Occupational safety and health in Europe - state and trends 2023 
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work – EU-OSHA 143 
 
 
47 Adăscăliței et al., 2021: The intensification of work in Europe: A multilevel analysis 
48 EU-OSHA, 2002: Report - New forms of contractual relationships and the implications for occupational safety 
and health (p. 7). 
49 Eurofound, 2011: Impact of subcontracting on working conditions 
50 Koranyi et al., 2018: Precarious employment and occupational accidents and injuries – a systematic review 
51 ILO Indicator description: Occupational injuries 
52 See the diagrams and country data in the OSH Barometer under: https://visualisation.osha.europa.eu/osh-
barometer/  
53 Tynes et al., 2017: Physical working conditions as covered in European monitoring questionnaires 
54 EU-OSHA: Third European Survey of Enterprises on New and Emerging Risks (ESENER 3) – first findings, 
2019, p. 3 and ESENER Data visualisation, section ‘Comparisons 2014-2019’, section ‘Risk factors present in the 
establishment’, Export data 
55 EU-OSHA calculations based on EWCS raw data. 
56 Eurostat, LFS Ad hoc modules: Persons reporting exposure to risk factors that can adversely affect physical 
health by sex, age and factor 
57 In the LFS-survey the respondents had to decide which of 11 possible risk factors is the most ‘serious one’. 
Quote: ‘Eurostat proposed to implement the exposure to risk factors for physical health at work by using one 
question that strictly reflects the variable or twelve questions asking for the presence of any of the eleven risk 
factors and then ask for the most serious one.’ 
In the EWCS and ESENER all reported risk factors were registered. 
58 EU-OSHA, 2020: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders: why are they still so prevalent? Evidence from a 
literature review  
59 EU-OSHA, 2020: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders: why are they still so prevalent? Evidence from a 
literature review 
60 OSHWiki, 2020: Musculoskeletal disorders and prolonged static sitting 
61 EU-OSHA, 2010: Maintenance and Occupational Safety and Health: a statistical picture 
62 Marin-Garcia et al., 2020: Changes in the Association between European Workers’ Employment Conditions and 
Employee Well-Being in 2005, 2010 and 2015 (p. 9). 
63 Balogh et al., 2021: Non-standard employment and mortality in Belgian workers: A census-based investigation 
64 Gallagher & Underhill, 2012: Managing work health and safety: recent developments and future directions 
(p. 238).  
My Business, n.d.: WHAT IS A ‘PERSON CONDUCTING A BUSINESS OR UNDERTAKING’? 
65 Employment by sex, age and professional status (1 000), quarterly data, Eurostat employment types; 
Employment and activity - LFS adjusted series - historical data (1989-2020), Total employment, annual data, here  
Part-time: here and here  
Temporary: here and here  
Contract with a limited duration, 15-64 years, here 
66 Eurostat definitions: EU Labour Force Survey - Methodology 
67 OECD, 2019: Pensions at a Glance 2019, OECD and G20 Indicators  
Quote: ‘Non-standard work is frequent among workers over 65 and women Non-standard work is common among 
older workers. While overall employment rates decrease at older ages, the share of non-standard work is 
particularly high among workers over 65: only about 15% of workers between 65 and 74 are in standard 
employment, against more than 60% at ages 55-64 and 25-54 (Figure 2.2, Panel A)’ (p. 70). 
68 Eurofound, 2021: Seasonal worker  
‘A seasonal worker is defined in Article 3(b) of Directive 2014/36/EU on the conditions of entry and stay of third-
country nationals for the purpose of employment as ‘a third-country national who retains his or her principal place 
of residence in a third country and stays legally and temporarily in the territory of a Member State to carry out an 
activity dependent on the passing of the seasons, under one or more fixed-term work contracts concluded directly