Fig. 2a). Our modelling provides direct evidence of individuals with 
ancestry originating in northern Germany or Scandinavia appearing 
across Europe as early as the first century ce (Figs. 2b,c and 3 and Sup-
plementary Table 3).
In the region of present-day Poland, our analysis suggests several 
clear shifts in ancestry. First, in the Middle to Late Bronze Age (1500 bce  
to 1000 bce), we observe a clear shift away from preceding ancestry 
originally associated with Corded Ware cultures55 (Fig. 3a). Second, 
in the first to fifth century ce, individuals associated with Wielbark 
culture5,12 show an additional strong shift away from the preceding 
Bronze Age groups, and can only be modelled with a >75% component 
attributed to the EIA Scandinavian Peninsula. Multiple individuals, 
especially from earlier Wielbark cemeteries, have approximately 100%