paramanu apashisht neeti adhiniyam

1982 kaa paramanu apashisht neeti adhiniyam sanyukt raajya america kaa ack sanghiya kaanoon haye jisane atyadhik radiodharmi kachare key surakshit, sthaayi niptan key liye ack vyaapak rashtriya karyakram sthaapit kiya.
aitihaasik avalokan.
pahale 40 varshon key dauran jaba sanyukt raajya america mein paramanu apashisht banaaya jaa rhaa thaa, isake niptan key prabandhan key liye koee kaanoon naheen banaaya gayaa thaa. paramanu apashisht, jinamen seey kuchh duss laakh seey adhik varshon key ardh-jeevan key saath radiodharmi rahata haye, koo vibhinn prakaar key asthaayi bhandaran mein rakhaa gayaa thaa. paramanu apashisht niptan key dauran vishesh chinta key dou lambe samay taka rahane vaale vikhandan utpaad hain, tii. see.-99 (ardh-jeevan 220,000 varsh) aur aaee-129 (ardh-jeevan 17 million varsh), joe kuchh hazaar varshon key baad eendhan radiodharmita parr haavi hotey hain. kharch kiye gaye eendhan mein sabse pareshan karane vaale transuranic tatva aine. pee.-237 (aadhaa jeevan 20 laakh varsh) aur poo.-239 (aadhaa jeevan 24,000 varsh) hain.
adhikansh maujooda paramanu apashisht paramanu hathiyaron key utpaadan seey aaya thaa. lagbhag 77 million gallen sainya paramanu apashisht taral roop mein steel key tankon mein sangraheet kiya gayaa thaa, jyaadaatar dakshin carolina, washington aur idaho mein. niji kshetra mein, 1982 mein sanchaalit 82 paramanu sanyantron ney bijli kaa utpaadan karane key liye euranium eendhan kaa upayog kiya. atyadhik radiodharmi kharch kiye gaye eendhan kii chhaden reactor sthalon parr paani key pool mein sangraheet kii jaati theen, lekin kaee upayogitaon mein bhandaran sthaan samaapt hoe rhaa thaa.
1982 key paramanu apashisht neeti adhiniyam ney 1990 key dashak key madhya taka uchch-stariya radiodharmi apashisht key liye ack sthaayi, bhoomigat bhandar sthaapit karane key liye ack samay sarini aur prakriya banaai, aur nagrik paramanu reactors seey kharch kiye gaye eendhan sahit kachare key kuchh asthaayi sanghiya bhandaran key liye pradaan kiya. raajya sarkaaron koo apani seemaon key bheetar ack apashisht bhandar rakhane key rashtriya sarkaar key nirnay koo veeto karane key liye adhikrit kiya gayaa thaa, aur veeto taba taka khadaa rahega jaba taka kii congress key donon sadanon ney ise override karane key liye matdan naheen kiya. adhiniyam ney 1985 taka nigrani yogya punarpraapti yogya bhandaran (aim. aar. aiss.) suvidhaon key nirmaan key liye yojanaon koo vikasit karane kaa bhee ahwan kiya, jahaan kachare koo 50 seey 100 saal yaa usase adhik samay taka rakhaa jaa sakata haye aur phir sthaayi niptan yaa punah prasanskaran key liye hataaya jaa sakata haye.
congress ney yuu koo jimmedaari saunpi.aiss. oorjaa vibhaag (dee. oh. ee.) kharch kiye gaye paramanu eendhan aur uchch-stariya radiodharmi apashisht key niptan key liye ack bhandar koo sthaapit karane, nirmaan karane, sanchaalit karane aur bund karane key liye. yuu.aiss. paryaavaran sanrakshan agency (ee. pee. aeye.) koo ack bhandar seey radiodharmi samagri key vimochan key liye saarvajanik swaasthya aur suraksha maanak nirdhaarit karane kaa nirdesh diyaa gayaa thaa.aiss. paramanu niyaamak aayog (aine. aar. see.) koo ack bhandar key nirmaan, sanchaalan aur bund karane koo niyantrit karane vaale niyamon koo jaari karane kii aavashyakta thee. generator aur kharch kiye gaye paramanu eendhan aur uchch-stariya radiodharmi apashisht key maalikon koo aisee radiodharmi samagri key niptan kii laagat kaa bhugtan karna aavashyak thaa. apashisht karyakram, jisaki laagat arabon dollar honey kii ummeed thee, koo paramanu-utpaadit bijli parr vidyut upayogitaon dwara bhugtan kiye gaye shulk key madhyam seey vitt poshit kiya jaayega. adhiniyam koo lagu karane key liye nagrik radiodharmi apashisht prabandhan kaa ack karyalaya sthaapit kiya gayaa thaa.
sthaayi bhandar.
paramanu apashisht neeti adhiniyam key tahat oorjaa sachiv koo dou sthaayi, bhoomigat paramanu apashisht bhandaron key nirmaan key liye sthalon key chayan key liye dishanirdesh jaari karane kii aavashyakta thee. doo koo paanch sambhaavit sthalon kaa adhyayan karna thaa, aur phir 1 janwari, 1985 taka rashtrapati koo teen kii sifarish karni thee. paanch atirikt sthalon kaa adhyayan kiya jaanaa thaa aur unamen seey teen kii sifarish 1 julaai, 1989 taka rashtrapati koo doosari bhandar key liye sambhaavit sthaanon key roop mein kii jaani thee. rashtrapati koo anushansit kissy bhee sthal key liye ack poorna paryavaraniya prabhaav vivaran kii aavashyakta thee.
sthaayi bhandar key liye pramukh davedar maane jaane vaale sthaanon mein washington mein sarkaar key hanford paramanu aarakshan mein besault sanrachana, isake nevada paramanu pareekshan sthal parr jwalamukhiya tuff sanrachanaaen aur utaah, texas, louisiana aur mississippi mein kaee namak sanrachanaaen theen. maine seey georgia taka anya raajyon mein namak aur grenite sanrachanaon kaa bhee sarvekshan kiya gayaa thaa, lekin bahut vistaar seey mulyankan naheen kiya gayaa thaa.
rashtrapati koo 31 march, 1987 taka site kii sifaarishon kii sameeksha karane aur congress koo prastut karane kii aavashyakta thee, pahale bhandar key liye ack site kii unaki sifarish, aur 31 march, 1990 taka, dusare bhandar key liye unaki sifarish. uchch-stariya apashisht yaa kharch kiye gaye eendhan kii matra joe pahale bhandar mein rakhee jaa sakati thee, 70,000 metrick tunn bhaari dhaatu key barabar taka seemit thee jaba taka kii doosara bhandar naheen banaaya gayaa thaa. iss adhiniyam key tahat rashtriya sarkaar koo sabhi paramanu apashisht yaa reactor sthal parr kharch kiye gaye eendhan kaa swaamitva lena, ise bhandar mein leey jaanaa aur usake baad isaki roktham key liye jimmedaar honah aavashyak thaa.
asthaayi roop seey kharch kiya gayaa eendhan bhandaran.
adhiniyam nagrik paramanu reactors seey kharch kiye gaye eendhan key liye 1,900 metrick tunn taka kii asthaayi bhandaran kshamata pradaan karane key liye adhikrit haye. isake liye aavashyak thaa kii ack sthaayi apashisht bhandar key sanchaalan mein aaney key baad teen saal key bheetar asthaayi bhandaran suvidhaon mein kharch kiye gaye eendhan koo sthaayi bhandaran mein sthanantarit kiya jaae. asthaayi bhandaran kii laagat kaa bhugtan bhandaran kaa upayog karke vidyut upayogitaon seey ekatra shulk dwara kiya jaayega.
monitor kiya gayaa punarpraapt karane yogya bhandaran.
adhiniyam key anusaar oorjaa sachiv koo 1 juuna, 1985 taka congress koo ack nigrani yogya punarpraapti yogya bhandaran suvidha (aim. aar. aiss.) kii aavashyakta aur vyavaharyata parr report karane kii aavashyakta thee aur nirdisht kiya gayaa thaa kii report mein prastaavit sthalon aur suvidha designs key paanch alag-alag sanyojan shamil they, jisamen cumm seey cumm teen alag-alag sthaan shamil they. sthalon key liye paryaavaran mulyankan aavashyak they. isane ack sthaayi apashisht bhandar key liye vicharadhin raajya mein ack aim. aar. aiss. suvidha key nirmaan parr roque lagaa dee.
1985 mein doo ney ack abhinn aim. aar. aiss. suvidha kii sifarish kii. pasandida bhaugolik kshetra key bheetar pehchaane gaye gyaarah sthalon mein seey, doo ney aage key adhyayan key liye tensi mein teen sthalon kaa chayan kiya. march 1987 mein, sanghiya adalaton mein ack saal seey adhik samay taka kanuni kaarravaai key baad, doo ney oak riz, tenacy mein clinch river breeder reactor site parr ack aim. aar. aiss. suvidha key nirmaan key liye congress koo apana antim prastaav prastut kiya. tenancy key governor dwara kaafee saarvajanik dabaav aur veeto kii dhamki key baad, 1987 key aine. doubleu. pee. aeye. mein sanshodhanon ney sabhi prastaavit sthalon key liye aim. aar. aiss. yojanaon koo radd curr diyaa aur radd curr diyaa.
saavdhaanipoorvak chayanit bhoovaigyaanik sthaan hain joe vishesh roop seey ack surakshit sthaan parr paramanu apashisht key niptan key liye sthaanon kaa nirmaan karate hain. 
chayanit sthal kaa raajya veeto.
adhiniyam key anusaar, apashisht suvidha key sthaan seey prabhaavit honey vaale raajyon yaa bhaaratiya janjaatiyon key saath site chayan prakriya key dauran nikatata seey paramarsh karane kii aavashyakta hoti haye, aur ack raajya (rajyapal yaa vidhaayika) yaa bhaaratiya janjaati koo apani seemaon key bheetar ack apashisht bhandar yaa 300 tunn yaa adhik kharch kiye gaye eendhan koo rakhane vaali asthaayi bhandaran suvidha rakhane key sanghiya nirnay koo veeto karane kii anumati dee jaati haye, lekin basharte kii veeto koo congress key donon sadanon key vote dwara khariz kiya jaa sakata haye.
laagat kaa bhugtan.
adhiniyam ney ack sthaayi bhandar key nirmaan aur sanchaalan kii laagat kaa bhugtan karane key liye vidyut upayogitaon key khilaf lagaae gaye shulk seey banaa ack paramanu apashisht kosh sthaapit kiya, aur utpann paramanu bijli key ack mill prati kilowatt-ghante parr shulk nirdhaarit kiya. kaanoon key lagu honey seey pahale banaae gaye kharch kiye gaye eendhan key bhandaran key liye upayogitaon seey ack baar kaa shulk liya jaataa thaa. raksha gatividhiyon seey paramanu apashisht koo adhiniyam key adhikansh praavdhaanon seey chhoot dee gaee thee, jisamen yeh aavashyak thaa kii yadi sainya apashisht koo ack nagrik bhandar mein rakhaa jaataa haye, tou sarkaar vikas, nirmaan aur bhandar key sanchaalan kii laagat key apane pro-reta hisse kaa bhugtan karegi. adhiniyam raajyon yaa bhaaratiya janjaatiyon koo unaki seemaon key bheetar apashisht suvidha key sthaan key parinamswarup kissy bhee laagat kii bharpai key liye prabhaav sahaayata bhugtan koo adhikrit kartaa haye.
paramanu apashisht kosh.
paramanu apashisht kosh koo pahale pratyek varsh $750 million kaa shulk rajaswa praapt huaa thaa aur vitt varsh 2017 key anta taka $44.5 billion kaa kharch naheen kiya gayaa thaa. haalaanki (america key paramanu bhavishya parr blue ribbon aayog kii masauda report key anusaar), congress aur karyakari shakha donon key karyon ney fund mein dhana koo prabhaavi roop seey apane mool uddeshya kii poorti key liye pahunch seey baahar curr diyaa haye. aayog ney iss sthiti koo kaise thheek kiya jaa sakata haye, iss parr kaee sifaarishen keen.
2013 key anta mein, ack sanghiya adalat ney faisala sunaaya kii oorjaa vibhaag koo paramanu apashisht key niptan key liye shulk ekatra karna taba taka bund curr denaa chaahiye jaba taka kii paramanu apashisht ekatra karane key liye praavdhaan naheen kiye jaate.
yukka parvat.
disambar 1987 mein, congress ney yukka parvat, nevada koo rashtra key sabhi paramanu apashisht key liye ack sthaayi bhandar key roop mein chihnit karane key liye ekmatra sthal key roop mein naamit karane key liye paramanu apashisht neeti adhiniyam mein sanshodhan kiya. iss yojana koo 22 disambar, 1987 koo hastaaksharit vitt varsh 1988 key bajat sulah vidheyak mein jodaa gayaa thaa.
1982 key adhiniyam key tahat kaam karate hue, doo ney pahale paramanu-apashisht bhandar kii khoj koo teen paschimi rajyonh nevada, washington aur texas taka seemit curr diyaa thaa. sanshodhan ney purvi sanyukt raajya mein dusare bhandar key liye 1982 key kaanoon mein praavdhaanon koo nirast curr diyaa. nevada seey kissy ney bhee sulah parr house-senate sammelan samiti mein bhaag naheen liya.
sanshodhan ney spasht roop seey yukka parvat koo ekmatra sthal key roop mein naamit kiya joe rashtra key radiodharmi apashisht key liye ack sthaayi bhandar key liye vichaar karna thaa. adhyayan aur prakriyaatmak kadmon key varsh baney rahey. sanshodhan ney ack nigrani yogya punarpraapti yogya bhandaran suvidha koo bhee adhikrit kiya, lekin taba taka naheen jaba taka kii sthaayi bhandar koo licenses naheen diyaa gayaa thaa.
2002 kii shuruat mein, oorjaa sachiv ney 1987 key paramanu apashisht neeti adhiniyam mein aavashyak kaee karakon key aadhar parr ack bhandar key vikas key liye yukka parvat kii manjuri kii sifarish kii aur sameeksha key baad, rashtrapati george doubleu. busch ney apani manjuri key liye congress koo sifarish prastut kii. nevada ney aprail 2002 mein apane raajya veeto kaa prayog kiya, lekin congress key donon sadanon dwara julaai 2002 key madhya taka veeto koo override curr diyaa gayaa thaa.aiss. kolambiya circuit jile key liye appeal kii adalat ney nevada dwara ack chunauti koo barkarar rakhate hue faisala sunaaya kii radiodharmi kachare key algaav key liye ee. pee. aeye. kii 10,000 saal kii anupaalan avadhi rashtriya vigyaan akadami (aine. aeye. aiss.) kii sifaarishon key anuroop naheen thee aur bahut cumm thee. naas kii report mein uchchatam jokhim key samay key liye manakon kii sifarish kii gaee thee, joe duss laakh varshon kii avadhi taka pahunch sakata haye. anupaalan samay koo 10,000 varshon taka seemit karke, ee. pee. aeye. ney ack vaidhaanik aavashyakta kaa sammaan naheen kiya kii yeh anushansaon key anuroop maanak vikasit karey. ee. pee. aeye. ney baad mein manakon koo 10 laakh varshon taka badhaane key liye sanshodhit kiya. 2008 kii garmiyon mein ack licenses aavedan prastut kiya gayaa thaa aur vartamaan mein paramanu niyaamak aayog dwara sameeksha key adheen haye.
obama prashaasan ney 2010 key sanyukt raajya sanghiya bajat mein site key upayog koo khariz curr diyaa, jisane paramanu niyaamak aayog seey poochtaachh kaa jawab dene key liye aavashyak dhana koo chhodkar sabhi dhana koo samaapt curr diyaa, jabaki prashaasan paramanu apashisht niptan kii disha mein ack naee ranneeti taiyar kartaa haye."5 march, 2009 koo oorjaa sachiv steven chuu ney senate koo bataaya kii yukka parvat sthal koo abb reactor apashisht koo sangraheet karane key vikalp key roop mein naheen dekhaa jaataa haye. 1 farwari koo jaari obama key 2011 key bajat prastaav mein, paramanu apashisht niptan key liye sabhi dhana agale duss varshon key liye shoonya curr diyaa gayaa thaa aur isane aine. doubleu. pee. aeye. dwara aavashyak nagrik apashisht prabandhan key karyalaya koo bhang karane kaa prastaav rakhaa thaa. farwari 2010 key anta mein, licenses aavedan vaapas lene key liye chuu key nirdesh kii vaidhata koo chunauti dene key liye desh bhar mein vibhinn sanghiya adalaton mein kaee mukadame prastaavit kiye gaye aur/yaa daayar kiye jaa rahey they. inn mukdamon koo spasht roop seey aine. doubleu. pee. aeye. koo lagu karane key liye aavashyak honey key roop mein purvanumeya kiya gayaa thaa kyonki aine. doubleu. pee. aeye. kii dhaara 119 sanghiya adalat key hastakshep key liye pradaan karati haye yadi rashtrapati, oorjaa sachiv, yaa paramanu niyaamak aayog aine. doubleu. pee. aeye. koo banaae rakhane mein whiffle rahata haye.
radiodharmi apashisht prabandhan key liye poorv shartein.
bhautiki mein nobel puraskar vijeta hans alfaven ney sthaayi radiodharmi apashisht niptan kii abhee taka ansuljhi duvidha kaa varnan kiyaah
"samasya yeh haye kii radiodharmi apashisht koo bhandaran mein taba taka kaise rakhaa jaae jaba taka kii yeh saikadon hajaaron varshon key baad kshay naa hoe jaae. [bhoovaigyaanik] jamaa poori tarah seey vishvasaniya honah chaahiye kyonki jahar kii matra jabardast haye. inn aavashyaktaon koo puuraa karna bahut mushkil haye kyonki saral kaaran haye kii hamein itani lambi avadhi kii pariyojana key saath koee vyaavhaarik anubhav naheen haye. isake alawa sthaayi roop seey sanrakshit bhandaran key liye abhootpoorv sthirata vaale samaaj kii aavashyakta hoti haye."
iss prakaar, uchch-stariya radiodharmi apashisht key prabhaavi prabandhan key liye dou buniyaadi poorv sharton kii pehchaan kii gaeeh (1) sthir bhoovaigyaanik sanrachanaaen, aur (2) saikadon hajaaron varshon mein sthir maanav sansthaan. haalaanki, koee bhee gyaat maanav sabhyata itane lambe samay taka naheen rahee haye. isake alawa, ack sthaayi radiodharmi apashisht bhandar key liye paryaapt aakar kaa koee bhoovaigyaanik gathan abhee taka naheen paaya gayaa haye joe itane lambe samay seey sthir haye.
kyonki kuchh radiodharmi prajaatiyon kaa aadhaa jeevan duss laakh varshon seey adhik lamba hotaa haye, yahaan taka kii bahut cumm paatr risaav aur radionuclide pravaas darr koo bhee dhyaan mein rakhaa jaanaa chaahiye. isake alawa, ise taba taka ack seey adhik ardh-jeevan kii aavashyakta hoe sakati haye jaba taka kii kuchh paramanu apashisht paryaapt radiodharmita khou naa dein taaki yeh abb manushyon key liye ghaatak naa hoe. apashisht paatron kaa jivankal 12,000 seey 100,000 seey adhik varshon kaa hotaa haye aur yeh maanaa jaataa haye kii way lagbhag 20 laakh varshon mein whiffle hoe jaayenge. rashtriya vigyaan akadami dwara swedish radiodharmi apashisht niptan karyakram kii 1983 kii sameeksha mein paaya gayaa kii desh key lagbhag duss laakh varshon key anuman apashisht algaav key liye aavashyak hain."
paramanu apashisht neeti adhiniyam key liye sanyukt raajya america mein uchch-stariya radiodharmi apashisht key sthaayi gahare bhoovaigyaanik niptan key liye iss maanak taka pahunchane key liye kissy bhee cheez kii aavashyakta naheen thee. yuu.aiss. oorjaa vibhaag 
sthaayi gahare bhoovaigyaanik uchch-stariya radiodharmi apashisht bhandar key liye sthaanon key chayan key liye dishanirdesh kewal 300 varshon key liye apashisht packages key bheetar apashisht kii roktham kii aavashyakta hoti haye. ack sthal koo aage key vichaar seey kewal tabhi ayogya thaharaaya jaayega jaba bhoomigat suvidha key "ashant kshetra" seey "sulabh paryaavaran" (vayumandal, bhoomi kii satah, satah kaa paani, mahasagar yaa bhoo-mandal joe bhoomigat suvidha seey 10 kilometres seey adhik naheen faila huaa haye) taka bhujal yatra kaa samay radionuclide yatra key kissy bhee maarg key saath 1,000 varshon seey cumm honey kii ummeed thee. bhujal yatra key samay key saath mool sthaan seey maanav paryaavaran taka 1,000 varshon seey adhik samay vaale sthalon koo sambhaavit roop seey sweekarya maanaa jaataa thaa, bhale hii apashisht 200,000 varshon yaa usase adhik samay taka atyadhik radiodharmi hoe.
isake alawa, "ashant kshetra" shabd koo niyamon mein satah seey bhoovaigyaanik sanrachanaon mein drill kiye gaye shaft koo baahar karane key liye paribhaashit kiya gayaa thaa, isaliye praakritik bhoovaigyaanik maargon parr lagu maanak, suvidha key nirmaan key dauran banaae gaye radionuclide yatra key kritrim maargon parr lagu maanak seey adhik kathor thaa.
apashisht bhandaran kaa vikalp.
enrico fermi ney ack vaikalpik samadhan kaa varnan kiyaah tej neutron reactors mein sabhi actinide kaa upbhog karein, kewal vikhandan utpaadon koo 300 varshon seey cumm samay key liye vishesh abhiraksha kii aavashyakta hoti haye. isake liye nirantar eendhan punarchakran kii aavashyakta hoti haye. purex plutonium aur euranium koo alag kartaa haye, lekin vikhandan utpaadon key saath anya actinide chhod detaa haye, jisase deerghakaalik abhiraksha samasya kaa samadhan naheen hotaa haye. pyroelectric refining, jaisa kii ee. bee. aar.-aaee. aaee. mein siddh kiya gayaa haye, anivarya roop seey sabhi actinide koo vikhandan utpaadon seey alag kartaa haye. yuu.aiss. pyroelectric refining aur fast neutron reactors parr shodh 1994 mein bund curr diyaa gayaa thaa.
bhandar bund karna.
vartamaan bhandar bund karane kii yojanaon key liye apashisht niptan kakshon, surangon aur satah parr praarambhik khudai aur sealing udghaatan seey malabe key saath shaft koo vaapas bharane kii aavashyakta hoti haye, lekin maanav paryaavaran seey radiodharmi kachare key poorna yaa sthaayi algaav kii aavashyakta naheen hoti haye. vartamaan neeti bhandar bund honey parr radiodharmi padarthon parr niyantran bhoo-jall-vigyaan prakriyaon koo chhod detee haye. inn prakriyaon key maujooda model anubhavjanya roop seey cumm nirdhaarit hain, jiska arth haye kii way sateek hain, isake liye bahut adhik pramaan naheen hain. dee. oh. ee. dishaanirdeshon mein bund honey key baad sthaayi offsite yaa onsite nigrani key liye koee aavashyakta naheen hoti haye. yeh aviveki lugg sakata haye, yeh dekhate hue kii bhandar mein laakhon dollar kaa kharch kiya gayaa reactor eendhan hoga jise punah sansaadhit kiya jaa sakata haye aur bijli paida karane vaale reactors mein, hathiyaron key anuprayogon mein, yaa sambhavatah aatankvaadi gatividhiyon mein phir seey upayog kiya jaa sakata haye. paani kii ghuspaith yaa fracture key khilaf badey-boor-holl divaaron koo sthaayi roop seey seal karane key liye praudyogiki vartamaan mein maujood naheen haye. pichhale anubhavon seey khadaan surangon aur shaft koo seal karna poori tarah seey safal naheen rhaa haye, vishesh roop seey jahaan bhujal seey ashant bhoomigat bhoovaigyaanik sanrachanaon mein ghuspaith seey koee hydrolic dabaav hotaa haye. tail, gais aur paani key liye anveshan key dauran banaae gaye chhote boor chhed koo seal karane key aitihaasik prayaas unaki uchch viphalata darr key liye kukhyaat hain, aksar 50 varshon seey cumm kii avadhi mein.

