manvadhikaron kaa darshan

manvadhikaron kaa darshan manvadhikaron kii avadharana key antarnihit aadhar kii jaanch karane kaa prayaas kartaa haye aur isaki samagri aur auchitya koo aalochanatmak roop seey dekhta haye. manvadhikaron kii avadharana kaise aur kyon vikasit hui, yeh samajhaane key liye kaee saiddhaantik drishtikon vikasit kiye gaye hain.
manvadhikaron parr sabse puraane paschimi darshanon mein seey ack yeh haye kii way ack praakritik kaanoon kaa utpaad hain, joe vibhinn daarshanik yaa dhaarmik aadharon seey utpann hotey hain. anya siddhanton kaa maanana haye kii manvadhikar naitik vyavhaar koo samhitaabaddh karate hain joe javic aur samajik vikas (humey seey judee) kii prakriya dwara vikasit ack maanav samajik utpaad haye. manvadhikaron koo niyam setting key samajik pattern key roop mein bhee varnit kiya gayaa haye (jaisa kii kaanoon key samajshastriya siddhant aur webber key kaam mein). inn drishtikonon mein yeh dhaarana shamil haye kii samaaj mein vyakti suraksha aur aarthik laabh (jaise rolls mein) key badale mein vaidh pradhikaran seey niyamon koo sweekaar karate hain-ack samajik anubandh. samkaaleen manvadhikar charcha mein joe dou siddhant haavi hain, way hain ruchi siddhant aur ichcha siddhant. hita siddhant kaa tark haye kii manvadhikaron kaa pramukh kaary kuchh aavashyak maanav hiton kii raksha aur badhaava denaa haye, jabaki siddhant swatantrata key liye advitiya maanav kshamata key aadhar parr manvadhikaron kii vaidhata sthaapit karane kaa prayaas karega.
praakritik adhikaar.
praakritik kaanoon key siddhant manvadhikaron koo ack "praakritik" naitik, dhaarmik yaa yahaan taka kii javic vyavastha parr adharit karate hain joe asthaayi maanav kaanoonon yaa paramparaon seey swatantra haye.
sukaraat aur unake daarshanik uttaradhikariyon, plato aur aristotal ney praakritik nyaay yaa praakritik adhikaar (δίκαιον φισικον "dicayan physicon"; lattin "ius natural") key astitva koo prastut kiya. inmein seey, aristotal koo aksar praakritik kaanoon kaa janak kahaa jaataa haye, halanki isake liye saboot kaafee hudd taka thomas aquinas dwara unake kaam kii vyakhyaon key kaaran haye.
praakritik nyaay kii iss parampara key praakritik kaanoon mein seey ack mein vikas kaa shreya aamtaur parr stoix koo diyaa jaataa haye.
kuchh praarambhik church pitaaon ney taba taka praakritik kaanoon kii moortipoojak avadharana koo isai dharm mein shamil karane kii koshish kii. thomas aquinas, francisco suerez, richard hooker, thomas hobbs, hyugo grotius, saimuel wonn pufendorff aur johnn loke key darshan mein praakritik kaanoon key siddhanton koo bahut adhik chitrit kiya gayaa haye.
sabse mahatvapurna "praakritik manvadhikar" mein seey ack jeevan kaa adhikaar haye. pracheen bhaaratiya granthon seey pataa chalata haye kii jaine sampradaay key sansthaapak bhagwan mahavir bhee jeevan key iss adhikaar key sansthaapak they. unaki shikshaaen aur siddhant siddhant yaa darshan parr kendrit they, "jio aur jeene dou. yeh darshan gair-satarkata key siddhant parr adharit haye. 
16veen shatabdi mein, spanish raajaon dwara lattin america key "indios" dwara bhoomi prabhutva key daavon kii vaidhata kii jaanch karane key liye kahaa gayaa, francisco dee vittoria ney praakritik adhikaaron key ack siddhant kii vyakhya kii, vishesh roop seey apane prasiddh "relactio dee indis" mein.
17veen shatabdi mein thomas hobbs ney kanuni pratyakshvaad key ack samvidaatmak siddhant kii sthaapana iss siddhant seey kii kii prakriti kii sthiti mein manushya, joe kii "rashtramandal" (ack raajya) key binaa kahane key liye haye, ack dusare key saath nirantar yuddh kii sthiti mein haye aur iss prakaar apane jeevan aur sampatti key darr seey (ise paribhaashit karane key liye ack samprabhu key binaa koee sampatti yaa adhikaar naheen haye). hobbs ney praakritik kaanoon parr jore diyaa kii kaise ack tarksangat maanav, jeevit rahane aur samriddh honey kii koshish curr rhaa haye, kaary karega; praakritik kaanoon kaa pahala siddhant shaanti kii talash karna haye, jisamen aatm-sanrakshan haye. praakritik kaanoon (jise hobbs ney sweekaar kiya kii ack galat naam thaa, rashtramandal key binaa koee kaanoon naheen thaa) kii khoj maanav jaati key praakritik hiton parr vichaar karke kii gaee thee, jabaki pichhale daarshnikon ney kahaa thaa kii praakritik adhikaaron kii khoj praakritik kaanoon parr vichaar karke kii gaee thee. hobbs kii raay mein, praakritik kaanoon kaa ekmatra tarika yeh thaa kii manushya ack samprabhu kii kamaan key adheen hocker ack rashtramandal banaane key liye sahmat hoe, chaahe vaha ack vyakti hoe yaa vyaktiyon kii sabhaa. isamen shaasit aur rajyapal key beach ack samajik anubandh key siddhant kii neenv rakhee gaee.
hyugo grotius ney praakritik kaanoon parr antarrashtriya kaanoon key apane darshan koo adharit kiya. unhone likhaa kii "ack sarvashaktimaan vyakti kii ichcha bhee praakritik kaanoon koo naheen badal sakati yaa nirast naheen curr sakati", joe "apani vastunishth vaidhata koo banaae rakhega, bhale hii hamein asambhav koo maan lena chaahiye, kii koee bhagwan naheen haye yaa vaha maanav mamalon kii parwah naheen kartaa haye."(" dee aire bellie assie paisis "," prolegomeni xi). yeh prasiddh tark "atimacy dermus" ("gair aise dame") haye, jisane praakritik kaanoon koo dharamshastra parr nirbhar naheen curr diyaa.
johnn loke ney apane kaee siddhanton aur darshan mein praakritik kaanoon koo shamil kiya, vishesh roop seey "sarkaar key dou granthon" mein. loke ney hobbs key parche koo yeh kahate hue badal diyaa kii yadi shaasak praakritik kaanoon key khilaf jaataa haye aur "jeevan, swatantrata aur sampatti" kii raksha karane mein whiffle rahata haye, tou loga uchit roop seey maujooda raajya koo ukhaad fenk sakate hain aur ack nayaa raajya banaa sakate hain.
belgium key kaanoon key daarshanik frank vaine dunn una logon mein seey ack hain joe udaar parampara mein praakritik kaanoon kii dharmnirpeksh avadharana koo vistaar seey bataa rahey hain. praakritik kaanoon siddhant key ubharate aur dharmnirpeksh roop bhee hain joe manvadhikaron koo saarvbhaumik maanav garima kii dhaarana key vyutpann key roop mein paribhaashit karate hain.
"manvadhikaron kii charcha key liye "garima" ack pramukh shabd haye. manvadhikaron kii saarvbhaumik ghoshana kissy bhee daarshanik aadhar parr apane daavon koo uchit naheen thaharaati haye, balki yeh kewal maanav garima koo aakarshit karati haye.
carle rahner maanav garima parr charcha karate hain kyonki yeh swatantrata seey sambandhit haye. vishesh roop seey, swatantrata key unake vichaar maanav adhikaaron seey sambandhit hain joe divya key saath samvaad karane kii swatantrata key liye ack appeal haye. moort vyaktiyon key roop mein, jinhen baahari taakton dwara iss swatantrata aur garima koo khatra hoe sakata haye, iss garima kii suraksha manvadhikaron kii raksha key liye ack appeal haye.
manvadhikar" shabd ney lokpriyata mein "praakritik adhikaar" shabd koo badal diyaa haye, kyonki adhikaaron koo cumm seey cumm unake astitva key liye praakritik kaanoon kii aavashyakta key roop mein dekhaa jaataa haye. kuchh logon key liye, manvadhikaron parr bahas iss prakaar praakritik kaanoon kii sahee vyakhya key ird-gird ack bahas bunny hui haye, aur manvadhikar swayam ack sakaratmak, lekin katautiwadi, abhivyakti haye.
samajik anubandh.
angreji daarshanik thomas hobbs ney ack kaalpanik "samajik anubandh" key astitva kaa sujhaav diyaa, jisamen swatantra vyaktiyon kaa ack samooh sanrakshan key liye unhein niyantrit karane key liye sansthanon kaa gathan karane key liye sahmat hotaa haye. way samprabhu seey suraksha key badale mein apani praakritik poorna swatantrata koo chhod dete hain. isake kaaran johnn loke kaa yeh siddhant saamane aaya kii adhikaaron koo surakshit karane mein sarkaar kii viphalata ack viphalata haye joe sarkaar koo hataane koo uchit thaharaati haye, aur jeane-jacks russo dwara baad mein apani "doo contrat soshal" (samajik anubandh) mein ise pratibimbit kiya gayaa thaa.
antarrashtriya equity visheshagya paul finn ney iss vichaar koo doharaayah
angreji kaanoon parampara kaa paalan karane vaale deshon mein sarkaar aur shaasit logon key beach sambandh ack pratyayi haye. samaantaa kaanoon mein, ack rajneta key pratyayi daayitva naa kewal sadbhavana aur nishtha key kartavya hain, balki isamen kissy desh aur usake logon key prabandhan mein kaushal aur kshamata key kartavya bhee shamil hain. nyaay key nyayalayon key bheetar seey utpann, pratyayi avadharana una logon koo apane adhikaar kaa durupyog karane seey rokane key liye maujood haye joe satta key padon parr hain. sarkaar aur shaasit key beach vishvaspatra sambandh apani shakti key prayog seey logon koo niyantrit karane kii sarkaar kii kshamata seey utpann hotaa haye. vaastav mein, yadi kissy sarkaar key paas kissy bhee adhikaar koo samaapt karane kii shakti haye, tou usa parr aise hita kii raksha karane key liye nyasi kartavya kaa bhee utanaa hii bojh haye kyonki usey una adhikaaron koo samaapt karane key liye apane vivek kaa prayog karane seey laabh hoga, jinka niptan karane kii shakti usake paas akele thee.
parasparikta.
swarnim niyam, yaa "parasparikta kii naitikta" mein kahaa gayaa haye kii kissy koo dusaron key saath vaisa hii vyavhaar karna chaahiye jaisa kii ack key saath kiya jaayega; siddhant yeh haye kii parasparik maanyata aur adhikaaron kaa sammaan yeh sunishchit kartaa haye kii kissy key apane adhikaaron kii raksha kii jaayegi. yeh siddhant duniya key sabhi pramukh dharmon mein kewal thode alag roopon mein paaya jaa sakata haye, aur 1993 mein duniya key dharmon kii sansad dwara "vaishvik naitikta kii or ghoshana" mein nihit kiya gayaa thaa.
manvadhikaron kii soviyat avadharana.
manvadhikaron kii soviyat avadharana paschim mein prachalit avadhaaranaon seey alag thee. paschimi kanuni siddhant key anusaar, "yeh vaha vyakti haye joe manvadhikaron kaa labharthi haye jise" sarkaar key khilaf "kahaa jaanaa haye, jabaki soviyat kaanoon ney ghoshit kiya kii raajya manvadhikaron kaa srot haye. isaliye, soviyat kanuni pranali kaanoon koo rajneeti kii ack shakha aur adalaton koo sarkaar kii agencies key roop mein maanati thee. soviyat gupt pulis agencies koo vyaapak atirikt-nyaypalika shaktiyaan dee gaeen. shasson ney paschimi kaanoon key shasson, nagrik swatantrata, kaanoon kii suraksha aur sampatti kii guaranti koo samaapt curr diyaa. vladmir lenin key anusaar, samajwadi adalaton kaa uddeshya "aatank koo samaapt karna naheen thaa... lekin ise saabit karna aur siddhant roop mein vaidh banaana.
aparaadh koo kaanoon key ullanghan key roop mein naheen, balki kissy bhee kaarravaai key roop mein nirdhaarit kiya gayaa thaa joe soviyat raajya aur samaaj key liye khatra hoe sakata haye. udaaharan key liye, laabh kamaane kii ichcha koo ack prati-krantikari gatividhi key roop mein vyakhya kii jaa sakati haye joe maut kii sajaa key yogya haye. soviyat nagrik sanhita kii sharton key bheetar aaee. dee. 1 mein laakhon kisaanon kaa parisamapan aur nirvaasan kiya gayaa thaa. kuchh soviyat kanuni vidvaanon ney yeh bhee daavaa kiya kii aparaadh key abhaav mein "aaparaadhik daman" lagu kiya jaa sakata haye.". ukraini cheka key pramukh martin latsis ney samajhaayah "yeh dekhane key liye kii aaropi hathiyar yaa shabdon key saath soviyat sangh key khilaf khadaa huaa yaa naheen, doshpurna sabooton kii file mein naa dekhein. isake bajaay usase poochhen kii vaha kiss varg seey sambandhit haye, usaki prishthabhoomi kyaa haye, usaki shiksha, uska pesha kyaa haye. yeye aise prashn hain joe abhiyukt key bhaagya kaa nirdhaaran karenge. yahee laal aatank kaa arth aur saar haye."
saarvajanik parikshanon kaa uddeshya "kissy aparaadh key astitva yaa anupasthiti koo pradarshit karna naheen thaa-joe upayukt party adhikaariyon dwara poorv nirdhaarit kiya gayaa thaa-balki nagrikon key nirdesh key liye raajneetik andolan aur prachaar key liye ack aur munch pradaan karna thaa (udaaharan key liye masco pareekshan dekhein). bachaav paksh key vakeelon, jinhen party key sadasya honey kii aavashyakta thee, koo apane muvakkil key aparaadh koo halke mein lena aavashyak thaa..."
manvadhikaron key anya siddhant.
daarshanik johnn finis kaa tark haye kii manvadhikar maanav kalyan key liye aavashyak sthitiyon key nirmaan mein unake sahayak moolya key aadhar parr uchit hain. hita siddhant aatm-hita key aadhar parr anya vyaktiyon key adhikaaron kaa sammaan karane key kartavya koo ujagar karate hainh
javic siddhant praakritik chayan key sandarbh mein sahaanubhooti aur paropkar key aadhar parr maanav samajik vyavhaar key tulanaatmak prajanan laabh parr vichaar kartaa haye.
maanav suraksha ack ubharata huaa vichaar haye joe suraksha kii paaramparik, raajya-adharit avadharana koo chunauti detaa haye aur tark detaa haye kii suraksha key liye ack zana-kendrit drishtikon aadhunik paraspar nirbhar duniya mein adhik upayukt haye aur duniya bhar mein vyaktiyon aur samajon kii suraksha koo aage badhaane mein adhik prabhaavi hoga.
manvadhikar vidwan barrister dow. mohammad yaseen khaan ell. ell. bee. onners, ell. ell. aim., pee. aich. dee., pee. jee. dee. ell., barrister-aitt-low (linken kii saraay) kii sifarish key anusaar, yookeh 'adhikaar' 'kanuni' kaa paryaay honey key kaaran aur 'galat' aur 'avaidh' donon key vipareet honey key kaaran, kissy bhee maanav vyakti kaa pratyek 'adhikaar' vaastav mein ack 'kanuni adhikaar' haye joe kaanoon, samvidhaan yaa kissy bhee desh mein likhe jaane key bavjood kaanoon aur kanuni upchaar key sanrakshan kaa hakdar haye.
barrister dow. mohammad yaseen khaan key anusaarah ekmatra tarika '(aeye) vishva koo aatankvaad aur yuddh mukt banaane aur bhookh, garibi, bhedbhaav aur shoshan seey bhee mukt banaane kaa; (bee) kaanoon aur aarthik, raajneetik aur samajik nyaay kaa shasson sthaapit karane kaa; aur (see) duniya bhar mein maanav kii swatantrata, shaanti aur vikas kii pushti karane kaa' manvadhikaron koo 'vaastavik kanuni adhikaaron' key roop mein sanrakshan aur badhaava denaa haye aur 'maanav key liye ack vyakti' key ack aur ekal siddhant mein vishva samudaay kii ekataa, paraspar sambandhit, paraspar nirbhar aur 'ack key liye ack-ack-dusare key liye ack' drishtikon, arthaat, vishva shaanti kaa 'maanav key liye siddhant' drishtikon haye.
manvadhikaron kii aalochana.
manvadhikaron kaa vichaar isake alochakon key binaa naheen haye. jeremi bentham, admond barke, friedrich neetshe aur carle marks aitihaasik daarshnikon key udaaharan hain jinhone praakritik adhikaaron kii dhaarana kii aalochana kii thee. alasdair mcintyre manvadhikaron key ack pramukh samkaaleen aalochak hain. unaki aalochanaon parr neeche charcha kii gaee haye.
admond praakritik adhikaaron parr barke.
admond barke 18veen shatabdi key daarshanik, raajneetik siddhantkar aur rajneta they joe kaafee hudd taka roodhivaad key school seey judey they. praakritik adhikaaron parr unake vichaaron koo "france mein kranti parr pratibimb" mein sabse achchi tarah seey vyakt kiya gayaa haye, jisane seedhe taur parr manushya aur nagrik (1789) aur isake lekhakon key adhikaaron kii ghoshana parr hamla kiya.
ghoshana" key baare mein berk kii bahut adhik bechaini vartamaan pratishthaan key praarupak key parityag mein nihit haye. berk key liye, samvaidhaanik vaidhata samanya ichcha key rusoi siddhant seey naheen, balki viraasat mein mille gyaan key ack roop seey praapt hui thee. unhone socha kii yeh ghamandapurna aur "ghoshana" key masaudon key liye seemit thaa kii way paaramparik dhaaranaon koo darkinar curr dein joe samay kii kasauti parr kharee utari theen. halanki masauda taiyar karane vaalon koo aisaa lugg sakata haye kii unhone parampara kii bediyon koo tyag diyaa thaa, lekin unhone apane nishkarshon koo ack vyakti yaa samooh kii sankeern soch vaali avadharana taka seemit curr diyaa thaa. yeh vaha aadhar haye jahan seey "ghoshana" kaa berk kaa hamla adharit haye.
barke ney praakritik adhikaaron key astitva seey incar naheen kiya; balki unhone socha kii masaudon dwara apanaae gaye ack praathamik tark ney aisee dhaaranaaen paida keen joe samaaj key dhaanche key bheetar lagu honey key liye bahut amoort theen. yeh kahate hue kii "inn siddhantkaron kaa naatak adhikaar sabhi charam seemaaen hain; aur ack anupaat mein kyonki way aadhyatmik roop seey sach hain, way naitik aur raajneetik roop seey galat hain", berk ney pehchaan kii kii samajik dhaanche key binaa amoort adhikaar arthaheen hainh
lock key vipareet, berk kaa maanana thaa kii sarkaar kaa uddeshya pahale seey maujood praakritik adhikaaron kii raksha karna naheen thaa; unakaa maanana thaa kii "manushya key adim adhikaaron mein itane vibhinn prakaar key apavartan aur pratibimb hotey hain kii unake baare mein baat karna betuka hoe jaataa haye jaise kii way apani mool disha kii sadgi mein jaari rahey.lambe samajik vikas key parinamswarup, yeh sarkaar hii thee, jisane nagrikon koo diye jaane vaale vyaavhaarik laabhon mein arthaheen praakritik adhikaaron koo badal diyaa.
yeh swayam adhikaar naheen they, jitna kii amurtata kaa star aur unhein sarkaar seey oopar rakhna joe khatarnak lagaa. unhone kahaa, "joe loga mahatvapurna pracheen pratishthanon koo giraate hain, joe prashaasan key tarikon aur saarvajanik sansthanon koo nasht karna chaahte hain... way sabse shararati hain, aur isaliye purushon mein sabse dusht hain. kyonki bhadkili rajneeti kaa koee saral uttar naheen thaa, aur nishchit roop seey koee vyaapak, saarvbhaumik siddhant naheen they jaise kii "ghoshana" mein vyakt kiye gaye they. balki vyaktiyon koo diye gaye adhikaaron kaa mulyankan samajik dhaanche key sandarbh mein kiya jaanaa thaa. haalaanki, unhone sweekaar kiya kii "ghoshana" kii sadgi aakarshak thee aur samajik vyavastha koo kamjor karane kii isaki kshamata seey darte they. berk kaa maanana thaa kii amurtata key inn siddhanton kii poorna prakriti swabhavik roop seey krantikari thee; way asambaddh they aur siddhanton seey koee bhee upman hathiyar mein uthane kaa ack kaaran thaa. yeh ack samasya thee kyonki;
praakritik adhikaar jinake khilaf koee parcha naheen hoe sakata haye; inke khilaf koee samjhauta badhyakari naheen haye "ney krantikariyon koo usee samaaj koo nasht karane key upkaran diye joe maanate they kii unhein adhikaar diye gaye they. iss tarah berk ney socha kii "ghoshana" mein nihit adhikaar "pagalpan, kalah, burai, bhram aur apariharya dukh kii virodhi duniya" kii or leey jaayenge."
praakritik adhikaaron parr jeremi bentham.
18veen shatabdi key upayogitaavaadi daarshanik jeremi bentham ney apane paath "arajaktawadi bhraantiyon" mein manushya aur nagrik key adhikaaron kii ghoshana kii aalochana kii. unhone prasiddh roop seey kahaa kii praakritik adhikaaron kii avadharana "stilt parr murkhtapurna" thee. bentham ney "ghoshana" kii aalochana usa bhasha key liye kii jise usane apanaaya aur usake dwara prastut siddhanton key liye kahaa; "patra koo dekhein, aapako murkhtapurna lagey; patra seey parey dekhein, aapako kuchh bhee naheen milaa."
ghoshana" key khilaf bentham dwara kii gaee aalochanaon mein seey ack nirpeksh aur saarvbhaumik maandandon key roop mein adhikaaron kaa daavaa thaa. unhone pehchaan kii kii sabhi key paas samaan roop seey nihit poorna adhikaar arthaheen aur avaanchhaniya hain. unake paas arth kii kamee haye kyonki udaaharan key liye, yadi harr kissy key paas aseemit swatantrata haye, tou unhein usa swatantrata kaa upayog dusare kii swatantrata parr prabhaav daalane seey rokane key liye kuchh bhee naheen haye. iss tarah "maanav sarkaar aur maanav kaanoonon" koo adhikaaron koo kuchh seemaaen dene kii aavashyakta haye taaki unhein sakar kiya jaa sakey. bhale hii poorna adhikaaron key samarthak iss aavashyakta koo pahachaante hain, jaisa kii "ghoshana" key samarthakon ney kiya thaa, bentham kaa tark haye kii yeh vyarth haye. yeh aatm-virodhabhasi hoga, kyonki yeye adhikaar, usee saans mein hain, jisamen unake astitva kii ghoshana kii gaee haye, abhedya ghoshit kiye gaye hain; aur abhedya hain... iska matlab kuchh bhee naheen haye jaba taka kii yeh kaanoonon key hastakshep koo baahar naheen kartaa haye."
iss virodhabhas key alawa, bentham ney poorna roop seey sophe key adhikaaron key khatron key baare mein chetavani dee. ack aisee sarkaar joe pratyek vyakti key adhikaar kii poori tarah seey aur samaan roop seey raksha karane mein saksham haye, ack aadarshvaadi akanksha haye, lekin "ghoshana" ise apani vaidhata key liye sharton key roop mein prastut karati haye. inn apekshaon koo puuraa karane mein kissy bhee star parr whiffle rahane vaali pratyek sarkaar key khilaf, vidroh koo bhadkana iss ghoshanapatra kaa ghoshit uddeshya haye.bentham iss baat seey incar naheen karate hain kii kuchh kaanoon hain joe naitik roop seey galat hain; unaki bechaini ack ghrinit kaanoon key aadhar parr-hinsa, arajakta aur vinash key saath-hathiyaron key liye ack krantikari ahwan koo aasaani seey uchit thaharaane mein haye.
saiddhaantik doshon key baare mein, bentham ney socha kii praakritik adhikaar ack aisaa nirmaan haye jise masauda taiyar karane vaalon key swarthi uddeshyon koo puuraa karane key liye apanaaya gayaa haye, jiska koee taarkik aadhar naheen mill sakata haye. unhone sweekaar kiya kii adhikaar honah vaanchhaniya hoe sakata haye, lekin "yeh ichcha karane kaa ack kaaran kii ack nishchit adhikaar sthaapit kiya gayaa thaa, vaha adhikaar naheen haye; abhaav aapoorti naheen haye; bhookh rotty naheen haye.ack samprabhu dwara adhiniyamit kaanoonon key aadhar parr maujood adhikaaron koo sthaapit karna taarkik roop seey sahee thaa, lekin prakriti dwara sthaapit adhikaaron kaa daavaa karna naheen thaa. ack swabhavik adhikaar ack aisaa putra haye jiska kabhi pitaa naheen thaa."
bentham ney naa kewal yeh socha kii praakritik adhikaaron key siddhant kaa koee taarkik aadhar naheen haye, balki unakaa maanana thaa kii unakaa vyaktivaadi drishtikon samaaj key liye hanikarak haye.
bentham kaa maanana thaa kii samaaj logon kii adhik seey adhik bhalai kaa peechha karane kii kshamata parr nirbhar haye, naa kii kewal unaki apani ichchhaon kii alpakaalik santushti parr. praakritik adhikaaron kii unnati, jise unhone swarth kaa jashn manaane key roop mein dekhaa, maanav jeevan koo sahaniya banaane vaale samajik samudaay koo todane key saadhan pradaan karna thaa.
manvadhikaron kii markswadi aalochana.
yahudi prashn parr", carle marks ney burjua vichardhara key roop mein manushya aur nagrik key adhikaaron kii ghoshana kii aalochana keeh
sabse badhkar, humm iss tathya parr dhyaan dete hain kii manushya key tathaakathit adhikaar, droits dee ell home, joe kii droits doo sitoyen seey alag hain, aur kuchh naheen balki nagrik samaaj key ack sadasya key adhikaar hain-i.ee., ahankari vyakti key adhikaar, anya purushon aur samudaay seey alag vyakti key adhikaar. ... 1791 key maanav adhikaaron kii ghoshana key anusaarah
isaliye swatantrata vaha sub kuchh karane kaa adhikaar haye jisase kissy aur koo nuksan naa hoe. way seemaaen jinake bheetar koee bhee kissy aur koo nuksan pahunchaae binaa kaary curr sakata haye, kaanoon dwara paribhaashit kii jaati hain, jaise dou kshetron key beach kii seema ack seema chauki dwara nirdhaarit kii jaati haye.
iss prakaar, marks key anusaarah "suraksha poonjipati samaaj kii sarvocch samajik avadharana haye, pulis kii avadharana, puuraa samaaj kewal apane pratyek sadasya key apane vyakti, apane adhikaaron aur apani sampatti key sanrakshan koo sunishchit karane key liye maujood haye."marks key liye, udaar adhikaar aur nyaay key vichaar iss vichaar parr adharit hain kii humm mein seey pratyek koo anya manushyon seey suraksha kii aavashyakta haye. isaliye, udaar adhikaar algaav key adhikaar hain, joe hamein iss tarah key kathit khatron seey bachaane key liye banaae gaye hain. iss tarah key drishtikon parr swatantrata, hastakshep seey swatantrata haye. marks key anusaar, yeh drishtikon iss sambhavana seey incar kartaa haye kii vaastavik swatantrata koo anya logon key saath hamaare sambandhon mein sakaratmak roop seey paaya jaanaa haye. yeh maanav samudaay mein paaya jaataa haye, naa kii algaav mein. isaliye adhikaaron key shasson parr jore dene seey humm ack-dusare koo una tarikon seey dekhane key liye protsaahit hotey hain joe maanav mukti mein hamein mill sakati vaastavik swatantrata kii sambhavana koo kamjor karate hain.
markswadi aalochanatmak siddhantkar slavos zizek ney tark diyaa kii "dusare key prati udaar drishtikon donon kii visheshta haye-dusare key prati sammaan, isake prati khulepan aur utpeedan kaa jununi darr. sankshep mein, dusare kaa swaagat kiya jaataa haye kyonki isaki upasthiti ghuspaith naheen haye, kyonki yeh vaastav mein doosara naheen haye. iss prakaar sahishnuta isake vipareet key saath mell khaati haye. dusare key prati sahishnu honey key merey kartavya kaa prabhaavi roop seey matlab haye kii mujhe usake bahut karib naheen jaanaa chaahiye, usake sthaan mein ghuspaith naheen karni chaahiye-sankshep mein, kii mujhe apani atee-nikatata key prati usaki asahishnuta kaa sammaan karna chaahiye. yeh teji seey unnat poonjiwadi samaaj key kendriya manvadhikar key roop mein ubhar rhaa haih 'pareshan' naheen honey kaa adhikaar, yaani dusaron seey surakshit doori parr rakhaa jaanaa."aur" saarvbhaumik manvadhikar prabhaavi roop seey safed, purush sampatti-maalikon kaa bajar mein swatantra roop seey adaan-pradaan karane, shramikon aur mahilaaon kaa shoshan karane aur raajneetik prabhutva sthaapit karane kaa adhikaar haye."
manvadhikaron parr alasdair mcintyre.
alasdare mcintyre ack scotish daarshanik hain jinhone raajneetik darshan, naitikta aur tatvamimansa sahit vibhinn daarshanik kshetron mein kaee kaary prakaashit kiye hain. mcintyre ney punya key baad manvadhikaron kii avadharana kii aalochana kii aur way prasiddh roop seey daavaa karate hain kii "aise koee adhikaar naheen hain, aur unamen vishvaas chudailon aur unicorn mein vishvaas key saath haye."
mcintyre kaa tark haye kii manvadhikaron key astitva koo uchit thaharaane kaa harr prayaas whiffle rhaa haye. 18veen shatabdi key daarshnikon key daave kii praakritik adhikaar swayam-spasht satya hain, unakaa tark haye kii anivarya roop seey galat hain kyonki aatm-spasht satya jaisi koee cheejen naheen hain. unakaa kahana haye kii 20veen shatabdi key daarshnikon ney antargyaan key liye joe nivedan kiya haye, vaha daarshanik tark mein ack dosh koo darshaata haye. mcintyre taba rekhaankit karate hain kii, halanki ronald dowerkin yeh kahana galat naheen haye kii kissy bayaan koo pradarshit karane mein asamarthata key liye isaki jhooth kii aavashyakta naheen haye, vahee tark chudailon aur unicorn key sambandh mein lagu kiya jaa sakata haye.
mcintyre ney ack susangat naitik pranali kaa utpaadan karane mein gyaan kii viphalata key baare mein ack vyaapak tark key sandarbh mein manvadhikaron kii yeh aalochana kii. gyaan key daarshnikon ney naitikta key auchitya key roop mein padanukram aur doorvigyaan kii badnam dhaaranaon koo darkinar karane kii koshish kii. isake bajaay, mcintyre kaa tark haye kii gyaan ney vyakti koo yeh nirdhaarit karane key liye samprabhu adhikaar key roop mein rakhaa kii kyaa sahee aur kyaa galat haye. haalaanki naitikta kii aitihaasik dhaaranaon key prati nishtha bunny rahee aur daarshnikon ney maujooda maanyataon key liye ack dharmnirpeksh aur tarksangat auchitya khojane kii koshish kii. mcintyre kaa kahana haye kii samasya yeh haye kii teleological naitikta kaa vikas maanav swabhaav mein doshon koo door karane key liye kiya gayaa thaa; aadarsh kaa ack udaaharan prastut karane key liye. poorna manavata' kii iss dhaarana key binaa ack naitik siddhant key nirmaan key liye ekmatra shesh neenv apoorna maanav swabhaav kii neenv thee. mcintyre key liye, parinam naitik rukh kaa ack sangrah thaa, jisamen seey pratyek kaa tarkapurna auchitya honey kaa daavaa kiya gayaa thaa aur pratyek pratidvandi dhaaranaon key nishkarshon parr vivaad curr rhaa thaa.
mcintyre kaa maanana haye kii aadhunik samaaj mein honey vaali kaee samkaaleen naitik bahason koo "gyaan pariyojana" kii iss viphalata key parinamswarup samajhaaya jaa sakata haye. manvadhikar ack naitik vishvaas kaa ack udaaharan haye, joe pichhale teleological vishvaason mein sthaapit haye, joe tarksangatata mein adharit honey kaa jhoothaa daavaa karate hain. yeh spasht karane key liye kii siddhant kaise sangharsh kii or leey jaate hain, vaha garbhpaat kaa udaaharan dete hain; iss mamle mein maan kaa apane shareer parr niyantran rakhane kaa adhikaar poorv-janme bachche key jeevan key adhikaar seey vanchit honey key vipareet haye. haalaanki swatantrata kaa adhikaar aur jeevan kaa adhikaar donon koo apane aap mein naitik roop seey sweekarya daavaa maanaa jaataa haye, lekin jaba humm unhein ack-dusare key khilaf pesh karate hain tou sangharsh utpann hotaa haye.
moolya aur sampatti kaa siddhant.
ghent key heinry ney iss siddhant koo spasht kiya kii pratyek vyakti kaa apane shareer mein sampatti hita hotaa haye. johnn loke ney sampatti shabd kaa upayog vyaapak aur sankeern donon arthon mein kiya haye. vyaapak arthon mein, yeh maanav hiton aur aakaankshaon kii ack vistrit shrinkhala koo shamil kartaa haye; adhik sankeern roop seey, yeh bhautik vastuon koo sandarbhit kartaa haye. unakaa tark haye kii sampatti ack praakritik adhikaar haye aur yeh shram seey praapt hotaa haye. isake alawa, sarkaar seey pahale kii sampatti aur sarkaar "praja kii sampatti kaa manmaane dhang seey niptan naheen curr sakati haye."lock key anusaar vaidh sampatti adhikaaron seey incar karna manvadhikaron seey incar karna haye. british daarshanik kaa britten kii sarkaar key vikas parr mahatvapurna prabhaav padaa aur vaha sanyukt raajya america key maulik sansthaapak darshan key kendra mein they. carle marks ney baad mein apane "adhishesh moolya key siddhanton" mein lock key sampatti key siddhant kii aalochana kii, jisamen lock key karyon mein adhishesh moolya key siddhant kii shuruat dekhi gaee. lock key "dusare granth" mein unhone tark diyaa kii niji sampatti kaa adhikaar aseemit thaa jaba taka kii koee bhee apani kissy bhee sampatti koo barbad honey diye binaa upayog karane seey adhik naheen leey sakata thaa aur dusaron key liye tulaniya gunavatta key paryaapt samanya sansaadhan upalabdh they taaki way apani sampatti banaa sakein. lock kaa maanana thaa kii kuchh loga dusaron kii tulanaa mein adhik "mehnati aur tarksangat" honge aur adhik sampatti ikattha karenge, lekin unakaa maanana thaa kii isase kamee naheen hogi. halanki yeh pranali dhana kii shuruat seey pahale kaam curr sakati thee, marks ney "adhishesh moolya key siddhanton" mein tark diyaa kii lock kii pranali toot jaayegi aur daavaa kiya kii dhana prakriti key usa niyam kaa virodhabhas thaa jiss parr niji sampatti kii sthaapana kii gaee thee.

