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The results of a decade of research, primarily in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, contradict claims that air pollution was leading to widespread forest decline in central Europe.
Dr Otto Kandler is emeritus professor and formerly held the chair in botany at the Institute of Botany, Ludwig-Maximilian University in Munich. Germany.
· the most likely cause of Waldsterben was a complex ecosystemic disease triggered by cumulative stress from increasing air pollution, e.g. acid rain, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, ozone, hydrocarbons as well as soil deterioration caused by the deposition of pollutants.
Many experienced forest scientists and foresters were sceptical about such claims; however, with few exceptions (e.g. Braun, 1981; Binns and Redfern, 1982) there was widespread acceptance of the Waldsterben scenarios, both in the scientific community and among the wider public. In fact, an extra cut of 10 million m³ Of timber in 1984 -equivalent to about 20 percent of the annual harvest in the former Federal Republic of Germany - was prognosticated by the German Board of Forest Economy in 1983 (Pfleiderer, 1984), and the Union of Forest Owners expected a loss of DM 1.3 billion per year for each 20 percent of Germany's forest area affected by Waldsterben (Meister, Schütze and Sperber, 1984).
In view of the large public response to the frightening scenarios propagated by advocates of the Waldsterben theory, in 1982 the German forest authorities decided to carry out annual surveys to study the development of the neuartige Waldschäden (novel forest damage) - the official term now used instead of the popular slogan "Waldsterben" - and allocated substantial funding to support research into the cause of the allegedly new syndrome.
In the annual surveys, conducted on a 4 x 4 km grid of plots, damage classes are defined by the percentage of foliage deficit with 0 = healthy (< 10 percent), 1 = slightly damaged (11 to 25 percent), 2 = moderately damaged (26 to 60 percent), 3 = severely damaged (61 to 99 percent), 4 = dead (100 percent). Discoloration can increase the damage class, depending on the percentage of affected foliage. The number of trees in the various damage classes is converted to the corresponding forest area (of the former Federal Republic of Germany) that they would cover if the damaged trees formed one stand. Thus, since 1984 the annual forest damage reports issued by the German Government give the percentage of the total forest area imaginarily covered by trees of each damage class. This classification has been adopted by other European countries and is the basis of a joint report by the UN Economic Commission for Europe and the Commission of the European Communities (ECE/CEC).
Although this type of classification has no value in identifying the cause of forest decline, Manion (1987) emphasized the critical view of an analytical phytopathologist when he stated: "The fruit salad of deterioration, decline and dying trees should not all be squeezed into a generic 'fruit juice'", the series of surveys available since 1984 can help to determine the extent and dynamics of the alleged novel forest damage.
The series of annual surveys from 1984 to 1992 in the former Federal Republic of Germany (compatible data from the former German Democratic Republic are not available) show neither the predicted steep rise in the degree of damage in the 1980s (Fig. 1) nor a progressive shift of the proportion among the damage classes from the lower- to the higher-damage classes and, finally, to death. In fact, there was no increase in mortality and no substantial extra cut was necessary. Consequently, the sustained fall in timber prices, predicted by economists in the early 1980s, did not occur and prices did not exceed the usual fluctuation (cf. Kandler, 1988a).
The development of the annually recorded damage is different for each of the four main tree species (Fig. 2) as well as between various regions (Fig.3). The species evaluation shows that the slightly higher level of damage overall in the early 1990s, seen in Fig. 1, is exclusively due to the distinct increase in damage in the two hardwood species; both conifer species show slightly lower levels of damage in the early 1990s than in the early 1980s. In fact, the two hardwood species surpassed both coniferous species in 1987 and now exhibit much higher levels of damage than the conifers. Such an inversion of the proportion of damage in hardwoods and conifers is not compatible with the Waldsterben hypothesis which is based on an alleged accumulation of ecosystemic stress by air pollutants and their deposition, since trees show species specific sensitivities to environmental stress factors and responses should remain the same unless the intensity or kind of stress factors change significantly.
It is noteworthy that Phytophthora cinnamomi has recently been isolated from the soils and roots of declining cork and stone oaks (Quercus suber; and Q. ilex) in Spain and Portugal (Brasier, 1992; Brasier, Robredo and Ferraz, in press). This fungus is an aggressive root pathogen which attacks a large variety of plant species. Since the deterioration of feeder roots, the main target of P. cinnamomi, has been reported to precede novel forest damage in oak and beech observed in central Europe (Vincent, 1989; 1991), Brasier, Robredo and Ferraz (in press) recommend investigation of the possibility of an involvement of P. cinnamomi in hardwood decline in central and eastern Europe.
Large-scale typical smoke (SO2) damage of forests became common in industrialized areas of central Europe with the advent of industrialization in the nineteenth century. Such damage is still found today in the former eastern bloc countries, for instance in the Ohre Mountains on the border between eastern Germany and the Czech Republic. The two large lignite-mining areas developed in the early 1950s, Eger Valley and Bitterfeld, are the main sources of SO2, which has caused distinct forest damage over several thousand km² on both sides of the Ohre Mountains and has also affected the neighbouring Harz and Fichtel Mountains in western Germany (Wentzel, 1982). However, the actual death of conifers is restricted to the ridge of the Ohre Mountains at an elevation of c. 900 m above sea level where the damaging effect of SO2 is clearly enhanced by strong winds (Liebold, 1988).
In spite of unequivocal identification as regular SO2 damage, photographs of the dying trees at the ridge of the Ohre Mountains are frequently shown as typical examples of Waldsterben in the media, thereby leading to confusion.
In the former Federal Republic of Germany, the previously high SO2 concentrations in industrial areas and city centres had already been drastically reduced when Waldsterben scenarios were first described in the early 1980s, and they are continuing to decrease. A typical example of the reduction of SO2 concentrations in western Germany is the development of the SO2 concentrations in the Rhine-Ruhr area, the largest industrial conurbation in central Europe. At the turn of the century, conifer forests did die or were heavily damaged over an area of several thousand km² while the less sensitive hardwood forests survived, although with distinct growth reductions. However, after the 1960s the annual mean SO2 concentrations were reduced in three seeps (Fig. 4): first by technical improvements of power stations and smelters as well as by changes in the types of fuel used in the 1960s; then by the building of higher chimneys from the early 1970s; and, finally, by the desulphurization of funnel gases beginning in 1983. The level of 30 m g/m³ of the late 1980s compares with more than 200 m g/m³ in the 1960s (Bruckmann and Pfeffer, 1992).
NO2 concentrations, however, decreased only slightly in the Rhine-Ruhr area at the end of the 1980s (Fig. 4) but remained at the same level in rural and forest areas in spite of the increasing proportion of cars equipped with catalytic converters (about 40 percent in 1991). There was also no change in the level of ozone concentrations throughout the 1980s.
Figure 4 annual mean of SO2 and NO2 concentrations in the Rhine-Ruhr area and of SO2 concentrations in the Bavarian Forest (left scale).
Source: UBA (1992), Bruckmann and Pfeffer (1992), BLEF (1992) and (1991).
The ecological consequence of the reduction of SO2 concentrations in the Rhine-Ruhr area and other centres of SO2 emission since the 1960s was the prompt recovery of conifers and the re-immigration of spruce and lichens into areas where they had been absent for almost 100 years (Kandler, 1988b). These recovery phenomena demonstrate that SO2 only was responsible for the classical pollution damage; the contribution of the other pollutants was, at most, marginal. Neither the development nor the levels of novel forest damage in the total area of western Germany, in particular states or in single tree species, parallel the course of the actual records of SO2, NO2 and ozone concentrations at the country's permanent monitoring stations. Thus, it is unlikely that air pollution is a causal factor or even a significant contributing factor in the "novel forest damage" syndrome.
This conclusion is corroborated by the measurements of gas exchange in attached branches of spruce trees in the Bavarian Forest (Koch and Lautenschläger, 1989; Koch, in press) and in the Alps (Häsler, 1991; Wieser, Weih and Havranek, 1991). The branches were enclosed in air-conditioned chambers for up to four years and kept in ambient or purified air. No difference in the rates of photosynthesis and respiration has been detected between the two chambers. These findings indicate that the prevailing concentrations of air pollutants in the chamber simulating ambient conditions were below the threshold of inhibition.
The absence of a relationship between the development of the annually recorded forest damage and prevailing air pollution is further corroborated by a recent study on the spatial correlations between forest damage and air pollutants, based on the most detailed regional data basis available in western Germany (Neuland, Bömelberg and Tenhagen, 1990). The data covers damage classes 2 to 4 of all of the 7 016 single sites surveyed in 1985, together with tree age, soil and weather conditions and SO2 emission as well as SO4 and NO3 deposition at approximately 100 monitoring stations.
As expected, a statistically significant positive correlation has been found between forest damage and parameters such as tree age, elevation of the site, flat and fast-draining soils and so forth, but no correlation has been shown between forest damage and air pollution (i.e. atmospheric SO2 and NO2 concentrations and SO4 and NO3 deposition). On the other hand, there was a correlation between soil acidity and forest damage: foliage deficit was lowest on acid podzolic soils and highest on well-buffered, neutral to basic calcium-rich rendzinas, Camibsols, etc. This finding is at odds with the acidification/Al³+ toxicity hypothesis (Ulrich, 1980; 1989). However, it is in agreement with the results of an experiment in which plots of an 80-year-old spruce stand on an acidic podzolic soil was either limed in the first year or treated with acid rain (pH 2.7) for six years (Kreutzer and Göttlein, 1991). After eight years, compared with the control plot the crown conditions (assessed by the same methods as those applied in the annual surveys) in the plot treated with acid rain had improved slightly while the limed plot had deteriorated slightly.
Such findings call for a reconsideration and refinement of the supposed role of acidification in novel forest damage and show that the scenarios predicting a fast decline of forests because of actual deposition rates and demanding an immediate general liming of all forests showing novel forest damage (Ulrich, 1980; 1989) are pushed beyond the limits of available data.
Tree ring analyses provide a reliable means for tracing the course of tree growth over long periods. Large-scale studies by many authors, covering trees from all the main species from different regions of central Europe, have revealed a deep inroad in the mid-1970s, which coincides with a series of drought years, but no general persistent decrease in diameter increment during recent decades. Trees of damage classes 1, 2 and 3 show different growth rates, but the deviation from the mean usually does not exceed the common range of variations which occur within large populations as a result of competition and different site conditions in the stand as well as individual mechanical damage, infestations and infectious diseases. A typical example for Norway spruce is depicted in Figure 5. The tree ring chronology of 260 trees from the low mountain ranges to the south and east of the Rhine-Ruhr area exhibits the characteristics mentioned: a deep inroad in the mid-1970s, differentiation in ring width between the damage classes and slightly improved growth in recent decades, as indicated by a mean ring width of 103 and 110 percent in the periods 1963-1988 and 1983-1988, respectively.
Note: Ring width is given as a percentage of a reference derived from previous growth. Percentage of trees in damage classes: 0=50%, 1=35%. 2/3=14%.
Enhanced growth in recent decades is also seen when comparing increments in the diameter (cf. Fig. 6 and Schneider, Lorenz and Poker, 1987) or height (Keller, 1992) of different generations of trees in spruce stands with identical site conditions: in spruce, 30- to 60-year-old stands grew faster than did 90- to 120 year-old stands at the same age.
The final confirmation of substantially improved forest growth precisely during the period predicted to see the explosion of Waldsterben may be seen in the results of traditional forest inventories, based on periodically repeated volume evaluations in representative stands. Inventories undertaken in Germany and Austria in 1990 reveal that, in the government- and corporation-owned forests (roughly about 30 percent of the total forest area of the respective states), not only the annual increment but also the stumpage and prescribed annual cut have increased by several percentage points in all southern German states, while in Austria between 1975 and 1985, although the annual surveys for two of these states (Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg) showed the highest degrees of novel forest damage in western Germany (see Table). Referring to the improved growth, a forest administration official states (author's translation): "Site productivity in forests of Baden-Württemberg has improved. Stumpage, annual increment and annual cut in the government - and corporation-owned forests have increased by almost 20 percent in 20 years, and no end of this development can be foreseen" (Weidenbach, 1992).
This statement emphasizes the need for a drastic change in perspective. Instead of asking "why are the forests dying?", we now have to ask "why are the forests growing faster in the second half of this century than they did in the first?".
Nitrogen input by the deposition of NOx and ammonia are frequently claimed to cause better growth, but they are said to cause the deterioration of the soils and death of forests in the long term (e.g. Nihlgard, 1985; Hofmann, Heinsdorf and Krauss, 1990). However, with the exception of studies in the close vicinity of stables for mass production of farm animals, few reliable data on the actual effects of nitrogen deposition in forests are available. An increase in the nitrogen content of spruce needles and in topsoil, a typical effect of nitrogen fertilization, was observed in pollution gradients close to agricultural point sources of ammonia (Hofmann, Heinsdorf and Krauss, 1990). Yet, no increase in the nitrogen content of needles and topsoils and no enhanced growth have been shown in the vicinity of point sources of NOx, such as power plants or large towns. Actually, in large forest areas of central Europe, where there are annual deposition rates of 10 to 20 kg of nitrogen per hectare, the nutritional status of conifer forests has been found to be still suboptimal (Zöttl, 1990). Thus, rigorous statistical studies on the spatial correlation of nitrogen deposition and enhanced growth are urgently needed.
Temperature, precipitation (Fig. 7) and CO2 concentration probably contribute to the improved growth, since they act synergistically and their significant increase roughly coincides with the onset of improved forest growth in the middle of this century when nitrogen emission from vehicular traffic was still at a very low level. However, data on correlation supporting such suggestions are still missing.
A third, often-neglected factor, viz. improved forest management (regular thinning, melioration before planting, pest management, etc.), especially the discontinuation of litter and humus removal, may have been even more important. In 1920, the former head of the Bavarian forest administration, Rebel (1920), reported a 20 to 30 percent reduction of timber production in the Bavarian state forests as a result of litter raking. It is logical to assume that a significant increase in growth should have occurred after the poor practice of litter removal was discontinued in the 1930s to 1950s.
In spite of generally improved growth, some stands still show poor growth and substantial tree death, but they are mainly restricted to orographically extreme sites with unfavourable climatic conditions, poor mineral supply, endemic diseases (e.g. root and heart rot), insufficient forest management or combinations of these factors.
Note: Moving ten-year average. The mean values are attached to the last year of the respective ten-year period.
1 Source: Neumann and Pollanschütz (1991).
³ Data on annual harvest, increment and stumpage are given as a percentage of the respective data in the preceding forest inventory period. Inventories were carried out by the forest departments of the respective states/countries.
4 The Austrian classification is based on only four instead of five classes. Thus, the Austrian class 0 includes the German class 0 and most of the German class 1, while the Austrian class 1 comprises the remaining portion of the German class 1 and some of the German classes 2 to 4.
The absence of evidence for the prognosticated rise in forest damage has evoked increasingly critical questions about the novelty of poor crown conditions which were claimed to be typical of Waldsterben. The necessity for a critical retrospective evaluation of crown conditions is clearly expressed in the comment: "Saying that the levels of defoliation are 'high', suggesting that the observed evolution is not normal, implies a reference to such 'norms'".
Defoliation and other alleged symptoms of Waldsterben were not quantified or recorded in forest inventories before 1983. However, there have been some estimates of the extent of crown thinning in earlier summer drought periods, similar to those occurring in the mid-1970s and early 1980s. For instance, Rebel (1924), who observed an increase in poor crown conditions in Bavaria in the early 1920s, called this phenomenon "heat disease" and suggested that 21 to 51 percent of the forest area in the various regions of Bavaria were "endangered or irreversibly diseased", i.e. they showed defoliation equivalent to the present damage classes 1 to 3. Thus, Rebel's estimate of forest damage in Bavaria lies in the same range as that of the current forest damage reports. Many other reports on regional and local diebacks of unknown causes, often comprising all tree species and thus resembling the present description of Waldsterben, are found in historical forest literature (cf. Kandler, 1992a).
A comparison of recent photographs documenting Waldsterben (e.g. Schütt, 1984; Bauer, 1985) with old photographs of forest stands in scientific journals, photograph albums and postcards, shows that trees with transparent crowns were also common in former times. An evaluation of about 2 000 clearly recognizable spruce trees on postcards from before 1925 and from 1975 to 1985 (Schweingruber, 1989) has shown that 16 to 41 percent and 16 to 21 percent of the trees exhibited distinct foliage deficits equivalent to classes 2 and 3 in the first and second period, respectively. These numbers are virtually identical to those of the recent Swiss surveys (WSL, 1992).
A comparison of old and recent photographs of the same stands also visualizes the small-scale mosaicism of crown conditions and their non-synchronous dynamics within stands (Fig. 8). Each of four heavily damaged spruce trees photographed in 1959 in the Bavarian Forest behaved differently during the following 27 years. In 1959 tree I would have been in damage class 1 or 2, and trees 2 to 4 would have been in class 3. By 1986 the condition of tree 1 had worsened but tree 2 had improved slightly while trees 3 and 4 had regenerated almost normal upper crowns. Air pollution, soil acidity or climatic conditions, the alleged causes of the annually recorded novel forest damage are unlikely causes for the different fates of these neighbouring trees. More probably, root and heart rot, found by core inspection, became more or less acute or were fully suppressed by the oscillating tree pathogen interaction (cf. Shigo, 1985).
A second example shows the recovery of a severely defoliated (damage class 3) spruce tree (F-K1) within a few years (Fig. 9). Compared with the two healthy trees (F-K2 and F-K3) growing only 10 to 20 m away, the annual growth increment for F-K1 (Fig. 10) started to decrease in 1969 and was minimal in the dry summer of 1976 when needle loss began. Recovery of incremental growth began in 1980 but needle loss was greatest in 1982. In the following years the infections were at least partly overcome, more needles were produced than were shed and, in 1987, the tree returned to class 1. When the tree was cut, Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. and Armillaria mellea sensu lato were found to have affected the tree. About one-fourth of the cambium at the base of the bole was killed in 1978. The many new roots that had formed since 1980 led to recovery of the crown.
Oscillations of crown conditions in much shorter periods than those caused by root and stem diseases are mostly due to climate conditions and/or infections and infestations of the foliage by pathogens or insects.
The annual fluctuations of crown conditions seen in annual surveys have been studied best in Switzerland. Here, the degree of foliage deficit in about 7 500 marked trees included in the annual surveys (WSL, 1989) were judged in stepped 5 percent damage classes and the annual changes of >10 percent have been depicted in a diagram (Fig. 11). The increase in improvements in the higher damage classes corroborates the earlier statement that the series of annual surveys does not indicate a shift from the lower to the higher damage classes with time, as proposed by the Waldsterben concept, but rather a dynamic steady state of crown conditions at a slightly fluctuating level.
· retrospective studies on forest conditions suggest that similar levels of crown transparency were found in Norway spruce at the beginning of this century as are today and that recurrent decline episodes take place in the main tree species.
Thus, the results of a decade of research are not compatible with the central dogma of the Waldsterben concept. They rather confirm the occurrence of non-synchronous fluctuations of forest conditions and recurrent episodes of clarified as well as unsettled species specific declines.
Waldsterben may be understood as a problem of awareness: forest conditions that were believed to be "normal" in earlier times suddenly became a symbol of the growing fear of the destructive potential of human activities on the environment. However, holistic concepts such as the Waldsterben hypothesis are of little help in solving problems. Rather they raise emotions and lead to premature conclusions. To gain a real understanding of the multitude of decline phenomena in our forests, we must continue to analyse symptom by symptom, species by species and site by site, according to the classical principles of phytopathology and forest science in general.
Figure 11. Percentage of about 7 000 trees from Swiss annual forest surveys in: 5% foliage deficit classes remaining unchanged; improved >10%; or deteriorated >10% during the period 1987-1989.
The relationship of foliage deficit to German damage classes is also provided.
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lowercased:
the results of a decade of research, primarily in germany, austria and switzerland, contradict claims that air pollution was leading to widespread forest decline in central europe.
dr otto kandler is emeritus professor and formerly held the chair in botany at the institute of botany, ludwig-maximilian university in munich. germany.
· the most likely cause of waldsterben was a complex ecosystemic disease triggered by cumulative stress from increasing air pollution, e.g. acid rain, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, ozone, hydrocarbons as well as soil deterioration caused by the deposition of pollutants.
many experienced forest scientists and foresters were sceptical about such claims; however, with few exceptions (e.g. braun, 1981; binns and redfern, 1982) there was widespread acceptance of the waldsterben scenarios, both in the scientific community and among the wider public. in fact, an extra cut of 10 million m³ of timber in 1984 -equivalent to about 20 percent of the annual harvest in the former federal republic of germany - was prognosticated by the german board of forest economy in 1983 (pfleiderer, 1984), and the union of forest owners expected a loss of dm 1.3 billion per year for each 20 percent of germany's forest area affected by waldsterben (meister, schütze and sperber, 1984).
in view of the large public response to the frightening scenarios propagated by advocates of the waldsterben theory, in 1982 the german forest authorities decided to carry out annual surveys to study the development of the neuartige waldschäden (novel forest damage) - the official term now used instead of the popular slogan "waldsterben" - and allocated substantial funding to support research into the cause of the allegedly new syndrome.
in the annual surveys, conducted on a 4 x 4 km grid of plots, damage classes are defined by the percentage of foliage deficit with 0 = healthy (< 10 percent), 1 = slightly damaged (11 to 25 percent), 2 = moderately damaged (26 to 60 percent), 3 = severely damaged (61 to 99 percent), 4 = dead (100 percent). discoloration can increase the damage class, depending on the percentage of affected foliage. the number of trees in the various damage classes is converted to the corresponding forest area (of the former federal republic of germany) that they would cover if the damaged trees formed one stand. thus, since 1984 the annual forest damage reports issued by the german government give the percentage of the total forest area imaginarily covered by trees of each damage class. this classification has been adopted by other european countries and is the basis of a joint report by the un economic commission for europe and the commission of the european communities (ece/cec).
although this type of classification has no value in identifying the cause of forest decline, manion (1987) emphasized the critical view of an analytical phytopathologist when he stated: "the fruit salad of deterioration, decline and dying trees should not all be squeezed into a generic 'fruit juice'", the series of surveys available since 1984 can help to determine the extent and dynamics of the alleged novel forest damage.
the series of annual surveys from 1984 to 1992 in the former federal republic of germany (compatible data from the former german democratic republic are not available) show neither the predicted steep rise in the degree of damage in the 1980s (fig. 1) nor a progressive shift of the proportion among the damage classes from the lower- to the higher-damage classes and, finally, to death. in fact, there was no increase in mortality and no substantial extra cut was necessary. consequently, the sustained fall in timber prices, predicted by economists in the early 1980s, did not occur and prices did not exceed the usual fluctuation (cf. kandler, 1988a).
the development of the annually recorded damage is different for each of the four main tree species (fig. 2) as well as between various regions (fig.3). the species evaluation shows that the slightly higher level of damage overall in the early 1990s, seen in fig. 1, is exclusively due to the distinct increase in damage in the two hardwood species; both conifer species show slightly lower levels of damage in the early 1990s than in the early 1980s. in fact, the two hardwood species surpassed both coniferous species in 1987 and now exhibit much higher levels of damage than the conifers. such an inversion of the proportion of damage in hardwoods and conifers is not compatible with the waldsterben hypothesis which is based on an alleged accumulation of ecosystemic stress by air pollutants and their deposition, since trees show species specific sensitivities to environmental stress factors and responses should remain the same unless the intensity or kind of stress factors change significantly.
it is noteworthy that phytophthora cinnamomi has recently been isolated from the soils and roots of declining cork and stone oaks (quercus suber; and q. ilex) in spain and portugal (brasier, 1992; brasier, robredo and ferraz, in press). this fungus is an aggressive root pathogen which attacks a large variety of plant species. since the deterioration of feeder roots, the main target of p. cinnamomi, has been reported to precede novel forest damage in oak and beech observed in central europe (vincent, 1989; 1991), brasier, robredo and ferraz (in press) recommend investigation of the possibility of an involvement of p. cinnamomi in hardwood decline in central and eastern europe.
large-scale typical smoke (so2) damage of forests became common in industrialized areas of central europe with the advent of industrialization in the nineteenth century. such damage is still found today in the former eastern bloc countries, for instance in the ohre mountains on the border between eastern germany and the czech republic. the two large lignite-mining areas developed in the early 1950s, eger valley and bitterfeld, are the main sources of so2, which has caused distinct forest damage over several thousand km² on both sides of the ohre mountains and has also affected the neighbouring harz and fichtel mountains in western germany (wentzel, 1982). however, the actual death of conifers is restricted to the ridge of the ohre mountains at an elevation of c. 900 m above sea level where the damaging effect of so2 is clearly enhanced by strong winds (liebold, 1988).
in spite of unequivocal identification as regular so2 damage, photographs of the dying trees at the ridge of the ohre mountains are frequently shown as typical examples of waldsterben in the media, thereby leading to confusion.
in the former federal republic of germany, the previously high so2 concentrations in industrial areas and city centres had already been drastically reduced when waldsterben scenarios were first described in the early 1980s, and they are continuing to decrease. a typical example of the reduction of so2 concentrations in western germany is the development of the so2 concentrations in the rhine-ruhr area, the largest industrial conurbation in central europe. at the turn of the century, conifer forests did die or were heavily damaged over an area of several thousand km² while the less sensitive hardwood forests survived, although with distinct growth reductions. however, after the 1960s the annual mean so2 concentrations were reduced in three seeps (fig. 4): first by technical improvements of power stations and smelters as well as by changes in the types of fuel used in the 1960s; then by the building of higher chimneys from the early 1970s; and, finally, by the desulphurization of funnel gases beginning in 1983. the level of 30 m g/m³ of the late 1980s compares with more than 200 m g/m³ in the 1960s (bruckmann and pfeffer, 1992).
no2 concentrations, however, decreased only slightly in the rhine-ruhr area at the end of the 1980s (fig. 4) but remained at the same level in rural and forest areas in spite of the increasing proportion of cars equipped with catalytic converters (about 40 percent in 1991). there was also no change in the level of ozone concentrations throughout the 1980s.
figure 4 annual mean of so2 and no2 concentrations in the rhine-ruhr area and of so2 concentrations in the bavarian forest (left scale).
source: uba (1992), bruckmann and pfeffer (1992), blef (1992) and (1991).
the ecological consequence of the reduction of so2 concentrations in the rhine-ruhr area and other centres of so2 emission since the 1960s was the prompt recovery of conifers and the re-immigration of spruce and lichens into areas where they had been absent for almost 100 years (kandler, 1988b). these recovery phenomena demonstrate that so2 only was responsible for the classical pollution damage; the contribution of the other pollutants was, at most, marginal. neither the development nor the levels of novel forest damage in the total area of western germany, in particular states or in single tree species, parallel the course of the actual records of so2, no2 and ozone concentrations at the country's permanent monitoring stations. thus, it is unlikely that air pollution is a causal factor or even a significant contributing factor in the "novel forest damage" syndrome.
this conclusion is corroborated by the measurements of gas exchange in attached branches of spruce trees in the bavarian forest (koch and lautenschläger, 1989; koch, in press) and in the alps (häsler, 1991; wieser, weih and havranek, 1991). the branches were enclosed in air-conditioned chambers for up to four years and kept in ambient or purified air. no difference in the rates of photosynthesis and respiration has been detected between the two chambers. these findings indicate that the prevailing concentrations of air pollutants in the chamber simulating ambient conditions were below the threshold of inhibition.
the absence of a relationship between the development of the annually recorded forest damage and prevailing air pollution is further corroborated by a recent study on the spatial correlations between forest damage and air pollutants, based on the most detailed regional data basis available in western germany (neuland, bömelberg and tenhagen, 1990). the data covers damage classes 2 to 4 of all of the 7 016 single sites surveyed in 1985, together with tree age, soil and weather conditions and so2 emission as well as so4 and no3 deposition at approximately 100 monitoring stations.
as expected, a statistically significant positive correlation has been found between forest damage and parameters such as tree age, elevation of the site, flat and fast-draining soils and so forth, but no correlation has been shown between forest damage and air pollution (i.e. atmospheric so2 and no2 concentrations and so4 and no3 deposition). on the other hand, there was a correlation between soil acidity and forest damage: foliage deficit was lowest on acid podzolic soils and highest on well-buffered, neutral to basic calcium-rich rendzinas, camibsols, etc. this finding is at odds with the acidification/al³+ toxicity hypothesis (ulrich, 1980; 1989). however, it is in agreement with the results of an experiment in which plots of an 80-year-old spruce stand on an acidic podzolic soil was either limed in the first year or treated with acid rain (ph 2.7) for six years (kreutzer and göttlein, 1991). after eight years, compared with the control plot the crown conditions (assessed by the same methods as those applied in the annual surveys) in the plot treated with acid rain had improved slightly while the limed plot had deteriorated slightly.
such findings call for a reconsideration and refinement of the supposed role of acidification in novel forest damage and show that the scenarios predicting a fast decline of forests because of actual deposition rates and demanding an immediate general liming of all forests showing novel forest damage (ulrich, 1980; 1989) are pushed beyond the limits of available data.
tree ring analyses provide a reliable means for tracing the course of tree growth over long periods. large-scale studies by many authors, covering trees from all the main species from different regions of central europe, have revealed a deep inroad in the mid-1970s, which coincides with a series of drought years, but no general persistent decrease in diameter increment during recent decades. trees of damage classes 1, 2 and 3 show different growth rates, but the deviation from the mean usually does not exceed the common range of variations which occur within large populations as a result of competition and different site conditions in the stand as well as individual mechanical damage, infestations and infectious diseases. a typical example for norway spruce is depicted in figure 5. the tree ring chronology of 260 trees from the low mountain ranges to the south and east of the rhine-ruhr area exhibits the characteristics mentioned: a deep inroad in the mid-1970s, differentiation in ring width between the damage classes and slightly improved growth in recent decades, as indicated by a mean ring width of 103 and 110 percent in the periods 1963-1988 and 1983-1988, respectively.
note: ring width is given as a percentage of a reference derived from previous growth. percentage of trees in damage classes: 0=50%, 1=35%. 2/3=14%.
enhanced growth in recent decades is also seen when comparing increments in the diameter (cf. fig. 6 and schneider, lorenz and poker, 1987) or height (keller, 1992) of different generations of trees in spruce stands with identical site conditions: in spruce, 30- to 60-year-old stands grew faster than did 90- to 120 year-old stands at the same age.
the final confirmation of substantially improved forest growth precisely during the period predicted to see the explosion of waldsterben may be seen in the results of traditional forest inventories, based on periodically repeated volume evaluations in representative stands. inventories undertaken in germany and austria in 1990 reveal that, in the government- and corporation-owned forests (roughly about 30 percent of the total forest area of the respective states), not only the annual increment but also the stumpage and prescribed annual cut have increased by several percentage points in all southern german states, while in austria between 1975 and 1985, although the annual surveys for two of these states (bavaria, baden-württemberg) showed the highest degrees of novel forest damage in western germany (see table). referring to the improved growth, a forest administration official states (author's translation): "site productivity in forests of baden-württemberg has improved. stumpage, annual increment and annual cut in the government - and corporation-owned forests have increased by almost 20 percent in 20 years, and no end of this development can be foreseen" (weidenbach, 1992).
this statement emphasizes the need for a drastic change in perspective. instead of asking "why are the forests dying?", we now have to ask "why are the forests growing faster in the second half of this century than they did in the first?".
nitrogen input by the deposition of nox and ammonia are frequently claimed to cause better growth, but they are said to cause the deterioration of the soils and death of forests in the long term (e.g. nihlgard, 1985; hofmann, heinsdorf and krauss, 1990). however, with the exception of studies in the close vicinity of stables for mass production of farm animals, few reliable data on the actual effects of nitrogen deposition in forests are available. an increase in the nitrogen content of spruce needles and in topsoil, a typical effect of nitrogen fertilization, was observed in pollution gradients close to agricultural point sources of ammonia (hofmann, heinsdorf and krauss, 1990). yet, no increase in the nitrogen content of needles and topsoils and no enhanced growth have been shown in the vicinity of point sources of nox, such as power plants or large towns. actually, in large forest areas of central europe, where there are annual deposition rates of 10 to 20 kg of nitrogen per hectare, the nutritional status of conifer forests has been found to be still suboptimal (zöttl, 1990). thus, rigorous statistical studies on the spatial correlation of nitrogen deposition and enhanced growth are urgently needed.
temperature, precipitation (fig. 7) and co2 concentration probably contribute to the improved growth, since they act synergistically and their significant increase roughly coincides with the onset of improved forest growth in the middle of this century when nitrogen emission from vehicular traffic was still at a very low level. however, data on correlation supporting such suggestions are still missing.
a third, often-neglected factor, viz. improved forest management (regular thinning, melioration before planting, pest management, etc.), especially the discontinuation of litter and humus removal, may have been even more important. in 1920, the former head of the bavarian forest administration, rebel (1920), reported a 20 to 30 percent reduction of timber production in the bavarian state forests as a result of litter raking. it is logical to assume that a significant increase in growth should have occurred after the poor practice of litter removal was discontinued in the 1930s to 1950s.
in spite of generally improved growth, some stands still show poor growth and substantial tree death, but they are mainly restricted to orographically extreme sites with unfavourable climatic conditions, poor mineral supply, endemic diseases (e.g. root and heart rot), insufficient forest management or combinations of these factors.
note: moving ten-year average. the mean values are attached to the last year of the respective ten-year period.
1 source: neumann and pollanschütz (1991).
³ data on annual harvest, increment and stumpage are given as a percentage of the respective data in the preceding forest inventory period. inventories were carried out by the forest departments of the respective states/countries.
4 the austrian classification is based on only four instead of five classes. thus, the austrian class 0 includes the german class 0 and most of the german class 1, while the austrian class 1 comprises the remaining portion of the german class 1 and some of the german classes 2 to 4.
the absence of evidence for the prognosticated rise in forest damage has evoked increasingly critical questions about the novelty of poor crown conditions which were claimed to be typical of waldsterben. the necessity for a critical retrospective evaluation of crown conditions is clearly expressed in the comment: "saying that the levels of defoliation are 'high', suggesting that the observed evolution is not normal, implies a reference to such 'norms'".
defoliation and other alleged symptoms of waldsterben were not quantified or recorded in forest inventories before 1983. however, there have been some estimates of the extent of crown thinning in earlier summer drought periods, similar to those occurring in the mid-1970s and early 1980s. for instance, rebel (1924), who observed an increase in poor crown conditions in bavaria in the early 1920s, called this phenomenon "heat disease" and suggested that 21 to 51 percent of the forest area in the various regions of bavaria were "endangered or irreversibly diseased", i.e. they showed defoliation equivalent to the present damage classes 1 to 3. thus, rebel's estimate of forest damage in bavaria lies in the same range as that of the current forest damage reports. many other reports on regional and local diebacks of unknown causes, often comprising all tree species and thus resembling the present description of waldsterben, are found in historical forest literature (cf. kandler, 1992a).
a comparison of recent photographs documenting waldsterben (e.g. schütt, 1984; bauer, 1985) with old photographs of forest stands in scientific journals, photograph albums and postcards, shows that trees with transparent crowns were also common in former times. an evaluation of about 2 000 clearly recognizable spruce trees on postcards from before 1925 and from 1975 to 1985 (schweingruber, 1989) has shown that 16 to 41 percent and 16 to 21 percent of the trees exhibited distinct foliage deficits equivalent to classes 2 and 3 in the first and second period, respectively. these numbers are virtually identical to those of the recent swiss surveys (wsl, 1992).
a comparison of old and recent photographs of the same stands also visualizes the small-scale mosaicism of crown conditions and their non-synchronous dynamics within stands (fig. 8). each of four heavily damaged spruce trees photographed in 1959 in the bavarian forest behaved differently during the following 27 years. in 1959 tree i would have been in damage class 1 or 2, and trees 2 to 4 would have been in class 3. by 1986 the condition of tree 1 had worsened but tree 2 had improved slightly while trees 3 and 4 had regenerated almost normal upper crowns. air pollution, soil acidity or climatic conditions, the alleged causes of the annually recorded novel forest damage are unlikely causes for the different fates of these neighbouring trees. more probably, root and heart rot, found by core inspection, became more or less acute or were fully suppressed by the oscillating tree pathogen interaction (cf. shigo, 1985).
a second example shows the recovery of a severely defoliated (damage class 3) spruce tree (f-k1) within a few years (fig. 9). compared with the two healthy trees (f-k2 and f-k3) growing only 10 to 20 m away, the annual growth increment for f-k1 (fig. 10) started to decrease in 1969 and was minimal in the dry summer of 1976 when needle loss began. recovery of incremental growth began in 1980 but needle loss was greatest in 1982. in the following years the infections were at least partly overcome, more needles were produced than were shed and, in 1987, the tree returned to class 1. when the tree was cut, heterobasidion annosum (fr.) bref. and armillaria mellea sensu lato were found to have affected the tree. about one-fourth of the cambium at the base of the bole was killed in 1978. the many new roots that had formed since 1980 led to recovery of the crown.
oscillations of crown conditions in much shorter periods than those caused by root and stem diseases are mostly due to climate conditions and/or infections and infestations of the foliage by pathogens or insects.
the annual fluctuations of crown conditions seen in annual surveys have been studied best in switzerland. here, the degree of foliage deficit in about 7 500 marked trees included in the annual surveys (wsl, 1989) were judged in stepped 5 percent damage classes and the annual changes of >10 percent have been depicted in a diagram (fig. 11). the increase in improvements in the higher damage classes corroborates the earlier statement that the series of annual surveys does not indicate a shift from the lower to the higher damage classes with time, as proposed by the waldsterben concept, but rather a dynamic steady state of crown conditions at a slightly fluctuating level.
· retrospective studies on forest conditions suggest that similar levels of crown transparency were found in norway spruce at the beginning of this century as are today and that recurrent decline episodes take place in the main tree species.
thus, the results of a decade of research are not compatible with the central dogma of the waldsterben concept. they rather confirm the occurrence of non-synchronous fluctuations of forest conditions and recurrent episodes of clarified as well as unsettled species specific declines.
waldsterben may be understood as a problem of awareness: forest conditions that were believed to be "normal" in earlier times suddenly became a symbol of the growing fear of the destructive potential of human activities on the environment. however, holistic concepts such as the waldsterben hypothesis are of little help in solving problems. rather they raise emotions and lead to premature conclusions. to gain a real understanding of the multitude of decline phenomena in our forests, we must continue to analyse symptom by symptom, species by species and site by site, according to the classical principles of phytopathology and forest science in general.
figure 11. percentage of about 7 000 trees from swiss annual forest surveys in: 5% foliage deficit classes remaining unchanged; improved >10%; or deteriorated >10% during the period 1987-1989.
the relationship of foliage deficit to german damage classes is also provided.
anon. 1991. waldzustandsbericht. munich, bayerisches staatsministerium für ernährung, landwirtschaft und forsten.
bauer, f. 1985. die sache mit dem wald. munich-vienna-zurich, blv verlagsgesellschaft.
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binns, w.o. & redfern, d.b. 1982. acid rain and forest decline in west germany. forestry commission research and development paper 131. farnham, hants, uk, forestry commission.
brasier, c.m. 1992. oak tree mortality in iberia. nature, 360(6404): 539.
braun, h.j. 1981. zur erkrankung der fichten im forstamt sauerlach. allg. forstzeitschr., 36:661.
brucknann, p.& pfeffer, h.u. 1992. langjährige entwicklung der luftqualität in urbanen gebieten am beispiel des ballungsraumes rhein-ruhr. vdi ber. 952: 152-166.
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kandler, o. 1988b. lichen and conifer recolonization in munich's cleaner air. in p. mathy, ed. air pollution and ecosystems, p.784-790. proc. of an int. symp., grenoble, france, 18-22 may 1987. boston, ma, usa, d. reidel.
kandler, o. 1990. epidemiological evaluation of the development of waldsterben in germany. plant dis., 74: 1-12.
kandler, o. 1992a. historical declines and diebacks of central european forests and present conditions. j. environ. toxicol. chem., 11: 1077-1093.
kandler, o. 1992b. the german forest decline situation: a complex disease or a complex of diseases. in p.s. manion & d. lachance, eds. forest decline concepts, p. 59-84. st paul, mn, usa, aps press.
keller, w. 1992. bonität in fichten-folgebeständen ehemaliger fichten-versuchsflächen der wsl. in deutscher verband forstlicher forschungsanstalten freiburg. bericht der jahrestagung vom 1-3.6.1992 der sektion ertragskunde.
koch, w. & lautenschläger, k. 1989. vergleichende gaswechselmessungen unter reinluft und standortsluft an fichte zur quantitativen ermittlung von primärschäden durch gasförmige luftverunreinigungen. in j.b. bucher & i. bucher-wallin, eds. air pollution and forest decline. proc. int. meeting iufro proj. group p2.05 14th, p. 119-124. birmensdorf, switzerland, eafv.
kreutzer, k. & göttlein, a., eds. 1991. ökosystemforschung höglwald. hamburg-berlin, paul parey. 261 pp.
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zöttl, h.w. 1990. remarks on the effects of nitrogen deposition to forest ecosystems. plant soil, 128(1): 83-89.


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we have compiled the best mommy blogs over the internet. filled with great advice and insight, learn about the quirks and fun of parenthood right here!
my favorite 24 diy teepee tutorials. learn how to make the most out of stuff from your home to create a fun play place for you and your kids.
kids love to play in teepees, but do you know the long and important history behind their design and construction? learn about where these dwellings originated.


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03:32 the first thing we talked about is rather than exercise to lose weight or get in shape, plan, purposeful movement to lower Cortisol.
05:37 The second one was make a goal to meditate 10 minutes every day.
06:38 Then I suggested utilizing natural supplements like L-Theanine, that’s the amino acid found in green tea is very calming rather than jumping to your doctor to get some Vallum or Xanax or Lorazepam.
08:05 The next New Year’s resolutions based on the RecoverMe model, was do your best to avoid processed foods.
09:18 The next one is to see a hormone specialist. Now you may say, “I have no hormone problems, doc. I’m fine.” Now. You might get some disagreement from loved ones, but we won’t go there, but what I’m encouraging you to do is rather than just assuming your normal, rather than assuming you fall within this normal range, that’s huge. Go get stuff checked and optimize them.
10:08 The next thing I wanted to do in the RecoverMe balanced resolutions is utilized natural probiotics. Now, that doesn’t mean you take them in a pill form. I would encourage you to get online, get recipes for Kombucha, for Kimchi, for Keifer, for homemade yogurt, and make your own. Go play outside in the dirt is often as you can with your kids. Let a dog lick your face. I mean all these things. Those are natural probiotics.
11:28 The next New Year’s resolutions I discussed and there was some questions on this, so I’ll cover those, is go to ewg.org, Environmental Working Group .org for all your products and utilize their consumer guides.
13:09 The next year as New Year’s resolutions based on the RecoverMe approach was to try to sweat hard at least once a day. Now that does not mean two hours of exercise. It means 10 minutes in the sauna and a dry sauna sitting 10 minutes in the sauna at 140, 160 degrees dry sauna and you will sweat out toxins.
13:42 Ensure a healthy liver and kidney system. That is so important and that I would encourage you to see your doctor. Not just do the blood tests, but there’s more detailed testing we can do to make sure you’re clearing toxins appropriately.
15:24 once again, four or five servings of brightly covered colored multiple colors of fruits and vegetables every day.
20:36 Macronutrients are restricted, are lopsided in almost every program out there, but they’re balanced to the individual when you learn about your body, that’s what this book is for you, and once again being a reference book. Drugs are encouraged in these programs, whether it’s legal drugs, illegal drugs, or supplements you buy at the GNC.
21:30 The man or woman who at one time trained hard, got into contest shape to do a physique show, a bodybuilding show or a fitness show follow it. They lost other gains and cannot get that ideal body back. I see these people daily in my practice. Number two, a similar person to those above who no matter what they do, cannot get into that super shape like they’d hoped for it, no matter how hard they try, how little they eat or how much they exercise. Number three, the ex-athlete, both college and professional who after retiring or playing sports, after they quit, lost all their lean mass and gained a bunch of fat. I see those people all the time to number four, the people who cannot lose weight, no matter how hard they try, including the good people who used to be thin and lean and somehow 20 pounds snuck up on him. Number five, the avid endurance athlete who is absolutely worn out from other training but still have belly fat. There’s a hormone issue there guys. Number six, the Yoyo Diet or who’s string finally broke.
So, that is a quick review of Obtainable. I hope it excites you as much as excites me. Again, it’s a reference guide. It’s easy reading too. I think I write very simply. I’m a simple person so it’s simply easy to write. It’s available on Amazon right now. Release date today, January 8, 2019. Go check it out. My contact information is there. You can go to my website, drwilley.com. Leave me a voicemail directly on the website or an email and I hope this is a benefit to you.
I’m so excited about it. So I will shut down our RecoverMe podcasts for today. If you have any questions, I can always get ahold of us. Remember, recovering medicine meets you where you are and hopes you survive through life. I wish you the best. Happy New Year.
A TIP FROM TODAY’S SHOW: If you’re anxious and overdrawn and just buzzing all over the place, have a cup of green tea.

lowercased:
03:32 the first thing we talked about is rather than exercise to lose weight or get in shape, plan, purposeful movement to lower cortisol.
05:37 the second one was make a goal to meditate 10 minutes every day.
06:38 then i suggested utilizing natural supplements like l-theanine, that’s the amino acid found in green tea is very calming rather than jumping to your doctor to get some vallum or xanax or lorazepam.
08:05 the next new year’s resolutions based on the recoverme model, was do your best to avoid processed foods.
09:18 the next one is to see a hormone specialist. now you may say, “i have no hormone problems, doc. i’m fine.” now. you might get some disagreement from loved ones, but we won’t go there, but what i’m encouraging you to do is rather than just assuming your normal, rather than assuming you fall within this normal range, that’s huge. go get stuff checked and optimize them.
10:08 the next thing i wanted to do in the recoverme balanced resolutions is utilized natural probiotics. now, that doesn’t mean you take them in a pill form. i would encourage you to get online, get recipes for kombucha, for kimchi, for keifer, for homemade yogurt, and make your own. go play outside in the dirt is often as you can with your kids. let a dog lick your face. i mean all these things. those are natural probiotics.
11:28 the next new year’s resolutions i discussed and there was some questions on this, so i’ll cover those, is go to ewg.org, environmental working group .org for all your products and utilize their consumer guides.
13:09 the next year as new year’s resolutions based on the recoverme approach was to try to sweat hard at least once a day. now that does not mean two hours of exercise. it means 10 minutes in the sauna and a dry sauna sitting 10 minutes in the sauna at 140, 160 degrees dry sauna and you will sweat out toxins.
13:42 ensure a healthy liver and kidney system. that is so important and that i would encourage you to see your doctor. not just do the blood tests, but there’s more detailed testing we can do to make sure you’re clearing toxins appropriately.
15:24 once again, four or five servings of brightly covered colored multiple colors of fruits and vegetables every day.
20:36 macronutrients are restricted, are lopsided in almost every program out there, but they’re balanced to the individual when you learn about your body, that’s what this book is for you, and once again being a reference book. drugs are encouraged in these programs, whether it’s legal drugs, illegal drugs, or supplements you buy at the gnc.
21:30 the man or woman who at one time trained hard, got into contest shape to do a physique show, a bodybuilding show or a fitness show follow it. they lost other gains and cannot get that ideal body back. i see these people daily in my practice. number two, a similar person to those above who no matter what they do, cannot get into that super shape like they’d hoped for it, no matter how hard they try, how little they eat or how much they exercise. number three, the ex-athlete, both college and professional who after retiring or playing sports, after they quit, lost all their lean mass and gained a bunch of fat. i see those people all the time to number four, the people who cannot lose weight, no matter how hard they try, including the good people who used to be thin and lean and somehow 20 pounds snuck up on him. number five, the avid endurance athlete who is absolutely worn out from other training but still have belly fat. there’s a hormone issue there guys. number six, the yoyo diet or who’s string finally broke.
so, that is a quick review of obtainable. i hope it excites you as much as excites me. again, it’s a reference guide. it’s easy reading too. i think i write very simply. i’m a simple person so it’s simply easy to write. it’s available on amazon right now. release date today, january 8, 2019. go check it out. my contact information is there. you can go to my website, drwilley.com. leave me a voicemail directly on the website or an email and i hope this is a benefit to you.
i’m so excited about it. so i will shut down our recoverme podcasts for today. if you have any questions, i can always get ahold of us. remember, recovering medicine meets you where you are and hopes you survive through life. i wish you the best. happy new year.
a tip from today’s show: if you’re anxious and overdrawn and just buzzing all over the place, have a cup of green tea.


text:
What Does the Future Hold for Business Collaboration?
The future of business collaboration is moving fast, and if you don’t keep up, you risk your company being left behind! The technologies are ever-changing, as new cutting-edge developments constantly come into the market, and times, trends and concepts evolve. The Internet and the Workplace of Things are becoming more prevalent, and will be increasingly important to collaboration. In this article, we will take a look at these, as well as other important trends such as Big Data technology, asynchronous work, anywhere-ization and convergence, all set to shape and impact the future of business collaboration. First let’s look at why business collaboration is so important.
As most businesses know, a successful future is the result of effective collaboration with your on-site employees and your customers. However, success increasingly also lies in collaboration within your company’s own virtual walls, in collaborating with employees, more and more of whom are working remotely. Collusion and communication is essential to getting an entire company on the same page to work toward a common goal. Your business must stay ahead of the game in terms of technology in order to make collaboration effective and efficient. In a market where many companies are taking advantage of the technology advances to improve collaboration, it is essential to adopt and integrate them to stay competitive.
The first trend that is blatantly apparent due to the wide use of smartphones is the mobile workforce, which has enabled employees to stay in touch from anywhere. The terms BYOD and BYOT (bring your own device, and bring your own technology) entered the dictionary in August 2013,and most businesses have already implemented BYOD initiatives. This is a clear indication of where things are going in the environment of business collaboration; employees want to work anywhere on devices they are comfortable with. The days are gone where an employee sits at an allocated desk, restricted by a personal computer. Companies utilize skills and talents across geographical borders for maximum productivity. With cloud-based applications, this is becoming more and more of a possibility.
How effective is BYOD in the workplace? Research has shown that 42% of employees report increased efficiency and productivity when they bring their own device to work. However, anywhere-ization brings with it a whole realm of concerns as employees access sensitive data outside of the protected business environment. 73% of IT Managers cite security implementation as being a key concern surrounding BYOD, with 83% citing round the clock access to corporate networks as being the most pressing threat to security. It is crucial then, that your IT department and company is on the cutting-edge of technology too, so you can enable effective control of data for security reasons. This will become more and more essential for safe, risk-free business collaboration as the workforce can, and does, work from anywhere.
Next up is the aforementioned Workplace of Things, which is a step beyond BYOD. We are talking about all the BYOD’s, computers, wearables, printers, and more being connected together wirelessly. Up until now, The Internet of Things has predominantly included objects in the home like your alarm, dishwasher and garage door. However, the development of technology that allows objects to send and receive data and information to one another, will continue to find its way into the working environment.
It is estimated that there will be 26 billion autonomous internet-connected devices by the year 2020, and research shows that 96% of businesses expect to be using the Internet of Things devices within the next three years. Your business will be required to embrace the Workplace of Things to keep up with the demands that are presented by an increasingly efficient and optimized marketplace. From web conferences, to data collection, to wearable devices, to virtual reality, technology can boost and improve operations to ensure a seamless flow of information across employees, right through to customers.
WIth this increasingly connected, while geographically separated, workforce, collaboration can not be bound by space and time as before. If your business tries to collaborate with an “old school” mindset, you will run into more problems. Employees working in different locations, can mean they are working in different time zones. This can result in difficulties communicating in real-time, documents becoming lost, or communications being inadequate or inefficient. Additionally, problems associated with arranging virtual meetings with individuals who have different commitments can be difficult. Your business can see negative outcomes; inefficiencies within the business, inadequate planning, a deterioration in business relationships, poor team-work, and ultimately, lost business. Research shows that as many as 86% of executives cite a lack of collaboration, or ineffective communication, as being to blame for failures in the workplace.
Although email can be sufficient for many business communications and transactions, it does have its limitations. Many people find long email threads tiresome, emails can be easily missed, deleted, or misunderstood, and there are limitations in terms of tracking and accountability. As for scheduling meetings, this presents a whole host of problems when people are scattered all across the globe and have different working patterns, different means of access to technology, and varying communication skills.
The problem is being addressed with cloud-based collaboration technologies, a “new school” way of collaborating. Asynchronous collaboration means that businesses and employees can work together, even when they cannot be in the same place at the same time. The cloud and software as a service (SaaS) creates the possibility of the creation of team workspaces, which enable files, projects and documents to be effectively tracked. The workspace can be accessed both inside and outside the business by anyone authorized to enter the cloud, and the problems associated with emails and meetings are automatically resolved. Collaboration without space and time boundaries is the way forward for the future of businesses, whatever your trade or service, and wherever you(and your employees) are in the world.
Next, comes the extensive amount of data now available to business and the dilemma of what to do with it all. It is not enough to simply collect and assemble data and statistics anymore. Collaborating and analyzing that data is absolutely essential for your business to succeed, and more and more technology is becoming available to enable data to be processed effectively. Advances in systems, and new and improved technology, are making data collection even more expedient. The effective analysis of Big Data helps your business to maintain a competitive edge, boost productivity, and drive innovation.
With social media, you are seeing more vocal workforces and customer bases, and will need to identify even more opportunities to explore and monitor customer’s habits. A whole realm of information is available concerning sales and key performance indicators, and how these relate to business goals. Additionally, there are ever more ways and means of gathering that information. New data that is available, and advances in technology, mean that you can gather the information and analyze it for your benefit. You can, and must, adopt a data-driven approach, using those statistics to measure your performance, and that of your employees, to ensure that you invest in the right technology.
It might require a new mindset and a culture shift, as teams may need to be educated to work together, but the impact will be well worthwhile. After that investment in new technology and training, the result is that you will be better able to understand your performance, act strategically, recognize where your problems or stumbling blocks actually lie, and the make the necessary plans to streamline, or make amendments in areas where things are going wrong. It is estimated that 2016 will see a 20 billion dollar growth in Big Data technology and services; statistics show that the biggest benefit will be seen in operational efficiency.
In summary, creating a collaborative environment is crucial for your business, and the advances in technology with regard to smartphones and cloud communication are hugely beneficial for a middle sized company and especially for a multinational enterprise.
availability of the integrated data for making more informed decisions.
This process should end up with a completely smooth user experience for every individual involved, right through to the end user. In order to ensure a successful implementation, your standard and bespoke software integration should be performed by professional developers, as it’s not a trivial task. If you are thinking about the implementations – we are here to help you and answer any questions you may have.

lowercased:
what does the future hold for business collaboration?
the future of business collaboration is moving fast, and if you don’t keep up, you risk your company being left behind! the technologies are ever-changing, as new cutting-edge developments constantly come into the market, and times, trends and concepts evolve. the internet and the workplace of things are becoming more prevalent, and will be increasingly important to collaboration. in this article, we will take a look at these, as well as other important trends such as big data technology, asynchronous work, anywhere-ization and convergence, all set to shape and impact the future of business collaboration. first let’s look at why business collaboration is so important.
as most businesses know, a successful future is the result of effective collaboration with your on-site employees and your customers. however, success increasingly also lies in collaboration within your company’s own virtual walls, in collaborating with employees, more and more of whom are working remotely. collusion and communication is essential to getting an entire company on the same page to work toward a common goal. your business must stay ahead of the game in terms of technology in order to make collaboration effective and efficient. in a market where many companies are taking advantage of the technology advances to improve collaboration, it is essential to adopt and integrate them to stay competitive.
the first trend that is blatantly apparent due to the wide use of smartphones is the mobile workforce, which has enabled employees to stay in touch from anywhere. the terms byod and byot (bring your own device, and bring your own technology) entered the dictionary in august 2013,and most businesses have already implemented byod initiatives. this is a clear indication of where things are going in the environment of business collaboration; employees want to work anywhere on devices they are comfortable with. the days are gone where an employee sits at an allocated desk, restricted by a personal computer. companies utilize skills and talents across geographical borders for maximum productivity. with cloud-based applications, this is becoming more and more of a possibility.
how effective is byod in the workplace? research has shown that 42% of employees report increased efficiency and productivity when they bring their own device to work. however, anywhere-ization brings with it a whole realm of concerns as employees access sensitive data outside of the protected business environment. 73% of it managers cite security implementation as being a key concern surrounding byod, with 83% citing round the clock access to corporate networks as being the most pressing threat to security. it is crucial then, that your it department and company is on the cutting-edge of technology too, so you can enable effective control of data for security reasons. this will become more and more essential for safe, risk-free business collaboration as the workforce can, and does, work from anywhere.
next up is the aforementioned workplace of things, which is a step beyond byod. we are talking about all the byod’s, computers, wearables, printers, and more being connected together wirelessly. up until now, the internet of things has predominantly included objects in the home like your alarm, dishwasher and garage door. however, the development of technology that allows objects to send and receive data and information to one another, will continue to find its way into the working environment.
it is estimated that there will be 26 billion autonomous internet-connected devices by the year 2020, and research shows that 96% of businesses expect to be using the internet of things devices within the next three years. your business will be required to embrace the workplace of things to keep up with the demands that are presented by an increasingly efficient and optimized marketplace. from web conferences, to data collection, to wearable devices, to virtual reality, technology can boost and improve operations to ensure a seamless flow of information across employees, right through to customers.
with this increasingly connected, while geographically separated, workforce, collaboration can not be bound by space and time as before. if your business tries to collaborate with an “old school” mindset, you will run into more problems. employees working in different locations, can mean they are working in different time zones. this can result in difficulties communicating in real-time, documents becoming lost, or communications being inadequate or inefficient. additionally, problems associated with arranging virtual meetings with individuals who have different commitments can be difficult. your business can see negative outcomes; inefficiencies within the business, inadequate planning, a deterioration in business relationships, poor team-work, and ultimately, lost business. research shows that as many as 86% of executives cite a lack of collaboration, or ineffective communication, as being to blame for failures in the workplace.
although email can be sufficient for many business communications and transactions, it does have its limitations. many people find long email threads tiresome, emails can be easily missed, deleted, or misunderstood, and there are limitations in terms of tracking and accountability. as for scheduling meetings, this presents a whole host of problems when people are scattered all across the globe and have different working patterns, different means of access to technology, and varying communication skills.
the problem is being addressed with cloud-based collaboration technologies, a “new school” way of collaborating. asynchronous collaboration means that businesses and employees can work together, even when they cannot be in the same place at the same time. the cloud and software as a service (saas) creates the possibility of the creation of team workspaces, which enable files, projects and documents to be effectively tracked. the workspace can be accessed both inside and outside the business by anyone authorized to enter the cloud, and the problems associated with emails and meetings are automatically resolved. collaboration without space and time boundaries is the way forward for the future of businesses, whatever your trade or service, and wherever you(and your employees) are in the world.
next, comes the extensive amount of data now available to business and the dilemma of what to do with it all. it is not enough to simply collect and assemble data and statistics anymore. collaborating and analyzing that data is absolutely essential for your business to succeed, and more and more technology is becoming available to enable data to be processed effectively. advances in systems, and new and improved technology, are making data collection even more expedient. the effective analysis of big data helps your business to maintain a competitive edge, boost productivity, and drive innovation.
with social media, you are seeing more vocal workforces and customer bases, and will need to identify even more opportunities to explore and monitor customer’s habits. a whole realm of information is available concerning sales and key performance indicators, and how these relate to business goals. additionally, there are ever more ways and means of gathering that information. new data that is available, and advances in technology, mean that you can gather the information and analyze it for your benefit. you can, and must, adopt a data-driven approach, using those statistics to measure your performance, and that of your employees, to ensure that you invest in the right technology.
it might require a new mindset and a culture shift, as teams may need to be educated to work together, but the impact will be well worthwhile. after that investment in new technology and training, the result is that you will be better able to understand your performance, act strategically, recognize where your problems or stumbling blocks actually lie, and the make the necessary plans to streamline, or make amendments in areas where things are going wrong. it is estimated that 2016 will see a 20 billion dollar growth in big data technology and services; statistics show that the biggest benefit will be seen in operational efficiency.
in summary, creating a collaborative environment is crucial for your business, and the advances in technology with regard to smartphones and cloud communication are hugely beneficial for a middle sized company and especially for a multinational enterprise.
availability of the integrated data for making more informed decisions.
this process should end up with a completely smooth user experience for every individual involved, right through to the end user. in order to ensure a successful implementation, your standard and bespoke software integration should be performed by professional developers, as it’s not a trivial task. if you are thinking about the implementations – we are here to help you and answer any questions you may have.


text:
IE Business School - International MBA | IMBA OPEN DAY – Sept 2016!
IMBA OPEN DAY – Sept 2016!
We invite you to join us for our next Open Day. This is the perfect opportunity to experience a complete day in the life of an IE student.
If you would like to participate, please register above or send an email to IMBA.admissions@ie.edu stating your full name and contact number. Should you have any questions about this event, please do not hesitate to contact us directly.
Join the conversation on the IMBA Blog or follow us on Instagram and Twitter. Don’t forget to use our #ieIMBA and #goBeyondhashtags!
A Sneak Peek into the IE IMBA LABS!What can businesses learn from Star Wars?

lowercased:
ie business school - international mba | imba open day – sept 2016!
imba open day – sept 2016!
we invite you to join us for our next open day. this is the perfect opportunity to experience a complete day in the life of an ie student.
if you would like to participate, please register above or send an email to imba.admissions@ie.edu stating your full name and contact number. should you have any questions about this event, please do not hesitate to contact us directly.
join the conversation on the imba blog or follow us on instagram and twitter. don’t forget to use our #ieimba and #gobeyondhashtags!
a sneak peek into the ie imba labs!what can businesses learn from star wars?


text:
The first part of homework 4 is posted in the Assignments tab. You should get started on it; it’ll be a longer assignment than usual since it covers three lectures of material and you have a week and a half to do it.
Also, come to office hours tomorrow to get your old homeworks (and if you have questions, of course).
Also also, the next exam is tentatively scheduled for Wednesday, 23 October 2013, and will cover chapter 3.
Also also also, how dope is Gursky?

lowercased:
the first part of homework 4 is posted in the assignments tab. you should get started on it; it’ll be a longer assignment than usual since it covers three lectures of material and you have a week and a half to do it.
also, come to office hours tomorrow to get your old homeworks (and if you have questions, of course).
also also, the next exam is tentatively scheduled for wednesday, 23 october 2013, and will cover chapter 3.
also also also, how dope is gursky?