Occupational safety and health in Europe - state and trends 2023 
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work – EU-OSHA 16 
regional and local legislation and policies concretise the minimum conditions set by EU law and adapt 
to the risks in the specific context.  
New directives or revisions and  updates of directives were introduced for several reasons, that is, 
coverage of new technologies like artificial optical radiation (use of laser, etc.); after 2017, the 
Carcinogens and mutagens directive was amended several times towards the current status 
(Carcinogens, mutagens or reprotoxic substances directive). The revision of the Display screen 
equipment and workplaces directive —  mainly to adapt it to the significant technological developments 
since their introduction — is one of the actions under the EU OSH Strategic Framework 2021 to 2027. 
In light of the changes of working conditions towards physical inactivity and repetitive work and the 
higher psychosocial and emotional demands , there have been calls from many stakeholders and 
experts for a stronger legal framework.  
Although the EU OSH legislation guarantees a strong legislative frame, evaluations of the practical 
implementation at workplaces observe certain difficulties in implementation  (see DG EMPL 
evaluations of the OSH Acquis or EU -OSHA reports in the frame of its research on supporting 
compliance). Studies and evaluations found that full compliance might be challenging for micro and 
small companies (EU-OSHA has published several reports on safety and health in micro and small 
enterprises (MSEs)). It also seems not to be standard practice to apply the hierarchy of preventive 
measures, that is, technical and organisational solutions of risk reduction first, and individual solutions 
as a last resort. As mentioned, it is also a challenge to swiftly cope with technological changes and 
developments. 
Moreover, there are difficulties to apply the same level of protection to types of work with weakened or 
non-existing employer–worker relations, for example, temporary and subcontracted work, involuntary 
self-employed, seasonal work, platform work, domestic work and all types of irregular work. These forms 
of work often have as one major characteristic a less clear employer –worker relationship, while the 
main structural element of the EU OSH legislation is the dual role of employers and workers in OSH.  
OSH infrastructures 
There exists a diverse and rich OSH infrastructure  in most EU Member States , that is, labour 
inspection and other supervising authorities, governmental OSH institutes, prevention and research 
centres, knowledge centres, OSH training and education centres, and occupational health clinics. The 
social partners and professional organisations often contribute to this infrastructure, either in an advisory 
way or even as an integral par t of such institutions. These institutions are responsible for supervision 
and control of compliance, they train OSH practitioners, produce guidance material, engage in 
improvement actions and projects, and contribute to more awareness and better knowledge. In many 
cases they help in adapting general legislation to sector- or workplace-specific regulations.  
EU Member States apply very diverse regulations regarding the number and required qualification 
of OSH staff in enterprises, and for external protectiv e and preventive services (PPS). In diverse 
ways, the Member States prescribe topics like necessary qualifications and certificates, depending on 
sector and work tasks, time granted for preventive work and training, and obligatory or voluntary use of 
external PPS by enterprises, while some of these PPS offer technical support and others also medical 
monitoring and advice. In some countries such support is granted for free in certain sectors or for certain 
types of enterprises. The role and power of all actors in these systems varies  substantially, defining