaam.vee. quine ney maanaa kii prati-tathya kadaai seey taarkik naheen hain, aur duniya key baare mein sach yaa galat daave naheen karate hain. haalaanki, 1960 aur 1970 key dashak mein, robbert stallnaker aur david luis key kaam seey pataa chalaa kii ack uchit gahan taarkik dhaanche koo dekhate hue yeye samasyaaen door kii jaa sakati hain. taba seey aupchaarik shabdarth, daarshanik tark, bhasha key darshan aur sangyanatmak vigyaan mein kaam ney iss antardrishti parr nirmaan kiya haye, ise vibhinn dishaaon mein leey jaa rhaa haye.
classic paheli.
prati-tathyon kii samasya.
bhautik sashart vishleshan key anusaar, ack praakritik bhasha sashart, 'yadi pee tou kyu' roop kaa ack kathan, jaba bhee iska poorvavarti, pee, galat hotaa haye, taba sahee hotaa haye. choonki prati-tathyaatmak shartein way hain jinake poorvavritt galat hain, isaliye yeh vishleshan galat tareeke seey bhavishyavani karega kii sabhi prati-tathya shoonya roop seey sach hain. goodman nimnalikhit jodee kaa upayog karke iss bindu koo ack aise sandarbh mein darshaata haye jahaan yeh samajha jaataa haye kii charcha key tahat makkhan kaa tukada germ naheen kiya gayaa thaa. 
adhik aam taur parr, aise udaaharan bataate hain kii prati-tathya satya-karyatmak naheen hain. dusare shabdon mein, yeh jaanana kii poorvavarti aur parinami vaastav mein sach hain yaa naheen, yeh nirdhaarit karane key liye paryaapt naheen haye kii kyaa vipareet tathya hii sach haye.
sandarbh nirbharta aur aspashtata.
prati-tathya "sandarbh parr nirbhar" aur "aspasht" hain. udaaharan key liye, nimnalikhit mein seey kissy bhee kathan koo uchit roop seey sahee maanaa jaa sakata haye, halanki ack hii samay mein naheen.
gair-ekarasata.
prati-tathya iss arth mein "gair-acrus" hain kii unake satya moolyon koo unake poorvajon mein atirikt samagri jodkar badala jaa sakata haye. iss tathya koo "vidrohi anukramon" dwara darshaaya gayaa haye jaise kii nimnalikhitah
iss tathya koo aupchaarik roop dene kaa ack tarika yeh kahana haye kii "poorvavarti sudridhikaran" kaa siddhant kissy bhee sanyojak key liye naheen honah chaahiye joe praakritik bhasha sharton key aupchaarikaran key roop mein abhipret haye.
sambhaavit vishva khaate.
prati-tathyon key sabse aam taarkik vivaran sambhaavit vishva shabdarth mein shamil hain. motey taur parr, inn drishtikonon mein samaantaa haye kii way ack prati-tathya "aeye"> "bee" koo sahee maanate hain yadi "bee" sambhaavit duniya key kuchh sett mein haye jahaan aeye sach haye. way mukhya roop seey iss baat mein bhinn hotey hain kii way praasangik duniya key samooh kii pehchaan kaise karate hain.
david luis key "parivartansheel roop seey sakht sashart" koo darshan key bheetar classic vishleshan maanaa jaataa haye. angelica cratzer dwara prastaavit nikatata seey sambandhit "aadhar shabdarth" koo aksar bhashavigyan key bheetar maanak key roop mein liya jaataa haye. haalaanki, bajar mein duniya key kaee sambhaavit drishtikon hain, jinamen "sakht sashart" vishleshan key gatishil roop shamil hain jinhen mool roop seey luis dwara khariz curr diyaa gayaa thaa.
sakht shart.
sakht sashart vishleshan praakritik bhasha key prati-tathyon koo model tark sootra _ 2 key barabar maanata haye. iss sootra mein, sootra _ 3 aavashyakta koo vyakt kartaa haye aur sootra _ 4 koo bhautik nihitarth key roop mein samajha jaataa haye. iss drishtikon koo pahali baar 1912 mein see dwara prastaavit kiya gayaa thaa.aaee. modal logic key liye apane swayamsiddh drishtikon key hisse key roop mein levis. aadhunik sambandhaatmak shabdarth mein, iska matlab haye kii sakht sashart "doubleu" parr sahee haye yadi sambandhit samagri sashart "doubleu" seey sulabh duniya bhar mein sach haye. adhik aupchaarik roop seh
bhautik sashart key vipareet, sakht sashart shoonya roop seey sach naheen hotaa haye jaba iska poorvavarti galat hotaa haye. yeh dekhane key liye kii kyon, dekhein kii sootra _ 10 aur sootra _ 2 donon sootra _ 12 parr galat honge yadi koee sulabh vishva sootra _ 8 haye jahaan sootra _ 10 sahee haye aur sootra _ 15 naheen haye. sakht sashart bhee sandarbh-nirbhar haye, cumm seey cumm jaba ack sambandhaatmak shabdarth (yaa kuchh aisaa hii) diyaa jaataa haye. sambandhaatmak dhaanche mein, abhigamyata sambandh mulyankan key mapdand hain joe sambhaavanaon kii seema koo kootbaddh karate hain jinhen sandarbh mein "live" maanaa jaataa haye. choonki ack sakht sashart kii sachchai iska mulyankan karane key liye upayog kiye jaane vaale abhigamyata sambandh parr nirbhar curr sakati haye, isaliye sakht sashart kii iss visheshta kaa upayog sandarbh-nirbharta koo pakadane key liye kiya jaa sakata haye.
sakht sashart vishleshan kaee gyaat samasyaon kaa saamana kartaa haye, vishesh roop seey ekarasata. shaastriya sambandhaatmak dhaanche mein, jaba pravesh kii maanak dhaarana kaa upayog kiya jaataa haye, tou sakht sashart acrus hotaa haye, i.ee. yeh "poorvavarti sudridhikaran" koo maanya kartaa haye. yeh dekhane key liye kii kyon, yeh dekhein kii yadi sootra _ 16 pratyek duniya mein sootra _ 12 seey sulabh haye, tou bhautik sashart kii ekarasata guaranti detee haye kii sootra _ 18 bhee hoga. iss prakaar, hamaare paas vaha sootra _ 19 hoga.
iss tathya ney sakht sashart koo vyaapak roop seey tyag diyaa, vishesh roop seey luis key parivartansheel roop seey sakht vishleshan key paksh mein. haalaanki, baad key kaam ney sandarbh samvedansheelta koo aakarshit karke sakht sashart vishleshan koo punarjeevit kiya haye. iss drishtikon kaa netritva warmbroad (1981) ney kiya thaa, jinhone tark diyaa kii "sobel anukram" ack "gair-acrus" tark kii maang naheen karate hain, lekin vaastav mein vaktaaon dwara adhik anumeya abhigamyata sambandhon parr switch karke samajhaaya jaa sakata haye kyonki anukram aage badhata haye. unake system mein, ack prati-tathya jaise "aggar hannah ney coffey pee lii hoti, tou vaha khush hoti" kaa mulyankan aam taur parr ack model kaa upayog karke kiya jaataa jahaan hannah kii coffey sabhi sulabh duniya mein gasoline-mukt hoti haye. aggar isi model kaa upayog baad key uchchaaran kaa mulyankan karane key liye kiya gayaa thaa "aggar hannah ney coffey pee lii thee aur coffey mein gasoline thaa...", yeh doosari shart tuchchh roop seey sach key roop mein saamane aaegi, kyonki aisee koee sulabh duniya naheen haye jahan iska poorvavarti haye. warmbroad kaa vichaar thaa kii vaktaa iss tuchchata seey bachane key liye adhik anumeya pahunch sambandh key saath ack model parr switch karenge.
kaaee wonn fintel (2001), tonny gillies (2007) aur malte willer (2019) dwara baad mein kiye gaye kaam ney iss vichaar koo gatishil shabdarth key dhaanche mein aupchaarik roop diyaa haye, aur paksh mein kaee bhashai tark diye hain. ack tark yeh haye kii sashart poorvavarti nakaratmak dhruviyata vastuon koo licenses dete hain, jinhen kewal ekaatmak prachaalak dwara licenses praapt maanaa jaataa haye.
sakht sashart key paksh mein ack aur tark iren heim key avalokan seey aataa haye kii sobel anukram aam taur parr avyakt hotey hain (i.ee. ajib lagata haye) vipareet mein.
sarah moss (2012) aur curran luis (2018) ney inn tarkon kaa jawab diyaa haye, yeh darshaate hue kii parivartansheel roop seey sakht vishleshan kaa ack sanskaran inn pattern key liye jimmedaar hoe sakata haye, aur tark detaa haye kii iss tarah kaa ack khaata behtar haye kyonki yeh spasht apvaadon key liye bhee jimmedaar hoe sakata haye. 2020 taka, yeh bahas saahitya mein jaari haye, jisamen willer (2019) jaise vivaranon mein tark diyaa gayaa haye kii ack sakht sashart vivaran inn apvaadon koo bhee shamil curr sakata haye.
alag-alag sakht sharton key saath.
parivartansheel roop seey sakht drishtikon mein, ack sashart "aeye"> "bee" key shabdarth koo duniya kii saapeksh nikatata parr kuchh kaary dwara diyaa jaataa haye, jahaan ack or aeye sach haye aur bee sach haye, aur doosari or duniya jahaan aeye sach haye lekin bee naheen haye.
luis key khaate mein, a> c shoonya roop seey sach haye (a) kewal tabhi jaba koee duniya naheen haye jahaan a sach haye (udaaharan key liye, yadi a taarkik roop seey yaa aadhyatmik roop seey asambhav haye); (b) gair-spasht roop seey sach haye yadi aur kewal tabhi jaba, una duniyaon mein jahaan a sach haye, kuchh duniya jahaan c sach haye, kissy bhee duniya kii tulanaa mein vaastavik duniya key karib haye jahaan c sach naheen haye; yaa (c) anyatha galat haye. halanki luis key "prati-tathya" mein yeh spasht naheen thaa kii unakaa "nikatata" seey kyaa matlab thaa, baad key lekhan mein, luis ney yeh spasht curr diyaa kii unakaa "nikatata" key metrick kaa uddeshya kewal samagr samaantaa kii hamari samanya dhaarana naheen thaa.
udaaharan key liyeh
luis key khaate mein, iss kathan kii sachchai iss tathya mein nihit haye kii, sambhaavit duniya mein jahaan unhone nashte key liye adhik khaaya, cumm seey cumm ack duniya haye jahaan unhein subah 11 baje bhookh naheen luggy haye aur joe hamari duniya key karib haye, kissy bhee duniya kii tulanaa mein jahaan unhone nashte key liye adhik khaaya haye, lekin phir bhee subah 11 baje bhookhe hain.
stallnaker kaa khaata luis seey vishesh roop seey "seema" aur "vishishtata dhaaranaon" kii unaki sweekriti mein alag haye. vishishtata kii dhaarana yeh haye kii kissy bhee poorvavarti key liye, sambhaavit duniya mein jahaan ack sach haye, ack ekal ("advitiya") haye joe vaastavik duniya key "sabse karib" haye. seema dhaarana yeh haye kii, ack diye gaye poorvavarti key liye, yadi sambhaavit duniya kii ack shrinkhala haye jahaan ack sach haye, pratyek apane poorvavarti kii tulanaa mein vaastavik duniya key karib haye, tou shrinkhala kii ack "seema" haih ack sambhaavit duniya jahaan ack sach haye joe shrinkhala mein sabhi duniyaon kii tulanaa mein vaastavik duniya key karib haye. (vishishtata dhaarana mein seema dhaarana shamil haye, lekin seema dhaarana mein vishishtata dhaarana shamil naheen haye.) gatirodhak key khaate mein, a> c gair-spasht roop seey sach haye yadi aur kewal tabhi jaba, nikatatam duniya mein jahaan a sach haye, c sach haye. isaliye, uparokt udaaharan sirf usa mamle mein sach haye, jahaan vaha sabse karibi duniya mein subah 11 baje adhik nashta kartaa haye, usey bhookh naheen lagati haye. halanki yeh vivadaspad haye, lekin luis ney seema dhaarana (aur isaliye vishishtata dhaarana) koo khariz curr diyaa kyonki yeh iss sambhavana koo khariz kartaa haye kii aisee duniya hoe sakati haye joe vaastavik duniya key karib aur karib binaa seema key hoe. udaaharan key liye, duniya kii ack anant shrinkhala hoe sakati haye, jisamen seey pratyek mein ack coffey cup apani vaastavik sthiti key baain or ack inch kaa chhota ansh hotaa haye, lekin jinamen seey koee bhee advitiya roop seey sabse karib naheen haye. (luis 1973:20 dekhein.)
vishishtata dhaarana kii gatirodhak kii sweekriti kaa ack parinam yeh haye kii, yadi bahishkrit madhya kaa niyam sach haye, tou sootra (a> c) Â (a> c) key sabhi udaaharan sach hain. bahishkrit madhya kaa niyam yeh haye kii sabhi prastaavon key liye pee, pee. yuu. pee. sahee haye. yadi vishishtata kii dhaarana sach haye, tou pratyek poorvavarti key liye ack advitiya roop seey nikatatam duniya haye jahan ack satya haye. yadi bahishkrit madhya kaa niyam satya haye, tou koee bhee parinami see usa duniya mein yaa tou satya haye yaa asatya haye jahan a satya haye. isaliye pratyek prati-tathya a> c key liye, yaa tou a> c yaa a> c sahee haye. ise sashart bahishkrit madhya (see. ee. aim.) kahaa jaataa haye. udaaharan key liyeh
stallnaker key vishleshan parr, ack nikatatam duniya haye jahan (1) aur (2) mein ullikhit nishpaksh sikka palat diyaa jaataa haye aur usa duniya mein yaa tou yeh sir parr utarata haye yaa yeh poonchh parr utarata haye. tou yaa tou (1) sach haye aur (2) galat haye yaa (1) galat haye aur (2) sach haye. halanki, luis key vishleshan parr, (1) aur (2) donon hii galat hain, una duniya key liye jahaan nishpaksh sikke key sir duniya kii tulanaa mein cumm yaa jyada karib naheen hain jahaan way jameen parr hain. luis key liye, "aggar sikka palat diyaa gayaa hotaa, tou yeh neeche gir jaataa yaa poonchh" sach haye, lekin iska matlab yeh naheen haye kii "aggar sikka palat diyaa gayaa hotaa, tou yeh neeche gir jaataa, yaah aggar sikka palat diyaa gayaa hotaa tou yeh neeche utar jaataa."
anya khaate.
kaaran model.
kaaran model dhancha" sanrachanaatmak samikaranon kii pranaliyon key sandarbh mein prati-tathyon kaa vishleshan kartaa haye. samikaranon kii ack pranali mein, pratyek charr koo ack moolya saunpa jaataa haye joe pranali mein anya charon kaa ack spasht kaary haye. iss tarah key model koo dekhate hue, vaakya "y" "y" hoga yadi "x" "x" "x" "hotaa (aupchaarik roop seey," x = x ">" y = y ") tou ise iss kathan key roop mein paribhaashit kiya jaataa haih yadi humm vartamaan mein" x "kaa nirdhaaran karane vaale sameekaran koo ack sthiraank" x = x "key saath pratisthaapit karate hain, aur charr" y "key liye samikaranon key sett koo hull karate hain, tou praapt samadhan" y = y "hoga. yeh paribhasha sambhaavit vishva shabdarth key swayamsiddh key saath sangat dikhaai gaee haye aur praakritik aur samajik vigyaanon mein karanatmak anuman kaa aadhar banati haye, kyonki una kshetron mein pratyek sanrachanaatmak sameekaran ack parichit kaaran tantra seey mell khaata haye jisake baare mein jaanchkartaon dwara saarthak roop seey tark kiya jaa sakata haye. iss drishtikon koo judia pearl (2000) dwara kaaran sambandhon key baare mein sookshm antargyaan koo kootbaddh karane key saadhan key roop mein vikasit kiya gayaa thaa, jinhen anya prastaavit pranaliyon mein pakadana mushkil haye.
vishvaas sanshodhan.
vishvaas sanshodhan dhaanche mein, prati-tathyon koo "ramsey pareekshan" key aupchaarik karyanvayan kaa upayog karke maanaa jaataa haye. inn pranaliyon mein, ack prati-tathyaatmak "aeye"> "bee" tabhi lagu hotaa haye jaba gyaan key vartamaan nikaay mein "aeye" key sanyojan key parinamswarup "bee" hotaa haye. yeh sthiti prati-tathyaatmak sharton koo vishvaas sanshodhan seey sambandhit karati haye, kyonki "aeye"> "bee" kaa mulyankan pahale "aeye" key saath vartamaan gyaan koo sanshodhit karke aur phir yeh janchkar kiya jaa sakata haye kii kyaa "bee" kiss parinam mein sahee haye. jaba "aeye" vartamaan maanyataon key anuroop hoe tou sanshodhan karna aasaan haye, lekin anyatha kathin hoe sakata haye. vishvaas sanshodhan key liye pratyek shabdarth kaa upayog sashart bayanon key mulyankan key liye kiya jaa sakata haye. isake vipareet, sharton key mulyankan key liye pratyek vidhi koo sanshodhan karane key tareeke key roop mein dekhaa jaa sakata haye.
ginsberg.
ginsberg (1986) ney sharton key liye ack shabdarth kaa prastaav rakhaa haye joe yeh maanata haye kii vartamaan vishvaas prastavatmak sootron kaa ack samooh banaate hain, inn sootron key adhikatam seton koo dekhate hue joe "aeye" key saath susangat hain, aur pratyek mein "aeye" jodate hain. tark yeh haye kii inmein seey pratyek adhikatam samooh vishvaas kii ack sambhaavit sthiti kaa pratinidhitva kartaa haye jisamen "aeye" sach haye joe mool key samaan haye. isaliye sashart kathan "a"> "b" taba lagu hotaa haye jaba aise sabhi seton mein "b" sahee hoe.
prati-vaastaviktaa kaa vyaakaran.
bhaashaaen prati-vaastaviktaa vyakt karane key liye vibhinn ranneetiyon kaa upayog karati hain. kuchh mein ack samarpit prati-tathyaatmak rupankan hotaa haye, jabaki anya rupankan kii bharti karate hain joe anyatha tanaav, pahalu, manodasha yaa usake sanyojan koo vyakt karate hain. 2000 key dashak kii shuruat seey, bhashavidon, bhasha key daarshnikon aur daarshanik tarkvidon ney iss vyaakaranik ankan kii prakriti kaa gahan adhyayan kiya haye, aur yeh adhyayan kaa ack sakriya kshetra banaa huaa haye.
nakali kaal.
varnan.
kaee bhaashaon mein, prati-vaastaviktaa ateet kaal aakriti vigyaan dwara chihnit haye. choonki bhootkaal key yeye upayog apane vishisht laukik arth koo vyakt naheen karate hain, isaliye unhein "nakali ateet" yaa "nakali kaal" kahaa jaataa haye. angreji ack aisee bhasha haye joe prati-tathyata koo chihnit karane key liye nakali ateet kaa upayog karati haye, jaisa kii nimnalikhit nyuntam jodee mein dikhaaya gayaa haye. soochak udaaharan mein, bolled shabd vartamaan kaal key roop hain. prati-tathyaatmak udaaharan mein, donon shabd apane bhootkaal kaa roop lete hain. bhootkaal key iss upayog kaa apana samanya laukik arth naheen hoe sakata haye, kyonki iska upayog binaa kissy virodhabhas key kriyavisheshan "cull" key saath kiya jaa sakata haye.
aadhunik hibru ack aur bhasha haye jahan prati-tathya koo ack nakali ateet roop seey chihnit kiya gayaa haih
ack aur arabi philistini haih
nakali ateet yaa tou apane aap mein yaa anya roopon key saath sanyojan mein, cross-bhashai roop seey behad prachalit haye. isake alawa, saiddhaantik bhashavidon aur bhasha key daarshnikon ney tark diyaa haye kii anya bhaashaon kii prati-vaastaviktaa koo chihnit karane kii ranneetiyaan vaastav mein anya roopon key saath nakali kaal kaa ehsas hain. iss kaaran seey, nakali kaal koo aksar vipareet vaastavik arth key sthaan key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye.
aupchaarik vishleshan.
aupchaarik shabdarth aur daarshanik tark mein, nakali ateet koo ack paheli key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye, kyonki yeh spasht naheen haye kii itani saaree asambandhit bhaashaaen ack tanaavpurna roop koo prati-vaastaviktaa koo chihnit karane key liye kyon punah prayog karengi. iss paheli key prastaavit samadhan dou shiviron mein vibhajit hainh "model key roop mein ateet" aur "ateet key roop mein ateet". yeye drishtikon iss baat mein bhinn hotey hain kii way bhootkaal key mool arth koo samay key baare mein lete hain yaa naheen.
ateet key roop mein model drishtikon" mein, bhootkaal kaa arth-niroopan maulik roop seey samay key baare mein naheen haye. balki, yeh ack cumm nirdisht kankal haye joe yaa tou model yaa asthaayi samagri parr lagu hoe sakata haye. udaaharan key liye, iatridou (2000) key model prastaav key roop mein vishesh ateet, bhootkaal kaa mool arth vahee haye joe neeche yojnabaddh roop seey dikhaaya gayaa haih
yeh niroopan kaise rachana kartaa haye, isake aadhar parr "x" ack samay antaral yaa ack sambhaavit duniya hoe sakati haye. jaba "x" ack samay haye, tou bhootkaal bataayega kii vaakya gair-vartamaan samay key baare mein baat curr rhaa haye, i.ee. ateet. jaba "x" ack duniya haye, tou yeh bataayega kii vaakya ack sambhaavit gair-vaastavik sambhavana key baare mein baat curr rhaa haye. baad vaalaa vaha haye joe ack prati-tathya arth kii anumati detaa haye.
ateet key roop mein ateet kaa drishtikon" ateet kaal koo ack swabhavik roop seey laukik niroopan key roop mein maanata haye. iss drishtikon parr, tathaakathit nakali kaal vaastav mein nakali naheen haye. yeh "vaastavik" kaal seey kewal iss baat mein alag haye kii yeh kaise daira letaa haye, i.ee. vaakya key arth kaa kaun saa ghatak pahale key samay mein sthanantarit kiya gayaa haye. jaba ack vaakya mein "vaastavik" ateet ankan hotaa haye, tou yeh kuchh aisee baat parr charcha kartaa haye joe pahale huaa thaa; jaba ack vaakya mein tathaakathit nakali ateet ankan hotaa haye, tou yeh una sambhaavanaon parr charcha kartaa haye joe pahale key samay mein sulabh theen lekin abb naheen hoe sakati hain.
nakali pahalu.
"nakali pahalu" aksar una bhaashaon mein nakali kaal key saath hotaa haye joe pahalu koo chihnit karate hain. kuchh bhaashaon mein (ee.jee. aadhunik yunani, zulu aur romans bhaashaaen) yeh nakali pahalu apoorna haye. anya bhaashaon mein (ee.jee. philistine arabi) yeh paripurna haye. haalaanki, russie aur polish sahit anya bhaashaon mein, prati-tathya yaa tou paripurna yaa apoorna pahalu hoe sakate hain.
nakali apoorna pahalu neeche diye gaye dou aadhunik yunani vaakyon dwara pradarshit kiya gayaa haye. yeye udaaharan ack nyuntam jodee banaate hain, kyonki way samaan hain, sivaay isake kii pahala ateet apoorna ankan kaa upayog kartaa haye jahaan doosara ateet paripurna ankan kaa upayog kartaa haye. iss roopaatmak antar key parinamswarup, pahale kaa ack vipareet arth haye, jabaki dusare kaa naheen.
iss apoorna ankan koo iss aadhar parr nakali honey kaa tark diyaa gayaa haye kii yeh "ack maheene mein" jaise "poorna kriyavisheshan" key saath sangat haih
samanya gair-sashart vaakyon mein, iss tarah key kriyavisheshan poorna pahalu key saath sangat hain lekin apoorna pahalu key saath naheen hainh
manovigyaan.
loga aksar vipareet soch mein sanlagn hotey hain. praayogik sakshya ingit karate hain kii prati-tathyaatmak sthitiyon key baare mein logon key vichaar soochak sthitiyon key baare mein unake vichaaron seey mahatvapurna tarikon seey bhinn hotey hain.
samajh.
prayogon mein pratibhagiyon koo vaakyon koo padhane key liye kahaa gayaa thaa, jisamen prati-tathyaatmak shartein, ee.jee.aggar maark jaldi ghar seey nickle jaataa tou vaha train pakad letaa'. baad mein, unhein yeh pahchaanane key liye kahaa gayaa kii unhein kaun seey vaakya dikhaae gaye they. way aksar galati seey maanate they kii unhein poorv nirdhaarit tathyon key anuroop vaakya dikhaae gaye they, jaise.jee.maark jaldi ghar seey naheen nikla' aur 'maark train koo naheen pakad paaya'. anya prayogon mein, pratibhagiyon koo una laghu kathaaon koo padhane key liye kahaa gayaa thaa jinamen prati-tathyaatmak shartein theen, jaise.jee.aggar foolon kii dukaan mein gulab hotey tou lilly hoti. baad mein kahani mein, way poorv-anumaanit tathyon key anuroop vaakya padhate hain, jaise.jee., 'vahaan koee gulab naheen they aur naa hii koee lilly thee'. prati-tathyaatmak sashart ney unhein poorv-anumaanit tathyon key anuroop vaakya koo bahut teji seey padhane key liye prerit kiya; sanketaatmak sharton key liye aisaa koee praathamik prabhaav naheen huaa. unhone ack aisee kahani koo 'adyatan' karane mein alag-alag samay bitaaya jisamen tathyaatmak jaankaari aur prati-tathyaatmak sharton key vibhinn hisson parr dhyaan kendrit karane kii tulanaa mein ack prati-tathyaatmak shart hoti haye.
tark.
prayogon ney logon dwara prati-tathyaatmak sharton aur soochak sharton seey kiye gaye nishkarshon kii tulanaa kii haye. ack prati-tathyaatmak shart dee gaee haye, ee.jee.yadi blackboard parr ack vritt hotaa tou ack trikon hotaa aur baad kii jaankaari 'vaastav mein koee trikon naheen thaa', pratibhagiyon ney ack soochak shart seey adhik baar 'koee vritt naheen thaa' kaa modus tolense anuman lagaaya. prati-tathyaatmak sashart aur baad kii jaankaari 'vaastav mein ack vritt thaa' koo dekhate hue, pratibhaagi aksar ack soochak sashart seey modus ponens anuman lagaate hain.
manovaigyaanik khaate.
byrn kaa tark haye kii loga mansik pratinidhitva kaa nirmaan karate hain joe dou sambhaavanaon koo shamil karate hain jaba way ack vipareet vaastavik shart, ee seey samajhate hain, aur kaaran.jee., 'aggar oswald ney canady koo goli naheen maaree hoti, tou kissy aur key paas hoti'. way iss anuman kii parikalpana karate hain kii 'oswald ney kenedi koo goli naheen chalaai aur kissy aur ney kii' aur way poorv-anumaanit tathyon key baare mein bhee sochate hain kii 'oswald ney kenedi koo goli maaree aur kissy aur ney naheen'. tark key mansik model siddhant key anusaar, way vaikalpik sambhaavanaon key mansik model kaa nirmaan karate hain.

