
ingland kaa itihas (humey book)

ingland kaa itihas (1754-1761) ingland key itihas (wells, scotland aur ireland koo bhee shamil karate hue) parr david humey kaa mahaan kaam haye, jise unhone kishton mein likhaa thaa, jabaki way edinberg mein adhivaktaon key sankaay key librarian they. yeh 1754,1757,1759 aur 1762 mein chhah khandon mein prakaashit huaa thaa. unake "itihas" key pahale prakaashan kaa sabhi raajneetik guton ney akrosh key saath swaagat kiya thaa, lekin yeh ack best-seller bunn gayaa, antatah unhein vaha vittiya swatantrata dee jisaki unhone lambe samay seey maang kii thee. humey kaa "itihas" julius seasure key aakraman seey laker 1688 kii kranti taka faila huaa haye aur 100 seey adhik sanskaranon seey gujra haye. kaee loga ise apane samay mein ingland kaa maanak itihas maanate they.
prakaashan kaa itihas.
humey ney pahale kewal james aaee aur charles aaee key tahat ingland kaa itihas likhane key liye prasthaan kiya, joe 1754 mein prakat huaa. unhone isake baad doosara itihas likhaa joe 1688 kii kranti taka jaari rhaa. inn dou khandon kii saapeksh safalata key saath, humey ney pahale key yugon key itihas parr shodh kiya aur kull chhah khandon kaa utpaadan kiya. natijatan, paanchvaan khand 1754 mein mudrit honey vaalaa pahala khand thaa, jabaki pahala dou khand 1762 mein antim baar prakaashit huaa thaa. puuraa "ingland kaa itihas" kalanukramik crum mein vyavasthit kiya gayaa haye, joe iss prakaar haih
pichhale dou khandon key shirshakon key kaaran, poore kaam koo kabhi-kabhi galati seey "ingland key itihas" key bajaay "mahaan britten kaa itihas" key roop mein sandarbhit kiya gayaa haye.
kaary kii rachana kii paristhitiyaan.
1745 kaa antim jacobite vidroh ack bahut hii halia smriti thee, aur austriyai uttaradhikar key yuddh koo badalane key karib aaa gayaa thaa.
british uttaradhikar key yuddh mein. yeh ack sadame key roop mein aaya thaa. isaliye unaki mukhya chinta 1688 kii kranti koo vaidh banaana aur bhavishya mein kissy bhee vidroh koo rokna thaa. vaha chaahte they kii sarkaar kaa unakaa darshan wiggs aur poorv jacobite donon koo aakarshit karey. shayed ise unake 1748 key nibandh "mool anubandh" mein sabse achchi tarah seey samajha jaa sakata haye. way kissy bhee party key anuyaayi naheen they.
ingland mein, scotland virodhi purvagrah bahut adhik thaa. humey "aantarik skotikvaad" key ack master they, aur yahaan taka kii ise kaise kiya jaae, isake baare mein ack pustika bhee likhi. ingland kaa itihas" iss shally kaa ack utkrisht roop haye. yeh usa parivesh koo phir seey jeevant karane key liye hyoom koo samajhane mein madad kartaa haye jisamen vaha falaa-phoola.
1688 kii kranti.
unhone kranti key baare mein likhaah "swatantrata key paksh mein kaee mahatvapurna prashnon kaa nirnay laker, aur phir bhee, ack raajaa koo padchyut karane aur ack nae parivaar kii sthaapana kii usa mahaan misal seey, isane lokpriya siddhanton koo aisaa prabhutva diyaa, jaisa kii angreji samvidhaan kii prakriti koo sabhi vivaadon seey parey rakhaa haye. iss prakaar humey una logon key saath virodhabhas haye joe tark dete hain kii british samvidhaan poori tarah seey vikaasvaadi haye, aur baad key americi aur francisi samvidhaanon aur pahale key dutch samvidhaan kii tarah ack kranti seey naheen ubhara thaa.
british swatantrata kii iss virodhi vyakhya key srot kaa pataa humey key krantikari bahason key khaate mein lagaaya jaa sakata haye. villium off orange koo angreji whiggs aur tory key gathbandhan dwara aakraman karane key liye aamantrit kiya gayaa thaa. baad vaale key iss kathan koo shaant karane key liye kii "simhaasan kabhi khaali naheen thaa", yaa aadhunik bhasha mein "samrat kabhi naheen martaa", kalpana parr sahamati thee kii raajaa james koo tyag diyaa jaayega. yeh scotish sansadiya sammelan mein gir gayaa, joe angreji key ack maheene baad huaah "ack saahasik aur nirnaayak vote mein", yeh ghoshit karane key liye kii raajaa james ney apane kushasana aur shakti key durupyog seey, mukut key liye sabhi khitaab "khou diye they. humey britten koo ack aadhunik samvidhaan key roop mein prastut karna chaahte they. unhone ise aisee cheez key roop mein naheen dekhaa joe magna carta yaa raajaa alfred key kaanoonon taka nirbaadh roop seey faili hui thee.
yeh kathaa ack sansadiya sammelan key saath samaapt hoti haye jisamen samjhaute koo jodaa jaataa haye "adhikaaron kii ghoshana, jahaan sabhi bindu, joe baad key varshon mein, raajaa aur logon key beach vivaadit they, antatah nirdhaarit kiye gaye they; aur shaahi visheshaadhikaar kii shaktiyan angreji sarkaar kii kissy bhee poorv avadhi kii tulanaa mein adhik sankeern aur adhik sateek roop seey paribhaashit theen. vaastav mein britten mein iss avadhi seey adhikaar kii dou ghoshanaaen hain. adhikaaron kaa vidheyak ingland kaa mool kaanoon haye (yaa thaa), scotland key liye adhikaar kaa daavaa.
inn chhoti adhyayan kii gaee ghoshanaon key beach mahatvapurna antar hain. jahaan adhikaaron key vidheyak mein kahaa gayaa haye kii raajaa sansad kii sahamati key binaa kaanoon naheen banaa sakata haye, adhikaar kaa daavaa kahata haye kii kaanoon seey oopar shasson karane key adhikaar key sabhi daave swayam kaanoon key khilaf hain. bill off rites johnn loke seey prerit thaa. adhikaar key daave key peechhe james delrymple key maargdarshak haath kaa pataa lagaaya jaa sakata haye, seedhi kii pahali wiscount 1619-1695. humey ney edinberg mein ack chhaatr key roop mein kaanoon kaa adhyayan kiya. unakaa tatparya haye kii unhone iss adhyayan kii upeksha kii. ise ack chutaki namak key saath lena chaahiye. hoe sakata haye kii vaha aam paathak koo yeh dhaarana dene seey bachana chaahata hoe kii usane villium blackstone jaise vakeelon key liye itihas likhaa thaa. nishchit roop seey vaha roman dutch kaanoon key dou sansthapakon, johannes voit aur arnold vinius key naam usee saans mein cicero aur virgil key roop mein rakhate hain. sisro, nishchit roop seey, ack vakeel they. ack scotish kaanoon key chhaatr key liye adhyayan karane key liye maanak kaam, taba kii tarah, "scotland key kaanoonon key seedhi sansthaan" they.
humm 1689 key aparivartit samvidhaanon mein seey kissy key bhee naam naheen lete they. way chaahte they kii sanyukt raajya key liye ack nayaa samvidhaan inn ruprekha ghoshanaon koo taiyar karey. unhone apane prastaavon koo "ack paripurna rashtramandal key vichaar" nibandh mein rakhaa, joe 17veen shatabdi key rutland doordarshi james harrington dwara "oseana key rashtramandal" kaa punarnirmaan haye. rashtramandal key vistaar aur isaki rajdhani key sthaan koo anishchit chhodate hue, humey kii atyadhik vikasit yojana "ack mahaan aur ack chhote seey rashtramandal donon key sabhi laabhon koo praapt karna" thee. kuchh mayanon mein yeh presbyterian church sarkaar key model seey milata-julata haye. humey ack alikhit samvidhaan key siddhantkar naheen they.
kathaa.
jiss crum mein unhone unhein likhaa thaa, usa crum mein shayed iss kaam kii charcha chaar alag-alag itihas key roop mein kii jaa sakati haye.
grate britten kaa itihas bhaag 1.
pustak kii shuruat scotland key james vee key saath shaantipoorvak grate britten key pahale raajaa kii upaadhi grahan karane key saath hoti haye. unhone turant apane dou raajyon key beach ack sangh koo badhaava dene key prayason kii ack shrinkhala shuru kii, aur isake liye francis bekan mein ack kattar sahayogi paaya. yeye kuchh bhee naheen hue, dilchasp roop seey scotish kii tulanaa mein angreji sansad mein virodh key kaaran. kull milakar, humey iss jatil raajaa koo chitrit kartaa haye, joe orestes key samaan durdasha key saath badaa huaa thaa, ack laabhkaari shaasak key roop mein britten koo shaanti seey rakhta thaa, vishesh roop seey tees saal key yuddh seey baahar rahane key dwara.
haalaanki anpekshit parinamon kaa ack mahakavya ujagar thaa. jaise hii raajaa marr rhaa thaa, usake bete kaa spanish infanta koo lubhana ack jung mein badal gayaa, aur donon desh ack yuddh mein badal gaye, jise house off commons mein protestant charampanthiyon ney prerit kiya. charles aaee kaa ingland mein sansad key binaa shasson karane key adhikaar (1628) kii yachika key baad prayaas scotland (1638) mein rashtriya vaacha kii kranti koo ukasaane key baad dhwast hoe gayaa. felim oh 'neel key netritva mein ayrish catholics ney vidroh karane kaa avsar (1641) liya. ingland mein grihyuddh chhid gayaa. raajaa koo haraaya gayaa, parkha gayaa aur maar diyaa gayaa (1649). iss prakaar humey kaa pahala khand ganatantravaad key saath ingland key alpakaalik prayog kii shuruat mein samaapt hotaa haye.
pustak key swaagat key baare mein, humey ney likhaah
mujhe ninda, asweekriti aur yahaan taka kii tiraskar key ack roye seey maaraa gayaa thaa; angreji, scotch, aur ayrish, whig aur tory, churchman aur sampradayik, freethinker aur dharamvaadi, deshbhakt aur darbari, usa aadami key khilaf apane gusse mein ekjut hue, jisane charles I key bhaagya key liye ack udaar aansuu bahaane kaa anuman lagaaya thaa, aur strafford key kaana.
grate britten kaa itihas bhaag 2.
humey ney iss kahani koo jaari rakhaa haih saamyvaad key saath leveller prayog; scotish sansad dwara charles II koo raajaa key roop mein ghoshit karane kii; cromwell dwara ayrish vidroh key narsamhar daman kii; dunbar kii ladaai mein unake nikat dushman key; scone mein charles II key taaj kii; versester kii ladaai mein abb shaahi vaacha senaa key cromwell key antim vinash kii; aur usake baad scotland key unake vilay kii.
cromwell kii mrityu key baad, unakaa betaa richard cromwell, "girate dick", ganarajya koo ack saath naheen rakh sakaa; aur general monk ney punarsthapana koo prabhaavit karane key liye dakshin mein scotland mein kabje kii senaa koo laaya. isake baad shesh hatyaon kaa nishpaadan kiya gayaah "... ack munn, joe manavata key saath anubhavi haye, karuna aur bhog kaa ack bharpur srot paayega... koee bhee sant yaa kabulkarta swarg key adhik aashvast vishvaas key saath kabhi shahadat naheen gayaa, jitna kii una apraadhiyon dwara vyakt kiya gayaa thaa, taba bhee jaba tatkaal mrityu kii dahashat, kaee apmaanon key saath juda gaee thee.". unhein fansi parr latka diyaa gayaa aur quarter kiya gayaa. chaar (pahale seey hii mrit) koo alag curr diyaa gayaa aur maranoparant fansi dee gaee.
iss khand key baare mein, humey ney likhaah "1756 mein, pahale khand key girane key dou saal baad, merey itihas kaa doosara khand prakaashit kiya gayaa thaa, jisamen charles aaee kii mrityu kii avadhi shamil thee. kranti taka. yeh pradarshan whiggs koo cumm aprasannata dene key liye huaa, aur ise behtar tareeke seey praapt kiya gayaa. yeh naa kewal khud koo oopar uthaa, balki apane durbhagyapurna bhaai koo utsaahit karane mein madad kii.".
tudor key ghar kaa itihas.
saat saal key yuddh key dauran likhaa gayaa yeh itihas shuru hotaa haye (khand. 3) anglo-wells heinry tudor dwara puraane paadap-vansh shaahi parivaar key antim patan aur vilupt honey key saath; aur ack kamjor vanshaanugat daave key liye sweekriti praapt karane mein unaki safalata. robbert adamson hamein bataate hain kii yeh vaha bindu thaa jahan addam smith itihas kii shuruat karane key liye humey chaahte they. vahaan heinry VIII key shasankal kaa anusaran hotaa haye, aur rome key saath unakaa break; unake kharaab-tarankit bete edward vi key tahat angreji sudhaar; aur unaki betty "khooni" mairi i dwara prati-sudhaar kaa prayaas.
khand. 4 raani elizabeth key shasankal key saath jaari haye. humey ney likhaah "1759 mein, maine tudor key ghar kaa apana itihas prakaashit kiya. iss pradarshan key khilaf hangama dou pahale stuart key itihas key lagbhag barabar thaa. elizabeth kaa shasankal vishesh roop seey apriya thaa. elizabeth kaa humey kaa chitran shayed hii koee khush karane vaalaa haye. haalaanki, akrosh kaa ack aur kaaran thaa. humm, dow key saath. villium robertson, scott kii raani mairi key saapeksh kaagjaaton kii jaanch curr rahey they. donon itihaskaron ney paaya kii raani mairi vaastav mein apane pati darnley kii hatyaa mein shamil thee, iss prakaar scotland kii sansad ney jaba unhein padchyut kiya thaa tou unhone joe kahaa thaa usey doshmukt curr diyaa. iss parr hyoom aur robertson kaa khandan karane key bahut saare prayaas kiye gaye hain.
ingland kaa praarambhik itihas.
khand 2 mein magna carta kii sthaapana key baad kii avadhi koo shamil kiya gayaa haye, gulab key yuddhon mein plantagenate rajvansh key swatah-vinash taka. ise usa samay key roop mein varnit kiya jaa sakata haye jaba dou shataabdiyon key franco-norman daman key baad angreji rashtra kaa punarnimaan kiya gayaa thaa.
khand 1 kahani koo pahale angreji raajyon kii neenv parr vaapas leey jaataa haih kent, northumberland, east anglia, mercia, assex, sussex aur wessex; aur inn roman-wells samrajyon koo pratisthaapit kiya gayaa.
samvaidhaanik itihas key roop mein kaary.
humey ney kaee parishisht aur pravachan likhe, jinhen unaki rachana key spasht crum mein vargeekrit kiya jaa sakata haye, jisamen shamil hainh 1) shekspeare kii avadhi; 2) bahaali taka kii avadhi; 3) kranti key saath samaapt honey vaali avadhi; 4) tudor kii avadhi; 5) anglo-saxon avadhi; 6) magna carta key hastakshar aur kramik karyanvayan taka kii avadhi; 7) edward kaa yug; aur 8) samriddh paadap key patan key saath samaapt honey vaali avadhi. khand 2 key anta mein yeh antim charcha humey key kuchh sabse vikasit vichaaron (adhyaay xxii) kaa saransh haye.
ack jacobite virodhi shibboleth jise humey khandan karna chaahata thaa, yeh maanate hue kii poorna rajshahi james aaee dwara ingland mein laaya gayaa ack navachar thaa. jaba james raajaon key divya adhikaar kii vyakhya karate hue apana basilican dorron likh rahey they, tou vaha akele scotland key raajaa they. vaha apane aniyantrit uttari raajya mein raajatva key sattawadi angreji model koo laana chaahata thaa. jaba way ingland aae, tou unhein uchch aayog key damankari nyayalaya aur tudors seey starr chamber kaa nyayalaya viraasat mein milaa. unhone apani shaktiyon mein vriddhi naheen kii. isake vipareet, humey ney paaya kii pahale dou stuart kaa shasson elizabeth kii tulanaa mein halka thaa. krantikari vidroh kissy nae utpeedan key kaaran naheen huaa thaa.
haalaanki humey ney sweekaar kiya kii sarkaar kaa divya adhikaar, yaa pitrisattaatmak, pranali kaa swayam ack aitihaasik mool thaa. yeh vaha pahale dou tudors key samay kaa haih heinry VIII aur heinry VIII. usa tarikh seey pahaleh "ack tarah kaa polish abhijaat varg prabal thaa...". humes key samay mein polish abhijaat varg ney apana raajaa chunaa. yeh hohenzolern, habsberg aur romnov autocracy key beach polland key vibhajan kii lambi avadhi seey pahale kii baat haye.
usa samay montesque key saath yeh sahmat honah sambhav thaa kii polish sjlachta, yaa abhijaat varg, nirankushta key khilaf ack gadh key roop mein banaa rhaa thaa, joe france mein borban shakti key kendrikaran key madhyam seey khud jaise abhijaat varg dwara khou diyaa gayaa thaa. bahut haal kaa itihas viraasat yogya adhikaar kshetron kaa unmoolan thaa. usa kaanoon key paarit honey seey pahale, scotland mein sthaaniya abhijaat varg key paas mamalon koo aazmaane aur senaaon koo badhaane kii shakti thee, kyonki sarkaar ney abhee-abhee apani laagat key baare mein seekha thaa. ingland koo divya adhikaar siddhanton kaa niryaat karane seey bahut doorah polland kii tarah scotland kabhi bhee ack kendrikrit punarjagaran rajshahi naheen bunn paaya thaa.
isi tarah, tudors seey pahale ingland mein... haalaanki raajaa seemit they, lekin loga abhee bhee swatantra honey seey bahut door they. isake liye una avyavasthit aur avaidh atyachari, joe shaanti aur swatantrata seey samaan roop seey vimukh they, koo neeche laane aur kaanoonon key niyamit nishpaadan koo sthaapit karane key liye lagbhag samprabhun key adhikaar kii aavashyakta thee, joe baad kii avadhi mein hue, joe kaanoon key niyamit aur nyaaysangat yojana banaane mein saksham they. ack viraasat yogya adhikaar kshetra samaantaa key saath sanchaalit kiya jaa sakata haye, yadi montesque jaise kissy vyakti dwara adhyakshata kii jaati haye; lekin ack nirankushta kii nyaypalika mein honey kii tulanaa mein cumm guaranti haye.
yeh parampara kii raajaa sansadiya sahamati key binaa curr naheen badhaa sakate they, lankester key ghar key hadpadaaron key samay kii tarikh haye, jinhen sardar key samarthan seey simhaasan parr apane asthir daave koo majboot karane kii aavashyakta thee. house off commons kii karyakari koo nidhi dene mein anichha key kaaran, anyatha nirankush tudors koo ekadhikar pradaan karane, rinn dene key liye majboor karane aur anya aniyamit upaayon dwara dhana jutaane key liye prerit kiya. yeye prathaaen ack sir parr aaa gaeen, lekin unhone unhein shuru naheen kiya.
polish shally key abhijaat varg kaa yeh praarambhik yug magna carta key kramik karyanvayan key madhyam seey aaya thaa; isase pahale raajaa adhik nirpeksh they, vijay key adhikaar seey shasson karate they. praarambhik samanya logon ney badale mein saxons koo apane adheen curr liya thaa, jinake beach "santulan abhijaat varg yaa alpajantra key paksh mein [phir seey] jhukaa huaa prateet hotaa haye.
vaha anumati dete hain kii praarambhik saxon aur anya germans ney "loktantra key kaafee mishran koo apani sarkaar key roop mein sweekaar kiya haye, aur sabse swatantra rashtron mein seey ack rahey hain, jinka itihas key record mein koee bhee khaata haye"; lekin way chetavani dete hainh "joe, prachinta key prati sammaan kaa naatak karate hue, samvidhaan kii mool yojana key liye harr modd parr appeal karate hain, kewal unaki ashant bhavna aur unaki niji mahatvakanksha koo aadaraniya roopon key roop mein cover karate hain. saxon key tahat, pracheen britishon key liye kabhi bhee bahut adhik swatantrata naheen thee.
unhone tudors aur stuarton kii pitrisatta mein "sabhyata aur vigyaan kii subah" dekhi. yeh daasata key antim patan kaa samay bhee thaa, swatantra purush adhik vaanijyik moolya key hoe gaye they.
ingland mein raajneetik arthavyavastha kaa itihas.
adamson dwara uddhrit humey kii maulik pramey yeh haih "duniya mein sub kuchh shram dwara kharida jaataa haye, aur hamari bhaavanaaen shram key ekmatra kaaran hain. unaki sthiti yahaan addam smith key bahut karib haye. iss kaary mein yugon key dauran makai aur anya vastuon kii kimaton mein utaar-chadhaav parr kaee vichaar shamil hain.
paschimi sabhyata key nadir key roop mein dharmayuddh.
"kalaa aur vigyaan kaa uday, pragati, poornata aur patan, chintan kii jigyasu vastuein hain, aur nagrik lenden key varnan key saath ghanishth roop seey judee hui hain. kissy vishesh avadhi kii ghatnaaon kaa poori tarah seey hisab naheen kiya jaa sakata haye, lekin pragati kii degree parr vichaar karke, joe purush una vishishtataon mein pahunch gaye hain."
hamesha ack abhijaatvaadi, unhone augustus key yug koo sabhyata mein ack uchch bindu key roop mein dekhaa, jisake baad ack apariharya girawat aaee theeh "lekin avasaad kaa ack bindu haye, saath hii saath unnati kaa bhee, jisase maanav mamle swabhavik roop seey vipareet disha mein lautate hain, aur isase aage way shayed hii kabhi apani pragati yaa girawat mein gujarate hain. vaha avadhi, jisamen isaijagat key loga agyaantaa mein sabse cumm doobe hue they, aur parinamswarup harr tarah key vikaaron mein, gyaarahavin shatabdi mein, vijeta villium kii ayu key baare mein, uchit roop seey nirdhaarit kiya jaa sakata haye.
norman vijay sabse vinashkari aghaat thaa jise angreji rashtra ney sahan kiya haye. haalaanki isake baad agali peedhi key dauran kuchh aur bhee buraa huaa. humey ney villium rufus key shasankal kii shuruat mein dharmyuddhon koo "maanav moorkhata kaa sabse sanket aur sabse tikaau smaarak key roop mein varnit kiya, joe abhee taka kissy bhee yug yaa rashtra mein dikhaai diyaa haye" (adhyaay v). 5 julaai 1099 koo jerusalam mein hue toofaan mein musalmaanon aur yahoodiyon key thoke narsamhar (adhyaay 6) ney bhaag liya. "... vijayi yoddha, harr dushman key vash mein honey aur maare jaane key baad, turant upman aur paschaataap kii bhaavanaon key saath, pavitra kabr kii or muda gaye. unhone apani baahon koo ack taraf fenk diyaa, aur abhee bhee khoon seey beh rahey theh way jhuke hue shariron key saath, aur nagna pairon aur siron key saath usa pavitra smaarak kii or badheh unhone apane uddhaarak key liye ack geet gaaya, jinhone vahaan apani mrityu aur peedaa seey apana uddhaar kharida thaah aur unaki bhakti, usa sthaan kii upasthiti seey jeevant hui jahaan unhone peedit kiya thaa, isaliye unake krodh parr kaaboo paa liya, kii way aansuu mein ghul gaye, aur harr naram aur komal bhavna key roop koo dhaaran kiya. maanav swabhaav apane aap mein itna asangat haye! aur itani aasaani seey sabse prabhaavshaali andhavishwas sahayogi, donon sabse veertapurna saahas key saath, aur sabse bheeshan barbarta key saath!"
aisaa lagata haye kii humey key paas coran key kissy naa kissy sanskaran taka pahunch thee, jise vaha "alcoran" kahate hain; aur vaha iss baat seey avagat they kii abb islam key swarn yug key roop mein kyaa yaad kiya jaataa haye. "vaastav mein vigyaan, sanyam, manavata kaa laabh usa samay poori tarah seey saracence key paksh mein thaa. pahali dharmayuddh key parinam agali shatabdi key dauran ulat gaye. vaha saladin koo richard coer dee lyon key saath tulanaa kartaa haih "iss veer samrat [saladin] ney, vishesh roop seey, yuddh key dauran, ack bhavna aur udaartaa pradarshit kii, jise unake badey dushman bhee sweekaar karane aur prashansa karane key liye baadhya they. samaan roop seey yuddh aur bahadur, richard ney apane saath berber charitra koo adhik leey jaaya; aur vaha krurta key krityon kaa doshi thaa, jisane usaki prasiddh jeet parr ack daag fenk diyaa. humey yeh bhee likhate hain kii ack avsar parr, richard ney 5000 rakshaaheen muslim kaidiyon key narsamhar kaa adesh diyaa, halanki "saracence ney khud koo isaaiyon parr isi tarah kii krurta seey jawabi kaarravaai karane key liye baadhya paaya.
humey bataata haye kii kaise, usaki mahaan jeet key turant baad, saladin kii mrityu kii ghoshana kii gaee theeh "usane apani ghumaavdaar-patrak koo shahar kii harr sadak key madhyam seey ack maanak key roop mein leey jaane kaa adesh diyaa; jabaki ack cheeva pahale gayaa, aur ack badee aavaaz mein ghoshana kii, yeh sub shaktishali saladin key liye bachaa haye, joe poorv kaa vijeta haye. saladin ney apana paisa daan key liye chhod diyaa, "yahudi, isai yaa mahomatan key bhed key binaa.
iss drishtikon kaa paalan edward gibban key "roman samrajya key patan aur patan" mein kuchh hii samay baad kiya gayaa thaa.
justinian key pandek.
haalaanki, 12veen shatabdi mein bhee, prakaash kii ack chamak thee. "shayed koee ghatana naheen thee, joe umr mein sudhaar kii or adhik pravritt hui, ack seey adhik, joe adhik tippani naheen kii gaee haye, justinian key panducts kii ack prati kii aakasmik khoj, varsh 1130 key baare mein, itali key amalfi shahar mein."
humm ney kaanoon key chhaatr key roop mein punduct key baare mein jaanaa hoga, kyonki seedhiyon key "sansthaan" kaafee hudd taka una parr adharit hain, jaisa kii voit aur vinius key kaam hain. "yeh dekhana aasaan haye kii europe koo pracheen kaal seey ack baar mein viraasat mein milane seey kyaa laabh hue honge, isaliye ack aisee kalaa koo puuraa karein, joe anya sabhi kalaaon koo suraksha dene key liye bhee bahut aavashyak thee, aur joe, shodhan dwara, aur abhee bhee adhik, nirnay parr dridhata pradaan karke, aage key sudhaaron key liye ack model key roop mein kaary kartaa haye."humey paadari varg koo nae paae gaye roman-greek nyayshastra koo failaane kaa shreya detaa haye. haalaanki roman aur cannon kaanoon key beach "binaa kissy aavashyakta key angreji samanyata kaa gathan" sanghah "roman nyayshastra koo desh kaa nagarpalika kaanoon banane seey rokta thaa, jaisa kii europe key kaee raajyon mein huaa thaa. phir bhee, "iska ack badaa hissa gupt roop seey nyaay kii adalaton key abhyaas mein sthanantarit curr diyaa gayaa thaa, aur unake padosiyon kii nakal ney angreji koo dheere-dheere apane swayam key kaanoon koo apani mool ashishtata aur apurnata seey oopar uthaane kaa prayaas kiya.
iss prakaar humey antarrashtriya nagrik kaanoon key kramik avashoshan key madhyam seey ingland key samanya kaanoon kaa itihas apani utpatti seey likh rhaa thaa.
humey key bhatije aur nishpaadak, jinhen david humey bhee kahaa jaataa haye, ney seedhiyon key mahaan kaam key liye ack samanya kaanoon saathi key roop mein "apraadhon kaa sammaan karane vaale scotland key kaanoonon parr tippani" likhi. donon david humes koo edinberg mein calton pahaadi parr puraane kabristan mein ack saath dafnaya gayaa haye.
ingland mein "praakritik darshan" aur "bails lateres" kii pragati parr humm.
steinford encyclopaedia off philosophy (neeche link kiya gayaa haye) humey koo johnn lokake aur thomas hobbs key saath "british anubhavvaadiyon" key mahaan trimurti mein seey teesare key roop mein varnit kartaa haye. haalaanki, unhone algernan sidney, rappin dee thoyrus aur benjamin hodley key saath-saath aise lekhakon key roop mein, jinaki "rachanaaen, shally aur padaarth donon key liye sabse ghrinit, kii prashansa kii gaee haye, aur prachaar kiya gayaa haye, aur padhaa gayaa haye; jaise kii way prachinta key sabse prasiddh avasheshon key barabar they. sidney ack jatil vyakti they. vaha charles aaee parr maut kii sajaa seey stabdh thaa, lekin baad mein usane iss kaary koo uchit thaharaate hue lekh likhe. 1683 mein, ack kukhyaat anuchit mukadame key baad, charles II kii hatyaa key liye raay house kii sajish mein kathit sanliptata key liye unakaa sir kalam curr diyaa gayaa thaa. rappin ack francisi protestant they jinhone george aaee koo samarpit ingland kaa ack smaarak itihas likhaa thaa. bishap hodley wig pratishthaan key ack aur prakaash they. robbert filmer key sarkaar key "betuke" pitrisattaatmak siddhant kii prastuti, jaise kii yeh kuchh nayaa thaa, vishesh roop seey lock mein jiss baat parr unakaa apatti haye. inn lekhakon ney joe saajha kiya vaha pracheen angreji swatantrata kii kabhi naa honey vaali bhoomi mein vishvaas thaa, jise stuarton ney ukhaad fenka thaa.
naa hii shauk key saath koee behtar pradarshan kartaa haih "shauk kii rajneeti kewal atyachar koo badhaava dene key liye fitt haye, aur usaki naitikta koo anaitikta koo protsaahit karane key liye. yadyapi vaha dharm kaa dushman haye, vaha sandeh kii bhavna mein kuchh bhee naheen kartaa haye; lekin utanaa hii sakaratmak aur hathdharmi haye jitna kii maanviya kaaran, aur vishesh roop seey uska kaaran, inn vishayon mein poori tarah seey vishvaas praapt curr sakata haye... apane swayam key vyakti mein vaha ack sadgun kaa vyakti honey key liye pratinidhitva kiya jaataa haye; ack aisaa charitra joe koee aashcharyajanak naheen haye, bhale hii usaki naitikta kii swatantra pranali hoe. darpokta mukhya galati haye, jisake saath usey fatkaar lagaai jaati haih vaha ack charam budhaape taka jeevit rhaa, phir bhee kabhi bhee maut key vichaaron seey khud koo mill naheen sakaa. unake vichaaron aur bhaavanaon kii saahas unake charitra key iss hisse key liye ack ullekhaniya virodhabhas haye. unaki mrityu 1679 mein 91 varsh kii ayu mein hui."
james harrington kii "dha commonwealth off oseana" kii vivekpurna roop seey anukool sameeksha key saath hobbs parr iss murajhaane vaale notice kaa anusaran karate hain.
"neuton mein iss dweep ney sabse badee aur durlabh pratibha kaa utpaadan kiya haye joe prajaatiyon key aabhushan aur nirdesh key liye utpann huaa haye. yaantrik darshan mein boyley aur hook dwara kii gaee pragati koo dhyaan mein rakhate hue, humey kahate hainh "jabaki neuton prakriti key kuchh rahasyon seey pardaa hataata prateet hotaa thaa, usane usee samay yaantrik darshan kii khamiyon koo prakat kiya; aur iss tarah usake antim rahasyon koo usa aspashtata mein bahaal curr diyaa, jisamen unhone kabhi kiya aur hamesha rahega. humey hobbs kii tarah koee ganitiya katautiwadi naheen thaa.
james aaee key alawa 17veen shatabdi key ekmatra scotish daarshanik, joe humey taaliyan bajaate hain, way merchiston key johnn napier hain, joe laghuganak key aavishkaarak hain. haalaanki napier, neuton aur james aaee kii aalochana antim dinon kii bhavishyavani karane vaale ascatological saahitya key nirmaan key liye kii jaati haye. iss tarah key lekhan usa samay key raajneetik-dhaarmik uthal-puthal mein ack shaktishali kaarak they. way aaney vaale dusare yug kii taiyari mein shuddhikaran kaa ahwan curr rahey they. inn teen rasvaadiyon mein seey, humey likhate hainh "isake andhvishvason kii sthulata seey, humm ack yug kii agyaantaa kaa anuman lagaa sakate hain; lekin kissy vyakti kii moorkhata key baare mein kabhi bhee, usaki lokpriya trutiyon koo sweekaar karane seey, dharm key roop seey pavitra naheen honah chaahiye.
way francis bekan koo james aaee key samay mein "iss dweep mein saahitya kaa sabse badaa gaurav" kahate hain. haalaanki, vaha pahale key capler key vipareet, saur mandal kii copernicus kii khoj koo tiraskar key saath dekhane key liye bekan kii bhee aalochana kartaa haye. galileo key baare mein, humey likhate hain kii itali ney "usa prasiddhi kii bahut adhik upeksha kii thee joe usane itane mahaan vyakti koo janm dekar praapt kii haye.
inn praarambhik raajneetik vaigyaanikon kii ack adhik vistaarit aalochana george crome robertson dwara "hobbs" mein paaee jaa sakati haye.
humey arther, aur yahaan taka kii voden koo bhee chhayadar aitihaasik vyaktiyon honey kii anumati detaa haye, aur unhone kavi telesin ("thalacin") kaa ullekh kiya haye. vaha alfred koo charlemen key alawa mahaan vyakti key roop mein mulyankan kartaa haih "alfred ney maafi, drishtaant, kahaaniyon, apophathems, kavita mein jode hue apani naitikta koo vyakt karane kaa prayaas kiya; aur apane vishayon key beach prachaar karane key alawa, usa tarah kii poorv rachanaon, joe unhein saxon bhasha mein millie, unhone ack samaan prakriti key karyon kaa aavishkaar karane key saath-saath yunani seey esope kii suruchipurna dantkathaon kaa anuvaad karane mein apani pratibha kaa prayog kiya. unhone orosius aur bede key itihas key saxon anuvaad bhee diye; aur darshan key santvana key baare mein boethius key. vaastav mein inmein seey kuchh kaary alfred dwara kiye gaye they, naa kii unake dwara.
arthurian prem kathaaon key baad key lekhakon mein seey kissy kaa bhee ullekh naheen milata haye. yeh aashcharyajanak naheen haye. way (sabse adhik lekin sabhi naheen) usa gaurav kaa pradarshan curr rahey they jise humey ney patan aur girawat kii avadhi key roop mein dekhaa thaa. "kalaa aur vigyaan koo itali seey iss dweep mein france mein ayaat kiya gayaa thaa aur pahale tou adhik samajhadaari seey pragati kii gaee thee...". isaliye kuchh spashteekaran kii aavashyakta haye kii vaha yaa tou chausar, gover yaa langland, yaa jise abb ricardian punarjagaran kahaa jaataa haye, kaa ullekh karane kii upeksha kyon kartaa haye. naa hii vaha chausar key model boccasio kaa ullekh kartaa haye, naa hii daante kaa bhee. vaha petrarch kaa ullekh kartaa haye, lekin baaki naamit italvi uchch punarjagaran kii peedhi key hainh taso, ariosto aur gwarini. 16veen shatabdi key inn italvi lekhakon mein joe humey paaya gayaa vaha dharmayuddh key sabse kaale dinon mein sthaapit prem prasang thaa, jisamen naayak-virodhi, isai yaa musalman they.
unhone shekspeare key "barbarta" kii ninda kii, lekin iss parr jore diyaa...spensor, shekspeare, bekan, johnson apane samkaaleenon seey behtar they, joe usa raajya (france) mein phal-phool rahey they. milton, (admond) waller, (johnn) denham, (benjamin) kaule, (villium?) cumm seey cumm unake samkaaleenon key barabar they. charles II key shasankal, joe kuchh loga hamaare mahaan yug key roop mein pratinidhitva karate hain, ney iss dweep mein vinamra saahitya kii pragati koo mund curr diyaa, aur taba yeh paaya gayaa kii adamya kamukta, joe darbar mein nihit thee yaa balki sarahi gaee thee, parishkrit kalaaon key liye adhik vinashkari thee, yahaan taka kii pichhale kaal key cant, murkhtapurna aur utsaah kii tulanaa mein.
humey johnn milton aur natakkar villium devenant key baare mein ack maukhik parampara koo aage badhaate hainh "yeh ajib naheen haye, kii milton koo bahaali key baad koee protsaahan naheen milaah yeh adhik prashansa kii jaani chaahiye, kii vaha apane jeevan key saath butch gayaa" (vakpatuta seey aatmahatya koo uchit thaharaane key liye). "kaee cavaliers ney unake prati usa udaartaa koo atyadhik doshi thaharaaya, joe raajaa mein bahut sammaanjanak thaa, aur bhaavi peedhi key liye itna fayademand thaa. aisaa kahaa jaataa haye kii usane rakshak key dauran rakshak kaa jeevan bachaaya thaa; aur badale mein rakshak ney usey bahaali key baad suraksha kii tarah pradaan kiya; samajhdaar honey key naate, patron key purushon koo hamesha apani sahaanubhooti koo sangh key ack adhik shaktishali samooh key roop mein maanana chaahiye, kissy bhee party yaa raay key antar kii tulanaa mein shatruta key srot key roop mein.
aalochana.
apane prakaashan key samay seey, humey key "itihas" parr aitihaasik sanshodhanvaad kaa aarop lagaaya gayaa haye jiska uddeshya toriwad koo badhaava denaa haye. sanyukt raajya america mein, sansthaapak pitaa thomas jefferson ney ise ack "jahar" maanaa aur iss kaam kii itani aalochana kii kii unhone ise virginia vishvavidyalaya key pustakalaya seey sensor curr diyaa. villium duen jefferson koo 12 agast 1810 key ack patra mein likhaa gayaah "yeh vaha pustak haye jisane angreji sarkaar key swatantra siddhanton koo kamjor kiya haye...]"aur 25 navambar 1816 koo johnn addams koo likhe ack patra mein unhone likhaah" iss ekal pustak ney sabse badee sthaayi senaa kii tulanaa mein angreji samvidhaan key swatantra siddhanton koo samajhane key liye adhik kaam kiya haye...]"halanki aam taur parr humey key kaam key ack saahityik sanskaran key roop mein sweekaar kiya jaataa haye, johnn baxter key" "ingland kaa ack nayaa aur nishpaksh itihas" "(1796) koo jefferson dwara humey key sanshodhanvaad key upaay key roop mein uddhrit kiya gayaa thaah" "unhone humey key kaam koo liya haye, paath mein unaki galat prastutiyon koo sahee kiya haye, una sachchai kii aapoorti kii haye jinhen unhone dabaa diyaa haye, aur phir bhee humey key apane shabdon mein kaam key badey paimaane koo diyaa haye."
apane jeevan key anta mein, humey ney likhaah "... halanki mujhe anubhav seey sikhaaya gayaa thaa kii raajya aur saahitya donon mein sabhi sthaanon koo dene kaa adhikaar whig party key paas thaa, lekin main unaki murkhtapurna pukaar key prati itna cumm jhukaa huaa thaa kii sou seey adhik parivartanon mein, joe mujhe pahale dou diggajon key shasankal mein karane key liye lagey hue they, maine una sabhi koo hamesha ack taraf curr diyaa haye. usa avadhi seey pahale key angreji samvidhaan koo swatantrata kii niyamit yojana key roop mein maanana hasyaspad haye.
iss tarah key parivartan kaa ack udaaharan "ghrinit prastutiyon" key baare mein uparokt tippani kaa futnote haye. yahaan uddharan 1778 key online sanskaran seey liya gayaa haye. 1772 key doublin sanskaran mein kewal rappin dee thoyrus kaa ullekh haye. spasht roop seey, algernan sidney aur johnn loke apane baad key varshon key dauran humey key anuman mein doob gaye they. humey ney sidney key mukadame kaa ack uchit vivaran diyaa, jahaan kaanoon koo modd diyaa gayaa thaa taaki uska nyaay kiya jaa sakey, naa kii usane joe kuchh bhee kiya thaa, balki usake liye joe usane likhaa thaa aur yahaan taka kii prakaashit karane kii koshish bhee naheen kii thee. ack dilchasp sawal yeh haye kii humey ney bishap hodley koo apani badmash gallery mein kyon shamil kiya. pahale sanskaran key samay, hodley abhee bhee jeevit thaa.
humey joe lada rhaa thaa vaha thaa whiggs kaa atavism joe jefferson kii tarah, raaj-hatyaon koo veer deshbhakton key roop mein chitrit karna chaahte they jinhone rashtramandal kii pahali mahaan muhar parr iss kinvadanti key saath muhar lagaa deeh "swatantrata key pahale varsh parr, bhagwan key aashirvaad seey, bahaal kiya gayaa, 1648" (purani shally). nyayadhish bradshaw ney raajaa koo iss aadhar parr sajaa sunai kii usane "raajaa aur usake logon key beach kiye gaye ack anubandh aur saudebaji" koo todaa thaa, yeh bataae binaa kii yeh anubandh kyaa thaa, yaa yeh kaba kiya gayaa thaa. vaha raajaon koo padchyut karane key liye angreji poorvavarti kii vaidhata seey asahaj thaah edward II aur richard II. isaliye unhone hatyaa (oopar) mein milibhugat key liye raani mairi koo gaddi seey hataane mein scotish sansad kii misal kii or rukh kiya. vaha johnn balliol key simhaasan seey hatane aur robbert dha broose key saath unake pratisthaapan mein ack aur poori tarah seey achchi misal kaa hawala dey sakate they; lekin unhone usa misal koo aspasht roop seey george buchnan key "itihas" mein darj kaee kaale yug key shasson kaa ullekh karate hue paarit kiya.
atavism kaa pataa usa vakeel mein bhee utanaa hii lagaaya jaa sakata haye jisane raajaa, johnn cook key khilaf abhiyojan kaa netritva kiya thaa. unhone ack angreji gaddaar key roop mein mukadama chalaaya, raajaa key liye scotish sansad kii senaa key general aur sagaai key yuddh mein vaacha, monmouth key geophrey seey praapt sabooton key bull parr kii ingland aur scotland kaa ack kaalaa yug sangh thaa. aashcharyajanak roop seey, cook ney haal kii sandhiyon, vishesh roop seey gambhir leag aur vaacha koo ack prakaar key sangh key roop mein bhee appeal kii; halanki ise raajaa key ektarafa nishpaadan dwara nirast curr diyaa gayaa thaa.
humey ney ack maukhik parampara koo paarit kiya kii cromwell, apani karbhari maan key madhyam seey, charles aaee key chachere bhaai they. thomas carlile ney kuchh aur shodh kiya, nishkarsh nikaalah "vanshaavalividon kaa kahana haye kii iss vanshavali mein koee sandeh naheen haye...". halanki, carlile usa vaakya mein ack futnote jodata haye kii "yeh siddhant [...] shree dwara poori tarah seey khandan kiya gayaa haye. walter raaee, joe usa shrimati koo dikhaata haye. cromwell ack puraane norphoke parivaar seey aaya thaa, jiska mool naam stivered thaa."humey kii 'maukhik parampara' kaa samarthan karane key liye koee aur saboot naheen prateet hotaa haye.'
lock, hobbs yaa jefferson key vipareet, humey ney maanaa kii sahamati seey sarkaar kewal janmat parr nirbhar karati haye. unhone ise ack aspasht manavshastriya arth koo chhodkar, shaasak aur shasson key beach prakriti kii sthiti mein kiye gaye ack adim anubandh seey praapt naheen kiya. unhone maanaa kii iss tarah key siddhant antinomianism key liye vyaapak roop seey khule hain. anirdhaarit samajik anubandh siddhant koo shaukvaadi adhinayakvad key liye dhaanche key roop mein liya jaa sakata haye, jitna aasaani seey yeh bandist swatantrata key liye hoe sakata haye. iska matlab kuchh bhee hoe sakata haye. anubandh dwara sarkaar prakriti mein dee gaee kuchh naheen haye, balki praasangik paristhitiyon mein paribhasha kii aavashyakta haye. humey key liye, prachalit british samvidhaan anubandh bunn gayaa jaba villium aur mairi ney adhikaar kii ghoshanaon parr hastakshar kiye. yeh ack kanuni zabt kaa parinam thaa. humey naheen chaahte they kii ise dekhaa jaae, kyonki danton aur trotsky ney baad mein ise sir kalam karane key parinamswarup dekhaa.
humey benjamin franklin key karibi dost aur samvaadaata they. vaha americi upaniveshon key liye swatantrata kaa samarthan karane key liye aaya thaa; aur americi swatantrata kii ghoshana key baare mein sunane key liye kaafee lamba samay taka jeevit rhaa. unake sabse karibi sansthaapak pitaa alekjendar hamilton they. humey kii tarah, hamilton koo apane scotish vansh key kaaran purvagrah key saath sahan karna padaa, jiska vaha cumm seey cumm arbroth kii ghoshana key samay taka pataa lagaa sakata thaa.
dashakon taka jacobite party key roop mein daagi rahane key baad, humey key itihas key prakaashan british tory party key punruddhar key saath mell khaate they. yahaan americi loktaantrik party key grahan key saath ack samanantar haye, una dashakon mein jaba ise dakshin key abhijaat varg key dall key roop mein dekhaa jaataa thaa. jefferson kii hyoom key prati shatruta kaa hissa ocean vivaad mein james mcfursion key hyoom key bachaav key saath judaa huaa hoe sakata haye. mcfursion americi swatantrata key kattar virodhi they.
humey kii mrityu key baad key varshon mein whig party ney khud koo sudhaar kii udaar party key roop mein phir seey sthaapit kiya. scotland mein humey key daarshanik anuyaayi aksar, robbert adamson kii tarah, udaarvaadi vampanthi they; aur humey koo tory-jhukaav key roop mein dekhane kii pravritti rakhate they. haalaanki ise humey key samay key swa-seva karane vaale itihas key sandarbh mein dekhaa jaanaa chaahiye. humey kii jadein 1688-9 mein scotish whiggs kii kranti mein theen. unake daadaa kaa naam scotish sansad kii muster bhoomika mein ack leftinent-curnell key roop mein haye.
humey ack uttar-krantikari vatavaran mein rahate they, aur way naheen chaahte they kii ack aur kranti hoe. unhone kranti key nayakon koo jitna mahimamandit kiya, usase jyada rakshasi naheen banaaya. vaha chaahte they kii unaki gambhir jaanch kii jaae.

