
niji abhiyojan

niji abhiyojan ack aaparaadhik kaaryavaahi haye joe ack niji nagrik yaa niji sangathan (jaise kii abhiyojan sangh) dwara shuru kii jaati haye, bajaay isake kii ack lock abhiyojak dwara joe raajya kaa pratinidhitva kartaa haye. aam kaanoon key tahat kaee kshetradhikaron mein niji abhiyojan kii anumati haye, lekin aadhunik samay mein cumm baar hoe gayaa haye kyonki adhikansh abhiyojan abb niji vyaktiyon key bajaay peshevar lock abhiyojakon dwara sambhaale jaate hain joe (yaa khud) barrister rakhate hain.
australia.
paschimi australia.
adalat kii avamaanana key liye ack niji aaparaadhik abhiyojan sanghiya circuit adalat, parivaar adalat (yaani, paschimi australia kii parivarik adalat, kyonki yeh raajya-adharit parivaar adalat key saath ekmatra adhikaar kshetra haye) yaa kissy raajya yaa kshetra key sarvocch nyayalaya mein australia mein ack paksh key khilaf shuru kiya jaa sakata haye.
paschimi australia key parivarik nyayalaya mein, aisee kaaryavaahi shuru karane key liye ack online form maujood haye jise download kiya jaa sakata haye, puuraa kiya jaa sakata haye aur daayar kiya jaa sakata haye.
paschimi australia key sarvocch nyayalaya mein, yaa tou ack mool saman (form no.75 jaisa kii ack poorv-pakshiya aavedan haye) yaa mool prastaav (form no.64) kathit avamaanana koo nirdisht karate hue daayar kiya jaanaa chaahiye, aur vyaktigat roop seey kathit avamaanana parr "pahale" ack nyayadhish key samaksh sunavaai key liye sadanon mein baithe rehna chaahiye jaba taka kii adalat kaa adesh anyatha naa hoe.
yadi kissy vishisht mamle key sambandh mein kathit avamaanana hui haye, tou usa vishisht mamle key liye pakshon key sheershak key tahat prapatra daayar kiye jaane kii aavashyakta haye; yaa yadi yeh kissy vishesh kaaryavaahi key sandarbh mein kathit roop seey pratibaddh naheen haye, tou avamaanak (uska naam) key khilaf "paschimi australia raajya" kaa hakdar hoga.
nyu south wells.
nyu south wells mein niji abhiyojan kanuni hain lekin bahut durlabh hain. 2022 mein, juaa lobby samooh clubon ney haasya abhineta aur patrakaar maitripurna jords aur whisselbloer troi stoles key khilaf adalat kii avamaanana key liye ack niji abhiyojan chalaaya. yeh abhiyojan bhee ack antarim daman adesh key adheen thaa, jisase ise asthaayi roop seey gupt curr diyaa gayaa thaa.
beijjati karein.
bellies ack anya adhikaar kshetra haye jahan niji abhiyojan kiye jaa sakate hain. 2014 mein, dhokhadhadi vaale passport jaari karane parr ack jamini nagrik sangathan (colla) dwara rajneta alwyn penner kaa niji abhiyojan whiffle rhaa kyonki bachaav paksh yeh tark dene mein safal rhaa kii niji abhiyojak key paas mamle parr pulis record koo prastut karane kii shakti naheen thee. colla key ack vakeel ney sanket diyaa kii sarkaar naheen chaahati thee kii penner parr mukadama chalaaya jaae, aur isaki safalata koo rokane key liye kaam kiya.
kanada.
kanada ack sangh haye aur isaliye sanghiya aur praantiya donon aparaadh hain jinn parr niji taur parr mukadama chalaaya jaa sakata haye. sanghiya roop seey, aaparaadhik aur vaidhaanik aparaadh hain, aur praantiya roop seey praantiya aur nagarpalika gair-aaparaadhik aparaadh hain. kanada key samvidhaan key tahat, kanada mein sabhi aaparaadhik aparaadh sanghiya adhikaar kshetra key tahat hain.
1919 kii winnipeg aam hadtaal mein rajdrohi shadyantrakariyon parr raajya dwara vitt poshit niji abhiyojakon dwara mukadama chalaaya gayaa thaa. dhana yuddh viniyog adhiniyam seey vitarit kiya gayaa thaa aur 1921 aur 1922 kii mahalekha pareekshak kii reports mein iska pramaan haye.
shree kii adhyakshata mein ack samiti. kanada key kaanoon sudhaar aayog key nyaayamurti elen linden ney 1986 mein niji abhiyojan parr ack kaary patra taiyar kiya. burns ney 1975 mein mcgill low journal key liye ack pepper likhaa jiska sheershak thaa "kanada mein niji abhiyojanah kaanoon aur parivartan key liye ack prastaav"; way baad mein kaanoon sudhaar aayog key liye pramukh salaahkaar they. 2013 mein swigen, kohal aur hait ney paryaavaran kshetra mein niji taur parr kiye gaye atyacharon parr mukadama chalaane key prayason koo sankshep mein prastut kiya.
niji aaropon key liye aaparaadhik aparaadh prakriya.
mool roop seey, ack nagrik yaa sangathan kathit aparaadh key pratyek tatva parr sakshya prastut karane key liye shaanti key nyaay kaa drishtikon kartaa haye. nyaay taba yeh nirdhaarit karane key liye ack nyayadhish key saath sunavaai nirdhaarit kartaa haye kii kyaa aparaadh key pratyek tatva parr saboot haye, aur yadi anumodit haye, aur yadi mukut hastakshep naheen kartaa haye aur aarop koo samaapt naheen kartaa haye (jise aarop koo banaae rakhna kahaa jaataa haye) tou ise aaparaadhik prakriya key madhyam seey adalat mein aage badhane aur jaane kii anumati haye.
niji abhiyojan key liye praantiya aparaadh prakriya.
kanada mein pratyek praant apane tareeke seey praantiya apraadhon key niji abhiyojan seey nipatata haye.
ontario.
ontario mein, ack praantiya aparaadh key liye ack niji abhiyojan shuru karane kii prakriya "praantiya aparaadh adhiniyam" key bhaag III dwara shaasit hoti haye. 23 (1) jisamen yeh praavdhaan haye kii "koee bhee vyakti, joe uchit aur sambhaavit aadharon parr, yeh maanata haye kii ack yaa adhik vyaktiyon ney aparaadh kiya haye, aparaadh kaa aarop lagaate hue nirdhaarit prapatra mein aur nyaay key samaksh shapath key tahat jaankaari dey sakata haye aur nyaay koo jaankaari praapt hogi."adhiniyam key bhaag III mein varnit jaankaari koo rakhane seey koee bhee vyakti praantiya aparaadh key liye mukadama shuru curr sakata haye, jabaki adhiniyam key bhaag I aur II kaa upayog kewal ack praantiya aparaadh adhikaari dwara kiya jaa sakata haye.
france.
france mein teen prakaar key aaparaadhik aparaadh hainh
france mein niji abhiyojan koo "citation direct" kahaa jaataa haye, aur yeh kewal durachar aur chhote apraadhon key liye sambhav haye, yadi peedit key paas aparaadh kaa saboot hoe.
adalat juurii key binaa ack yaa teen nyayadhishon key saath baithati haye (ack juurii kewal apraadhon key liye maujood hoti haye, dekhein "court dee 'assises").
adalat mein, niji abhiyojak ack sahayak key roop mein lock abhiyojak key saath baithata haye, aur usey kewal "sivil vaadi" ("paksh nagrik") kahaa jaataa haye, kyonki francisi aaparaadhik adaalaten bhee usee kaaryavaahi key dauran yaatana key daavon parr shasson karati hain. mukadame iss tarah seey taba bhee hotey hain jaba saarvajanik abhiyojan karyalaya dwara abhiyojan shuru kiya gayaa thaa (joe ack niji abhiyojan kii tulanaa mein kaheen adhik samanya haye).
vaadi aur abhiyukt donon kaa pratinidhitva samanya vakeelon dwara kiya jaataa haye, joe adalat kaksh key jamini star parr baithe hotey hain, jabaki lock abhiyojak, jise francisi kaanoon dwara magistrate key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye, adalat key roop mein ack munch parr baithata haye, halanki vaha unake vichaar-vimarsh mein bhaag naheen letaa haye.
lock abhiyojak vaadi key baad aur bachaav paksh key saamane mamle key baare mein adalat koo apani raay detaa haye. antatah, prativaadi koo doshi thaharaaya jaa sakata haye, bhale hii lock abhiyojak ney burry karane kaa anurodh kiya hoe.
france mein, appeal adaalaten tathyon aur kaanoon donon parr phir seey vichaar karati hain. abhiyukt doshasiddhi aur sajaa key khilaf appeal curr sakata haye, lekin vaadi kewal harjaane key liye appeal curr sakata haye. vaha saarvajanik abhiyojak key vipareet, burry karane yaa adhik udaar aaparaadhik sajaa key khilaf appeal naheen curr sakata haye, joe abhiyojan niji honey parr bhee aisaa curr sakata haye.
apraadhon key liye yaa jaba vaadi key paas aparyaapt saboot houn, tou vaha ack jaanch nyayadhish ("juge dee 'instruction") koo sandarbhit curr sakata haye joe mamle kii jaanch karega, aur yadi usey aparaadh kaa paryaapt saboot milata haye tou ise nichali adalat (jisamen vaha naheen baithata haye) koo sandarbhit curr sakata haye. jaanchkarta nyayadhish lock abhiyojak key karyalaya seey swatantra haye, aur mamle koo nichali adalat mein bhej sakata haye, bhale hii lock abhiyojak gair-mukadama kaa anurodh karey.
vaastav mein, francisi kaanoon kuchh sanghon koo niji abhiyojan (americi niji attorney general key samaan) bhadkane kii anumati detaa haye, lekin kewal naslavaadi bhaashan jaise kuchh apraadhon key liye. 2013 mein, kuchh safed-collar apraadhon key liye yeh sambhavana jodee gaee haye.
yadi prativaadi doshi thaharaaya jaataa haye, tou aaparaadhik adalat usey aaparaadhik aparaadh key liye vaadi koo harjana dene aur aaparaadhik sajaa key alawa usaki kanuni laagat kii pratipurti karane key liye sajaa dey sakati haye. lekin yadi niji abhiyojan yaa jaanch nyayadhish koo sandarbhit karna apmaanjanak maanaa jaataa haye, tou vaadi koo aaropi koo harjana dene aur raajya koo diwani jurmana dene kii sajaa dee jaa sakati haye.
ireland.
ireland ganarajya mein niji abhiyojan sambhav hain, halanki kewal jilaa adalat key star parr jahaan cumm gambhir apraadhon kii sunavaai kewal ack nyayadhish key samaksh kii jaati haye.
niji abhiyojan key adhikaar key nirantar astitva kii pushti 2013 mein mamle key faisale "kellie aind enor-vee-raayan" ([2013] aaee. ee. aich. see. 321) mein kii gaee thee.
newzealand.
newzealand mein niji abhiyojan kanuni baney hue hain.
phillippeans.
phillippeans mein niji abhiyojak niji vakeel hain joe aaparaadhik mamalon koo laane mein madad karane key liye pulis aur saarvajanik abhiyojakon key saath kaam karate hain. way aksar sthaaniya shakti dalalon key prabhaav seey baahar, aur aavashyak kanuni yachikaon aur anya dastavejon koo taiyar karane key liye, ack mukadame key sthaan koo adhik tatasth adalat mein sthanantarit karane key liye kaam karate hain. way peedit key parivaar kii dekhbhal karane aur media aur janata kaa dhyaan mamle parr kendrit rakhane mein bhee madad karate hain.
niji abhiyojak rashtriya bhrashtachar-rodhi adalat sandiganbine key saamane mamalon mein shamil hoe sakate hain.
singapur.
ack niji abhiyojan ack niji vyakti dwara laaya jaataa haye yadi way kissy galat key liye nivaaran chaahte hain joe unhein lagata haye kii unake saath kiya gayaa haye. usa vyakti koo pahale raajya kii adalaton mein magistrate key paas shikayat darj karani hogi. yadi vyakti key paas vakeel naheen haye, tou yeh hoe sakata haye kii vyakti swayam abhiyojan kaa sanchaalan curr sakey.
dakshin africa.
aine. aiss. pee. see. aeye. dakshin africa.
pashuon key prati krurta kii roktham key liye rashtriya samiti (aine. aiss. pee. see. aeye.) ney 8 disambar 2016 koo dakshin africa kii samvaidhaanik adalat mein apani jeet hassil kii thee, jaba sangathan ney apana mamla jeet liya thaa, jise usane aaparaadhik prakriya adhiniyam, 1977 kii dhaara 8 key sandarbh mein niji abhiyojan sthaapit karane key liye adalat key samaksh laaya thaa. isake baad sangathan ney apane mamle khou diye they, jise usane uttar gauteng uchch nyayalaya aur dakshin africa key sarvocch nyayalaya mein niji abhiyojan key usee mamle parr laaya thaa. aine. aiss. pee. see. aeye. ney adalaton key samaksh mamla laane kaa kaaran yeh haye kii pashu krurta yaa durvyavahar key "bhaari" sakshya key bavjood dakshin africa (aine. pee. aeye.) key rashtriya abhiyojan pradhikaran ney sangathan dwara laae gaye mamalon parr mukadama chalaane seey incar curr diyaa, jisake parinamswarup pashu durvyavahar karane vaalon parr pashu krurta key aaropon mein aarop naheen lagaaya gayaa. dakshin africa kii samvaidhaanik adalat ney yeh bhee faisala sunaaya kii uttardaataon, nyaay aur samvaidhaanik vikas mantri aur saarvajanik abhiyojan key rashtriya nideshak koo teenon avedanon mein sangathan kii laagat kaa bhugtan karna thaa.
united kingdam.
united kingdam mein niji abhiyojan kii anumati haye. way vibhinn adhikaar kshetron mein vibhinn niyamon dwara shaasit hotey hain.
ingland aur wells.
niji abhiyojan koo angreji kaanoon mein anumati haye. ingland key praarambhik itihas mein, ack aparaadh key peedit aur usake parivaar koo peedit koo ghayal karane key aarop mein vyakti key khilaf aaparaadhik aarop lagaane key liye ack niji vakeel koo niyukt karane kaa adhikaar thaa. 18veen shatabdi mein, abhiyojan vyakti key khilaf lagbhag sabhi aaparaadhik apraadhon key liye niji thaa, aamtaur parr peedit dwara. iska ack kaaran yeh thaa kii abhiyojan koo kabhi bhee saarvajanik mamle key roop mein naheen maanaa gayaa thaa. angreji pranali vyaktigat aur sthaaniya abhiyojan key siddhanton parr adharit thee jisamen niji nagrik kaa adhikaar sarvopari thaa. iss maanak kaa apavaad una apraadhon mein thaa jahaan peedit mukut thaa, aur attorney-general aur solicitor-general ney raajya key mukdamon mein abhiyojan kaa pratinidhitva kiya; udaaharan key liye, johnn hampden kaa 1637 jahaaj dhana curr virodh mamla dekhein.
jaisa kii oopar bataaya gayaa haye, abhiyojan kaa maarg peediton dwara apane kharch parr yaa unaki or seey kaary karane vaale vakeelon dwara kiya gayaa thaa. mahanagar pulis adhiniyam 1829 key baad seey, jaise hii pulis balon ney apana vartamaan roop shuru kiya, unhone sandigdh apraadhiyon key khilaf mukadama chalaane kaa bojh uthaana shuru curr diyaa.
1880 mein, surr johnn maule koo saarvajanik abhiyojan kaa pahala nideshak niyukt kiya gayaa, joe grih karyalaya key ack hisse key roop mein kaam curr rhaa thaa. adhikaar kshetra kewal iss nirnay key liye thaa kii mukadama chalaaya jaae yaa naheen, aur kewal bahut cumm sankhya mein kathin yaa mahatvapurna mamalon key liye. ack baar abhiyojan koo adhikrit kiye jaane key baad, mamla koshagar key vakeel koo saunp diyaa gayaa thaa. pulis bull adhikansh mamalon key liye jimmedaar baney rahey, kabhi-kabhi kathin mamalon koo nideshak koo sandarbhit karate rahey.
1933 mein isaki samaapti seey pahale, aaparaadhik abhiyojan key liye grand juurii seey abhiyog key ack sachche bill kii aavashyakta thee, aur isaliye iss star parr tuchchh aur pareshan karane vaali kaaryavaahi seey bachane key liye design kiya gayaa thaa (halanki yeh vyavhaar mein mamla naheen nikla).
1962 mein, pulis parr shaahi aayog ney sifarish kii kii pulis bull swatantra abhiyojan vibhaag sthaapit karein taaki samaan adhikaariyon koo mamalon kii jaanch karane aur mukadama chalaane seey bachaa jaa sakey.
shaahi aayog kii sifarish koo sabhi pulis balon dwara lagu naheen kiya gayaa thaa, aur isaliye 1978 mein ack aur shaahi aayog banaaya gayaa thaa, iss baar surr siril phillips kii adhyakshata mein. isane 1981 mein report kiya, jisamen sifarish kii gaee kii ingland aur wells mein sabhi saarvajanik abhiyojanon kii jimmedaari key saath ack ekal ekikrit crown abhiyojan seva sthaapit kii jaae. 1983 mein ack shwet patra jaari kiya gayaa thaa, joe apraadhon kaa abhiyojan adhiniyam 1985 bunn gayaa, jisane saarvajanik abhiyojan nideshak key nirdesh key tahat crown abhiyojan seva kii sthaapana kii, jisamen unake puraane vibhaag kaa maujooda pulis abhiyojan vibhagon key saath vilay shamil thaa. yeh 1986 mein kaam karna shuru curr diyaa. see. pee. aiss. niji abhiyojan koo ise sambhaalane aur phir ise bund karane seey bhee roque sakata haye. maanaa jaataa haye kii see. pee. aiss. aisaa kewal tabhi karega jahaan uchit mamla banaane key liye paryaapt saboot naheen haye, yaa jahaan koee abhiyojan lock hita key khilaf haye yaa anyaay kaa kaaran bunn sakata haye. iss nirnay taka pahunchane mein, ise 1985 key adhiniyam key tahat mukadama chalaane key kissy vyakti key adhikaar koo sanrakshit karane key kartavya key khilaf saarvajanik bhalai koo santulit karna chaahiye.
kissy bhee niji abhiyojan koo sambhaalate samay, see. pee. aiss. pulis koo aage kii jaanch karane kaa nirdesh dey sakata haye. iska uddeshya yeh sunishchit karna thaa kii adalat key samaksh sabse achchha upalabdh sakshya rakhaa gayaa thaa, kyonki aage key parikshanon koo aam taur parr 2003 taka dohare khatare key niyam dwara baahar rakhaa gayaa thaa. baad vaale niyam koo "nae aur sammohak sakshya" kii kuchh paristhitiyon mein nirast curr diyaa gayaa thaa, aur aaparaadhik nyaay adhiniyam 2003 dwara balatkar, sashastr dakaiti aur hatyaa jaise sabse gambhir apraadhon kii ack seemit seema key liye, blunkett, irvin aur sunar dwara anushansit, iss parivartan kii anumati manvadhikaron parr europeeya sammelan key saatven protocol key vaikalpik anuchhed 4 dwara dee gaee haye, halanki united kingdam isamen pakshakaar naheen haye.
scotland.
niji abhiyojan scots kaanoon mein durlabh hain aur aparaadh key aspas kii vishesh paristhitiyon koo spasht honey kii aavashyakta hoti haye. nyaypalika key uchch nyayalaya dwara aaparaadhik patron kaa ack bill pradaan karke mukadama chalaane kii anumati praapt kii jaani chaahiye. 20veen shatabdi key bheetar, kewal dou aise anuprayog kiye gaye they.
sanyukt raajya america.
aupaniveshik america mein, dutch (aur sambhavatah francisi) abhyaas aur attorney general key karyalaya key vistaar key kaaran, saarvajanik adhikaari apraadhon key abhiyojan parr haavi hoe gaye. haalaanki, niji vitt poshit abhiyojakon ney unnisvin shatabdi key dauran raajya aaparaadhik nyaay pranali kaa ack mahatvapurna tatva banaaya.
sanghiya mamalon mein niji abhiyojan kaa adhikaar 1981 key sarvocch nyayalaya key faisale key baad hataa diyaa gayaa thaa. timerman, "linda aar mein ack pahale key nirnay kii pushti karate hue. aiss. vee. richard dee.". haalaanki, ack sanghiya abhiyojak ack mamle parr mukadama chalaane key liye ack niji vakeel niyukt curr sakata haye. anya sthaanon parr, niji abhiyojan raajya key kaanoonon dwara shaasit hotaa haye.
albama.
raajya kaa kaanoon vartamaan mein niji nagrikon koo kuchh paristhitiyon mein shulk lagaane kaa adhikaar detaa haye. albama mein, ack nagrik yaa "peedit" jisake paas yeh vishvaas karane kaa sambhaavit kaaran haye kii ack aparaadh kiya gayaa haye, vaha seedhe adalat mein jaa sakata haye aur pulis yaa nyayadhish kii manjuri key binaa magistrate key samaksh giraftari warrant parr hastakshar curr sakata haye. sarkaar taba aparaadh key abhiyojan koo sambhaalegi. 
california.
niji abhiyojan california mein kanuni naheen hain.
rung.
1974 mein, colorado sarvocch nyayalaya ney faisala sunaaya kii niji abhiyojan prativaadi key liye anuchit aur purvagrahpurna they.
georgia.
georgia mein, aaparaadhik kaaryavaahi ack niji nagrik key anurodh parr shuru kii jaa sakati haye, lekin prativaadi koo yeh tark dene kaa avsar diye jaane key baad kii usa parr aarop kyon naheen lagaaya jaanaa chaahiye.
idaho.
idaho niji nagrikon koo magistrate key paas aaparaadhik shikayat darj karane kii anumati detaa haye; magistrate iss baat kii santushti parr giraftari warrant jaari curr sakata haye kii aparaadh huaa haye.
kentucky.
kentucky ack niji nagrik koo aaparaadhik shikaayaten darj karke aaparaadhik mamle shuru karane kii anumati detaa haye, halanki yeh county attorney yaa rashtramandal key attorney parr nirbhar kartaa haye kii way yeh taya karein kii mamle key saath aage badhana haye yaa naheen.
maryland.
maryland niji nagrikon koo dusare nagrik key khilaf shapath patra daayar karane kii anumati detaa haye.
massachusets.
massachusets mein niji abhiyojanon koo 1849 mein amaanya ghoshit curr diyaa gayaa aur 1855 mein aupchaarik roop seey gairkaanooni ghoshit curr diyaa gayaa.
mishigan.
mishigan ney 1875 mein niji abhiyojanon parr pratibandh lagaa diyaa. niji nagrik halanki durachar giraftari warrant daayar curr sakate hain aur satyaapit curr sakate hain joe yadi ack nyayadhish yaa magistrate dwara sweekaar curr liya jaataa haye tou swachaalit roop seey ack abhiyojan vakeel koo sthanantarit curr diyaa jaayega.
minnesota.
minnesota sarvocch nyayalaya ney 1977 mein raajya poorv mein faisala sunaaya. jangli vee. yeh kii ack niji nagrik koo kathit aparaadh parr mukadama chalaane kaa adhikaar naheen haye.
misauri.
misauri mein niji abhiyojan kaa adhikaar 1976 mein raajya banaam mein nirnay key baad hataa diyaa gayaa thaa. harrington.
nyu hampshire.
nyu hampshire kissy bhee aparaadh key niji abhiyojan kii anumati detaa haye jisamen sambhaavit dund key roop mein karawas naheen hotaa haye. haalaanki, abhiyojakon koo niji aaparaadhik aaropon koo khariz karane kaa adhikaar haye.
naee jersey.
nyu jersey apani nagarpalika adalaton mein niji abhiyojan kii anumati denaa jaari rakhti haye. haalaanki, 1995 kaa nirnay raajya banaam. yadi mukadama chalaane kaa irada rakhane vaale paksh key prativaadiyon key saath hiton kaa takraav yaa mamle mein vittiya hita haye tou niji abhiyojan pratibandhit curr diyaa gayaa haye. isake alawa, raajya key kaanoon mein kahaa gayaa haye kii sabhi niji abhiyojanon key liye county abhiyojak aur adalat kii manjuri kii aavashyakta hoti haye.
newyork.
2002 mein, ack sanghiya jilaa adalat ney "campfer banaam. yeh spasht karein kii prativaadi key uchit prakriya adhikaaron key ullanghan key roop mein newyork kaanoon key tahat niji abhiyojan koo pratibandhit kiya gayaa thaa. haalaanki, "campfer" mein adalat ney niji abhiyojanon koo alag kiya, jahaan una ghatnaaon key sambandh mein "kaarravaai kaa antarnihit nagrik kaaran" haye jisane abhiyojan koo janm diyaa.
uttari carolina.
uttar carolina mein 1975 key anta taka niji abhiyojakon kaa upayog kiya gayaa thaa. adalat ney "raajya banaam. 1974 mein sabse achchha "kii ack nirvaachit abhiyojak koo sabhi abhiyojanon kaa prabhaari honah chaahiye. ack niji nagrik magistrate key samaksh aaparaadhik prakriya jaari karane kaa anurodh karane key liye jaa sakata haye, lekin aise kissy bhee aarop parr raajya dwara mukadama chalaaya jaataa haye.
ohiyo.
ohiyo raajya kaa kaanoon niji nagrikon koo aaparaadhik aaropon kaa samarthan karane key liye ack halafnama daayar karane kii anumati detaa haye. haalaanki, vaastavik abhiyojan raajya taka hii seemit haye. kewal abhiyojak hii ack aaparaadhik mamle koo grand juurii key saamane pesh curr sakate hain. niji abhiyojan mamalon mein giraftari warrant jaari karane seey nyayadhishon koo rokane key liye 2006 mein raajya key kaanoon mein aur sanshodhan kiya gayaa thaa.
pensylvania.
pensylvania mein niji abhiyojanon key liye raajya abhiyojak seey anumodan kii aavashyakta hoti haye.
rode dweep.
2001 mein, rode dweep sarvocch nyayalaya ney dyne aiss mein faisala sunaaya. cronan aiks rille. raajya vee. johnn jey. cronan "kii ack niji nagrik durachar key liye aaparaadhik shikaayaten darj curr sakata haye. r key tahat aisaa karane key liye.aaee. jeane. kaanoon § 12-10-12, jilaa adalat yaa uchch nyayalaya key nyayadhish koo aaparaadhik shikayat koo file parr rakhane kaa vikalp chunana chaahiye. haalaanki, apraadhon kaa mukadama raajya taka hii seemit haye. niji abhiyojak ack saal seey adhik kii kaid yaa 1,000 dollar seey adhik key jurmaane kii bhee maang naheen curr sakate hain.
dakshin carolina.
unnisvin shatabdi mein dakshin carolina kaanoon seey adhikaar hataa diyaa gayaa thaa. haalaanki, niji nagrik abhee bhee magistrate key saath anurodh daayar karke aaparaadhik mamla shuru curr sakate hain, haalaanki magistrate niji aaparaadhik shikayaton key jawab mein kewal saman jaari curr sakate hain.
wisconsin.
wisconsin mein niji abhiyojan "bymail banaam" key nirnay key baad gairkaanooni ghoshit curr diye gaye they. 1855 mein raajya ney faisala sunaaya kii 1890 mein, adalat ney faisala sunaaya kii ack niji vakeel abhiyojan mein taba taka sahaayata curr sakata haye jaba taka kii hiton kaa koee takraav naa hoe.
vivaad.
broose ell. benson kaa "seva aur suraksha key liye" niji abhiyojakon kii bhoomika kii sarahana kartaa haye, joe aksar abhiyojan sanghon dwara niyojit hotey hain, ingland mein aparaadh peediton kii jarooraton kii seva mein. niji abhiyojan kii pratha koo bahaal karane key liye coll kiye gaye hain, vishesh roop seey aadhikarik durachar key mamalon mein, jahaan nyayadhish, lock abhiyojak aur pulis kaanoon kaa ullanghan karane key liye ack saath kaary karate hain. kuchh udaarvaadi siddhantkaron kaa maanana haye kii lock abhiyojakon kaa astitva naheen honah chaahiye, lekin isake bajaay apraadhon koo nagrik yaatana key roop mein maanaa jaanaa chaahiye. murre rothbard likhate hain, "ack udaarvaadi duniya mein, ack galat paribhaashit 'samaaj' key khilaf koee aparaadh naheen hoga, aur isaliye 'jilaa vakeel' key roop mein aisaa koee vyakti naheen hoga joe aarop kaa faisala kartaa haye aur phir una aaropon koo ack kathit aparaadhi key khilaf dabaata haye."
niji abhiyojan koo kabhi-kabhi sandeh key saath pareshan karane vaale yaa durbhavanapurna abhiyojan key liye ack sambhaavit maarg key roop mein maanaa jaataa haye. ocagbue likhate hain kii iss tarah key durupyog key khilaf sabse upayogi niyantran adalat kii shakti haye kii vaha mamle koo aage badhane seey incar curr dey, jahaan yeh raay haye kii aarop kaa samarthan karane key liye paryaapt saboot naheen haye. durbhavanapurna abhiyojan key liye sambhaavit nagrik daayitva sahit niji abhiyojan kii laagat bhee tuchchh abhiyojan koo roque sakati haye.

