text: The theoretical perspective offered here leaves several impor- 
  tant questions unaddressed. First, even if uncertainty reduction 
  might be a central drive in self-injury behaviors, it is unclear what 
  kinds of uncertainty (if any) specifically trigger the paradoxical 
  behaviors. It may be only the uncertainty at deep hierarchical 
  levels (e.g. at the level of self-models) that promotes paradoxi- 
  cal behaviors. Alternatively, it could be possible that it is not so 
  much the kind of uncertainty that matters but somewhat its asso- 
  ciated distress, which in turn could be amplified by conditions 
  like the intolerance of uncertainty. While these and alternative 
  hypotheses remain to be tested in future research, they might in 
  the future lead to novel tailored interventions. Current reviews of 
  NSSI interventions (see, e.g. Turner et al. 2014, Witt et al. 2021) out- 
  line the various treatments currently available (e.g. psychological 
  and psychosocial interventions, pharmacological treatments, and 
  a combination of both), but underline the need for further data 
  on their effectiveness. The use of formal models of brain function 
  to characterize the mechanisms of psychopathology (Friston et al. 
  2014, Stephan and Mathys 2014) might help conceptualize dys- 
  functional behaviors in operationalizable terms. In this vein, one 
  might delineate interventions aimed at reducing the uncertainty 
  of self-models by starting from the bodily self and the definition 
  of self-other boundaries (if these turn out to be the critical aspects 
  for the patient). In this endeavor, techniques such as virtual reality 
  and robotics might help elucidate which levels of the multisen- 
  sory integration process of the bodily self might be compromised 
  (Dieguez and Lopez 2017, Tsakiris 2017, Serino et al. 2018). Virtual 
  reality along with role-playing sessions and the use of avatars are 
  increasingly considered effective tools for the training of clinicians 
  who deal with individuals engaging in NSSI (Taliaferro et al. 2023). 
  It remains to be tested whether the use of virtual reality or similar 
  interventions—and the definition of contexts and tasks aimed at 
  reducing the uncertainty of the bodily self—might also be viable 
  for individuals engaging in NSSI. 