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document
Effects of low and high protein : carbohydrate ratios in the diet of pregnant gilts on maternal cortisol concentrations and the adrenocortical and sympathoadrenal reactivity in their offspring . Inadequate maternal nutrition during gestation may cause an adverse environment for the fetus leading to alterations of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal ( HPA ) and sympatho-adrenomedullary ( SAM ) systems later in life . In the present study , we investigated the effects of diets with low and high protein : carbohydrate ratios on cortisol concentrations of pregnant gilts as well as the long-term effects on the function of the HPA and SAM axes in their offspring . Throughout gestation , 33 German Landrace gilts were fed high ( HP , 30 % ) , low ( LP , 6.5 % ) , or adequate ( AP , 12.1 % ) protein diets , which were made isocaloric by adjusting the carbohydrate content . The salivary cortisol concentrations of the sows were measured in the course of the gestation period . The offspring were cross-fostered , and the plasma cortisol and catecholamine concentrations of the offspring were determined on postnatal d ( PND ) 1 and 27 and under specific challenging conditions : after weaning ( PND 29 ) and after ACTH and insulin challenges ( PND 68 and 70 , respectively ) . Glucocorticoid receptor ( GR ) binding and neurotransmitter concentrations were measured in stress-related brain regions , and histological analyses of the adrenal were performed . Maternal salivary cortisol concentrations increased throughout gestation ( P < 0.001 ) and the LP gilts had greater salivary cortisol compared with the AP and HP gilts ( P < 0.05 ) . No differences between diets were found for cortisol , corticosteroid-binding globulin , and catecholamine concentrations in plasma and for GR binding in hippocampus and hypothalamus in piglets at PND 1 and 27 . However , the cortisol response to weaning was increased in LP piglets ( P < 0.05 ) , and in HP offspring the basal plasma noradrenaline concentrations were increased ( P < 0.05 ) . The cortisol response to the ACTH and the insulin challenge did not differ between diets . On PND 81 , an increased adrenal medulla area was observed in LP offspring compared with the AP offspring ( P < 0.05 ) . Our results show that maternal diets with aberrant protein : carbohydrate ratios during gestation have moderate long-term effects on the function of the HPA and SAM system in the offspring , which indicates that pigs show a considerable plasticity to cope with maternal malnutrition .
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Intervention_Physical
diets with low and high protein : carbohydrate
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Intervention_Physical
high ( HP , 30 % ) , low ( LP , 6.5 % ) , or adequate ( AP , 12.1 % ) protein diets
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Intervention_Physical
maternal diets with aberrant protein
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Intervention_Physical
carbohydrate ratios during gestation
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Outcome_Physical
protein : carbohydrate ratios
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Outcome_Physical
maternal cortisol concentrations
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Outcome_Physical
adrenocortical and sympathoadrenal reactivity
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Outcome_Physical
cortisol concentrations
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Outcome_Physical
HPA and SAM axes
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Outcome_Physical
plasma cortisol and catecholamine concentrations
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Outcome_Physical
Glucocorticoid receptor ( GR ) binding and neurotransmitter concentrations
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Outcome_Physical
Maternal salivary cortisol concentrations
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Outcome_Physical
salivary cortisol
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Outcome_Physical
cortisol response to weaning
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Outcome_Physical
basal plasma noradrenaline concentrations
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Outcome_Physical
cortisol response to the ACTH and the insulin challenge
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Outcome_Physical
adrenal medulla area
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Outcome_Physical
aberrant protein : carbohydrate ratios
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Outcome_Physical
function of the HPA and SAM system
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Participant_Condition
33 German Landrace gilts