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In religious studies and folkloristics, folk religion, popular religion, or vernacular religion comprises various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized religion. The precise definition of folk religion varies among scholars. Sometimes also termed popular belief, it consists of ethnic or regional religious customs under the umbrella of a religion, but outside official doctrine and practices.
In The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, John Bowker characterized "folk religion" as either "religion which occurs in small, local communities which does not adhere to the norms of large systems" or "the appropriation of religious beliefs and practices at a popular level."
Don Yoder argued that there were five separate ways of defining folk religion. The first was a perspective rooted in a cultural evolutionary framework which understood folk religion as representing the survivals of older forms of religion; in this, it would constitute "the survivals, in an official religious context, of beliefs and behavior inherited from earlier stages of the culture's development". This definition would view folk religion in Catholic Europe as the survivals of pre-Christian religion and the folk religion in Protestant Europe as the survivals of Medieval Catholicism. The second definition identified by Yoder was the view that folk religion represented the mixture of an official religion with forms of ethnic religion; this was employed to explain the place of folk religion in the syncretic belief systems of the Americas, where Christianity had blended with the religions of indigenous American and African communities.
Yoder's third definition was that often employed within folkloristics, which held that folk religion was "the interaction of belief, ritual, custom, and mythology in traditional societies", representing that which was often pejoratively characterised as superstition. The fourth definition provided by Yoder stated that folk religion represented the "folk interpretation and expression of religion". Noting that this definition would not encompass beliefs that were largely unconnected from organised religion, such as in witchcraft, he therefore altered this definition by including the concept of "folk religiosity", thereby defining folk religion as "the deposit in culture of folk religiosity, the full range of folk attitudes to religion". His fifth and final definition represented a "practical working definition" that combined elements from these various other definitions. Thus, he summarized folk religion as "the totality of all those views and practices of religion that exist among the people apart from and alongside the strictly theological and liturgical forms of the official religion".
Yoder described "folk religion" as existing "in a complex society in relation to and in tension with the organized religion(s) of that society. Its relatively unorganized character differentiates it from organized religion".
Alternately, the sociologist of religion Matthias Zic Varul defined "folk religion" as "the relatively un-reflected aspect of ordinary practices and beliefs that are oriented towards, or productive of, something beyond the immediate here-and-now: everyday transcendence".
In Europe the study of "folk religion" emerged from the study of religiöse Volkskund, a German term which was used in reference to "the religious dimension of folk-culture, or the folk-cultural dimension of religion". This term was first employed by a German Lutheran preacher, Paul Drews, in a 1901 article that he published which was titled "Religiöse Volkskunde, eine Aufgabe der praktischen Theologie". This article was designed to be read by young Lutheran preachers leaving the seminary, to equip them for the popular variants of Lutheranism that they would encounter among their congregations and which would differ from the official, doctrinal Lutheranism that they had been accustomed to. Although developing within a religious environment, the term came to be adopted by German academics in the field of folkloristics. During the 1920s and 1930s, theoretical studies of religiöse Volkskund had been produced by the folklorists Josef Weigert, Werner Boette, and Max Rumpf, all of whom had focused on religiosity within German peasant communities. Over the coming decades, Georg Schreiber established an Institut für religiöse Volkskund in Munich while a similar department was established in Salzburg by Hanns Koren. Other prominent academics involved in the study of the phenomenon were Heinrich Schauert and Rudolf Kriss, the latter of whom collected one of the largest collections of folk-religious art and material culture in Europe, later housed in Munich's Bayerisches Nationalmuseum. Throughout the 20th century, many studies were made of folk religion in Europe, paying particular attention to such subjects as pilgrimage and the use of shrines.
In the Americas, the study of folk religion developed among cultural anthropologists studying the syncretistic cultures of the Caribbean and Latin America. The pioneer in this field was Redfield, whose 1930 book Tepoztlán: A Mexican Village contrasted and examined the relationship between "folk religion" and "official religion" in a peasant community. Yoder later noted that although the earliest known usage of the term "folk religion" in the English language was unknown, it probably developed as a translation of the German Volksreligion. One of the earliest prominent usages of the term was in the title of Joshua Trachtenberg's 1939 work Jewish Magic and Superstition: A Study in Folk Religion. The term also gained increasing usage within the academic field of comparative religion, appearing in the titles of Ichiro Hori's Folk Religion in Japan, Martin Nilsson's Greek Folk Religion, and Charles Leslie's reader, the Anthropology of Folk Religion. Courses on the study of folk religion came to be taught at various universities in the United States, such as John Messenger's at Indiana University and Don Yoder's at the University of Pennsylvania. Although the subject of folk religion fell within the remit of scholars operating in both folkloristics and religious studies, by 1974 Yoder noted that U.S.-based academics in the latter continued to largely ignore it, instead focusing on the study of theology and institutionalised religion; he contrasted this with the situation in Europe, where historians of religion had devoted much time to studying folk religiosity. He also lamented that many U.S.-based folklorists also neglected the subject of religion because it did not fit within the standard genre-based system for cataloguing folklore.
The term "folk religion" came to be increasingly rejected in the 1990s and 2000s by scholars seeking more precise terminology.
Yoder noted that one problem with the use of the term "folk religion" was that it did not fit into the work of those scholars who used the term "religion" in reference solely to organized religion. He highlighted the example of the prominent sociologist of religion Émile Durkheim, who insisted that "religion" was organized in order to contrast it with "magic". Yoder noted that scholars adopting these perspectives often preferred the term "folk belief" over "folk religion".
A second problem with the use of "folk religion" that Yoder highlighted was that some scholars, particularly those operating in the sociology of religion, used the term as a synonym for ethnic religion (which is alternately known as national religion or tribal religion), meaning a religion closely tied to a particular ethnic or national group and is thus contrasted with a "universal religion" which cuts across ethnic and national boundaries. Among the scholars to have adopted this use of terminology are E. Wilbur Bock.
The folklorist Leonard Norman Primiano argued that the use of "folk religion", as well as related terms like "popular religion" and "unofficial religion", by scholars, does "an extreme disservice" to the forms of religiosity that scholarship is examining, because – in his opinion – such terms are "residualistic, [and] derogatory". He argued that using such terminology implies that there is "a pure element" to religion "which is in some way transformed, even contaminated, by its exposure to human communities". As a corrective, he suggested that scholars use "vernacular religion" as an alternative. Defining this term, Primiano stated that "vernacular religion" is, "by definition, religion as it is lived: as human beings encounter, understand, interpret, and practice it. Since religion inherently involves interpretation, it is impossible for the religion of an individual not to be vernacular".
Kapaló was critical of this approach, deeming it "mistaken" and arguing that switching from "folk religion" to "vernacular religion" results in the scholar "picking up a different selection of things from the world". He cautioned that both terms were "ideological and semantic load[ed]" and warned scholars to pay attention to the associations that each word had.
Philippine mythology is a body of myths, tales, and superstitions held by Filipinos (composed of more than a hundred ethnic peoples in the Philippines), mostly originating from beliefs held during the pre-Hispanic era. Some of these beliefs stem from pre-Christian religions that were specially influenced by Hinduism and were regarded by the Spanish as "myths" and "superstitions" in an effort to de-legitimize legitimate precolonial beliefs by forcefully replacing those native beliefs with colonial Catholic Christian myths and superstitions. Today, some of these precolonial beliefs are still held by Filipinos, especially in the provinces.
Folk Islam is an umbrella term used to collectively describe forms of Islam that incorporate native folk beliefs and practices. Folk Islam has been described as the Islam of the "urban poor, country people, and tribes", in contrast to orthodox or "High" Islam (Gellner, 1992). Sufism and Sufi concepts are often integrated into Folk Islam.
In one of the first major academic works on the subject, titled Jewish Magic and Superstition: A Study in Folk Religion, Joshua Trachtenberg provided a definition of Jewish folk religion as consisting of ideas and practices that whilst not meeting with the approval of religious leaders enjoyed wide popularity such that they must be included in what he termed the field of religion. This included unorthodox beliefs about demons and angels, and magical practices.
Later studies have emphasized the significance of the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem to the many Jewish folk customs linked to mourning and in particular to the belief in hibbut ha-qever (torture of the grave) a belief that the dead are tortured in their grave for three days after burial by demons until they remember their names. This idea began with early eschatalogical aggadah and was then further developed by the kabbalists.
Raphael Patai has been acknowledged as one of the first to utilize anthropology to study Jewish folk religion. In particular he has drawn attention to the important role of the female divine element, which he sees in the goddess Asherah, the Shekhinah, the Matronit, and Lilith.
Writer Stephen Sharot has stated that Jewish popular religion in common with other forms of folk religion, has a focus on the apotropaic, or thaumaturgical, i.e. it is used to assist in protecting the individual from sickness, and misfortune. He emphasizes that while Rabbinical Judaism dealt with orthodox Jewish ritual, and halakah, magicians claimed to use unorthodox magical rituals to help people in everyday life. He points to the example of a relatively professionalised type of magician being the ba'al shem of Poland, who beginning in the 16th century thrived with the popularity of practical kabbalah in the 18th century. These ba'al shem promised to use their knowledge of the names of god, and the angels, along with exorcism, chiromancy, and herbal medicine to bring harm to enemies, and success in areas of social life such as marriage, and childbirth.
Charles Liebman has written that the essence of the folk religion of American Jews is their social ties to one another, illustrated by the finding that religious practices that would prevent social integration -such as a strict interpretation of dietary laws and the Sabbath- have been abandoned, whilst the practices that are followed -such as the Passover seder, social rites of passage, and the High Holy Days- are ones that strengthen Jewish family and community integration. Liebman described the rituals and beliefs of contemporary Jewish folk religion in his works, The Ambivalent American Jew (1973) and American Jewry: Identity and Affiliation.
In sociology, folk religion is often contrasted with elite religion. Folk religion is defined as the beliefs, practices, rituals and symbols originating from sources other than the religion's leadership. Folk religion in many instances is tolerated by the religion's leadership, although they may consider it an error. A similar concept is lived religion, the study of religion as practiced by believers.
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Chinese folk religion (Chinese popular religion or traditional Chinese religion) or Han folk religion or Shenism is the religious tradition of the Han Chinese, including veneration of forces of nature and ancestors, exorcism of harmful forces, and a belief in the rational order of nature which can be influenced by human beings and their rulers as well as spirits and gods. Worship is devoted to a multiplicity of gods and immortals (神 shén), who can be deities of phenomena, of human behaviour, or progenitors of lineages. Stories regarding some of these gods are collected into the body of Chinese mythology. By the 11th century (Song period), these practices had been blended with Buddhist ideas of karma (one's own doing) and rebirth, and Taoist teachings about hierarchies of gods, to form the popular religious system which has lasted in many ways until the present day.Chinese religions have a variety of sources, local forms, founder backgrounds, and ritual and philosophical traditions. Despite this diversity, there is a common core that can be summarised as four theological, cosmological, and moral concepts: Tian (天), Heaven, the transcendent source of moral meaning; qi (氣), the breath or energy that animates the universe; jingzu (敬祖), the veneration of ancestors; and bao ying (報應), moral reciprocity; together with two traditional concepts of fate and meaning: ming yun (命運), the personal destiny or burgeoning; and yuan fen (緣分), "fateful coincidence", good and bad chances and potential relationships.Yin and yang (陰陽) is the polarity that describes the order of the universe, held in balance by the interaction of principles of growth (shen) and principles of waning (gui), with yang ("act") usually preferred over yin ("receptiveness") in common religion. Ling (靈), "numen" or "sacred", is the "medium" of the two states and the inchoate order of creation.Both the present day government of China and the imperial dynasties of the Ming and Qing tolerated village popular religious cults if they bolstered social stability but suppressed or persecuted those that they feared would undermine it. After the fall of the empire in 1911, governments and elites opposed or attempted to eradicate folk religion in order to promote "modern" values, and many condemned "feudal superstition". These conceptions of folk religion began to change in Taiwan in the late 20th century and in mainland China in the 21st. Many scholars now view folk religion in a positive light. In recent times Chinese folk religions are experiencing a revival in both mainland China and Taiwan. Some forms have received official understanding or recognition as a preservation of traditional Chinese culture, such as Mazuism and the Sanyi teaching in Fujian, Huangdi worship, and other forms of local worship, for example the Longwang, Pangu or Caishen worship.
Chinese shamanism, alternatively called Wuism (Chinese: 巫教; pinyin: wū jiào; literally: 'wu religion, shamanism, witchcraft'; alternatively 巫觋宗教 wū xí zōngjiào), refers to the shamanic religious tradition of China. Its features are especially connected to the ancient Neolithic cultures such as the Hongshan culture. Chinese shamanic traditions are intrinsic to Chinese folk religion, an overarching term for all the indigenous religions of China. Wu masters remain important in contemporary Chinese culture.
Various ritual traditions are rooted in original Chinese shamanism: contemporary Chinese ritual masters are sometimes identified as wu by outsiders, though most orders don't self-identify as such. Also Taoism has some of its origins from Chinese shamanism: it developed around the pursuit of long life (shou 壽/寿), or the status of a xian (仙, "mountain man", "holy man").
Smaller household shrines or votive niche, such as the worship of Zaoshen and Caishen.Gōng (宫), meaning "palace" is a term used for a templar complex of multiple buildings, while yuàn (院) is a generic term meaning "sanctuary" or "shrine".
Some forms of belief are not recognised by the government as a religion for statistical purposes although such practices are not outlawed. There is a deep interaction between the Chinese folk religion of the large Malaysian Chinese population, and the indigenous Malaysian folk religion.
Manchu folk religion is the ethnic religion practiced by most of the Manchu people, the major of the Tungusic peoples, in China. It can also be called Manchu Shamanism by virtue of the word "shaman" being originally from Tungusic šamán ("man of knowledge"), later applied by Western scholars to similar religious practices in other cultures. It is a pantheistic system, believing in a universal God called Apka Enduri ("God of Heaven") which is the omnipotent and omnipresent source of all life and creation. Deities (enduri) enliven every aspect of nature, and the worship of these gods is believed to bring favour, health and prosperity. Many of the deities are original Manchu kins' ancestors, and people with the same surname are generated by the same god.Shamans are persons of unusual ability, strength and sensitivity, capable of perception and prediction of the ways of the gods. They are endowed with the social function to conduct the sacrificial ceremonies and approach the deities asking them intervention or protection. Because of their abilities the shamans are people of great authority and prestige. Usually, every Manchu kin has its own shaman.Manchu folk religious rites were standardised by the Qianlong Emperor (1736-96) in the "Manchu Sacrificial Ritual to the Gods and Heaven" (Manjusai wecere metere kooli bithe), a manual published in Manchu in 1747 and in Chinese (Manzhou jishen jitian dianli) in 1780. With the conquest of imperial power in China (Qing dynasty) the Manchu people gradually adopted Chinese language and assimilated into the Chinese religion, although Manchu folk religion persists with a distinct character within broader Chinese religion.
Miao folk religion or Hmong folk religion is the common ethnic religion of Miao peoples, primarily consisting in the practice of kev dab qhuas (Hmongic: "worship of deities"). The religion is also called Hmongism by a Hmong American church established in 2012 to organise it among Hmong people in the United States.It has a pantheist theology, centered on worship of deities and progenitors of the Miao peoples. Throughout its history it has incorporated theoretical and ritual elements from Taoism, and broader Chinese religion, especially the emphasis on the pattern of the forces of the natural universe and the need of human life to be in accordance with these forces.Most Hmong continue to practice the traditional religion, although many Hmong in Asia have converted to Buddhism or have mixed it with Buddhism, and many Hmong Americans and Hmong Australians have adopted Christianity or Buddhism.
Mo or Moism (Chinese: 摩教; pinyin: Mó jiào), occasionally called Zhuang Shigongism (Chinese: 壮族师公教; pinyin: Zhuàngzú shīgōng jiào; literally: 'Zhuang Ancestral Father Religion'), is the religion of most Zhuang people, the largest ethnic minority of China. It has a large presence in Guangxi. While it has a supreme god, the creator Bu Luotuo (布洛陀), numerous other deities are venerated as well. It has a three-element-theory (sky, earth and water). Mo is animistic, teaching that spirits are present in everything.Mo developed from prehistoric beliefs of the Zhuang people; it also has similarities to Chinese folk religion, and has developed similar doctrines to Buddhism and Taoism, in the process of competition with the influence of these religions on Zhuang culture. The Cultural Revolution of China weakened Mo, though the religion has undergone a revival since the 1980s. Moism varies from region to region.
Mongolian shamanism, more broadly called the Mongolian folk religion, or occasionally Tengerism, refers to the animistic and shamanic ethnic religion that has been practiced in Mongolia and its surrounding areas (including Buryatia and Inner Mongolia) at least since the age of recorded history. The Mongolian endonym is Böö mörgöl (In Mongolian cyrillic: Бөө мөргөл). In the earliest known stages it was intricately tied to all other aspects of social life and to the tribal organization of Mongolian society. Along the way, it has become influenced by and mingled with Buddhism. During the socialist years of the twentieth century it was heavily repressed and has since made a comeback.
Yellow shamanism is the term used to designate the particular version of Mongolian shamanism which adopts the expressive style of Buddhism. "Yellow" indicates Buddhism in Mongolia, since most Buddhists there belong to what is called the Gelug or "Yellow sect" of Tibetan Buddhism, whose members wear yellow hats during services. The term also serves to distinguish it from a form of shamanism not influenced by Buddhism (according to its adherents), called black shamanism.Mongolian shamanism is centered on the worship of the tngri (gods) and the highest Tenger (Heaven, God of Heaven, God) or Qormusta Tengri. In the Mongolian folk religion, Genghis Khan is considered one of the embodiments, if not the main embodiment, of the Tenger. The Mausoleum of Genghis Khan in Ordos City, in Inner Mongolia, is an important center of this worship tradition.
Nuo folk religion, or extendedly Chinese popular exorcistic religion, is a variant of Chinese folk religion with its own system of temples, rituals, orders of priests and gods, which is interethnic and practiced across central and southern China but is also intimately connected to the Tujia people. It arose as an exorcistic religious movement, which is the original meaning of nuó (simplified Chinese: 傩; traditional Chinese: 儺), and it spread even outside the boundaries of China exporting such practices in Japan and Korea. It has strong influences from Taoism.One of the most distinguishing characters of Nuo folk religion is its iconographic style, which represents the gods as wooden masks or heads. This is related to its own mythology, which traces the origin of Nuo to the two very first humans, who were unjustly killed by beheading and are since then worshipped as responsive divine ancestors. Nuo rituals began as efficacious methods to worship them, Lord Nuo and Lady Nuo. Since the 1980s Nuo folk religion has undergone a revitalisation in China, and today is a folk religion endorsed by the central government. Nuo priests are classified as 巫 wu (shamans) and their historical precursors were the 方相氏 fangxiangshi ("masters who assist the (astral) square").
Slavic paganism or Slavic religion define the religious beliefs, godlores and ritual practices of the Slavs before the formal Christianisation of their ruling elites. The latter occurred at various stages between the 8th and the 13th century: The Southern Slavs living on the Balkan Peninsula in South Eastern Europe, bordering with the Byzantine Empire to the south, came under the sphere of influence of Byzantine Orthodox Christianity, beginning with the creation of the Slavic alphabet (first Glagolic, and then Cyrillic script) in 855 by the brothers Saints Cyril and Methodius and the adoption of Christianity in Bulgaria in 863 CE. The East Slavs followed with the official adoption in 988 CE by Vladimir the Great of Kievan Rus'.The West Slavs came under the sphere of influence of the Roman Catholic Church since the 12th century, and Christianisation for them went hand in hand with full or partial Germanisation,.The Christianisation of the Slavic peoples was, however, a slow and—in many cases—superficial phenomenon, especially in what is today Russia. Christianisation was vigorous in western and central parts of what is today Ukraine, as they were closer to the capital Kiev, but even there, popular resistance led by volkhvs, pagan priests or shamans, recurred periodically for centuries. Even though the Byzantine Christianization firstly has slowed down the Eastern Slavic traditions in Rus', it has preserved the Slavic traditions in the long term. While local Slavic figures and myths, such as Baba Roga in Croatia were forgotten, Slavic culture continued to exist and even flourish in the Eastern Slavic countries. In the case of a Christian Latinization of the Eastern Slavic countries, this may not have been the case.
The West Slavs of the Baltic withstood tenaciously against Christianity until it was violently imposed on them through the Northern Crusades. Among Poles and East Slavs, rebellion outbreaks occurred throughout the 11th century. Christian chroniclers reported that the Slavs regularly re-embraced their original religion (relapsi sunt denuo ad paganismus).Many elements of the indigenous Slavic religion were officially incorporated into Slavic Christianity, and, besides this, the worship of Slavic gods has persisted in unofficial folk religion until modern times. The Slavs' resistance to Christianity gave rise to a "whimsical syncretism" which in Old Church Slavonic vocabulary was defined as dvoeverie, "double faith". Since the early 20th century, Slavic folk religion has undergone an organised reinvention and reincorporation in the movement of Slavic Native Faith (Rodnovery).
The Tai folk religion, known in Lao and Thai as Satsana Phi (Lao: ສາສະໜາຜີ; Thai: ศาสนาผี, /sàːt.sa.nǎː.pʰǐː/, "religion of spirits"), is a form of animist religious beliefs traditionally and historically practiced by groups of ethnic Tai peoples.
Tai folk animist traditions are practiced by the Lao, Tai Ahom, Lao Isan and Thais of Thailand. These religions are pantheistic and polytheistic and their practice involves classes of shamans.
Among the Lao, the Lao Loum and Lao Lom are predominantly Buddhist, while the Lao Theung and Lao Sung are predominantly folk religious. Tai folk animist traditions have also been incorporated into Laotian Buddhism.
Vietnamese folk religion or Vietnamese indigenous religion (Vietnamese: tín ngưỡng dân gian Việt Nam, tôn giáo bản địa Việt Nam), is the ethnic religion of the Vietnamese people. About 45.3% of the population in Vietnam are associated with this religion, making it dominant in Vietnam.
Vietnamese folk religion is not an organized religious system, but a set of local worship traditions devoted to the thần, a term which can be translated as "spirits", "gods" or with the more exhaustive locution "generative powers". These gods can be nature deities or national, community or kinship tutelary deities or ancestral gods and the ancestral gods of a specific family. Ancestral gods are often deified heroic persons. Vietnamese mythology preserves narratives telling of the actions of many of the cosmic gods and cultural heroes.
The Vietnamese indigenous religion is sometimes identified as Confucianism since it carries values that were emphasized by Confucius. Đạo Mẫu is a distinct form of Vietnamese folk religion, giving prominence to some mother goddesses into its pantheon. The government of Vietnam also categorises Cao Đài as a form of Vietnamese indigenous religion, since it brings together the worship of the thần or local spirits with Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, as well as elements of Catholicism, Spiritism and Theosophy.

lowercased:
in religious studies and folkloristics, folk religion, popular religion, or vernacular religion comprises various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized religion. the precise definition of folk religion varies among scholars. sometimes also termed popular belief, it consists of ethnic or regional religious customs under the umbrella of a religion, but outside official doctrine and practices.
in the concise oxford dictionary of world religions, john bowker characterized "folk religion" as either "religion which occurs in small, local communities which does not adhere to the norms of large systems" or "the appropriation of religious beliefs and practices at a popular level."
don yoder argued that there were five separate ways of defining folk religion. the first was a perspective rooted in a cultural evolutionary framework which understood folk religion as representing the survivals of older forms of religion; in this, it would constitute "the survivals, in an official religious context, of beliefs and behavior inherited from earlier stages of the culture's development". this definition would view folk religion in catholic europe as the survivals of pre-christian religion and the folk religion in protestant europe as the survivals of medieval catholicism. the second definition identified by yoder was the view that folk religion represented the mixture of an official religion with forms of ethnic religion; this was employed to explain the place of folk religion in the syncretic belief systems of the americas, where christianity had blended with the religions of indigenous american and african communities.
yoder's third definition was that often employed within folkloristics, which held that folk religion was "the interaction of belief, ritual, custom, and mythology in traditional societies", representing that which was often pejoratively characterised as superstition. the fourth definition provided by yoder stated that folk religion represented the "folk interpretation and expression of religion". noting that this definition would not encompass beliefs that were largely unconnected from organised religion, such as in witchcraft, he therefore altered this definition by including the concept of "folk religiosity", thereby defining folk religion as "the deposit in culture of folk religiosity, the full range of folk attitudes to religion". his fifth and final definition represented a "practical working definition" that combined elements from these various other definitions. thus, he summarized folk religion as "the totality of all those views and practices of religion that exist among the people apart from and alongside the strictly theological and liturgical forms of the official religion".
yoder described "folk religion" as existing "in a complex society in relation to and in tension with the organized religion(s) of that society. its relatively unorganized character differentiates it from organized religion".
alternately, the sociologist of religion matthias zic varul defined "folk religion" as "the relatively un-reflected aspect of ordinary practices and beliefs that are oriented towards, or productive of, something beyond the immediate here-and-now: everyday transcendence".
in europe the study of "folk religion" emerged from the study of religiöse volkskund, a german term which was used in reference to "the religious dimension of folk-culture, or the folk-cultural dimension of religion". this term was first employed by a german lutheran preacher, paul drews, in a 1901 article that he published which was titled "religiöse volkskunde, eine aufgabe der praktischen theologie". this article was designed to be read by young lutheran preachers leaving the seminary, to equip them for the popular variants of lutheranism that they would encounter among their congregations and which would differ from the official, doctrinal lutheranism that they had been accustomed to. although developing within a religious environment, the term came to be adopted by german academics in the field of folkloristics. during the 1920s and 1930s, theoretical studies of religiöse volkskund had been produced by the folklorists josef weigert, werner boette, and max rumpf, all of whom had focused on religiosity within german peasant communities. over the coming decades, georg schreiber established an institut für religiöse volkskund in munich while a similar department was established in salzburg by hanns koren. other prominent academics involved in the study of the phenomenon were heinrich schauert and rudolf kriss, the latter of whom collected one of the largest collections of folk-religious art and material culture in europe, later housed in munich's bayerisches nationalmuseum. throughout the 20th century, many studies were made of folk religion in europe, paying particular attention to such subjects as pilgrimage and the use of shrines.
in the americas, the study of folk religion developed among cultural anthropologists studying the syncretistic cultures of the caribbean and latin america. the pioneer in this field was redfield, whose 1930 book tepoztlán: a mexican village contrasted and examined the relationship between "folk religion" and "official religion" in a peasant community. yoder later noted that although the earliest known usage of the term "folk religion" in the english language was unknown, it probably developed as a translation of the german volksreligion. one of the earliest prominent usages of the term was in the title of joshua trachtenberg's 1939 work jewish magic and superstition: a study in folk religion. the term also gained increasing usage within the academic field of comparative religion, appearing in the titles of ichiro hori's folk religion in japan, martin nilsson's greek folk religion, and charles leslie's reader, the anthropology of folk religion. courses on the study of folk religion came to be taught at various universities in the united states, such as john messenger's at indiana university and don yoder's at the university of pennsylvania. although the subject of folk religion fell within the remit of scholars operating in both folkloristics and religious studies, by 1974 yoder noted that u.s.-based academics in the latter continued to largely ignore it, instead focusing on the study of theology and institutionalised religion; he contrasted this with the situation in europe, where historians of religion had devoted much time to studying folk religiosity. he also lamented that many u.s.-based folklorists also neglected the subject of religion because it did not fit within the standard genre-based system for cataloguing folklore.
the term "folk religion" came to be increasingly rejected in the 1990s and 2000s by scholars seeking more precise terminology.
yoder noted that one problem with the use of the term "folk religion" was that it did not fit into the work of those scholars who used the term "religion" in reference solely to organized religion. he highlighted the example of the prominent sociologist of religion émile durkheim, who insisted that "religion" was organized in order to contrast it with "magic". yoder noted that scholars adopting these perspectives often preferred the term "folk belief" over "folk religion".
a second problem with the use of "folk religion" that yoder highlighted was that some scholars, particularly those operating in the sociology of religion, used the term as a synonym for ethnic religion (which is alternately known as national religion or tribal religion), meaning a religion closely tied to a particular ethnic or national group and is thus contrasted with a "universal religion" which cuts across ethnic and national boundaries. among the scholars to have adopted this use of terminology are e. wilbur bock.
the folklorist leonard norman primiano argued that the use of "folk religion", as well as related terms like "popular religion" and "unofficial religion", by scholars, does "an extreme disservice" to the forms of religiosity that scholarship is examining, because – in his opinion – such terms are "residualistic, [and] derogatory". he argued that using such terminology implies that there is "a pure element" to religion "which is in some way transformed, even contaminated, by its exposure to human communities". as a corrective, he suggested that scholars use "vernacular religion" as an alternative. defining this term, primiano stated that "vernacular religion" is, "by definition, religion as it is lived: as human beings encounter, understand, interpret, and practice it. since religion inherently involves interpretation, it is impossible for the religion of an individual not to be vernacular".
kapaló was critical of this approach, deeming it "mistaken" and arguing that switching from "folk religion" to "vernacular religion" results in the scholar "picking up a different selection of things from the world". he cautioned that both terms were "ideological and semantic load[ed]" and warned scholars to pay attention to the associations that each word had.
philippine mythology is a body of myths, tales, and superstitions held by filipinos (composed of more than a hundred ethnic peoples in the philippines), mostly originating from beliefs held during the pre-hispanic era. some of these beliefs stem from pre-christian religions that were specially influenced by hinduism and were regarded by the spanish as "myths" and "superstitions" in an effort to de-legitimize legitimate precolonial beliefs by forcefully replacing those native beliefs with colonial catholic christian myths and superstitions. today, some of these precolonial beliefs are still held by filipinos, especially in the provinces.
folk islam is an umbrella term used to collectively describe forms of islam that incorporate native folk beliefs and practices. folk islam has been described as the islam of the "urban poor, country people, and tribes", in contrast to orthodox or "high" islam (gellner, 1992). sufism and sufi concepts are often integrated into folk islam.
in one of the first major academic works on the subject, titled jewish magic and superstition: a study in folk religion, joshua trachtenberg provided a definition of jewish folk religion as consisting of ideas and practices that whilst not meeting with the approval of religious leaders enjoyed wide popularity such that they must be included in what he termed the field of religion. this included unorthodox beliefs about demons and angels, and magical practices.
later studies have emphasized the significance of the destruction of the temple in jerusalem to the many jewish folk customs linked to mourning and in particular to the belief in hibbut ha-qever (torture of the grave) a belief that the dead are tortured in their grave for three days after burial by demons until they remember their names. this idea began with early eschatalogical aggadah and was then further developed by the kabbalists.
raphael patai has been acknowledged as one of the first to utilize anthropology to study jewish folk religion. in particular he has drawn attention to the important role of the female divine element, which he sees in the goddess asherah, the shekhinah, the matronit, and lilith.
writer stephen sharot has stated that jewish popular religion in common with other forms of folk religion, has a focus on the apotropaic, or thaumaturgical, i.e. it is used to assist in protecting the individual from sickness, and misfortune. he emphasizes that while rabbinical judaism dealt with orthodox jewish ritual, and halakah, magicians claimed to use unorthodox magical rituals to help people in everyday life. he points to the example of a relatively professionalised type of magician being the ba'al shem of poland, who beginning in the 16th century thrived with the popularity of practical kabbalah in the 18th century. these ba'al shem promised to use their knowledge of the names of god, and the angels, along with exorcism, chiromancy, and herbal medicine to bring harm to enemies, and success in areas of social life such as marriage, and childbirth.
charles liebman has written that the essence of the folk religion of american jews is their social ties to one another, illustrated by the finding that religious practices that would prevent social integration -such as a strict interpretation of dietary laws and the sabbath- have been abandoned, whilst the practices that are followed -such as the passover seder, social rites of passage, and the high holy days- are ones that strengthen jewish family and community integration. liebman described the rituals and beliefs of contemporary jewish folk religion in his works, the ambivalent american jew (1973) and american jewry: identity and affiliation.
in sociology, folk religion is often contrasted with elite religion. folk religion is defined as the beliefs, practices, rituals and symbols originating from sources other than the religion's leadership. folk religion in many instances is tolerated by the religion's leadership, although they may consider it an error. a similar concept is lived religion, the study of religion as practiced by believers.
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chinese folk religion (chinese popular religion or traditional chinese religion) or han folk religion or shenism is the religious tradition of the han chinese, including veneration of forces of nature and ancestors, exorcism of harmful forces, and a belief in the rational order of nature which can be influenced by human beings and their rulers as well as spirits and gods. worship is devoted to a multiplicity of gods and immortals (神 shén), who can be deities of phenomena, of human behaviour, or progenitors of lineages. stories regarding some of these gods are collected into the body of chinese mythology. by the 11th century (song period), these practices had been blended with buddhist ideas of karma (one's own doing) and rebirth, and taoist teachings about hierarchies of gods, to form the popular religious system which has lasted in many ways until the present day.chinese religions have a variety of sources, local forms, founder backgrounds, and ritual and philosophical traditions. despite this diversity, there is a common core that can be summarised as four theological, cosmological, and moral concepts: tian (天), heaven, the transcendent source of moral meaning; qi (氣), the breath or energy that animates the universe; jingzu (敬祖), the veneration of ancestors; and bao ying (報應), moral reciprocity; together with two traditional concepts of fate and meaning: ming yun (命運), the personal destiny or burgeoning; and yuan fen (緣分), "fateful coincidence", good and bad chances and potential relationships.yin and yang (陰陽) is the polarity that describes the order of the universe, held in balance by the interaction of principles of growth (shen) and principles of waning (gui), with yang ("act") usually preferred over yin ("receptiveness") in common religion. ling (靈), "numen" or "sacred", is the "medium" of the two states and the inchoate order of creation.both the present day government of china and the imperial dynasties of the ming and qing tolerated village popular religious cults if they bolstered social stability but suppressed or persecuted those that they feared would undermine it. after the fall of the empire in 1911, governments and elites opposed or attempted to eradicate folk religion in order to promote "modern" values, and many condemned "feudal superstition". these conceptions of folk religion began to change in taiwan in the late 20th century and in mainland china in the 21st. many scholars now view folk religion in a positive light. in recent times chinese folk religions are experiencing a revival in both mainland china and taiwan. some forms have received official understanding or recognition as a preservation of traditional chinese culture, such as mazuism and the sanyi teaching in fujian, huangdi worship, and other forms of local worship, for example the longwang, pangu or caishen worship.
chinese shamanism, alternatively called wuism (chinese: 巫教; pinyin: wū jiào; literally: 'wu religion, shamanism, witchcraft'; alternatively 巫觋宗教 wū xí zōngjiào), refers to the shamanic religious tradition of china. its features are especially connected to the ancient neolithic cultures such as the hongshan culture. chinese shamanic traditions are intrinsic to chinese folk religion, an overarching term for all the indigenous religions of china. wu masters remain important in contemporary chinese culture.
various ritual traditions are rooted in original chinese shamanism: contemporary chinese ritual masters are sometimes identified as wu by outsiders, though most orders don't self-identify as such. also taoism has some of its origins from chinese shamanism: it developed around the pursuit of long life (shou 壽/寿), or the status of a xian (仙, "mountain man", "holy man").
smaller household shrines or votive niche, such as the worship of zaoshen and caishen.gōng (宫), meaning "palace" is a term used for a templar complex of multiple buildings, while yuàn (院) is a generic term meaning "sanctuary" or "shrine".
some forms of belief are not recognised by the government as a religion for statistical purposes although such practices are not outlawed. there is a deep interaction between the chinese folk religion of the large malaysian chinese population, and the indigenous malaysian folk religion.
manchu folk religion is the ethnic religion practiced by most of the manchu people, the major of the tungusic peoples, in china. it can also be called manchu shamanism by virtue of the word "shaman" being originally from tungusic šamán ("man of knowledge"), later applied by western scholars to similar religious practices in other cultures. it is a pantheistic system, believing in a universal god called apka enduri ("god of heaven") which is the omnipotent and omnipresent source of all life and creation. deities (enduri) enliven every aspect of nature, and the worship of these gods is believed to bring favour, health and prosperity. many of the deities are original manchu kins' ancestors, and people with the same surname are generated by the same god.shamans are persons of unusual ability, strength and sensitivity, capable of perception and prediction of the ways of the gods. they are endowed with the social function to conduct the sacrificial ceremonies and approach the deities asking them intervention or protection. because of their abilities the shamans are people of great authority and prestige. usually, every manchu kin has its own shaman.manchu folk religious rites were standardised by the qianlong emperor (1736-96) in the "manchu sacrificial ritual to the gods and heaven" (manjusai wecere metere kooli bithe), a manual published in manchu in 1747 and in chinese (manzhou jishen jitian dianli) in 1780. with the conquest of imperial power in china (qing dynasty) the manchu people gradually adopted chinese language and assimilated into the chinese religion, although manchu folk religion persists with a distinct character within broader chinese religion.
miao folk religion or hmong folk religion is the common ethnic religion of miao peoples, primarily consisting in the practice of kev dab qhuas (hmongic: "worship of deities"). the religion is also called hmongism by a hmong american church established in 2012 to organise it among hmong people in the united states.it has a pantheist theology, centered on worship of deities and progenitors of the miao peoples. throughout its history it has incorporated theoretical and ritual elements from taoism, and broader chinese religion, especially the emphasis on the pattern of the forces of the natural universe and the need of human life to be in accordance with these forces.most hmong continue to practice the traditional religion, although many hmong in asia have converted to buddhism or have mixed it with buddhism, and many hmong americans and hmong australians have adopted christianity or buddhism.
mo or moism (chinese: 摩教; pinyin: mó jiào), occasionally called zhuang shigongism (chinese: 壮族师公教; pinyin: zhuàngzú shīgōng jiào; literally: 'zhuang ancestral father religion'), is the religion of most zhuang people, the largest ethnic minority of china. it has a large presence in guangxi. while it has a supreme god, the creator bu luotuo (布洛陀), numerous other deities are venerated as well. it has a three-element-theory (sky, earth and water). mo is animistic, teaching that spirits are present in everything.mo developed from prehistoric beliefs of the zhuang people; it also has similarities to chinese folk religion, and has developed similar doctrines to buddhism and taoism, in the process of competition with the influence of these religions on zhuang culture. the cultural revolution of china weakened mo, though the religion has undergone a revival since the 1980s. moism varies from region to region.
mongolian shamanism, more broadly called the mongolian folk religion, or occasionally tengerism, refers to the animistic and shamanic ethnic religion that has been practiced in mongolia and its surrounding areas (including buryatia and inner mongolia) at least since the age of recorded history. the mongolian endonym is böö mörgöl (in mongolian cyrillic: бөө мөргөл). in the earliest known stages it was intricately tied to all other aspects of social life and to the tribal organization of mongolian society. along the way, it has become influenced by and mingled with buddhism. during the socialist years of the twentieth century it was heavily repressed and has since made a comeback.
yellow shamanism is the term used to designate the particular version of mongolian shamanism which adopts the expressive style of buddhism. "yellow" indicates buddhism in mongolia, since most buddhists there belong to what is called the gelug or "yellow sect" of tibetan buddhism, whose members wear yellow hats during services. the term also serves to distinguish it from a form of shamanism not influenced by buddhism (according to its adherents), called black shamanism.mongolian shamanism is centered on the worship of the tngri (gods) and the highest tenger (heaven, god of heaven, god) or qormusta tengri. in the mongolian folk religion, genghis khan is considered one of the embodiments, if not the main embodiment, of the tenger. the mausoleum of genghis khan in ordos city, in inner mongolia, is an important center of this worship tradition.
nuo folk religion, or extendedly chinese popular exorcistic religion, is a variant of chinese folk religion with its own system of temples, rituals, orders of priests and gods, which is interethnic and practiced across central and southern china but is also intimately connected to the tujia people. it arose as an exorcistic religious movement, which is the original meaning of nuó (simplified chinese: 傩; traditional chinese: 儺), and it spread even outside the boundaries of china exporting such practices in japan and korea. it has strong influences from taoism.one of the most distinguishing characters of nuo folk religion is its iconographic style, which represents the gods as wooden masks or heads. this is related to its own mythology, which traces the origin of nuo to the two very first humans, who were unjustly killed by beheading and are since then worshipped as responsive divine ancestors. nuo rituals began as efficacious methods to worship them, lord nuo and lady nuo. since the 1980s nuo folk religion has undergone a revitalisation in china, and today is a folk religion endorsed by the central government. nuo priests are classified as 巫 wu (shamans) and their historical precursors were the 方相氏 fangxiangshi ("masters who assist the (astral) square").
slavic paganism or slavic religion define the religious beliefs, godlores and ritual practices of the slavs before the formal christianisation of their ruling elites. the latter occurred at various stages between the 8th and the 13th century: the southern slavs living on the balkan peninsula in south eastern europe, bordering with the byzantine empire to the south, came under the sphere of influence of byzantine orthodox christianity, beginning with the creation of the slavic alphabet (first glagolic, and then cyrillic script) in 855 by the brothers saints cyril and methodius and the adoption of christianity in bulgaria in 863 ce. the east slavs followed with the official adoption in 988 ce by vladimir the great of kievan rus'.the west slavs came under the sphere of influence of the roman catholic church since the 12th century, and christianisation for them went hand in hand with full or partial germanisation,.the christianisation of the slavic peoples was, however, a slow and—in many cases—superficial phenomenon, especially in what is today russia. christianisation was vigorous in western and central parts of what is today ukraine, as they were closer to the capital kiev, but even there, popular resistance led by volkhvs, pagan priests or shamans, recurred periodically for centuries. even though the byzantine christianization firstly has slowed down the eastern slavic traditions in rus', it has preserved the slavic traditions in the long term. while local slavic figures and myths, such as baba roga in croatia were forgotten, slavic culture continued to exist and even flourish in the eastern slavic countries. in the case of a christian latinization of the eastern slavic countries, this may not have been the case.
the west slavs of the baltic withstood tenaciously against christianity until it was violently imposed on them through the northern crusades. among poles and east slavs, rebellion outbreaks occurred throughout the 11th century. christian chroniclers reported that the slavs regularly re-embraced their original religion (relapsi sunt denuo ad paganismus).many elements of the indigenous slavic religion were officially incorporated into slavic christianity, and, besides this, the worship of slavic gods has persisted in unofficial folk religion until modern times. the slavs' resistance to christianity gave rise to a "whimsical syncretism" which in old church slavonic vocabulary was defined as dvoeverie, "double faith". since the early 20th century, slavic folk religion has undergone an organised reinvention and reincorporation in the movement of slavic native faith (rodnovery).
the tai folk religion, known in lao and thai as satsana phi (lao: ສາສະໜາຜີ; thai: ศาสนาผี, /sàːt.sa.nǎː.pʰǐː/, "religion of spirits"), is a form of animist religious beliefs traditionally and historically practiced by groups of ethnic tai peoples.
tai folk animist traditions are practiced by the lao, tai ahom, lao isan and thais of thailand. these religions are pantheistic and polytheistic and their practice involves classes of shamans.
among the lao, the lao loum and lao lom are predominantly buddhist, while the lao theung and lao sung are predominantly folk religious. tai folk animist traditions have also been incorporated into laotian buddhism.
vietnamese folk religion or vietnamese indigenous religion (vietnamese: tín ngưỡng dân gian việt nam, tôn giáo bản địa việt nam), is the ethnic religion of the vietnamese people. about 45.3% of the population in vietnam are associated with this religion, making it dominant in vietnam.
vietnamese folk religion is not an organized religious system, but a set of local worship traditions devoted to the thần, a term which can be translated as "spirits", "gods" or with the more exhaustive locution "generative powers". these gods can be nature deities or national, community or kinship tutelary deities or ancestral gods and the ancestral gods of a specific family. ancestral gods are often deified heroic persons. vietnamese mythology preserves narratives telling of the actions of many of the cosmic gods and cultural heroes.
the vietnamese indigenous religion is sometimes identified as confucianism since it carries values that were emphasized by confucius. đạo mẫu is a distinct form of vietnamese folk religion, giving prominence to some mother goddesses into its pantheon. the government of vietnam also categorises cao đài as a form of vietnamese indigenous religion, since it brings together the worship of the thần or local spirits with buddhism, confucianism and taoism, as well as elements of catholicism, spiritism and theosophy.


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Only 121,791 Miles! Scores 36 Highway MPG and 28 City MPG! This Hyundai Elantra delivers a Gas I4 2.0L/121 engine powering this Automatic transmission. Warning lights-inc: oil pressure, door ajar, air bag, seat belt, low fuel brake, engine check, ABS, Two-tone interior trim, Transmission shift interlock.
Side-impact door beams, Seat back pockets, Roof-mounted outboard side-curtain air bags, Remote trunk release, fuel door, Remote keyless entry w/alarm, Reclining front bucket seats-inc: multi-adjustable driver seat, adjustable active head restraints, Rear window defroster, Rear center armrest, Rear 3-point seatbelts, Pwr windows w/driver auto-down & lockout.
Test drive this must-see, must-drive, must-own beauty today at JD Byrider-IL115, 2323 W Jefferson St, Joliet, IL 60435.

lowercased:
only 121,791 miles! scores 36 highway mpg and 28 city mpg! this hyundai elantra delivers a gas i4 2.0l/121 engine powering this automatic transmission. warning lights-inc: oil pressure, door ajar, air bag, seat belt, low fuel brake, engine check, abs, two-tone interior trim, transmission shift interlock.
side-impact door beams, seat back pockets, roof-mounted outboard side-curtain air bags, remote trunk release, fuel door, remote keyless entry w/alarm, reclining front bucket seats-inc: multi-adjustable driver seat, adjustable active head restraints, rear window defroster, rear center armrest, rear 3-point seatbelts, pwr windows w/driver auto-down & lockout.
test drive this must-see, must-drive, must-own beauty today at jd byrider-il115, 2323 w jefferson st, joliet, il 60435.


text: Maggie and Nico fight for an hour about Jen v. Dawson, 1998, and the breakup that launched a thousand angst-filled diatribes. Are you Team Dawson or Team Jen? (If you are Team Billy, plz die). We also discuss Pacey & Joey as a couple, and whether there is room in the cruel, Pacey-centric world of Dawson's Creek fandom for a Kevin Williamson purist. Enjoy, Creek Freaks!!

lowercased: maggie and nico fight for an hour about jen v. dawson, 1998, and the breakup that launched a thousand angst-filled diatribes. are you team dawson or team jen? (if you are team billy, plz die). we also discuss pacey & joey as a couple, and whether there is room in the cruel, pacey-centric world of dawson's creek fandom for a kevin williamson purist. enjoy, creek freaks!!


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Every Year at Littleton High School Post Grad puts on a college information night for sophomores and juniors. This year it is happening on Tuesday, January 29th. This night helps to inform prospective college bound students about all the necessities of picking the perfect college for them.
“I think for parents especially if this is their first student going to college, this will answer a lot of questions about the timeline for them. I think that is probably the scariest part for parents is what needs to be done and I think there is a little bit of that for students, but I think for students it helps them get a little more organized especially junior and senior year,” said Suzanne Mountfort, a Post-Grad Specialist.
There were multiple different breakout meetings for getting more information on specialized areas. The topics include Financial Aid 101, Generating Your college List, College Entrance Exams & Resources, Parents’ Role in the Application Process, The Common Application, Completing the Free Application For Federal Student Aid, and Writing your College Essay and Parent to Parent: College Funding Strategies and Hacks.
LHS has hosted this event for over ten years now and they will continue to do so in the future. This event has proven helpful for many students looking into college.
“This night was really helpful to me because I didn’t even know where to begin. Now I know how to start looking and who to ask for help. I’m also excited to start looking at what I might do in the future. It was also good to see what I need to do to save up and ways to do that,” said junior Erin Green.
One of the main questions asked by many students is, when are you supposed to start looking at colleges?
“When you are in ninth grade it’s way too out there and far away and tenth grade maybe start looking, but by having the college night mainly for juniors, we take a lot of stress away from the student and parents,” said Mountfort.
The college information night seems to really help start the college process and by having it available every year it gives students the opportunity to learn more information about their future.

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every year at littleton high school post grad puts on a college information night for sophomores and juniors. this year it is happening on tuesday, january 29th. this night helps to inform prospective college bound students about all the necessities of picking the perfect college for them.
“i think for parents especially if this is their first student going to college, this will answer a lot of questions about the timeline for them. i think that is probably the scariest part for parents is what needs to be done and i think there is a little bit of that for students, but i think for students it helps them get a little more organized especially junior and senior year,” said suzanne mountfort, a post-grad specialist.
there were multiple different breakout meetings for getting more information on specialized areas. the topics include financial aid 101, generating your college list, college entrance exams & resources, parents’ role in the application process, the common application, completing the free application for federal student aid, and writing your college essay and parent to parent: college funding strategies and hacks.
lhs has hosted this event for over ten years now and they will continue to do so in the future. this event has proven helpful for many students looking into college.
“this night was really helpful to me because i didn’t even know where to begin. now i know how to start looking and who to ask for help. i’m also excited to start looking at what i might do in the future. it was also good to see what i need to do to save up and ways to do that,” said junior erin green.
one of the main questions asked by many students is, when are you supposed to start looking at colleges?
“when you are in ninth grade it’s way too out there and far away and tenth grade maybe start looking, but by having the college night mainly for juniors, we take a lot of stress away from the student and parents,” said mountfort.
the college information night seems to really help start the college process and by having it available every year it gives students the opportunity to learn more information about their future.


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The Shaw Philadelphia Chatterbox commercial carpet tile collection offers a sophisticated backdrop to any business, office, lobby, hotel and more. Revealing strong linear graphics, these carpet tiles reveal an influential, affluent style that will remain an in vogue addition for generations. Likewise, these commercial grade floors encompass trusted durability built to withstand above average wear and tear backed by a lifetime commercial limited warranty. In addition to timeless style and long-lasting resiliency, Shaw Philadelphia Chatterbox is the hot topic of conversation for is outstanding sustainable attributes allowing for points towards LEED certifications. Comprised of Solution Q Nylon fibers and EcoWorx tile backing, these floors are constructed of pre-consumer recycled content with a cradle to cradle guarantee.
Designed with a graphic loop construction, choose from ten distinct shades that bring any décor a level up in style and sophistication. Schmooze is a popular shade revealing a bold, earthly shade of dark and light brown tones for a high-class stately appeal. Differing, Chit Chat takes on a lighter shade of steel grey that effortlessly accents a wide range of decors for a versatile solution to any changing designs. The shade of Magpie presents a daring addition with a dramatic interplay of deep chocolate brown tones with bolded linear graphics for show-stopping commercial flooring.

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the shaw philadelphia chatterbox commercial carpet tile collection offers a sophisticated backdrop to any business, office, lobby, hotel and more. revealing strong linear graphics, these carpet tiles reveal an influential, affluent style that will remain an in vogue addition for generations. likewise, these commercial grade floors encompass trusted durability built to withstand above average wear and tear backed by a lifetime commercial limited warranty. in addition to timeless style and long-lasting resiliency, shaw philadelphia chatterbox is the hot topic of conversation for is outstanding sustainable attributes allowing for points towards leed certifications. comprised of solution q nylon fibers and ecoworx tile backing, these floors are constructed of pre-consumer recycled content with a cradle to cradle guarantee.
designed with a graphic loop construction, choose from ten distinct shades that bring any décor a level up in style and sophistication. schmooze is a popular shade revealing a bold, earthly shade of dark and light brown tones for a high-class stately appeal. differing, chit chat takes on a lighter shade of steel grey that effortlessly accents a wide range of decors for a versatile solution to any changing designs. the shade of magpie presents a daring addition with a dramatic interplay of deep chocolate brown tones with bolded linear graphics for show-stopping commercial flooring.


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We all know cats love nothing better than snoozing on the newspaper you’re trying to read but their laziness has apparently reached new heights.
Because many of them are really overweight and the RSCPA is recommending that cat owners start to exercise their pets in a similar way to dogs.
In fact, 10% of the 11 million cats in UK never go out unsupervised.
And like humans, fat cats have an increased risk of things like heart disease, cancer and diabetes.
A report by the People’s Dispensary for Sick Animals claims that by 2019, it’s thought that overweight cats, dogs and rabbits will outnumber healthy sized pets – with half of all cats and dogs already being classed as obese.
But putting your cat on a leash isn’t the answer.
Alice Potter, Companion Animal scientist for the RSPCA, said: ‘A sense of control is important to cats and being walked on a collar or harness prevents them from having much control, for example, it would be difficult for them to be able to move away from anything which might scare or worry them.
‘Being able to hide from things which scare or worry cats is an important coping mechanism for them. Because of these concerns the RSPCA wouldn’t recommend that cats are walked outside in this way. If a cat is going to be walked outside on a harness the cat should be introduced to the experience in a slow, gradual and positive manner. If any signs of distress are seen such as the cat trying to pull away or get away the interaction should be stopped immediately.
The fatter cats become, the more severe the impact on their mental wellbeing.
They struggle to groom themselves and that can cause them all kinds of emotional distress.
House cats need to be played with energetically for 30 minutes a day – even if it’s just with a battery-powered mouse or piece of string.
So if you’ve got a very fat cat, for the love of God stop feeding them Dreamies every second and kick them out into the garden for half an hour.
Pudgy animals might be cute but allowing them to become overweight or actively encouraging them to be obese is cruel.
MORE: Are Love Hearts vegetarian, vegan or halal?

lowercased:
we all know cats love nothing better than snoozing on the newspaper you’re trying to read but their laziness has apparently reached new heights.
because many of them are really overweight and the rscpa is recommending that cat owners start to exercise their pets in a similar way to dogs.
in fact, 10% of the 11 million cats in uk never go out unsupervised.
and like humans, fat cats have an increased risk of things like heart disease, cancer and diabetes.
a report by the people’s dispensary for sick animals claims that by 2019, it’s thought that overweight cats, dogs and rabbits will outnumber healthy sized pets – with half of all cats and dogs already being classed as obese.
but putting your cat on a leash isn’t the answer.
alice potter, companion animal scientist for the rspca, said: ‘a sense of control is important to cats and being walked on a collar or harness prevents them from having much control, for example, it would be difficult for them to be able to move away from anything which might scare or worry them.
‘being able to hide from things which scare or worry cats is an important coping mechanism for them. because of these concerns the rspca wouldn’t recommend that cats are walked outside in this way. if a cat is going to be walked outside on a harness the cat should be introduced to the experience in a slow, gradual and positive manner. if any signs of distress are seen such as the cat trying to pull away or get away the interaction should be stopped immediately.
the fatter cats become, the more severe the impact on their mental wellbeing.
they struggle to groom themselves and that can cause them all kinds of emotional distress.
house cats need to be played with energetically for 30 minutes a day – even if it’s just with a battery-powered mouse or piece of string.
so if you’ve got a very fat cat, for the love of god stop feeding them dreamies every second and kick them out into the garden for half an hour.
pudgy animals might be cute but allowing them to become overweight or actively encouraging them to be obese is cruel.
more: are love hearts vegetarian, vegan or halal?


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At the 2018 China International Import Expo (CIIE), which ended in November, Chinese President Xi Jinping and Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta visited the Kenya National Pavilion. Kenyan undergraduate students MUTULI JUNE RANDIKI(Chinese name:Li Jie’en) and ANZETSE LEAH SALOME(Chinese name: An Lin) have the honor to participate in the receiving, mostly as interpreter in the Kenyan National Pavilion.
Kenya is a gateway to Africa and a transportation hub. It is one of the countries with biggest China investment in Africa. Located in the equator, Kenya has plenty of sunshine and rainfall, and own the reputation of the back garden of European. The Kenya Pavilion brought Kenyan tourism, tea, flowers, fruit, macadamia, coffee, black wood carvings and other products with original Kenyan characteristics to the CIIE, which play an vital role in Kenya’s export economy.
During the CIIE, the outstanding performance of the two volunteers has received recognition and recommendation from the Kenyan Embassy in China. Kenya president Mr. Uhuru Kenyatta offered scholarships to these two Kenyan students of USST.
USST established cooperation with the University of Nairobi and the Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology in Kenya since 2012. Both universities selected in-service teachers to pursue doctoral degree in USST. Meanwhile, with the great support from Kakamega County of Kenya, every year 6-10 outstanding high school graduates are recommended to study in USST with financial aid from the county government. After completing one year of intensive Chinese language training in USST, they entered various undergraduate majors (mainly in the field of engineering). Some of them choose to continue their graduate studies in USST. June and Leah, as mentioned above, are two of the students from the Kakamega County. The experience of volunteer work in the CIIE is so thrilling that they bear in their mind a firm belief that the cultural and economic ties between China and Kenya will become stronger in the future and they are willing to contribute in building a community of shared future for mankind.

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at the 2018 china international import expo (ciie), which ended in november, chinese president xi jinping and kenyan president uhuru kenyatta visited the kenya national pavilion. kenyan undergraduate students mutuli june randiki(chinese name:li jie’en) and anzetse leah salome(chinese name: an lin) have the honor to participate in the receiving, mostly as interpreter in the kenyan national pavilion.
kenya is a gateway to africa and a transportation hub. it is one of the countries with biggest china investment in africa. located in the equator, kenya has plenty of sunshine and rainfall, and own the reputation of the back garden of european. the kenya pavilion brought kenyan tourism, tea, flowers, fruit, macadamia, coffee, black wood carvings and other products with original kenyan characteristics to the ciie, which play an vital role in kenya’s export economy.
during the ciie, the outstanding performance of the two volunteers has received recognition and recommendation from the kenyan embassy in china. kenya president mr. uhuru kenyatta offered scholarships to these two kenyan students of usst.
usst established cooperation with the university of nairobi and the masinde muliro university of science and technology in kenya since 2012. both universities selected in-service teachers to pursue doctoral degree in usst. meanwhile, with the great support from kakamega county of kenya, every year 6-10 outstanding high school graduates are recommended to study in usst with financial aid from the county government. after completing one year of intensive chinese language training in usst, they entered various undergraduate majors (mainly in the field of engineering). some of them choose to continue their graduate studies in usst. june and leah, as mentioned above, are two of the students from the kakamega county. the experience of volunteer work in the ciie is so thrilling that they bear in their mind a firm belief that the cultural and economic ties between china and kenya will become stronger in the future and they are willing to contribute in building a community of shared future for mankind.


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lowercased:
lab flotation machine, laboratory testing equipment, small flotation cell for mineral testing . high efficiency mineral testing equipment for mineral process plant .. gravity separation jig equipment,gold equipment,mining jig.
jiangxi naipu mining machinery and new materials co., ltd., experts in manufacturing . china manufacture nzja high efficiency rubber impeller circulating submersible pump 2 inch .. mining impeller rotor and stator for flotation machines.
agitair flotation machine, wholesale various high quality agitair flotation machine products . sf agitair gold copper mining flotation cell machine with competitive price .. high performance low cost trial single cell agitair flotation machine.
high quality ore mining flotation machine from lyto laboratory flotation cell .. high performance xfd flotation equipment series laboratory flotation cell.
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about 83% of these are mineral separator, 14% are other mining machines. . high performance xfd flotation equipment series laboratory flotation cell.
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high efficient sf series flotation cell for lead zinc mining equipment excellent performance copper ore flotation machine, flotation cell for sale.
shandong yantai mining machine , gold electrowinning and desorption device . tags: high efficiency air flotation machine . industrial air flotation machine.
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mini mining equipment, wholesale various high quality mini mining equipment . mini mining equipment of xfg series flotation lab machine .. 2015 new condition good performance gold mining equipment/mini gold dredger for sale.
yantai jinhao mining machinery co., ltd., experts in manufacturing and exporting . mining machine. africa . high efficiency gold ball mill grinding mills for sale.


text:
Start your Genealogy to find your personal Lancaster family ancestry. It's easy to get started. Just begin your family tree with what you already know. Learn More.
Search Hint: If you searched for Lancaster geneology, Lancaster geneaology, you have probably mistyped the word genealogy.
You will get the best search results if you double-check your spelling. Be sure to search for Lancaster ancestor not ansestor or ancester; ancestry, not ancestory or ancestery. Surname is the preferred spelling, but sometimes you may see alternate spellings sirname and sirename.

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start your genealogy to find your personal lancaster family ancestry. it's easy to get started. just begin your family tree with what you already know. learn more.
search hint: if you searched for lancaster geneology, lancaster geneaology, you have probably mistyped the word genealogy.
you will get the best search results if you double-check your spelling. be sure to search for lancaster ancestor not ansestor or ancester; ancestry, not ancestory or ancestery. surname is the preferred spelling, but sometimes you may see alternate spellings sirname and sirename.


text:
It is very important to maintain a precise overview in the jungle. For this reason, our blue friend also has new binoculars with him so he can even recognize from afar any surprises that may be waiting for the expedition team. Sometimes he even climbs a huge jungle tree and looks around carefully with his binoculars. Then he can discuss with Papa Smurf where they need to go.
This Smurf bought new binoculars specially for the trip.

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it is very important to maintain a precise overview in the jungle. for this reason, our blue friend also has new binoculars with him so he can even recognize from afar any surprises that may be waiting for the expedition team. sometimes he even climbs a huge jungle tree and looks around carefully with his binoculars. then he can discuss with papa smurf where they need to go.
this smurf bought new binoculars specially for the trip.


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Create your preparation more effective with this best prep tool, NES History (302) Test Flashcard and be ready to meet the success that you need in your academic progress. Set your time to gather this kind of prep guide and see the excellence that would happen on your tomorrow. This flashcard is very comfortable to use, easy to handle, and effective about the benefits that you would gain. It's repetition technique will help you digest the information and ideas on how to stand out to your exam in the NAtional Evaluation Series. Prepare with high quality standards to ensure the success you want and this is the time to make the best choice to surely get the certificate pushing you to become a teacher in the state of Arizona and Wisconsin.
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