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4,000 | Courtney_Love | Courtney Michelle Love Although some sources give Love’s birth name as “Love Michelle Harrison,” her listing on the California Birth Index from the Center for Health Statistics gives a birth name of “Courtney Michelle Harrison." Between adoptions from several stepfathers, she has also gone by the names “Courtney Michelle Rodriguez” and “Courtney Michelle Menely.” The name change to “Courtney Michelle Love” happened in early 1990s, in the beginning of her musical career and after the end of her first marriage (of which the legal records still feature the name “Courtney Michelle Menely”). According to the same statistics list above, the birth status of Courtney’s 1992 born daughter, Frances Bean Cobain, already include “Love” as the mother’s maiden surname. (born Courtney Michelle Harrison on July 9, 1964) is an American rock musician and actress. Love is known as lead singer and lyricist for the alternative rock band Hole and for her two-year marriage to the late Nirvana singer/guitarist Kurt Cobain. Life and career Family background Love’s mother Linda Carroll was adopted by an Italian-American couple at birth, retaining no contact with her birth father or her birth mother, who she discovered was the children’s writer Paula Fox. Carroll's autobiography Her Mother’s Daughter, in 2006, told of her relationship with both adoptive mother and elder daughter. The Guardian: Sins of the mothers Conflicting news began to appear in August 2003 regarding Love’s family tree, some remarking that Love’s mother had taken DNA tests that proved that Carroll’s father was Marlon Brando. The reports implied this disclosure would appear in Carroll’s memoir. Later that month, Carroll’s publisher, Doubleday, told the New York Daily News, “There was nothing in Linda Carroll’s book proposal about Marlon Brando, nor will there be anything in the book about him. I’ve spoken to her and she has told me that there is no truth to the suggestion that she is related to Marlon Brando.” Brando Shocks Courtney Love Courtney Love Not Brando’s Granddaughter Early life Courtney Michelle Harrison was born in San Francisco, California, the daughter of Linda Carroll, a therapist, and Hank Harrison, a publisher. Courtney Love Biography (1964-) She has described herself as being of Irish and Jewish ancestry. Courtney Love Part I Courting disaster October 22, 2006: "So you see, I’m a nice Jewish girl and I’ve lots of Irish in me." A qualified optimist Ancestry of Frances Bean Cobain Love’s family broke up soon after her birth. During a child custody case following her parents’ divorce, her mother and one of her friends presented letters implying her father had given the child, then three years old, LSD. Harrison denies this allegation and has passed polygraph tests; however, these allegations led to full custody being awarded to Love’s mother. Love spent a troubled childhood with her mother, who married and divorced three times, and settled in hippie communes in Oregon. Azerrad, Michael. Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana. Doubleday, 1994. ISBN 0-385-47199-8, p. 170 Before arriving in New Zealand, Love had been left in the United States with Shirley, a friend of her mother's, a therapist, while her mother, the new husband and her half-sisters settled in New Zealand without her. Shortly after reuniting with her family in New Zealand, Love was sent to the boarding school in Nelson. While in boarding school, Love wrote poetry, joined a Bay City Rollers fan club, and, at 12, applied to join the Mickey Mouse Club; Matheson, Whitney. “Pop Candy: Books I Read On Vacation” USA Today, November 27th, 2006. As revealed in her scrapbook, Dirty Blonde, Love was a teenage fan of the Bay City Rollers: “...from the collages of her favorite rockers (in her case, the Bay City Rollers), to scrawled lists of artists and things she yearned to learn more about to pages of poems and daydreams...” she was rejected after reading a poem by Sylvia Plath at the audition. Rockland, Kate. “Don’t Call It a Comeback (Yet)”, New York Times, November 5th, 2006: “The book offers several gems; one is a 1976 rejection letter from the Mickey Mouse Club. ‘I read Sylvia Plath’s poem “Daddy,”’ Love says, ‘grinning widely.’” At 16, Love traveled around the U.S., England and the Republic of Ireland, living on a trust fund established for her by her mother’s adoptive parents. Iley, Chrissy. “Courting disaster” Times Online, October, 22nd, 2006. “‘I talked one of my mother’s gurus, of which she had many, into letting me live with him. He got $3,000 a month from my trust fund, which he’d spend on boys, and I went to the junior high, where my friends were teenage prostitutes. They were so glamorous, I just wanted to hang out with them. Melissa, Melinda and Melody. I ended up going through the juvenile system with them because I got arrested shoplifting a Kiss T-shirt.’ She was 13.” In England, she moved into the Toxteth, Liverpool, home of musician Julian Cope, of The Teardrop Explodes, and became a regular at rock shows. In his autobiography Head-On, Cope refers to her as “the adolescent”. Eventually, she went to Portland, Oregon, still pursuing music. She worked as a stripper, choosing the stage surname Love as a tribute to the motto peace and love. Barton, Laura. “Love me do”, Guardian Unlimited, December 11th, 2006: “She’s been a stripper...” Early musical career Love began her music career with a brief stint as lead singer of Faith No More. Keyboardist Roddy Bottum described the band as “democratic”, saying that Love’s dominating personality did not fit in. The two have remained friends, working together in 2005 on a track for the film Adam & Steve. At 22, Love moved to Portland, then to Los Angeles in 1987 with musician Kat Bjelland, beginning a period in which she formed bands with Bjelland only to be ousted from each. The pair first formed a band in Los Angeles, with Jennifer Finch, called Sugar Baby Doll (alternately Sugar Babylon). Interview with Kat Bjelland. Edited by Liz Evans. Women, Sex and Rock’N’Roll: In Their Own Words. Rivers Orum Press/Pandora List, 1994. Love and Bjelland began to dress alike, wearing dirty Babydoll dresses, plastic hair clips, ripped stockings and overdone, smeared makeup. An argument between the two raged over who had come up with their style, later dubbed Kinderwhore. Love claimed she took the style from Christina Amphlett of 1980s Australian rock group, Divinyls Ben Is Dead Love and Bjelland formed a band called The Pagan Babies in San Francisco, with Deidre Schletter on drums and Janis Tanaka on bass. Pagan Babies The band recorded a demo of four tracks, then ejected Love and renamed themselves Italian Whorenuns. Lastly, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Bjelland started her longest-running band, Babes in Toyland. Love played bass but was kicked out of this group as well. Babes in Toyland Biography Love had more success as an actress, appearing as Gretchen, a friend of Nancy Spungen in Alex Cox’s Sid Vicious biopic Sid and Nancy in 1986, and in Cox’s spaghetti-western, Straight to Hell in 1987. In 1989, Love taught herself to play guitar and set out to form her own band. She placed an ad in Flipside, to which Eric Erlandson replied. Love and Erlandson founded Hole and are the only two constant members through the band’s history. The group made their first gig in November 1989, after three months of rehearsal, and made singles on the Long Beach, California, independent label Sympathy for the Record Industry. The debut album Pretty on the Inside was released in early 1991 on Caroline Records, produced by Sonic Youth’s Kim Gordon and Don Fleming of the band Gumball. It sold well for an independent release and received favorable reviews in the British alternative music press. Hole is a Band; Courtney Love is a Soap Opera During this period, she befriended many figures in the alternative rock scene, including Michael Stipe of R.E.M. and Billy Corgan of The Smashing Pumpkins (whom she briefly dated). Marriage Love met Kurt Cobain on January 12, 1990, in Portland’s Satyricon club “Heavier Than Heaven,” page 201, biography by Charles R. Cross before fame hit, when the two led underground rock bands. Barton, Laura. "Love me do", Guardian Unlimited, December 11, 2006: "They met in 1989 at an L7 concert, when they were both fledgling musicians with burgeoning drug addictions..." Love made advances but Cobain was evasive. Early in their courtship Cobain broke off dates and ignored Love’s advances because he wasn’t sure he wanted to consummate their relationship. Cobain noted, "I was determined to be a bachelor for a few months [...] But I knew that I liked Courtney so much right away that it was a really hard struggle to stay away from her for so many months." Azerrad, p. 172–173 Love lived a block from the Los Angeles apartment the band used while recording their second album, Nevermind. Love stopped by often, saying, "We bonded over pharmaceuticals." Azerrad, p. 172 They met again in May 1991, after Cobain's band had signed a major-label contract, at a Butthole Surfers concert. In November 1991, touring Europe at the same time, they conceived a child together. Love and Cobain married on Waikiki Beach in Honolulu, Hawaii, on February 24, 1992. Love wore a satin and lace dress once owned by the actress Frances Farmer, and Cobain wore green pajamas, because he’d been "too lazy to put on a tux". Six months later, on August 18, the couple’s daughter, Frances Bean Cobain, was born. On April 8, 1994, four days before the release of Hole’s first major-label album, Live Through This, Cobain was found in his Seattle, Washington home, killed by a self-inflicted shotgun wound to his head. Two days later, fans assembled at a memorial service in Seattle. During the memorial, a recording was played of Love reading his suicide note, as she felt portions were addressed to his fans. Love interrupted the note frequently to express anger and sorrow, telling Cobain that if he hated it so much, he should just “quit being a rock star”. Love asked everyone to call Cobain an “asshole”; on the recording, the crowd obeys. Finally, Love implored fans not to listen to Cobain’s final words, “it’s better to burn out than fade away,” from Neil Young’s “My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue)”. Live Through This tour (1994) Hole was struck by tragedy again when bassist Kristen Pfaff died of an apparent heroin overdose on June 16, 1994, two months after Cobain's death and the new album. History of Women in Forest Lawn Lawn Cemetery: Kristen Pfaff A few months later, Love told MTV’s Kurt Loder, "You know ... people go back to work. This is what I do. I gotta make a living." Love recruited 22-year-old bassist Melissa Auf der Maur on Corgan’s recommendation to fill in for Pfaff, and took Hole on the road, appearing at the Reading Festival in England. The band’s performance was written up by broadcaster John Peel in The Guardian: Meanwhile, Live Through This was a commercial and critical success. Rolling Stone, Spin and the Village Voice declared it “Album of the Year”, and by November the record was certified gold. By April 1995, it went platinum. Hole embarked on a tour opening for Nine Inch Nails. Nine Inch Nails Database: H Celebrity Skin era (1998–2000) Love received acclaim as Larry Flynt’s wife, Althea, in Miloš Forman’s 1996 film The People vs. Larry Flynt, opposite Woody Harrelson as Flynt. She received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress in a Drama and a New York Film Critics Circle Award for best supporting actress. During this time she began dating Edward Norton, a relationship which after four years would become her longest. The two were engaged but broke up. [] In 1998, Hole released Celebrity Skin. Rolling Stone gave the album four out of five stars, saying “the album teems with sonic knockouts that make you see all sorts of stars. It’s accessible, fiery and intimate—often at the same time. Here is a basic guitar record that’s anything but basic.” James Hunter reviews Celebrity Skin Celebrity Skin went on to go multi-platinum, and topped “Best of Year” lists at Spin, the Village Voice, and other periodicals. Entry for Celebrity Skin at Acclaimed Music Erlandson was still the lead guitarist, and now there were Melissa Auf der Maur’s backup vocals and bass, but drummer Patty Schemel was replaced by a session drummer during the recording. Celebrity Hollywood News: Erlandson also declared that Patty Love and Fender’s low-price Squier brand created her line of guitars, Vista Venus Drown Soda: Fender Squier Vista Venus (as Cobain did in 1994, doing the design of his Fender Jag-Stang). The instrument featured a shape inspired by Mercury, Stratocaster and Rickenbacker’s solidbodies and had a single-coil and a humbucker pickup. In an early 1999 interview, Love said about the Venus: “I wanted a guitar that sounded really warm and pop, but which required just one box to go dirty (...) And something that could also be your first band guitar. I didn’t want it all teched out. I wanted it real simple, with just one pickup switch. Because I think that cultural revolutions are in the hands of guitar players”. She also declared, “my Venus is better than the Jag-Stang”. Hole Tones: The Secrets Of Celebrity Skin’s Smooth Sound The Squier Vista Venus model is currently discontinued, as is the Jag-Stang as of 2006. Hole toured Australia in 1999 to support the album, then the U.S. on a tour with Marilyn Manson. The two bands mocked each other on stage. Hole dropped off the tour, citing the obligation to pay 50% of Manson’s staging costs as a reason. The singers of both bands told MTV there was no animosity and they were happy to end the tour. Hole finished the year’s dates with Imperial Teen opening. MTV.com: “/ MTV news March 22, 1999”. Retrieved June 18, 2007. In May 2000, Love spoke in New York at the Digital Hollywood online entertainment conference, criticizing the major American record labels. The speech was reproduced on the news site Salon.com. “Courtney Love does the math” “an unedited transcript of Courtney Love’s speech to the Digital Hollywood online entertainment conference, given in New York on May 16, 2000.” Love accused the labels of a corrupt system of recording contracts to make the labels millions, while the band “may as well be working at a 7-Eleven.” With Hole in disarray, Love began a “punk rock femme supergroup” called Bastard during autumn 2001, enlisting Schemel, Veruca Salt frontwoman Louise Post, and bassist Gina Crosley, whom Post recommended. Though a demo was completed, the project never reached fruition: conflicts between Love and Crosley, then between Love and replacement bassist Corey Parks from Nashville Pussy, led to the group’s demise. Sort The ‘Bastard’ Out COREY PARKS On May 24, 2002, Hole announced their breakup amid continuing litigation with Universal Music Group. Health, drug abuse and legal issues On October 2, 2003, Love was arrested in Los Angeles while breaking windows to enter her boyfriend, manager and producer Jim Barber’s home. Barber did not press charges (Love says she had paid for the home), but the police charged her with being under the influence of a controlled substance. Rocker Courtney Love Arrested, Hospitalized in LA Released on bail, four hours later Love was treated for an accidental overdose of OxyContin. Donegan, Lawrence. Sunday Magazine: LIVE THROUGH THIS. December 2003. Eight days later, on October 10, Frances Bean was taken by the L. A. County Department of Children and Family Services and placed with Cobain’s mother, Wendy O’Connor. Courtney Love Arrested After Allegedly Striking Fan With Mic Stand Authorities ordered a 72-hour hospital evaluation of Love’s health, but she walked from the facility, claiming she was ready to head to rehab. When Love didn’t attend, her lawyer said he may move to have the police department’s toxicology reports re-examined. In public appearances, Love protested her arrest, denying charges and describing the drugs found on her as “one expired Percocet and one Ambien”. The police, however, alleged possession of oxycodone and hydrocodone without prescription. Rock star Love arrested after gig She released her first solo album, America's Sweetheart, eight days earlier. The album was a commercial flop. Spin called it a “jawdropping act of artistic will”, Rolling Stone that, “for people who enjoy watching celebrities fall apart, America’s Sweetheart should be more fun than an Osbournes marathon.” The record was re-recorded and finished while Love was either fresh from or still undergoing drug rehab, and in its first three months sold about 86,000 according to Nielsen Soundscan. FOX News—Did Virgin Records Use Her? During this period, an estimated $20 million belonging to Love and her daughter was apparently siphoned off in a case still being investigated by the FBI. The Times Online “It was my hell time. I was doing cocaine and had incredible financial trouble. $20 million was stolen from us and at the time I couldn’t do the math very well. So I took this drug to help me. It turned out the crazy math was real. The FBI looked at the paperwork and saw $1.2 million to the UK, $180,000 to Nice. It was the former boyfriend and the two assistants. They had power of attorney and they purchased property. They started in about 2000 without me knowing and I got more out of it. I think they thought she will die. In fact I should not be alive after what I went through in the Letterman period.” , The Times. Retrieved 30 January 2009. Courtney Love Part II. beautyandthedirt.co.uk Rolling Stone called Love “the most controversial woman in the history of rock”. British artist Stella Vine has frequently painted Courtney Love in works such as Courtney black cab (2004). Nairne, Andrew and Greer, Germaine. Stella Vine: Paintings (Modern Art Oxford, 2007) ISBN 978-1901352344 Vine publicly defended Love and has said that her paintings depicting Love such as Courtney guilty were made during Love's trial when Vine felt Love was under attack by the media. Mercer, Joseph. "GT Art: Stella Vine", Gay Times, pages. 46, 47, 48. February 2009 issue. Retrieved 30 January 2009. Identifying with Love's life story, Vine said: "She's one of those people who are prepared to put the truth out, warts and all, even though you will be attacked for it. After a state-enforced rehabilitation program and probation, Love regained custody of her daughter in January 2005. Child welfare authorities alluded to drug addiction when responding to the press, although they didn’t comment directly. Courtney Love Fighting For Custody Of Daughter Frances Bean Courtney Love Regains Custody Of Frances Bean Cobain On August 19, 2005, Love admitted using drugs in violation of her probation. She was ordered into a 28-day treatment program by a judge who said “my belief was that you need to go to the county jail.” This program was also violated, and on September 21 she was sentenced to six months in lock down rehab. Teary-Eyed Courtney Love Ordered Back To Rehab By Judge Love was released from house arrest on February 3, 2006, and said: “I would just like to thank the court for allowing me these 90 days... [It] helped me deal with a very gnarly drug problem, which is behind me... I’ve just been playing guitar and taking care of my daughter. I want to [take this opportunity] to let the community know I’m doing great... I’ve been really inspired and have remained inspired.” Courtney Is Cleared, Ready To Rock On July 2, 2007 she traveled to Europe with her band. Pictures of an emaciated Love raised concern for her health in August 2007. Love claimed she "had to take care of my eating disorder." "Skeletal Courtney Love takes dieting to extreme," Daily Mail August 1, 2007 When more photos of Love appearing to be in ill health emerged in June 2008, "Courtney Love Lets It All Hang Out," x17online.com June 20, 2008 a U.S. website wrote an "Open Letter to Courtney Love," pleading with the mother of Frances Bean to "wake up." "Open Letter to Courtney Love," momlogic.com June 28, 2008 Love admitted being suicidal following the theft of Cobain's ashes in her possession. "Kurt Cobain's ashes stolen," Guardian UK June 28, 2008 On October 2, 2008, Love's publicist told Gigwise.com that Cobain's ashes “were never taken” and that the story had been “erroneously reported ”. America’s Sweetheart (2004) In early 2004, as she had completed her first batch of songs, Love asked ex-Hole drummer Samantha Maloney to fly to France (after drummer Patty Schemel departed for the second time) and add drums to Love’s solo debut, America’s Sweetheart. Returning to the States, Maloney was put in charge of assembling Love’s live band. After auditions, Maloney reconnected with guitarist Radio Sloan, found guitarist Lisa Leveridge, bassist Dvin Kirakosian, and the four women formed the core of Love’s backing band. Violinist Emilie Autumn later joined the band. Dirty Blonde, Nobody's Daughter (2005–present) In June 2005, three months after her release from drug rehabilitation, Love started recording her second solo LP, Nobody's Daughter. Courtney Love Is ‘Nobody’s Daughter’ An anti-cocaine song entitled “Loser Dust”, as well as other new songs (“My Bedroom Walls”, “Pacific Coast Highway”, “Sunset Marquis”), were written during her time in rehab. Former 4 Non Blondes singer Linda Perry is producing the record, which features the writing and recording collaboration of Billy Corgan. Some of this album (initially planned for release in 2008 Blood On The Tracks — Moonwashedrose’s September, 2006 Interview with Courtney Love ) were on the Internet in 2006. The Return of Courtney Love, a documentary about the making of Nobody's Daughter, was filmed, written and produced by Will Yapp and aired on the British television network More4 on September 27, resulted in distribution of clips of some of its songs. The first entire song available for downloading was a rough acoustic version of “Never Go Hungry Again”, recorded during an interview for The Times in November. TheTimes.co.uk: Podcasts Incomplete audio clips of the song “Samantha”, originating from an interview with NPR.org, were also distributed on the Internet in May 2007. Rebuilding Courtney Love, One Song at a Time In October 2006 Love published a memoir, Dirty Blonde. Also in 2006, she reportedly sold 25% of Nirvana’s catalog for $50 million. Love claims $20 million were embezzled from her by members of her entourage, leaving her "on the verge of applying for food stamps." Love’s new band consists of: Patricia “Pato” Vidal (Bass) Schoo Fisher (Drums, formerly of Ozric Tentacles) (Also identified as "Stu" in a video interview on MySpace) MySpaceTV Micko Larkin (Guitar, formerly of Larrikin Love) Bethia Beadman (Keyboards and Background Vocals) Liam Wade (Guitar) She also collaborated with DJ Milky and Ai Yazawa to make the manga Princess Ai. On June 1, 2007, Love made her stage comeback in a Linda Perry show at House of Blues in Los Angeles. With Perry and the producer’s backup band, she performed “Nobody’s Daughter”, “Sunset Marquis”, “Pacific Coast Highway” and “Letter to God”. On July 23, 2007, Love added the first song, "Dirty Girls", to her MySpace page, followed by a piano-and-vocal demo of “Sunset Marquis”, and in July 2008 with "Letter to God". Love said in April 2007 that “I’m going to have a Christie’s auction,” to hock the bulk of Cobain’s belongings with a portion going to charity. Courtney Plans to Sell Kurt's Stuff - Spinner.com She has worked with photographer David LaChapelle, appearing on the cover of his book 'Heaven to Hell' depicting the pieta. London & Co. filed a lawsuit against Love on July 22, 2008, claiming she sold Nirvana's publishing catalog without paying a share of the profits. The catalog was sold for $19.5 million and, according to an oral contract with Love, she had to share the 5% of her company The End of Music's earnings. London & Co. is seeking $975,000, which would have been its share of the sale. Awards Year Group Award Result For 1996 Boston Society of Film Critics Awards Best Supporting Actress The People vs. Larry Flynt New York Film Critics Circle Awards Best Supporting Actress 1997 Chicago Film Critics Association Awards Most Promising Actress Florida Film Critics Circle Awards Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe Awards Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture - Drama MTV Movie Awards Best Breakthrough Performance Satellite Awards Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Motion Picture - Drama VH1 Fashion Awards Best Personal Style (Female) 2001 L.A. Outfest Outstanding Actress in a Feature Film Julie Johnson Discography Studio albums America's Sweetheart (2004) Nobody's Daughter (2009) Filmography ! Year ! Film ! Role ! Notes |- | 1986 | Sid and Nancy | Gretchen | |- |1987 | Straight to Hell | Velma | |- | 1988 | Tapeheads | Norman's spanker |Uncredited |- | rowspan="3"|1996 | Basquiat | Big Pink | |- | Feeling Minnesota | Rhonda the Waitress | |- | The People vs. Larry Flynt | Althea Leasure Flynt |Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActressChicago Film Critics Association Award for Most Promising ActressFlorida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActressNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActressSatellite Award for Best Supporting Actress - Motion PictureNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama |- | rowspan="2"|1999 | 200 Cigarettes | Lucy | |- | Man on the Moon | Lynne Margulies | |- | 2000 | Beat | Joan Vollmer Burroughs | |- | 2001 | Julie Johnson | Claire | L.A. Outfest Award for Best Actress |- | 2002 | Trapped | Cheryl | |- | 2005 | Trailer for a Remake of Gore Vidal's Caligula | Caligula | Short film |} ! Year ! Film ! Role ! Notes |- | 1992 | 1991: The Year Punk Broke | Herself | |- | 1996 | Not Bad for a Girl | Herself | |- | 1997 | Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen’s | Herself | Uncredited |- | 1998 | Kurt & Courtney | Herself | |- | 2000 | Bounce: Behind the Velvet Rope | Herself | |- | rowspan="2"|2001 | Last Party 2000 | Herself | |- | Crossover | Herself | |- | 2003 | Mayor of the Sunset Strip | Herself | |- | 2004 | (This Is Known As) The Blues Scale | Herself | |- | 2006 | The Return of Courtney Love | Herself | Channel 4 special |} See also List of honorific titles in popular music References External links Official Courtney Love Site Official Courtney Love Myspace Official Courtney Love Twitter Page Courtney Love Interview (2006) on her book Dirty Blonde by AOL Books Court TV Coverage Live Shows and Music videos | Courtney_Love |@lemmatized courtney:42 michelle:9 love:118 although:2 source:1 give:5 birth:8 name:5 harrison:6 list:6 california:3 index:1 center:1 health:5 statistic:2 adoption:1 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4,001 | Bastarnae | Map of the Roman empire and contemporary indigenous Europe in Ad 125, showing the location of the Bastarnae, divided into two groups. The smaller group, inhabiting the delta of the Danube and its northern environs, was known as the Peucini. The Bastarnae or Basternae were an ancient tribal group of probably mixed Celtic and Germanic origin which, between not later than 200 BC and until at least 300 AD, inhabited the region between the eastern Carpathian mountains and the Dnieper river (corresponding to the modern Republic of Moldova and western part of southern Ukraine). A branch of the Bastarnae, called the Peucini by Greco-Roman writers, occupied a part of the Danube river delta. Although possibly Celtic-speaking in 179 BC, the Bastarnae probably were Germanic in language and culture during the 1st century AD, but appear to have become assimilated by their neighbouring Sarmatians by the 3rd century. Like the latter, they were probably semi-nomadic. It has not yet been possible to identify specific Bastarnae archaeological sites. The Peucini branch of the Bastarnae first came into conflict with the Romans in the 1st century BC, when they resisted, ultimately unsuccessfully, Roman expansion into Moesia, the region on the southern bank of the Danube. Although probably on friendly terms with the Romans in the early 1st century, there is little evidence of the Peucini until ca. 180, when they are recorded as participating in an invasion of Roman territory in alliance with Sarmatian and Dacian elements. In the mid 3rd century, the Bastarnae were part of a Gothic-led grand coalition of lower Danube tribes which inflicted immense damage on the Balkan provinces of the Roman empire in a series of massive invasions. Large numbers of Bastarnae were resettled within the empire in the late 3rd century. Name etymology The origin of the tribal name is uncertain. One possible derivation is from the proto-Germanic word *bastjan (from proto-Indo-European root word *bhas) means "binding" or "tie". Köbler *bhas In this case, Bastarnae may have had the original meaning of an alliance or bund of tribes. It is possible that the Roman term basterna, denoting a type of wagon or litter, is derived from the name of this tribe, which was known, like many Germanic tribes, to travel with a wagon-train for their families. Dio LI.24.4 Ethno-linguistic affiliation Livy, the Roman historian, writing in ca. 10 AD, may imply that the Bastarnae were of Celtic origin. Relating events of ca. 180 BC, he describes them then as "similar in language and customs" to the Scordisci, a tribe of Illyria described as Celtic by Strabo (although he adds that they had mingled with Illyrians and Thracians). Strabo VII.5.2 Livy also names their king, Cotto. Livy XL.58 This name is possibly of Celtic derivation (cf. Cottius, king of the Alpine Salassi tribe and friend of Augustus, after whom were named the Alpes Cottiae Roman province and the Cotini Celtic tribe of the northern Carpathians. Both prob. derived from cotto- = "old" or "crooked"). Faliyeyev (2007) entries 3806, 3890 It is possible that the Bastarnae were originally a mixed Celto-Germanic group. Todd (2004) 22-3 If so, they may have originally comprised residual Celtic elements in central eastern Europe such as the Cotini, who formed a Celtic enclave in the Germanic-speaking zone and are described by Tacitus as iron-ore miners working as tributaries of the powerful Quadi Germanic people. Tacitus G.43 In any case, other Greco-Roman writers of the 1st century AD are unanimous that the Bastarnae were, in their own time, Germanic in language and culture. The Greek geographer Strabo, writing ca. 5-20 AD, says the Bastarnae are "of Germanic stock", although he includes the non-Germanic Roxolani, a Sarmatian tribe, among the sub-tribes of the Bastarnae (probably in error). Strabo VII.3.17 The Roman geographer Pliny the Elder (ca. 77 AD), refers to "Bastarnae and other Germans". Pliny NH IV.81 The Roman historian Tacitus (ca. 100 AD), states: "The Peucini, however, who are sometimes called Bastarnae, are like Germans in their language, way of life and types of dwelling and live in similar squalor and indolence...[However] mixed marriages are giving them to some extent the vile appearance of the Sarmatians." Tacitus G.46 In the 3rd century, however, the Greek historian Dio Cassius states that the "Bastarnae are properly classed as Scythians" and "members of the Scythian race". Dio LI.23.3, 24.2 Likewise, the 6th century historian Zosimus, reporting events around 280 AD, refers to "the Bastarnae, a Scythian people". Zosimus I.34 It is possible that the miscegenation mentioned by Tacitus had, by the 3rd century, resulted in the Bastarnae becoming assimilated by the Sarmatians, perhaps adopting their tongue (which belonged to the Iranic group of Indo-European languages) and/or Sarmatian customs. On the other hand, the Bastarnae maintained a separate name-identity into the late 3rd century AD, possibly implying retention of their Germanic cultural heritage, distinctive in the lower Danube, until the arrival of the Goths. cf. Historia Augusta Probus 18 Territory A view of the Danube delta, showing the kind of swampy terrain originally inhabited by the Peucini branch of the Bastarnae Map showing the extent of the Chernyakhov culture (in orange) in the 3rd century, and the peoples involved, including the Bastarnae It is generally assumed by scholars that the Bastarnae's original home was around the Vistula river (central Poland) and that they migrated south-eastwards to the Black Sea region around 200 BC (as, 400 years later, did the Gothic ethnos). Todd (2004) 23 Strabo describes the Bastarnae territory vaguely as "between the Ister (r. Danube) and the Borysthenes (r. Dnieper)". He identifies three sub-tribes of the Bastarnae: the Atmoni, Sidoni and Peucini. The latter derived their name from Peuce, a large island in the Danube delta which they had colonised. Strabo VII.3.17 The 2nd- century geographer Ptolemy states that the Carpiani (Carpi) (believed to have occupied Moldavia, Rom.) separated the Peucini from the other Bastarnae "above Dacia". Ptolemy III.5.9 The consensus among modern scholars is that the Bastarnae were, in the 2nd century, divided into two main groups. The larger group inhabited the north-eastern slopes of the Carpathians and the area between the Prut and Dnieper rivers (Moldova Republic/W Ukraine), while a separate smaller group (the Peucini) dwelt in and North of the Danube delta region. Only the Peucini, therefore, were situated on the border of the Roman empire, that is, on the extreme northern border of the province of Moesia Inferior, which ran along the southernmost branch of the Danube delta. Barrington Plate 22 Material culture It is uncertain whether the Bastarnae were sedentary or nomadic (or semi-nomadic). Tacitus' statement that they were "German in their way of life and types of dwelling" implies a sedentary bias, but their close relations with the Sarmatians, who were nomadic, may indicate a more nomadic lifestyle, as does the wide geographical range of their attested inhabitation. Todd (2004) 23 It has not to date been possible to identify individual archaeological sites as belonging to the Bastarnae, because no convincing typology of Bastarnae artefacts exists. It has been suggested that the Bastarnae are an especially good match, in location and in time, for the Zarubintsy culture, despite the fact that it was centred somewhat to the North of the main area of Bastarnae residence. This culture, which flourished in the upper Dnieper and Pripyat rivers between ca. 300 BC and 200 AD, was sedentary, based on agriculture and the rearing of livestock. Its cultural artefacts show strong influences from the western steppe (i.e. Sarmatian influence) and, in a later phase, from the Roman Danubian provinces. But the Zarubintsy culture has also been "claimed" for the Venedi tribe, who are regarded by many scholars as proto-Slavic - although even this is uncertain. Todd (2004) 24 In reality, it is not possible, on the current state of knowledge, to ascribe the Zarubintsy culture to any individual ethno-linguistic group. It is likely that Zarubintsy represents a wide range of peoples in the Poland- W. Ukraine region (possibly including the Bastarnae). Todd (2004) 23-4 Starting in about 200 AD, the Chernyakhov culture became established in the W. Ukraine/Moldova region inhabited by the Bastarnae. The culture is characterised by a high degree of sophistication in the production of metal and ceramic artefacts, as well as of uniformity over a vast area. Although this culture has conventionally been identified with the migration of the Gothic ethnos into the region from the Northwest, Todd argues that its most important origin is Scytho-Sarmatian. Although the Goths certainly contributed to it, so probably did other peoples of the region such as the Dacians, proto-Slavs, Carpi, and possibly the Bastarnae. Todd (2004) 26 Conflict with Rome Roman republican era (to 30 BC) Allies of Philip of Macedon (179-8 BC) The Bastarnae first appear in the historical record in 179 BC, when they crossed the Danube in massive force (probably ca. 60,000 men, both cavalry and infantry, plus a wagon-train of accompanying women and children), invited by king Philip V of Macedon, a direct descendant of Antigonus, one of Alexander the Great's generals. The latter had suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Romans in the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC), which had reduced him from a powerful Hellenistic monarch to the status of a petty client-king with a much-reduced territory and a tiny army. After nearly 20 years of slavish adherence to the Roman Senate's dictats, Philip had been goaded beyond endurance by the incessant and devastating raiding of the Dardani, a warlike Illyrian tribe on his northern border, which his army was too small to counter effectively. Using the Bastarnae, with whom he had forged friendly relations in earlier times, he plotted a strategy to deal with the Dardani and then to regain his lost territories in Greece and his political independence. First, he would unleash the Bastarnae against the Dardani. After the latter had been crushed, Philip planned to settle Bastarnae families in Dardania (S. Kosovo/Skopje region), to ensure that the region was permanently subdued. In a second phase, Philip aimed to launch the Bastarnae on an invasion of Italy via the Adriatic coast. Although he knew that the Bastarnae were hardly likely to emulate the success of Hannibal's invasion some 40 years earlier, Philip hoped that the Romans would be distracted long enough to allow him to reoccupy his former possessions in Greece. Livy XL.57 But Philip, now 60 years of age, died before the Bastarnae arrived. The Bastarnae host was still en route through Thrace, where it became embroiled in hostilities with the locals, who were unable (or unwilling) to provide them with sufficient food at affordable prices as they marched through. Probably in the vicinity of Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulg.), the Bastarnae broke out of their marching columns and pillaged the land far and wide. The terrified local Thracians took refuge with their families and animal herds on the slopes of Mount Donuca, the highest mountain in Thrace (Mt. Musala, Rila Mts., Bulg.). A large force of Bastarnae chased them up the mountain, but were driven back and scattered by a massive hailstorm and then ambushed by the Thracians. Their descent became a panic-stricken rout. Back at their wagon-laager in the plain, a large number of Bastarnae decided to return home, leaving 30,000 to press on to Macedonia. Livy XL.58 Philip's son and successor Perseus deployed them in winter quarters in a valley in Dardania. But their camp was attacked in the depths of winter by the Dardani. The Bastarnae easily beat off the attackers, chased them back to their chief town, and besieged them. But they were surprised in the rear by a second force of Dardani who had approached their camp by mountain paths and lost their entire baggage and supplies. They were obliged to withdraw from Dardania and to return home. Most perished as they crossed the frozen Danube on foot, only for the ice to give way. Livy XLI.19 Despite the failure of Philip's Bastarnae strategy, the suspicion aroused by these events in the Roman Senate, which had been warned by the Dardani of the Bastarnae invasion, contributed heavily to the demise of Macedonia as an independent state. Livy XLI.23 and XLII.12-4 Rome declared war on Perseus in 171 BC and after the latter's army was crushed at the Battle of Pydna (168 BC), Macedonia was split up into 4 Roman puppet-cantons (167 BC). Livy XLV.19 21 years later, these were in turn abolished and annexed to the Roman Republic as the province of Macedonia (146 BC). Allies of Getan high king Burebista (62 BC) The Bastarnae first came into direct conflict with Rome as a result of expansion into the lower Danube region by the proconsuls (governors) of Macedonia in the period 75-72 BC. Gaius Scribonius Curio (proconsul 75-3 BC) campaigned successfully against the Dardani and the Moesi, becoming the first Roman general to reach the Danube river with his army. Smith's Dictionary: Curio His successor, Marcus Licinius Lucullus (brother of the famous Lucius Lucullus), campaigned against the Thracian Bessi tribe and the Moesi, ravaging the whole of Moesia, the region between the Haemus (Balkan) mountain range and the Danube. In 72 BC, his troops occupied the Greek coastal cities of Scythia Minor (mod. Dobruja region, Romania/Bulgaria), which had sided with Rome's Hellenistic arch-enemy, king Mithridates VI of Pontus, in the Third Mithridatic War (73-63 BC). Smith's Dictionary: Lucullus The presence of Roman forces in the Danube delta was seen as a major threat by all the neighbouring transdanubian peoples: the Peucini Bastarnae, the Sarmatians and, most importantly, by Burebista (ruled 82-44 BC), king of the Getae, a Dacian- or Thracian-speaking people. Burebista had unified the Getan tribes into a single kingdom, which included the Wallachian plain and Scythia Minor - the Greek cities were thus vital trade outlets for the Getan kingdom. In addition, he had established his hegemony over the neighbouring Sarmatians and Bastarnae. At its peak, the Getan kingdom reportedly was able to muster 200,000 warriors. Burebista led his transdanubian coalition in a struggle against Roman encroachment, conducting many raids against Roman allies in Moesia and Thrace, penetrating as far as Macedonia and Illyria. Strabo VII.3.11-12 The coalition's main chance came in 62 BC, when the Greek cities rebelled against Roman rule. In 61 BC, the notoriously oppressive and militarily incompetent proconsul of Macedonia, Gaius Antonius, nicknamed Hybrida ("The Monster", uncle of the famous Mark Antony) led an army against the Greek cities. As his army approached Histria (Sinoe), Antonius left his infantry without cavalry cover as he detached his entire mounted force from the marching column. Dio implies that he did so out of cowardice, in order to avoid the imminent clash with the opposition, but it is more likely that he was pursuing an enemy force, possibly a decoy. A Bastarnae host, which had crossed the Danube to assist the Histrians, promptly attacked, surrounded and massacred the Roman infantry, capturing several of their vexilla (military standards). Dio XXXVIII.10.1-3 and LI.26.5 This battle resulted in the collapse of the Roman position on the lower Danube. Burebista annexed the Greek cities (55-48 BC). Crişan (1978) 118 At the same time, the subjugated "allied" tribes of Moesia and Thrace evidently repudiated their treaties with Rome, as they had to be reconquered under Augustus in 29-8 BC (see below). Roman dictator-for-life Julius Caesar planned a major campaign against Burebista and his allies for 44 BC, but was assassinated before it could start. Strabo VII.3.5 However, the campaign was made redundant by the overthrow and death of Burebista in the same year, after which his Getan empire fragmented into 4, then 5 independent kingdoms. These were militarily far weaker, as Strabo assessed their collective military potential at just 40,000 armed men, and were often involved in internecine warfare. Strabo VII.3.11 Dio LI.26.1 The Dacians did not again become a threat to Roman hegemony in the lower Danube until the rise of Decebal 130 years later (86 AD). Augustan era (30 BC - 14 AD) Once he had established himself as sole ruler of the Roman state in 30 BC, Caesar's grand-nephew and adopted son Augustus inaugurated a strategy of advancing the empire's southeastern European border to the line of the Danube from the Alps, the Dinaric Alps and Macedonia, primarily to increase strategic depth between the border and Italy and to provide a major fluvial supply-route between the Roman armies in the region. Res Gestae 30 On the lower Danube, which was given priority over the upper Danube, this required the annexation of Moesia and Thrace; the latter, however, was spared annexation as it was in the hands of a friendly king. The Romans' target were thus the tribes which inhabited Moesia, namely (from West to East) the Triballi, Moesi and those Getae who dwelt South of the Danube. The Bastarnae were also a target because they had recently subjugated the Triballi, whose territory lay on the southern bank of the Danube between the tributary rivers Ubus (Vit) and Ciabrus (Tsibritsa), with their chief town at Oescus (Gigen, Bulg.). Ptolemy In addition, Augustus wanted to avenge the defeat of C. Antonius 32 years before and to recover the lost standards, which Roman intelligence had located as held at Genucla (Isaccea, nr. Tulcea, Rom.), in the Danube delta region, a fortress controlled by Zyraxes, the local Getan king. Dio LI.26.5 The man selected for the task was Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of Crassus the triumvir and an experienced general at 33 years of age, who was appointed proconsul of Macedonia in 29 BC. Dio LI.23.2 The Bastarnae provided the casus belli by crossing the Haemus and attacking the Denteleti, who were Roman allies. Crassus marched to the Dentheleti's assistance, but the Bastarnae host withdrew over the Haemus at his approach. Crassus followed them closely into Moesia but they would not be drawn into battle, withdrawing beyond the Tsibritsa. Dio LI.23.5 Crassus now turned his attention to the Moesi, his prime target. After a successful campaign which resulted in the submission of a large part of the Moesi, Crassus again sought out the Bastarnae. Discovering their location from some peace envoys they had sent to him, he lured them into battle near the Tsibritsa by a stratagem. Hiding his main body of troops in a wood, he stationed as bait a smaller force of scouts in open ground before the wood. As expected, the Bastarnae attacked the scout troop in force, only to find themselves entangled in the full-scale pitched battle with the Romans that they had tried to avoid. The Bastarnae tried to retreat into the forest but were hampered by the wagon-train carrying their women and children, as these could not move through the trees. Trapped into fighting to save their families, the Bastarnae were routed. Crassus personally killed their king, Deldo, in combat, a feat which qualified for Rome's highest military honour, spolia opima ("bountiful spoils"). But Crassus was denied the honour by Augustus on a technicality. Thousands of fleeing Bastarnae perished, many asphyxiated in nearby woods by encircling fires set by the Romans, others drowned trying to swim across the Danube. Nevertheless, a substantial force did escape over the river and dug themselves into a powerful hillfort. Crassus had to enlist the assistance of Rholes, the Getan king who ruled on the opposite bank, to dislodge them, for which service Rholes was granted the title of socius et amicus populi Romani ("ally and friend of the Roman people"). Dio LI.24 The following year (28 BC), Crassus marched on Genucla. King Zyraxes travelled into Scythia with his treasure to seek aid from the Bastarnae and Sarmatians. Dio LI.26.6 But before he was able to bring reinforcements, Genucla fell to a Roman land and fluvial assault. Dio LI.26.5 The strategic result of Crassus' campaigns was the permanent annexation of Moesia by Rome (although Moesia was not detached from Macedonia to form a separate province until 6 AD). Encyclopedia Britannica online Moesia Roman imperial era (14 - 180) The Res Gestae Divi Augusti ("Acts of the divine Augustus"), a self-congratulatory inscription commissioned by Augustus to list his achievements, states that he received an embassy from the Bastarnae seeking a treaty of friendship. Res Gestae Aug. 31 These would most likely have been the Peucini, who bordered on the empire. Such a treaty was seemingly remarkably effective, as the Bastarnae virtually disappear from the Roman chronicles until ca. 175 AD, some 160 years after the inscription was carved. But it should be stressed that the fragmentary nature of the evidence does not permit the conclusion that the Bastarnae did not engage in hostilities against the Roman empire during that enormous time-span. That view is at least arguable until ca. 70 AD, a period when the main Roman military operations are reasonably well-covered by the works of Tacitus, which contain only a single passing mention of the Bastarnae. Tacitus A.II.65 But beyond that date, Tacitus' account of the Flavian period (70-96) is lost, as is Ammianus Marcellinus's continuation of Tacitus' work until 353. (Even Dio's inferior account is lost, except a cursory and fragmentary summary). As a consequence, the available evidence for a period when the focus of Roman military operations shifted from the Rhine to the lower Danube is very thin. It would be surprising if the Bastarnae had no involvement, on either side or on both, in the Dacian Wars of Domitian (r. 81-96) and Trajan (r. 98-117), since these took place in their region. But there is no evidence that they were involved. In the late 2nd century, the Historia Augusta mentions that in the rule of Marcus Aurelius (161-80), an alliance of lower Danube tribes including the Bastarnae, the Roxolani and the Dacian Costoboci took advantage of the emperor's difficulties on the upper Danube (the Marcomannic Wars) to attack Roman territory. Historia Augusta Marcus Aurelius II.22 3rd century During the late 2nd century, the main ethnic change in the northern Black sea region was the immigration, from the Vistula valley in the North, of the Goths and other accompanying tribes such as the Taifali and Asdingi. This migration was part of a series of major population movements in the European barbaricum (the Roman term for regions outside their empire). The Goths appear to have established a loose political hegemony over the existing tribes in the region, or at least to have played a leading role in a series of major invasions of the empire launched by a grand coalition of lower Danubian tribes from ca. 238 onwards. The participation of the Bastarnae in these is likely but largely unspecified, due to Zosimus' and other chroniclers' tendency to lump all these tribes under the general term "Scythians" - meaning all the inhabitants of Scythia, rather than the specific people called the Scythians. Wolfram (1988) 45 Thus, in 250-1, the Bastarnae were probably involved in the Gothic and Sarmatian invasions which culminated in the Roman defeat at the Battle of Abrittus and the slaying of the emperor Decius (251). This disaster was the start of the Third Century Crisis, a period of military and economic collapse which came close to destroying the empire. At this critical moment, the Roman army was crippled by the outbreak of a second smallpox pandemic, the plague of Cyprian (251-70). The effects are described by Zosimus as even worse than the earlier Antonine plague (166-80), which probably killed 15-30% of the empire's inhabitants. Zosimus I.16, 21 Taking advantage of Roman military disarray, a vast number of barbarian peoples overran much of the empire. The Sarmato-Gothic alliance of the lower Danube carried out major invasions of the Balkans region in 252, and in the periods 253-8 and 260-8. Zosimus I.16, 20, 21 The Peucini Bastarnae are specifically mentioned in the 267/8 invasion, when the coalition built a fleet in the estuary of the river Tyras (Dnieper). The Peucini Bastarnae would have been critical to this venture since, as coastal and delta dwellers, they would have had seafaring experience that the nomadic Sarmatians and Goths lacked. The barbarians sailed along the Black Sea coast to Tomis in Moesia Inferior, which they tried to take by assault without success. They then attacked the provincial capital Marcianopolis (Devnya, Bulg.), also in vain. Sailing on through the Bosporus, the expedition laid siege to Thessalonica in northern Greece. Driven off by Roman forces, the coalition host moved overland into Thracia, where it was destroyed by emperor Claudius II (r. 268-70) in two successive battles, at Nessos and Naissus (269). Zosimus I.22-3 Ultimate fate Claudius II was the first of sequence of military emperors who restored order in the empire in the late 3rd century. These emperors followed a policy of large-scale resettlement within the empire of defeated barbarian tribes, granting them land in return for an obligation of military service much heavier than the usual conscription quota. The policy had the triple benefit, from the Roman point of view, of weakening the hostile tribe, repopulating the plague-ravaged frontier provinces (bringing their abandoned fields back into cultivation) and providing a pool of first-rate recruits for the army. But it could also be popular with the barbarian prisoners, who were often delighted by the prospect of a land grant within the empire. In the 4th century, such communities were known as laeti. Jones (1964) 620 The emperor Probus (r. 276-82) is recorded as resettling 100,000 Bastarnae in Moesia, in addition to other peoples (Goths, Gepids and Vandals). The Bastarnae are reported to have honoured their oath of allegiance to the emperor, while the other resettled peoples mutinied while Probus was distracted by usurpation attempts and ravaged the Danubian provinces far and wide. Probus was obliged to undertake a costly campaign to subdue them. Historia Augusta Probus 18 Zosimus I.34 A further massive transfer of Bastarnae was carried out by emperor Diocletian (ruled 284-305) after he and his colleague Galerius defeated a coalition of Bastarnae and Carpi in 299. Eutropius IX.25 . Such numbers may have amounted to a substantial proportion, if not all, of the Peucini Bastarnae: Victor claims that the Carpi resettled in Pannonia by Diocletian at the same time, together with those previously transferred by Aurelian, amounted to the entire Carpi tribe. Victor 39.43 The remaining Bastarnae of the Ukraine disappear into obscurity in the late empire. Neither of the main ancient sources for this period, Ammianus Marcellinus and Zosimus, mention the Bastarnae in their accounts of the 4th century, possibly implying the loss of their separate identity, presumably subsumed into the neighbouring Sarmatians or Goths. If the Bastarnae remained an identifiable group, it is highly likely that they participated in the vast Gothic-led migration, driven by Hunnic pressure, that was admitted into Moesia by emperor Valens in 376 and eventually defeated and killed Valens at Adrianople in 378. Zosimus consistently refers to the migrants as "Scythians" (unlike Ammianus, who refers to them as "Goths"), specifically stating at one point that, in addition, "Goths, Taifali and other tribes" were involved. Zosimus IV.104-7; 107 However, after a gap of 150 years, there is a final mention of Bastarnae in the mid 5th century. In 451, the Hunnic leader Attila invaded Gaul with a large army which was ultimately routed at the Battle of Chalons by a Roman-led coalition under the general Aetius. Jordanes 38-40 Attila's host, according to Jordanes, included contingents from the "innumerable tribes that had been brought under his sway." Jordanes 38 One such were the Bastarnae, according to the Gallic nobleman Sidonius Apollinaris. Sidonius Carmina 7.341 But the accuracy of Sidonius' list of Hunnic allies is doubtful, as he also gives the names of two Scythian tribes (the Neuri and Geloni) that were last mentioned in Ptolemy's Geographia some three centuries earlier. Ptolemy III.5 According to E.A. Thompson, it is likely that Sidonius, whose purpose was to write a panegyric and not a history, simply added some spurious names to his list, including the Bastarnae. On the other hand, Thompson does accept that some peoples on the list are plausible e.g. Burgundians, Sciri and Franks. Thompson (1996) 149 Notes Citations References Ancient Res Gestae Divi Augusti (ca. 14 AD) Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae (ca. 395 AD) Dio Cassius Roman History (ca. 230 AD) Eutropius Historiae Romanae Breviarium (ca. 360) Anonymous Historia Augusta (ca. 400) Livy Ab Urbe Condita (ca. 20 AD) Jordanes Getica (ca. 550) Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia (ca. 70 AD) Ptolemy Geographia (ca. 140) Sextus Aurelius Victor De Caesaribus (ca. 380) Sidonius Apollinaris Carmina (late 5th c.) Strabo Geographica (ca. 10 AD) Tacitus Annales (ca. 100 AD) Tacitus Germania (ca. 100) Zosimus Historia Nova (ca. 500) Modern Barrington (2000): Atlas of the Greek and Roman World Crişan, Ion (1978): Burebista and his Time Faliyeyev, Alexander (2007): Dictionary of Continental Celtic Placenames (online) Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000): Roman Warfare Jones, A.H.M. (1964): Later Roman Empire Köbler, Gerhard (2000): Indo-Germanisches Wörterbuch (online) Thompson, E.A. 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4,002 | Greg_Egan | Greg Egan (born 20 August 1961) is an Australian science fiction author. Egan specialises in hard science fiction stories with mathematical and quantum ontology themes, including the nature of consciousness. Other themes include genetics, simulated reality, posthumanism, mind transfer, sexuality, artificial intelligence, and the superiority of rational naturalism over religion. He is a Hugo Award winner (and has been shortlisted for the Hugos three other times), and has also won the John W Campbell Memorial Award for Best Novel. Some of his earlier short stories feature strong elements of supernatural horror, while due to his more popular science fiction he is known within the genre for his tendency to deal with complex and highly technical material (including inventive new physics and epistemology) in an unapologetically thorough manner. Egan's short stories have been published in a variety of genre magazines, including regular appearances in Interzone and Asimov's Science Fiction. Egan holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematics from the University of Western Australia, and currently lives in Perth. He has recently been active on the issue of refugees' mandatory detention in Australia. Egan is a "famously reclusive" author. Science Fiction Book Club . He does not attend science fiction conventions Interviews , and does not sign books. Works Novels An Unusual Angle (1983), ISBN 0-909106-12-6 (not science fiction) Quarantine (1992), ISBN 0-7126-9870-1 Permutation City (1994), ISBN 1-85798-174-X Distress (1995), ISBN 1-85798-286-X Diaspora (1997), ISBN 1-85798-438-2 Teranesia (1999), ISBN 0-575-06854-X Schild's Ladder (2002), ISBN 0-575-07068-4 Incandescence (2008) (Gollancz (UK), 15 May 2008; Night Shade Books (US), July 2008)ISBN 1597801283 Collections Axiomatic (1995), ISBN 1-85798-281-9 Our Lady of Chernobyl (1995), ISBN 0-646-23230-4 Luminous (1998), ISBN 1-85798-551-6 Oceanic and Other Stories (2000), ISBN 4-15-011337-8 Reasons to Be Cheerful and Other Stories (2003), ISBN 4-15-011451-X Dark Integers and Other Stories (March 2008, Subterranean Press) Short stories Stories collected in Axiomatic "The Infinite Assassin" "The Hundred Light-Year Diary" "Eugene" "The Caress" "Blood Sisters" "Axiomatic" "The Safe-Deposit Box" "Seeing" "A Kidnapping" "Learning to Be Me" "The Moat" "The Walk" "The Cutie" "Into Darkness" "Appropriate Love" "The Moral Virologist" "Closer" "Unstable Orbits in the Space of Lies"' Stories collected in Luminous "Chaff" "Mitochondrial Eve" "Luminous" "Mister Volition" "Cocoon" "Transition Dreams" "Silver Fire" "Reasons to Be Cheerful" "Our Lady of Chernobyl" "The Planck Dive" Stories collected in Dark Integers and Other Stories "Luminous" "Riding the Crocodile" "Dark Integers" "Glory" "Oceanic" (Winner of the Hugo Award) Other stories "Oracle" "Only Connect" "Border Guards" "Yeyuka" "TAP" "Worthless" "Mind Vampires" "Neighbourhood Watch" "Orphanogenesis" "Orphanogenesis" became the opening chapter of the novel Diaspora. "Wang's Carpets" Wang refers to the mathematician Hao Wang – the carpets are living embodiments of Wang tiles. This story, minorly reworked, became a section of the novel Diaspora. "Reification Highway" "Dust" "Dust" became the opening chapter of the novel Permutation City "Before" "Fidelity" "The Demon's Passage" "In Numbers" "The Vat" "The Extra" "Beyond the Whistle Test" "Scatter My Ashes" "Tangled Up" "The Way She Smiles, The Things She Says" "Artifact" "Singleton" Singleton introduced the concept of the Qusp, which was later used in the novel Schild's Ladder. "Lost Continent" Awards Permutation City: John W. Campbell Memorial Award (1995) "Oceanic": Hugo Award, Locus Award, Asimov's Readers Award (1998) Egan was nominated for the 2000 Ditmar Award for best novel with Teranesia. He declined the award. Usenet Newsgroups Egan occasionally contributes posts to a variety of (mostly scientific and/or technical) Usenet newsgroups, using his own name. These include: sci.physics.research; sci.math; comp.graphics.algorithms; comp.sys.laptops; comp.sys.mac.hardware.misc; microsoft.public.windowsxp.accessibility; aus.sf; rec.arts.movies.current-films; plus a few others. From December 1994 to September 1999 he contributed regularly to the group rec.arts.sf.written, where he engaged in dialogue with his readers about his work, and science fiction in general. Footnotes External links Greg Egan's homepage Greg Egan's online fiction at Free Speculative Fiction Online Google archive of Egan's posts to rec.arts.sf.written | Greg_Egan |@lemmatized greg:3 egan:10 born:1 august:1 australian:1 science:9 fiction:10 author:2 specialises:1 hard:1 story:13 mathematical:1 quantum:1 ontology:1 theme:2 include:5 nature:1 consciousness:1 genetics:1 simulated:1 reality:1 posthumanism:1 mind:2 transfer:1 sexuality:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 superiority:1 rational:1 naturalism:1 religion:1 hugo:4 award:10 winner:2 shortlist:1 three:1 time:1 also:1 win:1 john:2 w:2 campbell:2 memorial:2 best:2 novel:7 early:1 short:3 feature:1 strong:1 element:1 supernatural:1 horror:1 due:1 popular:1 know:1 within:1 genre:2 tendency:1 deal:1 complex:1 highly:1 technical:2 material:1 inventive:1 new:1 physic:2 epistemology:1 unapologetically:1 thorough:1 manner:1 publish:1 variety:2 magazine:1 regular:1 appearance:1 interzone:1 asimov:2 hold:1 bachelor:1 degree:1 mathematics:1 university:1 western:1 australia:2 currently:1 live:2 perth:1 recently:1 active:1 issue:1 refugee:1 mandatory:1 detention:1 famously:1 reclusive:1 book:3 club:1 attend:1 convention:1 interview:1 sign:1 work:2 unusual:1 angle:1 isbn:13 quarantine:1 permutation:3 city:3 x:4 distress:1 diaspora:3 teranesia:2 schild:2 ladder:2 incandescence:1 gollancz:1 uk:1 may:1 night:1 shade:1 u:1 july:1 collection:1 axiomatic:3 lady:2 chernobyl:2 luminous:4 oceanic:3 reason:2 cheerful:2 dark:3 integer:3 march:1 subterranean:1 press:1 collect:3 infinite:1 assassin:1 hundred:1 light:1 year:1 diary:1 eugene:1 caress:1 blood:1 sister:1 safe:1 deposit:1 box:1 see:1 kidnapping:1 learning:1 moat:1 walk:1 cutie:1 darkness:1 appropriate:1 love:1 moral:1 virologist:1 closer:1 unstable:1 orbit:1 space:1 lie:1 chaff:1 mitochondrial:1 eve:1 mister:1 volition:1 cocoon:1 transition:1 dream:1 silver:1 fire:1 planck:1 dive:1 rid:1 crocodile:1 glory:1 oracle:1 connect:1 border:1 guard:1 yeyuka:1 tap:1 worthless:1 vampire:1 neighbourhood:1 watch:1 orphanogenesis:2 become:3 opening:2 chapter:2 wang:4 carpet:2 refers:1 mathematician:1 hao:1 embodiment:1 tile:1 minorly:1 rework:1 section:1 reification:1 highway:1 dust:2 fidelity:1 demon:1 passage:1 number:1 vat:1 extra:1 beyond:1 whistle:1 test:1 scatter:1 ash:1 tangle:1 way:1 smile:1 thing:1 say:1 artifact:1 singleton:2 introduce:1 concept:1 qusp:1 later:1 use:2 lose:1 continent:1 locus:1 reader:2 nominate:1 ditmar:1 decline:1 usenet:2 newsgroups:2 occasionally:1 contribute:2 post:2 mostly:1 scientific:1 name:1 sci:2 research:1 math:1 comp:3 graphic:1 algorithm:1 sys:2 laptop:1 mac:1 hardware:1 misc:1 microsoft:1 public:1 windowsxp:1 accessibility:1 au:1 sf:3 rec:3 art:3 movie:1 current:1 film:1 plus:1 others:1 december:1 september:1 regularly:1 group:1 write:2 engage:1 dialogue:1 general:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 online:2 free:1 speculative:1 google:1 archive:1 |@bigram greg_egan:3 science_fiction:8 simulated_reality:1 artificial_intelligence:1 mitochondrial_eve:1 usenet_newsgroups:2 comp_sys:2 external_link:1 |
4,003 | Laura_Bertram | Laura Maureen Bertram (born September 5, 1978 in Toronto, Ontario, Canada) is a Canadian actress. She lives in Vancouver, Canada. She earned her degree in history from the University of Guelph. Career Her credits include the TV series Ready or Not, Are You Afraid of the Dark, Seasons of Love, and Andromeda as Trance Gemini, and the movies Night of the Twisters, and Dear America: So Far From Home. She was a series regular on Season 2 of Robson Arms. Awards Bertram has won two Gemini Awards for "Best Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series" for Ready or Not in 1995 and for "Best Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series" for Ready or Not in 1998. She has also been nominated for two Gemini Awards for "Best Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series" for Ready or Not in 1996 and for Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Program or Mini-Series for Platinum in 1998. Credits Control Alt Delete (2008) (post-production) Robson Arms (2007) (TV series) Solitaire (2006) (post-production) 1974 (2004) Andromeda (2000-2005) (TV series) Dear America: So Far From Home (1999) (TV) Seasons of Love (1999) (miniseries) Elimination Dance (1998) Platinum (1997) (TV) Sins of Silence (1996) (TV) Night of the Twisters (1996) (TV) The Boys Next Door (1996) (TV) Are You Afraid of the Dark? (1995) (TV) Family Pictures (1993) (TV) Ready or Not (1993) (TV series) Are You Afraid of the Dark? (1992) (TV) Personal life She has two younger sisters named Heather (born 1981) and Jennifer (born 1984), who are also actresses. In 1997, Bertram was a ceramics instructor at Kilcoo Camp. She also used to sing in the Canadian Children's Opera Chorus. References External links Laura Bertram archive | Laura_Bertram |@lemmatized laura:2 maureen:1 bertram:4 born:3 september:1 toronto:1 ontario:1 canada:2 canadian:2 actress:3 live:1 vancouver:1 earn:1 degree:1 history:1 university:1 guelph:1 career:1 credit:2 include:1 tv:12 series:9 ready:5 afraid:3 dark:3 season:3 love:2 andromeda:2 trance:1 gemini:3 movie:1 night:2 twister:2 dear:2 america:2 far:2 home:2 regular:1 robson:2 arm:2 award:3 win:1 two:3 best:4 performance:4 child:4 youth:3 program:4 also:3 nominate:1 leading:1 role:1 dramatic:1 mini:1 platinum:2 control:1 alt:1 delete:1 post:2 production:2 solitaire:1 miniseries:1 elimination:1 dance:1 sin:1 silence:1 boy:1 next:1 door:1 family:1 picture:1 personal:1 life:1 young:1 sister:1 name:1 heather:1 jennifer:1 ceramic:1 instructor:1 kilcoo:1 camp:1 use:1 sing:1 opera:1 chorus:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 archive:1 |@bigram toronto_ontario:1 external_link:1 |
4,004 | Iconoclasm | Relief statues in the Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht, attacked in Reformation iconoclasm in the 16th century. The birth and growth of Utrecht Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking", is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually for religious or political motives. It is a frequent component of major domestic political or religious changes. It is thus generally distinguished from the destruction by one culture of the images of another, for example by the Spanish in their American conquests. The term does not generally encompass the specific destruction of images of a ruler after his death or overthrow (damnatio memoriae), for example Akhenaten in Ancient Egypt. People who engage in or support iconoclasm are called iconoclasts, a term that has come to be applied figuratively to any person who breaks or disdains established dogmata or conventions. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are called iconolaters. In a Byzantine context they are known as iconodules, or iconophiles. Iconoclasm may be carried out by people of a different religion, but is often the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion. The two Byzantine outbreaks during the 8th and 9th centuries were unusual in that the use of images was the main issue in the dispute, rather than a by-product of wider concerns. In Christianity, iconoclasm has generally been motivated by a literal interpretation of the Ten Commandments, which forbid the making and worshipping of "graven images" per se. Major periods of iconoclasm In Judaism, King Hezekiah purged Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem and the Land of Israel of figures, including the Nehushtan as recorded in the Second Book of Kings. His reforms were reversed in the reign of his son Manasseh. A Midrash included in Genesis Rabba attributes a major act of iconoclasm already to Abraham. This is not attested in the Biblical account of the Partriarch's life, but is an important aspect of Abraham's image in later Jewish tradition. The Roman Empire's polytheist state religion's images were destroyed during the process of Christianisation. In the world of Islam, there have been various periods of iconoclasm against images of other religions (eg Christianity The pillage by Turkey of the 12,000 year old cultural heritage of Cyprus , Buddhism , etc.) and those produced within Islam itself. In the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine period, of its own religious imagery. In Europe during the Protestant Reformation and the religious conflicts following there were several outbreaks, with Protestants destroying Catholic or sometimes Protestant imagery. Most of the moai of Easter Island were toppled during the 18th century in civil wars. During the French Revolution, there was destruction of religious and secular imagery. During and after the Russian Revolution, there was widespread destruction of religious and secular imagery. During and after the Communist takeover of China, especially in the Cultural Revolution there was widespread destruction of religious and secular imagery in both Han and Tibetan areas of China. There have been many other episodes, some as part of peasant revolts or similar uprisings, others encouraged by central government. Byzantine Iconoclasm Icon of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (17th century, Novodevichy Convent, Moscow). As with other doctrinal issues in the Byzantine period, the controversy over iconoclasm was by no means restricted to the clergy, or to arguments from theology. The continuing cultural confrontation with, and military threat from, Islam probably had a bearing on the attitudes of both sides. Iconoclasm seems to have been supported by many from the East of the Empire, and refugees from the provinces taken over by the Muslims. It has been suggested that their strength in the army at the start of the period, and the growing influence of Balkan forces in the army (generally considered to lack strong iconoclast feelings) over the period may have been important factors in both beginning and ending imperial support for iconoclasm. The use of images had probably been increasing in the years leading up to the outbreak of iconoclasm. One notable change came in 695, when Justinian II put a full-face image of Christ on the obverse of his gold coins. The effect on iconoclast opinion is unknown, but the change certainly caused Caliph Abd al-Malik to break permanently with his previous adoption of Byzantine coin types to start a purely Islamic coinage with lettering only. Robin Cormack, Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons, 1985, George Philip, London, ISBN 054001085-5 A letter by the patriarch Germanus written before 726 to two Iconoclast bishops says that "now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter" but we have very little evidence as to the growth of the debate. C Mango, "Historical Introduction," in Bryer & Herrin, eds., Iconoclasm, pp. 2-3., 1977, Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, ISBN 0704402262 The first iconoclastic period: 730-787 Sometime between 726-730, the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian began the iconoclast campaign. Cf. (ed.) F. GIOIA, The Popes - Twenty Centuries of History, Libreria Editrice Vaticana (2005), p. 40. He ordered the removal of an image of Jesus prominently placed over the Chalke gate, the ceremonial entrance to the Great Palace of Constantinople, and its replacement with a cross. Some of those who were assigned to the task were murdered by a band of iconodules. see Theophanes, Chronographia Pope St. Gregory III "convoked a synod in 730 and formally condemned iconoclasm as heretical and excommunicated its promoters. The papal letter never reached Constantinople as the messengers were intercepted and arrested in Sicily by the Byzantines." Cf. (ed.) F. GIOIA, The Popes - Twenty Centuries of History, Libreria Editrice Vaticana (2005), p. 41. Second Council of Nicaea 787 In 780 Constantine VI ascended the throne in Constantinople, but being a minor, was managed by his mother Empress Irene. She decided that an ecumenical council needed to be held to once and for all address the issue of Iconoclasm and directed this request to Pope Hadrian I (772-795) in Rome. He announced his agreement and caused one to convene on 1 August 786 in the presence of the Emperor and Empress. The initial proceedings were interrupted by violent entry of iconoclast soldiers faithful to the memory of the prior Emperor Constantine V. This caused the council to be adjourned until a reliable army could be assembled to protect any proceedings. The council was reassembled at Nicaea 24 September 787. During those proceedings the following was adopted: ... we declare that we defend free from any innovations all the written and unwritten ecclesiastical traditions that have been entrusted to us. One of these is the production of representational art; this is quite in harmony with the history of the spread of the gospel, as it provides confirmation that the becoming man of the Word of God was real and not just imaginary, and as it brings us a similar benefit. For, things that mutually illustrate one another undoubtedly posses one another's message. ... we decree with full precision and care that, like the figure of the honoured and life-giving cross, the revered and holy images, whether painted or made of mosaic or of other suitable material, are to be exposed in the holy churches of God, on sacred instruments and vestments, on walls and panels, in houses and by public ways; these are the images of our Lord, God and saviour, Jesus Christ, and of our Lady without blemish, the holy God-bearer, and of the revered angels and of any of the saintly holy men. The more frequently they are seen in representational art, the more are those who see them drawn to remember and long for those who serve as models, and to pay these images the tribute of salutation and respectful veneration. Certainly this is not the full adoration in accordance with our faith, which is properly paid only to the divine nature, but it resembles that given to the figure of the hounoured and life-giving cross, and also to the holy books of the gospels and to other sacred cult object. Tanner, Norman P., Alberigo, G., Dossetti, J. A., Joannou, P. P., Leonardi, C., and Prodi, P., Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils Volume OneNicaea I to Lateran V, p. 132-136, Sheed & Ward and Georgetown University Press, London and Washington D.C., [ISBN 0-87840-490-2] Issues in Byzantine Iconoclasm What accounts of iconoclast arguments remain are largely found in iconodule writings. To understand iconoclastic arguments, one must note the main points: Iconoclasm condemned the making of any lifeless image (e.g. painting or statue) that was intended to represent Jesus or one of the saints. The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum (Synod of Hiereia) held in 754 declared: "Supported by the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the Holy Trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the Christian Church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.... If anyone ventures to represent the divine image (χαρακτήρ, charaktēr) of the Word after the Incarnation with material colours, let him be anathema! .... If anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, let him be anathema!" For iconoclasts, the only real religious image must be an exact likeness of the prototype -of the same substance- which they considered impossible, seeing wood and paint as empty of spirit and life. Thus for iconoclasts the only true (and permitted) "icon" of Jesus was the Eucharist, which was believed to be his actual body and blood. Any true image of Jesus must be able to represent both his divine nature (which is impossible because it cannot be seen nor encompassed) as well his human nature. But by making an icon of Jesus, one is separating his human and divine natures, since only the human can be depicted (separating the natures was considered nestorianism), or else confusing the human and divine natures, considering them one (union of the human and divine natures was considered monophysitism). Icon use for religious purposes was viewed as an innovation in the Church, a Satanic misleading of Christians to return to pagan practice. "Satan misled men, so that they worshipped the creature instead of the Creator. The Law of Moses and the Prophets cooperated to remove this ruin...But the previously mentioned demiurge of evil...gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of Christianity." Epitome, Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754 It was also seen as a departure from ancient church tradition, of which there was a written record opposing religious images. The chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks Mansur (John of Damascus), who, living in Muslim territory as advisor to the Caliph of Damascus, was far enough away from the Byzantine emperor to evade retribution, and Theodore the Studite, abbot of the Stoudios monastery in Constantinople. John declared that he did not venerate matter, "but rather the creator of matter." However he also declared, "But I also venerate the matter through which salvation came to me, as if filled with divine energy and grace." He includes in this latter category the ink in which the gospels were written as well as the paint of images, the wood of the Cross, and the body and blood of Jesus. The iconodule response to iconoclasm included: Assertion that the biblical commandment forbidding images of God had been superseded by the incarnation of Jesus, who, being the second person of the Trinity, is God incarnate in visible matter. Therefore, they were not depicting the invisible God, but God as He appeared in the flesh. This became an attempt to shift the issue of the incarnation in their favor, whereas the iconoclasts had used the issue of the incarnation against them. Further, in their view idols depicted persons without substance or reality while icons depicted real persons. Essentially the argument was "all religious images not of our faith are idols; all images of our faith are icons to be venerated." This was considered comparable to the Old Testament practice of only offering burnt sacrifices to God, and not to any other gods. Moses had been instructed by God according to to make golden statues of cherubim angels on the lid of the Ark of the Covenant, and according to God instructed Moses to embroider the curtain which separated the Holy of Holies in the Tabernacle with cherubim. Regarding the written tradition opposing the making and veneration of images, they asserted that icons were part of unrecorded oral tradition (parádosis, sanctioned in Orthodoxy as authoritative in doctrine by reference to , Basil the Great, etc.). Arguments were drawn from the miraculous Acheiropoieta, the supposed icon of the Virgin painted with her approval by St Luke, and other miraculous occurrences around icons, that demonstrated divine approval of Iconodule practices. Iconodules further argued that decisions such as whether icons ought to be venerated were properly made by the church assembled in council, not imposed on the church by an emperor. Thus the argument also involved the issue of the proper relationship between church and state. Related to this was the observation that it was foolish to deny to God the same honor that was freely given to the human emperor. Muslim Iconoclasm It is essential to mention that within Muslim history, the act of removing idols from the Holy Ka'ba is considered by all believers to be of great symbolic and historical importance. In general, Muslim societies have avoided the depiction of living beings (animals and humans) within such sacred spaces as mosques and madrasahs. This opposition to figural representation is not based on the Qur'an, but rather on various traditions contained within the Hadith. The prohibition of figuration has not always extended to the secular sphere, and a robust tradition of figural representation exists within Muslim art. F.B. Flood, "Between cult and culture: Bamiyan, Islamic iconoclasm, and the museum," The Art Bulletin 84 (2002), 643-44. However, western authors have tended to perceive "a long, culturally determined, and unchanging tradition of violent iconoclastic acts" within Islamic society. F.B. Flood, "Between cult and culture: Bamiyan, Islamic iconoclasm, and the museum," The Art Bulletin 84 (2002), 641. For example, the destruction of the monumental statues of the Buddha at Bamyan by the Taliban in 2001 was widely perceived in the Western media as a result of the Muslim prohibition against figural decoration. Such an account overlooks "the coexistence between the Buddhas and the Muslim population that marveled at them for over a millennium" before their destruction. F.B. Flood, "Between cult and culture: Bamiyan, Islamic iconoclasm, and the museum," The Art Bulletin 84 (2002), 654. The Buddhas had however twice in the past been attacked by the less efficient artillery of Nadir Shah and Aurengzeb. According to Flood, analysis of the Taliban's own declarations regarding the Buddhas suggest that their destruction was motivated more by political than by theological concerns. F.B. Flood, "Between cult and culture: Bamiyan, Islamic iconoclasm, and the museum," The Art Bulletin 84 (2002), 651-55. However, many different explanations of the motives for the destruction have been given by Taliban figures. The first act of Muslim iconoclasm was committed by Muslims in 630, when the various statues of Arabian deities housed in the Kaaba in Mecca were destroyed, although there is a tradition that Muhammad spared a fresco of Mary and Jesus. This act was intended to bring an end to the idolatry which, in the Muslim view, characterized Jahiliyya. The destruction of the icons of Mecca did not, however, determine the treatment of other religious communities living under Muslim rule after the expansion of the caliphate. Most Christians under Muslim rule, for example, continued to produce icons and to decorate their churches as they wished. There was one major exception to this pattern of tolerance in early Islamic history: the "Edict of Yazīd," issued by the Umayyad caliph Yazid II in 722-723. A. Grabar, L'iconoclasme byzantin: le dossier archéologique (Paris, 1984), 155-56. This edict ordered the destruction of crosses and Christian images within the territory of the caliphate. It seems to have been followed to a certain degree, particularly in present-day Jordan, where archaeological evidence exists for the removal of images from the mosaic floors of some, although not all, of the churches that stood at this time. However, Yazīd's iconoclastic policies were not maintained by his successors, and the production of icons by the Christian communities of the Levant continued without significant interruption from the sixth century to the ninth. G.R.D. King, "Islam, iconoclasm, and the declaration of doctrine," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 48 (1985), 276-7. The missing nose on the Great Sphinx of Giza is attributed to iconoclasm by a Sufi Muslim fanatic. al-Maqrīzī, writing in the fifteenth century CE, attributes the damage to Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim fanatic from the khanqah of Sa'id al-Su'ada, in 1378 CE. Despite a religious prohibition on destroying or converting houses of worship, certain conquering Muslim armies have used local temples or houses of worship as mosques. An example is Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), which was converted into a mosque in 1453. Most icons were desecrated whilst the rest were covered with plaster. In the 1920s, Hagia Sophia was converted to a museum, and the restoration of the mosaics was undertaken by the American Byzantine Institute beginning in 1932. More dramatic cases of iconoclasm by Muslims are found in parts of India where Hindu and Buddhist temples were razed and mosques raised on their place (for example, the Qutub Complex). Certain Muslim denominations continue to pursue iconoclastic agendas, and there has been much controversy within Islam over the recent, and apparently on-going, destruction by the Wahhabist authorities of Mecca of historic buildings (not images as such) which they feared were or would become the subject of "idolatry." Independent Newspaper on-line, London, Jan 19,2007 Islamica Magazine A recent act of iconoclasm was the 2001 destruction of the giant Buddhas of Bamyan by the then Taliban government of Afganistan, an act which aroused considerable world-wide protests and which was not supported by other Muslim governments and organizations. Reformation Iconoclasm Illustration of the Beeldenstorm during the Dutch reformation Some of the Protestant reformers, in particular Andreas Karlstadt, Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin encouraged the removal of religious images by invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry and the manufacture of graven images of God. As a result, statues and images were damaged in spontaneous individual attacks as well as unauthorised iconoclastic riots. However, in most cases images were removed in an orderly manner by civil authorities in the newly reformed cities and territories of Europe. Significant iconoclastic riots took place in Zürich (in 1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), Augsburg (1537), and Scotland (1559). The Seventeen Provinces (now the Netherlands and Belgium and parts of Northern France) were hit by a large wave of Protestant iconoclasm in the summer of 1566. This is called the "Beeldenstorm" and included such acts as the destruction of the statuary of the Monastery of Saint Lawrence in Steenvoorde after a "Hagenpreek", or field sermon, by Sebastiaan Matte; and the sacking of the Monastery of Saint Anthony after a sermon by Jacob de Buysere. The "Beeldenstorm" marked the start of the revolution against the Spanish forces and the Catholic church. See Flanders for more on its history. During the English Civil War, Bishop Joseph Hall of Norwich described the events of 1643 when troops and citizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and idolatry, behaved thus: Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up of monuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! What defacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes! And what a hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market-place were heaped together.' An illustration from a 1563 edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs depicts "The Temple well purged," "Burning of images", and "the Papists packing away their paltry." The keen puritan William Dowsing was commissioned and salaried by the government to tour the towns and villages of East Anglia destroying images in churches. His detailed record of his trail of destruction through Suffolk and Cambridgeshire survives: 1885 edition of the diaries of the English puritan iconoclast William Dowsing on-line from Canadian libraries We brake [sic] down about a hundred superstitious pictures; and seven fryers [sic] hugging a nun; and the picture of God, and Christ; and divers others very superstitious. And 200 had been broke down afore I came. We took away 2 popish inscriptions with Ora pro nobis and we beat down a great stoneing cross on the top of the church. (Haverhill, Suffolk, January 6, 1644) Protestant Christianity, however, was not uniformly hostile to the use of religious images. Martin Luther, initially hostile, came round to the view that Christians should be free to use religious images as long as they did not worship them in the place of God. Calvin, Zwingli and others for the sake of saving the Word rejected all art; Luther, with an equal concern for the Word, but far more conservative, would have all the arts to be the servants of the Gospel. “I am not of the opinion” said Luther, “that through the Gospel all the arts should be banished and driven away, as some zealots want to make us believe; but I wish to see them all, especially music, in the service of Him Who gave and created them.” Again he says: “I have myself heard those who oppose pictures, read from my German Bible. … But this contains many pictures of God, of the angels, of men, and of animals, especially in the Revelation of St. John, in the books of Moses, and in the book of Joshua. We therefore kindly beg these fanatics to permit us also to paint these pictures on the wall that they may be remembered and better understood, inasmuch as they can harm as little on the walls as in books. Would to God that I could persuade those who can afford it to paint the whole Bible on their houses, inside and outside, so that all might see; this would indeed be a Christian work. For I am convinced that it is God’s will that we should hear and learn what He has done, especially what Christ suffered. But when I hear these things and meditate upon them, I find it impossible not to picture them in my heart. Whether I want to or not, when I hear, of Christ, a human form hanging upon a cross rises up in my heart: just as I see my natural face reflected when I look into water. Now if it is not sinful for me to have Christ’s picture in my heart, why should it be sinful to have it before my eyes?” Revolutionary and Counter-Revolutionary Iconoclasm The Sons of Liberty pulling down the statue of King George III on Bowling Green (New York City), 1776. US Marines toppling Saddam Hussein’s statue in Firdos Square, Baghdad, April 2003 Revolutions and changes of regime, whether through uprising of the local population, foreign invasion or a combination of both, are often accompanied by the public destruction of statues and monuments identified with the previous regime. For example: During the American Revolution, the Sons of Liberty pulled down and destroyed the statue of King George III on Bowling Green (New York City). During the French Revolution, the statue of King Louis XV in the square which until then bore his name was pulled down and destroyed. This was a prelude to his descendant Louis XVI being guillotined in the same location, renamed "Place de la Révolution" (at present Place de la Concorde). The statue of Napoleon on the column at Place Vendome, Paris was the target of iconoclasm several times: destroyed after the Bourbon Restoration, restored by Louis-Philippe, destroyed again during the Paris Commune and restored again by Adolphe Thiers. The October Revolution in 1917 was accompanied by destruction of monuments of past Tsars, as well as Russian Imperial Eagles, at various locations throughout Russia. "In front of a Moscow cathedral, crowds cheered as the enormous statue of Tsar Alexander III was bound with ropes and gradually beaten to the ground. After a considerable amount of time, the statue was decapitated and its remaining parts were broken into rubble." Christopher Wharton, "The Hammer and Sickle: The Role of Symbolism and Rituals in the Russian Revolution" The Soviet defeat of Nazi Germany was followed by destruction of statues and monuments, both those associated with the Nazi regime, and in some cases also from earlier periods in German history. For example, following the 1945 transformation of the German Konigsberg into Russian Kaliningrad, during a victory celebration Soviet soldiers decapitated the 19th Century kings' statues placed atop the city's King's Gate. (The statues were restored in 2005.) The fall of Communism in 1989 was followed by destruction or removal of statues of Lenin and other Communist leaders. Particularly well-known was the case of "Iron Felix," the statue of Felix Dzerzhinsky outside the KGB headquarters. The entry of American forces into Baghdad in 2003 was immediately followed by the toppling of the statue of Saddam Hussein at Firdos Square, an event broadcast live on TV throughout the world, though critics have since claimed that the event was staged and images of the celebrating Iraqis were doctored to make the crowd appear larger than it actually was. References and notes Further reading See also Aniconism Censorship Censorship by organized religion Taboo Natural theology Iconoclash External links Iconclasm in England, Holy Cross College Design as Social Agent at the ICA by Kerry Skemp, April 5 2009 | Iconoclasm |@lemmatized relief:1 statue:20 cathedral:2 saint:5 martin:2 utrecht:2 attack:3 reformation:4 iconoclasm:34 century:9 birth:1 growth:2 greek:1 image:38 break:4 deliberate:1 destruction:20 within:9 culture:7 religious:18 icon:16 symbol:1 monument:5 usually:1 political:3 motif:2 frequent:1 component:1 major:4 domestic:1 change:4 thus:4 generally:4 distinguish:1 one:12 another:3 example:8 spanish:2 american:4 conquest:1 term:2 encompass:2 specific:1 ruler:1 death:1 overthrow:1 damnatio:1 memoriae:1 akhenaten:1 ancient:2 egypt:1 people:4 engage:1 support:5 call:3 iconoclast:12 come:5 apply:1 figuratively:1 person:4 disdain:1 establish:1 dogma:1 convention:1 conversely:1 revere:1 venerate:5 iconolaters:1 byzantine:13 context:1 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4,005 | Banacek | This article is about a TV series. For the mentalist/entertainer, see Banachek. Banacek (one of the rotating NBC Mystery Movie series) was a short-lived, light-hearted detective TV series starring George Peppard on NBC from 1972 to 1974. It alternated in its timeslot with several other shows, but it was the only one to last beyond its first season. It was later rebroadcast on A&E Network. The show had a mixture of humor combined with rather intricate plots that never generated strong ratings. Despite this, the show was well received by critics, and was picked up for a third season. However, before the third season could start production, Peppard quit the show in order to prevent his ex-wife Elizabeth Ashley from receiving a larger percentage of his earnings as part of their divorce settlement. Premise Peppard played Thomas Banacek, a suave, Polish-American freelance investigator based in Boston, who solved seemingly impossible thefts (see locked room mystery). He then collected from the insurance companies 10% of the value of the insured property. Banacek's signature was quoting strangely worded, but curiously cogent "Polish" proverbs: "There's an old Polish proverb that says, if you're not sure that it's potato borscht, there could be orphans working in the mines", and "Just because the cat has her kittens in the oven doesn't make them biscuits" are two examples. Another recurring gag was for other characters to mispronounce his name, often (particularly in the case of rivals) deliberately; another gag was other characters asking Banacek if he is related to famous Polish persons with the Banacek surname. Also featured were Ralph Manza as Banacek's chauffeur Jay Drury, Murray Matheson as rare-bookstore owner and information source Felix Mulholland, and Christine Belford as Carlie Kirkland, Banacek's sometime-lover and always-rival. Episodes Pilot TitleAirdate Banacek: Detour to Nowhere 20 March 1972Banacek finds himself in a race against his old adversary, Chief McKinney of the National Meridian Insurance Company, to solve the case of a missing armored truck carrying $1,600,000 of gold bullion that disappeared without a trace, while under a police escort. Season one No. TitleAirdate 1 Let's Hear It For A Living Legend 13 September 1972Banacek is called in after a star running back vanishes from a dogpile on national television. Guest stars Stephanie Powers, Anitra Ford and John Brodie. 2 Project Phoenix 27 September 1972Banacek investigates the disappearance of a valuable prototype automobile. Guest stars William Windom, Bert Convy. 3 No Sign of the Cross 11 October 1972Banacek searches for a valuable church artifact that disappeared from a sealed box. Guest star Broderick Crawford. 4 A Million the Hard Way 1 November 1972A million dollars vanishes from a Las Vegas slot machine display. Guest star Margot Kidder. 5 To Steal A King 15 November 1972Banacek searches for a missing coin collection. Guest stars Brenda Vaccaro, Pernell Roberts, and Roger C. Carmel. 6 Ten Thousand Dollars A Page 10 January 1973A valuable book disappears from a highly secure room. Guest stars David Wayne. 7 The Greatest Collection of Them All 24 January 1973A large charity art exhibit disappears right off the truck during shipment. Guest stars Penny Fuller. 8 The Two Million Clams of Cap'n Jack 7 February 1973Plates used in the printing of stock certificates vanish. Guest stars Andrew Duggan, Jessica Walter. Season two No. TitleAirdate 9 No Stone Unturned 3 October 1973Banacek gets to locate a 3 ton, 3 meter tall statue that somehow disappeared before its unveiling. 10 If Max Is So Smart, Why Doesn't He Tell Us Where He Is? 7 November 1973A huge medical computer vanishes from the secured building it had filled. 11 The Three Million Dollar Piracy 21 November 1973An expensive wedding coach is stolen from a shipping container in the hold of a ship. 12 The Vanishing Chalice 15 January 1974An ancient chalice disappears from a museum during the official unveiling party. 13 Horse of A Slightly Different Color 22 January 1974A race horse disappears from a track, during an exercise run. 14 Rocket to Oblivion 12 February 1974A prototype rocket engine vanishes during a private showing. 15 Fly Me — If You Can Find Me 19 February 1974After an emergency landing at an abandoned desert airstrip, a charter airliner vanishes, leaving a dead member of the flight crew as the only trace. 16 Now You See Me, Now You Don't 12 March 1974Banacek assists the daughter of a stage magician, suspected of grand larceny, who disappeared during his act — for real. DVD releases On May 15, 2007, Banacek: The First Season was released in the US under the TV Guide Presents label by Arts Alliance America. All eight first season episodes, but not the series pilot, were included. Season 2 was released on January 22, 2008, and it includes the pilot episode. On September 30, 2008, Arts Alliance will release Banacek: The Complete Series, a 5-disc boxset featuring all 16 episodes of the series. Cover ArtDVD Name EpisodesRelease Date Banacek: The First Season8 May 15 2007 Banacek: The Second Season8 January 22 2008 Banacek: The Complete Series16 September 30 2008 Production The episode titled "If Max Is So Smart, Why Doesn't He Tell Us Where He Is?" was shot on location at the California Institute of the Arts around the time the school first opened. "Ten Thousand Dollars A Page " was filmed at the Pasadena Art Museum, later known as the Pasadena Museum of Modern Art and now the Norton Simon Museum of Art. A customized 1969 American Motors AMX was built by George Barris for the second regular season episode. The car became known as the AMX-400 and it is now owned by an automobile collector. Other continuing cars in the series were a 1941 Packard 180 with a Victoria body designed by Howard "Dutch" Darrin (license plate number 178344) and a 1973 Cadillac Fleetwood limousine (mobile telephone number KL 17811). External links Banacek episode guide | Banacek |@lemmatized article:1 tv:3 series:7 mentalist:1 entertainer:1 see:3 banachek:1 banacek:14 one:3 rotate:1 nbc:2 mystery:2 movie:1 short:1 live:1 light:1 hearted:1 detective:1 star:10 george:2 peppard:3 alternate:1 timeslot:1 several:1 show:4 last:1 beyond:1 first:5 season:9 later:2 rebroadcast:1 e:1 network:1 mixture:1 humor:1 combine:1 rather:1 intricate:1 plot:1 never:1 generate:1 strong:1 rating:1 despite:1 well:1 receive:2 critic:1 pick:1 third:2 however:1 could:2 start:1 production:2 quit:1 order:1 prevent:1 ex:1 wife:1 elizabeth:1 ashley:1 large:2 percentage:1 earnings:1 part:1 divorce:1 settlement:1 premise:1 play:1 thomas:1 suave:1 polish:4 american:2 freelance:1 investigator:1 base:1 boston:1 solve:2 seemingly:1 impossible:1 theft:1 lock:1 room:2 collect:1 insurance:2 company:2 value:1 insured:1 property:1 signature:1 quote:1 strangely:1 word:1 curiously:1 cogent:1 proverb:2 old:2 say:1 sure:1 potato:1 borscht:1 orphan:1 work:1 mine:1 cat:1 kitten:1 oven:1 make:1 biscuit:1 two:3 example:1 another:2 recur:1 gag:2 character:2 mispronounce:1 name:2 often:1 particularly:1 case:2 rival:2 deliberately:1 ask:1 relate:1 famous:1 person:1 surname:1 also:1 feature:2 ralph:1 manza:1 chauffeur:1 jay:1 drury:1 murray:1 matheson:1 rare:1 bookstore:1 owner:1 information:1 source:1 felix:1 mulholland:1 christine:1 belford:1 carlie:1 kirkland:1 sometime:1 lover:1 always:1 episode:7 pilot:3 titleairdate:3 detour:1 nowhere:1 march:2 find:2 race:2 adversary:1 chief:1 mckinney:1 national:2 meridian:1 miss:1 armored:1 truck:2 carry:1 gold:1 bullion:1 disappear:6 without:1 trace:2 police:1 escort:1 let:1 hear:1 living:1 legend:1 september:4 call:1 run:2 back:1 vanishes:5 dogpile:1 television:1 guest:8 stephanie:1 power:1 anitra:1 ford:1 john:1 brodie:1 project:1 phoenix:1 investigate:1 disappearance:1 valuable:3 prototype:2 automobile:2 william:1 windom:1 bert:1 convy:1 sign:1 cross:1 october:2 search:2 church:1 artifact:1 seal:1 box:1 broderick:1 crawford:1 million:4 hard:1 way:1 november:4 dollar:4 la:1 vega:1 slot:1 machine:1 display:1 margot:1 kidder:1 steal:2 king:1 missing:1 coin:1 collection:2 brenda:1 vaccaro:1 pernell:1 robert:1 roger:1 c:1 carmel:1 ten:2 thousand:2 page:2 january:6 book:1 highly:1 secure:2 david:1 wayne:1 great:1 charity:1 art:6 exhibit:1 disappears:2 right:1 shipment:1 penny:1 fuller:1 clam:1 cap:1 n:1 jack:1 february:3 use:1 printing:1 stock:1 certificate:1 vanish:1 andrew:1 duggan:1 jessica:1 walter:1 stone:1 unturned:1 get:1 locate:1 ton:1 meter:1 tall:1 statue:1 somehow:1 unveiling:2 max:2 smart:2 tell:2 u:3 huge:1 medical:1 computer:1 building:1 fill:1 three:1 piracy:1 expensive:1 wedding:1 coach:1 shipping:1 container:1 hold:1 ship:1 vanishing:1 chalice:2 ancient:1 museum:4 official:1 party:1 horse:2 slightly:1 different:1 color:1 track:1 exercise:1 rocket:2 oblivion:1 engine:1 private:1 showing:1 fly:1 emergency:1 landing:1 abandon:1 desert:1 airstrip:1 charter:1 airliner:1 leave:1 dead:1 member:1 flight:1 crew:1 assist:1 daughter:1 stage:1 magician:1 suspect:1 grand:1 larceny:1 act:1 real:1 dvd:1 release:4 may:2 guide:2 present:1 label:1 alliance:2 america:1 eight:1 include:2 arts:1 complete:2 disc:1 boxset:1 cover:1 artdvd:1 episodesrelease:1 date:1 second:2 title:1 shoot:1 location:1 california:1 institute:1 around:1 time:1 school:1 open:1 film:1 pasadena:2 know:2 modern:1 norton:1 simon:1 customized:1 motor:1 amx:2 build:1 barris:1 regular:1 car:2 become:1 collector:1 continue:1 packard:1 victoria:1 body:1 design:1 howard:1 dutch:1 darrin:1 license:1 plate:1 number:2 cadillac:1 fleetwood:1 limousine:1 mobile:1 telephone:1 kl:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram light_hearted:1 gold_bullion:1 broderick_crawford:1 la_vega:1 external_link:1 |
4,006 | Budweiser_(Anheuser-Busch) | Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch) is an American-style lager and is one of the most popular beers in the United States. Budweiser is made with a large proportion (up to 40% Protz, R., The Complete Guide to World Beer (2004), ISBN 1844428656 ) of rice in addition to hops and barley malt, for which it has received some criticism, though the company takes the position that the rice gives the beer a lighter taste. Budweiser is produced in various breweries located around the United States and the rest of the world. It is a filtered beer available in draught and packaged forms. In the USA, it has 5.0% alcohol by volume and 145 calories per 12 oz., except in Utah, Kansas, Minnesota and Oklahoma where a 3.2% alcohol by weight (4.0% by volume) strength is available due to state laws. Beer Calories, Carbs, and Alcohol Content. Accessed 12 July 2008. Minnesota and Colorado require 3.2% alcohol by weight beer only at select public events and beer being sold in grocery stores and gas stations. Name origin and dispute In 1876, Adolphus Busch and his friend Carl Conrad, a liquor importer, developed a "Bohemian-style" lager, inspired after a trip to the region. Brewers in Bohemia generally named a beer after their town with the suffix "er." Beers produced in the town of Pilsen (Plzen), for example, were called Pilsners. Busch and Conrad had visited another town, only 104 km (65 miles) south of Pilsen also, known for its breweries: Budweis (or Böhmisch Budweis). Beer has been brewed in Budweis since it was founded as Budiwoyz by king Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1245. The name Budweiser is a locative, meaning "of Budweis." Anheuser-Busch has a market share in the United States of 50.9% for all beers sold. Anheuser-Busch reports rise in Q1 sales, slight drop in profit - St. Louis Business Journal This is primarily composed of Budweiser brands. In 2008 Budweiser/Anheuser-Busch sold the majority of their stock to Belgian-Brazilian beer giant InBev, to create the largest brewing company in the world. The company's 2005 annual report cites figures which demonstrate Budweiser brands are proving to be quite successful in markets outside of the U.S. including China, and Canada, where Labatt Brewing Company brews and packages Budweiser and Bud Light for the Canadian market. Budweiser is also widely available in Mexico due to Anheuser-Busch's half-ownership of Grupo Modelo, through which Budweiser and Bud Light are distributed. In Ireland, Budweiser is one of the leading lager brands; it is brewed, marketed, and sold by Guinness. Budweiser is also available in Italy, UK, Brazil, Argentina, Finland, Germany, Panama, Paraguay, Japan, India and Russia because of partnerships Anheuser-Busch has with major brewers there. Budweiser, under the name "Bud," is also available in Belgium and is imported by Corsendonk breweries and is distributed by Carrefour, the second largest retailer in the world. Budweiser was recently launched in India, where it is slowly gaining market share by being a much-sought after alternative to the leading Kingfisher, Fosters and Royal Challenge. Marketing One of the Budweiser Clydesdales Budweiser emphasizes humorous advertising campaigns, such as the "Real Men of Genius" radio and television commercials for Bud Light. The Budweiser from Budejovice has been called "The Beer of Kings" since the 16th century. Adolphus Busch is said to have changed the slogan to "The King of the Beers". The Czech Budweiser is sold in some countries as "Budejovicky Budvar" but is known as Budweiser throughout. Some Bud advertising campaigns have entered the popular culture in the United States. They include a long line of TV advertisements in the 1990s featuring three frogs named "Bud", "Weis", and "Er", and a campaign built around the phrase "Whassup?". The company is known for its sports sponsorships, video game sponsorship (Tapper), and humorous advertisements. Advertising campaigns have also included a nude Ganymede grasping a beer bottle and borne aloft by a bald eagle, This Bud's for Zeus - Ganymede as poster boy for Budweiser Beer lizards impersonating the "Bud-weis-er" frogs, and a team of Clydesdale horses commonly known as the Budweiser Clydesdales. Dale Earnhardt, Jr.'s Budweiser car in 2007. Budweiser has a vast presence in motorsports, from Bernie Little's Miss Budweiser hydroplane boat to sponsoring the Budweiser King Top Fuel Dragster driven by Brandon Bernstein. Budweiser has sponsored the CART championship, is the official beer of NHRA and was the official beer of NASCAR until 2007. Budweiser has sponsored top NASCAR teams such as Junior Johnson, Hendrick Motorsports and DEI . In 2008, Budweiser became Kasey Kahne's primary sponsor. Budweiser has also sponsored many races, including the Budweiser Shootout, and previously The Bud at the Glen, Budweiser 500, and Budweiser 400. Budweiser is an official partner and sponsor of Major League Soccer and Los Angeles Galaxy and was the headline sponsor of the British Basketball League in the 1990s, taking over from rival company Carlsberg. Budweiser is also an official sponsor of the English Premier League. In the early 20th century, the company commissioned a play-on-words song called Under the Anheuser Bush, which was recorded by several early phonograph companies. Budweiser continues to use popular music in advertisements. Some commercials feature the song "Galvanize", by The Chemical Brothers. Containers and packaging Containers Over the years, Budweiser has been distributed in many sizes and containers. Through the early-1950s Budweiser was primarily distributed in just three packages -- kegs, 12-ounce bottles and quart bottles. Cans were first introduced in 1936. http://www.anheuser-busch.com/our_company/history.html From 1936 to 1955, cans were slow to catch on. In 1955, August Busch Jr. August Anheuser Busch, Jr. - Britannica Online Encyclopedia made a strategic move to expand Budweiser's national brand and distributor presence. Along with this expansion came advances in bottling automation, new bottling materials and more efficient distribution methods. These advances have brought to market many new containers and package designs. Presently, Budweiser is distributed in four large container volumes: half-barrel 15.5 gal), quarter-barrel, 1/6 barrel and beer balls (5.2 gallons). In smaller consumption volumes, Budweiser is distributed in eight, ten, 12, 16, 22, 24, 32 and 40 ounce containers. Smaller containers may be made of glass, aluminum or plastic.Texas Budweiser Packages are sometimes tailored to local customs and traditions. In St. Mary's County, Maryland, ten ounce cans St. Mary’s celebrates 10-ounce beer Where the 10-Ounce Bud Is the King of Beers : NPR are the preferred package. Chicagoans widely prefer the 16 ounce can. Budweiser drinkers in the western stretches of Ottawa County, Michigan prefer the eight ounce can. This Ottawa County preference for the eight ounce can may stem from a long-standing blue law held in many Western Michigan cities that prohibit sale of beer and wine on Sundays. wzzm13.com | Grand Rapids, MI | Sunday liquor sales in Holland begin wzzm13.com | Grand Rapids, MI | Zeeland Considers Alcohol Sales In response to this blue law, brewers and distributors presented the eight ounce can as a smaller alternative. Budweiser has introduced many can designs with co-branding and sports marketing promotional packaging. Today, most of these promotional programs are represented only on the 16 ounce aluminum bottle container. However, many major league baseball and NFL teams also promote 24 ounce cans marked with team logos. Bottle The packaging plant at the Anheuser-Busch headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri. The Budweiser bottle has remained relatively unchanged since its introduction in 1876. The top label is red and currently reads "Budweiser". The top of the main label is red with a white banner with a pledge on it, which has changed three times. Below the banner is a coat of arms of sorts, which features an Anheuser-Busch stylization. Below that is a large white box. Era Pledge Logo Beer title Top label 1870s 1 C. Conrad and Co. Budweiser Lager Beer Original Budweiser Early 1900s 2 C. Conrad and Co. Budweiser Lager Beer Budweiser Reg U.S. Pat Off 1920s 3 Anheuser-Busch Budweiser Anheuser-Busch Budweiser St. Louis 1940s 2 Anheuser-Busch Budweiser Lager Beer Budweiser Beer 1950s 4 Anheuser-Busch Budweiser Lager Beer Budweiser Lager Beer 1970s 4 Anheuser-Busch Budweiser Lager Beer Budweiser 1980s 4 Anheuser-Busch Budweiser Lager Beer Budweiser Today 4 Anheuser-Busch Budweiser Lager Beer Budweiser Beer Budweiser is brewed using barley malt, rice, water, hops and yeast. It is lagered with beechwood chips in the aging vessel to create a smoother taste. Rice is used to produce a "clean finish." While beechwood chips are used in the maturation tank, there is little to no flavor contribution from the wood, mainly because they are boiled in sodium bicarbonate [baking soda] for seven hours for the very purpose of removing any flavor from the wood. The maturation tanks that Anheuser-Busch utilizes are horizontal and, as such, flocculation of the yeast occurs much more quickly. Anheuser-Busch refers to this process as a secondary fermentation, with the idea being that the chips give the yeast more surface area to rest on. This is also combined with a krausening procedure that re-introduces wort into the chip tank therefore activating the fermentation process again. By placing chips at the bottom of the tank, the yeast remains in suspension longer, giving it more time to reabsorb and process green beer flavors, such as acetaldehyde and diacetyl, that Anheuser-Busch believes are off-flavors which detract from overall drinkability. While some drinkers prefer the lightness of beers like Budweiser and consume it as a refreshment or for its inebriating effects, most beer writers consider it to be bland. Hops to lighten your step beerhunter.com A Bud by any other namerealbeer.com The beer is light-bodied with faint sweet notes and negligible bitterness, leading to reviews characterising it as a "...beer of underwhelming blandness". Budweiser and Bud Light are sometimes advertised as vegan beers, in that their ingredients and conditioning do not use animal by-products. Few beers contain animal by-products, but some vegans might object to the inclusion of genetically engineered rice and animal products used in the brewing process. Recently, Budweiser a beer made with organic rice for sale in Mexico. Anheuser-Busch has yet to extend this practice to any other countries. Anheuser-Busch was one of the few breweries during Prohibition that had the resources and wherewithal to convert to "cereal beer" production -- malt beverage made with non-fermentables such as rice and unmalted barley and rye, and able to stay under the 0.5% limit established by the Volstead Act. Following the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, the major breweries continued to use unmalted cereal grains to provide the full body and mouthfeel of a "real" beer while keeping the alcohol content low. Budweiser brands In addition to the regular Budweiser, Anheuser-Busch brews several different beers under the Budweiser brand, including: Bud Light Bud Light light beer with 4.2% ABV and 110 calories per 12 ounce serving. Bud A version of Budweiser available in Europe. See Budweiser trademark dispute.|Bud bottle next to Czech Budweiser in Turkey Budweiser Select Budweiser Select, or Bud Select, a light pale lager that contains 4.3% ABV and 99 calories per 12 ounce serving. Budweiser Select Anheuser-Busch has aggressively promoted Budweiser Select. Its slogan is "The Real Deal". It hired Jay-Z as a spokesman for the brand. Bud Select is featured alongside Budweiser and Bud Light in most of the family advertisements and point-of-sale material. |A bottle of Budweiser Select Bud Ice Introduced in 1994 as "Ice by Budweiser", it has more alcohol (5.5% ABV) than Budweiser. It is best known for an advertising campaign that involved a malevolent penguin that stalked Bud Ice drinkers and stole their beer while singing "Dooby-dooby-doo," a play off of the first five notes to the song "Strangers in the Night." Bud Ice Light Introduced in 2007, Bud Ice Light contains 4.1% ABV and 110 calories. It undergoes fractional freezing, which Bud Light does not undergo. Budweiser Brew Masters' Private Reserve Budweiser Brew Masters' Private Reserve is an all-malt lager with a honey color and robust taste. It is based on a Budweiser brewmaster holiday tradition of collecting the richest part of the brew as it is tapped to the brew kettles to toast the holiday season." Each year a different style is released. Bud Dry Bud Dry was introduced nationally in the U.S. in April 1990 Bud Dry is rolled out nationally - beer | Modern Brewery Age | Find Articles at BNET.com with the slogan of "Why ask why? Drink Bud Dry." It was originally successful in test markets and was expected to be a popular beer with the rise in light lager popularity. However, with the introduction of Bud Ice in 1994, Bud Dry wasn't as heavily marketed. It has declined in mainstream popularity and no longer receives commercial attention. Bud Silver An attempt to appeal to the tastes of beer drinkers in the United Kingdom, this specially brewed beer contains 4.1% alcohol by volume. Bud Extra A beer with caffeine, ginseng, guarana and alcohol. It contains 6.6% ABV as indicated on the label. It was marketed as a caffeinated malt beverage, similar to Sparks. On June 26, 2008, Anheuser-Busch announced that it would remove the caffeine and guarana from the beverage in response to concerns that the product was being marketed to consumers under the age of 21. Budweiser/Bud Light Chelada A blend of Budweiser or Bud Light and Clamato. This beverage became available nationally in late 2007 due to overwhelming popularity during test marketing. Budweiser American Ale American Ale debuted in September 2008. The beer claims to offer complex taste without much bitterness. Budweiser American Ale is the first beer under the Budweiser name that is brewed as an ale (brewed with top-fermenting yeast) rather than a lager. The beer's darker color is a departure from the other Budweiser brands. Budweiser NA Non-alcoholic version of Budweiser developed for the Middle Eastern market. Also available in Green Apple and Tropical Fruits versions. Bud Light Lime Bud Light with lime flavor added. It is 4.2% ABV with 116 calories. See also Budweiser Frogs Whassup? - A popular advertising campaign by Budweiser used from 1999 to 2002. Budweiser trademark dispute between Anheuser Busch and breweries from Budweis in the Czech republic. Ulterior Emotions - An album released by Budweiser. References External links Budweiser official website Belgian official Budweiser website | Budweiser_(Anheuser-Busch) |@lemmatized budweiser:96 anheuser:27 busch:30 american:4 style:3 lager:15 one:4 popular:5 beer:54 united:5 state:5 make:5 large:5 proportion:1 protz:1 r:1 complete:1 guide:1 world:4 isbn:1 rice:7 addition:2 hop:3 barley:3 malt:5 receive:2 criticism:1 though:1 company:8 take:2 position:1 give:3 light:19 taste:5 produce:3 various:1 brewery:7 locate:1 around:2 rest:2 filtered:1 available:8 draught:1 package:7 form:1 usa:1 alcohol:9 volume:5 calorie:6 per:3 oz:1 except:1 utah:1 kansa:1 minnesota:2 oklahoma:1 weight:2 strength:1 due:3 law:3 carbs:1 content:2 access:1 july:1 colorado:1 require:1 select:8 public:1 event:1 sell:5 grocery:1 store:1 gas:1 station:1 name:6 origin:1 dispute:3 adolphus:2 friend:1 carl:1 conrad:4 liquor:2 importer:1 develop:2 bohemian:1 inspire:1 trip:1 region:1 brewer:3 bohemia:2 generally:1 town:3 suffix:1 er:3 pilsen:2 plzen:1 example:1 call:3 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4,007 | Mack_Sennett | Mack Sennett (January 17, 1880 – November 5, 1960) was a Canadian -born Academy Award-winning director and was known as the innovator of slapstick comedy in film. During his lifetime he was known at times as the "King of Comedy." Early life Born Michael Sinnott in Richmond, in the province of Quebec, Canada. Sennett was a son of Irish Catholic immigrant farmers; his father was a blacksmith in the small Eastern Townships village. At age 17 his family moved to Connecticut. The family lived for a time in the Massachusetts town of Northampton, where, according to his autobiography, Sennett first got the idea to go on stage after seeing a vaudeville show. He claimed that the most respected lawyer in town, sometime Northampton mayor and later president of the United States Calvin Coolidge, and Sennett's mother tried to talk him out of his theatrical ambitions. In New York City, Sennett became a singer, dancer, clown, actor (mostly playing low comedy parts, usually oafish rural types), set designer and director for Biograph. A major distinction in his acting career, often overlooked, is the fact that Sennett played Sherlock Holmes 11 times, in a parody format of course, between 1911 and 1913. Keystone Studios With financial backing from Adam Kessel and Charles O. Bauman of the New York Motion Picture Company, in 1912 Sennett founded Keystone Studios in Edendale, California, (which is now a part of Echo Park). The original main building, the first totally enclosed film stage and studio in history, is still there. Many important actors started their careers with Sennett, including Mabel Normand, Charlie Chaplin, Raymond Griffith, Gloria Swanson, Ford Sterling, Andy Clyde, The Keystone Cops, Bing Crosby, and W. C. Fields. Sennett's slapstick comedies were noted for their wild car chases and custard pie warfare. His first comedienne was Mabel Normand, who became a major star (and with whom he embarked on a tumultuous personal relationship). His films featured a bevy of girls known as the Sennett Bathing Beauties which included Juanita Hansen and Phyllis Haver. Sennett also developed the Kid Comedies, a forerunner of the Our Gang films and in a short time his name became synonymous with screen comedy. In 1915 Keystone Studios became an autonomous production unit of the ambitious Triangle Pictures Corporation, as Sennett joined forces with movie bigwigs D. W. Griffith and Thomas Ince. In 1917 Sennett gave up the Keystone trademark and organized his own company, Mack Sennett Comedies Corporation. (Sennett's corporate bosses retained the Keystone trademark and produced a cheap series of comedy shorts that were "Keystones" in name only: they were unsuccessful, and Sennett had no connection with them.) Sennett went on to produce more ambitious comedy short films and a few feature-length films. During the 1920s his short subjects were in much demand, with stars like Billy Bevan, Andy Clyde, Harry Gribbon, Vernon Dent, Alice Day, Ralph Graves, Charlie Murray, and Harry Langdon. He produced several features with his brightest stars, such as Ben Turpin and Mabel Normand. Many of Sennett's films of the early 1920s were inherited by Warner Brothers when Warners merged with the original distributor, First National. Warner added music and commentary to several of these shorts, but eventually destroyed the original elements for storage space. As a result many Sennett films, especially those from his most productive and creative period, no longer exist. Move to Pathé In the mid-1920s Sennett moved over to Pathé distribution. Pathé had a huge market share but made bad corporate decisions, such as attempting to sell too many comedies at once (including those of Sennett's main competitor, Hal Roach). In 1927 Paramount and MGM, Hollywood's two top studios, noting the profits being made by companies like Pathé and Educational, both re-entered the production and distribution of short subjects after several years. Roach signed with MGM but Sennett found himself and Pathé in hard times because the hundreds of exhibitors who had previously rented their shorts had switched to the new MGM or Paramount products. Experiments, awards, and bankruptcy Sennett made a reasonably smooth transition to sound films, releasing them through Earle Hammons's Educational Pictures. Sennett occasionally experimented with color and was the first to get a talkie short subject on the market, in 1928. In 1932 he was nominated for the Academy Award for Live Action Short Film in the comedy division for producing The Loud Mouth (with Matt McHugh, in the sports-heckler role later taken in Columbia Pictures remakes by Charley Chase and Shemp Howard), and he won in the novelty division for his film Wrestling Swordfish. Sennett often clung to outmoded techniques, making his early-1930s films seem dated and quaint. This doomed his attempt to re-enter the feature film market with Hypnotized (starring blackface comedians Moran and Mack, "The Two Black Crows"). However, Sennett enjoyed great success with short comedies starring Bing Crosby; these films were probably instrumental in Sennett's product being picked up by a major studio, Paramount Pictures. W. C. Fields conceived and starred in four famous Sennett-Paramount comedies. Sennett's studio did not survive the Great Depression; the Sennett-Paramount partnership lasted only one year, and Sennett was forced into bankruptcy in November 1933. His last work, in 1935, was as a producer-director for Educational Pictures; he directed Buster Keaton in The Timid Young Man and Joan Davis in Way Up Thar. He went into semi-retirement at the age of 55, having produced more than 1,000 silent films and several dozen talkies during a 25-year career. His studio property was purchased by Mascot Pictures (later part of Republic Pictures), and many of his former staffers found work at Columbia Pictures. In March 1938, Sennett was presented with an honorary Academy Award. Later projects Rumors abounded that Sennett would be returning to film production (a 1938 publicity release indicated that he would be working with Stan Laurel of Laurel and Hardy), but apart from Sennett reissuing a couple of his Bing Crosby two-reelers to theaters, nothing happened. Sennett did appear in front of the camera, however, in Hollywood Cavalcade (1939), itself a thinly disguised version of the Mack Sennett-Mabel Normand romance. In 1949 he provided film footage for, and appeared in, the first full-length comedy compilation, Down Memory Lane (1949), which was written and narrated by Steve Allen. Sennett was profiled in the television series This is Your Life in 1956, and made a cameo appearance (for $1,000) in Abbott and Costello Meet the Keystone Kops (1955). He contributed to the radio program Biography in Sound, broadcast February 28, 1956. Death He died on November 5, 1960 in Woodland Hills, California at the age of 80 and was interred in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. Tributes For his contribution to the motion picture industry Sennett was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6712 Hollywood Blvd. Also in 2004, he was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. The Keystone legacy Today the name of Mack Sennett is still highly recognizable (even to those who have no contact with his films) and the term "Keystone Cops" has become part of the language, describing incompetent buffoons with supposed authority. Some historians even credit Sennett's films with having been responsible for municipal police forces across North America altering their uniforms to include military style officers' caps since by the 1920s tall, English-style hats had become so indelibly associated with slapstick comedy. Henry Mancini's score for the 1963 film, The Pink Panther, the original entry in the series, contains a segment called "Shades of Sennett". It is played on a silent film era style "honky tonk" piano, and accompanies a climactic scene in which the incompetent police detective Inspector Clouseau is involved in a multi-vehicle chase with the antagonists. In 1974, Michael Stewart and Jerry Herman wrote the musical Mack & Mabel, chronicling the romance between Sennett and Mabel Normand. Peter Lovesey's 1983 novel Keystone is a whodunnit set in the Keystone Studios and involving (among others), Mack Sennett, Mabel Normand, Roscoe Arbuckle and the Keystone Cops. The Genesius Guild, a Rock Island, Illinois classical theatre troup, uses a Sennett-style chase to end the performance of the season-ending Aristophanes Greek comedy every year. 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4,008 | Commodore_International | Commodore, the commonly used name for Commodore International, was a US electronics company based in West Chester, Pennsylvania which was a vital player in the home/personal computer field in the 1980s. The company is also known under the name of its R&D operation, Commodore Business Machines (CBM). Commodore developed and marketed the world's best-selling desktop computer, the Commodore 64 (1982). The company declared bankruptcy in 1994, but since then, there have been several attempts to revive its Amiga systems. The company revived in 2005 after a few mergers with Yeahronimo Media Ventures Inc., SATXS Communications BV, & Tulip Computers. History Founding and early years Original Commodore logo: all-lowercase company name (1962–1984). Commodore PR-100 programmable calculator The company that would become Commodore International was started in 1954 Commodore International B.V.: Private Company Information in Toronto by Polish immigrant and Auschwitz survivor Jack Tramiel. He had already run a small business repairing typewriters for a few years while living in New York and driving a taxicab, but managed to sign a deal with a Czechoslovakian company to manufacture their designs in Canada, and moved to Toronto to start production. By the late 1950s a wave of Japanese machines forced most North American typewriter companies out of business, but Tramiel instead turned to adding machines. In 1962 the company was formally incorporated as Commodore Business Machines (CBM). In the late 1960s history repeated itself when Japanese firms started producing and exporting adding machines. The company's main investor and chairman, Irving Gould, suggested that Tramiel travel to Japan to understand how to compete. Instead, he returned with the new idea to produce electronic calculators, which were just coming on the market. Commodore soon had a profitable calculator line and was one of the more popular brands in the early 1970s, producing both consumer as well as scientific/programmable calculators. However, in 1975, Texas Instruments, the main supplier of calculator parts, entered the market directly and put out a line of machines priced at less than Commodore's cost of the parts. Commodore had to be rescued once again by an infusion of cash from Gould, which Tramiel used beginning in 1976 to purchase several second-source chip suppliers, including MOS Technology, Inc., in order to assure his supply. He agreed to buy MOS, which was having troubles of its own, only on the condition that its chip designer Chuck Peddle join Commodore directly as head of engineering. In December 2007 when Tramiel was visiting the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, for the 25th anniversary of the Commodore 64, he was asked why he called his company Commodore, he had this to say: "I wanted to call my company General, but there's so many Generals in the U.S.: General Electric, General Motors. Then I went to Admiral, but that was taken. So I wind up in Berlin, Germany, with my wife, and we were in a cab, and the cab made a short stop, and in front of us was an Opel Commodore." Software Development Times (January 1, 2008), Page 10. Tramiel said that in many interviews, but Opel's Commodore didn't debut until 1968, years after the company had been named. Kretzinger, Boris: Commodore - Aufstieg und Fall eines Computerriesen, Morschen 2005, p. 14, Fn 18. "Computers for the masses, not the classes" Commodore PET 2001 (1977) Once Chuck Peddle had taken over engineering at Commodore, he convinced Jack Tramiel that calculators were already a dead end and that they should turn their attention to home computers. Peddle packaged his existing KIM-1 single-board computer design in a metal case, along with a full-travel QWERTY keyboard, monochrome monitor, and tape recorder for program and data storage, to produce the Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor). From PET's 1977 debut, Commodore would be a computer company. Commodore had been reorganized the year before into Commodore International, Ltd., moving its financial headquarters to the Bahamas and its operational headquarters to West Chester, Pennsylvania, near to the MOS Technology site. The operational headquarters, where research and development of new products occurred, retained the name Commodore Business Machines, Inc. The corporate offices are now home to QVC Studio Park. The PET computer line was used primarily in schools, due to its tough all-metal construction (some models were labeled "Teacher's PET"), but did not compete well in the home setting where graphics and sound were important. This was addressed with the introduction of the VIC-20 in 1981, which was introduced at a cost of US$299 and sold in retail stores. Commodore took out aggressive ads featuring William Shatner asking consumers "Why buy just a video game?" The strategy worked and the VIC-20 became the first computer to ship more than one million units. A total of 2.5 million units were sold over the machine's lifetime. Bagnall, Brian. On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore, Variant Press. Page 221. ISBN 0-9738649-0-7 Commodore 64 (1982) In 1982, Commodore introduced the Commodore 64 as the successor to the VIC-20. Thanks to a well-designed set of chips designed by MOS, the C64 possessed remarkably capable sound and graphics for its time and is often credited with starting the computer demo scene. Its US$595 price was high compared with that of the VIC-20, but it was still much less expensive than any other 64K computer on the market. Early C64 ads boasted, "You can't buy a better computer at twice the price." Australian ads used a tune speaking the words "# Are you keeping up with the commodore? Because the commodore is keeping up with you. #" In 1983 Tramiel decided to focus on market share and cut the price of the VIC-20 and C64 dramatically, starting what would be called the "home computer war." TI responded by cutting prices on its TI-99/4A, which had been introduced in 1981. Soon there was an all-out price war involving Commodore, TI, Atari and practically every vendor other than Apple Computer. This price war likely contributed to the video game crash of 1983. By the end of this conflict, Commodore had shipped somewhere around 22 million C64s—making the C64 the best selling computer of all time—and in the process, drove TI out of the home-computer market, almost destroyed Atari, bankrupted most smaller companies, and wiped out its own savings. Tramiel's motto, "Business is war," had taken its toll. Tramiel quits; The Amiga vs. ST battle Second Commodore logo, with mixed-case company name (1985–1994). Commodore's board of directors were as impacted as anyone else by the price spiral and decided they wanted out. An internal power struggle resulted; in January 1984, Tramiel resigned. He founded a new company, Tramel Technology (spelled differently so people would pronounce it correctly), and hired away a number of Commodore engineers to begin work on a next-generation computer design. Now it was left to the remaining Commodore management to salvage the company's fortunes and plan for the future. It did so by buying a small startup company called Amiga Corporation in August 1984, which became a subsidiary of Commodore, called Commodore-Amiga, Inc. Commodore brought this new 16-bit computer design (initially codenamed "Lorraine", later dubbed the Amiga 1000) to market in the fall of 1985 for US $1295. But Tramiel had beaten Commodore to the punch. His design was 95% completed by June (which only fueled speculation that his engineers had taken technology with them from Commodore). In July 1984 he bought the consumer side of Atari Inc. from Warner Communications which allowed him to strike back and release the Atari ST earlier in 1985 for about $800. During development in 1983, Amiga had exhausted venture capital and was desperate for more financing. Jay Miner and company had approached former employer Atari, and the "Warner owned" Atari had paid Amiga to continue development work. In return Atari was to get one-year exclusive use of the design as a video game console. After one year Atari would have the right to add a keyboard and market the complete Amiga computer. The Atari Museum has acquired the Atari-Amiga contract and Atari engineering logs revealing that the Atari Amiga was originally designated as the 1850XLD. As Atari was heavily involved with Disney at the time, it was later code-named "Mickey", and the 256K memory expansion board was codenamed "Minnie". "Confidential Atari-Amiga Agreement" and "Afterthoughts: The Atari 1600XL Rumor" The following year, Tramiel discovered that Warner Communications wanted to sell Atari, which was rumored to be losing about $10,000 a day. Interested in Atari's overseas manufacturing and worldwide distribution network for his new computer, he approached Atari and entered negotiations. After several on-again/off-again talks with Atari in May and June 1984, Tramiel had secured his funding and bought Atari's Consumer Division (which included the console and home computer departments) in July. As more execs and researchers left Commodore to join up with Tramiel's new company Atari Corp. after the announcement, Commodore followed by filing lawsuits against four former engineers for theft of trade secrets in late July. This was intended, in effect, to bar Tramiel from releasing his new computer. One of Tramiel's first acts after forming Atari Corp. was to fire most of Atari's remaining staff, and to cancel almost all ongoing projects, in order to review their continued viability. In late July/early August, Tramiel representatives discovered the original Amiga contract from the previous fall. Seeing a chance to gain some leverage, Tramiel immediately used the contract to counter-sue Commodore through its new subsidiary, Amiga, on August 13. The Amiga crew, still suffering serious financial problems, had sought more monetary support from investors that entire spring. At around the same time that Tramiel was in negotiations with Atari, Amiga entered into discussions with Commodore. The discussions ultimately led to Commodore's intentions to purchase Amiga outright, which would (from Commodore's viewpoint) cancel any outstanding contracts - including Atari Inc.'s. This "interpretation" is what Tramiel used to counter-sue, and sought damages and an injunction to bar Amiga (and effectively Commodore) from producing any resembling technology. This was an attempt to render Commodore's new acquisition (and the source for its next generation of computers) useless. The resulting court case lasted for several years, with both companies releasing their respective products. By March of 1987 they had settled out of court, with all suits against Tramiel's engineers dropped. His "Business is War" tactics had succeeded again. Amiga 500 (1987) Throughout the life of the ST and Amiga platforms, a ferocious Atari-Commodore rivalry raged. While this rivalry was in many ways a holdover from the days when the Commodore 64 had first challenged the Atari 800 (among others) in a series of scathing television commercials, the events leading to the launch of the ST and Amiga only served to further alienate fans of each computer, who fought vitriolic holy wars on the question of which platform was superior. This was reflected in sales numbers for the two platforms until the release of the Amiga 500 in 1987 which led the Amiga sales to exceed the ST by about 1.5 to 1, despite reaching the market later. However, the battle was vain as neither platform captured a significant share of the world computer market and only the Apple MacIntosh would survive the industry-wide shift to Microsoft Windows running on PC clones. Demise and bankruptcy In the 1970s and early 80s, the computer press had often sought Commodore (one of the industry's leading players), and its colorful management for information. The VIC-20 and C64, although aggressively marketed, were arguably more successful because of their price than their marketing. After Tramiel's departure, Commodore executives shied away from mass advertising and other marketing ploys, fearful of repeating past mistakes. Commodore also retreated from its earlier strategy of selling its computers to discount outlets and toy stores, and now favored authorized dealers. By the late 1980s, the personal computer market had become dominated by the IBM PC compatible and Apple Macintosh platforms. Commodore's marketing efforts for the Amiga were less competitive and seemed half-hearted and unfocused. The company also concentrated on consumer products that would not see a demand for another few years—including a digital TV system called CDTV. In the early 1990s, CBM continued selling Amigas with 7–14 MHz 68000-family CPUs (even though Amiga 3000 with 25 MHz 68030 was in the market by that time), when PCs with 33 MHz 486s, high-color graphics cards and SoundBlaster (or compatible) sound cards offered comparable, and eventually higher, performance, albeit at higher prices. By way of contrast, when introduced in 1985, the Amiga had competed favorably against 286-based systems with EGA graphics and rudimentary sound capabilities that frequently cost 2–3 times as much. In 1992, the production of the A600 seemed like a backward move; it replaced the A500, yet it removed the numeric keypad, Zorro expansion slot, SCSI capability, and other functionality in favor of PCMCIA and a theoretically cost-reduced design. It was basically unexpandable and lasted less than a year. Productivity developers moved to PC and Macintosh, while the console wars took over the gaming market. David Pleasance, managing director of Commodore UK, described the A600 as a 'complete and utter screw-up'. (Smith, 1994) In late 1992, Amiga hardware began to reach parity with PCs with the release of the A4000 and A1200 computers, which featured an improved graphics chipset, the AGA. By this point, both the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh had a much larger market share than the Amiga platform. As software developers shifted to these platforms, the Amiga lost value for mainstream consumers. The custom-designed and custom-built AGA chipset also cost Commodore considerably more than the commodity chips used in IBM PCs, further reducing Commodore's profit margins. Common wisdom was that even though the AGA clearly improved upon the original chipset (OCS), it never returned to Amiga the clear dominance of multimedia computing that it once promised. Software piracy has often been given by trade publications and user groups as the reason for the Amiga's demise, but this view is controversial. For information on the specific challenges in the Amiga market of the time, see the Amiga Software article. In 1994, the 'make or break' system, according to Pleasance, was the 32-bit CD-ROM-based game console: the CD32, but it was not sufficiently profitable to put Commodore back in the black. By 1994, only its operations in Germany and the United Kingdom were still profitable. Commodore declared bankruptcy on April 29 1994, and its assets were liquidated. The former site of Commodore's operational headquarters in West Chester, Pennsylvania, now houses the headquarters and broadcast studios of leading cable retailer QVC, Inc. (On November 26, 2004, QVC became the first retailer to sell the DTV, a "C64 in a joystick" designed by Jeri Ellsworth.) The company's computer systems, especially the C64 and Amiga series, retain a cult-following among their users years after its demise. Post-Commodore International, Ltd. Following its liquidation, Commodore's former assets went their separate ways, with none of Commodore's successors repeating Commodore's early success. Commodore UK was the only subsidiary to survive the bankruptcy and even placed a bid to buy out the rest of the operation, or at least the former parent company. For a time it was considered the front runner in the bid, and numerous reports (all false), surfaced during the 1994–1995 time frame that Commodore UK had made the purchase. Commodore UK stayed in business by selling old inventory and making computer speakers and some other types of computer peripherals. However, Commodore UK lost its financial backing after several larger companies, including Gateway Computers and Dell Inc., became interested, primarily for Commodore's 47 patents relating to the Amiga. Ultimately, the successful bidder was German PC conglomerate Escom, and Commodore UK was absorbed into Escom in mid-1995. Escom paid US$14 million for Commodore International, primarily for the Commodore brand name. It separated the Commodore and Amiga operations into separate divisions and quickly started using the brand name on a line of PCs sold in Europe. However, it quickly started losing money due to over-expansion, went bankrupt on July 15, 1996, and was liquidated. In September 1997, the Commodore brand name was acquired by Dutch computer maker Tulip Computers NV. Tulip's ownership was largely academic until July 11, 2003, when Tulip announced it would re-launch the Commodore name, including new Commodore 64-related products, and threatened legal action against commercial Web sites that used the computer's name without a license. On 18 June 2004, Tulip introduced the website CommodoreWorld.com (see external links, below), run by its new daughter company Commodore International BV. The Commodore brand name also resurfaced in late 2003 on an inexpensive portable MP3 player made in the People's Republic of China by Tai Guen Enterprise, sold mostly in Europe. However, the device's connection to Tulip, the legal owners of the name, is unclear. In July 2004, Tulip announced a new series of products using the Commodore name: fPET, a flash memory-based USB Key drive; mPET, a flash-based MP3 Player and digital recorder; eVIC, a 20 GB music player; and the C64 DTV. In late 2004 Tulip sold the Commodore name to Yeahronimo Media Ventures for €22 million . The sale was completed in March 2005 after months of negotiations. The Commodore Semiconductor Group (formerly MOS Technology, Inc.) was bought by its former management and in 1995, resumed operations under the name GMT Microelectronics, utilizing a troubled facility in Norristown, Pennsylvania that Commodore had closed in 1992. By 1999 it had $21 million in revenues and 183 employees. However, in 2001 the United States Environmental Protection Agency shut the plant down. GMT ceased operations and was liquidated. Ownership of the Amiga line passed through a few companies, from Escom of Germany in 1995, and then to U.S. PC clone maker Gateway in 1997, before an exclusive lifetime license to was made to Amiga, Inc., a Washington company founded by former Gateway employees Bill McEwen and Fleecy Moss in 2000. On March 15, 2004, Amiga, Inc. announced that on April 23, 2003 it had transferred its rights over past and future versions of the Amiga OS (but not over other intellectual property) to Itec, LLC, later acquired by KMOS, Inc., a Delaware company. On March 16, 2005, KMOS, Inc. announced that it had completed all registrations with the State of Delaware to change its corporate name to Amiga, Inc. Commodore Gaming was formed to reintroduce the brand to the booming gaming PC market, after jointly acquiring the Commodore name with Commodore International Corporation in 2005. Commodore Gaming: Who? . At the CeBIT 2007 show in Germany, four new gaming geared PCs were introduced; named Cg, Cgs, Cgx and Cxx. These are described as ranging from an entry level gaming PC to an “extreme specification model”. Each machine running Windows Vista with customization from a range of high end components and peripherals. Product line Calculators 774D, 9R23, C110, F4146R, MM3, M55, P50, PR100, SR1800, SR4120D, SR4120R, SR4148D, SR4148R, SR4190R, SR4212, SR4912, SR4921RPN, SR5120D, SR5120R, SR5148D, SR5148R, SR5190R, SR59, SR7919, SR7949, SR9150R, SR9190R, US*3 Computers (listed chronologically) Commodore KIM-1 - single board computer Commodore PET/CBM range Commodore VIC-20 - aka VC-20 and VIC-1001 Commodore CBM-II range - aka B-range aka 600/700 range Commodore MAX Machine - Predecessor to C64 Commodore 64 - incl C64C Commodore Educator 64 - 64 in a PET 40xx case Commodore SX-64 - all-in-one portable C64 incl screen and disk drive Commodore 16 - incl C116, incompatible with C64 Commodore Plus/4 - compatible with C16 Commodore LCD - LCD-equipped laptop (never released) Commodore 128 - incl 128D and 128DCR Commodore 65 - C64 successor (never released) Commodore 900 (never released) Commodore Amiga range Amiga 1000 Amiga 500 Amiga 1500 Amiga 2000 - incl A2000HD Amiga 2500 Amiga 3000 - incl A3000UX & A3000T Amiga 600 Amiga 1200 Amiga 4000 - incl A4000T Commodore PC compatible systems - Commodore Colt, PC1, PC10, PC20, PC30, PC40, ..., 486SX-LTC Peripherals (listed by model number; IEEE-488 devices primarily used with PET/CBM range systems) Commodore 1084/1084S Composite video and RGB monitor (1084: mono audio; 1084S: stereo audio) Commodore 1350 - Mouse (joystick emulation only, thus unable to track differing speeds) Commodore 1351 - Mouse (for use with GEOS and point'n'click apps; analog input, allowing it to track differing speeds) Commodore 1520 - Small serial plotter. Commodore 1525 - dot matrix printer. Commodore 1530 - Data cassette recorder (aka C2N) Commodore 1531 - Data cassette recorder (like 1530 but for C16 & Plus/4) Commodore 1540 - 5¼" Floppy disk drive for use with the VIC-20 Commodore 1541 - 5¼" Floppy disk drive (incl 1541C and 1541-II) for use with the C64 and later Commodore 1551 - 5¼" Floppy disk drive (for C16 & Plus/4; connects to cartridge port) Commodore 1570 - 5¼" Floppy disk drive (primarily for C128), single sided Commodore 1571 - 5¼" Floppy disk drive (primarily for C128), double sided Commodore 1581 - 3½" Floppy disk drive Commodore 1701/1702 - Composite video and Y/C (chroma/luma) monitor Commodore 1700/1750/1764 - RAM Expansion Unit (REU) for C64/128, with 128/512/256 KiB (in that order) Commodore 1801/1802 - Composite video and Y/C monitor Commodore 1901/1902/2002 - Composite, Y/C, and RGB monitor Commodore 2031/4031 - 5¼" Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface Commodore 2031LP - 5¼" Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface (PET/CBM version of Commodore 1541) Commodore 2040/3040 - 5¼" Dual floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface Commodore 4040 - 5¼" Dual floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface, 48 tpi Commodore 8050/8250/8250LP - 5¼" Dual "quad" density floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface, 100 tpi Commodore 8060 - 8" Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface Commodore 8061 - 8" Dual Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface Commodore 8062 - 8" Dual Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface Commodore 8280 - 8" Dual Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface Commodore 9060/9090 - Hard disk drive with 5 MB/10 MB capacity and IEEE-488 interface Commodore SFD-1001 - 5¼" Double sided, quad density floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface Software AmigaOS - Operating system for the Amiga range; multitasking, microkernel, GUI Amiga Unix - Operating system for the Amiga, based on Unix System V Release 4 Commodore BASIC - BASIC interpreter for the 8-bit range, ROM resident; based on Microsoft BASIC Commodore DOS - Disk operating system for the 8-bit range; embedded in disk drive ROMs KERNAL - Core OS routines for the 8-bit range; ROM resident Simons' BASIC - BASIC extension for the C64; cartridge-based Super Expander - BASIC and memory extension for the VIC-20; cartridge-based Super Expander 64 - BASIC extension for the C64 Notes Tim Smith and Chris Lloyd (1994), "Chewing the Facts", 'Amiga Format' Annual 1994, 106-111, 107. Boris Kretzinger: Commodore - Aufstieg und Fall eines Computerriesen, Skriptorium-Verlag, 2005, ISBN 3-938199-04-0. References External links Commodore International Corporation - Co-owner of the Commodore brand. Commodore Gaming - Co-owner of the Commodore brand and maker of Commodore-branded gaming PCs. C64 Preservation Project Preserving original C64 hardware and software C64NET - C64NET Your Commodore Porthole Amiga Forever - A web site, archive and commercial product featuring Commodore and Amiga videos and software Chronological History of Commodore Computer – by Larry Anderson The Canonical List of Commodore Products – by Jim Brain, maintained by Bo Zimmerman Commodore Knowledge Base – including Secret Weapons of Commodore CommodoreWorld – website dedicated to Commodore branded hardware. Service Manuals – and more The Commodore Trivia Archive Many classic Commodores plus timetable, viewable in 3D. Last day of a Commodore Amiga Factory - A sample video from the movie Deathbed Vigil by Dave Haynie | Commodore_International |@lemmatized commodore:154 commonly:1 use:15 name:20 international:9 u:9 electronics:1 company:31 base:10 west:3 chester:3 pennsylvania:4 vital:1 player:5 home:7 personal:3 computer:40 field:1 also:5 know:1 r:1 operation:6 business:8 machine:10 cbm:7 develop:1 market:17 world:2 best:2 selling:2 desktop:1 declare:2 bankruptcy:4 since:1 several:5 attempt:2 revive:2 amiga:57 system:11 merger:1 yeahronimo:2 medium:2 venture:3 inc:14 satxs:1 communication:3 bv:2 tulip:8 history:4 founding:1 early:8 year:11 original:4 logo:2 lowercase:1 pr:1 programmable:2 calculator:7 would:9 become:6 start:7 b:2 v:3 private:1 information:3 toronto:2 polish:1 immigrant:1 auschwitz:1 survivor:1 jack:2 tramiel:23 already:2 run:4 small:4 repair:1 typewriter:2 living:1 new:14 york:1 drive:22 taxicab:1 manage:2 sign:1 deal:1 czechoslovakian:1 manufacture:1 design:11 canada:1 move:4 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4,009 | Hans-Georg_Gadamer | Hans-Georg Gadamer (; February 11, 1900 – March 13, 2002) was a German philosopher of the continental tradition, best known for his 1960 magnum opus, Truth and Method (Wahrheit und Methode). Life Gadamer was born in Marburg, Hesse-Nassau, as the son of a pharmaceutical chemist who later also served as the rector of the university there. He resisted his father's urging to take up the natural sciences and became more and more interested in the humanities. He grew up and studied in Breslau under Richard Hönigswald, but soon moved back to Marburg to study with the Neo-Kantian philosophers Paul Natorp and Nicolai Hartmann. He defended his dissertation in 1922. Shortly thereafter, Gadamer visited Freiburg and began studying with Martin Heidegger, who was then a promising young scholar who had not yet received a professorship. He thus became one of a group of students such as Leo Strauss, Karl Löwith, and Hannah Arendt. He and Heidegger became close, and when Heidegger received a position at Marburg, Gadamer followed him there. It was Heidegger's influence that gave Gadamer's thought its distinctive cast and led him away from the earlier neo-Kantian influences of Natorp and Hartmann. Gadamer habilitated in 1929 and spent most of the early 1930s lecturing in Marburg. Unlike Heidegger, Gadamer was strongly anti-Nazi, although he was not politically active during the Third Reich. He did not receive a paid position during the Nazi years and never entered the Party; only towards the end of the War did he receive an appointment at Leipzig. In 1946, he was found by the American occupation forces to be untainted by Nazism and named rector of the university. Communist East Germany was no more to Gadamer's liking than the Third Reich, and he left for West Germany, accepting first a position in Frankfurt am Main and then the succession of Karl Jaspers in Heidelberg in 1949. He remained in this position, as emeritus, until his death in 2002 at the age of 102. It was during this time that he completed his magnum opus, Truth and Method (1960), and engaged in his famous debate with Jürgen Habermas over the possibility of transcending history and culture in order to find a truly objective position from which to critique society. The debate was inconclusive, but marked the beginning of warm relations between the two men. It was Gadamer who secured Habermas's first professorship in Heidelberg. An attempt to engage Jacques Derrida proved less enlightening because the two thinkers had so little in common. After Gadamer's death, Derrida called their failure to find common ground one of the worst debacles of his life and expressed, in the main obituary for Gadamer, his great personal and philosophical respect. In 1968, he invited Tomonobu Imamichi for lectures at Heidelberg, but their relationship became very cool after Imamichi pointed out that Heidegger had taken his concept of Dasein out of Okakura Kakuzo's concept of das-in-dem-Welt-sein (to be in the being of the world) expressed in The Book of Tea, which Imamichi's teacher had offered to Heidegger in 1919, after having followed lessons with him the year before. Tomonubu Imamichi, In Search of Wisdom. One Philosopher's Journey, Tokyo, International House of Japan, 2004 (quoted by Anne Fagot-Largeau at her lesson at the College of France on 7 December 2006) Imamichi and Gadamer renewed contact four years later during an international congress. Work Gadamer's philosophical project, as explained in Truth and Method, was to elaborate on the concept of "philosophical hermeneutics", which Heidegger initiated but never dealt with at length. Gadamer's goal was to uncover the nature of human understanding. In the book Gadamer argued that "truth" and "method" were at odds with one another. He was critical of two approaches to the human sciences (Geisteswissenschaften). On the one hand, he was critical of modern approaches to humanities that modeled themselves on the natural sciences (and thus on rigorous scientific methods). On the other hand, he took issue with the traditional German approach to the humanities, represented for instance by Friedrich Schleiermacher and Wilhelm Dilthey, which believed that correctly interpreting a text meant recovering the original intention of the author who wrote it. In contrast to both of these positions, Gadamer argued that people have a 'historically effected consciousness' (wirkungsgeschichtliches Bewußtsein) and that they are embedded in the particular history and culture that shaped them. Thus interpreting a text involves a fusion of horizons where the scholar finds the ways that the text's history articulates with their own background. Truth and Method is not meant to be a programmatic statement about a new 'hermeneutic' method of interpreting texts. Gadamer intended Truth and Method to be a description of what we always do when we interpret things (even if we do not know it): ‘My real concern was and is philosophic: not what we do or what we ought to do, but what happens to us over and above our wanting and doing’ (Truth and Method (2nd edn Sheed and Ward, London 1989) xxviii). Truth and Method was published twice in English, and the revised edition is now considered authoritative. The German-language edition of Gadamer's Collected Works includes a volume in which Gadamer elaborates his argument and discusses the critical response to the book. Finally, Gadamer's essay on Celan (entitled "Who Am I and Who Are You?") has been considered by many -- including Heidegger and Gadamer himself -- as a "second volume" or continuation of the argument in Truth and Method. Gadamer also added philosophical substance to the notion of human health. In The Enigma of Health Gadamer explored what it means to heal, as a patient and a provider. In this work the practice and art of medicine are thoroughly examined, as is the inevitability of any cure. In addition to his work in hermeneutics, Gadamer is also well known for a long list of publications on Greek philosophy. Indeed, while Truth and Method became central to his later career, much of Gadamer's early life centered around studying the classics. His work on Plato, for instance, is considered by some to be as important as his work on hermeneutics. Bibliography Primary Dialogue and Dialectic: Eight Hermeneutical Studies on Plato. Trans. and ed. by P. Christopher Smith. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1980. The Enigma of Health: The Art of Healing in a Scientific Age. Trans. John Gaiger and Richard Walker. Oxford: Polity Press, 1996. Gadamer on Celan: ‘Who Am I and Who Are You?’ and Other Essays. By Hans-Georg Gadamer. Trans. and ed. Richard Heinemann and Bruce Krajewski. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1997. The Gadamer Reader: A Bouquet of the Later Writings. Ed. by Richard E. Palmer. Evanston, IL: Northwestern Uiversity Press, 2007. Hegel's Dialectic: Five Hermeneutical Studies. Trans. P. Christopher Smith. New Haven, CT: 1976. Heidegger's Ways. Trans. John W. Stanley. New York, SUNY Press, 1994. The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy. Trans. P. Christopher Smith. New Haven, CT: 1986. Literature and Philosophy in Dialogue: Essays in German Literary Theory. Trans. Robert H. Paslick. New York, SUNY Press, 1993. Philosophical Apprenticeships. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1985 (Gadamer's memoirs.) Philosophical Hermeneutics. Trans. and ed. by David Linge. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. Reason in the Age of Science. Trans. by Frederick Lawrence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981. The Relevance of the Beautiful and Other Essays. Trans. N. Walker. ed. R. Bernasconi, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Praise of Theory. Trans. Chris Dawson. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998. Truth and Method. 2nd rev. edition. Trans. J. Weinsheimer and D.G.Marshall. New York: Crossroad, 1989. ISBN 978-0826476975 excerpt Secondary Dostal, Robert L. ed. The Cambridge Companion to Gadamer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Dunning, Stephen. Paradoxes in Interpretation in Kierkegaard in Post/Modernity. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995. Code, Lorraine. ed. Feminist Interpretations of Hans-Georg Gadamer. University Park: Penn State Press, 2003. Coltman, Robert. The Language of Hermeneutics: Gadamer and Heidegger in Dialogue. Albany: State University Press, 1998 Grondin, Jean. The Philosophy of Gadamer. trans. Kathryn Plant. New York: McGill-Queens University Press, 2002. Grondin, Jean. Hans-Georg Gadamer: A Biography trans Joel Weinsheimer. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. Lawn, Chris. Gadamer : a guide for the perplexed. (Guides for the perplexed) London: Continuum, c2006. ISBN: 9780826484611 Malpas, Jeff, Ulrich Arnswald and Jens Kertscher (eds.). Gadamer's Century: Essays in Honour of Hans-Georg Gadamer. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002. Weinsheimer, Joel. Gadamer's Hermeneutics: A Reading of "Truth and Method". New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985. Wright, Kathleen ed. Festivals of Interpretation: Essays on Hans-Georg Gadamer's Work. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1990. References See also People Augustine of Hippo Betti, Emilio Bultmann, Rudolf Derrida, Jacques Dilthey, Wilhelm Drechsler, Wolfgang Habermas, Jürgen Heidegger, Martin Luther, Martin von Ranke, Leopold Ricoeur, Paul Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ortíz-Osés, Andrés Topics Antipositivism Aristotelianism Critical Theory Frankfurt School Hermeneutics Historical School Radical hermeneutics External links Hans-Georg Gadamer at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Chronology (in German) Works by Gadamer Miguel Ángel Quintana Paz: "On Hermeneutical Ethics and Education", a paper on the relevance of Gadamer's Hermeneutics for our understanding of music, ethics and education in both. | Hans-Georg_Gadamer |@lemmatized han:7 georg:7 gadamer:42 february:1 march:1 german:5 philosopher:3 continental:1 tradition:1 best:1 know:3 magnum:2 opus:2 truth:12 method:14 wahrheit:1 und:1 methode:1 life:3 bear:1 marburg:4 hesse:1 nassau:1 son:1 pharmaceutical:1 chemist:1 later:2 also:4 serve:1 rector:2 university:13 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augustine_hippo:1 derrida_jacques:1 martin_luther:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 miguel_ángel:1 |
4,010 | Approximant_consonant | Approximants are speech sounds (phones) that could be regarded as intermediate between vowels and "typical" consonants. In the articulation of approximants, articulatory organs produce a narrowing of the vocal tract, but leave enough space for air to flow without much audible turbulence. Approximants are therefore more open than fricatives. This class of sounds includes lateral approximants like , as in lip, and approximants like and in yes and well which correspond closely to vowels and semivowels. Corresponding vowels Some approximants resemble vowels. The term semivowel is often used for such segments. (Semivowels are non-syllabic vowel-like segments. While some phoneticians restrict the term to true non-syllabic vowels, which form diphthongs, others include the subset of approximants that resemble vowels. The difference phonetically is that these approximants are closer than the corresponding non-syllabic vowels.) In articulation and often diachronically, palatal approximants correspond to front vowels, velar approximants to back vowels, and labialized approximants to rounded vowels. In American English, the rhotic approximant corresponds to the rhotic vowel. {|class="wikitable" border="1" |- ! Approximant ! Corresponding vowel ! Place of articulation |- align=center | || || Palatal |- align=center | || || Labiopalatal |- align=center | || || Velar |- align=center | || || Labiovelar |- align=center | || || Central rhotic/retroflex |- align=center | || || Pharyngeal |} Approximants versus fricatives When emphasized, approximants may be slightly fricated (that is, the airstream may become slightly turbulent), which is reminiscent of fricatives. Examples are the y of English yes! (especially when lengthened) and the "weak" allophones of Spanish b, d, g, which are often transcribed as fricatives (often due perhaps to a lack of dedicated approximant symbols). However, such frication is generally slight and intermittent, unlike the strong turbulence of fricative consonants. This confusion is also common with voiceless approximants, which necessarily have a certain amount of fricative-like noise. For example, the voiceless labialized velar approximant has traditionally been called a fricative, and no language is known to contrast it with a voiceless labialized velar fricative . Tibetan has a voiceless lateral approximant, , and Welsh has a voiceless lateral fricative , but the distinction is not always clear from descriptions of these languages. Again, no language is known to contrast the two. For places of articulation further back in the mouth, languages do not contrast voiced fricatives and approximants. Therefore the IPA allows the symbols for the voiced fricatives to double for the central approximants, with or without a lowering diacritic. Occasionally the glottal "fricatives" are called approximants, since [h] typically has no more frication than voiceless approximants, but they are often phonations of the glottis without any accompanying manner or place of articulation. Central approximants bilabial approximant (a consonantal ; usually written ) labiodental approximant dental approximant (usually written ) alveolar approximant retroflex approximant (a consonantal ) palatal approximant (a consonantal ) velar approximant (a consonantal ) uvular approximant (usually written ) pharyngeal approximant (a consonantal ; usually written ) epiglottal approximant (usually written ) Lateral approximants In lateral approximants, the center of tongue makes solid contact with the roof of the mouth. However, the defining location is the side of the tongue, which only approaches the teeth. voiced alveolar lateral approximant voiceless alveolar lateral approximant retroflex lateral approximant palatal lateral approximant velar lateral approximant Coarticulated approximants with dedicated IPA symbols voiced labialized velar approximant (a consonantal ) voiceless labialized velar approximant labialized palatal approximant (a consonantal ) velarized alveolar lateral approximant A "central" approximant? Although many languages have central vowels which lie between back/velar and front/palatal , there are no confirmed reports of corresponding approximants. However, Mapudungun may be a possibility: It has three high vowel sounds, , , , written "i", "u", "ü", and three corresponding consonants, written "y", "w", "q". The first two are clearly and . The "q" is often described as a voiced unrounded velar fricative, but some texts note a correspondence between "q" and that is parallel to - and -. An example is liq "white". Listen to a recording References See also List of phonetics topics Semivowel | Approximant_consonant |@lemmatized approximants:23 speech:1 sound:3 phone:1 could:1 regard:1 intermediate:1 vowel:15 typical:1 consonant:3 articulation:5 articulatory:1 organ:1 produce:1 narrowing:1 vocal:1 tract:1 leave:1 enough:1 space:1 air:1 flow:1 without:3 much:1 audible:1 turbulence:2 therefore:2 open:1 fricative:13 class:2 include:2 lateral:11 like:4 lip:1 yes:2 well:1 correspond:6 closely:1 semivowel:4 resemble:2 term:2 often:6 use:1 segment:2 non:3 syllabic:3 phonetician:1 restrict:1 true:1 form:1 diphthong:1 others:1 subset:1 difference:1 phonetically:1 close:1 corresponding:1 diachronically:1 palatal:6 front:2 velar:10 back:3 labialize:5 rounded:1 american:1 english:2 rhotic:3 approximant:25 corresponds:1 wikitable:1 border:1 place:3 align:6 center:7 labiopalatal:1 labiovelar:1 central:5 retroflex:3 pharyngeal:2 versus:1 emphasize:1 may:3 slightly:2 fricated:1 airstream:1 become:1 turbulent:1 reminiscent:1 example:3 especially:1 lengthen:1 weak:1 allophone:1 spanish:1 b:1 g:1 transcribe:1 due:1 perhaps:1 lack:1 dedicate:1 symbol:3 however:3 frication:2 generally:1 slight:1 intermittent:1 unlike:1 strong:1 confusion:1 also:2 common:1 voiceless:8 necessarily:1 certain:1 amount:1 noise:1 traditionally:1 call:2 language:5 know:2 contrast:3 tibetan:1 welsh:1 distinction:1 always:1 clear:1 description:1 two:2 far:1 mouth:2 voiced:3 ipa:2 allow:1 double:1 lowering:1 diacritic:1 occasionally:1 glottal:1 since:1 h:1 typically:1 phonation:1 glottis:1 accompany:1 manner:1 bilabial:1 consonantal:7 usually:5 write:7 labiodental:1 dental:1 alveolar:4 uvular:1 epiglottal:1 tongue:2 make:1 solid:1 contact:1 roof:1 define:1 location:1 side:1 approach:1 teeth:1 voice:2 coarticulated:1 dedicated:1 labialized:1 velarized:1 although:1 many:1 lie:1 confirmed:1 report:1 mapudungun:1 possibility:1 three:2 high:1 u:1 ü:1 w:1 q:3 first:1 clearly:1 describe:1 unrounded:1 texts:1 note:1 correspondence:1 parallel:1 liq:1 white:1 listen:1 recording:1 reference:1 see:1 list:1 phonetics:1 topic:1 |@bigram lateral_approximants:3 rounded_vowel:1 class_wikitable:1 align_center:6 voiceless_labialize:3 labialize_velar:3 velar_approximant:4 velar_fricative:2 voiceless_lateral:2 lateral_approximant:7 lateral_fricative:1 voiced_fricative:2 fricative_approximants:1 glottal_fricative:1 bilabial_approximant:1 approximant_consonantal:7 palatal_approximant:2 alveolar_lateral:3 voiceless_alveolar:1 retroflex_lateral:1 palatal_lateral:1 velar_lateral:1 labialized_velar:1 phonetics_topic:1 |
4,011 | Help_desk | A helpdesk is an information and assistance resource that troubleshoots problems with computers or similar products. Corporations often provide helpdesk support to their customers via a toll-free number, website and/or e-mail. There are also in-house helpdesks geared toward providing the same kind of help for employees only. Some schools offer classes in which they perform similar tasks as a helpdesk. In the Information Technology Infrastructure Library, within companies adhering to ISO/IEC 20000 or seeking to implement IT Service Management best practice, a HelpDesk may offer a wider range of user centric services and be part of a larger Service Desk. Functions A typical helpdesk has several functions. It provides the users a central point to receive help on various computer issues. The helpdesk typically manages its requests via helpdesk software, such as an incident tracking system, that allows them to track user requests with a unique ticket number. This can also be called a "Local Bug Tracker" or LBT. The helpdesk software can often be an extremely beneficial tool when used to find, analyze, and eliminate common problems in an organization's computing environment. There are many software applications available to support the helpdesk function. Some are targeting enterprise level helpdesk (rather large) and some are targeting departmental needs. See Comparison of issue tracking systems. In the mid 1990s, Middleton Middleton, I "Key Factors in HelpDesk Success (An analysis of areas critical to helpdesk development and functionality.)" British Library R&D Report 6247, The British Library 1996 at Robert Gordon University found through his research that many organizations had begun to recognize that the real value of their helpdesk(s) derives not solely from their reactive response to users' issues but from the helpdesk's unique position where it communicates daily with numerous customers or employees. This gives the helpdesk the ability to monitor the user environment for issues from technical problems to user preferences and satisfaction. Such information gathered at the helpdesk can be valuable for use in planning and preparation for other units in IT. Organization Large helpdesks have different levels to handle different types of questions. The first-level helpdesk is prepared to answer the most commonly asked questions, or provide resolutions that often belong in an FAQ or knowledge base. Typically, an incident tracking system has been implemented that allows a logging process to take place at the onset of a call. If the issue isn't resolved at the first-level, the ticket is escalated to a second, higher, level that has the necessary resources to handle more difficult calls. Also note that some organizations have a third, higher again, line of support which often deals with software specific needs, such as updates and bug-fixes that affect the client directly. Larger helpdesks have a person or team responsible for managing the tickets and are commonly called queue managers or queue supervisors. The queue manager is responsible for the ticket queues, which can be setup in various ways depending on the helpdesk size or structure. Typically, larger helpdesks have several teams that are experienced in working on different issues. The queue manager will assign a ticket to one of the specialized teams based on the type of issue. Some helpdesks may have phone systems with ACD splits that ensure that calls about specific topics are put through to analysts with experience or knowledge on that topic. Many helpdesks are also strictly rostered. Time is set aside for analysts to perform tasks such as following up problems, returning phone calls, and answering questions via e-mail. The roster system ensures that all analysts get time to follow up on calls, and also ensures that analysts are always available to take incoming phone calls. As the incoming phone calls are random in nature, helpdesk agent schedules are often maintained using an Erlang C calculation. Deskside team The deskside team (sometimes known as "desktop support") is responsible for the desktops, laptops, and peripherals, such as PDAs. The helpdesk will assign the desktop team the second level deskside issues that the first level was not able to solve. They set up and configure computers for new users and are typically responsible for any physical work relating to the computers such as repairing software or hardware issues and moving workstations to another location. Network team The network team is responsible for the network software, hardware and infrastructure such as servers, switches, backup systems and firewalls. They are responsible for the network services such as email, file, and security. The helpdesk will assign the network team issues that are in their field of responsibility. Other teams Some companies have a telecom team that is responsible for the phone infrastructure such as PBX, voicemail, VOIP, telephone sets, modems and fax machines. They are responsible for configuring and moving telephone numbers, voicemail setup and configuration and are assigned these types of issues from the helpdesk. Companies with custom application software may also have an applications team, who are responsible for development of any in-house software. The Applications team may be assigned problems such as software bugs from the HelpDesk. Requests for new features or capabilities to in-house software that come through the HelpDesk are also assigned to Applications groups. Not all of the helpdesk staff and supporting IT staff are in the same location. With remote access applications, technicians are able to solve many helpdesk issues from another location or their home office. There is a need for on-site support to physically work on some helpdesk issues; however, helpdesks are able to be more flexible with their remote support. They can also audit workstations. Helpdesk is a broadly applied term referring to a staffed resource—often, an actual desk, or a telephone service—that can help persons answer questions or to use resources such as audio-visual or computer resources. References See also Call center Customer service Customer Service System Support automation Technical support Help!!Desk - Please Hold. Link to the synopsis of a Musical Comedy about a Corporate Help Desk Help!!Desk - Please Hold! External links Help!!Desk - Please Hold. Link to the synopsis of a Musical Comedy about a Corporate Help Desk entitled: Help!!Desk - Please Hold! LiveHelpDesks.com- Help Desk Software Directory and Guide | Help_desk |@lemmatized helpdesk:35 information:3 assistance:1 resource:5 troubleshoot:1 problem:5 computer:5 similar:2 product:1 corporation:1 often:6 provide:4 support:9 customer:4 via:3 toll:1 free:1 number:3 website:1 e:2 mail:2 also:9 house:3 gear:1 toward:1 kind:1 help:10 employee:2 school:1 offer:2 class:1 perform:2 task:2 technology:1 infrastructure:3 library:3 within:1 company:3 adhere:1 iso:1 iec:1 seek:1 implement:2 service:7 management:1 best:1 practice:1 may:4 wider:1 range:1 user:7 centric:1 part:1 large:5 desk:9 function:3 typical:1 several:2 central:1 point:1 receive:1 various:2 issue:13 typically:4 manage:2 request:3 software:11 incident:2 track:4 system:7 allow:2 unique:2 ticket:5 call:10 local:1 bug:3 tracker:1 lbt:1 extremely:1 beneficial:1 tool:1 use:4 find:2 analyze:1 eliminate:1 common:1 organization:4 compute:1 environment:2 many:4 application:6 available:2 target:2 enterprise:1 level:7 rather:1 departmental:1 need:3 see:2 comparison:1 mid:1 middleton:2 key:1 factor:1 success:1 analysis:1 area:1 critical:1 development:2 functionality:1 british:2 r:1 report:1 robert:1 gordon:1 university:1 research:1 begin:1 recognize:1 real:1 value:1 derive:1 solely:1 reactive:1 response:1 position:1 communicate:1 daily:1 numerous:1 give:1 ability:1 monitor:1 technical:2 preference:1 satisfaction:1 gather:1 valuable:1 planning:1 preparation:1 unit:1 different:3 handle:2 type:3 question:4 first:3 prepare:1 answer:3 commonly:2 ask:1 resolution:1 belong:1 faq:1 knowledge:2 base:2 logging:1 process:1 take:2 place:1 onset:1 resolve:1 escalate:1 second:2 high:2 necessary:1 difficult:1 note:1 third:1 line:1 deal:1 specific:2 update:1 fix:1 affect:1 client:1 directly:1 person:2 team:13 responsible:9 queue:5 manager:3 supervisor:1 setup:2 way:1 depend:1 size:1 structure:1 experience:2 work:3 assign:6 one:1 specialized:1 phone:5 acd:1 split:1 ensure:3 topic:2 put:1 analyst:4 strictly:1 rostered:1 time:2 set:3 aside:1 follow:2 return:1 roster:1 get:1 always:1 incoming:2 random:1 nature:1 agent:1 schedule:1 maintain:1 erlang:1 c:1 calculation:1 deskside:3 sometimes:1 know:1 desktop:3 laptop:1 peripheral:1 pda:1 able:3 solve:2 configure:2 new:2 physical:1 relate:1 repair:1 hardware:2 move:2 workstation:2 another:2 location:3 network:5 server:1 switch:1 backup:1 firewall:1 email:1 file:1 security:1 field:1 responsibility:1 telecom:1 pbx:1 voicemail:2 voip:1 telephone:3 modem:1 fax:1 machine:1 configuration:1 custom:1 feature:1 capability:1 come:1 group:1 staff:2 remote:2 access:1 technician:1 home:1 office:1 site:1 physically:1 however:1 flexible:1 audit:1 broadly:1 applied:1 term:1 refer:1 staffed:1 actual:1 audio:1 visual:1 reference:1 center:1 automation:1 please:4 hold:4 link:3 synopsis:2 musical:2 comedy:2 corporate:2 external:1 entitle:1 livehelpdesks:1 com:1 directory:1 guide:1 |@bigram iso_iec:1 bug_fix:1 desktop_laptop:1 external_link:1 |
4,012 | IP_address | An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical identification and logical address that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes. RFC 760, Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are usually displayed in human-readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6). The role of the IP address has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there." RFC 791, The original designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit number and this system, now named Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the resulting depletion of the address space, a new addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995 RFC 1883, and last standardized by RFC 2460 in 1998. RFC 2460, Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification, S. Deering, R. Hinden, The Internet Society (December 1998) The Internet Protocol also has the task of routing data packets between networks, and IP addresses specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing system. For this purpose, some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a subnetwork. The number of these bits is indicated in CIDR notation, appended to the IP address, e.g., 208.77.188.166/24. With the development of private networks and the threat of IPv4 address exhaustion, a group of private address spaces was set aside by RFC 1918. These private addresses may be used by anyone on private networks. They are often used with network address translators to connect to the global public Internet. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages the IP address space allocations globally. IANA works in cooperation with five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to Local Internet Registries (Internet service providers) and other entities. IP versions The Internet Protocol (IP) has two versions currently in use (see IP version history for details). Each version has its own definition of an IP address. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. An illustration of an IP address (version 4), in both dot-decimal notation and binary. IP version 4 addresses IPv4 uses 32-bit (4-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to 4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique addresses. However, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses, and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an IPv4 address shortage appears to be inevitable in the long run. This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards IPv6, which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only offering to replace IPv4. IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation (four numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g. 208.77.188.166). Each part represents 8 bits of the address, and is therefore called an octet. In less common cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations. When converting, each octet is usually treated as a separate number. IPv4 networks In the early stages of development of the Internet protocol, network administrators interpreted an IP address as a structure of network number and host number. The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) was designated the network number and the rest of the bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering within a network. This method soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent from the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture. Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address was defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (B and C). The following table gives an overview of this system. Class First octet in binary Range of first octet Network ID Host ID Possible number of networks Possible number of hosts A 0XXXXXXX 0 - 127 a b.c.d 27 = 128 224 - 2 = 16,777,214 B 10XXXXXX 128 - 191 a.b c.d 214 = 16,384 216 - 2 = 65,534 C 110XXXXX 192 - 223 a.b.c d 221 = 2,097,152 28 - 2 = 254 The articles 'subnetwork' and 'classful network' explain the details of this design. Although classful network design was a successful developmental stage, it proved unscalable in the rapid expansion of the Internet and was abandoned when Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) was created for the allocation of IP address blocks and new rules of routing protocol packets using IPv4 addresses. CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing on arbitrary-length prefixes. Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions. IPv4 private addresses Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved (IPv4 address exhaustion). Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally-unique IP addresses. Three ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks, one range for each class (A, B, C), were reserved in RFC 1918. These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry. Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network address translation (NAT). IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges Start End No. of addresses 24-bit Block (/8 prefix, 1 x A) 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16,777,216 20-bit Block (/12 prefix, 16 x B) 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1,048,576 16-bit Block (/16 prefix, 256 x C) 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 65,536 Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24). IPv4 address depletion The IP version 4 address space is rapidly nearing exhaustion of available, officially assignable address blocks. IP version 6 addresses An illustration of an IP address (version 6), in hexadecimal and binary. The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space, despite conservation techniques, prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the Internet's addressing capability. The permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This next generation of the Internet Protocol, aimed to replace IPv4 on the Internet, was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995 The address size was increased from 32 to 128 bits or 16 octets, which, even with a generous assignment of network blocks, is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. Mathematically, the new address space provides the potential for a maximum of 2128, or about 3.403 × 1038 unique addresses. The new design is not based on the goal to provide a sufficient quantity of addresses alone, but rather to allow efficient aggregation of subnet routing prefixes to occur at routing nodes. As a result, routing table sizes are smaller, and the smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 264 hosts, which is the size of the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization rates will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment--that is the local administration of the segment's available space--from the addressing prefix used to route external traffic for a network. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks should the global connectivity or the routing policy change without requiring internal redesign or renumbering. The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is not the need to have complex address conservation methods as used in classless inter-domain routing (CIDR). All desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6 protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as home networking routers, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals. Example of an IPv6 address: 2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7334 IPv6 private addresses Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private or internal networks, there are blocks of addresses set aside in IPv6 for private addresses. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULA). RFC 4193 sets aside the routing prefix fc00::/7 for this block which is divided into two /8 blocks with different implied policies (cf. IPv6) The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted. Early designs (RFC 3513) used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site-local addresses. However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. The address range specification was abandoned and must no longer be used in new systems. Addresses starting with fe80: — called link-local addresses — are assigned only in the local link area. The addresses are generated usually automatically by the operating system's IP layer for each network interface. This provides instant automatic network connectivity for any IPv6 host and means that if several hosts connect to a common hub or switch, they have an instant communication path via their link-local IPv6 address. This feature is used extensively, and invisibly to most users, in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration (cf. Neighbor Discovery Protocol). None of the private address prefixes may be routed in the public Internet. IP subnetworks The technique of subnetting can operate in both IPv4 and IPv6 networks. The IP address is divided into two parts: the network address and the host identifier. The subnet mask (in IPv4 only) or the CIDR prefix determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts. The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet. Static and dynamic IP addresses When a computer is configured to use the same IP address each time it powers up, this is known as a Static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is assigned automatically, it is known as a Dynamic IP address. Method of assignment Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator. The exact procedure varies according to platform. This contrasts with dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned either by the computer interface or host software itself, as in Zeroconf, or assigned by a server using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Even though IP addresses assigned using DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In some cases, a network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this case, a DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP address to a particular computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured centrally, without having to specifically configure each computer on the network in a manual procedure. In the absence of both an administrator (to assign a static IP address) and a DHCP server, the operating system may assign itself an IP address using state-less autoconfiguration methods, such as Zeroconf. Uses of dynamic addressing Dynamic IP addresses are most frequently assigned on LANs and broadband networks by Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. They are used because it avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows many devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be online at a particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a network with a DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assigning dynamic IP addresses. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol. Sticky dynamic IP address A sticky dynamic IP address or sticky IP is an informal term used by cable and DSL Internet access subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address that does not change often. The addresses are usually assigned with the DHCP protocol. Since the modems are usually powered-on for extended periods of time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply renewed upon expiration. If a modem is turned off and powered up again before the next expiration of the address lease, it will most likely receive the same IP address. Address autoconfiguration RFC 3330 defines an address block, 169.254.0.0/16, for the special use in link-local addressing for IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the fe80::/10 subnet. These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet. When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). Due to Microsoft's market power, APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. Many years later, the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, RFC 3927, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses. Uses of static addressing Some infrastructure situations have to use static addressing, such as when finding the Domain Name System host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are also convenient, but not absolutely necessary, to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address obtained from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be looked up to confirm that it has not changed. Even static IP addresses do change as a result of network administration (RFC 2072) Modifications to IP addressing IP blocking and firewalls Firewalls are common on 's Internet. For increased network security, they control access to private networks based on the public IP of the client. Whether using a blacklist or a whitelist, the IP address that is blocked is the perceived public IP address of the client, meaning that if the client is using a proxy server or NAT, blocking one IP address might block many individual people. IP address translation Multiple client devices can appear to share IP addresses: either because they are part of a shared hosting web server environment or because an IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of its customers, in which case the real originating IP addresses might be hidden from the server receiving a request. A common practice is to have a NAT hide a large number of IP addresses in a private network. Only the "outside" interface(s) of the NAT need to have Internet-routable addresses Comer pg.394 . Most commonly, the NAT device maps TCP or UDP port numbers on the outside to individual private addresses on the inside. Just as a telephone number may have site-specific extensions, the port numbers are site-specific extensions to an IP address. In small home networks, NAT functions usually take place in a residential gateway device, typically one marketed as a "router". In this scenario, the computers connected to the router would have 'private' IP addresses and the router would have a 'public' address to communicate with the Internet. This type of router allows several computers to share one public IP address. See also Classful network Geolocation Geolocation software hostname: a human-readable alpha-numeric designation that may map to an IP address Internet IP address spoofing IP blocking IP Multicast IP2Location, a geolocation system using IP addresses. List of assigned /8 IP address blocks MAC address Ping Private network Provider Aggregatable Address Space Provider Independent Address Space Regional Internet Registry African Network Information Center American Registry for Internet Numbers Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry RIPE Network Coordination Centre Subnet address Virtual IP address References External links Articles on CircleID about IP addressing How to get a static IP address - clear instructions for all the major platforms — including sites for identifying one's IP address Understanding IP Addressing: Everything You Ever Wanted To Know RFCs IPv4 addresses: RFC 791, RFC 1519, RFC 1918, RFC 2071, RFC 2072 IPv6 addresses: RFC 4291, RFC 4192 | IP_address |@lemmatized internet:39 protocol:18 ip:83 address:163 numerical:1 identification:2 logical:1 assign:19 device:8 participate:1 computer:11 network:68 utilize:1 communication:3 node:3 rfc:19 although:2 store:1 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4,013 | J._Edgar_Hoover | John Edgar Hoover (January 1, 1895 – May 2, 1972), generally known as J. Edgar Hoover, was the first Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) of the United States. Appointed director of the Bureau of Investigation—predecessor to the FBI—in 1924, he was instrumental in founding the FBI in 1935, where he remained director until his death in 1972. Hoover is credited with building the FBI into a large and efficient crime-fighting agency, and with instituting a number of modern innovations to police technology, such as a centralized fingerprint file and forensic laboratories. Hoover was highly regarded by much of the U.S. public, but posthumously he became an increasingly controversial figure. His many critics asserted that he exceeded the jurisdiction of the FBI. He used the FBI to harass political dissenters and activists, to amass secret files on political leaders, and to use illegal methods to collect evidence. Documented in and elsewhere. It is because of Hoover's long and controversial reign that FBI directors are now limited to 10-year terms. U.S. Code Title 28, part 2, chapter 33. sec. 533, Confirmation and Compensation of Director; Term of Service (b) Early life and education Hoover was born on New Year's Day in 1895 in Washington, D.C., to Anna Marie Scheitlin, who was descended from a line of Swiss mercenaries, and Dickerson Naylor Hoover, Sr., of English and German stock, and grew up in the Eastern Market. Annie's uncle had been the Swiss honorary consul general to the U.S. Hoover worked at the Library of Congress during college Federal Bureau of Investigation - Directors, Then and Now and also became a member of Kappa Alpha Order (Alpha Nu 1914). In 1917 Hoover obtained a law degree from George Washington University. While a law student, Hoover became interested in the career of Anthony Comstock, the New York City U.S. Postal Inspector, who waged prolonged campaigns against fraud and vice (as well as pornography and information on birth control) a generation earlier. Hoover is thought to have studied Comstock's methods and modeled his early career on Comstock's reputation for relentless pursuit and occasional procedural violations in crime fighting. FBI career During World War I, Hoover found work with the Justice Department. He soon proved himself capable and was promoted to head of the Enemy Aliens Registration Section. In 1919, he became head of the new General Intelligence Division of the Justice Department (see the Palmer Raids). From there, in 1921, he joined the Bureau of Investigation as deputy head, and in 1924, the Attorney General made him the acting director. On May 10, 1924, Hoover was appointed by President Calvin Coolidge to be the sixth director of the Bureau of Investigation, following President Warren Harding's death and in response to allegations that the prior director, William J. Burns, was involved in the financial scandal(s) of the Harding administration. When Hoover took over the Bureau of Investigation, it had approximately 650 employees, including 441 Special Agents. Hoover was noted as sometimes being capricious in his leadership; he frequently fired FBI agents by singling out those who he thought "looked stupid like truck drivers" or he considered to be "pinheads." He also relocated agents who had displeased him to career-ending assignments and locations. Melvin Purvis was a prime example; he was one of the most effective agents in capturing and breaking up 1930s gangs and received substantial public recognition, but a jealous Hoover maneuvered him out of the FBI. Gangster wars In the early 1930s, an epidemic of bank robberies in the Midwest was orchestrated by colorful criminal gangs who took advantage of superior firepower and fast getaway cars to bedevil local law enforcement agencies. To the chagrin and embarrassment of authorities, such robbers were often viewed as somewhat noble in their assaults upon the banking industry, which at the time was evicting many farmers and families from their homesteads. That empathy reached the point that many of these desperadoes, particularly the dashing John Dillinger (who became famous for leaping over bank cages and his repeated escapes from jails and police traps), were de facto folk heroes whose exploits frequently made headlines. State officials began to implore Washington to aid them in containing this lawlessness. The fact that the robbers frequently took stolen cars across state lines (a federal offense) gave Hoover and his men the authority to pursue them. Things did not go as planned, however, and there were some embarrassing foul-ups on the part of the FBI, particularly clashes with the Dillinger gang. Hoover in 1935. A raid on a summer lodge named "Little Bohemia" in Manitowish Waters, Wisconsin, left an agent and a hapless civilian bystander dead, along with others wounded. All the gangsters escaped. Hoover realized that his job was now on the line, and he pulled out all stops to capture the culprits. Hoover was particularly fixated on eliminating Dillinger, whose misdeeds he considered to be insults aimed directly at him and "his" bureau. In late July 1934, Melvin Purvis, the Director of Operations in the Chicago office, received a tip on the whereabouts of John Dillinger. That paid off when the gangster was cut down in a hail of gunfire outside the Biograph Theater. Because of several highly-publicized captures or shootings of outlaws and bank robbers including Dillinger, Alvin Karpis, and Machine Gun Kelly, the Bureau's powers were broadened and it was re-named the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. In 1939, the FBI became pre-eminent in the field of domestic intelligence. Hoover made changes, such as expanding and combining fingerprint files in the Identification Division to compile the largest collection of fingerprints ever. Hoover also helped to greatly expand the FBI's recruitment and create the FBI Laboratory, a division established in 1932 to examine evidence found by the FBI. Investigation of subversion and radicals Hoover was concerned about subversion, and under his leadership, the FBI spied upon tens of thousands of suspected subversives and radicals. Hoover tended to exaggerate the dangers of subversives, and many times overstepped his bounds in his pursuit of eliminating that perceived threat. See, for example, The FBI had some successes against actual subversives and spies. However, in the Quirin affair during World War II, when German U-boats set two small groups of Nazi agents ashore in Florida and Long Island to cause acts of sabotage within the country, the members of these teams were apprehended only after one of the would-be saboteurs contacted the FBI, confessed everything, and then betrayed the other seven men. Nevertheless, President Harry Truman wrote in his memoirs: "The country had reason to be proud of and have confidence in our security agencies. They had kept us almost totally free of sabotage and espionage during the World War II". Another example of Hoover's concern over subversion was his handling of the Venona Project. The FBI inherited a pre-World War II joint project with the British to eavesdrop on Soviet spies in the UK and the United States. Hoover kept the intercepts — America's greatest counterintelligence secret — in a locked safe in his office, choosing not to inform Truman, his Attorney General McGraith, or two Secretaries of State — Dean Acheson and General George Marshall — while they held office. He informed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the Venona Project in 1952. According to documents declassified in 2007, Hoover maintained a list of 12,000 Americans suspected of disloyalty with the intention of detaining them and to do so by suspending the writ of habeas corpus. Hoover submitted his plan to President Harry Truman at the outbreak of the Korean War, but there is no evidence that Truman accepted the plan. COINTELPRO years In 1956, Hoover was becoming increasingly frustrated by Supreme Court decisions that limited the Justice Department's ability to prosecute people for their political opinions, most notably, Communists. At this time he formalized a covert "dirty tricks" program under the name COINTELPRO. This program remained in place until it was revealed to the public in 1971, and was the cause of some of the harshest criticism of Hoover and the FBI. COINTELPRO was first used to disrupt the Communist Party, and later organizations such as the Black Panther Party, Martin Luther King, Jr.'s SCLC, the Ku Klux Klan, the neofascist American Nazi Party and others. Its methods included infiltration, burglaries, illegal wiretaps, planting forged documents and spreading false rumors about key members of target organizations. Some authors have charged that COINTELPRO methods also included inciting violence and arranging murders. See for example , and . In 1975, the activities of COINTELPRO were investigated by the "United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities" called the Church Committee after its chairman, Senator Frank Church (D-Idaho) and these activities were declared illegal and contrary to the Constitution. Hoover amassed significant power by collecting files containing large amounts of compromising and potentially embarrassing information on many powerful people, especially politicians. According to Laurence Silberman, appointed Deputy Attorney General in early 1974, FBI Director Clarence M. Kelley thought such files either did not exist or had been destroyed. After The Washington Post broke a story in January 1975, Kelley searched and found them in his outer office. The House Judiciary Committee then demanded that Silberman testify about them. An extensive investigation of Hoover's files by David Garrow showed that Hoover and next-in-command William Sullivan, as well as the FBI itself as an agency, were responsible. In 1956, several years before he targeted King, Hoover had a public showdown with T.R.M. Howard, a civil rights leader from Mound Bayou, Mississippi. During a national speaking tour, Howard had criticized the FBI's failure to thoroughly investigate the racially motivated murders of George W. Lee, Lamar Smith, and Emmett Till. Hoover not only wrote an open letter to the press singling out these statements as "irresponsible" but secretly enlisted the help of NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall in a campaign to discredit Howard. Response to Mafia and civil rights groups In the 1950s, evidence of Hoover's unwillingness to focus FBI resources on the Mafia became grist for the media and his many detractors, after famed reporter Jack Anderson exposed the immense scope of the Mafia's organized crime network, a threat Hoover had long downplayed. Hoover's retaliation and continual harassment of Anderson lasted into the 1970s. His moves against people who maintained contacts with subversive elements, some of whom were members of the civil rights movement, also led to accusations of trying to undermine their reputations. His alleged treatment of actress Jean Seberg and Martin Luther King, Jr. are two such examples. Hoover personally directed the FBI investigation into the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. The House Select Committee on Assassinations issued a report in 1979 critical of the performance by the FBI, the Warren Commission as well as other agencies. The report also criticized what it characterized as the FBI's reluctance to thoroughly investigate the possibility of a conspiracy to assassinate the president. Late career and death Presidents Harry Truman, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson each considered firing Hoover but concluded that the political cost of doing so would be too great. Hack, 2007 Hoover maintained strong support in Congress until his death in 1972 from the effects of high blood pressure. Operational command of the Bureau passed to Associate Director Clyde Tolson. Soon thereafter, President Nixon appointed L. Patrick Gray, a Justice Department official with no FBI experience, as Acting Director, with W. Mark Felt remaining as Associate Director. Being passed over to head the FBI is said to have contributed to W. Mark Felt's decision to become the informant later referred to as "Deep Throat". Legacy Hoover was a consultant to Warner Brothers on a 1959 theatrical film about the FBI, The FBI Story, and in 1965 on Warner Brothers' long-running spin-off television series, The F.B.I.. Hoover personally made sure that Warner Brothers would portray the FBI more favorably than other crime dramas of the times. In 1979, the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) under Senator Richard Schweiker, which had re-opened the investigation into the assassination of President Kennedy, reported that Hoover's FBI "failed to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy to assassinate the President." The HSCA further reported that Hoover's FBI "was deficient in its sharing of information with other agencies and departments." HCSA Conclusions, 1979. The FBI Headquarters in Washington, D.C. is named after Hoover. Because of the controversial nature of Hoover's legacy, there have been periodic proposals to rename it. In 2001, Senator Harry Reid sponsored an amendment to strip Hoover's name from the building. "J. Edgar Hoover's name on the FBI building is a stain on the building," Reid said. The amendment was not adopted by the Senate. Personal life Sexuality FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover and Associate FBI Director Clyde Tolson. satirical depiction of Hoover by Pat Oliphant, 1995 Hoover was a lifelong bachelor, and since at least the 1940s unsubstantiated rumors have circulated that he was homosexual. It has also been suggested that Clyde Tolson, an associate director of the FBI who was also Hoover's heir, was also his lover. Some authors have dismissed the rumors about Hoover's sexuality and his relationship with Tolson in particular as unlikely, For example, , , "The strange likelihood is that Hoover never knew sexual desire at all." while others have described them as probable or even "confirmed", For example, , and still others have reported the rumors without stating an opinion. For example, , Hoover described Tolson as his alter ego: the men not only worked closely together during the day, but also took meals, went to night clubs and vacationed together. The exceedingly close relationship between the two is often cited as evidence that the two were sexually involved, though some FBI employees who knew them, such as Mark Felt, say that the relationship was merely "brotherly." Tolson inherited Hoover's estate and moved into his home, having also accepted the American flag that draped Hoover's casket. Tolson is buried a few yards away from Hoover in the Congressional Cemetery. Attorney Roy Cohn, an associate of Hoover during the 1950s investigations of Communists and himself a closeted homosexual, opined that Hoover was too frightened of his own sexuality to have anything approaching a normal sexual or romantic relationship. In his 1993 biography Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of J Edgar Hoover, journalist Anthony Summers quoted a witness, "society divorcee" Susan Rosenstiel, who claimed to have seen Hoover engaging in cross-dressing and homosexual acts in orgies on two occasions in the 1950s. Summers also said that the Mafia had blackmail material on Hoover, and that as a consequence, Hoover had been reluctant to aggressively pursue organized crime. Although never corroborated, the allegation of cross-dressing has been widely repeated, and "J. Edna Hoover" has become the subject of humor on television, in movies and elsewhere. In the words of author Thomas Doherty, "For American popular culture, the image of the zaftig FBI director as a Christine Jorgensen wanna-be was too delicious not to savor." Most biographers consider the story of Mafia blackmail to be unlikely in light of the FBI's actual investigations of the Mafia. See for example Along these lines Truman Capote, who helped spread the rumors, once remarked that he was more interested in making Hoover angry than determining whether the rumors were true. Hoover hunted down and threatened anyone who made insinuations about his sexuality. He also spread destructive, unsubstantiated rumors that Adlai Stevenson was gay to damage the liberal governor's 1952 Presidential Campaign. His extensive secret files contained surveillance material on Eleanor Roosevelt's alleged lesbian lovers, speculated to be acquired for the purpose of blackmail. The use made of the reports of Hoover's homosexual activities and relationship in order to discredit him, by the political left, has been described as homophobic. To explain his apparently contradictory behaviour, it has been suggested that Hoover is a symbol of internalised homophobia, his self-hatred illustrated by his persecution of homosexuals at the same time as he himself engaged in homosexuality and transvestism. Against this view, it is argued that Hoover was a product of his generation, which held a personal-life approach to homosexuality, which conflicted with the new wave of collective-rights activism from the 1950's on; Hoover would have viewed homosexual-rights activist groups in the same way he viewed any dissident group, a threat to the FBI. Despite the homosexuality rumors, Hoover's biographer Richard Hack Hack, Richard Puppetmaster: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover. (2007). Phoenix Books. ISBN 1597775126 reports that Hoover was romantically linked to actress Dorothy Lamour in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and that after Hoover's death, Lamour did not deny rumors that she'd had an affair with Hoover in the years between her two marriages. Hack additionally reports that during the 1940s and 1950s, Hoover so often attended social events with Lela Rogers, the divorced mother of dancer and actress Ginger Rogers, that many of their mutual friends assumed the pair would eventually marry. Grave of J. Edgar Hoover in Congressional Cemetery (Washington, DC, USA) Possible African-American family connections African American author Millie McGhee Millie McGhee biography claims in her 2000 book Secrets Uncovered to be related to J. Edgar Hoover. McGhee's oral family history holds that a branch of her Mississippi family, also named Hoover, is related to the Washington, D.C., Hoovers, and that further, J. Edgar's father was not Dickerson Hoover as recorded, but rather Ivery Hoover of Mississippi. Genealogist George Ott investigated these claims and found some supporting circumstantial evidence, as well as unusual alterations of records pertaining to Hoover's officially recorded family in Washington, D.C., but found no conclusive proof. J. Edgar Hoover's birth certificate was not filed until 1938, when he was 43 years old. Eccentricities The book No Left Turns, by former agent Joseph L. Schott, portrays a rigid, paranoid old man who terrified everyone, increasingly a caricature of himself. For example, Hoover liked to write on the margins of memos and, according to Schott, when one memo had too narrow margins he wrote, "watch the borders!" No one had the nerve to ask him why, but they sent inquiries to the Border Patrol about any strange activities on the Canadian and Mexican frontiers. It took a week before an HQ staffer realized the message related to the borders of the memo paper. Schott has also stated that the mistakenly increased border activity during this period resulted in the arrest of American Communist Party leader Gus Hall. Honors In 1938, Hoover received an honorary doctorate from Oklahoma Baptist University during the commencement exercises in which he was the speaker http://www.okbu.edu/alumni/honordocs.html https://www.okbu.edu/news/2004-12-15/how-the-angells-changed-obu In 1950, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded Hoover an honorary knighthood in the Order of the British Empire. This entitled him to the postnominal letters KBE, but not to the use of the title "Sir" by U.S. citizens. In 1955, Hoover received the National Security Medal from President Eisenhower. In 1966, he received the Distinguished Service Award from President Lyndon B. Johnson for his service as director of the FBI. The FBI headquarters in Washington, DC, is named the J. Edgar Hoover Building after him. On Hoover's death, Congress voted its permission for his body to lie in state in the Capitol Rotunda, an honor that, at the time, had been accorded to twenty-one other Americans. Congress also voted that a memorial book be published to honor Hoover's memory. "J. Edgar Hoover: Memorial Tributes in the Congress of the United States and Various Articles and Editorials Relating to His Life and Work" was published in 1974. Portrayals In an Animaniacs short parodying World War II propaganda promoting home front efforts, the Warner Brothers and Sister are collecting silk stocking for the effort and J. Edgar Hoover comes to eagerly collect them personally. Hoover was portrayed by actor Bob Hoskins in the Oliver Stone drama Nixon (1996). Broderick Crawford and James Wainwright portrayed Hoover in the Larry Cohen film The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover. In the upcoming Michael Mann film Public Enemies Hoover will be portrayed by actor Billy Crudup. Hoover was portrayed by actor Richard Dysart in Mario Van Peebles' 1995 film Panther as a tyrannical, racist, corrupt, and anti-communist director of the FBI who engaged in illegal activities to shut down the Black Panther Party. Hoover was portrayed by actor Kevin Dunn in the movie Chaplin. In the 1971 Woody Allen movie Bananas J. Edgar Hoover was portrayed by a large framed African-American actress named Dorothi Fox. Full cast and crew for Bananas (1971) at imdb In the video game Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth, Hoover leads the raid on the Innsmouth gold refinery. See also Anti-communism Federal Bureau of Investigation G-Man (slang) McCarthyism Writings J. Edgar Hoover was the nominal author of a number of books and articles. Although it is widely believed that all of these were ghostwritten by FBI employees, See, for example: , , Hoover received the credit and royalties. Footnotes References and further reading External links StraightDope.com – 'The Straight Dope: Was J. Edgar Hoover a crossdresser?' Time.com - 'The Truth about Hoover', December 22, 1975 Wall Street Journal – 'Hoover's Institution', Laurence H. Silberman, July 20, 2005 Assassination Records Review Board – Final Report: 1998 Zpub.com – 'J. 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4,014 | Military_of_Chile | Chile's armed forces are subject to civilian control exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense. Military service of 12 to 24 months is mandatory for all male citizens upon turning 18. This conscription service can be postponed for educational or religious reasons. In recent years and after several major reequipment programs, the Chilean Armed Forces have become one of the most technologically advanced and professional of the Americas. Structure Army The current Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army is Gen. Óscar Izurieta Ferrer. The 45,000-person army is organized into six divisions and one air brigade. The army operates Leopard IV as main battle tank. The purchase of 140 second hand Leopard 2A4 from the German army is under delivery. It must be noted that the Chilean Army has never lost a war. This is stated in their main statement "siempre vencedor y jamas vencido", with English translation: "always victorious and never defeated". Navy Admiral Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 18,000-person Chilean Navy, including 4,800 Marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, eight are major combatant ships and they are based in Valparaíso. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighters or bomber aircraft but they have attack helicopters. The Navy also operates four submarines based in Talcahuano. Air Force Gen. Ricardo Ortega Perrier heads 11,000 strong Chilean Air Force. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on King George Island, Antarctica. External links Ejército de Chile (Army) Armada de Chile website (Navy) Fuerza Aérea de Chile website (Air Force) | Military_of_Chile |@lemmatized chile:4 arm:2 force:6 subject:1 civilian:1 control:1 exercise:1 president:1 minister:1 defense:1 military:1 service:2 month:1 mandatory:1 male:1 citizen:1 upon:1 turn:1 conscription:1 postpone:1 educational:1 religious:1 reason:1 recent:1 year:1 several:1 major:2 reequipment:1 program:1 chilean:5 become:1 one:2 technologically:1 advanced:1 professional:1 america:1 structure:1 army:7 current:1 commander:1 chief:1 gen:2 óscar:1 izurieta:1 ferrer:1 person:2 organize:1 six:1 division:1 air:7 brigade:2 operate:4 leopard:2 iv:1 main:2 battle:1 tank:1 purchase:1 second:1 hand:1 german:1 delivery:1 must:1 note:1 never:2 lose:1 war:1 state:1 statement:1 siempre:1 vencedor:1 jamas:1 vencido:1 english:1 translation:1 always:1 victorious:1 defeat:1 navy:5 admiral:1 rodolfo:1 codina:1 díaz:1 direct:1 include:1 marine:1 fleet:1 surface:1 vessel:1 eight:1 combatant:1 ship:1 base:2 valparaíso:1 aircraft:2 transport:1 patrol:1 fighter:1 bomber:1 attack:1 helicopter:1 also:2 four:1 submarine:1 talcahuano:1 ricardo:1 ortega:1 perrier:1 head:1 strong:1 asset:1 distribute:1 among:1 five:1 headquarter:1 iquique:1 antofagasta:1 santiago:1 puerto:1 montt:1 punta:1 arena:1 airbase:1 king:1 george:1 island:1 antarctica:1 external:1 link:1 ejército:1 de:3 armada:1 website:2 fuerza:1 aérea:1 |@bigram technologically_advanced:1 commander_chief:1 fighter_bomber:1 brigade_headquarter:1 puerto_montt:1 punta_arena:1 external_link:1 fuerza_aérea:1 |
4,015 | Dimensional_analysis | Dimensional analysis is a conceptual tool often applied in physics, chemistry, and engineering to understand physical situations involving certain physical quantities. It is routinely used by mathematicians, statisticians, physical scientists and engineers to check the plausibility of derived equations and computations. It is also used to form reasonable hypotheses about complex physical situations that can be tested by experiment or by more developed theories of the phenomena, and to categorise types of physical quantities and units based on their relations to or dependence on other units, or their "dimensions", or their lack thereof. Dimensional analysis was developed by the 19th century French mathematician Joseph Fourier. , based on the idea that the physical laws like F = ma should be independent of the units employed to measure the physical variables. This led to one to the conclusion that meaningful laws must be homogeneous equations in their various units of measurement, a result which was eventually formalized in the Buckingham π theorem. This theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving n variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of n − m dimensionless parameters, where m is the number of fundamental dimensions used. Furthermore, and, most important, it provides a method for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables. A dimensional equation can have the dimensions reduced or eliminated through nondimensionalization, which begins with dimensional analysis, and involves scaling quantities by characteristic units of a system or natural units of nature. This gives insight into the fundamental properties of the system, as illustrated in the examples below. Introduction Definition The dimensions of a physical quantity are associated with combinations of mass, length, time, electric charge, and temperature, represented by symbols M, L, T, Q, and Θ, respectively, each raised to rational powers. Note that dimension is more abstract than scale unit: mass is a dimension, while kilograms are a scale unit (choice of standard) in the mass dimension. As examples, the dimension of the physical quantity speed is "distance/time" (L/T or LT −1), and the dimension of the physical quantity force is "mass × acceleration" or "mass×(distance/time)/time" (ML/T 2 or MLT −2). In principle, other dimensions of physical quantity could be defined as "fundamental" (such as momentum or energy or electric current) in lieu of some of those shown above. Some physicists have not recognized temperature, Θ, as a fundamental dimension of physical quantity since it essentially expresses the energy per particle per degree of freedom, which can be expressed in terms of energy (or mass, length, and time). Still others do not recognize electric charge, Q, as a separate fundamental dimension of physical quantity, since it has been expressed in terms of mass, length, and time in unit systems such as the electrostatic cgs system. There are also physicists that have cast doubt on the very existence of incompatible fundamental dimensions of physical quantity M. J. Duff, L. B. Okun and G. Veneziano, Trialogue on the number of fundamental constants, JHEP 0203, 023 (2002) preprint. The unit of a physical quantity and its dimension are related, but not precisely identical concepts. The units of a physical quantity are defined by convention and related to some standard; e.g., length may have units of metres, feet, inches, miles or micrometres; but any length always has a dimension of L, independent of what units are arbitrarily chosen to measure it. Two different units of the same physical quantity have conversion factors between them. For example: 1 in = 2.54 cm; then (2.54 cm/in) is called a conversion factor (between two representations expressed in different units of a common quantity) and is itself dimensionless and equal to one. There are no conversion factors between dimensional symbols. Mathematical properties Dimensional symbols, such as L, form a group: There is an identity, L0 = 1; there is an inverse to L, which is 1/L or L−1, and L raised to any rational power p is a member of the group, having an inverse of L−p or 1/Lp. The operation of the group is multiplication, with the usual rules for handling exponents (Ln × Lm = Ln+m). Indeed, dimensional symbols can be seen as a vector space over the rational numbers, with the coordinates of the vector being the powers of the exponents – expressing a dimensional symbol as corresponds to the vector A basis for a given space of dimensional symbols is called a set of fundamental quantities or fundamental dimensions. When quantities (be they like-dimensioned or unlike-dimensioned) are multiplied or divided by each other, their dimensional symbols are likewise multiplied or divided; this corresponds to vector addition or subtraction (on the exponents). When dimensioned quantities are raised to a rational power, the same is done to the dimensional symbols attached to those quantities; this corresponds to scalar multiplication on the exponents. As in any vector space, one may choose different bases, which yield different physical interpretations. Mechanics In mechanics, the dimension of any physical quantity can be expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions (or base dimensions) M, L and T – these form a 3-dimensional vector space. This is not the only possible choice, but it is the one most commonly used. For example, one might choose force, length and mass as the base dimensions (as some have done), with associated dimensions F, L, M; this corresponds to a different basis, and one may convert between these representations by a change of basis. The choice of the base set of dimensions is, thus, partly a convention, resulting in increased utility and familiarity. It is, however, important to note that the choice of the set of dimensions cannot be chosen arbitrarily – it is not just a convention – because the dimensions must form a basis: they must span the space, and be linearly independent. For example, F, L, M form a set of fundamental dimensions because they form an equivalent basis to M, L, T: the former can be expressed as while the latter can be expressed as On the other hand, using length, velocity and time (L, V, T) as base dimensions will not work well (they do not form a set of fundamental dimensions), for two reasons: Firstly, because there is no way to obtain mass — or anything derived from it, such as force — without introducing another base dimension (thus these do not span the space). Secondly, because velocity, being derived from length and time (), is redundant (the set is not linearly independent). Other fields of physics and chemistry Depending on the field of physics, it may be advantageous to choose one or another extended set of dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of M, L, T, and Q, where Q represents quantity of electric charge. In thermodynamics, the base set of dimensions is often extended to include a dimension for temperature, Θ. In chemistry the number of moles of substance (loosely, but not precisely, related to the number of molecules or atoms) is often involved and a dimension for this is used as well. The choice of the dimensions or even the number of dimensions to be used in different fields of physics is to some extent arbitrary, but consistency in use and ease of communications are very important. Commensurability The most basic consequence of dimensional analysis is: Only commensurable quantities (quantities with the same dimensions) may be compared, equated, added, or subtracted. However, One may take ratios of incommensurable quantities (quantities with different dimensions), and multiply or divide them. For example, it makes no sense to ask if 1 hour is more or less than 1 kilometer, as these have different dimensions, nor to add 1 hour to 1 kilometer. On the other hand, if one travels 100 km in 2 hours, one may divide these and conclude that one's average velocity was 50 km/hour. In this way, dimensional analysis may be used to check the plausibility of physical equations: the two sides of any equation must be commensurable or have the same dimensions, i.e., the equation must be dimensionally homogeneous. As a corollary of this requirement, it follows that in a physically meaningful expression, only quantities of the same dimension can be added or subtracted. For example, the mass of a rat and the mass of a flea may be added, but the mass of a flea and the length of a rat cannot be meaningfully added. Physical quantities having different dimensions cannot be compared to one another either. For example, "3 m > 1 g" is not a meaningful expression. Only like-dimensioned quantities may be added, subtracted, compared, or equated. When unlike-dimensioned quantities appear opposite of the "+" or "−" or "=" sign, that physical equation is not plausible, which might prompt one to correct errors before proceeding to use it. Polynomials and transcendental functions Scalar arguments to transcendental functions such as exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions, or to inhomogeneous polynomials, must be dimensionless quantities. This requirement is clear when one observes the Taylor expansions for these functions (a sum of various powers of the function argument). For example, the logarithm of 3 kg is undefined even though the logarithm of 3 is nearly 0.477. An attempt to compute ln 3 kg would produce, if one naively took ln 3 kg to mean the dimensionally meaningless "ln (1 + 3 kg)", which is dimensionally incompatible – the sum has no meaningful dimension – requiring the argument of transcendental functions to be dimensionless. Another way to understand this problem is that the different coefficients scale differently under change of units – were one to reconsider this in grams as "ln 3000 g" instead of "ln 3 kg", one could compute ln 3000, but in terms of the Taylor series, the degree 1 term would scale by 1000, the degree 2 term would scale by 10002, and so forth – the overall output would not scale as a particular dimension. Similarly, while one can evaluate monomials () of dimensional quantities, one cannot evaluate polynomials of mixed degree on dimensional quantities: for makes sense (as an area), while for does not make sense. Incorporating units The value of a dimensional physical quantity Z is written as the product of a unit [Z] within the dimension and a dimensionless numerical factor, n. In a strict sense, when like-dimensioned quantities are added or subtracted or compared, these dimensioned quantities must be expressed in consistent units so that the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted. But, in concept, there is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units. For example, 1 meter added to 1 foot is a length, but it would not be correct to add 1 to 1 to get the result. A conversion factor, which is a ratio of like-dimensioned quantities and is equal to the dimensionless unity, is needed: is identical to The factor is identical to the dimensionless 1, so multiplying by this conversion factor changes nothing. Then when adding two quantities of like dimension, but expressed in different units, the appropriate conversion factor, which is essentially the dimensionless 1, is used to convert the quantities to identical units so that their numerical values can be added or subtracted. Only in this manner is it meaningful to speak of adding like-dimensioned quantities of differing units. Position vs displacement Consider position versus displacement (on a line, to avoid issues of higher dimension). These both have dimensions of length, but are not interchangeable: one may add two displacements, obtaining a new displacement, one may add a displacement to a position, obtaining a new position, one may subtract two positions, obtaining a displacement, but one may not add two positions. This illustrates the subtle distinction between affine quantities (ones modeled by an affine space, such as position) and vector quantities (ones modeled by a vector space, such as displacement). Vector quantities may be added to each other, yielding a new vector quantity, and a vector quantity may be added to a suitable affine quantity (a vector space acts on an affine space), yielding a new affine quantity. Affine quantities cannot be added, but may be subtracted, yielding relative quantities which are vectors, and these relative differences may then be added to each other or to an affine quantity. Properly then, positions have dimension of affine length, while displacements have dimension of vector length. To assign a number to an affine unit, one must not only choose a unit of measurement, but also a point of reference, while to assign a number to a vector unit only requires a unit of measurement. Thus some physical quantities are better modeled by affine quantities than by vector quantities, and the distinction is reflected in their dimensional analysis. Some discussions of dimensional analysis implicitly assume that all quantities are vectors (can be added, can be divided), or assume an implicit point of reference. Orientation/Frame of reference Similar to the issue of a point of reference is the issue of orientation: a displacement in 2 or 3 dimensions is not just a length, but is a length together with a direction. (This issue does not arise in 1 dimension, or rather is equivalent to the distinction between positive and negative.) Thus, to compare or combine two dimensional quantities in a multi-dimensional space, one also needs an orientation: they need to be compared to a frame of reference. This leads to the extensions discussed below, namely Huntley's directed dimensions and Siano's orientational analysis. Other uses Dimensional analysis is also used to derive relationships between the physical quantities that are involved in a particular phenomenon that one wishes to understand and characterize. It was used for the first time (Pesic, 2005) in this way in 1872 by Lord Rayleigh, who was trying to understand why the sky is blue. Examples A simple example: period of a harmonic oscillator What is the period of oscillation of a mass attached to an ideal linear spring with spring constant suspended in gravity of strength ? The four quantities have the following dimensions: [T]; [M]; ; and . From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen variables, = . The dimensionless product of powers of variables is sometimes referred to as a dimensionless group of variables, but the group, , referred to means "collection" rather than mathematical group. They are often called dimensionless numbers as well. Note that no other dimensionless product of powers involving with k, m, T, and g alone can be formed, because only g involves L . Dimensional analysis can sometimes yield strong statements about the irrelevance of some quantities in a problem, or the need for additional parameters. If we have chosen enough variables to properly describe the problem, then from this argument we can conclude that the period of the mass on the spring is independent of g: it is the same on the earth or the moon. The equation demonstrating the existence of a product of powers for our problem can be written in an entirely equivalent way: , for some dimensionless constant κ. When faced with a case where our analysis rejects a variable (g, here) that we feel sure really belongs in a physical description of the situation, we might also consider the possibility that the rejected variable is in fact relevant, and that some other relevant variable has been omitted, which might combine with the rejected variable to form a dimensionless quantity. That is, however, not the case here. When dimensional analysis yields a solution of problems where only one dimensionless product of powers is involved, as here, there are no unknown functions, and the solution is said to be "complete." A more complex example: energy of a vibrating wire Consider the case of a vibrating wire of length [] vibrating with an amplitude []. The wire has a linear density of ρ [] and is under tension [], and we want to know the energy, [], in the wire. Now we can easily find that we can form two dimensionless products of powers of the variables chosen, and . Perhaps surprisingly, like the g in the simple example given above, the linear density of the wire is not involved in either. The two groups found can be combined into an equivalent form as an equation where F is some unknown function, or, equivalently as where f is some other unknown function. Here the unknown function implies that our solution is now incomplete, but dimensional analysis has given us something that may not have been obvious: The energy is proportional to the first power of the tension. Barring further analytical analysis, we might proceed to experiments to discover the form for the unknown function f. But our experiments are simpler than in the absence of dimensional analysis. We'd perform none to verify that the energy is proportional to the tension. Or perhaps we might guess that the energy is proportional to , and so infer that . The power of dimensional analysis as an aid to experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident. The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables involved are not apparent, and the underlying equations hopelessly complex. Consider, for example, a small pebble sitting on the bed of a river. If the river flows fast enough, it will actually raise the pebble and cause it to flow along with the water. At what critical velocity will this occur? Sorting out the guessed variables is not so easy as before. But dimensional analysis can be a powerful aid in understanding problems like this, and is usually the very first tool to be applied to complex problems where the underlying equations and constraints are poorly understood. In such cases, the answer may depend on a dimensionless number such as the Reynolds number, which may be interpreted by dimensional analysis. Extensions Huntley's extension: directed dimensions Huntley (Huntley, 1967) has pointed out that it is sometimes productive to refine our concept of dimension. Two possible refinements are: The magnitude of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally distinct. For example, rather than an undifferentiated length unit L, we may have represent length in the x direction, and so forth. This requirement stems ultimately from the requirement that each component of a physically meaningful equation (scalar, vector, or tensor) must be dimensionally consistent. Mass as a measure of quantity is to be considered dimensionally distinct from mass as a measure of inertia. As an example of the usefulness of the first refinement, suppose we wish to calculate the distance a cannon ball travels when fired with a vertical velocity component and a horizontal velocity component , assuming it is fired on a flat surface. Assuming no use of directed lengths, the quantities of interest are then , , both dimensioned as , R, the distance travelled, having dimension L, and g the downward acceleration of gravity, with dimension With these four quantities, we may conclude that the equation for the range R may be written: Or dimensionally from which we may deduce that and , which leaves one exponent undetermined. This is to be expected since we have two fundamental quantities L and T and four parameters, with one equation. If, however, we use directed length dimensions, then will be dimensioned as , as , R as and g as . The dimensional equation becomes: and we may solve completely as , and . The increase in deductive power gained by the use of directed length dimensions is apparent. In a similar manner, it is sometimes found useful (e.g., in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics) to distinguish between mass as a measure of inertia (inertial mass), and mass as a measure of quantity (substantial mass). For example, consider the derivation of Poiseuille's Law. We wish to find the rate of mass flow of a viscous fluid through a circular pipe. Without drawing distinctions between inertial and substantial mass we may choose as the relevant variables the mass flow rate with dimensions the pressure gradient along the pipe with dimensions the density with dimensions the dynamic fluid viscosity with dimensions the radius of the pipe with dimensions There are three fundamental variables so the above five equations will yield two dimensionless variables which we may take to be and and we may express the dimensional equation as where C and a are undetermined constants. If we draw a distinction between inertial mass with dimensions and substantial mass with dimensions , then mass flow rate and density will use substantial mass as the mass parameter, while the pressure gradient and coefficient of viscosity will use inertial mass. We now have four fundamental parameters, and one dimensionless constant, so that the dimensional equation may be written: where now only C is an undetermined constant (found to be equal to by methods outside of dimensional analysis). This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield Poiseuille's law. Siano's extension: orientational analysis Huntley's extension has some serious drawbacks: It does not deal well with vector equations involving the cross product, nor does it handle well the use of angles as physical variables. It also is often quite difficult to assign the L, Lx, Ly, Lz, symbols to the physical variables involved in the problem of interest. He invokes a procedure that involves the "symmetry" of the physical problem. This is often very difficult to apply reliably: It is unclear as to what parts of the problem that the notion of "symmetry" is being invoked. Is it the symmetry of the physical body that forces are acting upon, or to the points, lines or areas at which forces are being applied? What if more than one body is involved with different symmetries? Consider the spherical bubble attached to a cylindrical tube, where one wants the flow rate of air as a function of the pressure difference in the two parts. What are the Huntley extended dimensions of the viscosity of the air contained in the connected parts? What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of the two parts? Are they the same or different? These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of Huntley's addition to real problems. Angles are, by convention, considered to be dimensionless variables, and so the use of angles as physical variables in dimensional analysis can give less meaningful results. As an example, consider the projectile problem mentioned above. Suppose that, instead of the x- and y-components of the initial velocity, we had chosen the magnitude of the velocity v and the angle θ at which the projectile was fired. The angle is, by convention, considered to be dimensionless, and the magnitude of a vector has no directional quality, so that no dimensionless variable can be composed of the four variables g, v, R, and θ. Conventional analysis will correctly give the powers of g and v, but will give no information concerning the dimensionless angle θ. Siano (Siano, 1985-I, 1985-II) has suggested that the directed dimensions of Huntley be replaced by using orientational symbols 1x 1y 1z to denote vector directions, and an orientationless symbol 10. Thus, Huntley's 1x becomes L 1x with L specifying the dimension of length, and 1x specifying the orientation. Siano further shows that the orientational symbols have an algebra of their own. Along with the requirement that 1i<sup>−1</sub> = 1i, the following multiplication table for the orientation symbols results: Note that the orientational symbols form a group (the Klein four-group or "Viergruppe"). In this system, scalars always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the "symmetry of the problem." Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected: a force or a velocity in the x-direction has the orientation of 1z. For angles, consider an angle θ that lies in the z-plane. Form a right triangle in the z plane with θ being one of the acute angles. The side of the right triangle adjacent to the angle then has an orientation 1x and the side opposite has an orientation 1y. Then, since tan(θ) = 1y/1x = θ + ... we conclude that an angle in the xy plane must have an orientation 1y/1x = 1z, which is not unreasonable. Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that sin(θ) has orientation 1z while cos(θ) has orientation 10. These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form a sin(θ) + b cos(θ), where a and b are scalars. The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive a little more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems. In this approach one sets up the dimensional equation and solves it as far as one can. If the lowest power of a physical variable is fractional, both sides of the solution is raised to a power such that all powers are integral. This puts it into "normal form". The orientational equation is then solved to give a more restrictive condition on the unknown powers of the orientational symbols, arriving at a solution that is more complete than the one that dimensional analysis alone gives. Often the added information is that one of the powers of a certain variable is even or odd. As an example, for the projectile problem, using orientational symbols, θ, being in the xy-plane will thus have dimension 1z and the range of the projectile R will be of the form: Dimensional homogeneity will now correctly yield a = −1 and b = 2, and orientational homogeneity requires that c be an odd integer. In fact the required function of theta will be sin(θ)cos(θ) which is a series of odd powers of θ. It is seen that the Taylor series of sin(θ) and cos(θ) are orientationally homogeneous using the above multiplication table, while expressions like cos(θ) + sin(θ) and exp(θ) are not, and are (correctly) deemed unphysical. It should be clear that the multiplication rule used for the orientational symbols is not the same as that for the cross product of two vectors. The cross product of two identical vectors is zero, while the product of two identical orientational symbols is the identity element. Percentages and derivatives Percentages are dimensionless quantities, since they are ratios of two quantities with the same dimensions. Derivatives with respect to a quantity add the dimensions of the variable one is differentiating with respect to on the denominator. Thus: position (x) has units of L (Length); derivative of position with respect to time (dx/dt, velocity) has units of L/T – Length from position, Time from the derivative; the second derivative (d2x/dt2, acceleration) has units of L/T2. Beware that in some contexts, dimensional quantities are expressed as dimensionless quantities or percentages by omitting some dimensions. This may or may not be misleading. For example, Debt to GDP ratios are generally expressed as percentages: total debt outstanding (dimension of Currency) divided by annual GDP (dimension of Currency) – but one may argue that in comparing a stock to a flow, annual GDP should have dimensions of Currency/Time (Dollars/Year, for instance), and thus Debt to GDP should have units of years. Dimensionless Dimensionless constants The dimensionless constants that arise in the results obtained, such as the C in the Poiseuille's Law problem and the in the spring problems discussed above come from a more detailed analysis of the underlying physics, and often arises from integrating some differential equation. Dimensional analysis itself has little to say about these constants, but it is useful to know that they very often have a magnitude of order unity. This observation can allow one to sometimes make "back of the envelope" calculations about the phenomenon of interest, and therefore be able to more efficiently design experiments to measure it, or to judge whether it is important, etc. Dimensionless theories Paradoxically, dimensional analysis can be a useful tool even if all the parameters in the underlying theory are dimensionless, e.g., lattice models such as the Ising model can be used to study phase transitions and critical phenomena. Such models can be formulated in a purely dimensionless way. As we approach the critical point closer and closer, the distance over which the variables in the lattice model are correlated (the so-called correlation length, ) becomes larger and larger. Now, the correlation length is the relevant length scale related to critical phenomena, so one can, e.g., surmize on "dimensional grounds" that the non-analytical part of the free energy per lattice site should be where is the dimension of the lattice. It has been argued by some physicists, e.g., Michael Duff M. J. Duff,Comment on time-variation of fundamental constants, preprint , that the laws of physics are inherently dimensionless. The fact that we have assigned incompatible dimensions to Length, Time and Mass is, according to this point of view, just a matter of convention, borne out of the fact that before the advent of modern physics, there was no way to relate mass, length, and time to each other. The three independent dimensionful constants: c, , and G, in the fundamental equations of physics must then be seen as mere conversion factors to convert Mass, Time and Length into each other. Just as in case of critical properties of lattice models, one can recover the results of dimensional analysis in the appropriate scaling limit; e.g., dimensional analysis in mechanics can be derived by reinserting the constants , c, and G (but we can now consider them to be dimensionless) and demanding that a nonsingular relation between quantities exists in the limit , and . In problems involving a gravitational field the latter limit should be taken such that the field stays finite. Applications While dimensional analysis is most used in physics and chemistry, and in the mathematics thereof, but finds some applications outside. Mathematics A simple application of dimensional analysis to mathematics is in computing the form of the volume of an n-ball (the solid ball in n-dimensions), or the area of its surface, the n-sphere: being an n-dimensional figure, the volume scales as while the surface area, being -dimensional, scales as Thus the volume of the n-ball in terms of the radius is for some constant Determining the constant takes more involved mathematics, but the form can be deduced and checked by dimensional analysis alone. Finance, economics, and accounting In finance, economics, and accounting, dimensional analysis is most commonly used in interpreting various financial ratios, economics ratios, and accounting ratios. For example, the P/E ratio has dimensions of time (units of years), and can be interpreted as "years of earnings to earn the price paid". In economics, debt-to-GDP ratio also has units of years (debt has units of currency, GDP has units of currency/year). More surprisingly, bond duration also has units of years, which can be shown by dimensional analysis, but takes some financial intuition to understand. Velocity of money has units "It's just a flesh wound...", Steve Keen of 1/Years (GDP/Money supply has units of Currency/Year over Currency): how often a unit of currency circulates per year. See also Debt to GDP ratio Dirac large numbers hypothesis Fermi problem Fundamental unit Nondimensionalization Equivalization Physical quantity Natural units Similitude (model) Buckingham π theorem Units conversion by factor-label Affine space Vector space Frame of reference Point of reference Notes References GA Vignaux (1992) "Dimensional Analysis in Data Modelling" a chapter in C. Ray Smith, Gary J. Erickson, Paul O. Neudorfer (1992) "Maximum Entropy and Bayesian Methods: Proceedings of the Eleventh International Workshop on Maximum Entropy and Bayesian Methods of Statistical Analysis, Seattle 1991", Published by Springer, ISBN 9780792320319 Wacław Kasprzak, Bertold Lysik, Marek Rybaczuk (1990) "Dimensional Analysis in the Identification of Mathematical Models",Published by World Scientific, ISBN 9789810203047 PF Mendez, F Ordóñez (2005) "Scaling Laws From Statistical Data and Dimensional Analysis", Journal of Applied Mechanics G Hart (1994) "The theory of dimensioned matrices", Proceedings of the 5th Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics Conference on Applied Linear Algebra. S. Drobot (1954) "On the foundations of dimensional analysis", Studia Mathematica. External links Unicalc Live web calculator doing units conversion by dimensional analysis http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/notes/buckingham/buckingham-a4.pdf http://rain.aos.wisc.edu/~gpetty/physunits.html | Dimensional_analysis |@lemmatized dimensional:58 analysis:41 conceptual:1 tool:3 often:10 apply:5 physic:9 chemistry:4 engineering:1 understand:6 physical:38 situation:4 involve:13 certain:2 quantity:73 routinely:1 use:29 mathematician:2 statistician:1 scientist:1 engineer:1 check:3 plausibility:2 derived:1 equation:28 computation:1 also:10 form:21 reasonable:1 hypothesis:3 complex:4 test:1 experiment:5 developed:1 theory:4 phenomenon:5 categorise:1 type:1 unit:44 base:9 relation:2 dependence:1 dimension:85 lack:1 thereof:2 develop:1 century:1 french:1 joseph:1 fourier:1 idea:1 law:7 like:10 f:7 independent:7 employ:1 measure:7 variable:26 lead:2 one:46 conclusion:2 meaningful:8 must:11 homogeneous:4 various:3 measurement:3 result:7 eventually:1 formalize:1 buckingham:4 π:2 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4,016 | Central_processing_unit | Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor (actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging. A central processing unit (CPU) or processor is an electronic circuit that can execute computer programs. This topic has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s . The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation has remained much the same. Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are made for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones to children's toys. History of CPU EDVAC, one of the first electronic stored program computers. Prior to the advent of machines that resemble today's CPUs, computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired in order to perform different tasks. These machines are often referred to as "fixed-program computers," since they had to be physically reconfigured in order to run a different program. Since the term "CPU" is generally defined as a software (computer program) execution device, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer. The idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so the machine could be finished sooner. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was even completed, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC." It outlined the design of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949 . EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. These instructions could be combined to create useful programs for the EDVAC to run. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the large amount of time and effort it took to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann's design, the program, or software, that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the computer's memory. While EDVAC was designed a few years before ENIAC was built, ENIAC was actually retrofitted to execute stored programs in 1948, somewhat before EDVAC was completed. Therefore, ENIAC became a stored program computer before EDVAC was completed, even though stored program capabilities were originally omitted from ENIAC's design due to cost and schedule concerns. While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, others before him such as Konrad Zuse had suggested and implemented similar ideas. Additionally, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both. Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but elements of the Harvard architecture are commonly seen as well. Being digital devices, all CPUs deal with discrete states and therefore require some kind of switching elements to differentiate between and change these states. Prior to commercial acceptance of the transistor, electrical relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were commonly used as switching elements. Although these had distinct speed advantages over earlier, purely mechanical designs, they were unreliable for various reasons. For example, building direct current sequential logic circuits out of relays requires additional hardware to cope with the problem of contact bounce. While vacuum tubes do not suffer from contact bounce, they must heat up before becoming fully operational and eventually stop functioning altogether. Vacuum tubes eventually stop functioning in the course of normal operation due to the slow contamination of their cathodes that occurs when the tubes are in use. Additionally, sometimes the tube's vacuum seal can leak, which accelerates the cathode contamination. See vacuum tube. Usually, when a tube failed, the CPU would have to be diagnosed to locate the failing component so it could be replaced. Therefore, early electronic (vacuum tube based) computers were generally faster but less reliable than electromechanical (relay based) computers. Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely . In the end, tube based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems. Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs (see below for a discussion of clock rate). Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with. Discrete transistor and IC CPUs CPU, core memory, and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I. made of medium-scale integrated circuits The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and electrical relays. With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components. During this period, a method of manufacturing many transistors in a compact space gained popularity. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or "chip." At first only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs. CPUs based upon these "building block" ICs are generally referred to as "small-scale integration" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo guidance computer, usually contained transistor counts numbering in multiples of ten. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs. As microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, thus decreasing the quantity of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI (medium- and large-scale integration) ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. In 1964 IBM introduced its System/360 computer architecture which was used in a series of computers that could run the same programs with different speed and performance. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often called "microcode"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs . The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for the decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries. In the same year (1964), Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8. DEC would later introduce the extremely popular PDP-11 line that originally was built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits . Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. Thanks to both the increased reliability as well as the dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were obtained during this period. Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc. Microprocessors The integrated circuit from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip. Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor in a ceramic PGA package. The introduction of the microprocessor in the 1970s significantly affected the design and implementation of CPUs. Since the introduction of the first microprocessor (the Intel 4004) in 1970 and the first widely used microprocessor (the Intel 8080) in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual vast success of the now ubiquitous personal computer, the term "CPU" is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors. Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size as a result of being implemented on a single die means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance. This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, as the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased, the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU has increased dramatically. This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity to date. While the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed drastically over the past sixty years, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model. CPU operation The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions called a program. The program is represented by a series of numbers that are kept in some kind of computer memory. There are four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation: fetch, decode, execute, and writeback. The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The location in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the current position in the program. In other words, the program counter keeps track of the CPU's place in the current program. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction word in terms of memory units. Since the program counter counts memory addresses and not instructions, it is incremented by the number of memory units that the instruction word contains. In the case of simple fixed-length instruction word ISAs, this is always the same number. For example, a fixed-length 32-bit instruction word ISA that uses 8-bit memory words would always increment the PC by 4 (except in the case of jumps). ISAs that use variable length instruction words,increment the PC by the number of memory words corresponding to the last instruction's length. Often the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below). The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory is used to determine what the CPU is to do. In the decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of the CPU. The way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA). Because the instruction set architecture of a CPU is fundamental to its interface and usage, it is often used as a classification of the "type" of CPU. For example, a "PowerPC CPU" uses some variant of the PowerPC ISA. A system can execute a different ISA by running an emulator. Often, one group of numbers in the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation to perform. The remaining parts of the number usually provide information required for that instruction, such as operands for an addition operation. Such operands may be given as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as a place to locate a value: a register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode. In older designs the portions of the CPU responsible for instruction decoding were unchangeable hardware devices. However, in more abstract and complicated CPUs and ISAs, a microprogram is often used to assist in translating instructions into various configuration signals for the CPU. This microprogram is sometimes rewritable so that it can be modified to change the way the CPU decodes instructions even after it has been manufactured. After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. During this step, various portions of the CPU are connected so they can perform the desired operation. If, for instance, an addition operation was requested, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) will be connected to a set of inputs and a set of outputs. The inputs provide the numbers to be added, and the outputs will contain the final sum. The ALU contains the circuitry to perform simple arithmetic and logical operations on the inputs (like addition and bitwise operations). If the addition operation produces a result too large for the CPU to handle, an arithmetic overflow flag in a flags register may also be set. The final step, writeback, simply "writes back" the results of the execute step to some form of memory. Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but cheaper and larger, main memory. Some types of instructions manipulate the program counter rather than directly produce result data. These are generally called "jumps" and facilitate behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and functions in programs. Some early computers like the Harvard Mark I did not support any kind of "jump" instruction, effectively limiting the complexity of the programs they could run. It is largely for this reason that these computers are often not considered to contain a CPU proper, despite their close similarity as stored program computers. Many instructions will also change the state of digits in a "flags" register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, one type of "compare" instruction considers two values and sets a number in the flags register according to which one is greater. This flag could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow. After the execution of the instruction and writeback of the resulting data, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If the completed instruction was a jump, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to, and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs than the one described here, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the "Classic RISC pipeline," which in fact is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontroller). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline. Design and implementation Integer range The way a CPU represents numbers is a design choice that affects the most basic ways in which the device functions. Some early digital computers used an electrical model of the common decimal (base ten) numeral system to represent numbers internally. A few other computers have used more exotic numeral systems like ternary (base three). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a "high" or "low" voltage. The physical concept of voltage is an analog one by its nature, practically having an infinite range of possible values. For the purpose of physical representation of binary numbers, set ranges of voltages are defined as one or zero. These ranges are usually influenced by the circuit designs and operational parameters of the switching elements used to create the CPU, such as a transistor's threshold level. MOS 6502 microprocessor in a dual in-line package, an extremely popular 8-bit design. Related to number representation is the size and precision of numbers that a CPU can represent. In the case of a binary CPU, a bit refers to one significant place in the numbers a CPU deals with. The number of bits (or numeral places) a CPU uses to represent numbers is often called "word size", "bit width", "data path width", or "integer precision" when dealing with strictly integer numbers (as opposed to floating point). This number differs between architectures, and often within different parts of the very same CPU. For example, an 8-bit CPU deals with a range of numbers that can be represented by eight binary digits (each digit having two possible values), that is, 28 or 256 discrete numbers. In effect, integer size sets a hardware limit on the range of integers the software run by the CPU can utilize. While a CPU's integer size sets a limit on integer ranges, this can (and often is) overcome using a combination of software and hardware techniques. By using additional memory, software can represent integers many magnitudes larger than the CPU can. Sometimes the CPU's ISA will even facilitate operations on integers larger than it can natively represent by providing instructions to make large integer arithmetic relatively quick. While this method of dealing with large integers is somewhat slower than utilizing a CPU with higher integer size, it is a reasonable trade-off in cases where natively supporting the full integer range needed would be cost-prohibitive. See Arbitrary-precision arithmetic for more details on purely software-supported arbitrary-sized integers. Integer range can also affect the number of locations in memory the CPU can address (locate). For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address, and each memory address represents one octet (8 bits), the maximum quantity of memory that CPU can address is 232 octets, or 4 GiB. This is a very simple view of CPU address space, and many designs use more complex addressing methods like paging in order to locate more memory than their integer range would allow with a flat address space. Higher levels of integer range require more structures to deal with the additional digits, and therefore more complexity, size, power usage, and general expense. It is not at all uncommon, therefore, to see 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers used in modern applications, even though CPUs with much higher range (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available. The simpler microcontrollers are usually cheaper, use less power, and therefore dissipate less heat, all of which can be major design considerations for electronic devices. However, in higher-end applications, the benefits afforded by the extra range (most often the additional address space) are more significant and often affect design choices. To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many CPUs are designed with different bit widths for different portions of the device. For example, the IBM System/370 used a CPU that was primarily 32 bit, but it used 128-bit precision inside its floating point units to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers . Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required. Clock rate Most CPUs, and indeed most sequential logic devices, are synchronous in nature. In fact, all synchronous CPUs use a combination of sequential logic and combinatorial logic. (See boolean logic) That is, they are designed and operate on assumptions about a synchronization signal. This signal, known as a clock signal, usually takes the form of a periodic square wave. By calculating the maximum time that electrical signals can move in various branches of a CPU's many circuits, the designers can select an appropriate period for the clock signal. This period must be longer than the amount of time it takes for a signal to move, or propagate, in the worst-case scenario. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the "edges" of the rising and falling clock signal. This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism. (see below) However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit. This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided in order to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction. Another major issue as clock rates increase dramatically is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU. The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time. In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does heat dissipation, causing the CPU to require more effective cooling solutions. One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. One notable late CPU design that uses clock gating is that of the IBM PowerPC-based Xbox 360. It utilizes extensive clock gating in order to reduce the power requirements of the aforementioned videogame console it is used in. Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs. While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS. Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations. This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers . Parallelism Model of a subscalar CPU. Notice that it takes fifteen cycles to complete three instructions. The description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take. This type of CPU, usually referred to as subscalar, operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time. This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs. Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction. As a result the subscalar CPU gets "hung up" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution. Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased. This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach scalar performance (one instruction per clock). However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per cycle). Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel. When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques. Instruction level parallelism (ILP) seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources), and thread level parallelism (TLP) purposes to increase the number of threads (effectively individual programs) that a CPU can execute simultaneously. Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application. Neither ILP nor TLP is inherently superior over the other; they are simply different means by which to increase CPU parallelism. As such, they both have advantages and disadvantages, which are often determined by the type of software that the processor is intended to run. High-TLP CPUs are often used in applications that lend themselves well to being split up into numerous smaller applications, so-called "embarrassingly parallel problems." Frequently, a computational problem that can be solved quickly with high TLP design strategies like SMP take significantly more time on high ILP devices like superscalar CPUs, and vice versa. Instruction level parallelism Basic five-stage pipeline. In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per cycle. One of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing. This is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs. Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages. This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired. Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict. To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs. Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so). A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage). Simple superscalar pipeline. By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per cycle can be completed. Further improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further. Designs that are said to be superscalar include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units. In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously). If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously. In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle. Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher. The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible. This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of CPU cache. It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, and out-of-order execution crucial to maintaining high levels of performance. By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed. Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may or may not be needed after a conditional operation completes. Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies. In the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls. The original Intel Pentium (P5) had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock. Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar. Intel's successor to the Pentium architecture, P6, added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance. Both simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per cycle (IPC). Best-case scenario (or peak) IPC rates in very superscalar architectures are difficult to maintain since it is impossible to keep the instruction pipeline filled all the time. Therefore, in highly superscalar CPUs, average sustained IPC is often discussed rather than peak IPC. Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar. In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA. The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity. Thread level parallelism Another strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple programs or threads in parallel. This area of research is known as parallel computing. In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as Multiple Instructions-Multiple Data or MIMD. One technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing (MP). The initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system. In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory. By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another. To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s. SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors. Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors. When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single silicon chip, the technology is known as a multi-core microprocessor. It was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program. A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel. Some of earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread. A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel. This technology is known as multi-threading (MT). This approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU is replicated in order to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP. In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads. The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT. One type of MT that was implemented is known as block multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory. In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC Technology. Another type of MT is known as simultaneous multithreading, where instructions of multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle. For several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc. This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4. By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques. CPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or program. This reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and multiple core CMP (chip-level multiprocessing) designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture. Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PS3's 8-core Cell microprocessor. Data parallelism A less common but increasingly important paradigm of CPUs (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism. The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device. Earlier the term scalar was used to compare the IPC (instructions per cycle) count afforded by various ILP methods. Here the term is used in the strictly mathematical sense to contrast with vectors. See scalar (mathematics) and Vector (geometric). As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction. This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction. Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as SISD (single instruction, single data) and SIMD (single instruction, multiple data), respectively. The great utility in creating CPUs that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data. Some classic examples of these types of tasks are multimedia applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks. Whereas a scalar CPU must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector CPU can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction. Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data. Most early vector CPUs, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications. However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose CPUs has become significant. Shortly after floating point execution units started to become commonplace to include in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose CPUs. Some of these early SIMD specifications like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX were integer-only. This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating point numbers. Progressively, these early designs were refined and remade into some of the common, modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA. Some notable modern examples are Intel's SSE and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX). Although SSE/SSE2/SSE3 have superseded MMX in Intel's general purpose CPUs, later IA-32 designs still support MMX. This is usually accomplished by providing most of the MMX functionality with the same hardware that supports the much more expansive SSE instruction sets. See also Addressing mode CISC Computer bus Computer engineering CPU cooling CPU core voltage CPU design CPU power dissipation CPU socket Digital signal processor Floating point unit GPU Graphics Processing Unit Instruction pipeline Instruction set Notable CPU architectures Ring (computer security) RISC Stream processing Wait state Notes References Gary D. Knott (1974) A proposal for certain process management and intercommunication primitives ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review. Volume 8 , Issue 4 (October 1974). pp. 7 - 44 External links Microprocessor designers Advanced Micro Devices - Advanced Micro Devices, a designer of primarily x86-compatible personal computer CPUs. ARM Ltd - ARM Ltd, one of the few CPU designers that profits solely by licensing their designs rather than manufacturing them. ARM architecture microprocessors are among the most popular in the world for embedded applications. Freescale Semiconductor (formerly of Motorola) - Freescale Semiconductor, designer of several embedded and SoC PowerPC based processors. IBM Microelectronics - Microelectronics division of IBM, which is responsible for many POWER and PowerPC based designs, including many of the CPUs utilized in late video game consoles. Intel Corp - Intel, a maker of several notable CPU lines, including IA-32, IA-64, and XScale. Also a producer of various peripheral chips for use with their CPUs. MIPS Technologies - MIPS Technologies, developers of the MIPS architecture, a pioneer in RISC designs. NEC Electronics - NEC Electronics, developers of the 78K0 8-bit Architecture, 78K0R 16-bit Architecture, and V850 32-bit Architecture. Sun Microsystems - Sun Microsystems, developers of the SPARC architecture, a RISC design. Texas Instruments - Texas Instruments semiconductor division. Designs and manufactures several types of low-power microcontrollers among their many other semiconductor products. Transmeta - Transmeta Corporation. Creators of low-power x86 compatibles like Crusoe and Efficeon. VIA Technologies - Taiwanese maker of low-power x86-compatible CPUs. Further reading 25 Microchips that shook the world - an article by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers | Central_processing_unit |@lemmatized die:4 intel:14 microprocessor:16 actual:1 size:9 mm:1 packaging:1 central:2 processing:3 unit:17 cpu:168 processor:19 electronic:9 circuit:14 execute:24 computer:43 program:46 topic:1 use:45 industry:1 least:3 since:10 early:19 form:9 design:67 implementation:6 change:10 dramatically:4 example:14 fundamental:3 operation:23 remain:2 much:9 custom:2 part:6 large:15 sometimes:4 one:46 kind:4 however:9 costly:1 method:13 particular:1 application:12 largely:8 give:7 way:9 development:3 mass:1 produce:4 make:10 many:20 purpose:12 standardization:2 trend:3 generally:9 begin:4 era:2 discrete:10 transistor:20 mainframe:3 minicomputer:2 rapidly:1 accelerate:2 popularization:1 integrate:4 ic:18 allow:8 increasingly:3 complex:7 manufacture:7 tolerance:1 order:11 nanometer:1 miniaturization:2 increase:21 presence:1 digital:7 device:18 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4,017 | Alcaeus_of_Mytilene | Alcaeus and Sappho, Attic red-figure kalathos, ca. 470 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2416) Alcaeus (Alkaios, Attic Greek Ἀλκαῖος) of Mytilene (c. 620 BC-6th century BC), Ancient Greek lyric poet who supposedly invented the Alcaic verse. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. He was an older contemporary and an alleged lover of Sappho, with whom he may have exchanged poems. He was born into the aristocratic governing class of Mytilene, the main city of Lesbos, where his life was entangled with its political disputes and internal feuds. Political life During a rebellion headed by Pittacus of Mytilene, a violent civil war broke out on Lesbos. Alcaeus sided with the rebels and his (probably much older) brothers joined with Pittacus in a coup d'état which toppled the aristocratic Melanchros from power. For some time, Alcaeus was allied to Pittacus, even fighting alongside him in a battle against the Athenians at Sigeion near Troy where Pittacus defeated the Athenian commander, Phrynon, in single combat. Herodotus claims that Alcaeus ran away from the battle of Sigeion, and the allegations of cowardice are angrily answered in some of Alcaeus' verses. Alcaeus joined in an unsuccessful plot against Myrsilus, whose influence became strong following the removal of Melanchros. Pittacus, however, aligned himself with Myrsilus and Alcaeus went into exile. After the death of Myrsilus, Alcaeus seems to have been reconciled to Pittacus and returned to Mytilene. This new alliance was not to last, however, and Alcaeus again found himself forced into exile, traveling as far as Egypt. One of his brothers joined the Babylonian army and fought under Nebuchadrezzar II. It is believed that Alcaeus eventually returned to Lesbos but his poetry includes bitter denunciations of his mistreatment at the hands of one-time friends as well as of long-time enemies. Poetry Alcaeus' experience in war and politics are reflected in his extant to poetry, much of it military in nature. There are references to mad efforts to survive upon a ship sinking in rough waters, the sight of helmets and spears, the relief of welcoming a brother home from war. He also rails against the danger of tyrants and the accusations of cowardice that arose when he was the sole member of his company to survive a battle. Still, Alcaeus' lively verses extolled revelry, gambling, friendship, and the rough life at sea. There are softer subjects, as well: love songs, drinking songs and the destruction a man incurs by living a life of dissipation. All of these were the kind of poetry that would be read aloud at a symposium. He also produced hymns to the gods, for more solemn occasions. Most of his work exists only in tattered fragments. When his poems were edited in Hellenistic Alexandria, they were reported to have filled ten scrolls. However, the poetry of Alcaeus has survived only in quotations: "Fighting men are the city's fortress" and the like, so judging him, rather than his high reputation in antiquity, may be compared to judging Ben Jonson through Bartlett's Familiar Quotations. Alexandrian scholars agreed that Alcaeus was the second greatest monodic lyric poet among the canonic nine. The considerable number of fragments extant (see link), and the imitations of Alcaeus in Latin by Horace, who regarded Alcaeus as his great model, help us to form a fair idea of the character of his poems. Sources Greek Lyric 1: Sappho and Alcaeus. D. A. Campbell (ed.). Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. ISBN 0-674-99157-5 Alcée. Fragments. Gauthier Liberman (ed.). Collection Budé, Paris, 1999. ISBN 2-251-00476-9 Sappho and the Greek Lyric Poets. Translated by Willis Barnstone. Schoken Books Inc., New York, 1988. ISBN 0-8052-0831-3 External links Poems by Alcaeus English translations A. M. Miller, Greek Lyric: Alcaeus, many fragments. Alcaeus Bilingual Anthology (in Greek and English, side by side) | Alcaeus_of_Mytilene |@lemmatized alcaeus:21 sappho:4 attic:2 red:1 figure:1 kalathos:1 ca:1 bc:3 staatliche:1 antikensammlungen:1 inv:1 alkaios:1 greek:6 ἀλκαῖος:1 mytilene:4 c:1 century:1 ancient:1 lyric:6 poet:4 supposedly:1 invent:1 alcaic:1 verse:3 include:2 canonical:1 list:1 nine:2 scholar:2 hellenistic:2 alexandria:2 old:2 contemporary:1 allege:1 lover:1 may:2 exchange:1 poem:4 bear:1 aristocratic:2 govern:1 class:1 main:1 city:2 lesbos:3 life:4 entangle:1 political:2 dispute:1 internal:1 feud:1 rebellion:1 head:1 pittacus:6 violent:1 civil:1 war:3 break:1 side:3 rebel:1 probably:1 much:2 brother:3 join:3 coup:1 état:1 topple:1 melanchros:2 power:1 time:3 ally:1 even:1 fight:3 alongside:1 battle:3 athenian:2 sigeion:2 near:1 troy:1 defeat:1 commander:1 phrynon:1 single:1 combat:1 herodotus:1 claim:1 run:1 away:1 allegation:1 cowardice:2 angrily:1 answer:1 unsuccessful:1 plot:1 myrsilus:3 whose:1 influence:1 become:1 strong:1 follow:1 removal:1 however:3 align:1 go:1 exile:2 death:1 seem:1 reconcile:1 return:2 new:2 alliance:1 last:1 find:1 force:1 travel:1 far:1 egypt:1 one:2 babylonian:1 army:1 nebuchadrezzar:1 ii:1 believe:1 eventually:1 poetry:5 bitter:1 denunciation:1 mistreatment:1 hand:1 friend:1 well:2 long:1 enemy:1 experience:1 politics:1 reflect:1 extant:2 military:1 nature:1 reference:1 mad:1 effort:1 survive:3 upon:1 ship:1 sinking:1 rough:2 water:1 sight:1 helmet:1 spear:1 relief:1 welcome:1 home:1 also:2 rail:1 danger:1 tyrant:1 accusation:1 arise:1 sole:1 member:1 company:1 still:1 lively:1 extol:1 revelry:1 gambling:1 friendship:1 sea:1 soft:1 subject:1 love:1 song:2 drink:1 destruction:1 man:1 incurs:1 live:1 dissipation:1 kind:1 would:1 read:1 aloud:1 symposium:1 produce:1 hymn:1 god:1 solemn:1 occasion:1 work:1 exist:1 tattered:1 fragment:4 edit:1 report:1 fill:1 ten:1 scroll:1 quotation:2 men:1 fortress:1 like:1 judge:2 rather:1 high:1 reputation:1 antiquity:1 compare:1 ben:1 jonson:1 bartlett:1 familiar:1 alexandrian:1 agree:1 second:1 great:2 monodic:1 among:1 canonic:1 considerable:1 number:1 see:1 link:2 imitation:1 latin:1 horace:1 regard:1 model:1 help:1 u:1 form:1 fair:1 idea:1 character:1 source:1 campbell:1 ed:2 harvard:1 university:1 press:1 cambridge:1 mass:1 isbn:3 alcée:1 gauthier:1 liberman:1 collection:1 budé:1 paris:1 translate:1 willis:1 barnstone:1 schoken:1 book:1 inc:1 york:1 external:1 english:2 translation:1 miller:1 many:1 bilingual:1 anthology:1 |@bigram coup_état:1 read_aloud:1 ben_jonson:1 external_link:1 |
4,018 | Economy_of_Georgia_(country) | Despite the severe damage the economy of Georgia suffered due to civil strife in the 1990s, Georgia, with the help of the IMF and World Bank, has made substantial economic gains since 2000, achieving robust GDP growth and curtailing inflation. GDP growth, spurred by gains in the industrial and service sectors, remained in the 9-12% range in 2005-07. In 2006, the World Bank named Georgia the top reformer in the world. Doing Business: Georgia is This Year's Top Reformer, The World Bank Group History Georgia's economy has traditionally revolved around Black Sea tourism, cultivation of citrus fruits, tea and grapes; mining of manganese and copper; and output of a big industrial sector producing wine, metals, machinery, chemicals, and textiles. Like many post-Soviet countries, Georgia went through a period of sharp economic decline during 1990s, with high inflation and large budget deficits, due to persistent tax evasion. in 1996 Georgia's budget deficit rose to as much as 6.2%. During that period international financial institutions played a critical role in Georgia's budgetary calculations. Multilateral and bilateral grants and loans totaled 116.4 million lari in 1997 and totaled 182.8 million lari in 1998. Economic recovery had been hampered by the separatist disputes in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, resistance to reform on the part of some corrupt and reactionary factions, and Asian financial crisis. Under President Shevardnadze's leadership, the government had nonetheless made some progress on basic market reforms: all prices and most trade have been liberalized, a stable national currency (the lari) was introduced, and massive government downsizing took place. During late 1990s more than 10,500 small enterprises had been privatized, and although privatization of medium- and large-sized firms had been slow, more than 1,200 medium - and large-sized companies had been set up as joint stock companies. A law and a decree establishing the legal basis and procedures for state property privatization reduced the number of companies controlled by the state. The United States began assisting Georgia in reform process soon after the country gained independence from Soviet Union. Gradually, the focus shifted from humanitarian to technical and institution-building programs. Provision of legal and technical advisors was complemented by training opportunities for parliamentarians, law enforcement officials, and economic advisers. Recent macroeconomic performance Over the last few years Georgian economy has been one of the fastest growing in the FSU. Annual GDP growth exceeded 9% in every year since 2005. In 2007 the economy expanded at the rate of 12.4% World Economic Outlook Database, October 2008, IMF . This rapid growth in output was accompanied by rising inflation - 11% in 2007, up from 7% in 2003. In recent years current account deficit has been steadily growing, reaching 20% of the GDP in 2007. Although this figure may appear huge at first glance, large current account deficits are a common feature among many Eastern European economies, as evidenced by the following table. Rank Country Current account balance as a percentage of GDP (2007) IMF, World Economic Outlook Database, October 2008 1 -22.9382 -21.3693 -20.0004 -18.065 Deficits in current account have been more then offset by strong foreign capital inflows IMF, [http://www.imf.org/external/np/tr/2008/tr080915.htm Transcript of a Conference Call on Georgia Request for Standby Arrangement] September 15, 2008 , allowing the Georgian currency to appreciate Official exchange rate of LARI against foreign currencies . Recent indications suggest the economy has been severely affected by the war with Russia in August 2008. Third quarter GDP was down by 3.9% compared with the same period of the last year. Gross Domestic Product and Other Indicators of National Accounts for 2008, III quarter(Preliminary) This marked a sharp reversal of the situation as it was in the first half of the year, when the economy grew by 8.7%. Gross Domestic Product at constant prices FDI inflows fell to only $150 million in the Q3 2008, compared with $430 million in Q1 and $525 in Q2. FDI in Georgia by countries This had put Georgian currency under extra pressure. Nevertheless, the government has managed to preserve financial stability thanks to the considerable aid provided by the US and international institutions. EBRD analysts believe that sustantial international financial support and remittances from workers living abroad will cover the current account deficit in the medium term. EBRD, Georgia economic overview Foreign direct investment in Georgia Large inflows of Foreign direct investment (FDI) have been a driving factor behind a rapid economic growth in Georgia since 2003. In 2007 alone the economy of Georgia attacted $1,7 billion in FDI, bringing the total FDI stock to $5,2 billion, which is over 50% of the GDP UNCTAD, World Investment Report 2008. Selected indicators are available at UNCTAD Country Fact Sheets The table below shows FDI stock as a percentage of GDP in selected FSU countries. For statistical purposes, FDI is defined as a foreign company owning 10% or more of the ordinary shares of an incorporated firm or its equivalent for an unincorporated firm. International Monetary Fund (IMF), 1993. Balance of Payments Manual, fifth edition (Washington, DC). Rank Country FDI stock as a percentage of GDP (2007) 1 78,02 51,13 41,94 27,05 26,66 25,17 10,0 The major recipients of FDI in Georgia are the telecommunications industry, transportation sector, production and distribution of electricity, and construction. FDI in Georgia by Economic Sectors Institutional reforms Under the Saakashvili administration, Georgia undertook a number of profound institutional reforms aimed at modernizing the economy and improving business climate. Licensing regulation Just 3 years ago getting a construction permit for a commercial warehouse in Tbilisi required 29 different procedures. Before even applying for the permit a builder needed permission from agencies as diverse as the Center of Archaeology at the Academy of Science and the Inspector of Sanitary Observation. Illegal construction activity was widespread. In 2004 less than 45% of ongoing construction projects in Tbilisi had permits. Doing Business 2008 The World Bank Group Things have changed after new Law on Issuance of Licenses and Permits was introduced in 2005. The law cut from 909 to 159 the number of activities subject to licensing. A one-stop shop was created for license applications, so that now businesses can submit all documents there, with no verification by other agencies required. Doing Business 2006 The World Bank Group In the construction industry Georgia eliminated many of the approvals required to obtain a construction permit (while maintaining procedures necessary for regulating in the public interest) and introduced a “silence is consent” rule, whereby a permit or license is automatically granted if no government action is taken within statutory time limits. 10 reasons to invest in Georgia, investingeorgia.org The number of procedures needed to build a warehouse dropped to 12. The time required fell by nearly 3 months. The approval process for building a warehouse in Georgia is now more efficient than in all EU countries except Denmark. Tax collection In 2005, Georgia enacted a new Tax Code that introduced lower, flat tax rates. The total number of taxes was reduced from 22 to only 7. The number of taxes was further reduced starting January 1, 2008, when new changes to the Tax Code of Georgia took effect that abolished the 20% social tax paid by businesses. The rate of personal income tax was rased instead, from 12% to a flat 25% rate. Georgia has seen a drastic fall in perceived corruption of tax officials. In 2005 only 11% of businesses, surveyed by the World Bank, reported that bribery was frequent, down from 44% in 2002. Doing Business 2007 The World Bank Group Labor regulation With unemployment around 15% and many jobs in the informal sector, Georgia undertook a far-reaching reform of labor regulation. The new Labor Code was adopted on 25 May 2006. The new law eases restrictions on the duration of term contracts and the number of overtime hours and discards the premium required for overtime work. It also eliminates the requirement to notify and get permission from the labor union to fire a redundant worker. The new law provides for 1 month’s severance pay, replacing complex rules under which required notice periods depended on seniority and the manager had to write long explanations to labor unions and the Ministry of Labor. In general, new regulation makes Georgian labor market much more flexible. Coupled with the fact that Georgia also reduced the social security contributions paid on wages by businesses from 31% to 20% in 2005, and abolished them entirely starting January 2008, these changes make Georgia the sixth easiest place to employ workers globally. Doing Business: Georgia is This Year's Top Reformer, The World Bank Group More flexible labor regulations boost job creation. But they don’t mean giving up protections. Georgia has ratified all the core labor standards of the International Labour Organization. Georgia: ratification status of up-to-date conventions, ilo.org Flexible labor regulations that give workers the opportunity for a job in the formal sector and easy transitions from one job to another. Judicial procedure Reducing corruption in courts was one of the chief priorities of the new government. Since 2004, when the Saakashvili administration came in, seven judges have been detained for taking bribes and 15 brought before the criminal courts. In 2005 alone the judicial disciplinary council reviewed cases against 99 judges, about 40% of the judiciary, and 12 judges were dismissed. At the same time judges’ salaries were increased fourfold, to reduce dependence on bribe money. Unemployment Unemployment has been a persistent problem in Georgia ever since the country gained independence in 1991. According to Department of Statistics of Georgia unemployment rate stood at 13,6% in 2006. This is by far the highest level among the FSU countries STATISTICAL YEARBOOK OF GEORGIA, 2008 . However, even this figure is misleading and doesn't reflect the vast discrepancies between urban and rural areas of the country. Hearly a half of Georgia's population lives in rural areas, where low-intensity self-sufficient farming provides the principal source of livelihood Rural poverty in Georgia . Georgian statistics service puts individual peasants into the category of self-employed workers. As of 2007 416,900 peasants were listed as self-employed in agriculture Government press release on unemployment in 2007 . For large families, heads of households are typically described as "individual entrepreneurs", members of the family that help to cultivate land are classified as "unpaid family business workers". The use of this methodology produces relatively low unemployment rates for rural areas (4,8% as 2006 Distribution of Population age of 15 and older by economic status in urban and rural areas ). By contrast, the average unemployment rate in cities is 26%. In Tbilisi unemployment is reported to be reaching 40% http://meero.worldvision.org/issue_details.php?issueID=5 Widespread unemployment takes its toll Apart from the obvious social strain that widespread unemployment creates, the issue has strong political implications. Some observers have argued that desperation about poor living conditions fuelled the discontent that eventually erupted into violent anti-government protests in November, 2007. Structure of the economy Energy Inguri hydropower plant provides 46 percent of Georgia's electricity In recent years Georgia has fully deregulated its electricity sector, and now there is free and open access to the market. However, state-owned actors still play an important role, most notably in generating. In 2007, Georgia generated 8.34 billion kilowatthours (Bkwh) of electricity while consuming 8.15 Bkwh. CIA World Factbook Most of Georgia's electricity generation comes from hydroelectric facilities. In 2005, the country generated 6,17 Bkwh of hydropower, or 86% of total electricity generation. In 2006 rapid growth in hydroelectricity output (by 27%) was matched by equally strong growth in thermal electricity (by 28%). http://www.infoplease.com/country/profiles/georgia.html Since then the share of hydropower has grown even bigger, when Inguri power plant reached full capacity in November 2007. Russia and Georgia: economy as a battlefield en.rian.ru In addition to state-owned Inguri, which has an installed capacity of 1,300 megawatts, Georgia's hydroelectric infrastructure consists of many small private plants. , Ministry of Energy of Georgia Georgia's reliance on hydropower leaves the country vulnerable to climatic fluctuations, which requires imports to meet seasonal shortages, but also opens the possibility of exports during wetter conditions. Georgia still has the potential to increase hydro-generated power, through refurbishing existing facilities, as well as constructing new hydropower plants. Before 2004 Georgia's transmission network was in critical condition, with electricity blackouts being common throughout the country. Since late 2005, distribution has been much more reliable, approaching consistent 24-hour-a-day services. Investments in infrastructure have been made as well. Currently, a privately-owned Energo-Pro Georgia controls 62.5% of the electricity distribution market. New foreign investors are entering the Georgian market, caucaz.com Georgia has transmission lines that connect its power grid to Russia, Turkey, Armenia and Azerbaijan. In July 2008 Georgia began exporting electricity to Russia through the Kavkasioni power line. Inter RAO UES begins importing energy from Georgia en.rian.ru Georgian Natural gas consumption stood at 1.8 billion cubic meters in 2007. Natural gas used to be supplied to Georgia by Russia. In recent years, however, Georgia has been able to eliminate its dependency on imports from Russia, thanks to increased hydroelectricity production, and the availability of natural gas sources from Azerbaijan. In addition, all Russian gas exports to Armenia pass through the Georgian pipeline system. Georgia takes 10% of that gas as a transit fee. en.rian.ru Georgia is a partner country of the INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest. INOGATE website Agriculture Currently, about 55% of the total labor force is employed in agriculture, though much of this is subsistence farming. Main Indicators of Agriculture Development investingeorgia.org Georgian agricultural production is beginning to recover following the devastation caused by the civil unrest and the necessary restructuring following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Livestock production is beginning to rebound, although it continues to be confronted by minor and sporadic disease outbreaks. Domestic grain production is increasing, and will require sustained political and infrastructure improvements to ensure appropriate distribution and revenues to farmers. Tea, hazelnut and citrus production have suffered greatly as a result of the conflict in Abkhazia, a crucial area for planting the latter crops. While approximately 13.1% of the Georgian GDP is generated by the agrarian sector, crops often spoil in the field because farmers can't sell their goods because of high transportation cost, which make domestic goods more expensive than imported goods. In collaboration with European assistance, Georgia has taken steps to control the quality of natural spring water and how to appropriately sell it. Viticulture and winemaking are the most important fields of Georgia’s agriculture. Over 450 species of local vine are bred in Georgia, and the country is considered as one of the oldest places of producing top-quality wines in the world. Russia was traditionally the biggest export market for Georgian wine. This, however, changed in 2006, when Russia banned imports of wine and mineral water from Georgia. Since then Georgian wine producers have struggled to maintain output and break into new markets. In 2007 Georgia sold 11 million bottles of wine in about 40 countries, less than it sold in Russia alone before the ban was imposed. Total wine sales abroad in 2007 were down by about nine million bottles, forcing many vineyards to sell land, buildings and equipment to survive. Being Russia's No 1 enemy could be good for Georgian business,Irish Times. August 30, 2008 Construction The transition to legal construction is not without pain. On July 20, 2007 fire brigades had begun demolishing a 13-story building in downtown Tbilisi that had gone up before the reform and was now in danger of collapsing because of faulty engineering. The building had no project or operating license—and didn’t even show up in the city plan. To avoid the many approval procedures, the building company had simply paid off the mayor. See also List of Georgian companies List of countries by received FDI Kulevi Oil Terminal References Government press release on unemployment in 2007 External links Official site of American Chamber of Commerce in Georgia Sakartvelos Ekonomika, an online monthly on Georgia's economy. online English language business magazine in Georgia | Economy_of_Georgia_(country) |@lemmatized despite:1 severe:1 damage:1 economy:12 georgia:62 suffer:2 due:2 civil:2 strife:1 help:2 imf:6 world:14 bank:8 make:6 substantial:1 economic:10 gain:4 since:8 achieve:1 robust:1 gdp:10 growth:7 curtail:1 inflation:3 spur:1 industrial:2 service:3 sector:8 remain:1 range:1 name:1 top:4 reformer:3 business:13 year:10 group:5 history:1 traditionally:2 revolve:1 around:2 black:1 sea:1 tourism:1 cultivation:1 citrus:2 fruit:1 tea:2 grape:1 mining:1 manganese:1 copper:1 output:4 big:3 produce:3 wine:7 metal:1 machinery:1 chemical:1 textile:1 like:1 many:7 post:1 soviet:3 country:19 go:2 period:4 sharp:2 decline:1 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4,019 | Cornish_Nationalist_Party | Disambiguation: the term "Cornish Nationalist Party" is sometimes used incorrectly for Mebyon Kernow" The Cornish Nationalist Party (CNP), or Party Kenethlegek Kernow, is a political party led by Dr James Whetter campaigning for self-government for Cornwall that was formed by people who left Mebyon Kernow on 28 May 1975 Mebyon Kernow and Cornish Nationalism by Dick Cole, Bernard Deacon, and Gary Tregidda . The paper ceased to exist in 2005, however was revived in April 2009 following a conference in Bodmin. http://www.thisiscornwall.co.uk/news/Cornish-Nationalist-Party-regroups-contest-elections/article-876558-detail/article.html . A separate party with a similar name (the Cornish National Party) Mebyon Kernow and Cornish Nationalism by Dick Cole, Bernard Deacon, and Gary Tregidda existed from 1969. In 1969 a CNP was formed. The split was down to the same debate that was occurring in most of the political parties campaigning for autonomy from the United Kingdom at the time (for example the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru), whether to be a centre-left party appealing to the electorate on a social democratic line, or whether to appeal emotionally on a centre-right cultural line. Another subject of the split was whether to embrace devolution as a first step to full independence (or as the sole step if this was what the electorate wished) or for it to be "all or nothing"). The CNP essentially represented the party's right wing, who were not willing to accept that economic arguments were more likely to win votes than cultural. The CNP worked to preserve the identity of Cornwall and improve its economy, and encouraged links with Cornish people overseas and with other regions which have distinct identities. It also gave support to Unified Cornish, the language of the Cornish revival in modern times, and commemorated Thomas Flamank, a leader of the Cornish Rebellion in 1497, at an annual ceremony at Bodmin on 27h June] each year. While the CNP were not a racist organisation there was a perceived image problem relating to the similarly-styled British National Party (BNP). Today, the Cornish Nationalist Party is seen as more of a pressure group as they do not put up candidates for local, general or European elections. , they are not registered on the UK political parties register; Mebyon Kernow are the only registered political party based in Cornwall. The Dr Whetter and the CNP still publish a quarterly journal, The Cornish Banner (An Baner Kernewek''). This is done within the actions of the Roseland Institute. Reoccurrance It was announced in April 2009 that the Cornish Nationalist Party (now abbreviated CPN) had re-grouped to contest future elections http://www.thisiscornwall.co.uk/news/Cornish-Nationalist-Party-regroups-contest-elections/article-876558-detail/article.html . It had been annouced, however, that the new main aim of the party is support of the new Unitary Authority in Cornwall, something that is unpopular with many of the citizens. References See also List of topics related to Cornwall Cornish self-government movement Constitutional status of Cornwall External links The CNP at the Roseland Institute UK Register of Political Parties | Cornish_Nationalist_Party |@lemmatized disambiguation:1 term:1 cornish:15 nationalist:6 party:19 sometimes:1 use:1 incorrectly:1 mebyon:5 kernow:6 cnp:7 kenethlegek:1 political:5 lead:1 dr:2 james:1 whetter:2 campaign:2 self:2 government:2 cornwall:6 form:2 people:2 leave:2 may:1 nationalism:2 dick:2 cole:2 bernard:2 deacon:2 gary:2 tregidda:2 paper:1 cease:1 exist:2 however:2 revive:1 april:2 follow:1 conference:1 bodmin:2 http:2 www:2 thisiscornwall:2 co:2 uk:4 news:2 regroups:2 contest:3 election:4 article:4 detail:2 html:2 separate:1 similar:1 name:1 national:3 split:2 debate:1 occur:1 autonomy:1 united:1 kingdom:1 time:2 example:1 scottish:1 plaid:1 cymru:1 whether:3 centre:2 appeal:2 electorate:2 social:1 democratic:1 line:2 emotionally:1 right:2 cultural:2 another:1 subject:1 embrace:1 devolution:1 first:1 step:2 full:1 independence:1 sole:1 wish:1 nothing:1 essentially:1 represent:1 wing:1 willing:1 accept:1 economic:1 argument:1 likely:1 win:1 vote:1 work:1 preserve:1 identity:2 improve:1 economy:1 encourage:1 link:2 overseas:1 region:1 distinct:1 also:2 give:1 support:2 unified:1 language:1 revival:1 modern:1 commemorate:1 thomas:1 flamank:1 leader:1 rebellion:1 annual:1 ceremony:1 june:1 year:1 racist:1 organisation:1 perceived:1 image:1 problem:1 relate:2 similarly:1 style:1 british:1 bnp:1 today:1 see:2 pressure:1 group:2 put:1 candidate:1 local:1 general:1 european:1 register:4 base:1 still:1 publish:1 quarterly:1 journal:1 banner:1 baner:1 kernewek:1 within:1 action:1 roseland:2 institute:2 reoccurrance:1 announce:1 abbreviate:1 cpn:1 future:1 annouced:1 new:2 main:1 aim:1 unitary:1 authority:1 something:1 unpopular:1 many:1 citizen:1 reference:1 list:1 topic:1 movement:1 constitutional:1 status:1 external:1 |@bigram mebyon_kernow:5 kernow_cornish:3 dick_cole:2 http_www:2 plaid_cymru:1 unified_cornish:1 unitary_authority:1 external_link:1 |
4,020 | International_Olympiad_in_Informatics | The International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI) is an annual informatics competition for secondary school students. The first IOI was held in 1989 in Pravetz, Bulgaria. The contest consists of two days computer programming, solving problems of an algorithmic nature. Students compete on an individual basis, with up to four students competing from each participating country (with around 81 countries in 2004). Students in the national teams are selected through national computing contests, such as the Australian Informatics Olympiad, British Informatics Olympiad, and Bundeswettbewerb Informatik (Germany). IOI is one of the most prestigous Computer Science competitions in the world. Patrons of International Olympiad in Informatics are UNESCO and IFIP. Honorary Patron of IOI 2009 is President of Bulgaria Georgi Parvanov. Structure of the competition On each of the two competition days, the students are typically given three problems which they have to solve in five hours. Each student works on his/her own, with only a computer and no other help allowed, specifically no communication with other contestants, books etc. Usually to solve a task the contestant has to write a computer program (in C, C++ or Pascal) and submit it before the five hour competition time ends. Later on, the program is graded by being run with secret test data, consisting of multiple (typically 10 or 20) test cases. The contestant is awarded points for each test case that his program solves correctly, and within the given time and memory limit. In some cases, the contestant's program has to interact with a secret computer library, which allows problems where the input is not fixed, but depends on the program's actions - for example in game problems. Another new type of problems has known inputs which are publicly available already during the five hours of the contest. For these, the contestants have to submit the according output file instead of a program, and it is up to them whether they obtain the output files by writing a program (possibly exploiting special characteristics of the input), or by hand, or by a combination of these means. The scores from the two competition days and all problems are summed up separately for each contestant. At the awarding ceremony, contestants are awarded medals depending on their relative total score. The top 50% of the contestants are awarded medals, such that the relative number of gold : silver : bronze : no medal is approximately 1:2:3:6 (thus 1/12 of the contestants get a gold medal). The competition room at the IOI 2006 Bronze Medal from IOI 2006 In front of the competition room at the IOI 2007 Unlike other science olympiads, the IOI regulations specifically prohibit ranking by countries. Although unofficial rankings are circulated within some participating nations, there is therefore no standard. Students who do not receive medals do not have their scores published, making it impossible for a country to be ranked by adding together scores of its competitors unless each wins a medal. List of IOI websites and locations IOI 2012 will be held in Milan, Italy, 2012 IOI 2011 will be held in Thailand, 2011 IOI 2010 will be held in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, August 14 - 21, 2010 IOI 2009 will be held in Plovdiv, Bulgaria, August 8 - 15, 2009 IOI 2008 was held in Cairo, Egypt, August 16 - 23, 2008 (results) IOI 2007 was held in Zagreb, Croatia, August 15 - 22, 2007 (results) IOI 2006 was held in Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico, August 13 - 20, 2006 IOI 2005 was held in Nowy Sącz, Poland, August 18 - 25, 2005 (results) IOI 2004 was held in Athens, Greece, September 11 - 18, 2004 (results) IOI 2003 was held in Kenosha, Wisconsin, USA, August 16 - 23, 2003 (results) IOI 2002 was held in Yong-In, Republic of Korea, August 18 - 25, 2002 IOI 2001 was held in Tampere, Finland, July 14 - 21, 2001 IOI 2000 was held in Beijing, People's Republic of China, September 23 - 30, 2000 IOI 1999 was held in Antalya-Belek, Turkey, October 9 - 16, 1999 IOI 1998 was held in Setúbal, Portugal, September 5 - 12, 1998 IOI 1997 was held in Cape Town, South Africa, November 30 - December 7, 1997 IOI 1996 was held in Veszprém, Hungary, July 25 - August 2, 1996 IOI 1995 was held in Eindhoven, The Netherlands, June 26 - July 3, 1995 IOI 1994 was held in Haninge, Sweden, July 3 - 10, 1994 IOI 1993 was held in Mendoza, Argentina, October 16 - 25, 1993 IOI 1992 was held in Bonn, Germany, July 11 - 21, 1992 IOI 1991 was held in Athens, Greece, May 19 - 25, 1991 IOI 1990 was held in Minsk, Belarusian SSR, Soviet Union, July 15 - 21, 1990 IOI 1989 was held in Pravetz, Bulgaria, May 16 - 19, 1989. Multiple IOI winners The following is a list of the top 24 performers in the history of the IOI. First (I), second (II) and third (III) places among gold medalists are indicated where appropriate. This list includes only those countries where the national selection contest allows the same participant to go multiple times to the IOI. NameTeamYears <tr> Filip Wolski Poland G(I) 2006 G 2005 G 2004 G 2003 Martin Pettai Estonia G 2002 G 2001 G 2000 S 1999 Andrzej Gasienica-Samek Poland G 1999 G 1998 G 1997 S 1996 Vladimir Martianov Russia G 1999 G(I) 1998 G(I) 1997 Martin Mares Czech Republic G 1995 G 1994 G 1993 John Pardon United States G 2007 G 2006 G 2005 Marcin Andrychowicz Poland G 2008 G 2007 G 2006 Bruce Merry South Africa G 2001 G 2000 S 1999 B 1998 B 1997 B 1996 Alex Schwendner United States G 2005 G 2003 S 2004 S 2002 Wolfgang Thaller Austria G 1997 G 1996 S 1999 S 1998 Victor Bargachev Russia G(I) 1995 G(I) 1994 S 1993 Mihai Pătraşcu Romania G(II) 2001 G 2000 S 1999 Roman Pastoukhov Russia G 2000 G(II) 1999 S 2001 Piotr Zieliński Poland G 1997 G(III) 1996 S 1995 Miroslav Dudik Slovakia G 1997 G 1996 S 1995 Richard Kralovic Slovakia G 1999 G 1998 S 1997 Tomasz Czajka Poland (1998, 2000), United Kingdom (1999) G 2000 G 1999 S 1998 Petr Mitrichev Russia G 2002 G 2000 S 2001 Luka Kalinovčić Croatia G 2004 G 2003 S 2002 Rostislav Rumenov Bulgaria G 2007 G 2006 S 2005 Henadzi Karatkevich Belarus G 2008 G 2007 S 2006 Goran Žužić Croatia G 2008 G 2007 B 2006 Janis Sermulins Latvia G 1999 G(II) 1997 B 1998 Reid Barton United States G(I) 2001 G 2000 Chen Hong P.R. China G(I) 1999 G 2000 See also International Science Olympiad ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest Central European Olympiad in Informatics External links IOI International Committee Website IOI Secretariat Website IOI 2004 (held in Athens,Greece) website IOI 2005 Website IOI 2007 Website IOI 2008 Website Photos from some former Informatics Olympiads. Egyptian Olympiad in Informatics | International_Olympiad_in_Informatics |@lemmatized international:5 olympiad:9 informatics:8 ioi:42 annual:1 competition:8 secondary:1 school:1 student:7 first:2 hold:26 pravetz:2 bulgaria:5 contest:5 consist:2 two:3 day:3 computer:5 programming:2 solve:3 problem:6 algorithmic:1 nature:1 compete:2 individual:1 basis:1 four:1 participate:2 country:5 around:1 national:3 team:1 select:1 computing:1 australian:1 british:1 bundeswettbewerb:1 informatik:1 germany:2 one:1 prestigous:1 science:3 world:1 patron:2 unesco:1 ifip:1 honorary:1 president:1 georgi:1 parvanov:1 structure:1 typically:2 give:2 three:1 five:3 hour:3 work:1 help:1 allow:3 specifically:2 communication:1 contestant:9 book:1 etc:1 usually:1 task:1 write:2 program:7 c:2 pascal:1 submit:2 time:3 end:1 later:1 grade:1 run:1 secret:2 test:3 data:1 multiple:3 case:3 award:3 point:1 solves:1 correctly:1 within:2 memory:1 limit:1 interact:1 library:1 input:3 fix:1 depend:2 action:1 example:1 game:1 another:1 new:1 type:1 know:1 publicly:1 available:1 already:1 accord:1 output:2 file:2 instead:1 whether:1 obtain:1 possibly:1 exploit:1 special:1 characteristic:1 hand:1 combination:1 mean:1 score:4 sum:1 separately:1 awarding:1 ceremony:1 medal:7 relative:2 total:1 top:2 number:1 gold:3 silver:1 bronze:2 approximately:1 thus:1 get:1 room:2 front:1 unlike:1 regulation:1 prohibit:1 ranking:2 although:1 unofficial:1 circulate:1 nation:1 therefore:1 standard:1 receive:1 publish:1 make:1 impossible:1 rank:1 add:1 together:1 competitor:1 unless:1 win:1 list:3 website:7 location:1 milan:1 italy:1 thailand:1 waterloo:1 ontario:1 canada:1 august:9 plovdiv:1 cairo:1 egypt:1 result:5 zagreb:1 croatia:3 mérida:1 yucatán:1 mexico:1 nowy:1 sącz:1 poland:6 athens:3 greece:3 september:3 kenosha:1 wisconsin:1 usa:1 yong:1 republic:3 korea:1 tampere:1 finland:1 july:6 beijing:1 people:1 china:2 antalya:1 belek:1 turkey:1 october:2 setúbal:1 portugal:1 cape:1 town:1 south:2 africa:2 november:1 december:1 veszprém:1 hungary:1 eindhoven:1 netherlands:1 june:1 haninge:1 sweden:1 mendoza:1 argentina:1 bonn:1 may:2 minsk:1 belarusian:1 ssr:1 soviet:1 union:1 winner:1 following:1 performer:1 history:1 second:1 ii:4 third:1 iii:2 place:1 among:1 medalist:1 indicate:1 appropriate:1 include:1 selection:1 participant:1 go:1 nameteamyears:1 tr:1 filip:1 wolski:1 g:58 martin:2 pettai:1 estonia:1 andrzej:1 gasienica:1 samek:1 vladimir:1 martianov:1 russia:4 mare:1 czech:1 john:1 pardon:1 united:4 state:3 marcin:1 andrychowicz:1 bruce:1 merry:1 b:5 alex:1 schwendner:1 wolfgang:1 thaller:1 austria:1 victor:1 bargachev:1 mihai:1 pătraşcu:1 romania:1 roman:1 pastoukhov:1 piotr:1 zieliński:1 miroslav:1 dudik:1 slovakia:2 richard:1 kralovic:1 tomasz:1 czajka:1 kingdom:1 petr:1 mitrichev:1 luka:1 kalinovčić:1 rostislav:1 rumenov:1 henadzi:1 karatkevich:1 belarus:1 goran:1 žužić:1 janis:1 sermulins:1 latvia:1 reid:1 barton:1 chen:1 hong:1 p:1 r:1 see:1 also:1 acm:1 collegiate:1 central:1 european:1 external:1 link:1 committee:1 secretariat:1 photo:1 former:1 egyptian:1 |@bigram olympiad_informatics:4 ioi_hold:26 georgi_parvanov:1 gold_silver:1 bronze_medal:2 gold_medal:1 plovdiv_bulgaria:1 zagreb_croatia:1 nowy_sącz:1 soviet_union:1 gold_medalist:1 czech_republic:1 external_link:1 |
4,021 | Isaac_Bashevis_Singer | Isaac Bashevis Singer () (November 21, 1902 (see notes below) – July 24, 1991) was a Nobel Prize-winning Polish-born American author and one of the leading figures in the Yiddish literary movement. Life Early life Isaac Bashevis Singer was born in 1902 in Leoncin, a mainly Jewish village near Warsaw in Congress Poland, then part of the Russian Empire. A few years later, the family moved to Radzymin, which is often and erroneously given as his birthplace. The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but most probably it was November 21, 1902, a date that Singer gave both to his official biographer, Paul Kresh, Paul Kresh "Isaac Bashevis Singer, The Magician of West 86th Street, A Biography", The Dial Press, New York 1979, p. 390. and his secretary Dvorah Telushkin. Dvorah Telushkin "Master of Dreams", A Memoir of Isaac Bashevis Singer", p. 266, New York, 1997 It is also consistent with the historical events he and his brother refer to in their childhood memoirs. The often quoted birth date, July 14, 1904 was made up by the author in his youth, most probably to make himself younger to avoid the draft ( Stephen Tree "Isaac Bashevis Singer", Munich, p. 18-19, 2004 . His father was a Hasidic rabbi and his mother, Bathsheba, was the daughter of the rabbi of Biłgoraj. Singer later used her name in his pen name "Bashevis" (Bathsheba's). His elder siblings brother Israel Joshua Singer {b.1893-d.1944} and their sister, Esther Kreitman (1891–1954), were also writers. She was the first in the family to write stories. Maurice Carr, "My Uncle Itzhak: A Memoir of I. B. Singer", In: Commentary, December 1992 The family moved to the court of the Rabbi of Radzymin in 1907, where his father became head of the Yeshiva. After the Yeshiva building burned down in 1908, the family moved to Krochmalna-Street in the Yiddish-speaking poor Jewish quarter of Warsaw, where Singer grew up. There his father acted as a rabbi — i.e., judge, arbitrator, religious authority and spiritual leader. Isaac Bashevis Singer, In my Father's Court New York: Fawcett Crest, 1966. World War I In 1917, because of the hardships of World War I, the family had to split up. Singer moved with his mother and younger brother Moshe to his mother's hometown of Biłgoraj, a traditional Jewish town or shtetl, where his mother's brothers had followed his grandfather as rabbis. When his father became a village rabbi again in 1921, Singer went back to Warsaw, where he entered the Tachkemoni Rabbinical Seminary. However, he soon found out that neither the school nor the profession suited him. He returned to Biłgoraj, where he tried to support himself by giving Hebrew lessons, but soon gave up and joined his parents, considering himself a failure. In 1923 his older brother Israel Joshua arranged for him to move to Warsaw to work as a proofreader for the Literarische Bleter, of which he was an editor. Isaac Bashevis Singer, A Little Boy in Search of God New York: Doubleday, 1976. New York City To escape from the emerging threat of fascism from Nazi Germany in 1935, with the help (once again) of his brother, Israel, Singer emigrated to the U.S.. This move separated the author from his common law first wife Runia Pontsch, and son Israel Zamir {b.1929}, who went to Moscow and then Palestine {Father and son would meet in 1955}. Singer settled in New York, where he took up work as a journalist and columnist for The Forward (), a Yiddish-language newspaper. After an initially promising start, he then became despondent and felt for some years "Lost in America" (title of a Singer novel, in Yiddish from 1974 onward, in English 1981). In 1938, he met Alma Wassermann (born Haimann) {b.1907-d.1996}, a German-Jewish refugee from Munich whom he married in 1940. Freshly re-married, he returned to prolific writing and to contributing to the Forward using besides "Bashevis," the pen names "Varshavsky" and "D. Segal." See: Both bibliographies (given on this page) Singer's relationship with religion was complex. He regarded himself as a skeptic and a loner, though he felt a connection to his orthodox roots. Ultimately, he developed a view of religion and philosophy, which he called "private mysticism: Since God was completely unknown and eternally silent, He could be endowed with whatever traits one elected to hang upon Him." Grace Farrell, Isaac Bashevis Singer: Conversations, p. 236, University Press of Mississippi, 1992. Isaac Bashevis Singer, Love and exile, Doubleday, p. 99, 1984 Death Singer died on July 24, 1991 in Surfside, Florida, after suffering a series of strokes. He was buried in Cedar Park Cemetery, Emerson. A street in Surfside, Florida is named Isaac Bashevis Singer Boulevard in his honor. Furthermore, the full academic scholarship for undergraduate students at the University of Miami is named in his honor. Writing Singer's first published story won the literary competition of the "literarishe bletter" and garnered him a reputation as a promising talent. A reflection of his formative years in "the kitchen of literature" ( p. 132) can be found in many of his later works. I. B. Singer published his first novel Satan in Goray in installments in the literary magazine Globus, which he cofounded with his life-long friend, the Yiddish poet Aaron Zeitlin in 1935. It tells the story of events in 1648 in the village of Goraj (close to Biłgoraj), where the Jews of Poland lost a third of their population in a cruel uprising by Cossacks, and details the effects of the seventeenth-century faraway false messiah Shabbatai Zvi on the local population. Its last chapter imitates the style of medieval Yiddish chronicle. With a stark depiction of innocence crushed by circumstance, the novel appears to foreshadow coming danger. In his later work The Slave (1962), Singer returns to the aftermath of 1648, in a love story between a Jewish man and a Gentile woman, where he depicts the traumatized and desperate survivors of the historic catastrophe with even deeper understanding. The Family Moskat However, he became an actual literary contributor to the Forward only following his older brother's death in 1945, when he published "The Family Moskat" in his honor. But his own style showed in the daring turns of his action and characters - with (and this in the Jewish family-newspaper in 1945) double adultery in the holiest of nights of Judaism, the evening of Yom Kippur. He was almost forced to stop writing the novel by his legendary editor-in-chief, Abraham Cahan, but was saved by readers who wanted the story to go on. After this, his stories - which he had published in Yiddish literary newspapers before - were printed in the Forward as well. Throughout the 1940s, Singer's reputation grew. After World War II and the near destruction of the Yiddish-speaking peoples, Yiddish seemed to be a dead language. Though Singer had moved to the United States, he believed in the power of his native language and maintained that there was still a large audience that longed to read in Yiddish. In an interview in Encounter (Feb. 1979), he claimed that although the Jews of Poland had died, "something - call it spirit or whatever - is still somewhere in the universe. This is a mystical kind of feeling, but I feel there is truth in it." Some of his colleagues and readers were shocked by this all-encompassing view of human nature. He wrote about female homosexuality ("Zeitl and Rickl" in "The Seance"), transvestitism ("Yentl the Yeshiva Boy" in "Short Friday"), and of rabbis corrupted by demons ("Zeidlus the Pope" in "Short Friday"). In those novels and stories which seem to recount his own life, he portrays himself unflatteringly (with some degree of accuracy) as an artist who is self-centered yet has a keen eye for the sufferings and tribulations of others. Singer had many literary influences; besides the religious texts he studied there where the folktales he grew up with and worldly Yiddish detective-stories about "Max Spitzkopf" and his assistant "Fuchs" [1]; there was Dostoyevsky, whose Crime and Punishment he read with fourteen [2]; and he writes about the importance of the Yiddish translations donated in book-crates from America, which he studied as a teenager in Bilgoraj: "I read everything: Stories, novels, plays, essays… I read Rejsen, Strindberg, Don Kaplanowitsch, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Maupassant and Chekhov." [3] He studied many philosophers, among them Otto Weininger. Among his Yiddish contemporaries Singer himself considered his older brother to be his greatest artistic example; he was a life-long friend and admirer of the author and poet Aaron Zeitlin. Of his non-Yiddish-contemporaries he was strongly influenced by the writings of Knut Hamsun, many of whose works he later translated, while he had more critical attitude towards Thomas Mann, whose approach to writing he considered opposed to his own [4]. Contrary to Hamsun's approach, Singer shaped his world not only with the egos of his characters, but also using the moral commitments of the Jewish tradition that he grew up with and that his father embodies in the stories about his youth. This led to the dichotomy between the life his heroes lead and the life they feel they should lead - which gives his art a modernity his predecessors do not evince. His themes of witchcraft, mystery and legend draw on traditional sources, but they are contrasted with a modern and ironic consciousness. They are also concerned with the bizarre and the grotesque. In the short story form, in which many critics feel he made his most lasting contributions, his greatest influences were Chekhov and Maupassant. From Maupassant, Singer developed a finely grained sense of drama. Like the French master, Singer's stories can pack enormous visceral excitement in the space of a few pages. From Chekhov, Singer developed his ability to draw characters of enormous complexity and dignity in the briefest of spaces. In the forward to his personally selected volume of his finest short stories he describes the two aforementioned writers as the greatest masters of the short story form. Singer always wrote and published in Yiddish (almost all of it in newspapers) and then edited his novels and stories for their American versions, which became the basis for all other translations (he talked of his "second original"). This has led to an ongoing controversy whereby the "real Singer" can be found either in the Yiddish original, with its finely tuned language and sometimes rambling construction, or in the tightly edited American copy, where the language is usually simpler and more direct. Many stories and novels of I. B. Singer have not yet undergone translation. Singer published at least 18 novels, 14 children's books, a number of memoirs, essays and articles, but is best known as a writer of short stories, which have appeared in over a dozen collections. The first collection of Singer's short stories in English, Gimpel the Fool, was published in 1957. The title story was translated by Saul Bellow and published in May 1953 in Partisan Review. Selections from Singer's "Varshavsky-stories" in the Daily Forward were later published in anthologies as My Father's Court (1966). Later collections include A Crown of Feathers (1973), with notable masterpieces in between, such as The Spinoza of Market Street (1961) and A Friend of Kafka (1970). His stories and novels reflect the world of the East European Jewry he grew up in - in its complexity and grandeur, its material poverty and spiritual splendor. And, after his many years in America, his stories also concerned themselves with the world of the immigrants and how their American dream proves elusive both when they obtain it, e.g. Salomon Margolin, the successful doctor of "A Wedding in Brownsville" (in Short Friday) who finds out his true love was killed by the Nazis, and when it escapes them as it does the "Cabalist of East Broadway" (in A Crown of Feathers), who prefers the misery of the Lower East Side to an honored and secure life as a married man. Although dozens of his stories are available in anthologies, one of the interesting things about his literary career is that, as he became better known (but before the Nobel Prize), translations of his stories were frequently published in popular magazines such as "Playboy" and "Esquire." These magazines were quite anxious to raise their literary reputation by publishing Singer, and he in turn found them to be appropriate outlets for his work. Another important strand of his art is inner-familial strife - which he experienced firsthand when taking refuge with his mother and younger brother at his uncles home in Biłgoraj. This is the central theme in Singer's big family chronicles - like The Family Moskat (1950), The Manor (1967), and The Estate (1969). Some are reminded by them of Thomas Mann's novel Buddenbrooks; Singer had translated Mann's Der Zauberberg (The Magic Mountain) into Yiddish as a young writer. One of his most famous novels (due to a popular movie remake) was Enemies, a Love Story in which a Holocaust survivor deals with his own desires, complex family relationships, and a loss of faith. Singer's feminist story "Yentl" has had a wide impact on culture since its conversion into popular movie starring Barbra Streisand. Perhaps the most fascinating Singer-inspired film is 1974's Mr. Singer's Nightmare or Mrs. Pupkos Beard by Bruce Davidson, a renowned photographer who became Singer's neighbor. This unique film is a half-hour mixture of documentary and fantasy for which Singer not only wrote the script but played the leading role. Throughout the 1960s, Singer continued to write on questions of personal morality, and was the target of scathing criticism from many quarters during this time, some of it for not being "moral" enough, some for writing stories that no one wanted to hear. To his critics he replied, "Literature must spring from the past, from the love of the uniform force that wrote it, and not from the uncertainty of the future." Singer was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978 Text of Nobel Lecture . [1] Stephen Tree, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Munich 2004, p. 35 [2] I.B.S., A Day of Pleasure, NY 1963, chapter 9 [3] I.B.S., A Day of Pleasure, NY 1963, chapter 18 [4] Forverts, August 28, 1955, pp. 5; Stephen Tree, I.B.S, Munich 2004, p. 88 Beliefs Judaism Singer's relationship to Judaism, which was complex and unconventional, evades description because he did not write very much directly about it. On the other hand, he often employs first-person narrators in his fiction that are clearly meant to represent him personally. Singer was brought up in an Orthodox household, where he learned all the Jewish prayers, studied Hebrew, and learned Torah and Talmud. But as he recounts in the autobiographical ' 'In My Father's Court ' ', he broke away from his parents in his early twenties and began spending time with non-religious Bohemian artists in Warsaw (influenced by his older brother, who had done the same). Although he clearly believed in a monotheistic God (as in traditional Judaism), he stopped attending Jewish religious services of any kind, even on the High Holy Days. His vegetarianism, which he adopted in 1962[1] when he had the means to do so, and which became a very important part of his later life, can also be seen as a way of avoiding the question of Kosher food. He struggled throughout his life with the realization that a kind and compassionate God would never inflict the massive suffering he saw around him, especially the Holocaust deaths of the Polish Jews he grew up with. In one interview with the photographer Richard Kaplan, he said, "I am angry at God because of what happened to my brother [his older brother died, suddenly, in February 1944, in New York, of a thrombosis, his younger brother perished in Soviet Russia ca. 1945, after being deported with his mother and wife to Southern Kazakhstan." In one story, however, his narrator tells a woman, "If you believe in God, then he exists." Despite all these complexities in his religious outlook, Singer lived in the midst of the Jewish community throughout his life. He did not seem to be comfortable unless he was surrounded by Jews; particularly Jews born in Europe. Although he spoke English, Hebrew, and Polish quite fluently, he always considered Yiddish his natural tongue, he always wrote in Yiddish and he was the last famous american author writing in this language. After he had achieved success as a writer in New York, Singer and his wife began spending time during the winters with the Jewish community in Miami. Eventually, as senior citizens, they moved to Miami and identified closely with the European Jewish community: a street was named after him long before he died. I.B. Singer was buried in a traditional Jewish ceremony in a Jewish cemetery. Especially in his short fiction, he often writes about Jews of various kinds who are having religious struggles; sometimes these struggles become quite violent, resulting in death or mental illness. In one story he meets a young woman in New York whom he knew from an Orthodox family in Poland. She has become a kind of hippy, sings American folk music with a guitar, and rejects Judaism, although the narrator comments that in many ways she seems typically Jewish. The narrator says that he often meets Jews who think they are anything but Jewish, and yet still are. In the end, Singer remains an unquestionably Jewish writer, yet his precise views about Jews, Judaism, and the Jewish God are open to much interpretation. Whatever they are, they lie at the center of his literary art. Stephen Tree, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Munich 2004, p. 154. Vegetarianism Singer was a prominent vegetarian History of Vegetarianism - Isaac Bashevis Singer (1904-1991) for the last 35 years of his life and often included vegetarian themes in his works. In his short story, The Slaughterer, he described the anguish of an appointed slaughterer trying to reconcile his compassion for animals with his job of killing them. He felt that the ingestion of meat was a denial of all ideals and all religions: "How can we speak of right and justice if we take an innocent creature and shed its blood?" When asked if he had become a vegetarian for health reasons, he replied: "I did it for the health of the chickens." In The Letter Writer, he wrote "In relation to [animals], all people are Nazis; for the animals, it is an eternal Treblinka" . In the preface to Steven Rosen's "Food for Spirit: Vegetarianism and the World Religions" (1986), Singer wrote, "When a human kills an animal for food, he is neglecting his own hunger for justice. Man prays for mercy, but is unwilling to extend it to others. Why should man then expect mercy from God? It's unfair to expect something that you are not willing to give. It is inconsistent. I can never accept inconsistency or injustice. Even if it comes from God. If there would come a voice from God saying, "I'm against vegetarianism!" I would say, "Well, I am for it!" This is how strongly I feel in this regard." Bibliography Note: the publication years in the following list refer to English translations, not the Yiddish originals (which often predate their translations by ten or twenty years). Eulogy to a Shoelace (unknown) The Family Moskat (1950) Satan in Goray (1955) The Magician of Lublin (1960) The Slave (1962) Zlateh the Goat (1966) The Fearsome Inn (1967) Mazel and Shlimazel (1967) The Manor (1967) The Estate (1969) The Golem (1969) A Friend of Kafka, and Other Stories (1970) Elijah The Slave (1970) Joseph and Koza: or the Sacrifice to the Vistula (1970) The Topsy-Turvy Emperor of China (1971) Enemies, a Love Story (1972) The Wicked City (1972) The Hasidim (1973) Fools of Chelm and Their History (1973) A Crown of Feathers, and Other Stories (1974) Naftali and the Storyteller and His Horse, Sus (1976) A Little Boy in Search of God (1976) Shosha (1978) A Young Man in Search of Love (1978) Reaches of Heaven. A Story Of The Baal Shem Tov (1980) The Collected Stories of Isaac Bashevis Singer (1982) (stories selected by Singer) The Penitent (1983) Yentl the Yeshiva Boy (1983) (basis for the movie Yentl) Why Noah Chose the Dove (1984) The King of the Fields (1988) Scum (1991) The Certificate (1992) Meshugah (1994) A Day of Pleasure, Stories of a Boy Growing Up In Warsaw (1969) Shadows on the Hudson (1997), Reissue by FSG (5/2008) Short stories "The Mistake" The New Yorker 60/51 (4 February 1985) : 36-40. Translated from the Yiddish by Rina Borrow and Lester Goran. Posthumous editions Stavans, Ilan, ed. Isaac Bashevis Singer, Stories Vol. 1 (Library of America, 2004) ISBN 978-1-93108261-7 Stavans, Ilan, ed. Isaac Bashevis Singer, Stories Vol. 2 (Library of America, 2004) ISBN 978-1-93108262-4 Stavans, Ilan, ed. Isaac Bashevis Singer, Stories Vol. 3 (Library of America, 2004) ISBN 978-1-93108263-1 Burgin, Richard, and Isaac Bashevis Singer Conversations with Isaac Bashevis Singer (1985) ISBN 0-385-17999-5 Rencontre au Sommet (86-page transcript in book form of conversations between Singer and Anthony Burgess) (1998) Sources Chelsea on the Edge: The Adventures of an American Theater, Davi Napoleon. Includes detailed discussion and anecodtes concerning Robert Kalfin's production of Yentl, the Yeshiva Boy at the Chelsea Theater Center and on Broadway, including conflicts with Barbra Streisand and Tovah Feldshuh. Iowa State University Press. ISBN-0-8138-1713-7, 1991. Paul Kresh "Isaac Bashevis Singer: The Magician of West 86th Street", New York 1979 Dorothea Straus, "Under the Canopy. The story of a friendship with Isaac Bashevis Singer that chronicles a reawakening of Jewish identity.", George Braziller: New York, 1982. ISBN 0-8076-1028-3. Maurice Carr, "My Uncle Itzhak: A Memoir of I. B. Singer", In: Commentary, December 1992 Aleksandra Ziółkowska "Korzenie są polskie", Warszawa 1992, ISBN 83-7066-406-7; Aleksandra Ziółkowska Boehm "The Roots Are Polish", Toronto 2004, ISBN 0-920517-05-6. Israel Zamir "Journey to My Father Isaac Bashevis Singer", New York 1995 Lester Goran "The Bright Streets of Surfside. The Memoir of a Friendship with Isaac Bashevis Singer", Kent, Ohio 1994 Janet Hadda "Isaac Bashevis Singer: A Life", New York 1997 Dvorah Telushkin "Master of Dreams", A Memoir of Isaac Bashevis Singer", New York 1997 Agata Tuszynska "Lost Landscapes", In Search of Isaac Bashevis Singer and the Jews of Poland, Transl. by M. G. Levine, New York 1998 "The Hidden Isaac Bashevis Singer", edited by Seth Wolitz, University of Texas Press, 2002 Stephen Tree "Isaac Bashevis Singer", Munich 2004 (in German) ISBN 3423244151 Jeffrey Sussman: "Recollecting Isaac Bashevis Singer." Jewish Currents Magazine and The East Hampton Star References External links Isaac Bashevis Singer at FSG 1978 Nobel Prize in Literature Nobel biography http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/singer_i.html Singer page at Library of Congress The Paris Review Interview with Isaac Bashevis Singer Isaac Bashevis Singer Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin See also List of short story authors | Isaac_Bashevis_Singer |@lemmatized isaac:32 bashevis:34 singer:83 november:2 see:4 note:2 july:3 nobel:6 prize:4 win:2 polish:4 born:2 american:7 author:6 one:8 lead:5 figure:1 yiddish:21 literary:9 movement:1 life:13 early:2 bear:2 leoncin:1 mainly:1 jewish:20 village:3 near:2 warsaw:6 congress:2 poland:5 part:2 russian:1 empire:1 year:7 later:5 family:13 move:8 radzymin:2 often:7 erroneously:1 give:7 birthplace:1 exact:1 date:3 birth:2 uncertain:1 probably:2 official:1 biographer:1 paul:3 kresh:3 magician:3 west:2 street:7 biography:2 dial:1 press:4 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4,022 | Hyena | The Hyaenidae () is a mammalian family of order Carnivora. The Hyaenidae family, native to both African and Asian continents, consists of four living species, the Striped Hyena and Brown Hyena (genus Hyaena), the Spotted Hyena (genus Crocuta), and the Aardwolf (genus Proteles). Evolution Skull of Hyaena eximia Lower jaw of Hyaena eximia Hyenas seem to have originated 26 million years ago from arboreal ancestors bearing similarities to the modern Banded Palm Civet. Plioviverrops, one of the earliest hyenas, was a lithe civet-like creature that inhabited Eurasia 20-22 million years ago. Details from the middle ear and dental structure marked it as a primitive hyena. This genus proved successful, its descendants flourishing with more pointed jowls and racier legs, much as the Canidae had done in North America. Fifteen million years ago, dog-like hyenas flourished, with 30 different species being identified. Unlike some of their modern descendants, these hyenas were not specialized bone-crushers, but were more nimble, wolf-like animals. The dog-like hyenas had canid-like molars, allowing them to supplement their carnivorous diet with vegetation and invertebrates. Five to seven million years ago, the hyenas were outcompeted by canids traveling from North America to Eurasia via the Bering land bridge. The ancestral aardwolves survived by having adapted themselves to an insectivorous diet to which few canids had specialized. Some hyenas evolved bone-crushing teeth, which allowed them to avoid competition with the canids, resulting in the hyenas eventually outcompeting a family of similarly built bone-crushers called "percrocutoids". The percrocutoids became extinct 7 million years ago, coinciding exactly with the rise of bone-crushing hyena species. Unlike the canids who flourished in the newly colonized Eurasian continent, only one hyena species, the cheetah-like Chasmaporthetes, managed to cross to North America. It became extinct 1.5 million years ago. The peak diversity of the Hyenidae was during the Pleistocene, with 4 genera and 9 species of hyena. The bone-crushing hyenas became the Old World's dominant scavengers, managing to take advantage of the amount of meat left over from the kills of sabre-toothed cats. One such species was Pachycrocuta, a 200 kg (440 lb) mega-scavenger that could crush elephant bones. As the sabre-toothed cats began to die out and be replaced by short-fanged felids that were more efficient eaters, more hyenas began to hunt for themselves and began evolving into new species, the modern Spotted Hyena being among them. Skull of Ictitherium viverrinum. American Museum of Natural History Genera of the Hyaenidae (extinct and recent) The list follows McKenna and Bells Classification of Mammals for prehistoric genera (1997) Malcolm C. McKenna, Susan K. Bell: Classification of Mammals: Above the Species Level in Columbia University Press, New York 1997, 631 Seiten, ISBN 0-231-11013-8 and Wozencraft (2005) in Wilson and Reeders Mammal Species of the World for extant genera. The Percrocutids are, in contrast to McKenna and Bell's classification, not included as a subfamily into the Hyaenidae, but as the separate family Percrocutidae. Furthermore, the genus Paracrocuta, to which the living brown hyena belongs, is not included into the genus Pachycrocuta, but in the genus Hyaena. The Protelinae (Aardwolves) are not traded as a separate subfamily, but included in the Hyaeninae. Family Hyaenidae †Tongxinictis (Middle Miocene of Asia) †Subfamily Ictitheriinae †Herpestides (Early Miocene of Africa and Eurasia) †Plioviverrops (including Jordanictis, Protoviverrops, Mesoviverrops; Early Miocene to Early Pliocene of Europe, Late Miocene of Asia) †Ictitherium (=Galeotherium; including Lepthyaena, Sinictitherium, Paraictitherium; Middle Miocene of Africa, Late Miocene to Early Pliocene of Eurasia) †Thalassictis (including Palhyaena, Miohyaena, Hyaenictitherium, Hyaenalopex; Middle to Late Miocene of Asia, Late Miocene of Africa and Europe) †Hyaenotherium (Late Miocene to ?Early Pliocene of Eurasia) †Miohyaenotherium (Late Miocene of Europe) †Lychyaena (Late Miocene of Eurasia) †Tungurictis (Middle Miocene of Africa and Eurasia) †Proictitherium (Middle Miocene of Africa and Asia, Middle to Late Miocene of Europe) Subfamily Hyaeninae †Palinhyaena (Late Miocene of Asia) †Ikelohyaena (Early Pliocene of Africa) Hyaena (=Euhyaena, =Hyena; including Parahyaena, Pliohyaena, Pliocrocuta, Anomalopithecus) Early Pliocene (?Middle Miocene) to Recent of Africa, Late Pliocene (?Late Miocene) to Late Pleistocene of Eurasia) †Hyaenictis (Late Miocene of Asia?, Late Miocene of Europe, Early Pliocene (?Early Pleistocene) of Africa) †Leecyaena (Late Miocene and/or Early Pliocene of Asia) †Chasmaporthetes (=Ailuriaena; including Lycaenops, Euryboas; Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene of Eurasia, Early Pliocene to Late pliocene or Early Pleistocene of Africa, Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of North America) †Pachycrocuta (Pliocene and Pleistocene of Eurasia and Africa) †Adcrocuta (Late Miocene of Eurasia) Crocuta (=Crocotta; including Eucrocuta; Late Pliocene to recent of Africa, Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene of Eurasia) Proteles (=Geocyon; Pleistocene to Recent of Africa) Appearance and biology Striped Hyena, Hyaena hyaena Although hyenas bear some physical resemblance to canids, they make up a separate biological family that is most closely related to Herpestidae (the family of mongooses and meerkats), thereby falling within the Feliformia. All species have a distinctly bear-like gait, due to their front legs being longer than their back legs. The Aardwolf, Striped Hyena, and Brown Hyena have striped pelts and manes lining the top of their necks which erect when frightened. The Spotted Hyena's fur is considerably shorter and spotted rather than striped. Unlike other species, its mane is reversed forwards. Spotted Hyenas and, to a lesser extent, Striped and Brown Hyenas, have powerful carnassial teeth adapted for cutting flesh and premolars for crushing bone. Spotted Hyenas have a strong bite proportional to their size, but the view that they have the strongest bite is a myth; and a number of other animals (including the Tasmanian devil) are proportionately stronger. Ancient Worlds News - Marsupial has the deadliest bite - 04/04/2005 The Aardwolf has greatly reduced cheek teeth, sometimes absent in the adult, but otherwise has the same dentition as the other three species. The dental formula for all hyena species is: Brown Hyena, Parahyaena brunnea Labiolingually, their mandibles are much stronger at the canine teeth than in canids, reflecting the fact that hyenas crack bones with both their anterior dentition and premolars, unlike canids which do so with their post-carnassial molars. Like felids, hyenas lack the rearward molars of canids and vivverids. By organising their teeth so that the bone-crushing premolars do not interfere with the meat-slicing carnassials to the rear, hyenas can crush bone without blunting the carnassials' blades. Hyenas, in particular the Spotted Hyena, are highly intelligent animals. Spotted Hyena societies are more complex than those of other carnivorous mammals and have been reported to be remarkably similar to those cercopithecine primates in respect to group size, structure, competition, and cooperation. One indication of hyena intelligence is that they will move their killed prey closer together to protect them from scavengers. Another indication is their strategic hunting methods. The majority of hyena species show little sexual dimorphism, with males being only slightly larger than the females. The Spotted Hyena is an exception to this, with females larger than males. One unusual feature of the Spotted Hyena is that females have an enlarged clitoris, called a pseudo-penis, demi-penis, or sometimes mistakenly referred to as a nanophallus. Female hyenas give birth, copulate, and urinate through their protruding genitalia, which stretches to allow the male penis to enter for copulation; it also stretches during birth. The anatomical position of the genitalia gives females complete control over which males are allowed to mate with them. Researchers originally thought that one cause of this characteristic of the genitals was androgens that were introduced to the fetus very early on in its development. However, it was discovered that when the androgens were held back from the female fetus, the development of her genitalia was not altered. Spotted Hyenas have a matriarchal social structure Social Hierarchies Feeding Behavior in the Spotted Hyena that some biologists speculate evolved because it is in the best interests of the female hyena to dominate the male hyena as it provides no assistance in rearing the cubs. Two hyenas playing at Colchester Zoo All species excrete an oily, yellow substance from their anal glands onto objects to mark their territories. When scent marking the anal pouch is turned inside out, or everted. Hyenas also do this as a submissive posture to more dominant hyenas. Genitals, the anal area and the anal glands are sniffed during greeting behavior in which each hyena lifts its leg and allows the other to sniff its anal sacks and genitals. All four species maintain latrines far from the main denning area where dung is deposited. Scent marking is also done by scraping the ground with the paws, which deposits scent from glands on the bottoms of the feet. Hyenas do not raise their legs when urinating as male or dominant canids do. Unlike the canids, hyenas do not regurgitate or carry back food in their stomachs for their young because of the speed with which the food is digested by the adults. Hyenas can carry strains of rabies but not develop symptoms. Habitat With the exception of the Striped Hyena, which has been seen in the jungles of India, all modern Hyena species generally reside in arid environments like African savannahs and deserts. Dietary habits A hyena feeding on a zebra carcass in Masai Mara, Kenya Except for the aardwolf, all living hyena species are hunters and scavengers. They have extremely strong jaws in relation to their body size and have a very powerful digestive system with highly acidic fluids, making them capable of eating and digesting their entire prey, including skin, teeth, horns and bones. Hair and hooves are usually regurgitated. Because their digestive system deals very well with bacteria, they have no aversion to and readily eat carrion. The Spotted Hyena is primarily a predator, unlike some of its cousins. Spotted Hyenas are successful pack hunters of small to large sized ungulates, and are the most abundant carnivores in Sub-Saharan Africa. Because the aardwolf is a specialized feeder of termites, it lacks the size and physical power of its cousins. In culture The Spotted Hyena, Crocuta crocuta, inhabits most of Africa. Many cultures have historically viewed the hyena in a bad light. Negative associations have generally stemmed from hyenas' tendency to scavenge graves for food. They are one of the few creatures naturally suited for this, due to their ability to devour and digest every part of a carcass, including bone. As such, many associate hyenas with gluttony, uncleanliness and cowardice. The word hyena is derived from the Greek hyaina, meaning "pig", and has a long association with cruelty, treachery and greed. Online etymology dictionary: Hyena African attitudes toward hyenas are little better than those held in the European cultures. The Bouda is a mythical tribe reputed to house members able to transform into hyenas. Belief in "Werehyenas" is so entrenched within the traditional lore of the Bornu people of north-eastern Nigeria, that their language even contains a special word, bultungin, which translates as "I change myself into a hyena". lycaon The haunting laughter-like calls of the Spotted Hyena inspired the idea in local cultures that they could imitate human voices and call their victims by name. Hyenas are also associated with divination and sometimes thought of as tools of demons and witches. In African folklore, witches and sorcerers are thought to ride hyenas or even turn into them. Early naturalists thought hyenas were hermaphrodites or commonly practiced homosexuality, largely due to the female Spotted Hyena's unique urogenital system. According to early writings such as Ovid's Metamorphoses and the Physiologus, the hyena continually changed its sex and nature from male to female and back again. In Paedagogus, Clement of Alexandria noted that the hyena (along with the hare) was "quite obsessed with sexual intercourse." Many Europeans associated the hyena with sexual deformity, prostitution and deviant sexual behavior. Hyenas (usually "Laughing Hyenas") have been used in animated movies many times as well as having been rendered in live action films, commonly cast as hysterical and unhinged villains. Examples include Shenzi, Banzai and Ed from the Disney animated film The Lion King, one ball-playing individual in Bedknobs and Broomsticks, the Joker's pets, Bud and Lou, and the laughing Hyena in the zoo in 'The Lady and the Tramp'. See also Crocotta Hyena butter References External links Hyenas pass on social state actively to the offspring, review of an article in "Behavioural Ecology" The rite of mouth-to-mouth wild hyena feeding in Harar, Ethiopia IUCN Conservation Union Hyaendiae Specialist Group Hyena: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation Robin M. Weare's Hyena pages Excerpt about hyenas from Richard D. Estes's "The Safari Companion" (ISBN 1-890132-44-6) A mechanism for virilization of female spotted hyenas in utero evolution of the family Quick Guide - Spotted hyena (deals with intelligence and social interaction) Hyenas- Sociable and Smart | Hyena |@lemmatized hyaenidae:5 mammalian:1 family:8 order:1 carnivora:1 native:1 african:5 asian:1 continent:2 consists:1 four:2 living:2 specie:18 striped:2 hyena:83 brown:5 genus:11 hyaena:7 spotted:9 crocuta:4 aardwolf:7 proteles:2 evolution:2 skull:2 eximia:2 lower:1 jaw:2 seem:1 originate:1 million:6 year:6 ago:6 arboreal:1 ancestor:1 bear:3 similarity:1 modern:4 band:1 palm:1 civet:2 plioviverrops:2 one:8 early:18 lithe:1 like:10 creature:2 inhabit:2 eurasia:12 detail:1 middle:8 ear:1 dental:2 structure:3 mark:3 primitive:1 prove:1 successful:2 descendant:2 flourish:3 pointed:1 jowl:1 racy:1 leg:5 much:2 canidae:1 north:5 america:4 fifteen:1 dog:2 different:1 identify:1 unlike:6 specialize:2 bone:12 crusher:2 nimble:1 wolf:1 animal:3 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4,023 | George,_Duke_of_Saxony | George the Bearded, Duke of Saxony (b. Meissen, 27 August 1471 - d. Dresden, 17 April 1539), was duke of Saxony from 1500 to 1539. Duke George was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Early life His father was Albert the Brave of Saxony, founder of the Albertine line of the Wettin family, his mother was Sidonie, daughter of George Podiebrad, King of Bohemia. Elector Frederick the Wise, a member of the Ernestine branch of the same family, known for his protection of Luther, was a cousin of Duke George. George, as the eldest son, received an excellent training in theology and other branches of learning, and was thus much better educated than most of the princes of his day. As early as 1488, when his father was in Friesland fighting on behalf of the emperor, George was regent of the ducal possessions, which included the Margraviate of Meissen with the cities of Dresden and Leipzig. Ancestry Marriage and Children George was married at Dresden, on 21 November 1496, to Barbara of Poland, daughter of Casimir IV, King of Poland and Elisabeth, daughter of Albrecht II of Hungary. They had ten children, but all, with the exception of a daughter, died before their father: Christof (b. Dresden, 8 September 1497 - d. Leipzig, 5 December 1497). [Johann] (b. Dresden, 24 August 1498 - d. Dresden, 11 January 1537), Hereditary Duke of Saxony; married on 20 May 1516 to Elizabeth of Hesse. This union was childless. Wolfgang (b. Dresden, 1499 - d. Dresden, 12 January 1500). Anna (b. Dresden, 21 January 1500 - d. Dresden, 23 January 1500). Christof (b. and d. Dresden, 27 May 1501). Agnes (b. Dresden, 7 January 1503 - d. Dresden, 16 April 1503). Frederick (b. Dresden, 15 March 1504 - d. Dresden, 26 February 1539), Hereditary Duke of Saxony; married on 27 January 1539 to Elisabeth of Mansfeld. This union was childless. Christine (b. Dresden, 25 December 1505 - d. Kassel, 15 April 1549), married on 11 December 1523 to Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. Magdalena (b. Dresden, 7 March 1507 - d. Berlin, 25 January 1534), married on 6 November 1524 to Joachim Hector, then Hereditary Elector of Brandenburg. Margarete (b. Dresden, 7 September 1508 - d. Dresden, 19 December 1510). Duke of Saxony In 1498, the emperor granted Albert the Brave the hereditary governorship of Friesland. At Maastricht, 14 February 1499, Albert settled the succession to his possessions, and endeavoured by this arrangement to prevent further partition of his domain. He died 12 September 1500, and was succeeded in his German territories by George as the head of the Albertine line, while George's brother Heinrich became hereditary governor of Friesland. The Saxon occupation of Friesland, however, was by no means secure and was the source of constant revolts in that province. Consequently Heinrich, who was of a rather inert disposition, relinquished his claims to the governorship, and in 1505 an agreement was made between the brothers by which Friesland was transferred to George, while Heinrich received an annuity and the districts of Freiberg and Wolkenstein. But this arrangement did not restore peace in Friesland, which continued to be an unceasing source of trouble to Saxony, until finally the duke was obliged, in 1515, to sell it to Burgundy for the very moderate price of 100,000 florins. These troubles outside of his Saxon possessions did not prevent George from bestowing much care on the government of the ducal territory proper. When regent, during the lifetime of his father, the difficulties arising from conflicting interests and the large demands on his powers had often brought the young prince to the verge of despair. In a short time, however, he developed decided ability as a ruler; on entering upon his inheritance he divided the duchy into governmental districts, took measures to suppress the robber-knights, and regulated the judicial system by defining and readjusting the jurisdiction of the various law courts. In his desire to achieve good order, severity, and the amelioration of the condition of the people, he sometimes ventured to infringe even on the rights of the cities. His court was better regulated than that of any other German prince, and he bestowed a paternal care on the University of Leipzig, where a number of reforms were introduced, and Humanism, as opposed to Scholasticism, was encouraged. Years of the Reformation From the beginning of the Reformation in 1517, Duke George directed his energies chiefly to ecclesiastical affairs. Hardly one of the secular German princes held as firmly as he to the Church, he defended its rights and vigorously condemned every innovation except those which were countenanced by the highest ecclesiastical authorities. At first he was not opposed to Luther, but as time went on and Luther's aim became clear to him, he turned more and more from the Reformer, and was finally, in consequence of this change of attitude, drawn into an acrimonious correspondence in which Luther, without any justification, shamefully reviled the duke. The duke was not blind to the undeniable abuses existing at that time in the Church. In 1519, despite the opposition of the theological faculty of the university, he originated the Disputation of Leipzig, with the idea of helping forward the cause of truth, and was present at all the discussions. In 1521, at the Diet of Worms, when the German princes handed in a paper containing a list of "grievances" concerning the condition of the Church, George added for himself twelve specific complaints referring mainly to the abuse of Indulgences and the annates. In 1525, he combined with his Lutheran son-in-law, Landgrave Philip of Hesse, and his cousin, the Elector Frederick the Wise, to suppress the revolt of the peasants, who were defeated near Frankenhausen in Thuringia. Some years later, he wrote a forcible preface to a translation of the New Testament issued at his command by his private secretary, Hieronymus Emser, as an offset to Luther's version. Lutheran books were confiscated by his order, wherever found, though he refunded the cost of the books. He proved himself in every way a vigorous opponent of the Lutherans, decreeing that Christian burial was to be refused to apostates, and recreant ecclesiastics were to be delivered to the bishop of Merseburg. For those, however, who merely held anti-catholic opinions, the punishment was only expulsion from the duchy. The duke deeply regretted the constant postponement of the ardently desired council, from the action of which so much was expected. While awaiting its convocation, he thought to remove the more serious defects by a reform of the monasteries, which had become exceedingly worldly in spirit and from which many of the inmates were departing. He vainly sought to obtain from the Curia the right, which was sometimes granted by Rome, to make official visitations to the conventual institutions of his realm. His reforms were confined mainly to uniting the almost vacant monasteries and to matters of economic management, the control of the property being entrusted in most cases to the secular authorities. In 1525, Duke George formed, with some other German rulers, the League of Dessau, for the protection of Catholic interests. In the same way he was the animating spirit of the League of Halle, formed in 1533, from which sprang in 1538 the Holy League of Nuremberg for the maintenance of the religious Peace of Nuremberg. The vigorous activity displayed by the duke in so many directions was not attended with much success. Most of his political measures, indeed, stood the test of experience, but in ecclesiastico-political matters he witnessed with sorrow the gradual decline of Catholicism and the spread of Lutheranism within his dominions, in spite of his earnest efforts and forcible prohibition of the new doctrine. Furthermore, during George's lifetime his nearest relations his son-in-law Philip of Hesse, and his brother Heinrich, joined the Reformers. He spent the last years of his reign in endeavours to secure a Catholic successor, thinking by this step to check the dissemination of Lutheran opinions. The only one of George's sons then living was the weak-minded and unmarried Frederick. The intention of his father was that Frederick should rule with the aid of a council. Early in 1539, Frederick was married to Elizabeth of Mansfeld, but he died shortly afterwards, leaving no prospect of an heir. According to the act of settlement of 1499, George's Protestant brother Heinrich was now heir prospective; but George, disregarding his father's will, sought to disinherit his brother and to bequeath the duchy to Ferdinand, brother of Charles V. His sudden death prevented the carrying out of this intention. Character George was an excellent and industrious ruler, self-sacrificing, high-minded, and unwearying in the furtherance of the highest interests of his land and people. As a man he was upright, vigorous and energetic, if somewhat irascible. A far-seeing and faithful adherent of the emperor and empire, he accomplished much for his domain by economy, love of order and wise direction of activities of his state officials. The grief of his life was Luther's Reformation and what he regarded to be apostasy from the Old Faith. Of a strictly religious, although not narrow, disposition, he sought at any cost to keep his subjects from falling away from the Church, but his methods of attaining his object were not always free from reproach. References External links Georg "der Bärtige", Herzog von Sachsen WW-Person: A data base of the higher nobility in Europe. | George,_Duke_of_Saxony |@lemmatized george:19 beard:1 duke:14 saxony:7 b:11 meissen:2 august:2 dresden:19 april:3 member:2 order:4 golden:1 fleece:1 early:3 life:2 father:6 albert:3 brave:2 founder:1 albertine:2 line:2 wettin:1 family:2 mother:1 sidonie:1 daughter:4 podiebrad:1 king:2 bohemia:1 elector:3 frederick:6 wise:3 ernestine:1 branch:2 know:1 protection:2 luther:6 cousin:2 eldest:1 son:4 receive:2 excellent:2 training:1 theology:1 learning:1 thus:1 much:5 well:2 educate:1 prince:5 day:1 friesland:6 fight:1 behalf:1 emperor:3 regent:2 ducal:2 possession:3 include:1 margraviate:1 city:2 leipzig:4 ancestry:1 marriage:1 child:2 marry:6 november:2 barbara:1 poland:2 casimir:1 iv:1 elisabeth:2 albrecht:1 ii:1 hungary:1 ten:1 exception:1 die:3 christof:2 september:3 december:4 johann:1 january:7 hereditary:5 may:2 elizabeth:2 hesse:4 union:2 childless:2 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4,024 | Parsley | Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) is a bright green, biennial herb, also used as spice. It is very common in Middle Eastern, European, and American cooking. Parsley is used for its leaf in much the same way as coriander (which is also known as Chinese parsley or cilantro), although it has a milder flavor than coriander. Varieties Two forms of parsley are used as herbs: curly leaf and Italian, or flat leaf (P. neapolitanum). Curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish. One of the compounds of the essential oil is apiol. The use of curly leaf parsley may be favored by some because it cannot be confused with poison hemlock, like flat leaf parsley or chervil. Root parsley Another type of parsley is grown as a root vegetable, as with hamburg root parsley (Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum). This type of parsley produces much thicker roots than types cultivated for their leaves. Although little known in Britain and the United States, root parsley is very common in Central and Eastern European cuisine, used in soups and stews. Parsley grows best between 72 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit (23 to 30 degrees Celsius). Though it looks similar to parsnip it tastes quite different. Parsnips are among the closest relatives of parsley in the umbellifer family of herbs. The similarity of the names is a coincidence, parsnip meaning "forked turnip", it is not related to real turnips. Cultivation Parsley's germination is notoriously difficult." John W. Jett. "That Devilish Parsley." West Virginia University Extension Service. Last retrieved April 26, 2007. Germination is inconsistent and may require 3-6 weeks. Furanocoumarins in parsley's seed coat may be responsible for parsley's problematic germination. These compounds may inhibit the germination of other seeds, allowing parsley to compete with nearby plants. However, parsley itself may be affected by the furanocoumarins. Soaking parsley seeds overnight before sowing shortens the germination period. Parsley grows well in deep pots, which helps accommodate the long taproot. Parsley grown indoors requires at least five hours of sunlight a day. Companion plant Parsley is widely used as a companion plant in gardens. Like many other umbellifers, it attracts predatory insects, including wasps and predatory flies to gardens, which then tend to protect plants nearby. For example, they are especially useful for protecting tomato plants as the wasps that kill tomato hornworms also eat nectar from parsley. While parsley is biennial, not blooming until its second year, even in its first year it is reputed to help cover up the strong scent of the tomato plant, reducing pest attraction. Usage Culinary use In Central and Eastern Europe and in West Asia, many dishes are served with fresh green chopped parsley sprinkled on top. Green parsley is often used as a garnish. The fresh flavor of the green parsley goes extremely well with potato dishes (french fries, boiled buttered potatoes or mashed potato), with rice dishes (risotto or pilaf), with fish, fried chicken, lamb or goose, steaks, meat or vegetable stews June Meyers Authentic Hungarian Heirloon Recipes Cookbook (like Beef Bourguignon, Goulash or Chicken paprikash). In Southern and Central Europe, parsley is part of bouquet garni, a bundle of fresh herbs used to flavor stocks, soups, and sauces. Freshly chopped green parsley is used as a topping for soups like chicken soup, green salads or salads like Salade Olivier, on open sandwiches with cold cuts or pâtés. Parsley is a key ingredient in several West Asian salads, e.g., tabbouleh (the national dish of Lebanon). Persillade is mixture of chopped garlic and chopped parsley in the French cuisine. Gremolata is a traditional accompaniment to the Italian veal stew, Ossobuco alla milanese, a mixture of parsley, garlic, and lemon zest. In addition, the consumption of parsley is thought to contribute to sweet smelling breath. Root parsley is very common in Central and Eastern European cuisines, where it is used as soup vegetable in many soups and in most meat or vegetable stews and casseroles. Health risks Parsley should not be consumed as a drug or supplement by pregnant women. Parsley as an oil, root, leaf, or seed could lead to uterine stimulation and preterm labor. Parsley is high (1.70% by mass, ) in oxalic acid, a compound involved in the formation of kidney stones and nutrient deficiencies. Parsley oil contains furanocoumarins and psoralens which leads to extreme photosensitivity if used orally. Health effects:Furanocoumarins, chemical photosensitivity & photodermatitis Old Wives' Tales In certain parts of the British Isles it used to be believed that the gift of a parsley plant would make a woman pregnant or increase her fertility. Produce code The produce code for parsley is 4899, or 4900. References See also List of culinary herbs and spices List of culinary vegetables List of plants with edible leaves Parsley Massacre External links How to Grow Parsley Information about planting, propagating and growing parsley. PLANTS Profile for Petroselinum crispum (parsley) |USDA PLANTS Parsley, an unsung Hero by Floyd Maxwell History of Parsley 20 Facts About Parsley Gallery | Parsley |@lemmatized parsley:49 petroselinum:3 crispum:3 bright:1 green:6 biennial:2 herb:5 also:4 use:14 spice:2 common:3 middle:1 eastern:4 european:3 american:1 cooking:1 leaf:9 much:2 way:1 coriander:2 know:2 chinese:1 cilantro:1 although:2 milder:1 flavor:3 variety:1 two:1 form:1 curly:3 italian:2 flat:2 p:1 neapolitanum:1 often:2 garnish:2 one:1 compound:3 essential:1 oil:3 apiol:1 may:5 favor:1 cannot:1 confuse:1 poison:1 hemlock:1 like:5 chervil:1 root:7 another:1 type:3 grow:4 vegetable:5 hamburg:1 var:1 tuberosum:1 produce:3 thick:1 cultivate:1 little:1 britain:1 united:1 state:1 central:4 cuisine:3 soup:6 stew:4 best:1 degree:2 fahrenheit:1 celsius:1 though:1 look:1 similar:1 parsnip:3 taste:1 quite:1 different:1 among:1 close:1 relative:1 umbellifer:2 family:1 similarity:1 name:1 coincidence:1 meaning:1 fork:1 turnip:2 relate:1 real:1 cultivation:1 germination:5 notoriously:1 difficult:1 john:1 w:1 jett:1 devilish:1 west:3 virginia:1 university:1 extension:1 service:1 last:1 retrieve:1 april:1 inconsistent:1 require:2 week:1 furanocoumarins:4 seed:4 coat:1 responsible:1 problematic:1 inhibit:1 allow:1 compete:1 nearby:2 plant:10 however:1 affect:1 soak:1 overnight:1 sow:1 shortens:1 period:1 grows:1 well:2 deep:1 pot:1 help:2 accommodate:1 long:1 taproot:1 grown:1 indoors:1 least:1 five:1 hour:1 sunlight:1 day:1 companion:2 widely:1 garden:2 many:3 attract:1 predatory:2 insect:1 include:1 wasp:2 fly:1 tend:1 protect:2 example:1 especially:1 useful:1 tomato:3 kill:1 hornworms:1 eat:1 nectar:1 bloom:1 second:1 year:2 even:1 first:1 repute:1 cover:1 strong:1 scent:1 reduce:1 pest:1 attraction:1 usage:1 culinary:3 europe:2 asia:1 dish:4 serve:1 fresh:3 chop:3 sprinkle:1 top:1 go:1 extremely:1 potato:3 french:2 fry:1 boil:1 butter:1 mash:1 rice:1 risotto:1 pilaf:1 fish:1 fried:1 chicken:3 lamb:1 goose:1 steak:1 meat:2 june:1 meyers:1 authentic:1 hungarian:1 heirloon:1 recipe:1 cookbook:1 beef:1 bourguignon:1 goulash:1 paprikash:1 southern:1 part:2 bouquet:1 garni:1 bundle:1 stock:1 sauce:1 freshly:1 topping:1 salad:3 salade:1 olivier:1 open:1 sandwich:1 cold:1 cut:1 pâtés:1 key:1 ingredient:1 several:1 asian:1 e:1 g:1 tabbouleh:1 national:1 lebanon:1 persillade:1 mixture:2 chopped:1 garlic:2 gremolata:1 traditional:1 accompaniment:1 veal:1 ossobuco:1 alla:1 milanese:1 lemon:1 zest:1 addition:1 consumption:1 think:1 contribute:1 sweet:1 smelling:1 breath:1 casserole:1 health:2 risk:1 consume:1 drug:1 supplement:1 pregnant:2 woman:2 could:1 lead:2 uterine:1 stimulation:1 preterm:1 labor:1 high:1 mass:1 oxalic:1 acid:1 involve:1 formation:1 kidney:1 stone:1 nutrient:1 deficiency:1 contains:1 psoralens:1 extreme:1 photosensitivity:2 orally:1 effect:1 chemical:1 photodermatitis:1 old:1 wife:1 tale:1 certain:1 british:1 isle:1 believe:1 gift:1 would:1 make:1 increase:1 fertility:1 code:2 reference:1 see:1 list:3 edible:1 massacre:1 external:1 link:1 information:1 planting:1 propagate:1 profile:1 usda:1 unsung:1 hero:1 floyd:1 maxwell:1 history:1 fact:1 gallery:1 |@bigram soup_stew:1 degree_fahrenheit:1 degree_celsius:1 notoriously_difficult:1 mash_potato:1 fried_chicken:1 vegetable_stew:2 chicken_soup:1 oxalic_acid:1 culinary_herb:1 herb_spice:1 culinary_vegetable:1 external_link:1 |
4,025 | Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti | Filippo Tommaso Emilio Marinetti (December 22, 1876 – December 2, 1944) was an Italian ideologue, poet, editor, and founder of the Futurist movement. Childhood and adolescence Emilio Angelo Carlo Marinetti (some documents give his name as "Filippo Achille Emilio") spent the first years of his life in Alexandria, Egypt, where his father (Enrico M.) and his mother (Amalia Grolli) lived together more uxorio (as if married). His love for literature emerged during his school years. At seventeen he started his first school magazine, Papyrus; the Jesuits threatened to expel him for bringing Emile Zola's scandalous novels to school. He studied in Egypt and Paris, where he obtained the baccalaureat in 1893. He took a degree in law at Pavia University, graduating in 1899. He decided never to be a lawyer but to follow his literary vocation. He experimented incessantly in every field of literature (poetry, narrative, theatre, words in liberty), signing everything "Filippo Tommaso Marinetti". Futurism Marinetti is widely known as the author of the Futurist Manifesto, which he wrote in 1908. It was published on the front page of the most prestigious French daily, Le Figaro, on February 20, 1909, reportedly due to the influence of an Egyptian friend of his father's who was an important shareholder in the paper. In The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism, Marinetti declared that "Art [...] can be nothing but violence, cruelty, and injustice." Since that text proclaims the unity of life and art, Marinetti understood violence not only as a means of producing an aesthetic effect, but also as being inherent to life itself. George Sorel, whose influence spanned the entire political spectrum from anarchism to Fascism, also argued for the importance of violence. Futurism had both anarchist and Fascist elements; Marinetti later became an active supporter of Benito Mussolini. A great lover of speed, Marinetti had a minor car accident outside Milan in 1908 when he veered into a ditch to avoid two cyclists. He referred to the accident in the Futurist Manifesto: the Marinetti who was helped out of the ditch was a new man, determined to shake loose the pretense and decadence of the prevailing Liberty style. He outlined a new and strongly revolutionary programme to his friends, in which they should close off every bridge to the past, "destroy the museums, the libraries, every type of academy", and sing of "the great crowds, shaken by work, by pleasure or by rioting". Together, he wrote, "We will glorify war - the world's only hygiene - militarism, patriotism, the destructive gesture of freedom-bringers, beautiful ideas worth dying for, and scorn for woman." The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism The Futurist Manifesto was read and debated all across Europe, but Marinetti's first 'Futurist' works were not as successful. In April, the opening night of Le Roi Bombance (The Feasting King), written in 1905 was interrupted by loud, derisive whistling on the part of the audience... and by Marinetti himself, who thus introduced another essential element of Futurism, "the desire to be heckled." Marinetti did, however, fight a duel with a critic he considered too harsh. Even his drama La donna è mobile (Poupées électriques), presented in Turin was not successful. Today, the play is remembered chiefly through a later version, titled Elettricità sessuale (Sexual Electricity), and chiefly for the appearance onstage of humanoid automatons, ten years before the Czech novelist Karel Čapek would invent the term "robot." In 1910, his first novel Mafarka il futurista was cleared of all charges in an obscenity trial. That year, Marinetti discovered some allies in three young painters, (Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo), who joined the Futurist movement. Together with them (and with poets such as Aldo Palazzeschi), Marinetti launched a series of Futurist Evenings, theatrical spectacles in which the Futurists declaimed their manifestos in front of a crowd that, often as not, attended the performances in order to throw various vegetables at the Futurists. The most successful "happening"' of that period was the launch of the Manifesto Against Past-Loving Venice from the belltower of Saint Mark's Basilica. In the flier, Marinetti calls for "fill(ing) the small, stinking canals with the rubble from the old, collapsing and leprous palaces" to "prepare for the birth of an industrial and militarized Venice, capable of dominating the great Adriatic, a great Italian lake." In 1911, the Italo-Turkish War broke out and Marinetti did not shrink from the war-effort: he departed immediately for Libya as war correspondent for a French newspaper. His articles were eventually collected and published in The Battle Of Tripoli. In the meantime he worked on a violently anti-Catholic and anti-Austrian verse-novel, Le monoplan du Pape (The Pope's Aeroplane, 1912) and edited an anthology of futurist poets. But his attempts to renew the language of poetry did not satisfy him. So much so that in his foreword to the anthology, he launched a new revolution: it was time to be done with traditional syntax and to move towards "words in freedom" (parole in libertà). His sound poem Zang Tumb Tumb exemplifies words in freedom. Recordings can be heard here of Marinetti reading some of his sound poems: Battaglia, Peso + Odore (1912) Dune, parole in libertà (1914) La Battaglia di Adrianopoli (1926) (recorded 1935) Marinetti and Fascism In early 1918 he founded the Partito Politico Futurista or Futurist Political Party, which only a year later was absorbed into Benito Mussolini's Fasci di combattimento, making Marinetti one of the first supporters and members of the Italian Fascist Party. He opposed Fascism's later exaltation of existing institutions, calling them "reactionary," and, after walking out of the 1920 Fascist party congress in disgust, withdrew from politics for three years. However, he remained a notable force in developing the party thought throughout the regime's existence. For example, at the end of the Congress of Fascist Culture that was held in Bologna on March 30 1925, Giovanni Gentile addressed Sergio Panunzio on the need to define Fascism more purposefully by way of Marinetti's opinion, stating, "Great spiritual movements make recourse to precision when their primitive inspirations - what F. T. Marinetti identified this morning as artistic, that is to say, the creative and truly innovative ideas, from which the movement derived its first and most potent impulse - have lost their force. We today find ourselves at the very beginning of a new life and we experience with joy this obscure need that fills our hearts - this need that is our inspiration, the genius that governs us and carries us with it." Thus Futurism continued to influence Fascist thinkers outside of the Futurist movement. Throughout the Fascist regime Marinetti sought to make Futurism the official state art of Italy but failed to do so. Mussolini was personally uninterested in art and chose to give patronage to numerous styles and movements in order to keep artists loyal to the regime. Opening the exhibition of art by the Novecento Italiano group in 1923 he said, "I declare that it is far from my idea to encourage anything like a state art. Art belongs to the domain of the individual. The state has only one duty: not to undermine art, to provide humane conditions for artists, to encourage them from the artistic and national point of view." Quoted in Braun, Emily, Mario Sironi and Italian Modernism: Art and Politics under Fascism, Cambridge University Press, 2000 Mussolini's mistress, Margherita Sarfatti, who was as able a cultural entrepreneur as Marinetti, successfully promoted the rival Novecento Group, and even persuaded Marinetti to sit on its board. Although in the early years of Italian Fascism, modern art was tolerated and even embraced, towards the end of the 1930s, right-wing Fascists introduced the concept of "degenerate art" from Germany to Italy and condemned Futurism. In 1938, hearing that Hitler wanted to include Futurism in a traveling exhibition of “degenerate art”, Marinetti persuaded Mussolini to refuse to let it enter Italy. In the same year he protested publicly against anti-Semitism, which was being copied from Germany by the Italian Fascists. Marinetti made numerous moves to ingratiate himself with the regime, becoming less radical and avant garde with each. He moved from Milan to Rome to be nearer the centre of things. He became an academician despite his condemnation of academies, saying, “It is important that Futurism be represented in the Academy.” The Crisis of the modern World - F.T. Marinetti He married despite his condemnation of marriage, promoted religious art after the Lateran Treaty of 1929 and even reconciled himself to the Catholic church, declaring that Jesus was a Futurist. There were other contradictions in his character: despite his nationalism, he was an international figure, educated in Egypt and France, writing his first poems in French, publishing the Futurist Manifesto in a French newspaper and tirelessly traveling to promote his movement. Marinetti volunteered for active service in the Second World War, even though he was in his sixties. He died at Bellagio, Italy. References External links Image of Le Figaro with Le Futurisme (1909) Score to the sound poem Dune, parole in libertà (1914) Marinetti's "La Battaglia di Adrianopoli" (1926) recorded by Marinetti in 1935 published at Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine Marinettis' the Futurist Sensibility Zang Tumb Tumb Marinetti student notebooks and other papers, 1891-1936. Research Library at the Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles, California.The collection includes class notes, essays and stories that Marinetti wrote for secondary school in Alexandria, Egypt. One notebook was written by Leone Marinetti. There is also correspondence, 1891-1936, a small amount of which is with school friends and the school rector, but most of which concerns the futurist enterprise. There are letters from Gino Severini, Gabriele D’Annunzio, Umberto Boccioni, Mario Carli, Benedetto Croce, B. Bottai, Giovanni Pascoli, and Paolo Orano, among others, and from Marinetti’s French publisher Sansot. There is a small number of Marinetti’s writings, primarily dramas and "syntheses," generally in typescript. Marinetti correspondence and papers, 1886-1974. Research Library at the Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles, California.Arranged in eight series: Series I. Letters and submissions to Marinetti and others, 1900-1974; Series II. Unsigned or undated letters and submissions, ca. 1910-ca. 1970; Series III. Letters from Marinetti, ca. 1905-1944; Series IV. Writings by Marinetti, 1896-1949; Series V. Biographies, 1927-1968; Series VI. Photographs, 1886-1972; Series VII. Agenzia Letteraria Artistica (A.L.A.): Circulars, 1934-1939; Series VIII. Letters to Alberto Cappa, 1923-1931. Papers of F.T. Marinetti and Benedetta Cappa Marinetti, 1902-1965 (bulk 1920-1939). Research Library at the Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles, California.Collection offers a view of F.T. Marinetti in the ceremonial role he played during Futurism’s second phase. Includes minor manifesto manuscripts, generally typewritten, sometimes translated or excerpted; a number of minor literary manuscripts; and 20,000 slides that reproduce the contents of Marinetti’s five scrapbooks. Material on Benedetta includes handwritten corrected drafts of her three novels, and a number of essays and speeches on women and art, women and Fascism, Futurism, and Marinetti. 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4,026 | Amiga | The former Amiga logo, as used by Commodore-Amiga Inc. The Amiga 1000 (1985), the first model released. The Amiga 500 (1987) was the most popular variant of the Amiga. Commodore-Amiga Sales Figures The Amiga was a family of personal computers originally developed by Amiga Corporation. Development on the Amiga began in 1982 with Jay Miner as the principal hardware designer. Commodore International bought Amiga Corporation and introduced the machine to the market in 1985. The name Amiga was chosen by the developers specifically from the Spanish word for a female friend, and because it occurred before Apple and Atari alphabetically. DeMaria and Wilson (2003) ""High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games" p.109 ISBN 0-072-23172-6 Based on the Motorola 68k series of microprocessors, the machine sports a custom chipset with then advanced graphics and sound capabilities, and a pre-emptive multitasking operating system (now known as AmigaOS). While the M68k is a 32-bit processor, the version originally used in the Amiga, the 68000, has a 16-bit external data bus so it must transfer 32 bits of data in two consecutive steps, a technique called multiplexing — all this is transparent to the software, which was 32-bit from the beginning. The original machine was generally referred to in the press as a 16-bit computer; Later models featured fully 32-bit designs. The Amiga provided a significant upgrade from 8-bit computers such as the Commodore 64, and the Amiga quickly grew in popularity among computer enthusiasts, especially in Europe, and sold approximately 6 million units. It also found a prominent role in the desktop video, video production, and show control business, and was a less expensive alternative to the Apple Macintosh and IBM-PC. The Amiga was most commercially successful as a home computer, although early Commodore advertisements attempted to place the Amiga into several different markets at the same time. Youtube video Commodore advert 1987 - Celebrities Youtube video Commodore advert 1987 - TV spot version of 20 minute presentation Since the demise of Commodore, various groups have marketed successors to the original Amiga line. Eyetech sold Amiga hardware under the AmigaOne brand from 2002 to 2005. A-Cube currently sell the Sam440 PPC board designed to run the latest AmigaOS 4.1 (as of 2009). History The Amiga was originally designed by a small company called Amiga Corporation, and initially intended to be a next generation video game machine, but was later redesigned into a general purpose computer. Amiga Forever - Amiga Games Before the machine was released into the market the company was purchased by Commodore. The first model was released in 1985 as simply "The Amiga from Commodore", later to be retroactively dubbed the Amiga 1000. The following year the Amiga product line was expanded with the introduction of two new models; the Amiga 2000 for high-end graphics and business use, and the Amiga 500 was for home use. Commodore later released several new Amiga models, both for low-end gaming use and high-end productivity use. Throughout the 1980s, the Amiga's combination of hardware and operating system software offered great value, but by the mid-nineties other platforms, most successfully the PC running Microsoft Windows, reduced this advantage. In 1994, Commodore filed for bankruptcy and its assets were purchased by Escom, a German PC manufacturer, who created the subsidiary company Amiga Technologies. They re-released the A1200 and A4000T, and introduced a new 68060 version of the A4000T. However, Escom in turn went bankrupt in 1997. The Amiga brand was then sold to another PC manufacturer, Gateway 2000, which had announced grand plans for it. However, in 2000, Gateway sold the Amiga brand without releasing a product. Amiga Technologies Logo. (1996) The current owner of the trademark, Amiga, Inc., licensed the rights to make hardware using the Amiga brand to a UK computer vendor, Eyetech Group, Ltd, which was founded by some former UK employees of Commodore International. They were previously selling the AmigaOne via an international dealer network. The AmigaOne is a PowerPC computer designed to run the latest version of AmigaOS, which was itself licensed to a Belgian-German company, Hyperion Entertainment. Hyperion Entertainment Hardware At its core, the Amiga features custom designed coprocessors, used for handling tasks such as audio, video, encoding and animation. This freed up the Amiga's central processor for other tasks (given that the coprocessors could keep up with the central processor's demands) and gave the Amiga an edge on its competitors in many situations. The platform also introduced other innovations. The Amiga CDTV, for example, was the first computer to feature a CD-ROM drive as standard, as well as being one of the earlier computers to no longer include a floppy drive in the standard configuration. The Amiga was also one of the first computers for which inexpensive sound sampling and video digitization accessories were available. Although it was once regarded as "unemulatable," since around 2000, many different platforms have Amiga emulation programs available that reproduce the Amiga's hardware functions in software. This allows users to run Amiga software without the need for an actual Amiga computer. Central processing unit PowerPC processor. All Commodore Amiga models make use of Motorola Central Processing Units (CPUs) based on the Motorola 68k architecture. In desktop-style Amiga models, the CPU was fitted on a daughterboard (except the A2000) called a CPU card. Low-cost Amiga models come with CPUs either socketed or soldered onto the motherboard. On all Amiga models the CPU can be upgraded through an expansion card or direct CPU replacement. CPU cards were provided by both Commodore and third-party manufacturers. These cards often come with on-board memory slots and hard drive interfaces, alleviating those tasks from the base Amiga. The Amiga is not limited to solely the 68k CPU architecture; although Commodore never shipped one, it is possible to install a PowerPC coprocessor that can be used by PowerPC-aware software and libraries, The Big Book of Amiga Hardware and later the AmigaOne used a PowerPC CPU instead of a 68k CPU. Custom chipset There are three generations of chipsets used in the various Amiga models. The first is the OCS, followed by the ECS and finally the AGA. What all these chipsets have in common is that they handle raster graphics, digital audio and communication between various peripherals (e.g., CPU, memory and floppy disks) in the Amiga. Graphics A 4,096 color HAM picture created with Photon Paint All Amiga systems can display full-screen animated graphics with 32, 64 (EHB Mode) or 4096 colors (HAM Mode). Models with the AGA chipset (A1200 and A4000) also have 128, 256 and 262144 (HAM Mode) color modes and a palette expanded from 4096 to 16.8 million colors. The Amiga chipset can genlock — adjust its own screen refresh timing to match an NTSC or PAL video signal. When combined with setting transparency, this allows an Amiga to overlay an external video source with graphics. This ability made the Amiga popular for many applications, and provides the ability to do character generation and CGI effects far more cheaply than earlier systems. Some frequent users of this ability included wedding videographers, TV stations and their weather forecasting divisions (for weather graphics and radar), advertising channels, music video production, and 'desktop video'. The NewTek Video Toaster was made possible by the genlock ability of the Amiga. Sound The sound chip, named Paula, supports four sound channels (two for the left speaker and two for the right) with 8-bit resolution for each channel and a 6-bit volume control per channel. The analog output is connected to a low-pass filter, which filters out high-frequency aliases when the Amiga is using a lower sampling rate (see Nyquist limit). The brightness of the Amiga's power LED is used to indicate the status of the Amiga’s low-pass filter. The filter is active when the LED is at normal brightness, and deactivated when dimmed (or off on older A500 Amigas). On Amiga 1000, the power LED had no relation to the filter's status, a wire needed to be manually soldered between pins on the sound chip to disable the filter. Paula can read directly from the system's RAM, using direct memory access (DMA), making sound playback without CPU intervention possible. Although the hardware is limited to four separate sound channels, software such as OctaMED uses software mixing to allow eight or more virtual channels, and it was possible for software to mix two hardware channels to achieve a single 14-bit resolution channel by playing with the volumes of the channels in such a way that one of the source channels contributes the most significant bits and the other the least ones. The quality of the Amiga's sound output, and the fact that the hardware is ubiquitous and easily addressed by software, were standout features of Amiga hardware unavailable on PC platforms for years. Third-party sound cards exist that provide DSP functions, multi-track direct-to-disk recording, multiple hardware sound channels and 16-bit and beyond resolutions. A retargetable sound API called AHI was developed allowing these cards to be used transparently by the OS and software. ROM The classic Amiga Operating System consists of Kickstart (including System API) and Workbench. In the Amiga 1000 model, Kickstart is first loaded from a floppy disk, followed by Workbench, or other bootable disk. Later models hold Kickstart (and system API) on a ROM, improving start-up times. Models can be upgraded by changing the ROM. Several third party vendors produced switchable socket doublers to allow two ROM chips to plug into the single ROM socket on the motherboard. This became more popular as later versions of the Amiga OS suffered some backwards compatibility problems with earlier Amiga software titles. The effect of these switchable doublers was a convenient dual boot system, with a choice of two distinct OS versions via a pre-determined key sequence at reboot, or via a two way switch installed in the case, depending on the specific version installed. The ROMs themselves are generally known as "Kickstart" and start with version 1.0 (A1000 floppy) and end with Kickstart 3.1. There are hardware and software packages that can "shadow" Kickstart into memory. This resulted in faster operation for functions dependent on the ROM, at the cost of system memory to store the ROM data. Peripherals Many expansion boards were produced for Amiga computers to improve the performance and capability of the hardware, such as memory expansions, SCSI controllers, CPU boards, and graphics boards. Other upgrades include genlocks, ethernet cards, modems, sound cards and samplers, video digitizers, USB cards, extra serial ports, and IDE controllers. The most popular upgrades were memory, SCSI controllers and CPU accelerator cards. These were sometimes combined into the one device, particularly on big-box Amigas like the A2000, A3000 and A4000. Early CPU accelerator cards feature full 32-bit CPUs of the 68000 family such as the Motorola 68020 and Motorola 68030, almost always with 32-bit memory and usually with FPUs and MMUs or the facility to add them. Later designs feature the Motorola 68040 and Motorola 68060. Both CPUs feature integrated FPUs and MMUs. Many CPU accelerator cards also had integrated SCSI controllers. Phase5 designed the PowerUp boards (BlizzardPPC and CyberstormPPC) featuring both a 68k (a 68040 or 68060) and a PPC (603 or 604) CPU, which are able to run the two CPUs at the same time (and share the system memory). The PPC CPU on PowerUp boards is usually used as a coprocessor for heavy computations (a powerful CPU is needed to run for example MAME, but even decoding JPEG pictures and MP3 audio was considered heavy computation in those years). It is also possible to ignore the 68k CPU and run Linux on the PPC (project Linux APUS), but a PPC-native Amiga OS was not available when the PPC boards first appeared. Amiga 4000 (1992) 24-bit graphics cards and video cards were also available. Graphics cards are designed primarily for 2D artwork production, workstation use, and later, gaming. Video cards are designed for inputting and outputting video signals, and processing and manipulating video. Perhaps the most famous video card in the North American market was the NewTek Video Toaster. This was a powerful video effects board which turned the Amiga into an affordable video processing computer which found its way into many professional video environments. Due to its NTSC-only design it did not find a market in countries that used the PAL standard, such as in Europe. In PAL countries the OpalVision card was popular, although less featured and supported than the Video Toaster. Low-cost time base correctors (TBCs) specifically designed to work with the Toaster quickly came to market, most of which were designed as standard Amiga bus cards. Various manufacturers started producing PCI busboards for the A1200 and A4000, allowing standard Amiga computers to use PCI cards such as Voodoo graphic cards, Sound Blaster sound cards, 10/100 ethernet cards, and TV tuner cards. PowerPC upgrades with Wide SCSI controllers, PCI busboards with ethernet, sound and 3D graphics cards, and tower cases allowed the A1200 and A4000 to survive well into the late nineties. Expansion boards were made by Richmond Sound Design that allow their show control and sound design software to communicate with their custom hardware frames either by ribbon cable or fiber optic cable for long distances, allowing the Amiga to control up to eight million digitally controlled external audio, lighting, automation, relay and voltage control channels spread around a large theme park, for example. See Amiga software for more information on these applications. Other popular devices: Trumpcard 500 Zorro-II SCSI interface. A590 SCSI harddisc controller. 090420 amiga-hardware.com A3070 SCSI tape backup unit with a capacity of 250 MB. 090420 amiga-hardware.com A2065 ethernet Zorro-II interface. The first ethernet interface for Amiga; uses the AMD Am7990 chip. 090426 amiga-hardware.com The same interface chip is used in DECstation as well. Ariadne Zorro II ethernet interface using AMD Am7990. 090426 amiga.resource.cx A4066 Zorro II ethernet interface using smc91c90?. X-Surf from Individual Computers using Realtek 8019AS. A2060 Arcnet. 090426 amigahistory.co.uk Networking Amiga had three networking interface APIs: AS225 - Is the official Commodore TCP/IP stack API with hardcoded drivers in revision 1 (AS225r1) for the A2065 Ethernet and the A2060 Arcnet interfaces. . In revision 2 (AS225r2) the SANA-II interface was used. SANA-II — Is a standardized API for hardware of network interfaces. It uses an inefficient buffer handling scheme, and lack proper support for promiscuous and multicast modes. Miami Network Interface (MNI) - Is an API that doesn't have the problems which SANA-II suffers from. It requires AmigaOS v2,04 and higher however. Different network media was used: Type Speed Example Ethernet 10/100 Mbps A2065 090428 amiga-hardware.com ARCNET 2,5 Mbps A560 090428 amiga-hardware.com , A2060 090428 amiga-hardware.com Floppy disk controller 250 kbps Amitrix: Amiga-Link 090428 amiga-hardware.com Serial port max 115,2 kbps Parallel port ~200 KByte/s Village Tronic: Liana 090428 amiga-hardware.com Token ring 1,5 Mbps Nine Tiles: AmigaLink (9 Tiles) 090428 amiga-hardware.com AppleTalk / LocalTalk 230,4 .. 460 kbps PPS-Doubletalk 090428 amiga-hardware.com Models and variants The "classic Amiga" models were produced from 1985 to 1996. They are, in order of appearance: 1000, 2000, 500, 1500, 2500, 3000, 3000UX, 500+, 3000T, CDTV, 600, 4000, 1200, CD32, and 4000T. The PowerPC based AmigaOne was later produced from 2002 to 2005. Some companies have also released Amiga clones. The Amiga 500 was Commodore’s best-selling Amiga model. Early units, at least, had the words "B52/ROCK LOBSTER" http://www.rollerfink.de/wp-content/rollerfink.blogs.com/photos/uncategorized/img_1518.JPG silk-screen printed onto their printed circuit board, a reference to the popular song "Rock Lobster" by the rock band The B-52's. Commodore's two subsequent console style models also carried a reference to the same band on their motherboards — the Amiga 600 had "JUNE BUG" (after the song "Junebug") and the Amiga 1200 had "CHANNEL Z" (after "Channel Z") . The Amiga 500+ was the shortest lived model, replacing the Amiga 500 and lasting only six months until it was phased out and replaced by the Amiga 600. Commodore Amiga 500+ Commodore released three significant upgrades: the Amiga 2000 in 1987, the Amiga 3000 in 1990, and the Amiga 4000 in 1992. These upgrades improved the platform's graphical abilities, allowing for more colors and different display modes, and added expansion slots and ports. The best selling models, however, were the much cheaper but still versatile console models — the Amiga 500 (1987) and the Amiga 1200 (1992). In 2006, PC World rated the Amiga 1000 as the seventh greatest PC of all time, stating "Years ahead of its time, the Amiga was the world's first multimedia, multitasking personal computer". PC World, The 25 Greatest PCs of All Time AmigaOS 4 systems AmigaOS 4.1 AmigaOS 4 is designed for PowerPC Amiga systems and currently runs on both Amigas equipped with CyberstormPPC or BlizzardPPC accelerator boards, and on the PPC Teron series based AmigaOne computers built by Eyetech under license by Amiga Inc. AmigaOS 4.0 had been available only in developer pre-releases for numerous years until the final update was 'released' in December 2006. Due to the nature of some provisions of the contract between Amiga Inc. and Hyperion Entertainment the Belgian-German firm which is developing the OS, the commercial AmigaOS had only been available licensed to buyers of AmigaOne motherboards. AmigaOS 4.0 for Classic Amigas equipped with PPC (Cyberstorm PPC or BlizzardPPC) accelerator boards was released commercially in November 2007, prior to this it was available only to developers and beta-testers. The most recent release AmigaOS is 4.1. It's alive!: Ars reviews AmigaOS 4.1, Ars Technica, September 22, 2008. No new hardware has been released since the AmigaOne; however Acube Systems has entered into an agreement with Hyperion under which it has ported AmigaOS 4 to its SAM440 line of PowerPC-based motherboards. OEM Version of AmigaOS 4.1 for Sam440ep imminent, Acube Systems, September 17, 2008 Amiga hardware clones Long-time Amiga developer MacroSystem entered the Amiga-clone market with their DraCo nonlinear video edit system. It appears in two versions, initially a tower model and later a cube. DraCo expanded upon and combined a number of earlier expansion cards developed for Amiga (VLabMotion, Toccata, WarpEngine, RetinaIII) into a true Amiga-clone powered by Motorola's 68060 processor. The DraCo can run AmigaOS 3.1 up through AmigaOS 3.9. It is the only Amiga-based system to support FireWire for video I/O. DraCo also offers an Amiga-compatible ZORRO-II expansion bus and introduced a faster custom DraCoBus, capable of 30 MB/sec transfer rates (faster than Commodore's ZORRO-III). The technology was later used in the Casablanca system, a set-top-box also designed for non-linear video editing. In 1998, Index Information released the Access, an Amiga-clone similar to the A1200, but on a motherboard which could fit into a standard 5 1/4" drive bay. It features either a 68020 or 68030 CPU, with a redesigned AGA chipset, and runs AmigaOS 3.1. In 2006, two new Amiga-clones were announced. The Minimig is a personal project of Dutch engineer Dennis van Weeren. Minimig replicates the Amiga OCS custom chipset inside an FPGA. The original model was built on a Xilinx Spartan 3 development board, but now a dedicated board has been demonstrated. The design for Minimig was released as Open Source on July 25, 2007. In December, 2007, an Italian company Acube Systems announced plans to commercially produce the original Minimig. In February 2008 Acube began selling Minimig boards. Individual Computers has announced development of the Clone-A system. As of mid 2007 it has been shown in its development form, with FPGA-based boards replacing the custom chips in an Amiga 500. Operating systems AmigaOS At the time of release AmigaOS put an OS that was well ahead of its time into the hands of the average consumer. It was one of the first commercially available consumer operating system for personal computers to implement preemptive multitasking http://www.amiga.com/amigaos/ . Other features included combining a graphical user interface with a command-line interface, allowing long filenames permitting whitespace and not requiring a file extension and the use of information files associated with other files to store icons, launch and other desktop data. John C. Dvorak stated in 1996 that AmigaOS "remains one of the great operating systems of the past 20 years, incorporating a small kernel and tremendous multitasking capabilities the likes of which have only recently been developed in OS/2 and Windows NT. The biggest difference is that the AmigaOS could operate fully and multitask in as little as of address space." From PC Magazine, October 22, 1996 Inside Track By John C. Dvorak Like other operating systems of the time, the OS lacks memory protection. This is necessary also because the 68000 CPU of the first Amiga computers does not include a memory management unit, and because there is no way of enforcing use of flags indicating memory to be shared. Although it speeds and eases interapplication communication (programs can communicate by simply passing a pointer back and forth), the lack of memory protection made the Amiga OS more vulnerable to crashes from badly behaving programs, and fundamentally incapable of enforcing any form of security model since any program had full access to the system. Later this memory protection feature was implemented in AmigaOS 4. The problem was somewhat exacerbated by Commodore's initial decision to release documentation relating not only to the OS's underlying software routines, but also to the hardware itself, enabling intrepid programmers who cut their teeth on the Commodore 64 to POKE the hardware directly, as was done on the older platform. While the decision to release the documentation was a popular one and allowed the creation of fast, sophisticated sound and graphics routines in games and demos, it also contributed to system instability as some programmers lacked the expertise to program at this level. For this reason, when the new AGA chipset was released, Commodore declined to release documentation for it, forcing most programmers to adopt the approved software routines. Following Commodore's bankruptcy, two main clones of AmigaOS were developed: MorphOS, which runs on Amiga and Pegasos machines, and the free software AROS project. Unix and Unix-like systems Commodore-Amiga produced Amiga Unix, informally known as Amix, based on AT&T SVR4. It supports the Amiga 2500 and Amiga 3000 and was included with the Amiga 3000UX. Among other unusual features of Amix is a hardware-accelerated windowing system which can scroll windows without copying data. Amix is not supported on the later Amiga systems based on 68040 or 68060 processors. Other, still maintained, operating systems are available for the classic Amiga platform, including Linux and NetBSD. Both require a CPU with MMU such as the 68020 with 68851 or full versions of the 68030, 68040 or 68060. There is also a version of Linux for Amigas with PowerPC accelerator cards. Debian and Yellow Dog Linux can run on the AmigaOne. There is an official, older version of OpenBSD. The last Amiga release is 3.2. Minix 1.5.10 also runs on Amiga. Minix Comp Wisdon Emulating other systems The Amiga is able to emulate other computer platforms ranging from many 8-bit systems such as the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Nintendo Game Boy, Nintendo Entertainment System, Apple II and the TRS-80, up to platforms such as the IBM PC, Apple Macintosh and Atari ST. MAME (the arcade machine emulator) is also available for Amiga systems with PPC accelerator card upgrades. Amiga software The Amiga was a primary target for productivity and game development during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Software was often developed for the Amiga and the Atari ST simultaneously, since the ST shared a similar architecture. Aminet was created in 1992 and until around 1996, was the largest public archive of software for any platform. Bootblock If an Amiga 500 is rebooted or powered without a bootable storage, like an floppydisc this screen is displayed. The displayed OS is Kickstart 34.5 (AmigaOS 1.3), included in the Amiga 500 ROM. When an Amiga is reset, the Kickstart code selects a boot device (floppy or hard drive), loads the first two sectors of the disk or partition (the bootblock), and passes control to it. Normally this code passes control back to the OS, continuing to boot from the device or partition it was loaded from. The first production Amiga, the Amiga 1000, needed to load Kickstart from floppy disk into 256 kilobytes of RAM reserved for this purpose, but subsequent Amigas held Kickstart in ROM. Some games and demos for the A1000 (notably Dragon's Lair) provided an alternative code-base in order to use the extra 256 kilobytes of RAM for data. A floppy disk or hard drive partition bootblock normally contains code to load the 'dos.library' (AmigaDOS) and then exit to it, invoking the GUI. Any such disk, no matter what the other contents of the disk, was referred to as a "Boot disk" or "bootable disk". (A bootblock could be added to a disk by use of the "install" command.) Some entertainment software contains custom bootblocks. The game or demo then takes control of memory and resources to suit itself, effectively disabling AmigaOS and the Amiga GUI. The bootblock became an obvious target for virus writers. Some games or demos that used a custom bootblock would not work if infected with a bootblock virus, as the code of the virus replaced the original. The first such virus was the SCA virus. Anti-virus attempts included custom bootblocks. These amended bootblock advertised the presence of the virus checker while checking the system for tell-tale signs of memory resident viruses and then passed control back to the system. Unfortunately these could not be used on disks that already relied on a custom bootblock, but did alert users of potential trouble. Several of them also replicated themselves across other disks, becoming little more than viruses in their own right. Boing Ball The Boing Ball YouTube video of Boing Ball demo, Boing ball projected on Icosahedron for handicrafts has been synonymous with Amiga since its public release in 1985. It has been a popular theme in computer demo effects since the 1950s, when a bouncing ball demo was released for Whirlwind computers. Commodore released a bouncing ball demo at the 1978 Consumer Electronics Show, to illustrate the capabilities of the VIC chip. A similar theme was used to demonstrate the capabilities of the Amiga computer at the 1984 Consumer Electronics Show. It was a real-time animation showing a red-and-white balloon bouncing forth and back off the edges of the screen, as a deep 'boing!' sound played on each impact. Since then, the Boing Ball became one of the most well-known symbols for Amiga and compatible computers. Within the context of this tradition of bouncing ball demos at the Consumer Electronics Show, CBS Electronics also showed a Bouncing Ball demo for the Atari VCS/2600, with a spinning and bouncing ball, at the same event. The 1984 Boing Ball demo was one of the very first demos shown on the Amiga. It was specifically designed to take advantage of the Amiga's custom graphics and sound hardware, achieving a level of speed and smoothness not previously seen on a home computer. This demo operated in an Intuition Screen, allowing the higher resolution Amiga Workbench screen to be dragged down to make the Boing Ball visible from behind, bouncing up above the Workbench while the Workbench remained fully active. Since the Boing Ball used almost no CPU time, this made a particularly impressive demonstration of multitasking at the time. Despite its popularity in the Amiga community, the Boing Ball itself was never officially adopted as a trademark by Commodore. The official Amiga trademark was a rainbow-colored double checkmark. After the bankruptcy of Commodore, the Boing Ball remained in use as one of the symbols for Amiga-related systems on hundreds of web sites and products by different companies and individuals. Amiga community When Commodore went bankrupt in 1994, there was still a very active Amiga community, and it continued to support the platform long after mainstream commercial vendors abandoned it. The most popular Amiga magazine, Amiga Format, continued to publish editions until 2000, some six years after Commodore filed for bankruptcy. Another magazine, Amiga Active, was launched in 1999 and was published until 2001. Interest in the platform is high enough to sustain a specialist column in the UK weekly magazine Micro Mart. As of December 2008, there was enough demand for Amiga expansion hardware to keep some small-scale manufacturers in business. Notable historic uses The Amiga series of computers found a place in early computer graphic design and television presentation. Below are some examples of notable uses and users: Early episodes of the television series Babylon 5 were rendered on Amigas running Video Toasters. The Lurker's Guide to Babylon 5 Other television series using Amigas for special effects included SeaQuest DSV Interview with Matt Gorner and Max Headroom. 'Max Headroom' on TechTV In addition, many other celebrities and notable individuals have made use of the Amiga: For other notable users see Famous Amiga Users at AmigaHistory. Andy Warhol, the famous pop artist, was an early user of the Amiga and appeared at the launch. Warhol used the Amiga to create a new style of art made with computers, and he was the author of a multimedia opera called "you are the one" which represents an animated sequence featuring images of actress Marilyn Monroe assembled in a short movie with soundtrack. The video was discovered on two old Amiga floppies in a drawer in Warhol's studio and repaired in 2006 by the Detroit Museum of New Art. The pop artist also stated: "The thing I like most about doing this kind of work on the Amiga is that it looks like my work in other media." Laurence Gartel who is considered a pioneer of the Digital Art movement, was the artist who, along with Jeff Bruette Amigaworld, January 1986: Retrieved May 2009 , physically taught Andy Warhol how to use Amiga galleriiizu at its best, due to the fact he was one of the pioneers using and enjoying Amiga. Actor Dick Van Dyke is a self-described "rabid" user of the Amiga. Amigas were used in various NASA laboratories to keep track of multiple low orbiting satellites, and were still used up to 2003/04 (dismissed and sold in 2006). This is another example of long lifetime reliability of Amiga hardware, as well as professional use. Amigas were also used at Kennedy Space Center to run strip-chart recorders, to format and display data, and control stations of platforms for Delta rocket launches. Artist Jean "Moebius" Giraud credits the Amiga he bought for his son as a bridge to learning about "using paint box programs". He uploaded some of his early experiments to the file sharing forums on CompuServe. Tom Fulp is noted as saying he used the Amiga as his first computer for creating cartoons and animations. Tol Fulp interview London Transport Museum developed their own interactive multi-media software for the CD32. The software included a walkthrough of various exhibits and a virtual tour of the museum. CD32: The Hyper-Museum Project The "Weird Al" Yankovic film UHF contains a spoof of the computer-animated video of the Dire Straits song "Money for Nothing." According to the DVD commentary track, this spoof was created on an Amiga home computer. UHF DVD commentary track Rolf Harris used an Amiga to digitize his hand-drawn art work for animation on his television series, Rolf's Cartoon Club. Todd Rundgren's video "Change Myself" was produced with Toaster and Lightwave. An Amiga 1000 can be seen in the movie Disorderlies in the background running a heart animation. Pop artist Calvin Harris composed his debut album I Created Disco with an Amiga . Susumu Hirasawa, a Japanese Electropop-artist is known for using Amigas to compose and perform music. Electronic musician Max Tundra also created his three albums with an Amiga 500. A black Commodore Amiga 1200 was seen on an episode of Bones, used as evidence to lead to a murder suspect. Media See also Amiga peripherals Amiga Forever Amiga games Amiga Hold-and-Modify AROS Minimig MorphOS Natami References Further reading Famous Amiga Uses Amiga, Inc. Amiga Hardware Database - details of Amiga hardware Big Book of Amiga Hardware - Big Book of Amiga Hardware Amiga Lorraine: finally, the next generation Atari? John J. Anderson, Creative Computing, April 1984 On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore Bagnall, Brian (2005), Variant Press, ISBN 0-9738649-0-7. The Amiga Guru Book by Ralph Babel, Self Published by Ralph Babel for Commodore and Amiga in 1989, 1993 , Amiga community at Amigaworld.net FC-Jungle Memories.. 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4,027 | Kirsten_Dunst | Kirsten Caroline Dunst (born April 30, 1982) is an American actress and singer. She made her film debut in Oedipus Wrecks, a short film directed by Woody Allen for the anthology New York Stories (1989). At the age of 12, Dunst gained widespread recognition playing the role of vampire Claudia in Interview with the Vampire (1994). She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress for this performance. That same year she appeared in Little Women, to further acclaim. Dunst achieved international fame as a result of her portrayal of Mary Jane Watson in the Spider-Man trilogy. Since then her films have included the romantic comedy Wimbledon (2004), the science fiction drama Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) and Cameron Crowe's tragicomedy Elizabethtown (2005). She played the title role in Sofia Coppola's Marie Antoinette (2006), and she starred in the comedy How to Lose Friends & Alienate People (2008). In 2001, Dunst made her singing debut in the film Get Over It, in which she performed two songs. She also sang the jazz song "After You've Gone" for the end credits of the film The Cat's Meow (2001). In early 2008 Dunst confirmed she was suffering from depression, checking into a treatment center before discharging herself in March and resuming her career. Early life Dunst was born in Point Pleasant, New Jersey to Klaus and Inez Dunst. She has a younger brother, Christian (born 1987). Her father worked as a medical services executive, and her mother was an artist and one-time gallery owner. Dunst is of German descent on her father's side, and Swedish on her mother's. Until the age of six Dunst lived in New Jersey, where she attended Ranney School before moving with her mother and younger brother to Los Angeles, California in 1991. In 1995, her mother filed for divorce. The following year Dunst began attending Notre Dame, a private Catholic high school in Los Angeles. After graduating from Notre Dame she continued the acting career that she had begun at the age of eight. As a teenager, Dunst found it difficult to deal with her rising fame, and for a period blamed her mother for pushing her into acting as a child. However, she later expressed that "her mother always had the best intentions". When asked if she had any regrets about the way she spent her childhood, Dunst said: "Well, it's not a natural way to grow up, but it's the way I grew up and I wouldn't change it. I have my stuff to work out [...] I don't think anybody can sit around and say: 'My life is more screwed up than yours.' Everybody has their issues." Career Early work Dunst began her career when she was three years old as a child fashion model in television commercials. She was signed with Ford Models and Elite Model Management. At the age of eight she made her film debut in a minor role in Woody Allen's Oedipus Wrecks, a short film that was released as one-third of the anthology New York Stories (1989). Soon after, she landed a small part in The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990), as Tom Hanks's daughter. In 1993, Dunst played Hedril in "Dark Page", the seventh episode of the seventh season of Star Trek: The Next Generation. Critical success The breakthrough role in Dunst's career came in Interview with the Vampire, a 1994 film based on Anne Rice's novel, in which she played the child vampire Claudia, a surrogate daughter to Tom Cruise and Brad Pitt's characters in the film. The film received generally unfavorable reviews, but many film critics complimented Dunst's performance. Roger Ebert commented that Dunst's creation of the child vampire Claudia was one of the "creepier" aspects of the film, and mentioned her ability to convey the impression of great age inside apparent youth. Todd McCarthy in Variety noted that Dunst was "just right" for the family. The film featured a scene in which Dunst received her first kiss from Brad Pitt, who was 18 years her senior. In an interview with Interview magazine, she revealed, while questioned about her kissing scene with Pitt, that kissing him had made her feel uncomfortable: "I thought it was gross, that Brad had cooties. I mean, I was 10." Her performance earned her the MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance, the Saturn Award for Best Young Actress, and her first Golden Globe Award nomination. Dunst during the 2005 Toronto Film Festival She then appeared in the adaptation of the drama Little Women (1994), Dunst portrayed Amy March, opposite Winona Ryder and Claire Danes. The film received favorable reviews; critic Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film was the greatest adaptation of the novel and remarked on Dunst's performance: "The perfect contrast to take-charge Jo comes from Kirsten Dunst's scene-stealing Amy, whose vanity and twinkling mischief make so much more sense coming from an 11-year-old vixen than they did from grown-up Joan Bennett in 1933. Ms Dunst, also scarily effective as the baby bloodsucker of Interview With the Vampire, is a little vamp with a big future." In 1995, she appeared in the fantasy movie Jumanji, loosely based on Chris Van Allsburg's 1981 book of the same name. The story is about a supernatural and ominous board game which makes animals and other jungle hazards appear upon each roll of the dice. She was part of an ensemble cast that included Robin Williams, Bonnie Hunt, and David Alan Grier. The movie grossed $100 million worldwide. That same year, and again in 2002, she was named one of People magazine's 50 Most Beautiful People. In 1996, Dunst had a recurring role in the third season of NBC's medical drama ER. She portrayed a child prostitute, Charlie Chiemingo, taken under the guidance of Doctor Doug Ross, played by George Clooney. In 1997, she was the voice of Young Anastasia in the animated musical film Anastasia. Also in 1997, Dunst appeared in the political satire Wag the Dog, opposite Robert De Niro and Dustin Hoffman. The following year she was the voice of the title character, Kiki, a 13-year-old apprentice witch who leaves her home village to spend a year on her own, in the anime movie Kiki's Delivery Service (1998). Dunst was offered the role of Angela in the 1999 drama film American Beauty, but turned it down because she did not want to appear in the film's suggestive sexual scenes or kiss co-star Kevin Spacey. She later explained: "When I read it, I was 15 and I don't think I was mature enough to understand the script's material." That same year, she appeared in the comedy Dick, alongside Michelle Williams. The film is a parody retelling the events of the Watergate scandal which lead to the resignation of U.S. president Richard Nixon. In Sofia Coppola's independent film The Virgin Suicides (1999), Dunst played the role of troubled adolescent Lux Lisbon. The film was screened as a special presentation at the 43rd San Francisco International Film Festival in 2000. The movie received generally favorable reviews, and San Francisco Chronicle critic Peter Stack noted in his review that Dunst "beautifully balances innocence and wantonness". In 2000, she played Torrance Shipman, the captain of a cheerleading squad in Bring It On. The film generated mostly critical reviews, with Charles Taylor of Salon.com writing that the film had failed to provide Dunst with as good a role as she had either in Dick or in The Virgin Suicides. However, Jessica Winter of The Village Voice complimented Dunst, stating that her performance was "as sprightly and knowingly daft as her turn in Dick. She provides the only major element of Bring It On that plays as tweaking parody rather than slick, strident, body-slam churlishness." The movie grossed $68 million worldwide. The following year, Dunst had the lead in the teen comedy Get Over It (2001). She later explained that one of the reason for accepting the role was that it gave her the opportunity to sing. Also in 2001, Dunst depicted the late American actress Marion Davies in The Cat's Meow (2001). The film, directed by Peter Bogdanovich, was described by Derek Elley of Variety as "playful and sporty", saying of Dunst that this was her best performance to date. "Believable as both a spoiled ingenue and a lover to two very different men, Dunst endows a potentially lightweight character with considerable depth and sympathy." In the Esquire review, Tom Carson called her performance "terrific". For her work, she won the Best Actress Silver Ombú category award at the 2002 Mar del Plata Film Festival. Spider-Man and after Dunst at San Diego Comic-Con International in 2006 In the 2002 superhero film Spider-Man, the most successful film of her career to date, Dunst played Mary Jane Watson, the best friend and love interest of the title character, played by Tobey Maguire. The film was directed by Sam Raimi. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly remarked on Dunst's ability to "lend even the smallest line a tickle of flirtatious music." In the Los Angeles Times review, critic Kenneth Turan noted that Dunst and Maguire made a real connection on screen, concluding that their relationship involved audiences to an extent rarely seen in films. Spider-Man was a commercial and critical success. The movie grossed $114 million during its opening weekend in North America and went on to earn $822 million worldwide. Following the success of Spider-Man, Dunst appeared in the independent drama Levity (2003), where she had a supporting role. In this same year she starred in Mona Lisa Smile (2003), part of an ensemble cast that included Julia Roberts, Maggie Gyllenhaal, and Julia Stiles. The film generated mostly negative reviews, with Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times describing it as "smug and reductive". She next appeared in a supporting role in the film Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), alongside Jim Carrey, Kate Winslet, and Tom Wilkinson. The latter film received very positive reviews, with Entertainment Weekly describing Dunst's subplot as "nifty and clever". The movie grossed $72 million worldwide. The success of the first Spider-Man film led Dunst to reprise the role in the 2004 sequel, Spider-Man 2. The movie was well received by critics, and it proved to be a big financial success, setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America. With revenue of $783 million worldwide, it became the second highest grossing film in 2004. Also in 2004, she appeared in the romantic comedy Wimbledon, a film in which she portrays a rising tennis player in the Wimbledon Championships opposite Paul Bettany, who plays a fading former tennis star. Reception for the movie was mixed, but many critics enjoyed Dunst's performance; Claudia Puig of USA Today reported that the chemistry between Dunst and Bettany was potent, with Dunst doing a fine job as a sassy and self-assured player. In 2005, she appeared as flight attendant Claire Colburn alongside Orlando Bloom, in Elizabethtown, a movie written and directed by Cameron Crowe. The film premiered at the 2005 Toronto Film Festival. Dunst revealed that working with Crowe was enjoyable, but more demanding than she had expected. The movie garnered mixed reviews, with the Chicago Tribune rating it one out of four stars and describing Dunst's portrayal of a flight attendant as "cloying". It was a box office disappointment. Dunst at the premiere of Spider-Man 3 in Stockholm, Sweden in April 2007 Dunst's next film role was the title character in the 2006 biographical film Marie Antoinette. Adapted from Antonia Fraser's book Marie Antoinette: The Journey, the film was Dunst's second with director Sofia Coppola. The movie was screened at a special presentation at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival, and was reviewed favourably. International revenues were $45 million out of $60 million overall. In 2007 she again played Mary Jane Watson, in Spider-Man 3. In contrast to the previous two films' positive reviews, Spider-Man 3 was met with a mixed reception by critics. Nonetheless, with a total worldwide gross of $891 million, it stands as the most successful film in the series, and Dunst's highest grossing film to the end of 2008. Having initially signed on for three Spider-Man films, she revealed that she would do a fourth, but only if Raimi and Maguire also returned. In the 2008 movie How to Lose Friends and Alienate People Dunst appeared alongside Simon Pegg. The movie is an adaptation of the memoir of the same name by former Vanity Fair contributing editor Toby Young, and follows the story of Young's five-year struggle to succeed in the United States, after employment at Sharps magazine. Dunst signed on to the film, later revealing that she had joined the project because Pegg was scheduled to appear in it. She agreed to appear in All Good Things, scheduled for release in July 2009, in a leading role opposite Ryan Gosling, portraying a woman from a run-down neighborhood who goes missing. She also signed to appear in Sweet Relief, also to be released in 2009, as peace activist Marla Ruzicka, a US relief worker killed by a suicide bomb in Baghdad. She has expressed interest in playing the role of Blondie frontwoman Debbie Harry in Michel Gondry's upcoming biographical film about the band. Music Dunst made her singing debut in the 2001 film Get Over It, performing two songs written by Marc Shaiman. She also lent her voice to the end credits of The Cat's Meow, singing Henry Creamer and Turner Layton's jazz standard "After You've Gone". In Spider-Man 3, she sings two songs as part of her role as Mary Jane Watson, one during a Broadway performance, and one as a singing waitress in a jazz club. Dunst revealed that she recorded the songs earlier and later lip-synced to it when filming began. She also appeared in the music video for Savage Garden's "I Knew I Loved You", and she sang two tracks, "This Old Machine" and "Summer Day", on Jason Schwartzman's 2007 solo album Nighttiming. In an interview with The Advertiser, Dunst explained that she has no plans to follow the steps of actors such as Russell Crowe or Toni Collette's in releasing an album, saying: "Definitely not. No way. It worked when Barbra Streisand was doing it, but now it's a little cheesy, I think. It works better when singers are in movies." Personal life As of 2009 Dunst remained unmarried, and had not been identified with a long-term partner. She has reportedly been involved in short-term relationships with playwright Jeff Smeenge, actor Jake Gyllenhaal, and musician Johnny Borrell of Razorlight. Dunst supported Democratic candidate John Kerry in the 2004 US presidential election. Four years later, she supported Democrat Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. Dunst revealed that she supported Obama "from the beginning" of the presidential campaign. In support of this, she directed and narrated a documentary entitled Why Tuesday, explaining the United States tradition of voting on Tuesdays. Dunst explained that Tuesday is "not a holiday, and [the United States is] one of the lowest democratic countries in voter turnout". She felt it important to "influence people in a positive way" to vote on November 4. Her charity work includes participation with the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, in which she helped design and promote a necklace, for which all proceeds from sales went to the Glaser foundation. She also has helped with breast cancer awareness; in September 2008 she participated in the Stand Up to Cancer telethon, to help raise funds to accelerate cancer research. Dunst has confirmed that she was treated for depression in early 2008. She sought treatment at the Cirque Lodge treatment center in Utah. Dunst explained that she had been feeling low in the six months prior to her going to rehab. In late March she checked out from the treatment center and began filming All Good Things. In May she went public with this information, she said, to highlight the struggle faced by so many other successful women and to dispel false rumors that had been very painful for her friends and family. Filmography Year Film Role Other notes 1989 New York Stories Lisa's daughter Uncredited 1990 The Bonfire of the Vanities Campbell McCoy 1991 High Strung Young Girl 1993 Star Trek: The Next Generation Hedril Episode: "Dark Page" 1994 Greedy Jolene Interview with the Vampire ClaudiaBSFC Award for Best Supporting ActressCFCS Award for Most Promising Actress MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance Nominated – Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress - Motion Picture Nominated – Chlotrudis Award for Best Supporting Actress Little Women Younger Amy MarchBSFC Award for Best Supporting Actress Nominated – Chlotrudis Award for Best Supporting Actress 1995 Jumanji Judy Shepherd Nominated – Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor1996 Mother Night Young Resi Noth ER Charlie Chiemingo Episode: "Ghosts" Episode: "Union Station" Episode: "Homeless for the Holidays" Episode: "Night Shift" Episode: "Post Mortem" Episode: "One More for the Road" 1997 The Outer Limits Joyce Taylor Episode: "Music of the Spheres" Tower of Terror Anna Petterson Anastasia Young Anastasia Voice Wag the Dog Tracy Limes 1998 Fifteen and Pregnant Tina Spangler Television movie Kiki's Delivery Service Kiki Voice in English language dubbed version Small Soldiers Christy Fimple The Hairy Bird Verena von Stefan 1999 The Devil's Arithmetic Hannah Stern Television movie The Virgin Suicides Lux Lisbon Nominated – Teen Choice Award for Film - Choice Actress Drop Dead Gorgeous Amber Atkins Dick Betsy Jobs 2000 The Crow: Salvation Erin Randall Luckytown Lidda Doyles Bring It On Torrance Shipman Deeply Silly 2001 Get Over It Kelly Woods/Helena Nominated – Teen Choice Award for Film — Choice Chemistry Crazy/Beautiful Nicole Oakley The Cat's Meow Marion DaviesMar del Plata Film Festival for Best Actress 2002 Spider-Man Mary Jane WatsonEmpire Movie Award for Best Actress MTV Movie Award for Best Female Performance MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss Teen Choice Award for Film - Choice Lip Lock Nominated – Teen Choice Award for Film — Choice Chemistry Nominated – Teen Choice Award for Film — Choice Actress, Drama/Action Adventure 2003 Levity Sofia Mellinger Kaena: The Prophecy Kaena Voice Mona Lisa Smile Betty Warren Nominated – Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Sleazebag 2004 Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind Mary Svevo Spider-Man 2 Mary Jane Watson Empire Movie Award for Best Actress Nominated – People's Choice Award for Favorite On-Screen Chemistry Wimbledon Lizzie Bradbury 2005 Elizabethtown Claire Colburn 2006 Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette 2007Spider-Man 3 Mary Jane Watson Nominated – People's Choice Award for Favorite On Screen Match-up Nominated – Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie: Liplock Nominated – Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress: Action Adventure Nominated – National Movie Award for Best Performance by a Female 2008How to Lose Friends and Alienate People Alison Olsen 2009All Good Things Katie McCarthy post-productionA Jealous Ghostannounced Sweet Relief Marla Ruzicka announced References External links | Kirsten_Dunst |@lemmatized kirsten:2 caroline:1 dunst:62 bear:2 april:2 american:3 actress:16 singer:2 make:8 film:59 debut:4 oedipus:2 wreck:2 short:3 direct:5 woody:2 allen:2 anthology:2 new:7 york:4 story:5 age:5 gain:1 widespread:1 recognition:1 play:13 role:17 vampire:7 claudia:4 interview:7 nominate:14 golden:3 globe:3 award:28 best:20 support:10 performance:14 year:15 appear:16 little:5 woman:5 acclaim:1 achieve:1 international:4 fame:2 result:1 portrayal:2 mary:8 jane:7 watson:6 spider:14 man:15 trilogy:1 since:1 include:4 romantic:2 comedy:5 wimbledon:4 science:1 fiction:1 drama:6 eternal:3 sunshine:3 spotless:3 mind:3 cameron:2 crowe:4 tragicomedy:1 elizabethtown:3 title:4 sofia:4 coppola:3 marie:5 antoinette:5 star:7 lose:3 friend:5 alienate:3 people:8 singing:3 get:4 perform:2 two:6 song:5 also:11 sing:5 jazz:3 go:7 end:3 credit:2 cat:4 meow:4 early:4 confirm:2 suffer:1 depression:2 check:2 treatment:4 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4,028 | Elbridge_Gerry | Elbridge Thomas Gerry (; July 17, 1744 November 23, 1814) was an American statesman and diplomat. As a Democratic-Republican he was selected as the fifth Vice President of the United States of America, serving under James Madison, from March 4, 1813 until his death a year and a half later. He was the second Vice President to die in office; the first was his immediate predecessor, George Clinton. He was the first Vice President never to run for President of the United States. Gerry was one of the signers of the US Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation. He was one of three men who refused to sign the Constitution because it did not then include a Bill of Rights. Gerry later became Governor of Massachusetts. He is known best for being the namesake of gerrymandering, a process by which electoral districts are drawn with the aim of aiding the party in power, although the pronunciation - jer - differs from the pronunciation of Gerry's name (see Gerrymandering#Etymology). Early life Born in Marblehead, Massachusetts, the third of twelve children, he was a graduate of Harvard College, where he studied to be a doctor, attending there from age fourteen. He worked in his father's shipping business and came to prominence over his opposition to commerce taxes. He was elected to the General Court of the province of Massachusetts in May 1772 on an anti-British platform. Career Gerry was a Massachusetts delegate to the Continental Congress from February 1776 to 1780. He also served from 1783 to September 1785 and was married in 1786 to Ann Thompson, the daughter of a wealthy New York merchant, 21 years his junior. In 1787 he attended the United States Constitutional Convention and was one of the delegates voting against the new constitution (joining George Mason and Edmund Randolph in not signing it). He was elected to the U.S. House under the new national government, and served in Congress from 1789 to 1793. He surprised his friends by becoming a strong supporter of the new government, and so vigorously supported Alexander Hamilton's reports on public credit, including the assumption of state debts, and supported Hamilton's new Bank of the United States, that he was considered a leading champion by the Federalists. He did not stand for reelection in 1792. He was a presidential elector for John Adams in the 1796 election, and was appointed by Adams to the critical delegation to France that was humiliated by the French in the XYZ Affair. He stayed in France after his two colleagues returned, and Federalists accused him of supporting the French. He returned in October 1798, and switched his affiliation to Democratic-Republican Party in 1800. He was the unsuccessful Democratic-Republican nominee for governor of Massachusetts in 1800, 1801, 1802 and 1803. In 1810 he was finally elected Governor of Massachusetts as a Democratic-Republican. He was re-elected in 1811 but defeated in 1812 over his support for the redistricting bill that created the word gerrymander. He was chosen as vice president to James Madison. He died in office of heart failure in Washington, D.C. and is buried there in the Congressional Cemetery. Legacy Gerry's grandson, Elbridge Gerry (1813–1886), was a Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Maine; his great-grandson, Peter G. Gerry, was a Member of the U.S. House of Representatives and United States Senator from Rhode Island. In 1812 the word Gerrymandering was coined when the Massachusetts legislature redrew the boundaries of state legislative districts in order to favor Governor Gerry's party. The Governor's strategy was to encompass most of the state's Federalists, allowing them to win in that district while his party, the Democratic-Republicans, took control of all the other districts in the state. The term eventually became part of the American political vocabulary, and the practice is still in use today. The upstate New York town of Elbridge, sitting just west of Syracuse, NY, with a population of roughly 6,000 is named in his honor, as is the western New York town of Gerry, in Chautauqua County, between Buffalo, NY, and Jamestown, NY, with a population of about 2,000. Quotes "The evils we experience flow from the excess of democracy. The people do not want virtue, but are dupes of pretended patriots" Government by the People, The Dynamics of American National, State, and Local Government, James MacGregor Burns & Jack Walter Peltason, 6th edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1963. pg 50. Notes References Austin, James, Life of Elbridge Gerry, 1970; Da Capo Press (ISBN 0-306-71841-3). Billias, George, Elbridge Gerry, Founding Father and Republican Statesman 1976, McGraw-Hill Publishers (ISBN 0-07-005269-7). Kramer, Eugene F. "Some New Light on the XYZ Affair: Elbridge Gerry's Reasons for Opposing War with France." New England Quarterly 1956 29(4): 509-513. ISSN 0028-4866 Trees, Andy. "Private Correspondence for the Public Good: Thomas Jefferson to Elbridge Gerry, 26 January 1799" Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 2000 108(3): 217-254. ISSN 0042-6636 shows Gerry ignored Jefferson's 1799 letter inviting him to switch parties. External links Official Commonwealth of Massachusetts Governor Biography Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825 Delegates to the Constitutional Convention: Massachusetts (Brief Biography of Gerry) Gerry family archive at Hartwick College | Elbridge_Gerry |@lemmatized elbridge:7 thomas:2 gerry:17 july:1 november:1 american:4 statesman:2 diplomat:1 democratic:5 republican:6 select:1 fifth:1 vice:4 president:5 united:5 state:10 america:1 serve:3 james:4 madison:2 march:1 death:1 year:2 half:1 later:2 second:1 die:2 office:2 first:2 immediate:1 predecessor:1 george:3 clinton:1 never:1 run:1 one:3 signer:1 u:4 declaration:1 independence:1 article:1 confederation:1 three:1 men:1 refuse:1 sign:2 constitution:2 include:2 bill:2 right:1 become:3 governor:6 massachusetts:9 know:1 best:1 namesake:1 gerrymandering:2 process:1 electoral:1 district:4 draw:1 aim:1 aid:1 party:5 power:1 although:1 pronunciation:2 jer:1 differs:1 name:2 see:1 gerrymander:2 etymology:1 early:1 life:2 bear:1 marblehead:1 third:1 twelve:1 child:1 graduate:1 harvard:1 college:2 study:1 doctor:1 attend:2 age:1 fourteen:1 work:1 father:2 shipping:1 business:1 come:1 prominence:1 opposition:1 commerce:1 tax:1 elect:4 general:1 court:1 province:1 may:1 anti:1 british:1 platform:1 career:1 delegate:3 continental:1 congress:2 february:1 also:1 september:1 marry:1 ann:1 thompson:1 daughter:1 wealthy:1 new:10 york:3 merchant:1 junior:1 constitutional:2 convention:2 vote:2 join:1 mason:1 edmund:1 randolph:1 house:3 national:2 government:4 surprise:1 friend:1 strong:1 supporter:1 vigorously:1 support:4 alexander:1 hamilton:2 report:1 public:2 credit:1 assumption:1 debt:1 bank:1 consider:1 lead:1 champion:1 federalist:3 stand:1 reelection:1 presidential:1 elector:1 john:1 adam:2 election:2 appoint:1 critical:1 delegation:1 france:3 humiliate:1 french:2 xyz:2 affair:2 stay:1 two:1 colleague:1 return:3 accuse:1 october:1 switch:2 affiliation:1 unsuccessful:1 nominee:1 finally:1 defeat:1 redistricting:1 create:1 word:2 choose:1 heart:1 failure:1 washington:1 c:1 bury:1 congressional:1 cemetery:1 legacy:1 grandson:2 member:2 representative:2 maine:1 great:1 peter:1 g:1 senator:1 rhode:1 island:1 coin:1 legislature:1 redrew:1 boundary:1 legislative:1 order:1 favor:1 strategy:1 encompass:1 allow:1 win:1 take:1 control:1 term:1 eventually:1 part:1 political:1 vocabulary:1 practice:1 still:1 use:1 today:1 upstate:1 town:2 sit:1 west:1 syracuse:1 ny:3 population:2 roughly:1 honor:1 western:1 chautauqua:1 county:1 buffalo:1 jamestown:1 quote:1 evil:1 experience:1 flow:1 excess:1 democracy:1 people:2 want:1 virtue:1 dupe:1 pretended:1 patriot:1 dynamic:1 local:1 macgregor:1 burn:1 jack:1 walter:1 peltason:1 edition:1 prentice:1 hall:1 inc:1 englewood:1 cliff:1 nj:1 pg:1 note:1 reference:1 austin:1 da:1 capo:1 press:1 isbn:2 billias:1 found:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 publisher:1 kramer:1 eugene:1 f:1 light:1 reason:1 oppose:1 war:1 england:1 quarterly:1 issn:2 tree:1 andy:1 private:1 correspondence:1 good:1 jefferson:2 january:1 virginia:1 magazine:1 history:1 biography:4 show:1 ignore:1 letter:1 invite:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 commonwealth:1 rev:1 charles:1 goodrich:1 nation:1 brief:1 family:1 archive:1 hartwick:1 |@bigram vice_president:4 declaration_independence:1 elbridge_gerry:5 rhode_island:1 syracuse_ny:1 buffalo_ny:1 prentice_hall:1 englewood_cliff:1 cliff_nj:1 da_capo:1 capo_press:1 mcgraw_hill:1 quarterly_issn:1 thomas_jefferson:1 external_link:1 |
4,029 | Korean_cuisine | Hanjeongsik, a full-course Korean meal with a varied array of banchan (side dishes) The Chosun Ilbo Korean cuisine (Korean: Hanguk yori, 한국요리, 韓國料理; or Hanshik, 한식, 韓食) as a national cuisine known today has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Its roots can be traced back to myths and legends of antiquity. Originating from ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in southern Manchuria and northern Korean peninsula, Korean cuisine has evolved through a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends. Ingredients and dishes vary by province. There are many significant regional dishes that have become both national and regional. Many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated in different variations across the country in the present day. The Korean royal court cuisine once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Meals consumed both by the royal family and ordinary Korean citizens have been regulated by a culture of etiquette that is unique to Korea. Korean cuisine is largely based on rice, noodles, tofu, vegetables, and meats. Traditional Korean meals are noted for the number of side dishes (banchan) that accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Fritscher, Lisa "Korean Food Basics". Kimchi, a fermented, spicy vegetable dish is usually served at every meal. Korean cuisine usually involves rich seasoning with sesame oil, doenjang (fermented soybean paste), soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, and gochujang (red chili paste). History Prehistoric cultures In Jeulmun pottery period that dates approximately 8000-1500 B.C., hunter-gatherer societies engaged in fishing and hunting, and also incipient agriculture in the later stages. Since the beginning of the Mumun pottery period 1500 B.C., agricultural traditions began to develop with new migrant groups from the Liao River basin of Manchuria. During the Mumun period people grew millets, barley, wheat, legumes, rice and continued to hunt and fish. Archaeological remains point to development of fermented beans during this period, and cultural contact with nomadic cultures to the north facilitated domestication of animals. Three Kingdoms period - Goryeo dynasty Dating from the first century BCE until the seventh century CE, the Three Kingdoms period was one of rapid cultural evolution. The kingdom of Goguryeo was located in the northern part of the peninsula along with much of what is today Manchuria. The second kingdom, Baekje, was in the southwestern portion of the peninsula, while the third, Silla, was located at the southeastern portion of the peninsula. Each region had its own distinct set of cultural practices and foods. For example, Baekje was known for eating cold foods and fermented foods like kimchi. The spread of Buddhism and Confucianism from China during the fourth century CE began to change the distinct cultures of Korea. Pettid, 13. Following the Three Kingdoms period is the Unified Silla period, during which Silla unified most of the southern region of Korea, while the Northern region was unified by refugees from Goguryeo, renaming the region Balhae. These cultures adhered to the beliefs of Buddhism with a moderate level of peaceful coexistence. During the tenth century, however, both cultures began to erode and were eventually unified under the Goryeo dynasty, which drew much of its culture from an admiration of the Song Dynasty of China. It was this dynasty that introduced the peninsula to the Western world and it is from the word "Goryeo" that the country's modern name of "Korea" was derived. Pettid, 13-14. During the Goryeo period, in the thirteenth century, the Mongols invaded Korea. Although there was a vast loss of life in Korea, many of the traditional foods found today in Korea have their origins in the Mongol invasion, such as mandu, grilled meat dishes, noodle dishes, and the use of seasonings such as black pepper. Pettid, 15. Joseon period Confucianism continued to be the guiding influence during this time period. A hierarchy of human relationships was created during this time period. Lineage and birthright were the governing forces of the time. The bulk of the citizenry of this time period were freeborn commoners, who were the cultivators of food for the citizens. Butchers, called baekjeong in Korean, held the lowest cultural status level in this society as the work was deemed degrading. Pettid, 16. Agricultural innovations were vast during this time period, such as the invention of the rain gauge during the fifteenth century. During 1429 the government began publishing books on agriculture and farming techniques, which included Nongsa jikseol (hangul: 농사직설; hanja: 農事直說; literally "Straight Talk on Farming"), an agriculture book compiled under King Sejong. King Sejong's Humanism, from National Assembly of the Republic of Korea Pettid, 17. The Academy of Korean Studies A series of invasions from in the earlier half of the Joseon period caused a dynamic shift in the culture during the second half of the period. It was during the second half of the period that groups of sirhak (실학, practical learning) scholars began to emphasize the importance of looking outside the country for innovation and technology to help improve the agricultural systems. it was also during this time that the government reduced the taxation of the peasantry, who were in turn able to grow commercial development by way of increasing the periodic markets, usually held every five days. One thousand of these markets existed in the 19th century and were the centers for economic trade and entertainment in communities. Pettid, 18. The government continued to promote the agricultural industry. The government promoted complex irrigation systems, which allowed peasant farmers to produce larger crop volumes and in turn they were able to not only produce crops for sustenance, but also for cash crops. It was during the latter half of the Joseon period when crops from the New World through trade with China, Japan, Europe, and the Philippines began to appear; these crops included corn, sweet potatoes, chili peppers, tomatoes, peanuts, and squash. Potatoes and sweet potatoes were particularly favored as they grew in soils and on terrains that were previously unused. Pettid, 18-19. The end of the Joseon period was marked by consistent encouragement for the country to trade with the Western world, China, and Japan. The 1860s marked a number of unfair trade agreements between the Western world and different Asian countries including China and Japan. Following suit, the Joseon Dynasty was forced to open its trade ports with the west by the Japanese government, and they entered into a number of unfair treaties with the United States, Britain, France, and other Western countries. Pettid, 19. The opening of Korea to the Western world brought a number of cultural food exchanges. Western missionaries introduced numerous foods to Korea. Additionally, the Joseon elites were introduced to these new foods by way of foreigners that attended the royal court as advisers or physicians. This period also saw the introduction of various seasonings imported from Japan and alcoholic drinks from China. Pettid, 163. 20th century - current period A number of internal rebellions lead to the fall of the Joseon dynasty, which was followed by a thirty-six year (1910-1945) colonization of the Korean peninsula by the imperial government of Japan. Many of the agricultural systems were adapted by the Japanese to support Japan at a loss of personal land to the Koreans. Examples include the combining of small farms were into large-scale farms for larger yields to export to Japan. Rice production increased during this period, but again most was shipped out of the country, the Koreans in turn increased the production of other grains like millet for their own consumption. Pettid, 19-20. Meals during the Japanese occupation were monotonous. Koreans usually ate two meals a day during cold seasons, and three during warm seasons. Meals were more important for fulfillment rather than quality. Those in the lower economic levels were likely to only enjoy a single bowl of white rice each year, while the remainder of the year was filled with meals of cheaper grains like millet and barley. Pettid, 29,163. Western food began emerging into the Korean diet, such as white bread and commercially produced staples such as instant noodles began to appear as well. The Japanese colonial period ended after the defeat of Japan during World War II. Pettid, 20. The country continued to exist in turmoil through the Cold War, which separated the country into North Korea and South Korea, as well as the Korean War (1950-1953). Both of these periods continued the limited food provisions for Koreans, and the stew called budae jjigae, which makes use of inexpensive meats such as sausages and Spam, originated during this period. It would not be until the 1960s under President Park Chung Hee that industrialization would come to Korea, when the country would regain its economic and cultural power held in the global economy today. Agriculture was increased through use of commercial fertilizers and modern farming equipment. It would not be until the 1970s that food shortages would lessen. Instant and processed foods increased as did the over all quality of foods. Livestock and dairy production was increased during the 1970s through the increase of commercial dairies and mechanized farms. Pettid, 164-165. The consumption of pork and beef increased vastly in Korea in the 1970s. The per-capita consumption of meat was 3.6 kilograms in 1961, which increased to 11 kilograms per person in 1979. The result of this increased meat consumption brought about the increase of bulgogi restaurants which gave the middle class of South Korea the ability to enjoy meat regularly. The consumption of meat rose to 40 kilograms in 1997, while fish consumption was 49.5 kilograms in 1998. Rice consumption had continually decreased through the years with 128.1 kg consumed per person in 1985 to 106.5 kg in 1995 and 83.2 kg in 2003. The decrease in rice consumption has been accompanied by an increase in consumption of bread and noodles. Pettid, 166. Foodstuffs Grains and legumes Grains in general have been one of the most important staples to the Korean diet. Early myths of the foundations of various kingdoms in Korea center on grains. One foundation myth relates to Chumong who received barley seeds from two doves sent by his mother after establishing the kingdom of Goguryeo. Yi Kyubo, 1-9. Yet another myth speaks of the three founding deities of Jeju Island whom were to be wed to the three princesses of Tamna; the deities brought seeds of five grains which were the first seeds planted which in turn became the first instance of farming. Koryǒsa, 57, 53b-54b. During the pre-modern era, grains such as barley and millet were the main staples and were supplemented by wheat, sorghum, and buckwheat. Pettid, 33. Rice is not an indigenous crop to Korea, and it is likely that millet was the preferred grain before rice was cultivated. Rice became the grain of choice during the Three Kingdoms period, particularly in the kingdoms of Silla and Baekje in the southern regions of the peninsula. Rice was such an important commodity in Silla that it was used to pay taxes. The Sino-Korean word for "tax" is a compound character that utilizes the character for the rice plant. The preference for rice escalated into the Joseon period when new methods of cultivation and new varieties emerged that would help increase production. As rice was prohibitively expensive when it first came to Korea, it is likely that the grain was mixed with other grains in order to "stretch" the rice; this is still done in dishes such as boribap (rice with barley) and kongbap (rice with beans). White rice, which is rice with the hull removed, has been the preferred method of eating rice since its introduction into the cuisine. The most traditional method of cooking the rice has been to cook it in an iron pot called a sot (솥) or musoe sot (무쇠솥). This method of rice cookery dates back at least to the Goryeo period, and sot have even been found in tombs from the Silla period. The sot is still used today, much in the same manner as it was in the past centuries. Pettid, 34. Rice is used to make a number of items, outside of the traditional bowl of plain white rice. Rice is commonly ground into a flour and used to make rice cakes called tteok, of which there are over two hundred varieties. Rice is also cooked down into a congee (called juk in Korean), or gruel (called mieum in Korean) and mixed with other grains, meat, or seafood. Koreans also produce a number of rice wines, both in filtered and unfiltered versions. Soybeans are also commonly used in Korean cuisine; they are made into tofu (dubu), while soybean sprouts are sauteed as a vegetable (kongnamul) and whole soybeans are seasoned and served as a side dish. They are also made into soy milk, which is used as the base for the noodle dish called kongguksu. A by-product of soy milk production is okara (kongbiji), which is used to thicken stews and porridges. Soybeans may also be one of the beans in kongbap (rice boiled together with several types of beans and other grains). Meat and fish In antiquity, most meat in Korea was likely obtained through hunting and fishing. Ancient records indicate that rearing of livestock began on a small scale during the Three Kingdoms period. Meat was consumed roasted or in soups or stews during this period. Those who lived closer to the oceans were able to complement their diet with more fish while those who lived in the interior had a diet containing more meat. Pettid, 58. Beef Hanwu galbi Beef is the most prized of all meats, with the cattle itself holding an important cultural role in the Korean home. The cattle were regarded as servants and seen as an equal to human servants. Cattle were also given their own holiday during the first 'cow' day of the lunar New Year. The importance of the cattle does not suggest that Koreans ate an abundance of beef, however, as pork and seafood were more likely consumed on a more regular basis as the cattle were valued as beasts of burden. The Buddhist ruling class of the Goryeo period forbade the consumption of beef. The Mongols dispensed with the ban of beef during the 13th century and they promoted the production of beef cattle. This increased production continued into the Joseon period when the government encouraged both increased quantities and quality of beef. Pettid, 59-60. It has only been in the latter part of the 20th century that beef has become regular table fare. Beef is prepared in numerous ways today including roasting or grilling (gui), boiling in soups. Beef can also be dried as with seafood (yukpo, 육포). Pettid, 60. Chicken Chicken has played an important role as a protein in Korea's history, evidenced by a number of myths. One myth tells of the birth of Kim Alji, founder of the Kim family of Gyeongju being announced by the cry of a white chicken. As the birth of a clan's founder is always announced by an animal with preternatural qualities, this myth speaks to the importance of chicken. Chicken is often served roasted or braised with vegetables or in soups. All parts of the chicken are used in Korean cuisine, including the gizzards, liver, and feet. Young chicken are braised in a medicinal soups eaten during the summer months to combat heat called samgyetang. The feet of the chicken, called dakbal (닭발), are often roasted and covered with hot and spicy gochujang-based sauce and served as an anju, or side dish, to accompany alcoholic beverages, especially soju. Yu Jisang (유지상) Dog A dish made with dog meat in South Korea The consumption of dog meat in Korea dates back to antiquity. The primary dog breed raised for meat, the nureongi (누렁이), differs from those breeds raised for pets which Koreans may keep in their homes. Pettid, 25 For those who consume dog meat, they usually do so during the summer months in either roasted form or prepared in soups. The most popular of these soups is gaejang-guk (also called bosintang), a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi, or vital energy of the body. A 19th century version of gaejang-guk explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the dishes are still popular in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef, chicken, and pork. Pettid, 84-85. Fish and seafood Saengseon jjim, steamed seasoned fish Fish and shellfish have always been a major part of Korean cuisine because of the oceans bordering the peninsula. Evidence from the 12th century illustrates that commoners consumed a diet mostly of fish and shellfish such as shrimp, clams, oysters, abalone, and loach, while sheep and hogs were reserved for the upper class. Pettid, 63. Both fresh and saltwater fish are popular and are served raw, grilled, broiled, dried, and served in soups and stews. Common grilled fish include mackerel, hairtail, croaker, and Pacific herring. Smaller fish, shrimps, squid, mollusks and countless other seafood can be salted as Jeotgal. Fish can also be grilled either whole or in fillets as banchan. Fish is often dried naturally in order to prolong storing periods and enable shipping over long distances. Fish commonly dried include yellow corvina, anchovies (myeolchi) and croaker. Dried anchovies along with kelp form the basis of common soup stocks. Marks, 8. Shellfish is widely eaten in all different types of preparation. They can be used to prepare broth, eaten raw with chogochujang, or used as a popular ingredient in countless dishes. Raw oysters and other seafood can be used in making kimchi to improve and vary the flavor. Salted baby shrimps are used as a seasoning agent known as saeujeot for the preparation of some types of kimchi. Large shrimp are often grilled as daeha gui (대하구이) Korea Tourism Organization or dried, mixed with vegetables and served with rice. Mollusks eaten in Korean cuisine include octopus, cuttlefish, and squid. Pettid, 65-66. Pork Samgyeopsal Pork has also been another important land based protein for Korea. Records indicate that pigs have been a part of the Korean diet back to antiquity, similar to cattle rearing. Pettid, 61. A number of foods have been avoided while eating pork including Chinese bellflower (doraji, 도라지) and lotus root (yeonn ppuri, 연뿌리) as the combinations have been thought to cause diarrhea. All parts of the pig are used in Korean cuisine in a variety of cooking methods including steaming, stewing, boiling, and smoking. Pettid, 62. Vegetables Korean cuisine uses a wide variety of vegetables, which are often served uncooked, either in salads or pickles, as well as cooked in various stews, stir-fried dishes, and other hot dishes. Commonly used vegetables include daikon (mu), Napa cabbage (baechu), cucumber (oi), potato (gamja), sweet potato (goguma), spinach (sigeumchi), scallions (pa), garlic (maneul), chili peppers (gochu), sea vegetables, zucchini (hobak), mushrooms (beoseot), and lotus root. Several types of wild greens, known collectively as chwinamul (such as Aster scaber), are a popular dish, and other wild vegetables such as bracken fern shoots (gosari) or Korean bellflower root (doraji) are also harvested and eaten in season. Medicinal herbs such as ginseng (insam), wolfberry (gugija), Codonopsis pilosula (dangsam), and Angelica sinensis (danggwi) are often used as ingredients in cooking, as in samgyetang. Dining etiquette Dining etiquette in Korea can be traced back to the Confucian philosophies on the Joseon period. Guidebooks such as Sasojeol (Elementary Etiquette for Scholar Families) written in 1775 by Yi Tǒongmu, comment on the dining etiquette for the period. Suggestions include items such as "when you see a fat cow, goat, pig, or chicken, do not immediately speak of slaughtering, cooking or eating it", Yi Tǒngmu 62. "when you are having a meal with others, do not speak of smelly or dirty things, such as boils or diarrhea.", "when eating a meal, neither eat so slowly as to appear to be eating against your will nor to fast as if to be taking someone else's food. Do not throw chopsticks on the table. Spoons should not touch plates, making a clashing sound", amongst many other recommendations which emphasized proper table etiquette. Chopsticks should always be lifted from the table by the eldest family member first The eldest male at the table was always served first, commonly served to them in the men's quarters by the women of the house. Women usually dined in a separate portion of the house after the men were served. The eldest men or women always ate before the younger family members. The meal was usually quiet, as conversation was discouraged during meals. In modern times these rules have become lax, as families usually dine together now and use the time to converse. Of the remaining elements of this decorum, one remaining decorum is that the younger members of the table should not pick up their chopsticks or start eating before the elders of the table. Pettid, 159. In Korea, unlike in China and Japan, the rice bowl is not lifted from the table when eating from it. This is due to the fact that each diner is given a metal spoon along with the chopsticks known collectively as sujeo (수저). The use of the spoon for eating rice and soups is expected. There are rules which reflect the decorum of sharing communal side-dishes; rules include not picking through the dishes for certain items while leaving others that the diner does not desire, the spoon being used should be clear of other food particles, and finally that one should not reach across the table for the side-dishes as they should request them to be passed. Diners should also cover their mouths with a hand when using a toothpick after the meal. The table setup is important as well, and individuals place setting moving from the diner's left should be as follows: rice bowl, spoon, and chopsticks. Hot foods are set to the right side of the table, with the cold foods to the left. Soup must remain on the right side of the diner along with stews. Vegetables remain on the left along with the rice, and kimchi is set to the back while sauces remain in the front. Royal court cuisine Collectively known as kungjiung ǔmsik during the pre-modern era, the foods of the royal palace were reflective of the opulent nature of the past rulers of the Korean peninsula. The opulent nature of the royalty is evidenced in examples as far back as the Silla kingdom, where a man-made lake (Anapji Lake, located in Gyeongju) was created with multiple pavilions and halls for the sole purpose of opulent banquets and a spring fed channel, Poseokjeong, was created for the singular purpose of setting wine cups afloat while they wrote poems. Pettid, 129 Reflecting the regionalism of the kingdoms and bordering countries of the peninsula, the cuisine borrowed portions from each of these areas to exist as a showcase. The royalty would have the finest regional specialties and delicacies sent to them at the palace. Although there are records of banquets pre-dating the Joseon period, the majority of these records mostly reflect the vast variety of foods, but do not mention the specific foods presented. Pettid, 130. The meals cooked for the royal family did not reflect the seasons as the commoner's meals would have. Instead their meals varied day-to-day with significant variations. Each of the eight provinces was represented each month in the royal palace by ingredients presented by their governors, which gave the cooks a wide assortment of ingredients to utilize for royal meals. Pettid, 132. Food held a very important place in Joseon period. Official positions were created within the Six Ministries (Yukjo, 육조) that were charged with all matters related to procurement and consumption of food and drink for the royal court. The Board of Personnel (Ijo, 이조) contained positions specific for attaining rice for the royal family. The Board of Rights (Yejo) were responsible for foods prepared for ancestor rites, attaining wines and other beverages, and medicinal foods. There were also hundreds of slaves and women who worked in the palace that had tasks such as making tofu, liquor, tea, and tteok (rice cakes). The women were the cooks to the royal palace and were of commoner or low-born families. These women would be split into specific skill sets or "bureau" such as the Bureau of special foods (Saenggwa-bang, 생과방) or the Bureau of cooking foods (Soju-bang, 소주방). These female cooks may have been assisted by male cooks from outside the palace during larger banquets when necessary. Pettid, 130-132. Five meals were generally served in the royal palace each day during the Joseon period, and records suggest this pattern had existed from antiquity. Three of these meals would be full meals, while the afternoon and after dinner meals would be lighter. The first meal, mieumsang (미음상), was served at sunrise and was served only on days when the king and queen were not taking herbal medicines. The meal consisted of rice porridge (juk, 죽) made with ingredients such as abalone (jeonbokjuk), white rice (huinjuk), mushrooms (beoseotjuk), pine nuts (jatjuk), and sesame (kkaejuk). The side dishes could consist of kimchi, nabak kimchi, oysters, soy sauce, and other items. The porridge was thought to give vitality to the king and queen throughout the day. Pettid, 133. The sura (수라) were the main meals of the day. Breakfast was served at ten in the morning and the evening meals were served between six and seven at night. The set of three tables (surasang, 수라상), were usually set with two types of rice, two types of soup, two types of stew (jjigae), one dish of jjim (meat stew), one dish of jeongol (a casserole of meat and vegetables), three types of kimchi, three types of jang (장) and twelve side dishes, or called 12 cheop (12첩). The meals were set in the suragan (수라간), a room specifically used for taking meals, with the king seated to the east and the queen to the west. Each had their own set of tables and were attended by three palace servant women known as sura sanggung (수라상궁). These women would remove bowl covers and offer the foods to the king and queen after ensuring that the dishes were not poisoned. Pettid, 134-135. Vegetarian cookery An array of bap (rice) and banchan at a vegetarian restaurant in Anguk-dong, Seoul, South Korea Vegetarian cookery in Korea may be linked to the Buddhist traditions that influenced Korean culture from the Goryeo dynasty onwards. There are hundreds of vegetarian restaurants in Korea although historically they have been local restaurants that are unknown to tourists. Most have buffets, with cold food, and vegetarian kimchi and tofu being the main features. Bibimbap is a common vegan dish. Menus change with seasons. De-alcoholized wine, and fine teas are also served. The Korean tea ceremony is suitable for all vegetarians and vegans, and began with Buddhist influences. All food is eaten with a combination of rather slippery stainless steel oval chopsticks and a long-handled shallow spoon called together sujeo. Korean vegetarian restaurants also exist outside Korea, such as Manhattan's Hangawi and Franchia, and Chicago's Amitabul. Korean beverages Non-alcoholic beverages Daechu cha (jujube tea) All Korean traditional non-alcoholic beverages are referred to as eumcheongnyu (음청류 ). According to historical documents regarding Korean cuisine, 193 items of eumcheongnyu are recorded. Baek Un-hwa, The industrialization of Korean traditional beverages Eumcheongnyu can be divided into the following categories: cha (차, tea), tang (탕, boiled water), jang (장, fermented grain juice with sour taste), suksu (숙수), galsu (갈수, thirst water), hwachae (화채, fruit punch), sikhye (식혜, sweet rice drink), sujeonggwa (수정과, persimmon punch), milsu or kkulmul (밀수, 꿀물, honeyed water), jeup (즙, juice) and milk by their ingredient materials and preparation methods. Among the varieties of eumcheongnyu, cha, hwachae, sikhye, and sujeonggwa are still widely favored and consumed; however, tang, jang, suksu, and galsu had almost disappeared by the end of the 20th century. Introduction of Eumcheongryu, Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation Sohn Gyeong-hee, Historical overview of Korean traditional eumcheongryu Alcoholic beverages A bowl of makgeolli, a type of takju While soju (소주) is the best known liquor, there are well over 100 different alcoholic beverages such as beers, rice and fruit wines, and liquors produced in South Korea. The top-selling domestic beers (the Korean term for beer being maekju) are lagers, similar to others found in Europe and Asia. The South Korean beer market is dominated by the three major brands: Cass, Hite, and OB. Taedonggang (대동강) is a North Korean beer which is based in Pyongyang since 2002. Reuters, "North Korean beer: great taste, low proliferation risk", Mar 9, 2008 Microbrewery beers and bars are growing in popularity after 2002. The Korea Economic Daily, 2006-12-01 Soju is a clear spirit which was originally made from grain especially rice, and is now also made from sweet potatoes or barley. Soju made from grain is considered superior (as is also the case with grain vs. potato vodka). Soju is around 22% ABV and is a favorite beverage of hard-up college students, hard-drinking businessmen, and blue-collar workers. Yakju is a refined pure liquor fermented from rice, with the best known being cheongju. Takju is a thick unrefined liquor made with grains, with the best known being makkoli (막걸리), a white, milky rice wine traditionally drunk by farmers. Food in Korea, "Jontongjoo - Kinds of Traditonal Liquors" In addition to the rice wine, various fruit wines and herbal wines exist in Korean cuisine. Acacia, maesil plum, Chinese quince, cherry, pine fruits, and pomegranate are most popular. Majuang wine (a blended wine of Korean grapes with French or American wines) and ginseng-based wines are also available. Prepared dishes Korean foods are largely categorized into groups of "main staple foods" (주식), "subsidiary dishes" (부식), and "dessert" (후식). The main dishes are made from grains such as bap (a bowl of rice), juk (porridge), and guksu (noodles). Many Korean banchan rely on fermentation for flavor and preservation, resulting in a tangy, salty, and spicy taste. Certain regions are especially associated with some dishes (for example, the city of Jeonju with bibimbap) either as a place of origin or for a famous regional variety. Restaurants will often use these famous names on their signs or menus (i.e. "Suwon galbi"). Romanization of Korean words may vary widely, with g/k (eg galbi/kalbi), j/ch, d/t and b/p often used interchangeably. Soups and stews Tteokguk, soup made with tteok, rice cake Soups are a common part of any Korean meal. Unlike other cultures, in Korean culture, soup is served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal as an accompaniment to rice along with other banchan. Soups known as guk (국) are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Soups can be made in to more formal soups known as tang often served as the main dish of the meal. Jjigae are a thicker, heavier seasoned soup or stew. Pettid, 56. Korean soups can be split into four categories. The first category, clear soups or called malgeunguk (맑은국), are flavored with ganjang. Small amounts of long boiled meat may be added to the soup, or seafood both fresh and dried may be added, or vegetables may be the main component for the clear soup. The second category, known as tojangguk (토장국) are seasoned with doenjang. Common ingredients for tojang guk include seafood such as clams, dried anchovies, and shrimp. For a spicier soup, gochujang is added. Pettid, 56-57. The third category of soups is gomguk (곰국), and they are made from boiling beef bones or cartilage. Originating as a peasant dish, all parts of the cow are used including tail bones, leg-bones and rib-bones with or without meat attached, are boiled in water to extract fat, marrow, and potassium to create a rich soup. Some versions of this soup may also use the cow's head and intestines. The only seasoning generally used in the soup is salt. The final category of soup is naengguk (냉국), which are cold soups generally eaten during the summer months to cool down the diner. A light hand is usually used in the seasoning of these soups usually utilizing ganjang and sesame oil. Pettid, 57. Stews are referred to as jjigae and are often a shared side-dish. Jjigae is often both cooked and served in the glazed earthenware pot (ttukbaegi, 뚝배기) in which it is cooked. The most common version of this stew is doenjang jjigae which is a stew of soybean paste, with many variations, common ingredients include vegetables, saltwater or freshwater fish, and tofu. The stew often changes with the seasons and which ingredients are available. Other common varieties of jjigae contain kimchi (kimchi jjigae) or tofu (sundubu jjigae). Pettid, 57-58. Kimchi Kimchi Kimchi (김치): vegetables (usually Napa cabbage, daikon, or cucumber) commonly fermented in a brine of ginger, garlic, scallions, and chilli pepper. There are endless varieties, and it is served as a side dish or cooked into soups and rice dishes. Koreans traditionally make enough kimchi to last for the entire winter season, although with refrigerators and commercial jarred kimchi this practice has become less common. Main dishes Noodles Mul naengmyeon with mandu Bibim guksu (비빔국수) - spicy cold wheat flour noodles; extremely popular during the summer season. Naengmyeon (냉면, (North Korea: 랭면, Raengmyŏn), "cold noodles") - this originally winter dish consists of several varieties of thin, hand-made buckwheat noodles, and is served in a large bowl with a tangy iced broth, raw julienned vegetables and fruit, and often a boiled egg and cold cooked beef. This is also called Mul ("water") Naengmyeon, to distinguish from Bibim Naengmyeon, which has no broth and is mixed with a spicy, tangy sauce made with gochujang. Jajangmyeon (짜장면) - a staple Koreanized Chinese noodle dish that is extremely popular in Korea as fast, take-out food. It is made with a black bean sauce that is usually fried with diced pork or seafood and a variety of vegetables including zucchini and potatoes. It is popularly ordered and delivered, like Chinese take-out food in other parts of the world. Kalguksu (칼국수) - boiled flat noodles, usually in a broth made of anchovies and sliced zucchini. Ramyeon (라면) - a variations of instant ramen usually spicy and cooked with an egg. Subsidiary dishes Banchan (side dishes) Banchan (반찬) is a term collectively to refer to side dishes in Korean cuisine. Soups and stews are not considered as banchan. Bulgogi, a grilled Korean dish Gui (grilled dishes) are grilled dishes, which most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetarian ingredients. At traditional restaurants, meats are cooked at the center of the table over a charcoal grill, surrounded by various banchan and individual rice bowls. The cooked meat is then cut into small pieces and wrapped with fresh lettuce leaves, with rice, thinly sliced garlic, ssamjang (a mixture of gochujang and dwenjang), and other seasonings. The suffix gui is often omitted in the names of meat-based gui such as galbi, whose name is originally galbi gui. List of grilled dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine Jjim (찜) and seon (선) (steamed dishes) are generic terms referring to steamed or boiled dishes in Korean cuisine. However, the former is made with meat or seafood-based ingredients marinated in gochujang or ganjang while seon is made with vegetable stuffed with fillings. List of steamed dishes commonly found in Korean cuisineHoe 회 () (raw dishes): although the term originally referred to any kind of raw dish, it is generally used to refer to saengseonhoe (생선회, raw fish dishes). It is dipped in gochujang, or soy sauce with wasabi, and served with lettuce or perilla leaves (깻잎). list of raw dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine BindaeddeokJeon (or buchimgae) are savory pancakes made from various ingredients. Chopped kimchi or seafood is mixed into a wheat flour-based batter, and then pan fried. This dish tastes best when it is dipped in a mixture of soy sauce, vinegar, and red pepper powder. List of Jeon dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine NamulNamul may be used to refer to either saengchae (생채, literally "fresh vegetables") and sukchae (숙채, literally "heated vegetables"), although the term generally indicates the latter. Saengchae is mostly seasoned with vinegar, chili pepper powder, and salt to give a tangy and refreshing taste. On the other hand, sukchae (숙채) literally means "heated vegetables" and is blanched and seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil, chopped garlic, or sometimes chili pepper powder. List of Namul dishes commonly found in Korean cuisineKong Jang' Sweet and sticky soyabeans Street food Closeup of kimbap In South Korea, food may be purchased from street carts during the day, where customers may eat standing beside the cart or have their food wrapped up to take home. At night, many streets are filled with small tents that sell inexpensive foods, drinks, and alcoholic beverages. Seasonal foods include hotteok, and bungeoppang, which are enjoyed in the fall and winter. Anju (side dishes accompanying alcoholic beverages) Anju (안주) is a general term for a Korean side dish consumed with alcohol (often with soju). It is commonly served at bars, noraebang (karaoke) establishments, and restaurants that serve alcohol. These side dishes can also be ordered as appetizers or even a main dish. Some examples of anju include steamed squid with gochujang, assorted fruit, dubu kimchi (tofu with kimchi), peanuts, odeng/ohmuk, sora (소라 (a kind of shellfish popular in street food tents), and nakji (small octopus). Soondae is also a kind of anju, as is samgyeopsal, or dwejigalbi. Most Korean foods may be served as anju, depending on availability and the diner's taste. However, anju are considered different from the banchan served with a regular Korean meal. Jokbal (족발): pig's feet served with saeujeot (salted fermented shrimp sauce) Desserts Tteok Various hahngwa Patbingsu (팥빙수) - a very popular desert and snack in South Korea served with crushed ice base, sweetened azuki beans, chopped fruits, crushed tteok, and other ingredients. Tteok (떡) - rice cakes made from either pounded rice (메떡, metteok), pounded glutinous rice (찰떡, chaltteok), or glutinous rice left whole, without pounding (약식, yaksik). Is is served either cold (filled or covered with sweetened mung bean paste, azuki bean paste, raisins, a sweetened filling made with sesame seeds, mashed azuki beans, sweet pumpkin, beans, jujubes, pine nuts, and/or honey), usually served as dessert or snack. Songpyeon (송편) - chewy stuffed tteok (rice cake) served at Chuseok (Mid-Autumn Festival). Honey or another soft sweet material such as sweetened sesame or black beans are used as fillings. Pine needles can be used for imparting flavor during the steaming process. Yaksik (약식) - is a sweet rice cake made with glutinous rice, chestnuts, pine nuts, jujubes, and other ingredients. Some recipes may call for a small amount of sugar. Chapssaltteok (찹쌀떡) - a variety of tteok filled with sweet bean paste. Similar to Japanese mochi. Hangwa (한과) - general term referring to Korean traditional confectionery. The ingredients of hahngwa mainly consists of grain flour, honey, yeot, and sugar, or of fruit and edible root. Yugwa (유과) - made by frying and kneading dough like the literal meaning of the term. Maejakgwa (매작과) - ring-shaped confection made of wheat flour, vegetable oil, cinnamon, ginger juice, jocheong, and pine nuts. Suksilgwa (숙실과) - made by boiling fruits, ginger, or nuts in water and then reformed into the original fruit's shape, or other shapes. Gwapyeon (과편) - jelly-like confection made by boiling sour fruits, starch, and sugar. Dasik (다식), literally "eatery for tea." It is made by kneading rice flour, honey, and various types of flour from nuts, herbs, sesame, or jujubes. Jeonggwa (정과), or also spelled jeongwa is a variety of hangwa or Korean traditional confectionery made by boiling fruits, plant roots and seeds in honey, mulyeot (물엿, liquid candy) or sugar. It is similar to marmalade or jam/jelly. Yeot (엿) - a Korean traditional candy in liquid or solid form made from steamed normal rice, glutinous rice, glutinous kaoliang, corn, sweet potatoes or mixed grains. The steamed ingredients are lightly fermented and boiled in a large pot called sot (솥) for a long time. Notes References Korean language references Bibliography Baek Un-hwa (백운화). Inje Food Science Forum (인제식품과학 FORUM), "Part 3 Status quo and prospect about the industrialization of Korean traditional beverages (제 3 주제 전통 음청류의 산업화 현황과 전망)" taken from on 2008-06-15. pp. 75~95. Coultrip-Davis, Deborah, Young Sook Ramsay, and Deborah Davis (1998). Flavors of Korea: Delicious Vegetarian Cuisine. Tennessee: Book Publishing Company. ISBN 1570670536. ISBN 9781570670534. Cost, Bruce. Asian ingredients: a guide to the foodstuffs of China, Japan, Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam. New York: Harper Perennial, 2000. ISBN 0-06-093204-X Food in Korea, "Jontongjoo - Kinds of Traditional Liquors" taken from Fritscher, Lisa. "Korean Food Basics: What You Might Find On A Korean Food Menu" taken from on 2007-11-17. Herskovitz, Jon. Reuters, "North Korean beer: great taste, low proliferation risk", Mar 9, 2008, taken from Hopkins, Jerry. Extreme Cuisine: The Weird & Wonderful Foods that People Eat, Signapore: Tuttle Publishing, 2004. Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation. "Introduction of Eumcheongryu" taken from on 2008-05-22. Korea Tourism Organization. "Experience Royal Cuisine" taken from on 2008-06-13.Koryǒsa, The History of the Koryǒ Dynasty, Seoul, 1990. National Assembly of the Republic of Korea. "King Sejong's Humanism" taken from on 2008-06-10. Marks, Copeland. The Korean Kitchen: Classic Recipes from the Land of the Morning Calm. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1993. O'Brien, Betsy. Let's Eat Korean Food. Elizabeth, NJ:Hollym, 1997. ISBN 1-56591-071-0 Pettid, Michael J., Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2008. Sohn Gyeong-hee (손경희). Inje Food Science Forum (인제식품과학 FORUM), "Part 1 HIstorical overview of Korean traditional eumcheongryu (제 1 주제 한국 전통 음청류의 역사적 고찰)" taken from on 2008-06-16. The Academy of Korean Studies. "농사직설(農事直說), Nongsa jikseol" taken from on 2008-06-10. The Chosun Ilbo. "Hanjeongsik, a full-course Korean meal" taken from on 2008-06-11. The Korea Economic Daily, "Brew master.. the only beer in the world" (브루 마스터 .. 세계 유일의 맥주) taken from Yi Kyubo, Tongmyǒng-wang p'yǒn' (The lay of King Tongmyǒng) in Tongguk Yi Sangguk chip (The Collected Works of Minister Yi of the Eastern Country), Seoul, 1982. Yi Yang-Cha, and Armin E. Möller (1999). Koreanisch vegetarisch: Die kaum bekannte, fettarme, phantasievolle und küchenfreundliche Art asiatisch zu kochen (Korean Vegetarian: Almost Unknown, Low Fat, Creative and Kitchen-friendly Way of Asian Cooking). ISBN 3775004572. ISBN 9783775004572. Yi Tǒngmu, Sasojǒl (Elementary Etiquette for Scholar Families), quaoted in Sources of Korean Tradition, Volume Two: From the Twentieth Centuries, ed. Yǒongho Ch'oe, Peter H. Lee and W. Theodore de Bary. New York, 2000. Yu Jisang (유지상). "How about today? Pojangmacha'', outing at night" (오늘 어때? 포장마차 ‘밤마실’) taken from on 2008-06-13. See also Asian cuisine List of Korean dishes External links Official site of Korea National Tourism List of Korean Food Food in Korea at the Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation Eating the Korean way at the Cultural Profiles Project (Canada) List of articles about Korean cuisine at the Doosan Encyclopedia Categories of Korean cuisine at the Empas / EncyKorea Korean restaurant links US & Canada Korean Restaurant Directories US Korean Restaurant Guide Europe Korean Directory - Find Korea close to you! | Korean_cuisine |@lemmatized hanjeongsik:2 full:3 course:3 korean:94 meal:32 varied:1 array:2 banchan:11 side:17 dish:63 chosun:2 ilbo:2 cuisine:29 hanguk:1 yori:1 한국요리:1 韓國料理:1 hanshik:1 한식:1 韓食:1 national:5 know:10 today:7 evolve:2 century:16 social:1 political:1 change:4 root:6 trace:2 back:7 myth:7 legend:1 antiquity:5 originate:3 ancient:2 agricultural:6 nomadic:2 tradition:4 southern:3 manchuria:3 northern:3 peninsula:10 complex:2 interaction:1 natural:1 environment:1 different:6 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4,030 | Halogen | Group → 7 ↓ Period 2 3 4 5 6 7 Legend <small>Halogen <small>Gas <small>Liquid <small>Primordial element <small>From decay <small>Synthetic The halogens or halogen elements are a series of nonmetal elements from Group 17 IUPAC Style (formerly: VII, VIIA) of the periodic table, comprising fluorine, (F); chlorine, (Cl); bromine, (Br); iodine, (I); and astatine, (At). The undiscovered element 117, temporarily named ununseptium, may also be a halogen. The group of halogens is the only group which contains elements in all three familiar states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. Abundance Owing to their high reactivity, the halogens are found in the environment only in compounds or as ions. Halide ions and oxoanions such as iodate (IO3−) can be found in many minerals and in seawater. Halogenated organic compounds can also be found as natural products in living organisms. In their elemental forms, the halogens exist as diatomic molecules, but these only have a fleeting existence in nature and are much more common in the laboratory and in industry. At room temperature and pressure, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine and astatine are solids; Group 7A is therefore the only periodic table group exhibiting all three states of matter at room temperature. Etymology The term 'halogen' originates from 18th century scientific French nomenclature based on adaptations of Greek roots: hals (sea) or halas (salt), and gen- (to generate)—referring to elements which produce a salt in union with a metal. Properties Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 9 fluorine 2, 7 17 chlorine 2, 8, 7 35 bromine 2, 8, 18, 7 53 iodine 2, 8, 18, 18, 7 85 astatine 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7 117 ununseptium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 7 (?) The halogens show a number of trends when moving down the group—for instance, decreasing electronegativity and reactivity, and increasing melting and boiling point. Halogen Standard Atomic Weight (u) Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K) Electronegativity (Pauling) Fluorine 18.998 53.53 85.03 3.98 Chlorine 35.453 171.60 239.11 3.16 <tr> Bromine 79.904 265.80 332.00 2.96 Iodine 126.904 386.85 457.40 2.66 Astatine (210) 575 610 (?) 2.20 Diatomic halogen molecules halogen molecule structure model d(X−X) / pm(gas phase) d(X−X) / pm(solid phase) fluorine F2 143 149 chlorine Cl2 199 198 bromine Br2 228 227 iodine I2 266 272 Chemistry Reactivity Halogens are highly reactive, and as such can be harmful or lethal to biological organisms in sufficient quantities. This high reactivity is due to the atoms being one electron short of a full outer shell of eight electrons. They can gain this electron by reacting with atoms of other elements. Fluorine is one of the most reactive elements in existence, attacking otherwise inert materials such as glass, and forming compounds with the heavier noble gases. It is a corrosive and highly toxic gas. The reactivity of fluorine is such that if used or stored in laboratory glassware, it can react with glass in the presence of small amounts of water to form silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4). Thus fluorine must be handled with substances such as Teflon (which is itself made of fluorine), extremely dry glass, or metals such as copper or steel which form a protective layer of fluoride on their surface. The high reactivity of fluorine means that once it does react with something, it bonds with it so strongly that the resulting molecule is very inert and non-reactive to anything else. For example, Teflon is fluorine bonded with carbon. Both chlorine and bromine are used as disinfectants for drinking water, swimming pools, fresh wounds, spas, dishes, and surfaces. They kill bacteria and other potentially harmful microorganisms through a process known as sterilization. Their reactivity is also put to use in bleaching. Sodium hypochlorite, which is produced from chlorine, is the active ingredient of most fabric bleaches and chlorine-derived bleaches are used in the production of some paper products. Hydrogen halides The halogens all form binary compounds with hydrogen known as the hydrogen halides (HF, HCl, HBr, HI, and HAt), a series of particularly strong acids. When in aqueous solution, the hydrogen halides are known as hydrohalic acids. HAt, or "hydrastatic acid", should also qualify, but it is not typically included in discussions of hydrohalic acid due to astatine's extreme instability toward alpha decay. Interhalogen compounds The halogens react with each other to form interhalogen compounds. Diatomic interhalogen compounds such as BrF, ICl, and ClF bear resemblance to the pure halogens in some respects. The properties and behaviour of a diatomic interhalogen compound tend to be intermediate between those of its parent halogens. Some properties, however, are found in neither parent halogen. For example, Cl2 and I2 are soluble in CCl4, but ICl is not since it is a polar molecule due to the relatively large electronegativity difference between I and Cl. Organohalogen compounds Many synthetic organic compounds such as plastic polymers, and a few natural ones, contain halogen atoms; these are known as halogenated compounds or organic halides. Chlorine is by far the most abundant of the halogens, and the only one needed in relatively large amounts (as chloride ions) by humans. For example, chloride ions play a key role in brain function by mediating the action of the inhibitory transmitter GABA and are also used by the body to produce stomach acid. Iodine is needed in trace amounts for the production of thyroid hormones such as thyroxine. On the other hand, neither fluorine nor bromine are believed to be essential for humans, although small amounts of fluoride can make tooth enamel resistant to decay. Polyhalogenated compounds Polyhalogenated compounds are industrially created compounds substituted with multiple halogens. Many of them are very toxic and bioaccumulate in humans, and have a very wide application range. They include the much maligned PCB's, PBDE's, and PFC's as well as numerous other compounds. Drug discovery In drug discovery, the incorporation of halogen atoms into a lead drug candidate results in analogues that are usually more lipophilic and less water soluble. G. Thomas, Medicinal Chemistry an Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, West Sussex, UK, 2000. Consequently, halogen atoms are used to improve penetration through lipid membranes and tissues. Consequently, there is an tendency for some halogenated drugs to accumulate in adipose tissue. The chemical reactivity of halogen atoms depends on both their point of attachment to the lead and the nature of the halogen. Aromatic halogen groups are far less reactive than aliphatic halogen groups, which can exhibit considerable chemical reactivity. For aliphatic carbon-halogen bonds the C-F bond is the strongest and usually less chemically reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds. The other aliphatic-halogen bonds are weaker, their reactivity increasing down the periodic table. They are usually more chemically reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds. Consequently, the most common halogen substitutions are the less reactive aromatic fluorine and chlorine groups. Solubility in water Fluorine reacts vigorously with water to produce oxygen (O2) and hydrogen fluoride (HF): The Oxidising Ability of the Group 7 Elements 2 F2(g) + 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 HF(aq) Chlorine has minimal solubility of 0.7g Cl2 per kg of water at ambient temperature (21oC). Solubility of chlorine in water Dissolved chlorine reacts to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid, a solution that can be used as a disinfectant or bleach: Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq) Bromine has a solubility of 3.41 g per 100 g of water, Properties of bromine but it slowly reacts to form hydrogen bromide (HBr) and hypobromous acid (HBrO): Br2(g) + H2O(l) → HBr(aq) + HBrO(aq) Iodine, however, is minimally soluble in water (0.03 g/100 g water @ 20 °C) and does not react with it. Iodine MSDS However, iodine will form an aqueous solution in the presence of iodide ion, such as by addition of potassium iodide (KI), because the triiodide ion is formed. See also Pseudohalogen Halogen bond Halogen lamp References Further reading N. N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 1997. + Explanation of above periodic table slice: Halogens Atomic numbers in are gases Atomic numbers in are liquids Atomic numbers in are solids Solid borders indicate primordial elements (older than the Earth) Dashed borders indicate radioactive natural elements Dotted borders indicate radioactive synthetic elements No borders indicates undiscovered elements | Halogen |@lemmatized group:12 period:1 legend:1 small:8 halogen:32 gas:6 liquid:2 primordial:2 element:15 decay:3 synthetic:3 series:2 nonmetal:1 iupac:1 style:1 formerly:1 vii:1 viia:1 periodic:4 table:4 comprise:1 fluorine:14 f:2 chlorine:13 cl:2 bromine:9 br:1 iodine:9 astatine:5 undiscovered:2 temporarily:1 name:1 ununseptium:2 may:1 also:6 contain:2 three:2 familiar:1 state:2 matter:2 standard:2 temperature:4 pressure:2 abundance:1 owe:1 high:3 reactivity:10 find:4 environment:1 compound:15 ion:6 halide:4 oxoanions:1 iodate:1 many:3 mineral:1 seawater:1 halogenated:3 organic:3 natural:3 product:2 living:1 organism:2 elemental:1 form:10 exist:1 diatomic:4 molecule:5 fleeting:1 existence:2 nature:2 much:2 common:2 laboratory:2 industry:1 room:2 solid:3 therefore:1 exhibit:2 etymology:1 term:1 originates:1 century:1 scientific:1 french:1 nomenclature:1 base:1 adaptation:1 greek:1 root:1 hals:1 sea:1 halas:1 salt:2 gen:1 generate:1 refer:1 produce:4 union:1 metal:2 property:4 like:1 member:1 family:1 show:2 pattern:1 electron:5 configuration:1 especially:1 outermost:1 shell:3 result:3 trend:2 chemical:3 behavior:1 z:1 number:4 move:1 instance:1 decrease:1 electronegativity:3 increase:2 melting:1 boiling:2 point:4 atomic:4 weight:1 u:1 melt:1 k:2 pauling:1 tr:1 structure:1 model:1 x:4 pm:2 phase:2 chemistry:3 highly:2 reactive:7 harmful:2 lethal:1 biological:1 sufficient:1 quantity:1 due:3 atom:6 one:4 short:1 full:1 outer:1 eight:1 gain:1 react:7 attack:1 otherwise:1 inert:2 material:1 glass:3 heavy:1 noble:1 corrosive:1 toxic:2 use:7 store:1 glassware:1 presence:2 amount:4 water:10 silicon:1 tetrafluoride:1 thus:1 must:1 handle:1 substance:1 teflon:2 make:2 extremely:1 dry:1 copper:1 steel:1 protective:1 layer:1 fluoride:3 surface:2 mean:1 something:1 bond:8 strongly:1 non:1 anything:1 else:1 example:3 carbon:2 disinfectant:2 drinking:1 swimming:1 pool:1 fresh:1 wound:1 spa:1 dish:1 kill:1 bacteria:1 potentially:1 microorganism:1 process:1 know:4 sterilization:1 put:1 bleaching:1 sodium:1 hypochlorite:1 active:1 ingredient:1 fabric:1 bleach:3 derive:1 production:2 paper:1 hydrogen:6 halides:1 binary:1 hf:3 hcl:3 hbr:3 hi:1 hat:2 particularly:1 strong:2 acid:8 aqueous:2 solution:3 hydrohalic:2 hydrastatic:1 qualify:1 typically:1 include:2 discussion:1 extreme:1 instability:1 toward:1 alpha:1 interhalogen:4 brf:1 icl:2 clf:1 bear:1 resemblance:1 pure:1 halogens:1 respect:1 behaviour:1 tend:1 intermediate:1 parent:2 however:3 neither:2 soluble:3 since:1 polar:1 relatively:2 large:2 difference:1 organohalogen:1 plastic:1 polymer:1 far:3 abundant:1 need:2 chloride:2 human:3 play:1 key:1 role:1 brain:1 function:1 mediate:1 action:1 inhibitory:1 transmitter:1 gaba:1 body:1 stomach:1 trace:1 thyroid:1 hormone:1 thyroxine:1 hand:1 believe:1 essential:1 although:1 tooth:1 enamel:1 resistant:1 polyhalogenated:2 industrially:1 create:1 substitute:1 multiple:1 bioaccumulate:1 wide:1 application:1 range:1 malign:1 pcb:1 pbde:1 pfc:1 well:1 numerous:1 drug:4 discovery:2 incorporation:1 lead:2 candidate:1 analogue:1 usually:3 lipophilic:1 less:4 g:9 thomas:1 medicinal:1 introduction:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 west:1 sussex:1 uk:2 consequently:3 improve:1 penetration:1 lipid:1 membrane:1 tissue:2 tendency:1 accumulate:1 adipose:1 depend:1 attachment:1 aromatic:2 aliphatic:5 considerable:1 c:4 chemically:2 h:2 weak:1 substitution:1 solubility:4 vigorously:1 oxygen:1 oxidise:1 ability:1 l:3 aq:5 minimal:1 per:2 kg:1 ambient:1 dissolve:1 reacts:1 hydrochloric:1 hypochlorous:1 hclo:1 slowly:1 bromide:1 hypobromous:1 hbro:2 minimally:1 msds:1 iodide:2 addition:1 potassium:1 ki:1 triiodide:1 see:1 pseudohalogen:1 lamp:1 reference:1 read:1 n:2 greenwood:1 earnshaw:1 ed:1 butterworth:1 heinemann:1 oxford:1 explanation:1 slice:1 liquids:1 solids:1 border:4 indicate:4 old:1 earth:1 dash:1 radioactive:2 dot:1 |@bigram periodic_table:4 iodine_astatine:4 organic_compound:2 diatomic_molecule:1 fluorine_chlorine:5 outermost_shell:1 chlorine_bromine:3 bromine_iodine:3 melting_boiling:1 boiling_point:2 electronegativity_pauling:1 anything_else:1 swimming_pool:1 potentially_harmful:1 sodium_hypochlorite:1 hi_hat:1 aqueous_solution:2 alpha_decay:1 interhalogen_compound:4 chloride_ion:2 thyroid_hormone:1 tooth_enamel:1 wiley_son:1 adipose_tissue:1 chemically_reactive:2 react_vigorously:1 hydrogen_fluoride:1 ambient_temperature:1 hydrochloric_acid:1 acid_hcl:1 hypochlorous_acid:1 potassium_iodide:1 iodide_ki:1 halogen_lamp:1 butterworth_heinemann:1 |
4,031 | Comic_book | Action Comics #1 (June 1938), the introduction of Superman. Cover art by Joe Shuster. A comic book (often shortened to simply comic and sometimes called a funny book, comic paper or comic magazine) is a magazine made up of narrative artwork, virtually always accompanied by dialog (usually in word balloons, emblematic of the comic book artform) and often including brief descriptive prose. The first comic book appeared in the United States in 1934, reprinting the earlier newspaper comic strips, which established many of the story telling devices used in comics today. The term "comic book" arose because the first comic books reprinted humor comic strips, but despite their name, comic books are not usually humorous; most modern comic books tell stories in a variety of genres. This is seen clearly in the Japanese and European comic book markets, whereas in the United States, the market is dominated by the super hero genre, even though other genres are present. American comics Rulah, Jungle Goddess (1949), the adventures of a heroic woman in Africa, intended for young adults Since the introduction of the comic book format in 1934 with the publication of Famous Funnies, the United States has been the leading producer, with only the British comic and Japanese manga as close competitors in terms of quantity of titles. The majority of all comic books in the U.S. are marketed to young adult readers, though they also produce titles for young children as well as adult audiences. Cultural historians divide the career of the comic book in the U.S. into several ages or historical eras: the Golden Age, the Silver Age, the Bronze Age, and the Modern Age. The exact boundaries of these eras, the terms for which originated in the fandom press, is a debatable point among comic book historians. Adventures into Darkness, horror stories The Golden Age is generally thought as lasting from the introduction of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's Superman in 1938 until the late 1940s or early 1950s. During this time, comic books enjoyed considerable popularity; the archetype of the superhero was invented and defined, and many of the most popular superheroes were created. While comics as an art form could theoretically extend as far back in history as sequential cave paintings, comic books are dependent on printing, and the starting point for them in book form is generally considered to be the tabloid-sized The Funnies begun in 1929, or the smaller-sized Funnies on Parade begun in 1933. Both of these were simply reprints of newspaper strips. The Silver Age of Comic Books is generally considered to date from the first successful revival of the dormant superhero form — the debut of Robert Kanigher and Carmine Infantino's Flash in Showcase #4 (September-October 1956) — and lasts through the early 1970s, during which time Marvel Comics revolutionized the medium with such naturalistic superheroes as Stan Lee and Jack Kirby's Fantastic Four and Stan Lee and Steve Ditko's Spider-Man. There is less agreement on the beginnings of the Bronze and Modern ages. Some suggest that the Bronze Age is still taking place. Starting points that have been suggested for the Bronze Age of comics are Roy Thomas and Barry Windsor-Smith's Conan #1 (October 1970), Denny O'Neil and Neal Adams' Green Lantern/Green Arrow #76 (April 1970) or Stan Lee and Gil Kane's Amazing Spider-Man #96 (May 1971) (the non-Comics Code issue). The start of the Modern Age (occasionally referred to as the Iron Age) has even more potential starting points, but is generally agreed to be the publication of Frank Miller's Batman: The Dark Knight Returns graphic novel and Alan Moore's Watchmen by DC Comics in 1986, as well as the publication of DC's Crisis on Infinite Earths, with Marv Wolfman as writer and George Pérez on the pencils. Comics published after World War II in 1945 are sometimes referred to as being from the Atomic Age (referring to the dropping of the atomic bomb), while titles published after November 1961 are sometimes referred to as being from the Marvel Age (referring to the advent of Marvel Comics). However, these eras are referred to far less frequently than the aforementioned designations. Notable events in the history of the American comic book include the psychiatrist Fredric Wertham's criticisms of the medium in his book Seduction of the Innocent, which prompted the Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency to investigate comic books. In response to this attention from both the government and the media, the US comic book industry created the Comics Code Authority in 1954 and drafted the Comics Code. Underground comics In the late 1960s and early 1970s, there was a surge of creativity evidenced in what came to be called underground comics. These comics were published and distributed independently of the established comics industry, and most titles reflected the youth counter-culture and drug culture of the time. Many were notable for their uninhibited, often irreverent style; the frankness of their depictions of nudity, sex, profanity, and politics had not been seen in comics outside of their precursors, the pornographic and even more obscure "Tijuana bibles." Underground comics were almost never sold at news stands, but rather in such youth-oriented outlets as head shops and record stores, as well as by mail order. The underground comics movement is often considered to have started with Zap Comix #1 (1968) by cartoonist Robert Crumb, a former greeting-card artist from Cleveland who had moved to San Francisco. Crumb later created the characters Fritz the Cat and Mr. Natural, and published Gilbert Shelton's The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers. Alternative comics The rise of comic book speciality stores in the late 1970s created a dedicated market for "independent" or "alternative comics" in the United States. Two of the first were the anthology series Star Reach, published by comic book writer Mike Friedrich from 1974 to 1979, and Harvey Pekar's American Splendor, which continued sporadic publication into the 21st century and was adapted into a film in 2005. Some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics, though their content was generally less explicit, and others resembled the output of mainstream publishers in format and genre but were published by smaller artist-owned companies or by single artists. A few (notably RAW) were experimental attempts to bring comics closer to the status of fine art. During the 1970s the "small press" culture grew and diversified. By the 1980s, several such independent publishers as Pacific, Eclipse, First, Comico and Fantagraphics were releasing a wide range of styles and formats from color superhero, detective and science fiction comic books to black-and-white magazine-format stories of Latin American magical realism. A number of small publishers in the 1990s changed the format and distribution of their comics to more closely resemble non-comics publishing. The "minicomics" form, an extremely informal version of self-publishing, arose in the 1980s and became increasingly popular among artists in the 1990s, despite reaching an even more limited audience than the small press. Small publishers regularly releasing titles today include Avatar Comics, Hyperwerks, Raytoons, and Terminal Press, buoyed by such advances in printing technology as digital print on demand. Graphic novels The term "graphic novel" was first coined by Richard Kyle in 1964, mainly as an attempt to distinguish the newly translated works from Europe which were then being published from what Kyle perceived as the more juvenile subject matter that was so common in the United States. The term was popularized when Will Eisner used it on the cover of the paperback edition of his work A Contract with God, and Other Tenement Stories in 1978. This was a more thematically mature work than many had come to expect from the comics medium, and the critical and commercial success of A Contract with God helped to bring the term in common usage. Warren Ellis, in his Come in Alone columns at ComicbookResources.com, suggested that the term "graphic novel" should include collected editions of serialized storylines. To differentiate these from original comic book publications, he proposed the term "original graphic novel." These terms are still used as first suggested, although "original graphic novel" is not a popular term, particularly because so few are produced. Collected editions are more popularly known by the publishing industry term "trade paperback." Rarest American comic books The rarest comic books in existence include copies of the unreleased Motion Picture Funnies Weekly #1 from 1939. Eight copies, plus one without a cover, were discovered in the estate of the deceased publisher in 1974. Before Fawcett Comics introduced Captain Marvel in Whiz Comics #2, there was an earlier ashcan edition featuring virtually the same story, with the notable exception that "Captain Marvel" was named "Captain Thunder." This issue was never distributed. Captain Thunder! (fan site) In June 1978, DC Comics cancelled several of its titles. For copyright purposes, the unpublished original art for these titles was photocopied, bound, and published as Cancelled Comics Cavalcade #1-2. Only 35 copies were made. SilverBulletComics.com: It's BobRo the Answer Man (column by Bob Rozakis): "Cancelled Comics Cavalcade — Part 1 Misprints, promotional comic-dealer incentive printings, and similar issues with extremely low distribution are usually the most scarce. The rarest modern comic books include the original press run of The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen #5, ordered by DC executive Paul Levitz to be recalled and pulped over the appearance of a vintage Victorian era advertisement for "Marvel Douche," which the publisher considered offensive Comic Book Resources (May, 23, 2005): Living in the Gutters (column by Rich Johnston): sidebar "Alan's Previous Problems With DC" in column "Moore Slams V for Vendetta Movie, Pulls LoEG from DC Comics" ;only 100-200 copies are thought to exist, many of which have been CGC graded. (See Recalled comics for more pulped, recalled and erroneous comics). Comic Book Cover Trick Some publishers have been known to take an image out of context, and place it on the cover in an attempt to mislead potential buyers into believing that the hero is performing an evil deed. The unwitting purchaser then realizes upon reading the entire story, the dishonest scene depicted is fully explained inside the comic and reveals that the hero was, in fact, committing yet another heroic activity. Geoff of Somacow gives an example of this during episode #333. He states that if a cover showed Batman poking a puppy with a stick on the cover, fans would be compelled to purchase the comic in order to discover what possible events could have led to such a nefarious act. Once the reader reaches the point in the story which is shown on the cover, they determine that it is actually The_Joker inside a puppy suit and Batman is simply trying to defeat him as usual. The practice has been coined by the internet radio personality as "Batman Poking A Puppy With A Stick" Syndrome. European comics France and Belgium have a long tradition in comics and comic books, where they are called BDs (an abbreviation of Bande Dessinée) in French and strips in Dutch. Belgian comic books originally written in Dutch are influenced by the Francophone "Franco-Belgian" comics, but have their own distinct style. The name la bande dessinée derives from the original description of the art form as drawn strips (the phrase is literally translated as the drawn strip), analogous to the sequence of images in a film strip. As in its English equivalent, the word "bande" can be applied to both film and comics. It is not insignificant that the French term contains no indication of subject matter, unlike the American terms "comics" and "funnies", which imply an art form not to be taken seriously. The distinction of comics as le neuvième art (literally, "the ninth art") is prevalent in French scholarship on the form, as is the concept of comics criticism and scholarship itself. Relative to the respective size of their populations, the innumerable authors in France and Belgium publish a high volume of comic books. In North America, the more serious Franco-Belgian comics are often seen as equivalent to graphic novels, but whether they are long or short, bound or in magazine format, in Europe there is no need for a more sophisticated term, as the art's name does not itself imply something frivolous. In France, authors control the publication of most comics. The author works within a self-appointed time-frame, and it is common for readers to wait six months or as long as two years between installments. Most books are first published as a hard cover book, typically with 48, 56 or 64 pages. British comics Originally the same size as a usual comic book in the United States (although lacking the glossy cover) the British comic has adopted a magazine size, with The Beano and The Dandy the last to adopt this size in the 1980s. Although generally referred to as a comic, it can also be referred to as a comic magazine, and has also been known historically as a comic paper. Some comics, such as Judge Dredd and other 2000 AD titles, have been published in a tabloid form. Although Ally Sloper's Half Holiday (1884), the first comic published in Britain, aimed at an adult market, publishers quickly targeted a younger market, which has led to most publications being for children and created an association in the public's mind of comics as somewhat juvenile. Popular titles within the UK have included The Beano, The Dandy, The Eagle, 2000 AD and Viz. Underground comics and "small press" titles have also been published within the United Kingdom, notably Oz and Escape Magazine. The content of Action, another title aimed at children and launched in the mid 1970s, became the subject of discussion in the House of Commons. Although on a smaller scale than similar investigations in the United States, such concerns led to a moderation of content published within British comics. Such moderation was never formalized to the extent of a creation of any code, and nor was it particularly lasting. The UK has also established a healthy market in the reprinting and repackaging of material, notably material originated within the United States. The lack of reliable supplies of American comic books led to a variety of black-and-white reprints, including Marvel's monster comics of the 1950s, Fawcett's Captain Marvel, and other characters such as Sheena, Mandrake the Magician, and the Phantom. Several reprint companies were involved in repackaging American material for the British market, notably the importer and distributor Thorpe & Porter. Marvel Comics established a UK office in 1972. DC Comics and Dark Horse Comics also opened offices in the 1990s. The repackaging of European material has occurred less frequently, although the Tintin and Asterix serials have been successfully translated and repackaged in soft cover books. At Christmas time, publishers repackage and commission material for comic annuals, printed and bound as hardcover A4-size books: Rupert supplies a famous example of the British comic annual. DC Thomson also repackage The Broons and Oor Wullie strips in softcover A4-size books for the holiday season. Italian comics In Italy, comics (known in Italian as fumetti) made their debut as humorous strips at the end of the nineteenth century, and later evolved into adventure stories inspired by those coming from the US. After World War II, however, artists like Hugo Pratt and Guido Crepax exposed Italian comics to an international audience. "Author" comics contain often strong erotic contents. Best sellers remain popular comic books Diabolik or the Bonelli line, namely Tex Willer or Dylan Dog. Mainstream comics are usually published on a monthly basis, in a black-and-white digest size format, with approximately 100 to 132 pages. Collections of classic material for the most famous characters, usually with more than 200 pages, are also common. Author comics are published in the French BD format, with an example being Pratt's Corto Maltese. Italian cartoonists show the influence of comics from other countries, including France, Belgium, Spain, and Argentina. Italy is also famous for being one of the foremost producers of Walt Disney comic stories outside the US. Donald Duck's superhero alter ego, Paperinik, known in English as Superduck, was created in Italy. Other European comics Although Switzerland has made relatively few contributions to European comics, many scholars point to a Francophone Swiss, Rodolphe Töpffer, as the true father of comics. However, this assertion is still controversial, with critics noting that Töpffer's work is not necessarily connected to the creation of the artform as it is now known in the region. Japanese comics The first comic books in Japan appeared during the 18th century in the form of woodblock- printed booklets containing short stories drawn from folk tales, legends, and historical accounts, told in a simple visual-verbal idiom. Known as , , and , these were written primarily for less literate readers. However, with the publication in 1775 of Koikawa Harumachi's comic book , an adult form of comic book originated, which required greater literacy and cultural sophistication. This was known as the . Published in thousands (possibly tens of thousands) of copies, the kibyōshi may have been the earliest fully realized comic book for adults in world literary history. Approximately 2000 titles remain extant. Modern comic books in Japan developed from a mixture of these earlier comic books and woodblock prints with Western styles of drawing. They took their form shortly after World War II. They are usually published in black and white, except for the covers, which are usually printed in four colors, although occasionally, the first few pages may also be printed in full color. The term manga means "random (or whimsical) pictures", and first came into common usage in the late eighteenth century with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook (1798) and Aikawa Minwa's Comic Sketches of a Hundred Women (1798). Development of this form occurred as a result of Japan's attempts to modernize itself, a desire awakened by trade with the United States. Western artists were brought over to teach their students such concepts as line, form, and color, things which had not been regarded as conceptually important in ukiyo-e, as the idea behind the picture was of paramount importance. Manga at this time was referred to as Ponchi-e (Punch-picture) and, like its British counterpart Punch magazine, mainly depicted humour and political satire in short one- or four-picture format. Dr. Osamu Tezuka (1928-1989), widely acknowledged as the father of narrative manga, further developed this form. Tezuka was inspired to become a comic artist upon seeing an animation war propaganda film, titled . Tezuka introduced episodic storytelling and character development in comic format, in which each story is part of larger story arc. The only text in Tezuka's comics was the characters' dialogue and this further lent his comics a cinematic quality. Inspired by the work of Walt Disney, Tezuka also adopted a style of drawing facial features in which a character's eyes, nose, and mouth are drawn in an extremely exaggerated manner. This style created immediately recognizable expressions using very few lines, and the simplicity of this style allowed Tezuka to be prolific. Tezuka’s work generated new interest in the ukiyo-e tradition, in which the image is a representation of an idea, rather than a depiction of reality. Though a close equivalent to the American comic book, manga has historically held a more important place in Japanese culture than comics have in American culture. Japanese society shows a wide respect for manga: both as an art form and as a form of popular literature. Many manga become TV shows or shorter movies. As with its American counterpart, some manga has been criticized for its sexuality and violence, although in the absence of official or even industry restrictions on content, artists have been free to create manga for every age group and for every topic. Manga magazines — also known as "anthologies", or colloquially, "phone books" — often run several series concurrently, with approximately 20 to 40 pages allocated to each series per issue. These magazines are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and range from 200 to more than 850 pages each. Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and a variety of four-panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series may continue for many years if they are successful, with stories often collected and reprinted in book-sized volumes called , the equivalent of the American trade paperbacks. These volumes use higher-quality paper and are useful to readers who want to be brought up to date with a series, or to readers who find the cost of the weekly or monthly publications to be prohibitive. Deluxe versions are printed, as commemorative or collectible editions. Conversely, old manga titles are also reprinted using lower-quality paper and sold for 120 ¥ (approximately $1 USD) each. Genres of manga Manga titles are primarily classified by the demographics of their intended audience. The most popular forms of manga target the markets of young boys (shōnen manga) and young girls (shōjo manga). Other categories include adult comics (seinen manga) and "businessman" comics. All of these receive their own shelves in most Japanese bookstores. Comics with adult content (ero manga) are usually sold in doujinshi stores rather than normal bookstores. Doujinshi , fan-made Japanese comics operate in a far larger market in Japan than the American "underground comics" market; the largest doujinshi fair, Comic Market, attracts 500,000 visitors twice a year. See also Adult comic Alternative comics Cartoon Comics vocabulary Underground comics Webcomic Footnotes References Kern, Adam L., Manga from the Floating World: Comic book Culture and the Kibyôshi of Edo Japan (Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Asia Center, 2006) ISBN 0-674-02266-1. Inge, Thomas M., "Comics as culture". Journal of Popular Culture 12:631, 1979 External links Don Markstein's Toonopedia The Comic Book Database Grand Comic-Book Database The Lambiek Comiclopedia Comic book Reference Bibliographic Datafile Comic Book Issue Reference The Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency Cartoon Research Library The University of the Arts London Archives and Special Collections Centre How Comic Books Became Part of the Literary Establishment by Tim Martin, Telegraph, April 2 2009 SomaCow Media Network's flagship show | Comic_book |@lemmatized action:2 comic:147 june:2 introduction:3 superman:2 cover:12 art:11 joe:2 shuster:2 book:56 often:8 shorten:1 simply:3 sometimes:3 call:4 funny:5 paper:4 magazine:11 make:5 narrative:2 artwork:1 virtually:2 always:1 accompany:1 dialog:1 usually:9 word:2 balloon:1 emblematic:1 artform:2 include:10 brief:1 descriptive:1 prose:1 first:12 appear:2 united:10 state:10 reprint:7 early:7 newspaper:2 strip:10 establish:4 many:8 story:13 tell:3 device:1 use:6 today:2 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4,032 | Coercion | Coercion ( or ) is the practice of compelling a person or manipulating them to behave in an involuntary way (whether through action or inaction) by use of threats, intimidation, trickery, or some other form of pressure or force. These are used as leverage, to force the victim to act in the desired way. Coercion may involve the actual infliction of physical pain/injury or psychological harm in order to enhance the credibility of a threat. The threat of further harm may then lead to the cooperation or obedience of the person being coerced. Torture is one of the most extreme examples of coercion i.e. severe pain is inflicted on victims until they give interrogators the desired information. Overview Any person’s set of feasible choices is obtained from the combination of two elements: the initial endowment (the perceived initial state of the world, which the chosen actions are going to affect) and the transformation rules (which state how any chosen action will change the initial endowment, according to the person’s perception). This follows that coercion could in principle take place by purposely manipulating either the transformation rules or the initial endowment (or bothis maximised. Yet, the purpose of coercion is to substitute one’s aims to those of the victim. For this reason, many social philosophers have considered coercion as the polar opposite to freedom. Various forms of coercion are distinguished: first on the basis of the kind of injury threatened, second according to its aims and scope, and finally according to its effects, from which its legal, social, and ethical implications mostly depend. Means Looking at the content of the threat, one can distinguish between physical, psychological and economic coercion. Physical coercion Physical coercion is the most commonly considered form of coercion, where the content of the conditional threat is the use of force against a victim, their dear ones or property. An often used example is "putting a gun to someone's head" (at gunpoint) or putting a "knife under the throat" (at knifepoint or cut-throat) to compel action. Armed forces in many countries use firing squads to maintain discipline and intimidate the masses, or opposition, into submission or silent compliance. However, there also are nonphysical forms of coercion, where the threatened injury does not immediately imply the use of force. Psychological coercion In psychological coercion, the threatened injury regards the victim’s relationships with other people. The most obvious example is blackmail, where the threat consists of the dissemination of damaging information. However, many other types are possible e.g. so-called "emotional blackmail", which typically involves threats of rejection from or disapproval by a peer-group, or creating feelings of guilt/obligation via a display of anger or hurt by someone whom the victim loves or respects. Another example is coercive persuasion. Government agencies may use highly intimidating methods during investigations e.g. the threat of harsh legal penalties. The usual incentive to cooperate is some form of plea bargain i.e. an offer to drop or reduce criminal charges against a suspect in return for full co-operation. Psychological coercion – along with the other varieties - was extensively and systematically used by the government of the People’s Republic of China during the “Thought Reform” campaign of 1951-1952. The process – carried out partly at “revolutionary universities” and partly within prisons – was investigated and reported upon by Robert Jay Lifton, then Research Professor of Psychiatry at Yale University: see Lifton (1961). The techniques used by the Chinese authorities included a technique derived from standard group psychotherapy, which was aimed at forcing the victims (who were generally intellectuals) to produce detailed and sincere ideological “confessions”. For instance, a professor of formal logic called Chin Yueh-lin – who was then regarded as China’s leading authority on his subject – was induced to write: “The new philosophy [of Marxism-Leninism], being scientific, is the supreme truth”. [Lifton (1961) p. 545]. Usage Some people speak of cultural coercion when the fear of falling out with the group may force people into wearing a certain style of dress, publicly reciting a creed or a pledge of allegiance which they find ethically reprehensible or starting to smoke when they would have preferred not to etc. Within the definitional framework adopted here, all such things amount to (psychological) coercion if and only if the fear of falling out with the group is the result of purposeful threats by someone. See Peer pressure, Sociology of religion, Pledge of Allegiance. Some people include deception in their definition of (psychological) coercion. Yet deception does not generally involve any threat at all, as it works by creating a mere false perception by the victim of his or her given transformation rules. Although its effects may sometimes be very similar to those of a conditional threat, it may hence be useful to treat deception as separate phenomenon. Economic coercion According to the marxist school of thought, economic coercion arouses when a controller of a vital resource uses his advantage to compel a person to do something he would not do if this resource were not monopolized. If someone is the owner of the only water supply, then the owner can compel the thirsty person to pay an exhorbitant price for that water or have him perform enormous labor. This is also referred to as a form of exploitation. It has been argued that as the global economy has expanded greatly in scope, economic coercion has replaced other forms of coercion such as coercion involving physical or military force. http://books.google.com/books?id=N74C0f-h0wEC Economic coercion requires market power. In the above example, the coercer's refusal to supply the coercee would be meaningless if the coercee had access to other independent sources of supply. But the coercer can turn his conditional refusal into a vital threat only because of his coercive monopoly over an essential resource, with no other substitutes. In a competitive marketplace, the possibility of economic coercion is much reduced as suppliers are compelled by competition to accept less money or labor for their goods. The potential for economic coercion is one objection to using markets for organ transplants. SpringerLink - Journal Article An analogous result can also be obtained through pure monopsony power (where there is only one buyer as opposed to one seller in a monopoly). To reverse the above example, suppose that there are numerous independent suppliers of water, who sell it at a competition market price. If someone can only sell potatoes (to get money to buy water), and there is only one potato buyer he can sell to, then the buyer's simple conditional refusal to buy his potatoes would be a death threat, just as before. The idea that monopoly control may facilitate coercion has been underlined by some business ethicists and economists. It shows that in some cases the social effects of market power goes beyond those on economic distribution and efficiency (economics). The term economic coercion is also used within economics to refer to sanctions imposed by a powerful government or group of countries against another. CJO - Abstract - The Hidden Hand of Economic Coercion . Aims The aims of coercion can vary widely from totally "selfish" to totally altruistic ones: from attempts to gain personal wealth and power at the expense of others to efforts aimed at saving other people’s souls. Predatory coercion The purely selfish kinds of coercion are a form of predatory behaviour by the coercing party, whose aim is to narrow down the scope of other people’s actions so as to make them instrumental to its own personal interests. According to many social philosophers, this sort of predatory behaviour would become the prevailing one under Pedagogic and thought coercion At the other extreme of the spectrum one finds attempts to use coercion altruistically, as a pedagogical device to improve – in some supposedly objective sense – the way other people think, with particular regard to their basic attitudes and values. Pedagogic coercion may be applied within a strictly educational context, and it is then mostly directed towards children. In this article, however, attention will focus on thought coercion, i.e. the attempt to use coercion to affect the basic values of grown-up people in general. In all forms of thought coercion the immediate objective is to force other people to act as if their basic choice rules were identical to those of the coercing party. However, this mere conformity of “outward” behaviour is but a first step. The true and final aim of thought coercion is to induce a change in the victim’s objective function itself, i.e. the basic set of values and rules by which the victim determines his or her own choice among the alternatives of any feasible set. Thought coercion is thus generally meant to be only temporary. Once the desired change in values has been brought about, the victim is expected to conform spontaneously, without any need for further coercion. Whether and under what conditions this final aim can in fact be stably achieved is a difficult question, and it will be considered in the section devoted to the effects of coercion. Here it is necessary to point out that, whatever its effectiveness, thought coercion has in fact been used very extensively throughout history. Religious coercion The most ancient, extensive and durable kind of thought coercion has concerned religion. Religious coercion is a subset of predatory coercion, in which the selfish entity is a supernatural one. The threat typically manifests as a promise by the entity to respond to incorrect behavior with damnation--eternal discomfort. This coercion has taken the form of religious discrimination and persecution, including forced conversions, and on many occasions it has led to religious wars. Ideological coercion Ideological coercion is the use of thought coercion in the attempt to modify people’s social and political philosophy. This is of course quite different from plain propaganda, or even the simple persecution of political opponents, because its objective is to force individual ideological conversions. Unlike religious coercion, it is a quite recent phenomenon, confined to some of the totalitarian regimes of the twentieth century. The most notable single example of ideological coercion was the already mentioned Chinese “Thought Reform” campaign of 1951-52, which signalled itself for both thoroughness and number of people involved. Yet, it must be noticed that by 1966 the Chinese authorities found it necessary to follow that up with a new – albeit slightly milder – campaign, as part of the Maoist “Cultural Revolution” of 1966-1968. Starting from the Soviet purges of the Thirties, similar “brainwashing” techniques were intermittently and less systematically used by most Communist regimes of the twentieth century. By contrast, the Fascist and Nazi regimes of Italy and Germany tended to confine their coercive activities to purely political aims, without any serious attempt to force the ideological conversion of their opponents. The use of (physical) ideological coercion was however theorised by some Fascist philosophers, like Giovanni Gentile and Jared Harfield. Disciplinary coercion Somewhere in the middle between predatory and pedagogic coercion one finds the forms of coercion that are used as the main coordination tools of command systems. These are organisations that use coercion to enforce on their members patterns of division of labour aimed at reaching the organisation’s goals, which for a variety of reasons may not always be consistent with each member’s personal aims. The most typical example of a command system is a military organisation, but any large production team may easily fall into this category. Through the punishment system of disciplinary coercion, each individual member is typically forced into altruistic behaviour in the interest of the whole group. This is why this kind of coercion is not predatory, and – unlike thought coercion – may often be accepted in advance by the members of the group. Scope The scope of coercion has to do with who uses a conditional threat against whom. It is closely linked with some of the other aspects already surveyed above, and may be of paramount importance in determining coercion’s effects and implications. Specific coercion Specific or personal coercion is the most commonly considered kind. It takes place when the conditional threat is decided upon by one particular individual or small group, and/or directed against some other individual or small group. All forms of predatory and thought coercion fall into this category. Unspecific coercion Under unspecific or impersonal coercion the conditional threats come from well-known and socially accepted general rules and – rather than any individual or sub-group – and are directed against anybody in the stated conditions, according to clearly stated principles of due procnnness. In practice, the narrowing down of individual choice may be here principally aimed at reducing the incidence of specific coercion, rather than forcing on everybody some special sub-set of positive goals. More generally, unspecific coercion may be the form taken by disciplinary coercion, and this appears to be in fact the case within the most effective command systems of the modern world. Unspecific coercion is thus the same thing as the rule of law in its widest sense. This must not however be confused with the monopoly of coercion by the State. First, State coercion may very easily be arbitrary – indeed technically very specific, according to the above definition. Second, there are well-documented historical examples of (small) societies that have practiced unspecific coercion without the help of State institutions – like Iceland in the early Middle Ages. The identification between State and law is but a special normative principle introduced by (public) Roman law, which according to some, like Maitland, was for this very reason to be treated as the quintessential “law of tyranny”. somehow inspired by the “general will” should be entitled to enforce it through revolutionary coercion on the will of all. Later on, during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, this French revolutionary principle – though not of course its specific way to identify the “general will” – percolated into first Socialist and then Fascist political thinking. Ethical effects: coercion and freedom To most people, the ethical implications of individual predatory coercion are straightforward. In recent times, some have attempted to extend a similar ethical judgement to non-predatory forms of coercion by individuals. Thus, for instance, the Taking Children Seriously movement has criticised pedagogic coercion by adults, including parents, on children, holding that it is possible and desirable to act with a child in such a way that all activities are consensual. The ethical standing of wider forms of supposedly “altruistic” specific coercion – like political and thought coercion – is however much more controversial, along lines relating to the assumed relationship between coercion and freedom, which is often regarded as an ethical value in itself. Coercion as the negation of freedom The Whig-liberal tradition has led to the well-known notion of (negative) freedom as lack of specific coercion. According to this view, any form of specific coercion is then unethical in itself as an injury to freedom, quite apart from its damaging effects on social progress. Indeed, the ethical value of (negative) freedom is grounded on the idea that conscience cannot be coerced, and is thus the ultimate standard of morality. It hence follows that – from an ethical point of view – coercion cannot even be regarded as a lesser evil: since it cannot produce conscientious behaviour, it can never bring about the fulfilment of any ethical value. Coercion as a source of freedom However, the basing of all ethical values on conscience has also produced a diametrically opposed view. Developing the Socratic idea that moral evil is a result of ignorance, the Stoic philosophers had argued that one’s “true” conscience – and hence virtue – could only be attained by freeing oneself from irrationality and passions, through the stern self-control that is typical of wise men. This principle was then fitted into the Christian framework of original sin and the need for “outside” redemption, to produce the idea that on many occasions external specific coercion could and should take the place of self-control in setting ordinary people free from their sinful tendencies. Almost paradoxically, personal spiritual freedom came thus to be often based on specific thought coercion by the inspired few. This alternative approach has percolated far beyond the religious field, and is shared to-day by all those who think they have a privileged access to “true” conscience, thanks to divine revelation, superior “scientific” knowledge or some other special circumstance. Apart from religious principles, the “true” conscience involved may be class-consciousness, patriotism, altruism, “social” values, political correctness or any other strongly held ethical world-view. The common element is the firm belief that coercion – ranging from legal State-coercion to terrorism – can and should be used to realize “true freedom for all." See also Fear mongering Mind control Brainwashing Propaganda References Other references: Anderson, Scott A. (undated), "Towards a Better Theory of Coercion, and a Use for It", The University of Chicago Hayek, Friedrich A. (1960) The Constitution of Liberty, University of Chicago Press. Hodgkin, Thomas (1886) (trans.) Letters of Cassiodorus, London: H. Frowde. Lifton, Robert J. (1961) Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism, Penguin Books. Popper, Karl R. (1945) The Open Society and Its Enemies Rhodes, Michael R. (2000), "The Nature of Coercion", Journal of Value Inquiry, 34 (2/3) Rothbard, Murray N. (1982), "F. A. 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4,033 | Active_Directory | Typically Active Directory is managed using the graphical Microsoft Management Console. Active Directory is a technology created by Microsoft that provides a variety of network services, including: LDAP-like ADAM vs LDAP directory services Kerberos-based authentication DNS-based naming and other network information Using the same database, for use primarily in Windows environments, Active Directory also allows administrators to assign policies, deploy software, and apply critical updates to an organization. Active Directory stores information and settings in a central database. Active Directory networks can vary from a small installation with a few computers, users and printers to tens of thousands of users, many different domains and large server farms spanning many geographical locations. Active Directory was previewed in 1999, released first with Windows 2000 Server edition, and revised to extend functionality and improve administration in Windows Server 2003. Additional improvements were made in Windows Server 2003 R2. Active Directory was refined further in Windows Server 2008 and Windows Server 2008 R2 and was renamed Active Directory Domain Services. Active Directory was called NTDS (NT Directory Service) in older Microsoft documents. This name can still be seen in some Active Directory binaries. There is a common misconception that Active Directory provides software distribution. Software distribution is run by a separate service that uses additional proprietary schema attributes that work in conjunction with the LDAP protocol. Active Directory does not automate software distribution, but provides a mechanism by which other services can provide software distribution. Structure Objects Active directory is a logical grouping of users and computers in a domain, centrally managed by servers called domain controllers. An 'Active Directory' structure is a hierarchical framework of objects. The objects fall into three broad categories: resources (e.g., printers), services (e.g., email), and users (user accounts and groups). The AD provides information on the objects, organizes the objects, controls access and sets security. Each object represents a single entity — whether a user, a computer, a printer, or a group — and its attributes. Certain objects can also be containers of other objects. An object is uniquely identified by its name and has a set of attributes — the characteristics and information that the object can contain — defined by a schema, which also determines the kind of objects that can be stored in Active Directory. Each attribute object can be used in several different schema class objects. The schema object exists to allow the schema to be extended or modified when necessary. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of Active Directory objects, deactivating or changing these objects can have serious consequences because it will fundamentally change the structure of Active Directory itself. A schema object, when altered, will automatically propagate through Active Directory and once it is created it can only be deactivated — not deleted. Changing the schema usually requires a fair amount of planning. Sites A Site object in Active Directory represents a physical geographic location that hosts networks. Sites contain objects called Subnets. Sites can be used to Assign Group Policy Objects, facilitate the discovery of resources, manage active directory replication, and manage network link traffic. Sites can be linked to other Sites. Site-linked objects may be assigned a cost value that represents the speed, reliability, availability, or other real property of a physical resource. Site Links may also be assigned a schedule. Forests, trees, and domains The Active Directory framework that holds the objects can be viewed at a number of levels. At the top of the structure is the forest. The forest is a collection of every object, its attributes, and rules (attribute syntax) in the Active Directory. The forest, tree, and domain are the logical parts in an Active Directory network. The Active Directory forest contains one or more transitive, trust-linked trees. A tree is a collection of one or more domains and domain trees, again linked in a transitive trust hierarchy. Domains are identified by their DNS name structure, the namespace. The objects held within a domain can be grouped into containers called Organizational Units (OUs). OUs give a domain a hierarchy, ease its administration, and can give a semblance of the structure of the organization in organizational or geographical terms. OUs can contain OUs - indeed, domains are containers in this sense - and can hold multiple nested OUs. Microsoft recommends as few domains as possible in Active Directory and a reliance on OUs to produce structure and improve the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the common level at which to apply group policies, which are Active Directory objects themselves called Group Policy Objects (GPOs), although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU is the level at which administrative powers are commonly delegated, but granular delegation can be performed on individual objects or attributes as well. Active Directory also supports the creation of Sites, which are physical, rather than logical, groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. Sites distinguish between locations connected by low-speed (e.g., WAN, VPN) and high-speed (e.g., LAN) connections. Sites are independent of the domain and OU structure and are common across the entire forest. Sites are used to control network traffic generated by replication and also to refer clients to the nearest domain controllers. Exchange 2007 also uses the site topology for mail routing. Policies can also be applied at the site level. The actual division of an organization's information infrastructure into a hierarchy of one or more domains and top-level OUs is a key decision. Common models are by business unit, by geographical location, by IT Service, or by object type. These models are also often used in combination. OUs should be structured primarily to facilitate administrative delegation, and secondarily, to facilitate group policy application. Although OUs form an administrative boundary, the only true security boundary is the forest itself and an administrator of any domain in the forest must be trusted across all domains in the forest. Physically the Active Directory information is held on one or more equal peer domain controllers (DCs), replacing the NT PDC/BDC model. Each DC has a copy of the Active Directory; changes on one computer being synchronized (converged) between all the DC computers by multi-master replication. Servers joined to Active Directory that are not domain controllers are called Member Servers. The Active Directory database is split into different stores or partitions. Microsoft often refers to these partitions as 'naming contexts'. The 'Schema' partition contains the definition of object classes and attributes within the Forest. The 'Configuration' partition contains information on the physical structure and configuration of the forest (such as the site topology). The 'Domain' partition holds all objects created in that domain. The first two partitions replicate to all domain controllers in the Forest. The Domain partition replicates only to Domain Controllers within its domain. A subset of objects in the domain partition are also replicated to domain controllers that are configured as global catalogs. Unlike earlier versions of Windows which used NetBIOS to communicate, Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and TCP/IP — indeed DNS is required. To be fully functional, the DNS server must support SRV resource records or service records. Active Directory replication is 'pull' rather than 'push'. The Knowledge Consistency Checker (KCC) creates a replication topology of site links using the defined sites to manage traffic. Intrasite replication is frequent and automatic as a result of change notification, which triggers peers to begin a pull replication cycle. Intersite replication intervals are less frequent and do not use change notification by default, although this is configurable and can be made identical to intrasite replication. A different 'cost' can be given to each link (e.g., DS3, T1, ISDN etc.) and the site link topology will be altered accordingly by the KCC. Replication between domain controllers may occur transitively through several site links on same-protocol site link bridges, if the 'cost' is low, although KCC automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections. Site-to-site replication can be configured to occur between a bridgehead server in each site, which then replicates the changes to other DCs within the site. In a multi-domain forest the Active Directory database becomes partitioned. That is, each domain maintains a list of only those objects that belong in that domain. So, for example, a user created in Domain A would be listed only in Domain A's domain controllers. Global catalog (GC) servers are used to provide a global listing of all objects in the Forest. The Global catalog is held on domain controllers configured as global catalog servers. Global Catalog servers replicate to themselves all objects from all domains and hence, provide a global listing of objects in the forest. However, in order to minimize replication traffic and to keep the GC's database small, only selected attributes of each object are replicated. This is called the partial attribute set (PAS). The PAS can be modified by modifying the schema and marking attributes for replication to the GC. Replication of Active Directory uses Remote Procedure Calls (RPC over IP [RPC/IP]). Between Sites you can also choose to use SMTP for replication, but only for changes in the Schema or Configuration. SMTP cannot be used for replicating the Domain partition. In other words, if a domain exists on both sides of a WAN connection, you must use RPCs for replication. The Active Directory database, the directory store, in Windows 2000 Server uses the JET Blue-based Extensible Storage Engine (ESE98), limited to 16 terabytes and 1 billion objects in each domain controller's database. Microsoft has created NTDS databases with more than 2 billion objects. (NT4's Security Account Manager could support no more than 40,000 objects). Called NTDS.DIT, it has two main tables: the data table and the link table. In Windows Server 2003 a third main table was added for security descriptor single instancing. Large AD database? Probably not this large... Active Directory is a necessary component for many Windows services in an organization such as Exchange. FSMO Roles Flexible Single Master Operations (FSMO, sometimes pronounced "fizz-mo") roles are also known as operations master roles. Although the AD domain controllers operate in a multi-master model, i.e. updates can occur in multiple places at once, there are several roles that are necessarily single instance: Role Name Scope Description Schema Master 1 per forest Controls and handles updates/modifications to the Active Directory schema. Domain Naming Master 1 per forest Controls the addition and removal of domains from the forest if present in root domain PDC Emulator 1 per domain Provides backwards compatibility for NT4 clients for PDC operations (like password changes). The PDCs also run domain specific processes such as the Security Descriptor Propagator (SDPROP), and is the master time server within the domain. RID Master 1 per domain Allocates pools of unique identifier to domain controllers for use when creating objects Infrastructure Master 1 per domain/partition Synchronizes cross-domain group membership changes. The infrastructure master cannot run on a global catalog server (GCS)(unless all DCs are also GCs.) Naming Active Directory supports UNC (\), URL (/), and LDAP URL names for object access. Active Directory internally uses the LDAP version of the X.500 naming structure. Every object has a Distinguished name (DN), so a printer object called HPLaser3 in the OU Marketing and the domain foo.org, would have the DN: CN=HPLaser3,OU=Marketing,DC=foo,DC=org where CN stands for common or canonical name and DC stands for domain component. DNs can have many more than four parts. The object can also have a Canonical name, essentially the DN in reverse, without identifiers, and using slashes: foo.org/Marketing/HPLaser3. To identify the object within its container the Relative distinguished name (RDN) is used: CN=HPLaser3. Each object also has a Globally Unique Identifier (GUID), a unique and unchanging 128-bit string which is used by AD for search and replication. Certain objects also have a User principal name (UPN), an objectname@domain name form. Trust To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, Active Directory uses trusts. Trusts inside a forest are automatically created when domains are created. The forest sets the default boundaries of trust, not the domain, and implicit, transitive trust is automatic for all domains within a forest. As well as two-way transitive trust, AD trusts can be shortcut (joins two domains in different trees, transitive, one- or two-way), forest (transitive, one- or two-way), realm (transitive or nontransitive, one- or two-way), or external (nontransitive, one- or two-way) in order to connect to other forests or non-AD domains. Server 2003 in mixed mode it is available.But befre doing this we need to check clustering Trusts in Windows 2000 (native mode) One-way trust - One domain allows access to users on another domain, but the other domain does not allow access to users on the first domain. Two-way trust - Two domains allow access to users on the other domain. Trusting domain - The domain that allows access to users from a trusted domain. Trusted domain - The domain that is trusted; whose users have access to the trusting domain. Transitive trust - A trust that can extend beyond two domains to other trusted domains in the tree. Intransitive trust - A one way trust that does not extend beyond two domains. Explicit trust - A trust that an admin creates. It is not transitive and is one way only. Cross-link trust - An explicit trust between domains in different trees or in the same tree when a descendant/ancestor (child/parent) relationship does not exist between the two domains. Windows 2000 Server - supports the following types of trusts: Two-way transitive trusts. One-way intransitive trusts. Additional trusts can be created by administrators. These trusts can be: Shortcut Windows Server 2003 offers a new trust type - the forest root trust. This type of trust can be used to connect Windows Server 2003 forests if they are operating at the 2003 forest functional level. Authentication across this type of trust is Kerberos based (as opposed to NTLM). Forest trusts are also transitive for all the domains in the forests that are trusted. ADAM/AD LDS Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM) is a light-weight implementation of Active Directory. ADAM is capable of running as a service, on computers running Microsoft Windows Server 2003 or Windows XP Professional. ADAM shares the code base with Active Directory and provides the same functionality as Active Directory, including an identical API, but does not require the creation of domains or domain controllers. Like Active Directory, ADAM provides a Data Store, which is a hierarchical datastore for storage of directory data, a Directory Service with an LDAP Directory Service Interface. Unlike Active Directory, however, multiple ADAM instances can be run on the same server, with each instance having its own and required by applications making use of the ADAM directory service. In Windows Server 2008, ADAM has been renamed AD LDS (Lightweight Directory Services). Integrating Unix into Active Directory Varying levels of interoperability with Active Directory can be achieved on most Unix-like operating systems through standards compliant LDAP clients, but these systems usually lack the automatic interpretation of many attributes associated with Windows components, such as Group Policy and support for one-way trusts. There are also third-party vendors who offer Active Directory integration for Unix platforms (including UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, and a number of Java- and UNIX-based applications). Some of these vendors include Centrify (DirectControl), Likewise Software (Enterprise), Quest Software (Authentication Services) and Thursby Software Systems (ADmitMac). Microsoft is also in this market with their free Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX product. The schema additions shipped with Windows Server 2003 R2 include attributes that map closely enough to RFC 2307 to be generally usable. The reference implementation of RFC 2307, nss_ldap and pam_ldap provided by PADL.com, contains support for using these attributes directly, provided they have been populated. The default Active Directory schema for group membership complies with the proposed extension, RFC 2307bis. RFC2307bis specifies storing Unix group membership using LDAP member attributes as opposed to the base RFC 2307 which specified storing group membership as a comma-separate list of user IDs (as was done in the Unix group file). Windows Server 2003 R2 includes a Microsoft Management Console snap-in that creates and edits the attributes. An alternate option is to use another directory service such as Fedora Directory Server (formerly Netscape Directory Server) or Sun Microsystems Sun Java System Directory Server, which can perform a two-way synchronization with Active Directory and thus provide a "deflected" integration with Active Directory as Unix and Linux clients will authenticate to FDS and Windows Clients will authenticate to Active Directory. Another option is to use OpenLDAP with its translucent overlay, which can extend entries in any remote LDAP server with additional attributes stored in a local database. Clients pointed at the local database will see entries containing both the remote and local attributes, while the remote database remains completely untouched. Samba 3 can provide a way for Unix and Unix-like operating systems to interface with Active Directory and join the AD domain to provide authentication and authorization. Samba 4, in alpha , plans to include an Active Directory compatible server. See also Active Directory Explorer Directory Services Restore Mode Flexible single master operation List of LDAP software AGDLP (implementing role based access controls using nested groups) Notes External links Microsoft's Active Directory Page Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM) Free/open source web application to manage accounts and groups in Active Directory | Active_Directory |@lemmatized typically:1 active:60 directory:73 manage:6 use:31 graphical:1 microsoft:11 management:2 console:2 technology:1 create:11 provide:15 variety:1 network:7 service:19 include:7 ldap:10 like:5 adam:10 v:1 kerberos:2 base:8 authentication:4 dns:6 naming:3 information:7 database:12 primarily:2 windows:6 environment:1 also:22 allow:7 administrator:3 assign:4 policy:9 deploy:1 software:9 apply:4 critical:1 update:3 organization:4 store:8 setting:1 central:1 vary:1 small:2 installation:1 computer:6 user:15 printer:4 ten:1 thousand:1 many:5 different:6 domain:81 large:3 server:32 farm:1 span:1 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4,034 | Allah | Name of written in Arabic calligraphy by 17th century Ottoman artist Hâfız Osman Allah (, , ) is the standard Arabic word for God. While the term is best known in the West for its use by Muslims as a reference to God, it is used by Arabic-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, in reference to "God". "Allah." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa, Allah Columbia Encyclopedia, Allah The term was also used by pagan Meccans as a reference to the creator-god, possibly the supreme deity in pre-Islamic Arabia. L. Gardet, "Allah", Encyclopedia of Islam The concepts associated with the term Allah (as a deity) differ among the traditions. In pre-Islamic Arabia amongst pagan Arabs, Allah was not the sole divinity, having associates and companions, sons and daughters, a concept strongly opposed by Islam. In Islam, the name Allah is the supreme and all-comprehensive divine name. All other divine names are believed to refer back to Allah. Allah is unique, the only Deity, creator of the universe and omnipotent. Arab Christians today use terms such as Allāh al-ʼAb ( الله الأب, "God the Father") to distinguish their usage from Muslim usage. There are both similarities and differences between the concept of God as portrayed in the Qur'an and the Hebrew Bible. Unicode has a codepoint reserved for Allāh, = U+FDF2. Unicode Standard 5.0, p.479,492 Many Arabic type fonts feature special ligatures for Allah. Arabic fonts and Mac OS X Programs for Arabic in Mac OS X Etymology Medallion showing 'Allah' in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey. The term Allāh is derived from a contraction of the Arabic definite article al- "the" and "deity, god" to meaning "the [sole] deity, God" (ho theos monos). L. Gardet, Allah, Encyclopaedia of Islam Cognates of the name "Allāh" exist in other Semitic languages, including Hebrew and Aramaic. Columbia Encyclopaedia says: Derived from an old Semitic root referring to the Divine and used in the Canaanite , the Mesopotamian ilu, and the biblical Elohim and Eloah, the word Allah is used by all Arabic-speaking Muslims, Christians, Jews, and other monotheists. The corresponding Aramaic form is אֱלָהָא in Biblical Aramaic and ܐܰܠܳܗܳܐ or in Syriac. The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon - Entry for The contraction of al- and in forming the term Allāh ("the god", masculine form) parallels the contraction of al- and in forming the term Allāt ("the goddess", feminine form). Usage in Arabic Pre-Islamic Arabia In pre-Islamic Arabia, Allah was used by Meccans as a reference to the creator-god, possibly the supreme deity. See Qur'an ; ; ; ) Allah was not considered the sole divinity; however, Allah was considered the creator of the world and the giver of rain. The notion of the term may have been vague in the Meccan religion. Allah was associated with companions, whom pre-Islamic Arabs considered as subordinate deities. Meccans held that a kind of kinship existed between Allah and the jinn. See Qur'an ) Allah was thought to have had sons See Qur'an () and that the local deities of al-ʻUzzá, Manāt and al-Lāt were His daughters. See Qur'an ( ; ; ) The Meccans possibly associated angels with Allah. See Qur'an () Allah was invoked in times of distress. Gerhard Böwering, God and his Attributes, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an See Qur'an ; ; ; ) Muhammad's father's name was meaning the “servant of Allāh.” or "the slave of Allāh" Muslims According to Islamic belief, Allah is the proper name of God, Böwering, Gerhard, God and His Attributes, Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān, Brill, 2007. and humble submission to His Will, Divine Ordinances and Commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith. "He is the only God, creator of the universe, and the judge of humankind." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, Allah "He is unique (wahid) and inherently one (ahad), all-merciful and omnipotent." The Qur'an proves that "the reality of Allah, His inaccessible mystery, His various names, and His actions on behalf of His creatures." Allah script outside Eski Cami (The Old Mosque) in Edirne, Turkey. In Islamic tradition, there are 99 Names of God (al-asma al-husna lit. meaning: "The best names") each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of Allah. All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive divine name. Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and most frequent of these names are "the Merciful" (al-rahman) and "the Compassionate" (al-rahim). Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase "insha' Allah" (meaning "God willing") after references to future events. Gary S. Gregg, The Middle East: A Cultural Psychology, Oxford University Press, p.30 Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of "bismillah"(meaning "In the name of God"). Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Islamic Society in Practice, University Press of Florida, p.24 There are certain phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims, including "Subhan-Allah" (Holiness be to God), "Alhamdulillah" (Praise be to God), "La-il-la-ha-illa-Allah" (There is no deity but God) and "Allāhu Akbar" (God is great) as a devotional exercise of remembering God (zikr). M. Mukarram Ahmed, Muzaffar Husain Syed, Encyclopaedia of Islam,Anmol Publications PVT. LTD, p.144 In a Sufi practice known as zikr Allah (lit. remembrance of God), the Sufi repeats and contemplates on the name Allah or other divine names while controlling his or her breath. Carl W. Ernst, Bruce B. Lawrence, Sufi Martyrs of Love: The Chishti Order in South Asia and Beyond, Macmillan, p.29 Others Arabic-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, use the word "Allah" to mean "God". The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for 'God' than 'Allah'. (Even the Arabic-descended Maltese language of Malta, whose population is almost entirely Roman Catholic, uses Alla for 'God'.) Arab Christians for example use terms Allāh al-ʼab (الله الأب) meaning God the father, Allāh al-ibn (الله الابن) mean God the son, and (الله الروح القدس) meaning God the Holy Spirit (See God in Christianity for the Christian concept of God). Arab Christians have used two forms of invocations that were affixed to the beginning of their written works. They adopted the Muslim basm-allah, and also created their own Trinitized basm-allah as early as the eight century CE. The Muslim basm-allah reads: "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful." The Trinitized basm-allah reads: "In the name of Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, One God." The Syriac, Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words "One God" at the end. This addition was made to emphasize the monotheistic aspect of Trinitian belief and also to make it more palatable to Muslims. Thomas E. Burman, Religious Polemic and the Intellectual History of the Mozarabs, Brill, 1994, p.103 According to Marshall Hodgson, it seems that in the pre-Islamic times, some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the Kaaba, a pagan temple at that time, honoring Allah there as God the Creator. Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, University of Chicago Press, p.156 Other usage English and other European languages The history of the word "Allāh" in English was probably influenced by the study of comparative religion in 19th century; for example, Thomas Carlyle (1840) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything different from God. However, in his biography of Muhammad (1934), Tor Andræ always used the term Allah, though he allows that this 'conception of God' seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies. By this time Christians were also becoming accustomed to retaining the Hebrew term "Yahweh" untranslated (it was previously translated as 'the Lord'). William Montgomery Watt, Islam and Christianity today: A Contribution to Dialogue, Routledge, 1983, p.45 Languages which may not commonly use the term Allah to denote a deity may still contain popular expressions which use the word. For example, because of the centuries long Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, the word ojalá in the Spanish language and oxalá in the Portuguese language exist today, borrowed from Arabic (Arabic: إن شاء الله). This word literally means "God willing" (in the sense of "I hope so"). Islam in Luce López Baralt, Spanish Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present, Brill, 1992, p.25 Some Muslims leave the name "Allāh" untranslated in English. F. E. Peters, The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Princeton University Press, p.12 Sometimes this comes from a zeal for the Arabic text of the Qur'an and sometimes with a more or less conscious implication that the Jewish and Christian concept of God is not completely true in its details. Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, University of Chicago Press, p.63 Conversely, the usage of the term Allah by English speaking non-Muslims in reference to the God in Islam, Marshall G. S. Hodgson says, can imply that Muslims are worshiping a mythical god named 'Allah' rather than God, the creator. This usage is therefore appropriate, Hodgson says, only for those who are prepared to accept its theological implications. Allah in other scripts and languages Allah in other languages with Arabic script is spelled in the same way. This includes Urdu, Persian/Dari, Uyghur among others. Chinese: 阿拉 Ālā, 安拉 Ānlā; 真主 Zhēnzhǔ (semantic translation) , Θεός Theós (God) Hebrew: אללה Allah Hindi: अल्लाह Allāh Japanese: アラー Arā, アッラー Arrā, アッラーフ Arrāfu Korean: 알라 Alla Russian, Ukrainian, ́х Allakh Serbian, Belarusian, , Алах Thai: อัลลอฮ์ Anláw Comparative religion Some scholars have suggested that Muhammad used the term Allah in addressing both pagan Arabs and Jews or Christians in order to establish a common ground for the understanding of the name for God, a claim Gerhard Böwering says is doubtful. According to Böwering, in contrast with Pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism, God in Islam does not have associates and companions nor is there any kinship between God and jinn. Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate over which man had no control. This was replaced with the Islamic notion of a powerful but provident and merciful God. Allah, Encyclopedia Britannica According to Francis Edwards Peters, "The Qur'an insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm that Muhammad and his followers worship the same God as the Jews (). The Quran's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham". Peters states that the Qur'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than Yahweh, and as a universal deity, unlike Yahweh who closely follows Israelites. F.E. Peters, Islam, p.4, Princeton University Press, 2003 Typography An example of written in simple Arabic calligraphy. The word Allāh is always written without an alif to spell the ā vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using alif to spell ā. However, in vocalized spelling, a small diacritic alif is added on top of the shaddah to indicate the pronunciation. One exception may be in the pre-Islamic Zabad inscription, where it ends with an ambiguous sign that may be a lone-standing h with a lengthened start, or may be a non-standard conjoined l-h:- : This reading would be Allāh spelled phonetically with alif for the ā. : This reading would be Al-ʼilāh = "the god" (an older form, without contraction), by older spelling practice without alif for ā. Unicode Unicode has a codepoint reserved for Allāh, = U+FDF2. This character according to the official Unicode specification is a ligature of alif-lām-lām-shadda-(superscript alif)-hā ( U+0627 U+0644 U+0644 U+0651 U+0670 U+0647). There is, however some confusion arising from the fact that Arabic typography usually features a glyph without the preceding alif, which only occurs phrase-initially (or with in Qur'anic orthography). Consequently, the majority of Arabic Unicode fonts do not conform with the specification and have a glyph without the alif at this position (e.g. those provided by Linotype, the great majority of those licensed to or developed by Microsoft, those of Arabeyes.org, SIL's Lateef and the fonts of CRULP developed in Pakistan), while others have the prescribed form with alif (e.g. SIL's Scheherazade, Adobe Arabic distributed with the Middle-Eastern version of the Adobe Reader 7, Arial Unicode MS, and Arabic Typesetting, distributed with VOLT and with Microsoft Office Proofing Tools 2003). The calligraphic variant of the word used as the Coat of arms of Iran is encoded in Unicode, in the Miscellaneous Symbols range, at codepoint U+262B (). Abjad numerals Abjad is an ancient numerical system in the Arabic-speaking world. In this system each of the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet represent the units, tens, and hundreds up to and including 1000. M J L Young, J D Latham, R B Serjeant, Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period,Cambridge University Press, p.254 The numerical value of the letters of Allah () according to the traditional Arabic abjad system adds up to 66. The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, 1939, p.86 Notes References The Unicode Consortium, Unicode Standard 5.0, Addison-Wesley, 2006, ISBN 0321480910, See also Ilah Names of God Tawhid Termagant Five Pillars of Islam Kaaba Prophets of Islam External links Names of Allah with meaning on website, Flash, and Mobile phone Software. Concept of God (Allah) in Islam The Concept of Allāh according to the Qur'an by Abdul Mannan Omar Typography Arabic fonts and Mac OS X Programs for Arabic in Mac OS X | Allah |@lemmatized name:24 write:4 arabic:27 calligraphy:2 century:4 ottoman:1 artist:1 hâfız:1 osman:1 allah:56 standard:4 word:11 god:54 term:15 best:2 know:2 west:1 use:19 muslim:16 reference:7 speaker:2 abrahamic:2 faith:3 include:6 christian:14 jew:6 encyclopædia:2 britannica:4 encyclopedia:6 modern:1 middle:4 east:2 north:1 africa:1 columbia:2 also:5 pagan:5 meccans:4 creator:8 possibly:3 supreme:4 deity:11 pre:9 islamic:13 arabia:4 l:4 gardet:2 islam:15 concept:7 associate:5 differ:1 among:3 tradition:2 amongst:1 arab:9 sole:3 divinity:2 companion:3 son:4 daughter:2 strongly:1 oppose:1 comprehensive:3 divine:6 believe:3 refer:3 back:1 unique:2 universe:2 omnipotent:2 today:4 allāh:16 al:13 ʼab:2 الله:5 الأب:2 father:4 distinguish:1 usage:6 similarity:1 difference:1 portray:1 qur:14 hebrew:4 bible:1 unicode:10 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4,035 | Confederate_States_of_America | The Confederate States of America (also called the Confederacy, the Confederate States, and the CSA) formed as the government set up from 1861 to 1865 by eleven southern slave states of the United States of America, each of which had previously declared their secession from the United States. The CSA's de facto control over its claimed territory varied during the course of the American Civil War, depending on the success of its military. Asserting that states had a right to secede, seven states declared their independence from the United States before the inauguration of Abraham Lincoln as President on March 4, 1861; four more did so after the Civil War began at the Battle of Fort Sumter (April 1861). The government of the United States of America (The Union) regarded secession as illegal and refused to recognize the Confederacy. Although British and French commercial interests sold the Confederacy warships and materials, no European nation officially recognized the CSA as an independent country. The CSA effectively collapsed when Generals Robert E. Lee and Joseph E. Johnston surrendered their armies in April 1865. The last meeting of its Cabinet took place in Georgia in May. Union troops captured the Confederate President Jefferson Davis near Irwinville, Georgia on May 10, 1865. Nearly all remaining Confederate forces surrendered by the end of June. A decade-long process known as Reconstruction expelled ex-Confederate leaders from office, gave civil rights and the right to vote to the freedmen, and re-admitted the states to representation in Congress. History Seceding states Seven states declared their secession before Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861: South Carolina (December 20, 1860) The text of South Carolina's Ordinance of Secession. Mississippi (January 9, 1861) The text of Mississippi's Ordinance of Secession. Florida (January 10, 1861) The text of Florida's Ordinance of Secession. Alabama (January 11, 1861) The text of Alabama's Ordinance of Secession. Georgia (January 19, 1861) The text of Georgia's Ordinance of Secession. Louisiana (January 26, 1861) The text of Louisiana's Ordinance of Secession. Texas (February 1, 1861) The text of Texas' Ordinance of Secession. After the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, and Lincoln's subsequent call for troops on April 15, four more states declared their secession: Some southern unionists blamed Lincoln's call for troops as the precipitating event for the second wave of secessions. Historian James McPherson argues that such claims have "a self-serving quality" and regards them as misleading. He wrote: Historian Daniel W. Crofts disagrees with McPherson. Crofts wrote: Crofts further noted that, Virginia (April 17, 1861; ratified by voters May 23, 1861) The text of Virginia's Ordinance of Secession. Virginia seceded in two steps, first by secession convention vote on April 17, 1861, and then by ratification of this by a popular vote conducted on 23 May, 1861. A Unionist Restored government of Virginia also operated. Virginia did not turn over its military to the Confederate States until June 8, 1861. The Commonwealth of Virginia ratified the Constitution of the Confederate States on June 19, 1861. Arkansas (May 6, 1861) The text of Arkansas' Ordinance of Secession. Tennessee (May 7, 1861; ratified by voters June 8, 1861) The text of Tennessee's Ordinance of Secession. The Tennessee legislature ratified an agreement to enter a military league with the Confederate States on May 7, 1861. Tennessee voters approved the agreement on June 8, 1861. North Carolina (May 20, 1861) The text of North Carolina's Ordinance of Secession. The border states of Kentucky and Missouri declared neutrality very early in the war. In Kentucky, the state gradually came to side with the north; however a second, pro-Confederate, government emerged in some southern counties (much like the situation in the counties that would become West Virginia) although its control in those regions did not last very long. A more complex situation surrounds the Missouri Secession. In Missouri the majority of the legislature and the governor passed an ordinance of secession. Missouri's Ordinance of Secession. However, this occurred after a standing constitutional convention declared the legislature and governor void after Federal troops marched on and took over the capital. Missouri, since the Union already controlled most of it, was exempted from the Emancipation Proclamation that outlawed slavery elsewhere. However, the standing State constitutional convention repealed slavery in Missouri before Federal constitutional amendments passed. The Confederacy recognized the pro-Confederate claimants in both Kentucky and Missouri and laid claim to those states based on their authority, with representatives from both states seated in the Confederate Congress. Later versions of Confederate flags had thirteen stars, reflecting the Confederacy's claims to Kentucky and Missouri. In 1861 the authorities declared martial law in Maryland (the state which borders the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C., on three sides) in order to block attempts at secession. Delaware, also a slave state, never considered secession, nor did Washington, D.C. Although the slave states of Maryland and Delaware did not secede, citizens from those states did exhibit divided loyalties. Only Delaware among the slave states did not produce a full regiment to fight for the Confederacy. Delaware achieved the distinction of providing more soldiers by percentage than any other state, and overwhelmingly they fought for the Union. In 1861, a Unionist legislature in Wheeling, Virginia seceded from Virginia, eventually claiming 50 counties for a new state. However, 24 of those counties had voted in favor of Virginia's secession, and control of these counties, as well as some counties that had voted against secession, remained contested until the end of the war. R. Curry, "A House Divided". West Virginia joined the United States in 1863 with a constitution that gradually abolished slavery. Confederate declarations of martial law checked attempts to secede from the Confederate States of America by some counties in East Tennessee. ""Marx and Engels on the American Civil War", Army of the Cumberland and George H. Thomas source page. "Background of the Confederate States Constitution", The American Civil War Home Page. West Virginia counties approving Virginia's secession from the U.S. Seceding territories Citizens at Mesilla and Tucson in the southern part of New Mexico Territory (modern day New Mexico and Arizona) formed a secession convention, which voted to join the Confederacy on March 16, 1861 and appointed Lewis Owings as the new territorial governor. In July, the Mesilla government appealed to Confederate troops in El Paso, Texas, under Lieutenant Colonel John Baylor for help in removing the Union Army under Major Isaac Lynde that had taken up position nearby. The Confederates defeated Lynde's forces at the Battle of Mesilla on July 27, 1861. After the battle, Baylor established a territorial government for the Confederate Arizona Territory and named himself governor. The Confederacy proclaimed the portion of the New Mexico Territory south of the 34th parallel as the Confederate Arizona Territory, on February 14, 1862, History of Arizona vol. 2 by Thomas Edwin Farish (1915) . with Mesilla serving as the territorial capital. Bowman, p. 48. In 1862 the Confederate General Henry Hopkins Sibley led a New Mexico Campaign to take the northern half of New Mexico. Although Confederates briefly occupied the territorial capital of Santa Fe, they suffered defeat at Glorietta Pass in March and retreated, never to return. The Union regained military control of the area, and on February 24, 1863 set up the Arizona Territory with Fort Whipple as the capital. Confederate supporters also claimed portions of modern-day Oklahoma as Confederate territory after the Union abandoned and evacuated the federal forts and installations in the territory. The five tribal governments of the Indian Territory — which became Oklahoma in 1907 — mainly supported the Confederacy, providing troops and one general officer. On July 12, 1861 the newly formed Confederate States government signed a treaty with both the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian nations in the Indian Territory. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Documenting the American South collection, Confederate States of America War Department, Communication From the Secretary of War, February 4th, 1863. This Day in History, July 12, 1861 Confederacy signs treaties with Choctaw and Chickasaw Tribes. After 1863 the tribal governments sent representatives to the Confederate Congress: Elias Cornelius Boudinot representing the Cherokee and Samuel Benton Callahan representing the Seminole and Creek people. The Cherokee, in their declaration of causes, gave as reasons for aligning with the Confederacy the similar institutions and interests of the Cherokee nation and the Southern states, alleged violations of the Constitution by the North, claimed that the North waged war against Southern commercial and political freedom and for the abolition of slavery in general and in the Indian Territory in particular, and that the North intended to seize Indian lands as had happened in the past. Declaration by the People of the Cherokee Nation of the Causes Which Have Impelled Them to Unite Their Fortunes With Those of the Confederate States of America. Causes of secession By 1860 sectional disagreements between North and South revolved primarily around the maintenance or expansion of slavery. Historian Drew Gilpin Faust observed that "leaders of the secession movement across the South cited slavery as the most compelling reason for southern independence." Related and intertwined secondary issues also fueled the dispute; these secondary differences (real or perceived) included tariffs, agrarianism vs. industrialization, and states' rights. The immediate spark for secession came from the victory of the Republican Party and the election of Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 elections. Civil War historian James M. McPherson wrote: Four of the seceding states, the Deep South states of South Carolina, The text of the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union. Mississippi, The text of A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union. Georgia, The text of Georgia's secession declaration. and Texas, The text of A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union. issued formal declarations of causes, each of which identified the threat to slaveholders’ rights as the cause of, or a major cause of, secession. Georgia also claimed a general Federal policy of favoring Northern over Southern economic interests. In what later became known as the Cornerstone Speech, C.S. Vice President Alexander Stephens declared that the "cornerstone" of the new government "rest[ed] upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery—subordination to the superior race—is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government, is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth". McPherson pg. 244. The text of Alexander Stephens' "Cornerstone Speech". Historian William J. Cooper Jr., in his biography of the Confederate president Jefferson Davis, wrote, “From at least the time of the American Revolution white southerners defined their liberty, in part, as the right to own slaves and to decide the fate of the institution without any outside interference.” Cooper p. xv. Speaking specifically of Davis, Cooper wrote: In his farewell speech to the United States Congress, Davis made clear his view that the secession crisis had stemmed from the Republican Party's failure "to recognize our domestic institutions [an acknowledged euphemism for slavery] which pre-existed the formation of the Union — our property which was guarded by the Constitution." Coski p. 23. Coski inserted the bracketed text. Religion, slavery and secession As the nation divided over slavery, religion exacerbated the sectional differences. Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians in the first half of the nineteenth century expressed reservations about slavery, Levine (1992) p. 109. Stampp (1956) p. 157. but by 1850 John C. Calhoun would note that “already three great evangelical churches had been torn asunder” over slavery. Levine (1992) p. 113. By the 1850s, as sectional tensions over slavery grew, more and more ministers in the South “who openly resisted southern evangelicals’ accommodation with slavery found themselves silenced or driven out of the South”. Levine (1992) p. 112. Rise and fall of the Confederacy The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with the Battle of Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Federal troops of the U.S. had retreated to Fort Sumter soon after South Carolina declared its secession on 20 December 1860. U.S. President Buchanan had attempted to re-supply Sumter by sending the Star of the West, but Confederate forces fired upon the ship, driving it away. U.S. President Abraham Lincoln also attempted to resupply Sumter. Lincoln notified South Carolina Governor Francis W. Pickens that "an attempt will be made to supply Fort Sumter with provisions only, and that if such attempt be not resisted, no effort to throw in men, arms, or ammunition will be made without further notice, [except] in case of an attack on the fort." However, suspecting just such an attempt to reinforce the fort, the Confederate cabinet decided at a meeting in Montgomery to capture Fort Sumter before the relief fleet arrived. On April 12, 1861, Confederate troops, following orders from Davis and his Secretary of War, fired upon the federal troops occupying Fort Sumter, forcing their surrender. After the war, Confederate Vice President Alexander H. Stephens maintained that Lincoln's attempt to reinforce Sumter had provoked the war. Following the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln called for the remaining states in the Union to send troops to recapture Sumter and other forts and customs-houses Lincoln's proclamation calling for troops from the remaining states (bottom of page); Department of War details to States (top). in the South that Confederate forces had claimed, sometimes by force. Lincoln issued this call before Congress could convene on the matter, and the original request from the War Department called for volunteers for only three months of duty. Lincoln's call for troops resulted in four more states voting to secede rather than provide troops for the Union. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined the Confederacy, bringing the total to eleven states. Once Virginia had joined, the Confederate States moved their capital from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia. All but two major battles (Antietam and Gettysburg) took place in Confederate territory. By 1862 the Union had taken control of New Orleans, and had also gained control of the contested northernmost slave states (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia). Two major Confederate incursions into Union territory, into Maryland in 1862 and into Pennsylvania in 1863, each proved temporary. By 1863 the Union held control of most of Tennessee; with the fall of Vicksburg, Missisippi on July 4 of that year, the Union gained complete control over the Mississippi River, cutting off the westernmost portions of the Confederacy (Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas). In 1864 the Union took Mobile, Alabama, the last major port on the Gulf Coast, and by the end of the year Atlanta had fallen to Union troops, paving the way for the March to the Sea by William Tecumseh Sherman's forces, which reached Savannah by the end of the year, devastating the Confederate heartland and cutting the eastern Confederacy in half. The Union took the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia, in April, 1865. Historians generally regard the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by General Lee at the village of Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865 as the end of the Confederate States. Unionists captured President Davis at Irwinville, Georgia, on May 10 , and the remaining Confederate armies had surrendered by June 1865. The crew of the CSS Shenandoah hauled down the last Confederate flag at Liverpool in the UK on November 6, 1865. Government and politics Constitution Jefferson DavisPresident 1861-1865 The Southern leaders met in Montgomery, Alabama, to write their constitution. The Confederate States Constitution reveals much about the motivations for secession from the Union. While much of it replicated the United States Constitution verbatim, it contained several explicit protections of the institution of slavery, though it maintained the existing ban on international slave-trading. In certain areas, the Confederate Constitution gave greater powers to the states (or curtailed the powers of the central government more) than the U.S. Constitution of the time did, but in other areas, the states actually lost rights they had under the U.S. Constitution. Although the Confederate Constitution, like the U.S. Constitution, contained a commerce clause, the Confederate version prohibited the central government from using revenues collected in one state for funding internal improvements in another state. The Confederate Constitution's equivalent to the U.S. Constitution's general welfare clause prohibited protective tariffs (but allowed tariffs for providing domestic revenue), and spoke of "carry[ing] on the Government of the Confederate States" rather than providing for the "general welfare". State legislatures had the power to impeach officials of the Confederate government in some cases. On the other hand, the Confederate Constitution contained a Necessary and Proper Clause and a Supremacy Clause that essentially duplicated the respective clauses of the U.S. Constitution. The Confederate Constitution did not specifically include a provision allowing states to secede; the Preamble spoke of each state "acting in its sovereign and independent character" but also of the formation of a "permanent federal government". During the debates on drafting the Confederate Constitution, one proposal would have allowed states to secede from the Confederacy. The proposal was tabled with only the South Carolina delegates voting in favor of considering the motion. Davis p. 248. The Confederate Constitution also explicitly denied States the power to bar slaveholders from other parts of the Confederacy from bringing their slaves into any state of the Confederacy or to interfere with the property rights of slave owners traveling between different parts of the Confederacy. In contrast with the secular 18th-century Enlightenment language of the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution overtly asked God's blessing ("invoking the favor of Almighty God"). The Constitution provided for a President of the Confederate States of America, elected to serve a six-year term but without the possibility of re-election. (The only president was Jefferson Davis as the Confederacy was defeated by the Union before he completed his term.) One unique power granted to the Confederate president was his ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power held by some state governors. The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two-thirds majorities that are required in the U.S. Congress. In addition, appropriations not specifically requested by the executive branch required passage by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress. Executive The original Confederate Cabinet. L-R: Judah P. Benjamin, Stephen Mallory, Christopher Memminger, Alexander Stephens, LeRoy Pope Walker, Jefferson Davis, John H. Reagan and Robert Toombs. OfficeNameTermPresidentJefferson Davis1861-1865Vice PresidentAlexander Stephens1861-1865Secretary of StateRobert Toombs1861 Robert M.T. Hunter1861-1862 Judah P. Benjamin1862-1865Secretary of the TreasuryChristopher Memminger1861-1864 George Trenholm1864-1865 John H. Reagan1865Secretary of WarLeroy Pope Walker1861 Judah P. Benjamin1861-1862 George W. Randolph1862 James Seddon1862-1865 John C. Breckinridge1865Secretary of the NavyStephen Mallory1861-1865Postmaster GeneralJohn H. Reagan1861-1865Attorney GeneralJudah P. Benjamin1861 Thomas Bragg1861-1862 Thomas H. Watts1862-1863 George Davis1864-1865 Legislative As its legislative branch, the Confederate States of America instituted the Confederate Congress. Like the United States Congress, the Confederate Congress consisted of two houses: the Confederate Senate, whose membership included two senators from each state (and chosen by the state legislature) the Confederate House of Representatives, with members popularly elected by properly enfranchised residents of the individual states Provisional Congress For the first year, the unicameral Provisional Confederate Congress functioned as the Confederacy's legislative branch. President of the Provisional Congress Howell Cobb, Sr. of Georgia — February 4, 1861-February 17, 1862 Presidents pro tempore of the Provisional Congress Robert Woodward Barnwell of South Carolina - February 4, 1861 Thomas Stanhope Bocock of Virginia - December 10-21, 1861 and January 7-8, 1862 Josiah Abigail Patterson Campbell of Mississippi - December 23-24, 1861 and January 6, 1862 Sessions of the Confederate Congress Provisional Confederate Congress First Confederate Congress Second Confederate Congress Tribal Representatives to Confederate Congress Elias Cornelius Boudinot 1862-65 - Cherokee Samuel Benton Callahan Unknown years - Creek, Seminole Burton Allen Holder 1864-1865 - Chickasaw Robert McDonald Jones 1863-65 - Choctaw Judicial The Confederate Constitution outlined a judicial branch of the government, but the ongoing war prevented the creation or seating of the "Supreme Court of the Confederate States"; the state and local courts generally continued to operate as they had done, simply recognizing the CSA as the national government. "Legal Materials on the Confederate States of America in the Schaffer Law Library", Albany Law School. Confederate district courts were, however, established, and President Davis appointed judges within the individual states of the Confederate States of America. Where Federal troops gained control over parts of the Confederacy and re-established civilian government, U.S. district courts resumed jurisdiction. Records of District Courts of the United States, National Archives. Supreme Court - not established. District Courts - judges Alabama William G. Jones 1861-65 Arkansas Daniel Ringo 1861-65 Florida Jesse J. Finley 1861-62 Georgia Henry R. Jackson 1861 , Edward J. Harden 1861-65 Louisiana Edwin Warren Moise 1861-65 Mississippi Alexander Mosby Clayton 1861-65 North Carolina Asa Biggs 1861-65 South Carolina Andrew G. Magrath 1861-64 , Benjamin F. Perry 1865 Tennessee West H. Humphreys 1861-65 Texas-East William Pinckney Hill 1861-65 Texas-West Thomas J. Devine 1861-65 Virginia-East James D. Halyburton 1861-65 Virginia-West John W. Brockenbrough 1861-65 Civil liberties The Confederacy actively used the military to arrest people suspected of loyalty to the United States. Historian Mark Neely found 2,700 names of men arrested and estimated a much larger total. The CSA arrested suspects at about the same rate as the Union arrested Confederate loyalists. Neely concludes: Capital Virginia State House, which served as the last Confederate Capitol building Montgomery, Alabama served as the capital of the Confederate States of America from February 4 until May 29, 1861. The naming of Richmond, Virginia as the new capital took place on May 30, 1861. Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond, planning to relocate farther south. Little came of these plans before Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. Danville, Virginia, served as the last capital of the Confederate States of America, from April 3 to April 10, 1865. Financial instruments Both the individual Confederate states and (later) the Confederate government printed Confederate States of America dollars as paper currency, much of it signed by the Treasurer Edward C. Elmore. During the course of the war these severely depreciated in value, eventually becoming worthless. Many bills still exist, although in recent years copies have proliferated. The Treasury also issued paper bonds in large numbers, and the Post Office produced a considerable number of postage stamps; both stamps and bonds (and especially bond coupons) remain readily available. The philatelic market regards as far more valuable the stamps placed on envelopes that were actually used during the war. At the time of their secession the states (and later the Confederate government) took over the national mints in their territories: the Charlotte Mint in North Carolina, the Dahlonega Mint in Georgia, and the New Orleans Mint in Louisiana. During 1861 the first two produced small amounts of gold coinage, the latter half dollars. Based on current dies on hand, these issues remain indistinguishable from those minted by the Union. Also in 1861 plans originated to produce Confederate coins. The New Orleans Mint produced dies and four specimen half dollars, but a lack of bullion prevented any further minting. A jeweler in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, manufactured a dozen pennies under contract, but did not deliver them for fear of arrest. Over the years copies of both denominations have appeared. More details and pictures of the original issues appear in A Guide Book of United States Coins. International diplomacy Once the war with the United States began, the Confederacy pinned its hopes for survival on military intervention by Britain and France. The United States realized this as well and made it clear that diplomatic recognition of the Confederacy meant war with the United States — and the cutting off of food shipments into Britain. The Confederates who had believed that "cotton is king" Henry Blumenthal Confederate Diplomacy: Popular Notions and International Realities The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 32, No. 2. (May, 1966), p. 152. — that is, Britain had to support the Confederacy to obtain cotton — proved mistaken. Henry Blumenthal Confederate Diplomacy: Popular Notions and International Realities The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 32, No. 2. (May, 1966), p. 155 The British instead focused more heavily on cotton and textiles produced in India or in Russia, Henry Blumenthal Confederate Diplomacy: Popular Notions and International Realities The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 32, No. 2. (May, 1966), p. 159. with the French also increasing Algerian production. The early years of the war did not see strong international demand for textiles, and hence for cotton. Stanley Lebergott Why the South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy, 1861-1865 The Journal of American History, Vol. 70, No. 1. (June, 1983), p. 61. In time, the war and Union blockade of the South caused economic hardship in textile-producing areas of England such as Lancashire, which depended heavily on cotton exports from the seceding states; International Slavery Museum, Liverpool, UK. however, abolitionist sentiment among English workers ran counter to this economic interest in Confederate victory. See the text of the inscription on the Abraham Lincoln statue in Manchester, UK. While the Confederate government sent repeated delegations to Europe, historians do not give the CSA high marks for diplomatic skills. James M. Mason went to London as Confederate minister to Queen Victoria, and John Slidell travelled to Paris as minister to Napoleon III. Each succeeded in obtaining private meetings with high British and French officials respectively, but neither secured official recognition for the Confederacy. Britain and the United States came dangerously close to war during the Trent Affair (when the U.S. Navy illegally seized two Confederate agents travelling on a British ship in late 1861), and it seemed possible that the Confederacy would see its much desired recognition. Henry Blumenthal Confederate Diplomacy: Popular Notions and International Realities p. 157. When Lincoln released the two, however, tensions cooled, and in the end the episode did not aid the Confederate cause. Footnote 20. Throughout the early years of the war, British foreign secretary Lord Russell, Napoleon III, and, to a lesser extent, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, showed interest in the idea of recognition of the Confederacy, or at least of offering a mediation. Recognition meant certain war with the United States, loss of American grain, loss of exports to the United States, loss of huge investments in American securities, possible war in Canada and other North American colonies, much higher taxes, many lives lost and a severe threat to the entire British merchant marine, in exchange for the possibility of some cotton. Many party leaders and the public wanted no war with such high costs and meager benefits. Recognition was considered following the Second Battle of Bull Run when the British government was preparing to mediate in the conflict, but the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam and Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, combined with internal opposition, caused the government to back away. In November 1863, Confederate diplomat A. Dudley Mann met Pope Pius IX and received a letter addressed "to the Illustrious and Honorable Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America". Mann, in his dispatch to Richmond, interpreted the letter as "a positive recognition of our Government", and some have mistakenly viewed it as a de facto recognition of the C.S.A. Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin, however, interpreted it as "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" and thus did not assign it the weight of formal recognition. Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, p. 1015. For the remainder of the war, Confederate commissioners continued meeting with Cardinal Antonelli, the Vatican Secretary of State. In 1864, Catholic Bishop Patrick N. Lynch of Charleston traveled to the Vatican with an authorization from Jefferson Davis to represent the Confederacy before the Holy See. That same year, Davis sent Duncan Kenner to France and England with an offer to emancipate Southern slaves in exchange for recognition of the Confederacy from France and Great Britain. Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation, and Tourism's description of Kenner's diplomatic mission. This attempt proved unsuccessful. No country appointed any diplomat officially to the Confederacy, but several maintained their consuls in the South whom they had appointed before the outbreak of war. In 1861, Ernst Raven applied for approval as the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha consul, but he held citizenship of Texas and no evidence exists that officials in Saxe-Coburg and Gotha knew of his actions. In 1863, the Confederacy expelled all foreign consuls (all of them British or French diplomats) for advising their subjects to refuse to serve in combat against the U.S. Throughout the war, most European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. None ever sent an ambassador or an official delegation to Richmond. However, they applied principles of international law that recognized the Union and Confederate sides as belligerents. Canada allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders. In Hamilton, Bermuda a Confederate agent openly worked to help blockade runners. Some state governments in northern Mexico negotiated local agreements to cover trade on the Texas border. Wise, Stephen R., Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War, University of South Carolina Press, 1991, ISBN 0872497992, 9780872497993, p. 86. "Died of states' rights" Historian Frank Lawrence Owsley argued that the Confederacy "died of states' rights." Frank L. Owsley, State Rights in the Confederacy (Chicago, 1925). According to Owsley, strong-willed governors and state legislatures in the South refused to give the central government the soldiers and money it needed because they feared that Richmond would encroach on the rights of the states. Georgia's governor Joseph Brown warned that he saw the signs of a deep-laid conspiracy on the part of Jefferson Davis to destroy states' rights and individual liberty. Brown declaimed: "Almost every act of usurpation of power, or of bad faith, has been conceived, brought forth and nurtured in secret session." He saw granting the Confederate government the power to draft soldiers as the "essence of military despotism." Rable (1994) 257; however Wallace Hettle in The Peculiar Democracy: Southern Democrats in Peace and Civil War (2001) p. 158 says Owsley's "famous thesis... is overstated." In 1863 governor Pendleton Murrah of Texas insisted that his State needed Texas troops for self-defense (against Indians or against a threatened Union invasion), and refused to send them East. John Moretta; "Pendleton Murrah and States Rights in Civil War Texas," Civil War History, Vol. 45, 1999. Zebulon Vance, the governor of North Carolina, had a reputation for hostility to Davis and to his demands. North Carolina showed intense opposition to conscription, resulting in very poor results for recruiting. Governor Vance's faith in states' rights drove him into a stubborn opposition. Albert Burton Moore, Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy. (1924) p. 295. Vice President Stephens broke publicly with President Davis, saying any accommodation would only weaken the republic, and he therefore had no choice but to break publicly with the Confederate administration and the President. Stephens charged that to allow Davis to make "arbitrary arrests" and to draft state officials conferred on him more power than the English Parliament had ever bestowed on a king. "History proved the dangers of such unchecked authority." He added that Davis intended to suppress the peace meetings in North Carolina and "put a muzzle upon certain presses" (especially the antiwar newspaper Raleigh Standard) in order to control elections in that state. Echoing Patrick Henry's "give me liberty or give me death" Stephens warned the Southerners they should never view liberty as "subordinate to independence" because the cry of "independence first and liberty second" was a "fatal delusion". As historian George Rable concludes, "For Stephens, the essence of patriotism, the heart of the Confederate cause, rested on an unyielding commitment to traditional rights. In his idealist vision of politics, military necessity, pragmatism, and compromise meant nothing". Rable (1994) 258-9. The survival of the Confederacy depended on a strong base of civilians and soldiers devoted to victory. The soldiers performed well, though increasing numbers deserted in the last year of fighting, and the Confederacy never succeeded in replacing casualties as the Union could. The civilians, although enthusiastic in 1861-62 seem to have lost faith in the nation's future by 1864, and instead looked to protect their homes and communities. As Rable explains, "As the Confederacy shrank, citizens' sense of the cause more than ever narrowed to their own states and communities. This contraction of civic vision was more than a crabbed libertarianism; it represented an increasingly widespread disillusionment with the Confederate experiment." Rable (1994) p. 265. Relations with the United States During the four years of its existence the Confederate States of America asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. The United States government, by contrast, regarded the Southern states as states in rebellion and refused any formal recognition of their status. Thus, U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward issued formal instructions to Charles Francis Adams, the newly-appointed minister to Great Britain: However, if the British seemed inclined to recognize the Confederacy, or even waver in that regard, they would receive a sharp warning, with a strong hint of war: The Confederate Congress responded to the Battle of Fort Sumter by formally declaring war on the United States in May 1861 — calling it "The War between the Confederate States of America and the United States of America". Moore, Frank, The Rebellion Record, Volume I, G.P. Putnam, 1861, Doc. 140, pp. 195-197. The Union government never declared war, but conducted its military efforts under a proclamation of blockade and rebellion. After the war, the U.S. Congress readmitted representation from the southern states. Mid-war negotiations between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the laws of war governed military relationships. Four years after the war, in 1869, the United States Supreme Court in Texas v. White ruled Texas' secession unconstitutional and legally null. The court's opinion was authored by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase. Jefferson Davis, former president of the Confederacy, and Alexander Stephens, its former vice-president, both penned arguments in favor of secession's legality, most notably Davis' The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. The court did allow some possibility of separation from the Union "through revolution or through consent of the States." Aleksandar Pavković, Peter Radan, Creating New States: Theory and Practice of Secession, p. 222, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1868) at Cornell University Law School Supreme Court collection. Confederate flags 1st National Flag 2nd National Flag 3rd National Flag CSA Naval Jack 1st National Flag"Stars and Bars" 2nd National Flag"Stainless Banner" 3rd National Flag"Blood Stained Banner" CSA Naval Jack1861-1863 CSA Naval Jack Battle Flag Bonnie Blue Flag CSA Naval Jack1863-1865 Battle Flag"Southern Cross" "Bonnie Blue Flag"Unofficial Southern Flag The first official flag of the Confederate States of America, called the "Stars and Bars", had seven stars, representing the seven states that initially formed the Confederacy. It sometimes proved difficult to distinguish the Stars and Bars from the Union flag under battle conditions, so the flag was changed to the "Stainless Banner". The Stainless Banner, known as the "Southern Cross" (or Saint Andrew's Cross), became the symbol more commonly used in military operations. The Southern Cross had 13 stars, adding the four states that joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter, and the two divided states of Kentucky and Missouri. Due to similarities between the "Stainless Banner" and a white flag, a red stripe was appended vertically to the end of the flag, creating the third of the national flags. Because of its depiction in 20th-century popular media, many people associate the "Southern Cross" flag with the Confederacy . The actual "Southern Cross" flag had a square shape, while the Naval Jack (also used by the Army of Tennessee) had a rectangular form but used a lighter shade of blue. Popular media often depict an amalgam, taking the rectangular shape of the Naval Jack and the darker blue of the "Southern Cross" battle flag. Geography The Confederate States of America claimed a total of 2,919 miles (4,698 km) of coastline, thus a large part of its territory lay on the seacoast with level and often sandy or marshy ground. Most of the interior portion consisted of arable farmland, though much was also hilly and mountainous, and the far western territories were deserts. The lower reaches of the Mississippi River bisected the country, with the western half often referred to as the Trans-Mississippi. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was Guadalupe Peak in Texas at 8,750 feet (2,667 m). Map of the states and territories claimed by the Confederate States of America Climate Much of the area claimed by the Confederate States of America had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate and terrain varied to semi-arid steppe and arid desert west of longitude 96 degrees west. The subtropical climate made winters mild but allowed infectious diseases to flourish. Consequently, disease killed more soldiers than died in combat. Two-thirds of soldiers' deaths occurred due to disease. River system In peacetime, the vast system of navigable rivers allowed for cheap and easy transportation of farm products. The railroad system, built as a supplement, tied plantation areas to the nearest river or seaport. The vast geography of the Confederacy made logistics difficult for the Union, and the Union armies assigned many of their soldiers to garrison captured areas and to protect rail lines. Nevertheless, the Union Navy had seized most of the navigable rivers by 1862, making its own logistics easy and Confederate movements difficult. After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, it became impossible for Confederate units to cross the Mississippi: Union gunboats constantly patrolled the river. The South thus lost the use of its western regions. Railroad system The outbreak of war had a depressing effect on the economic fortunes of the railroad system in Confederate territory. The hoarding of the cotton crop in an attempt to entice European intervention left railroads bereft of their main source of income. Charles W. Ramsdell The Confederate Government and the Railroads The American Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 4 (July, 1917), p. 795. Many had to lay off employees, and in particular, let go skilled technicians and engineers. For the early years of the war, the Confederate government had a hands-off approach to the railroads. Only in mid-1863 did the Confederate government initiate an overall policy, and it was confined solely to aiding the war effort. Mary Elizabeth Massey Ersatz in the Confederacy University of South Carolina Press, Columbia. 1952 p. 128. With the legislation of impressment the same year, rail roads and their rolling stock, came under the defacto control of the military. In the last year before the end of the war, the Confederate railroad system stood permanently on the verge of collapse. The impressment policy of Quarter-master's ran the rails ragged; feeder lines would be scraped in order to lay down replacement steel for trunk lines, and the continual use of rolling stock wore them down faster than they could be replaced. Charles W. Ramsdell The Confederate Government and the Railroads The American Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 4 (July, 1917), pp. 809-810. Rural/urban configuration The area claimed by the Confederate States of America consisted overwhelmingly of rural land. Few urban areas had populations of more than 1,000 — the typical county seat had a population of fewer than 500 people. Cities occurred rarely. Of the ten largest U.S. cities in the 1860 census, only New Orleans lay in Confederate territory — and the Union captured New Orleans in 1862. Only 13 Confederate cities ranked among the top 100 U.S. cities in 1860, most of them ports whose economic activities vanished or suffered severely in the Union blockade. The population of Richmond swelled after it became the national capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864 (Dabney 1990:182). Other large Southern cities: (Baltimore, St. Louis, Louisville, and Washington, as well as Wheeling, West Virginia, and Alexandria, Virginia) never came under the control of the Confederate government. The cities of the Confederacy included most prominently in order of size of population: # City 1860 population 1860 U.S. rank Return to U.S. control 1. New Orleans, Louisiana 168,675 6 1862 2. Charleston, South Carolina 40,522 22 1865 3. Richmond, Virginia 37,910 25 1865 4. Mobile, Alabama 29,258 27 1865 5. Memphis, Tennessee 22,623 38 1862 6. Savannah, Georgia 22,292 41 1864 7. Petersburg, Virginia 18,266 50 1865 8. Nashville, Tennessee 16,988 54 1862 9. Norfolk, Virginia 14,620 61 1862 10. Augusta, Georgia 12,493 77 1865 11. Columbus, Georgia 9,621 97 1865 12. Atlanta, Georgia 9,554 99 1864 13. Wilmington, North Carolina 9,553 100 1865 (See also Atlanta in the Civil War, Charleston, South Carolina, in the Civil War, Nashville in the Civil War, New Orleans in the Civil War, Wilmington, North Carolina, in the American Civil War, and Richmond in the Civil War). Economy The Confederacy started its existence as an agrarian economy with exports, to a world market, of cotton, and, to a lesser extent, tobacco and sugarcane. Local food production included grains, hogs, cattle, and gardens. The 11 states produced $155 million in manufactured goods in 1860, chiefly from local grist-mills, and lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and naval stores such as turpentine. By the 1830s the 11 states produced more cotton than all of the other countries in the world combined. The CSA adopted a low tariff of 15 per cent, but imposed it on all imports from other countries, including the Union states. Tariff of the Confederate States of America, May 21, 1861. The tariff mattered little; the Union blockade minimized commercial traffic through the Confederacy's ports, and very few people paid taxes on goods smuggled from the Union states. The government collected about $3.5 million in tariff revenue from the start of their war against the Union to late 1864. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which led to high inflation. The requirements of its military encouraged the Confederate government to take a dirigiste-style approach to industrialization. But such efforts faced setbacks: Union raids and in particular Sherman's scorched-earth campaigning destroyed much economic infrastructure. Demographics The United States Census of 1860 http://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/decennial/1860.htm gives a picture of the overall 1860 population of the areas that joined the Confederacy. Note that population-numbers exclude non-assimilated Indian tribes. State TotalPopulation Total# ofSlaves Total# ofHouseholds TotalFreePopulation Total # Form available for viewing at http://c.ancestry.com/pdf/trees/charts/1860Slave.pdf shows how data on slave ownership was collected. Slaveholders % of FreePopulationOwningSlaves Calculated by dividing the number of owners (obtained via the census) by the number of free persons. Slavesas % ofPopulation Totalfreecolored Alabama 964,201 435,080 96,603 529,121 33,730 6% 45%2,690 Arkansas 435,450 111,115 57,244 324,335 11,481 4% 26%144 Florida 140,424 61,745 15,090 78,679 5,152 7% 44%932 Georgia 1,057,286 462,198 109,919 595,088 41,084 7% 44%3,500 Louisiana 708,002 331,726 74,725 376,276 22,033 6% 47%18,647 Mississippi 791,305 436,631 63,015 354,674 30,943 9% 55%773 North Carolina 992,622 331,059 125,090 661,563 34,658 5% 33%30,463 South Carolina 703,708 402,406 58,642 301,302 26,701 9% 57%9,914 Tennessee 1,109,801 275,719 149,335 834,082 36,844 4% 25%7,300 Texas 604,215 182,566 76,781 421,649 21,878 5% 30%355 Virginia 1,596,318 490,865 201,523 1,105,453 52,128 5% 31%58,042 Total 9,103,332 3,521,110 1,027,967 5,582,222 316,632 6% 39%132,760 (Figures for Virginia include the future West Virginia.) Age structure 0–14 years 15–59 years 60 years and over TotalWhite males 43% 52% 4%White females 44% 52% 4%Male slaves 44% 51% 4%Female slaves 45% 51% 3%Free black males 45% 50% 5%Free black females 40% 54% 6%Total population 44% 52% 4% (Rows may not total to 100% due to rounding) In 1860 the areas that later formed the eleven Confederate States (and including the future West Virginia) had 132,760 (1.46%) free blacks. Males made up 49.2% of the total population and females 50.8% (whites: 48.60% male, 51.40% female; slaves: 50.15% male, 49.85% female; free blacks: 47.43% male, 52.57% female). All data for this section taken from the University of Virginia Library, Historical Census Browser, Census Data for Year 1860. Armed forces Navy Jack of the CSA The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised three branches: Confederate States Army Confederate States Navy Confederate States Marine Corps The Confederate military leadership included many veterans from the United States Army and United States Navy who had resigned their Federal commissions and had won appointment to senior positions in the Confederate armed forces. Many had served in the Mexican-American War (including Robert E. Lee and Jefferson Davis), but others had little or no military experience (such as Leonidas Polk, who had attended West Point but did not graduate.) The Confederate officer corps consisted in part of young men from slave-owning families, but many came from non-owners. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, many colleges of the South (such as the The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that were seen as a training ground for Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established at Drewry’s Bluff, Virginia 1862blackCSN. in 1863, but no midshipmen had graduated by the time the Confederacy collapsed. The soldiers of the Confederate armed forces consisted mainly of white males aged between sixteen and twenty-eight. The Confederacy adopted conscription in 1862. Many thousands of slaves served as laborers, cooks, and pioneers. Some freed blacks and men of color served in local state militia units of the Confederacy, primarily in Louisiana and South Carolina, but their officers deployed them for "local defense, not combat." Rubin p. 104. Depleted by casualties and desertions, the military suffered chronic manpower shortages. In the spring of 1865 the Confederate Congress, influenced by the public support by General Lee, approved the recruitment of black infantry units. Contrary to Lee’s and Davis’s recommendations, the Congress refused “to guarantee the freedom of black volunteers.” No more than two hundred black troops were ever raised. Levine pp. 146-147. Military leaders Military leaders of the Confederacy (with their state or country of birth and highest rank) Eicher, Civil War High Commands. included: General Robert E. Lee: for many, the face of the Confederate army Robert E. Lee (Virginia) - General and General-in-Chief (1865) Albert Sidney Johnston (Kentucky) - General Joseph E. Johnston (Virginia) - General Braxton Bragg (North Carolina) - General P.G.T. Beauregard (Louisiana) - General Richard S. Ewell (Virginia) - Lieutenant General Samuel Cooper (New York) - General (Adjutant General and highest ranking general in the Army); not in combat James Longstreet (South Carolina) - Lieutenant General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson (Virginia now West Virginia)- Lieutenant General John Hunt Morgan (Kentucky) - Brigadier General A.P. Hill (Virginia) - Lieutenant General John Bell Hood (Kentucky) - Lieutenant General Wade Hampton III (South Carolina) - Lieutenant General Nathan Bedford Forrest (Tennessee) - Lieutenant General John Singleton Mosby, the "Grey Ghost of the Confederacy" (Virginia) - Colonel J.E.B. Stuart (Virginia) - Major General Edward Porter Alexander (Georgia) - Brigadier General Franklin Buchanan (Maryland) - Admiral Raphael Semmes (Maryland) - Rear Admiral (Brigadier General) Josiah Tattnall (Georgia) - Commodore Stand Watie (Georgia) - Brigadier General (last to surrender) Leonidas Polk (North Carolina) - Lieutenant General Sterling Price (Virginia) - Major General Jubal Anderson Early (Virginia) - Lieutenant General Richard Taylor (Kentucky) - Lieutenant General (Son of U.S. President Zachary Taylor) Lloyd J. Beall (South Carolina) - Colonel - Commandant of the Confederate States Marine Corps William Lamb (Virginia) - Colonel — Commandant of Fort Fisher Stephen Dodson Ramseur (North Carolina) Major General Camille Armand Jules Marie, Prince de Polignac (France) Major General John Austin Wharton (Tennessee) Major General Thomas L. Rosser (Virginia) Major General Patrick Cleburne (Ireland) Brigadier General Table of CSA states State Flag http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Confederate_States_of_America#flags Secession ordinance Admitted C.S.A. Under predominantUnion control Readmitted torepresentationin Congress South Carolina December 20, 1860 February 8, 1861 1865 July 9, 1868 Mississippi January 9, 1861 February 8, 1861 1863 February 23, 1870 Florida (unofficial) January 10, 1861 February 8, 1861 1865 June 25, 1868 Alabama January 11, 1861 February 8, 1861 1865 July 13, 1868 Georgia January 19, 1861 February 8, 1861 1865 1st Date July 21, 1868;2nd Date July 15, 1870 Louisiana January 26, 1861 February 8, 1861 1863 July 9, 1868 Texas February 1, 1861 March 2, 1861 1865 March 30, 1870 Virginia April 17, 1861 May 7, 1861 1865;(1862/63 for West Virginia) January 26, 1870 Arkansas May 6, 1861 May 18, 1861 1864 June 22, 1868 North Carolina May 20, 1861 May 21, 1861 1865 July 4, 1868 Tennessee June 8, 1861 July 2, 1861 1863 July 24, 1866 Missouri (exiled government) October 31, 1861 November 28, 1861 1861 Unionist govt. appointed by Missouri Constitutional Convention 1861 Kentucky (Russellville Convention) November 20, 1861 December 10, 1861 1861 Elected Union and unelected rump Confederate governments from 1861 Arizona Territory (Mesilla government) March 16, 1861 February 14, 1862 1862 (Not a state) See also 38th United States Congress Burr conspiracy Conclusion of the American Civil War Confederados Confederate colonies Confederate Patent Office Confederate States of America dollar Flags of the Confederate States of America Golden Circle (Slavery) History of the Southern United States Military of the Confederate States of America Origins of the American Civil War Seal of the Confederate States of America Southern United States Stamps and postal history of the Confederate States Triangular Trade United States presidential election, 1864 References Bowman, John S. (ed), The Civil War Almanac, New York: Bison Books, 1983 Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3 Wilentz, Sean, The Rise of American Democracy, W.W. Norton & Co., ISBN 0-393-32921-6 Bibliography Cooper, William J. Jr. Jefferson Davis, American. (2000) Coski, John. The Confederate Battle Flag. (2005) Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis. (1989) ISBN 0-8078-1809-7. Current, Richard N., ed. Encyclopedia of the Confederacy (4 vol), 1993. 1900 pages, articles by scholars. Davis, William C. "A Government of Our Own". (1994) ISBN 0-8071-2177-0 Downing, David C. A South Divided: Portraits of Dissent in the Confederacy. Nashville: Cumberland House, 2007. ISBN 978-1-58182-587-9 Faust, Drew Gilpin. The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South. (1988) Faust, Patricia L. ed, Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War, 1986 Goen, C.C. “Broken Churches, Broken Nation: Regional Religion and North-South Alienation in Antebellum America” Church History, Vol. 52, No.1 (March, 1983) pp. 21–35 JSTOR Gallagher, Gary W. The Confederate War (1997) ISBN 0-674-16055-X Heidler, David S., et al. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, 2002 2400 pages (ISBN 0-393-04758-X) Kull, Irving Stoddard “Presbyterian Attitudes toward Slavery” Church History, Vol. 7, No. 2, (June 1938), pp. 101–114 JSTOR Levine, Bruce Confederate Emancipation. (2006) Levine, Bruce Half Slave and Half Free: The Roots of Civil War (1992) ISBN 10: 0809053527 McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom. (1988) Rubin, Sarah Anne A Shattered Nation: The Rise & Fall of the Confederacy 1861-1868 (2005) Sinha, Manish The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina (2000) ISBN 0-8078-2571-9 Smylie, James H. "A Brief History of the Presbyterians" (1996) Stampp, Kenneth M. The Peculiar Institution (1956) 1989 Edition ISBN 0-679-72307-2 Woodworth, Steven E. ed. The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research, 1996 750 pages of historiography and bibliography Economic and social history see Economy of the Confederate States of America Black, Robert C., III. The Railroads of the Confederacy, 1988. Clinton, Catherine, and Silber, Nina, eds. Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War, 1992 Dabney, Virginius Richmond: The Story of a City. Charlottesville: The University of Virginia Press, 1990 ISBN 0-8139-1274-1 Faust, Drew Gilpin Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War, 1996 Faust, Drew Gilpin. The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South, 1988. Grimsley, Mark The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy toward Southern Civilians, 1861-1865, 1995 Lentz, Perry Carlton Our Missing Epic: A Study in the Novels about the American Civil War, 1970 Massey, Mary Elizabeth Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War, 1966 Massey, Mary Elizabeth Refugee Life in the Confederacy, 1964 Rable, George C. Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism, 1989 Ramsdell, Charles. Behind the Lines in the Southern Confederacy, 1994. Roark, James L. Masters without Slaves: Southern Planters in the Civil War and Reconstruction, 1977. Rubin, Anne Sarah. A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861-1868, 2005 A cultural study of Confederates' self images Thomas, Emory M. The Confederacy as a Revolutionary Experience, 1992 Wiley, Bell Irwin Confederate Women, 1975 Wiley, Bell Irwin The Plain People of the Confederacy, 1944 Woodward, C. Vann, ed. Mary Chesnut's Civil War, 1981 Politics Alexander, Thomas B., and Beringer, Richard E. The Anatomy of the Confederate Congress: A Study of the Influences of Member Characteristics on Legislative Voting Behavior, 1861-1865, 1972 Boritt, Gabor S., et al., Why the Confederacy Lost, 1992 Cooper, William J, Jefferson Davis, American, 2000 Standard biography Coulter, E. Merton The Confederate States of America, 1861-1865, 1950 Eaton, Clement A History of the Southern Confederacy, 1954 Eckenrode, H. J., Jefferson Davis: President of the South, 1923 Gallgher, Gary W., The Confederate War, 1999 Neely, Mark E., Jr., Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties, 1993 Rembert, W. Patrick Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet, 1944. Rable, George C., The Confederate Republic: A Revolution against Politics, 1994 Roland, Charles P. The Confederacy, 1960 brief Thomas, Emory M. Confederate Nation: 1861-1865, 1979 Standard political-economic-social history Wakelyn, Jon L. Biographical Dictionary of the Confederacy Greenwood Press ISBN 0-8371-6124-X Williams, William M. Justice in Grey: A History of the Judicial System of the Confederate States of America, 1941 Yearns, Wilfred Buck The Confederate Congress, 1960 Primary sources Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006 Davis, Jefferson, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (2 vols), 1881. Harwell, Richard B., The Confederate Reader (1957) Jones, John B. A Rebel War Clerk's Diary at the Confederate States Capital, edited by Howard Swiggert, [1935] 1993. 2 vols. Richardson, James D., ed. A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, Including the Diplomatic Correspondence 1861-1865, 2 volumes, 1906. Yearns, W. Buck and Barret, John G.,eds. North Carolina Civil War Documentary, 1980. Confederate official government documents major online collection of complete texts in HTML format, from University of North Carolina Journal of the Congress of the Confederate States of America, 1861-1865 (7 vols), 1904. Available online at the Library of Congress Journal of the Confederate Congress Home Page: U.S. Congressional Documents. Notes External links The McGavock Confederate Cemetery at Franklin, TN Confederate offices Index of Politicians by Office Held or Sought Civil War Research & Discussion Group -*Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms, 1861 The Countryman, 1862-1866, published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared The Making of the Confederate Constitution, by A. L. Hull, 1905. Confederate Currency Photographs of the original Confederate Constitution and other Civil War documents owned by the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Georgia Libraries. Photographic History of the Civil War, 10 vols., 1912. DocSouth: Documenting the American South - numerous online text, image, and audio collections. Confederate States of America: A Register of Its Records in the Library of Congress Abbeville's Confederate Colonels Historical Marker Burt Stark House / Jefferson Davis's Flight The First Organized Meeting Advocating the Right of a State to Secede from the Union Historical Marker Thus Secession Had its Birth Historical Marker Last Cabinet Meeting Historical Marker Secession Hill Historical Marker Images of Georgia's Ordinance of Secession, Confederate Pension Records, and Muster Rolls from the collection of the Georgia Archives. | Confederate_States_of_America |@lemmatized confederate:183 state:166 america:33 also:17 call:10 confederacy:75 csa:14 form:7 government:46 set:2 eleven:3 southern:32 slave:18 united:30 previously:1 declare:10 secession:46 de:3 facto:2 control:15 claimed:1 territory:21 vary:2 course:2 american:25 civil:41 war:84 depend:3 success:1 military:24 assert:2 right:17 secede:14 seven:4 independence:5 inauguration:1 abraham:4 lincoln:15 president:22 march:10 four:8 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4,036 | Cogency | An argument is cogent if and only if the truth of the argument's premises would render the truth of the conclusion probable (i.e., the argument is strong), and the argument's premises are, in fact, true. Cogency can be considered inductive logic's analogue to deductive logic's "soundness." As an example, consider the following. Without looking, Lauren pulled out 100 marbles from a bag; 95 of the marbles Lauren pulled out were red. Therefore, the next marble Lauren pulls out from the bag will be red. The truth of the premises would, indeed, make the conclusion probable. Therefore, this argument is strong. If the premises are, in fact, true, then the argument is also cogent. "Probable" There is no standard of how likely an event must be for it to be called "probable." Just as there are degrees of probability, one can also speak of degrees of cogency. The degree of an argument's cogency, then, is a function of the argument's strength. In the above example, Lauren pulling out a 96th marble that turns out to be red would make the conclusion even more likely, and therefore the argument stronger. Note that this feature of cogency is a disanalogy from deductive logic's "validity," since a deductive argument can be either valid or invalid and nothing in between. Good argument For an argument to qualify as a good argument, it is necessary that the argument be sound or cogent. But soundness or cogency need not be sufficient for a good argument. For example, a circular argument can be a sound argument, but it is certainly not good. Similarly, a cogent argument might nonetheless beg the question. In order for a cogent argument to be a good argument, the premises of the argument would have to satisfy additional conditions, such as being acceptable in the context of discussion, and being relevant to the conclusion. See also Explanation Inductive reasoning Soundness Validity (logic) | Cogency |@lemmatized argument:21 cogent:5 truth:3 premise:5 would:4 render:1 conclusion:4 probable:4 e:1 strong:2 fact:2 true:2 cogency:5 consider:2 inductive:2 logic:4 analogue:1 deductive:3 soundness:3 example:3 following:1 without:1 look:1 lauren:4 pull:4 marble:4 bag:2 red:3 therefore:3 next:1 indeed:1 make:2 also:3 standard:1 likely:2 event:1 must:1 call:1 degree:3 probability:1 one:1 speak:1 function:1 strength:1 turn:1 even:1 stronger:1 note:1 feature:1 disanalogy:1 validity:2 since:1 either:1 valid:1 invalid:1 nothing:1 good:5 qualify:1 necessary:1 sound:2 need:1 sufficient:1 circular:1 certainly:1 similarly:1 might:1 nonetheless:1 beg:1 question:1 order:1 satisfy:1 additional:1 condition:1 acceptable:1 context:1 discussion:1 relevant:1 see:1 explanation:1 reasoning:1 |@bigram inductive_reasoning:1 |
4,037 | Code | In communications, a code is a rule for converting a piece of information (for example, a letter, word, phrase, or gesture) into another form or representation (one sign into another sign), not necessarily of the same type. In communications and information processing, encoding is the process by which information from a source is converted into symbols to be communicated. Decoding is the reverse process, converting these code symbols back into information understandable by a receiver. One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary spoken or written language is difficult or impossible. For example, semaphore, where the configuration of flags held by a signaller or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters and numbers. Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent. In the history of cryptography, codes were once common for ensuring the confidentiality of communications, although ciphers are now used instead. See code (cryptography). Codes in communication used for brevity A cable code replaces words (e.g., ship or invoice) into shorter words, allowing the same information to be sent with fewer characters, more quickly, and most important, less expensively. Code can be used for brevity. When telegraph messages were the state of the art in rapid long distance communication, elaborate commercial codes which encoded complete phrases into single words (commonly five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO ("Are you trying to weasel out of our deal?"), LIOUY ("Why do you not answer my question?"), BMULD ("You're a skunk!"), or AYYLU ("Not clearly coded, repeat more clearly."). Code words were chosen for various reasons: length, pronounceability, etc. Meanings were chosen to fit perceived needs: commercial negotiations, military terms for military codes, diplomatic terms for diplomatic codes, any and all of the preceding for espionage codes. Codebooks and codebook publishers proliferated, including one run as a front for the American Black Chamber run by Herbert Yardley between WWI and WWII. The purpose of most of these codes was to save on cable costs. The use of data coding for data compression predates the computer era; an early example is the telegraph Morse code where more frequently-used characters have shorter representations. Techniques such as Huffman coding are now used by computer-based algorithms to compress large data files into a more compact form for storage or transmission. An example: the ASCII code Probably the most widely known data communications code (aka character representation) in use today is ASCII. In one or another (somewhat compatible) version, it is used by nearly all personal computers, terminals, printers, and other communication equipment. It represents 128 characters with seven-bit binary numbers—that is, as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In ASCII a lowercase "a" is always 1100001, an uppercase "A" always 1000001, and so on. Successors to ASCII have included 8-bit characters (for letters of European languages and such things as card suit symbols), and in fullest flowering have included characters from essentially all of the world's writing systems (see Unicode and UTF-8). Codes to detect or correct errors Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant to errors in transmission or storage. Such a "code" is called an error-correcting code, and works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored (or transmitted) data. Examples include Hamming codes, Reed–Solomon, Reed–Muller, Bose–Chaudhuri–Hochquenghem, Turbo, Golay, Goppa, low-density parity-check codes, and space–time codes. Error detecting codes can be optimised to detect burst errors, or random errors. Codes and acronyms Acronyms and abbreviations can be considered codes, and in a sense all languages and writing systems are codes for human thought. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word. For example, '30' was widely used in journalism to mean "end of story", and it is sometimes used in other contexts to signify "the end". Coupon Codes In marketing, coupon codes can be used for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product from an internet retailer. Coupon codes are also referred to as "promotional codes," "promotion codes," "discount codes," "key codes," "promo codes," "shopping codes," "voucher codes" or "source codes." The History of Coupons Gödel code In mathematics, a Gödel code was the basis for the proof of Gödel's incompleteness theorem. Here, the idea was to map mathematical notation to a natural number (a Gödel number). References See also Asemic writing Semiotics Equipment codes | Code |@lemmatized communication:8 code:43 rule:1 convert:3 piece:1 information:5 example:6 letter:4 word:9 phrase:3 gesture:1 another:4 form:2 representation:3 one:4 sign:2 necessarily:1 type:1 processing:1 encode:3 process:2 source:2 symbol:1 communicate:1 decoding:1 reverse:1 symbols:2 back:1 understandable:1 receiver:1 reason:2 coding:1 enable:1 place:1 ordinary:1 spoken:1 write:4 language:3 difficult:1 impossible:1 semaphore:2 configuration:1 flag:2 hold:1 signaller:1 arm:1 tower:1 part:1 message:2 typically:1 individual:1 number:4 person:1 stand:1 great:1 distance:2 away:1 interpret:1 reproduce:1 send:2 history:2 cryptography:2 common:1 ensure:1 confidentiality:1 although:1 cipher:1 use:12 instead:1 see:3 brevity:2 cable:2 replaces:1 e:1 g:1 ship:1 invoice:1 shorter:1 allow:1 character:6 quickly:1 important:1 less:1 expensively:1 telegraph:2 state:1 art:1 rapid:1 long:1 elaborate:1 commercial:2 complete:1 single:1 commonly:1 five:1 group:1 develop:1 telegrapher:1 become:1 conversant:1 byoxo:1 try:1 weasel:1 deal:1 liouy:1 answer:1 question:1 bmuld:1 skunk:1 ayylu:1 clearly:2 cod:3 repeat:1 choose:2 various:1 length:1 pronounceability:1 etc:1 meaning:2 fit:1 perceived:1 need:1 negotiation:1 military:2 term:2 diplomatic:2 precede:1 espionage:1 codebooks:1 codebook:1 publisher:1 proliferate:1 include:5 run:2 front:1 american:1 black:1 chamber:1 herbert:1 yardley:1 wwi:1 wwii:1 purpose:1 save:1 cost:1 data:6 compression:1 predate:1 computer:3 era:1 early:1 morse:1 frequently:1 short:1 technique:1 huffman:1 base:1 algorithm:1 compress:1 large:1 file:1 compact:1 storage:2 transmission:2 ascii:4 probably:1 widely:2 know:1 aka:1 today:1 somewhat:1 compatible:1 version:1 nearly:1 personal:1 terminal:1 printer:1 equipment:2 represent:2 seven:2 bit:2 binary:1 string:1 lowercase:1 always:2 uppercase:1 successor:1 european:1 thing:1 card:1 suit:1 full:1 flowering:1 essentially:1 world:1 system:2 unicode:1 utf:1 detect:3 correct:1 error:6 may:1 also:3 way:1 resistant:1 call:1 correcting:1 work:1 carefully:1 craft:1 redundancy:1 store:1 transmit:1 ham:1 reed:2 solomon:1 muller:1 bose:1 chaudhuri:1 hochquenghem:1 turbo:1 golay:1 goppa:1 low:1 density:1 parity:1 check:1 space:1 time:1 optimise:1 burst:1 random:1 acronyms:1 acronym:1 abbreviation:1 consider:1 sense:1 human:1 thought:1 occasionally:1 achieve:1 independent:1 existence:1 mean:2 original:1 equivalent:1 forget:1 least:1 longer:1 precise:1 attribute:1 journalism:1 end:2 story:1 sometimes:1 context:1 signify:1 coupon:4 marketing:1 financial:1 discount:2 rebate:1 purchase:1 product:1 internet:1 retailer:1 refer:1 promotional:1 promotion:1 key:1 promo:1 shopping:1 voucher:1 gödel:4 mathematics:1 basis:1 proof:1 incompleteness:1 theorem:1 idea:1 map:1 mathematical:1 notation:1 natural:1 reference:1 asemic:1 semiotics:1 |@bigram morse_code:1 huffman_cod:1 error_correcting:1 correcting_code:1 carefully_craft:1 reed_solomon:1 reed_muller:1 acronym_abbreviation:1 gödel_incompleteness:1 incompleteness_theorem:1 asemic_write:1 |
4,038 | Geodesy | An old geodetic pillar (1855) at Ostend, Belgium A Munich archive with lithography plates of maps of Bavaria Geodesy ( OED ), also called geodetics, a branch of earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space. Geodesists also study geodynamical phenomena such as crustal motion, tides, and polar motion. For this they design global and national control networks, using space and terrestrial techniques while relying on datums and coordinate systems. Definition Geodesy (from Greek γεωδαισία - geodaisia, lit. "division of the Earth") is primarily concerned with positioning within the temporally varying gravity field. Somewhat obsolete nowadays, geodesy in the German speaking world is divided into "Higher Geodesy" ("Erdmessung" or "höhere Geodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring the Earth on the global scale, and "Practical Geodesy" or "Engineering Geodesy" ("Ingenieurgeodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring specific parts or regions of the Earth, and which includes surveying. The shape of the Earth is to a large extent the result of its rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geological processes such as the collision of plates and of vulcanism, resisted by the Earth's gravity field. This applies to the solid surface, the liquid surface (dynamic sea surface topography) and the Earth's atmosphere. For this reason, the study of the Earth's gravity field is called physical geodesy by some. History Geoid and reference ellipsoid The geoid is essentially the figure of the Earth abstracted from its topographical features. It is an idealized equilibrium surface of sea water, the mean sea level surface in the absence of currents, air pressure variations etc. and continued under the continental masses. The geoid, unlike ellipsoid, is irregular and too complicated to serve as the computational surface on which to solve geometrical problems like point positioning. The geometrical separation between the geoid and the reference ellipsoid is called the geoidal undulation. It varies globally between ±110 m. A reference ellipsoid, customarily chosen to be the same size (volume) as the geoid, is described by its semi-major axis (equatorial radius) a and flattening f. The quantity f = (a−b)/a, where b is the semi-minor axis (polar radius), is a purely geometrical one. The mechanical ellipticity of the Earth (dynamical flattening, symbol J2) can be determined to high precision by observation of satellite orbit perturbations. Its relationship with the geometrical flattening is indirect. The relationship depends on the internal density distribution, or, in simplest terms, the degree of central concentration of mass. The 1980 Geodetic Reference System (GRS80) posited a 6,378,137 m semi-major axis and a 1:298.257 flattening. This system was adopted at the XVII General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). It is essentially the basis for geodetic positioning by the Global Positioning System and is thus also in extremely widespread use outside the geodetic community. The numerous other systems which have been used by diverse countries for their maps and charts are gradually dropping out of use as more and more countries move to global, geocentric reference systems using the GRS80 reference ellipsoid. Coordinate systems in space The locations of points in three-dimensional space are most conveniently described by three cartesian or rectangular coordinates, and . Since the advent of satellite positioning, such coordinate systems are typically geocentric: the axis is aligned with the Earth's (conventional or instantaneous) rotation axis. Prior to satellite geodesy era, the coordinate systems associated with a geodetic datum attempted to be geocentric, but their origins differed from the geocentre by hundreds of metres, due to regional deviations in the direction of the plumbline (vertical). These regional geodetic datums, such as ED50 (European Datum 1950) or NAD83 (North American Datum 1983) have ellipsoids associated with them that are regional 'best fits' to the geoids within their areas of validity, minimising the deflections of the vertical over these areas. It is only because GPS satellites orbit about the geocentre, that this point becomes naturally the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite positions in space are themselves computed in such a system. Geocentric coordinate systems used in geodesy can be divided naturally into two classes: Inertial reference systems, where the coordinate axes retain their orientation relative to the fixed stars, or equivalently, to the rotation axes of ideal gyroscopes; the axis points to the vernal equinox Co-rotating, also ECEF ("Earth Centred, Earth Fixed"), where the axes are attached to the solid body of the Earth. The axis lies within the Greenwich observatory's meridian plane. The coordinate transformation between these two systems is described to good approximation by (apparent) sidereal time, which takes into account variations in the Earth's axial rotation (length-of-day variations). A more accurate description also takes polar motion into account, a phenomenon closely monitored by geodesists. Coordinate systems in the plane In surveying and mapping, important fields of application of geodesy, two general types of coordinate systems are used in the plane: Plano-polar, in which points in a plane are defined by a distance from a specified point along a ray having a specified direction with respect to a base line or axis; Rectangular, points are defined by distances from two perpendicular axes called and . It is geodetic practice — contrary to the mathematical convention — to let the axis point to the North and the axis to the East. Rectangular coordinates in the plane can be used intuitively with respect to one's current location, in which case the axis will point to the local North. More formally, such coordinates can be obtained from three-dimensional coordinates using the artifice of a map projection. It is not possible to map the curved surface of the Earth onto a flat map surface without deformation. The compromise most often chosen — called a conformal projection — preserves angles and length ratios, so that small circles are mapped as small circles and small squares as squares. An example of such a projection is UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator). Within the map plane, we have rectangular coordinates and . In this case the North direction used for reference is the map North, not the local North. The difference between the two is called meridian convergence. It is easy enough to "translate" between polar and rectangular coordinates in the plane: let, as above, direction and distance be and respectively, then we have The reverse transformation is given by: Heights In geodesy, point or terrain heights are "above sea level", an irregular, physically defined surface. Therefore a height should ideally not be referred to as a coordinate. It is more like a physical quantity, and though it can be tempting to treat height as the vertical coordinate , in addition to the horizontal coordinates and , and though this actually is a good approximation of physical reality in small areas, it quickly becomes invalid for regional considerations. Heights come in the following variants: Orthometric heights Normal heights Geopotential heights Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Both orthometric and normal heights are heights in metres above sea level, whereas geopotential numbers are measures of potential energy (unit: m² s−2) and not metric. Orthometric and normal heights differ in the precise way in which mean sea level is conceptually continued under the continental masses. The reference surface for orthometric heights is the geoid, an equipotential surface approximating mean sea level. None of these heights is in any way related to geodetic or ellipsoidial heights, which express the height of a point above the reference ellipsoid. Satellite positioning receivers typically provide ellipsoidal heights, unless they are fitted with special conversion software based on a model of the geoid. Geodetic data Because geodetic point coordinates (and heights) are always obtained in a system that has been constructed itself using real observations, geodesists introduce the concept of a geodetic datum: a physical realization of a coordinate system used for describing point locations. The realization is the result of choosing conventional coordinate values for one or more datum points. In the case of height datums, it suffices to choose one datum point: the reference bench mark, typically a tide gauge at the shore. Thus we have vertical datums like the NAP (Normaal Amsterdams Peil), the North American Vertical Datum 1988 (NAVD88), the Kronstadt datum, the Trieste datum, and so on. In case of plane or spatial coordinates, we typically need several datum points. A regional, ellipsoidal datum like ED50 can be fixed by prescribing the undulation of the geoid and the deflection of the vertical in one datum point, in this case the Helmert Tower in Potsdam. However, an overdetermined ensemble of datum points can also be used. Changing the coordinates of a point set referring to one datum, so to make them refer to another datum, is called a datum transformation. In the case of vertical datums, this consists of simply adding a constant shift to all height values. In the case of plane or spatial coordinates, datum transformation takes the form of a similarity or Helmert transformation, consisting of a rotation and scaling operation in addition to a simple translation. In the plane, a Helmert transformation has four parameters; in space, seven. A note on terminology In the abstract, a coordinate system as used in mathematics and geodesy is, e.g., in ISO terminology, referred to as a coordinate system. International geodetic organizations like the IERS (International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service) speak of a reference system. When these coordinates are realized by choosing datum points and fixing a geodetic datum, ISO uses the terminology coordinate reference system, while IERS speaks of a reference frame. A datum transformation again is referred to by ISO as a coordinate transformation. (ISO 19111: Spatial referencing by coordinates). Point positioning Geodetic Control Mark (example of a deep benchmark) Point positioning is the determination of the coordinates of a point on land, at sea, or in space with respect to a coordinate system. Point position is solved by computation from measurements linking the known positions of terrestrial or extraterrestrial points with the unknown terrestrial position. This may involve transformations between or among astronomical and terrestrial coordinate systems. The known points used for point positioning can be triangulation points of a higher order network, or GPS satellites. Traditionally, a hierarchy of networks has been built to allow point positioning within a country. Highest in the hierarchy were triangulation networks. These were densified into networks of traverses (polygons), into which local mapping surveying measurements, usually with measuring tape, corner prism and the familiar red and white poles, are tied. Nowadays all but special measurements (e.g., underground or high precision engineering measurements) are performed with GPS. The higher order networks are measured with static GPS, using differential measurement to determine vectors between terrestrial points. These vectors are then adjusted in traditional network fashion. A global polyhedron of permanently operating GPS stations under the auspices of the IERS is used to define a single global, geocentric reference frame which serves as the "zero order" global reference to which national measurements are attached. For surveying mappings, frequently Real Time Kinematic GPS is employed, tying in the unknown points with known terrestrial points close by in real time. One purpose of point positioning is the provision of known points for mapping measurements, also known as (horizontal and vertical) control. In every country, thousands of such known points exist and are normally documented by the national mapping agencies. Surveyors involved in real estate and insurance will use these to tie their local measurements to. Geodetic problems In geometric geodesy, two standard problems exist: First geodetic problem Given a point (in terms of its coordinates) and the direction (azimuth) and distance from that point to a second point, determine (the coordinates of) that second point. Second (inverse) geodetic problem Given two points, determine the azimuth and length of the line (straight line, arc or geodesic) that connects them. In the case of plane geometry (valid for small areas on the Earth's surface) the solutions to both problems reduce to simple trigonometry. On the sphere, the solution is significantly more complex, e.g., in the inverse problem the azimuths will differ between the two end points of the connecting great circle, arc, i.e. the geodesic. On the ellipsoid of revolution, geodesics may be written in terms of elliptic integrals, which are usually evaluated in terms of a series expansion; for example, see Vincenty's formulae. In the general case, the solution is called the geodesic for the surface considered. The differential equations for the geodesic can be solved numerically. Geodetic observational concepts Here we define some basic observational concepts, like angles and coordinates, defined in geodesy (and astronomy as well), mostly from the viewpoint of the local observer. The plumbline or vertical is the direction of local gravity, or the line that results by following it. It is slightly curved. The zenith is the point on the celestial sphere where the direction of the gravity vector in a point, extended upwards, intersects it. More correct is to call it a <direction> rather than a point. The nadir is the opposite point (or rather, direction), where the direction of gravity extended downward intersects the (invisible) celestial sphere. The celestial horizon is a plane perpendicular to a point's gravity vector. Azimuth is the direction angle within the plane of the horizon, typically counted clockwise from the North (in geodesy and astronomy) or South (in France). Elevation is the angular height of an object above the horizon, Alternatively zenith distance, being equal to 90 degrees minus elevation. Local topocentric coordinates are azimuth (direction angle within the plane of the horizon) and elevation angle (or zenith angle) and distance. The North celestial pole is the extension of the Earth's (precessing and nutating) instantaneous spin axis extended Northward to intersect the celestial sphere. (Similarly for the South celestial pole.) The celestial equator is the intersection of the (instantaneous) Earth equatorial plane with the celestial sphere. A meridian plane is any plane perpendicular to the celestial equator and containing the celestial poles. The local meridian is the plane containing the direction to the zenith and the direction to the celestial pole. Geodetic measurements The level is used for determining height differences and height reference systems, commonly referred to mean sea level. The traditional spirit level produces these practically most useful heights above sea level directly; the more economical use of GPS instruments for height determination requires precise knowledge of the figure of the geoid, as GPS only gives heights above the GRS80 reference ellipsoid. As geoid knowledge accumulates, one may expect use of GPS heighting to spread. The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles to target points. These angles are referred to the local vertical. The tacheometer additionally determines, electronically or electro-optically, the distance to target, and is highly automated to even robotic in its operations. The method of free station position is widely used. For local detail surveys, tacheometers are commonly employed although the old-fashioned rectangular technique using angle prism and steel tape is still an inexpensive alternative. Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS techniques are used as well. Data collected are tagged and recorded digitally for entry into a Geographic Information System (GIS) database. Geodetic GPS receivers produce directly three-dimensional coordinates in a geocentric coordinate frame. Such a frame is, e.g., WGS84, or the frames that are regularly produced and published by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). GPS receivers have almost completely replaced terrestrial instruments for large-scale base network surveys. For Planet-wide geodetic surveys, previously impossible, we can still mention Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) and Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) and Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) techniques. All these techniques also serve to monitor Earth rotation irregularities as well as plate tectonic motions. Gravity is measured using gravimeters. Basically, there are two kinds of gravimeters. Absolute gravimeters, which nowadays can also be used in the field, are based directly on measuring the acceleration of free fall (for example, of a reflecting prism in a vacuum tube). They are used for establishing the vertical geospatial control. Most common relative gravimeters are spring based. They are used in gravity surveys over large areas for establishing the figure of the geoid over these areas. Most accurate relative gravimeters are superconducting gravimeters, and these are sensitive to one thousandth of one billionth of the Earth surface gravity. Twenty-some superconducting gravimeters are used worldwide for studying Earth tides, rotation, interior, and ocean and atmospheric loading, as well as for verifying the Newtonian constant of gravitation. Units and measures on the ellipsoid Geographical latitude and longitude are stated in the units degree, minute of arc, and second of arc. They are angles, not metric measures, and describe the direction of the local normal to the reference ellipsoid of revolution. This is approximately the same as the direction of the plumbline, i.e., local gravity, which is also the normal to the geoid surface. For this reason, astronomical position determination - measuring the direction of the plumbline by astronomical means - works fairly well provided an ellipsoidal model of the figure of the Earth is used. One geographical mile, defined as one minute of arc on the equator, equals 1,855.32571922 m. One nautical mile is one minute of astronomical latitude. The radius of curvature of the ellipsoid varies with latitude, being the longest at the pole and the shortest at the equator as is the nautical mile. A metre was originally defined as the 40-millionth part of the length of a meridian (the target wasn't quite reached in actual implementation, so that is off by 0.02% in the current definitions). This means that one kilometre is roughly equal to (1/40,000) * 360 * 60 meridional minutes of arc, which equals 0.54 nautical mile, though this is not exact because the two units are defined on different bases (the international nautical mile is defined as exactly 1,852 m, corresponding to a rounding of 1000/0.54 m to four digits). Temporal change In geodesy, temporal change can be studied by a variety of techniques. Points on the Earth's surface change their location due to a variety of mechanisms: Continental plate motion, plate tectonics Episodic motion of tectonic origin, esp. close to fault lines Periodic effects due to Earth tides Postglacial land uplift due to isostatic adjustment Various anthropogenic movements due to, for instance, petroleum or water extraction or reservoir construction. The science of studying deformations and motions of the Earth's crust and the solid Earth as a whole is called geodynamics. Often, study of the Earth's irregular rotation is also included in its definition. Techniques for studying geodynamic phenomena on the global scale include: satellite positioning by GPS and other such systems, Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) satellite and lunar laser ranging Regionally and locally, precise levelling, precise tacheometers, monitoring of gravity change, Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) using satellite images, etc. Famous geodesists Mathematical Geodesists before 1900 Pythagoras 580-490 BC, ancient Greece DEFENSE MAPPING AGENCY TECHNICAL REPORT 80-003 Eratosthenes 276-194 BC, ancient Greece Posidonius ca.135-51 BC, ancient Greece Claudius Ptolemy 83–c.168 AD, Roman Empire (Roman Egypt) Abu Rayhan Biruni 973-1048, Khwarezm (Iran/Persia) H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1. A. S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10. Sir George Biddell Airy 1801-1892, Cambridge & London Muhammad al-Idrisi 1100-1166, (Arabia & Sicily) Al-Ma'mun 786-833, Baghdad (Iraq/Mesopotamia) Gerhard Mercator 1512-1594 (Belgium & Germany) Snellius (Willebrord Snel van Royen) 1580-1626, Leiden (Netherlands) Christiaan Huygens 1629-1695 (Netherlands) Pierre de Maupertuis 1698-1759 (France) Pierre Bouguer 1698-1758, (France & Peru) Jean Henri Lambert 1728-1777 (France) Alexis Claude Clairaut 1713-1765 (France) Johann Jacob Baeyer 1794-1885, Berlin (Germany) Karl Maximilian von Bauernfeind, Munich (Germany) Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, Königsberg (Germany) Roger Joseph Boscovich, Rome/ Berlin/ Paris Heinrich Bruns 1848-1919, Berlin (Germany) Alexander Ross Clarke, London (England) Loránd Eötvös 1848-1919 (Hungary) Sir George Everest 1830-1843 (England & India) Hervé Faye 1814-1902 (France) Abel Foullon (France) Carl Friedrich Gauß 1777-1855, Göttingen (Germany) Friedrich Robert Helmert, Potsdam (Germany) Hipparchus, Nicosia (Greece) Pierre-Simon Laplace 1749-1827, Paris (France) Adrien Marie Legendre 1752-1833, Paris (France) Johann Benedikt Listing 1808-1882 (Germany) Friedrich H. C. Paschen, Schwerin (Germany) Charles Sanders Peirce 1839-1914 (United States) Henri Poincaré, Paris (France) J. H. Pratt 1809-1871, London (England) Regiomontanus (Germany/Austria) Georg von Reichenbach 1771-1826, Bavaria (Germany) Heinrich Christian Schumacher 1780-1850 (Germany & Estonia) Johann Georg von Soldner 1776-1833, Munich (Germany) George Gabriel Stokes (England) Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve 1793-1864, Dorpat and Pulkowa/St.-Petersburg (Russia) 20th century Arne Bjerhammar, Stockholm (Sweden) W. Bowie 1872-1940 (USA) John Fillmore Hayford (USA) Veikko Aleksanteri Heiskanen 1895-1971 (Finland & USA) Friedrich Hopfner, Vienna (Austria) Harold Jeffreys, London (England) Karl-Rudolf Koch, Bonn (Germany) Mikhail Sergeevich Molodenskii 1909-1991 (Russia) John A. O'Keefe 1916-2000 (USA) Karl Ramsayer, Stuttgart (Germany) Hellmut Schmid, (Switzerland) Petr Vaníček, Fredericton (Canada) Yrjö Väisälä 1889-1971, (Finland) Felix Andries Vening-Meinesz 1887-1966 (Netherlands) Thaddeus Vincenty, (Poland) Alfred Wegener 1880-1930, (Germany & Greenland) International organizations International Association of Geodesy (IAG) International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) Fédération Internationale des Géomètres (FIG) European Petroleum Survey Group (EPSG) (which despite being officially disbanded in 2005 continues to refine a well tested set of Geodetic Parameters) Governmental agencies National Geodetic Survey (NGS), Silver Spring MD, USA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), Bethesda MD, USA (Previously National Imagery and Mapping Agency NIMA, previously Defense Mapping Agency DMA) U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Reston VA, USA Institut Géographique National (IGN), Saint-Mandé, France Bundesamt für Kartographie und Geodäsie (BKG), Frankfurt a. M., Germany (Previously Institut für Angewandte Geodäsie, IfAG) Central Research Institute for Geodesy, Remote Sensing and Cartography (CNIIGAIK), Moscow, Russia Geodetic Survey Division, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Canada Geoscience Australia, Australian Federal Agency Finnish Geodetic Institute (FGI), Masala, Finland Portuguese Geographic Institute (IGEO), Lisbon, Portugal Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics - IBGE Spanish National Geographic Institute (IGN), Madrid, Spain Land Information New Zealand. Geodesy Division of Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden Note: This list is still largely incomplete. See also Geomatics Physical geodesy Geophysics Surveying Geographical distance IAG ETRS89 GNSS Important publications in geodesy History of geodesy Space techniques World Geodetic System, WGS 84 Geodesic (in mathematics) Geodesic (in physics) Geodetic system Notes References B. Hofmann-Wellenhof and H. Moritz, Physical Geodesy, Springer-Verlag Wien, 2005. (This text is an updated edition of the 1967 classic by W.A. Heiskanen and H. Moritz). Vaníček P. and E.J. Krakiwsky, Geodesy: the Concepts, pp.714, Elsevier, 1986. Thomas H. Meyer, Daniel R. Roman, and David B. Zilkoski. "What does height really mean?" (This is a series of four articles published in Surveying and Land Information Science, SaLIS.) "Part I: Introduction" SaLIS Vol. 64, No. 4, pages 223-233, December 2004. "Part II: Physics and gravity" SaLIS Vol. 65, No. 1, pages 5-15, March 2005. "Part III: Height systems" SaLIS Vol. 66, No. 2, pages 149-160, June 2006. "Part IV: GPS heighting" SaLIS Vol. 66, No. 3, pages 165-183, September 2006. External links International Association of Geodesy (IAG). The Geodesy Page. Geodesy and Geomatics Home Page Welcome to Geodesy MapRef.org: The Collection of Map Projections and Reference Systems for Europe GeometricalGeodesy software for Geodesy calculations Pennsylvania Geospatial Data Sharing Standard - Geodesy and Geodetic Monumentation References on Absolute Gravimeters Vincenty's Direct and Inverse Solutions of Geodesics on the Ellipsoid, in JavaScript Vincenty's Solution of Geodesics on the Ellipsoid, in C# Vincenty's Solution of Geodesics on the Ellipsoid, in Java GeographicLib provides a utility Geod (with source code) for solving direct and inverse geodesic problems. Compared to Vincenty's_formulae, this is about 1000 times more accurate (error = 15 nm) and the inverse solution is complete. 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4,039 | Norman_Foster,_Baron_Foster_of_Thames_Bank | The restored Reichstag in Berlin, housing the German parliament. The dome was built by Foster's redesign. The Hearst Tower in New York City. The Expo MRT Station, part of the Mass Rapid Transit system in Singapore. View of 30 St Mary Axe from street level. The building serves as the London headquarters for Swiss Re and is informally known as "The Gherkin". The Willis Faber and Dumas Headquarters in Ipswich was one of Foster's earliest commissions after founding Foster Associates. Norman Robert Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank, OM, FRIBA, FCSD, RDI, (born 1 June 1935) is a British architect whose company maintains an international design practice. He is Britain's most prolific builder of landmark office buildings. Chris Roberts, Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme, Thorndike Press,2006 (ISBN 0-7862-8517-6) Biography Foster was born in the Reddish area of Stockport, England, to a working-class family. He was naturally gifted and performed well at school and took an interest in architecture, particularly in the works of Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier. Leaving school at 16, he worked in the Manchester City Treasurer's office before joining National Service in the Royal Air Force. After he was discharged, in 1956 Foster attended the University of Manchester's School of Architecture and City Planning (graduating in 1961). Later, he won the Henry Fellowship to the Yale School of Architecture, where he met former business partner Richard Rogers and earned his Master's degree. He then travelled in America for a year, returning to the UK in 1962 where he set up an architectural practice as Team 4 with Rogers and their respective girlfriends, the sisters Georgie and Wendy Cheesman. Georgie (later Wolton) was the only one of the team that had passed her RIBA exams allowing them to set up in practice on their own. Team 4 quickly earned a reputation for high-tech industrial design. Foster and Partners After Team 4 went their separate ways, in 1967 Foster and Wendy Cheeseman founded Foster Associates, which later became Foster and Partners. 1968 saw the beginning of a long period of collaboration with American architect Richard Buckminster Fuller, which continued until Fuller's death in 1983, on several projects that became catalysts in the development of an environmentally sensitive approach to design - including the Samuel Beckett Theatre project. Foster and Partners' breakthrough building in the UK was the Willis Faber & Dumas headquarters in Ipswich, from 1974. The client was a family firm insurance company which wanted to restore a sense of community to the workplace. Foster created open-plan office floors long before open-plan became the norm. In a town not over-endowed with public facilities, the roof gardens, 25m swimming pool and gymnasium greatly enhance the quality of life of the company's 1200 employees. The building is wrapped in a full-height glass facade which moulds itself to the medieval street plan and contributes real drama, subtly shifting from opaque, reflective black to a glowing backlit transparency as the sun sets. The building is now Grade One listed. Present day Today, Foster + Partners works with its engineering collaborators to integrate complex computer systems with the most basic physical laws, such as convection. The approach creates intelligent, efficient structures like the Swiss Re London headquarters at 30 St Mary Axe, nicknamed "The Gherkin", whose complex facade lets in air for passive cooling and then vents it as it warms and rises. Foster's earlier designs reflected a sophisticated, machine-influenced high-tech vision. His style has since evolved into a more sublime, sharp-edged modernity. Foster is currently involved in a dispute with the Couper Collection, a floating art museum near his London offices, regarding his plans to redevelop the area and force removal of the museum's barges. UK Times article UK Observer article Ken Shuttleworth, a senior project architect at Foster and Partners, recently left the firm to set up his own architectural practice, MAKE Architects. MAKE Architects In January 2007, The Sunday Times reported that Foster had called in Catalyst, a corporate finance house, to find buyers for Foster and Partners. Foster does not intend to retire, but sell out his 85%+ holding in the company valued at £300M to £500M. Foster puts £500m firm up for sale Recognition Foster was knighted in 1990 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1997. In 1999, he was created a life peer, as Baron Foster of Thames Bank, of Reddish in the County of Greater Manchester. Announcement of Foster's introduction at the House of Lords He is a cross-bencher. He is the second British architect to win the Stirling Prize twice: the first for the American Hangar at the Imperial War Museum Duxford in 1998, and the second for 30 St Mary Axe in 2004. In consideration of his whole portfolio, Foster was awarded the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1999. He is also a Fellow of the Chartered Society of Designers and winner of the Minerva Medal, the Society's highest award. In Germany Lord Foster received the Order Pour le Mérite. Most recently, in September 2007, Foster was awarded the Aga Khan Award for Architecture, the largest architectural award in the world, for the University of Technology Petronas, in Malaysia. Furthermore, it was announced in January 2008 that Foster was to be awarded an honorary degree from the Dundee School of Architecture at the University of Dundee, a well respected UK school. In 2009 Foster was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award in the categorie Arts. Personal life Foster married business partner Wendy Cheeseman. She died of cancer in 1989, leaving him with four sons. For a while he was linked with BBC newsreader Anna Ford, but he married Indian-born Begum Sabiha Rumani Malik who became his second wife. They met when Sabiha was married to Andrew Knight, then Chairman of News International plc. Foster and Sabiha divorced in 1998, and Foster is presently married to Elena Foster (Ourense, Galicia 1958), Chairman of the Tate International Council, and founder of Ivory Press. Lady Foster of Thames Bank (the former Prof. Dr. Elena Ochoa), is a graduate of University of Madrid, a psychologist, and former journalist, who used to lecture at University of Cambridge and is an expert on Alzheimer's disease. In Spain Miss Ochoa is better known as "La doctora del sexo" after she presented the prime-time TV programme "Hablemos de Sexo" ("Let's Talk About Sex"), in 1990. T Lady Foster bio A qualified pilot, Foster flies his own private jet and helicopter between his home above the London offices of Foster and Partners, as well to his homes in France and Switzerland. In 2007, Foster bought a Swiss 1720s chateau from the German industrialist Charles Grohe, which will become his home from late 2008. Children Son: Jay Foster Daughter: Paola Foster Son: Eduardo Foster Son: Ti Foster Son: Cal Foster 3 children (Ace Foster, Luka Foster, Demyan Foster) Stepdaughter: India Knight Stepdaughter: Amaryllis Knight Stepdaughter: Afsaneh Knight Selected projects Foster has established an extremely prolific career in the span of four decades. The following are some of his major constructions: Proposed or under construction Torre Caja Madrid under construction (September 2008). APIIC Tower,Hyderabad, India (2007-2010) Torre Caja Madrid, Madrid, Spain (2004-2008) Black Sea Gardens, Byala, Bulgaria (2008) Tower, Cork, Republic of Ireland, (2008-2011) Culture and Leisure Centre, Ciudad del Motor de Aragón, Alcañiz, Spain (2007) (competition won) Tivoli Hotel, Copenhagen, Denmark (2010) (competition won) Museum of Aviation, Getafe, Spain (currently in design phase) 200 Greenwich Street, Tower 2 of the planned reconstruction of the World Trade Center in New York City, United States (currently in design phase) Reconstruction of New Holland Island, Saint Petersburg, Russia (ongoing) Russia Tower, Moscow, Russia (2007 – 2011) U2 Tower, Dublin, Ireland (2008-2011) (competition won) Spinningfield Square, Manchester, England (2005 – 2010) Dallas Center for the Performing Arts, Dallas, United States (2009) The Bow, Calgary, Canada (2007-2011) The Troika, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (2004 – 2009) Queen's Dock, Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre, Glasgow, Scotland (2004 – 2007) Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, Middlesex Guildhall, London, United Kingdom (2009) Khan Shatyry in Astana, Kazakhstan. Masdar City, Abu Dhabi (announced 2007) New Yale School of Management campus, New Haven, CT (announced September 4, 2007) Camp Nou stadium, Barcelona, Spain (announced 18 September 2007) Crystal Island, Moscow, Russia Foster plans world’s biggest building - Times Online Inhabitat » World’s Biggest Building Coming to Moscow: Crystal Island Zagreb Airport, Zagreb, Croatia The results of the international urban-architectural competition for the new passenger terminal airport Zagreb. Hermitage Plaza, Paris (La Défense), France (2010-2014) Completed Reichstag dome at night Dresden Hauptbahnhof roof and cupola Metropolitan Building in Warsaw 1970–1971, IBM Pilot Head Office, Cosham, Portsmouth, England 1971–1975, Willis Faber and Dumas Headquarters, Ipswich, England 1974–1978, Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, England 1983, Renault Distribution Centre, Swindon, United Kingdom 1979–1986, HSBC Main Building, Hong Kong 1981-1991, Terminal building at London Stansted Airport, England View on the map 1992, Torre de Collserola, Barcelona, Spain 1984-1993, Carré d'Art, Nîmes, France View on the map 1993, Kings Norton Library, Cranfield University 1993, Lycée Albert Camus, Fréjus, France 1994, Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska 1988–1995, Metro of Bilbao, Spain 1995, Faculty of Law, Cambridge 1995–1997, The Clyde Auditorium, part of the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre in Glasgow, Scotland 1991–1997, Commerzbank Tower, Frankfurt, Germany 1992–1998, Hong Kong International Airport, Chek Lap Kok, Hong Kong 1993–1998, Valencia Congress Centre, Valencia, Spain View on the map 1999, Redevelopment of the Great Court of the British Museum, London, United Kingdom 1999, Department of Economics, Manor Road Building, University of Oxford, England 1999, Reichstag restoration, Berlin, Germany 2000, Greater London Authority Building (London City Hall), London, United Kingdom View on the map 1996–2000, Millennium Bridge, London, United Kingdom View on the map 2000, Center for Clinical Science Research, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 2001, Expo MRT Station, Singapore 2001, Al Faisaliyah Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 2001, La Poterie metro station, Rennes, France 2001, J Sainsbury headquarters, Holborn Circus, London 1999–2001, Lionel Robbins Building renovation, British Library of Political and Economic Science, London School of Economics, London, United Kingdom 2002, 8 Canada Square (HSBC Group Head Office), London 1997–2003, The Metropolitan Building in Warsaw 2003, Clark Center, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 2003, Universiti Teknologi Petronas main campus, Malaysia 1997-2004, 30 St Mary Axe, Swiss Re London headquarters, London, United Kingdom View on the map 2004, The Sage Gateshead, Gateshead, England 2004, McLaren Technology Centre, Woking, United Kingdom 2004, Tanaka Business School, Imperial College London 2004, The Millau Viaduct, near Millau, France 2005, Western Årsta Bridge, Stockholm 2005, 40 luxury apartments, St. Moritz, Switzerland 2005, National Police Memorial, The Mall, London, United Kingdom 2005, The Philological Library at the Free University of Berlin, Germany 2005, Deutsche Bank Place, Sydney, Australia (the first Sir Norman Foster building in the Southern Hemisphere) 2002-2006, Dresden Hauptbahnhof reconstruction, Dresden, Germany 2006, Hearst Tower, Hearst Tower, New York City New York City, United States 2006, The Leslie L. Dan Pharmacy Building University of Toronto Capital Projects at the University of Toronto, Canada 2006, Palace of Peace and Reconciliation TIME Europe magazine , Astana, Kazakhstan 2002-2007, Wembley Stadium, London, United Kingdom 2004-2007, The Willis Building, City of London, United Kingdom 2005–2007, Thomas Deacon Academy 2004–2007, Kogod Courtyard, Center for American Art and Portraiture at the National Portrait Gallery, Washington, DC http://www.npg.si.edu/inform/courtyard.htm 2007, International Terminal, Beijing Capital International Airport, Beijing, China 2007–2008, Lumiere residences, Sydney, Australia 2006–2008, John Spoor Broome Library, Cal State Channel Islands. 2007–2008, New Elephant House, Copenhagen Zoo, Copenhagen, Denmark Non-architectural projects Foster's other design work has included the Nomos desk system for Italian manufacturer Tecno, Foster + Partners and the motor yacht Izanami (later Ronin) for Lürssen Yachts. Foster + Partners Projects in the Middle East See also Thin-shell structure Peter Rice References External links Foster and Partners Bio at the Pritzker Prize Interview with Norman Foster(video) Foster's projects on the map Building "The Gherkin" (film) A (video) tour of the Clark Center Norman Foster's building Valencia Conference Centre Foster and Partners Projects TED Talks: Norman Foster's green agenda at TED in 2007 | Norman_Foster,_Baron_Foster_of_Thames_Bank |@lemmatized restored:1 reichstag:3 berlin:3 housing:1 german:2 parliament:1 dome:2 build:3 foster:58 redesign:1 hearst:3 tower:9 new:9 york:4 city:9 expo:2 mrt:2 station:3 part:2 mass:1 rapid:1 transit:1 system:3 singapore:2 view:7 st:5 mary:4 axe:4 street:3 level:1 building:17 serve:1 london:21 headquarters:7 swiss:4 informally:1 know:2 gherkin:3 willis:4 faber:3 duma:2 ipswich:3 one:3 early:1 commission:1 found:2 associate:2 norman:5 robert:2 baron:2 thames:3 bank:4 om:1 friba:1 fcsd:1 rdi:1 bear:3 june:1 british:4 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http_www:1 external_link:1 pritzker_prize:1 |
4,040 | A.C._Chievo_Verona | Associazione Calcio ChievoVerona (more commonly called ChievoVerona or simply Chievo) is an Italian professional football club named after and based in Chievo, a suburb of Verona, Veneto, and owned by Paluani, a cake company and the inspiration for their original name, Paluani Chievo. The club is nicknamed alternatively gialloblu, mussi volanti or Ceo, and shares its stadium with Hellas Verona which is the 42,160 seater Marcantonio Bentegodi stadium. Chievo slipped into the relegation zone on the final match day of 2006-2007 and was demoted to Serie B, but subsequently rebounded to clinch promotion back to the top-flight in their first year in the cadetteria. History Early years The team was founded in 1929 by a small number of football fans from the small borough of Chievo, a Verona neighbourhood. Initially the club was not officially affiliated to the Italian Football Federation, but played under the denomination "Ond Chievo" imposed by the fascist regime several amateur tournament and friendly matches. The formal debut in an official league is dated November 8, 1931. The team colours at the time were blue and white. However, Chievo disbanded in 1936 because of economic woes, and the team returned to play in 1948 after World War II, being registered in the regional league of "Seconda Divisione" (Second Division). In 1957 the team moved to the "Carlantonio Bottagisio" parish field, where Chievo played until 1986. In 1959, after the restructuring of the football leagues, Chievo was admitted to play the "Seconda Categoria" (Second Category), a regional league placed next-to-last in the Italian football pyramid. That year, Chievo changed its denomination to "Cardi Chievo", after the new sponsor, and was quickly promoted to the "Prima Categoria", which it left in 1962 after having experienced its first relegation ever. Series of promotions In 1964, Luigi Campedelli, a businessman and owner of the Paluani company, is named new Chievo chairman. Under Campedelli's presidency, Chievo climbed the entire Italian pyramid, reaching the Serie D after the 1974/1975 season. Under the name "Paluani Chievo", the team is promoted to Serie C2 in 1986. After this promotion, Chievo was forced to move to the Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi, the main venue in Verona; another promotion, to Serie C1, then arrived in 1989. In 1990, the team finally changed its name to the current one, "A.C. ChievoVerona". In 1992, President Luigi Campedelli, who returned at the helm of the club two years before, died of a heart attack, and his son Luca Campedelli, aged just 23, became the new chairman. Luca Campedelli, the youngest chairman of all Italian professional football clubs, promoted Giovanni Sartori as Director of Football and named Alberto Malesani the new head coach. Under Malesani, the team astonishingly won the Serie C1 and was promoted to Serie B, where city rival Hellas Verona was playing at the time. In 1997, after Malesani signed for Fiorentina, Silvio Baldini was appointed new head coach. The following season, with Domenico Caso as new coach, saw the first dismissal ever in the presidency of Luca Campedelli, with Caso fired and replaced with Lorenzo Balestro. In 2000/2001, Luigi Del Neri was signed as new coach, and led Chievo to a historic promotion to Serie A, the first-ever in the team's history, ending its Serie B run in third-place. Serie A times (2001-2007) In its 2001/2002 Serie A debut, to everyone's great surprise the small and unconsidered Chievo, most critics' choice for an instant return to Serie B, quickly became the most astonishing team in the league, playing spectacular and entertaining football and even leading the top division for six consecutive weeks, finally ending the season with a highly respectable fifth place, qualifying the team to play in the UEFA Cup. In 2002/2003, Chievo debuted at the European level but were eliminated in the first round against Red Star Belgrade. The team finished the Serie A season in seventh place, again proving itself one of the most valued Serie A teams. The 2003/2004 season, the last with Del Neri at the helm, saw Chievo ending in ninth place. The 2004/2005 season is remembered as one of the toughest ever in Chievo's history. Mario Beretta, a Serie A novice from Ternana, was named new coach: after a good start which brought Chievo to a third place behind Juventus and AC Milan, the team slowly lost positions in the Serie A table. Three matches before the end of the league, Chievo was third from last, a position which would relegate it to Serie B. As a last resort Beretta was fired and Maurizio D'Angelo, a highly respected former Chievo player, was appointed temporarily to replace him as coach. Morale improved, and two wins and a tie from the final three matches proved just enough to keep Chievo in Serie A. In 2005/2006, Giuseppe Pillon of Treviso FBC was appointed as new coach. The team experienced a throwback to the successful Del Neri era, both in style of play and results, and Chievo consequently gained a place in the next UEFA Cup, ending the season in a solid seventh place. However, because of the football scandal involving several top-class teams, all placed before Chievo in the 2005/2006 season, the Flying Donkeys had a chance of playing the next Champions League preliminary phase. On July 14, 2006, the verdict in the scandal was made public. Juventus, AC Milan and Fiorentina, all qualified for the 2006-07 Champions League, and Lazio, originally inscribed for the 2006-07 UEFA Cup, were all banned from UEFA competition for the 2006/07 season, although AC Milan were allowed to enter the Champions League after their appeal to FIGC. Chievo took up a place in the third qualifying stage of the competition along with AC Milan and faced Bulgarian Levski Sofia. Chievo lost the first leg 2-0 in Sofia and managed a 2-2 home draw on the second leg. Levski advanced to the Champions League group stage on a 4-2 aggregate score, and Chievo was knocked out. As a Champions League third round qualifying loser, Chievo was placed in the UEFA Cup final qualifying round. On August 25, 2006 Chievo was drawn to face Portuguese Braga. The first leg, played on September 14 in Braga, ended in a shock 2-0 win for the Portuguese side. The return match, played on September 28 in Verona, was won by Chievo 2-1. However, the Italian side lost 3-2 on aggregate and was knocked out of any further European competitions. On October 16, 2006, following a 1-0 defeat against Torino F.C., head coach Giuseppe Pillon was fired, and replaced by Luigi Del Neri, one of the original symbols of the miracle Chievo, who had led the club to Serie A in 2002. On May 27, 2007, the last match day of the 2006-07 Serie A season, Chievo was one of five teams in danger of falling into the last undecided relegation spot. Needing only a tie against Catania, a direct competitor in the relegation battle, Chievo lost 2-0 playing in the neutral field of Bologna. Simultaneous wins by Parma, Siena and Reggina condemned Chievo to Serie B for the 2007-08 season after six seasons in the senior league. Even as a successful Serie A team they don't have the level of support the real "Gialloblu" team of Verona, Hellas have. During the local derby games, when it's supposed to be Chievo playing at home at their shared stadium, the Chievo fans have to go to the away end of the stadium. The team only has a small support in the city, managing only 4-5000 fans and are mainly kept afloat by money from television rights. A Year with the Cadetti (2007-08) Chievo bounced back quickly from the disappointment of their last matchday relegation in 2006/07, going in search of an immediate promotion back to the top flight. After the expected departure of several top-quality players (i.e., Semioli, Lanna, Brighi, Sammarco, Bogdani among them), as well as the manager (Luigi Del Neri parted ways with the club, and Giuseppe Iachini replacing Del Neri) and captain (Lorenzo D'Anna giving way to Sergio Pellissier at the end of the transfer window), a new squad was constructed, most notably including the arrivals of midfielders Maurizio Ciaramitaro and Simone Bentivoglio, defender Cesar, and forward Antimo Iunco. This new incarnation of the 'gialloblu' were crowned Winter Champions (along with Bologna), en route to a 41st matchday promotion after a 1-1 draw at Grosseto left them 4 points clear of third-place Lecce with one match remaining. Furthermore, they were conferred the "Ali della Vittoria" trophy on the final matchday of the season, their first league title of any kind in 14 years. Back in Serie A (2008-09) In their first season back to the top flight, Chievo immediately struggled in the league, and this resulted to the dismissal of Iachini on November, and his replacement with former Parma boss Domenico Di Carlo. Since Di Carlo's appointment, Chievo have managed a remarkable resurgence that led the gialloblu out of the relegation zone after having collected just 9 points from their first 17 matches. Highlight matches included a 3–0 defeat of Lazio (who then won the 2008–09 Coppa Italia title) at the Stadio Olimpico, and a thrilling 3–3 draw away to Juventus in which captain and long-time Chievo striker Sergio Pellissier scored a late equaliser to complete his first career personal hat-trick. A series of hard-fought draws against top clubs Roma, Inter and Genoa in the final stretch of the season solidified Ceo'''s position outside the drop zone and Serie A status was finally confirmed on matchday 37 with a home draw against Bologna. Current squad As of 2009-02-02 Out on loan Retired numbers 30 Jason Mayélé, left/right winger, 2001-2002 (posthumous) Notable former playersSee Also: :Category:A.C. ChievoVerona players Simone Barone Franco Semioli Simone Perrotta Flavio Roma Matteo Brighi Eugenio Corini Bernardo Corradi Lorenzo D'Anna Stefano Fiore Alberto Fontana Salvatore Lanna Nicola Legrottaglie Cristiano Lupatelli Massimo Marazzina Federico Giunti Luca Marchegiani Christian Manfredini John Mensah Mario Alberto Santana Saša Bjelanović Amauri Oliver Bierhoff Former Coaches Alberto Malesani (1995-1997) Domenico Caso (1998-2000) Luigi Del Neri (2000-2004) Mario Beretta (2004-2005) Giuseppe Pillon (2005-2006) Luigi Del Neri (2006-2007) Giuseppe Iachini (2007-2008) Colours and badge The clubs historic colours were blue and white and not blue and yellow. Throughout Italian football the only team recognised by most fans as "Gialloblu" are the original team of Verona "Hellas Verona". The club's historic nickname is gialloblu (from the club colors of yellow and blue), but is more often referred to today as the mussi volanti ("flying donkeys" in the Verona dialect of Venetian). Local supporters often call the club simply Ceo'', which is Veronese for Chievo. The "flying donkeys" nickname was originally a derogatory term from a match chant sung by fans from crosstown rivals Hellas Verona, who claimed Chievo had stolen Hellas' colours, name, and stadium. Hellas fans also said that "donkeys would fly before Chievo made it to Serie A". However, with later successes by Chievo and contemporaneous Serie B and Serie C1 struggles for Hellas Verona, Chievo fans have now largely embraced the nickname as a badge of honour. The current club crest represents instead Cangrande I della Scala, an ancient seignor from Verona. Supporters The team have very weak support in the city of Verona with no recognised "Ultras" as most Italian clubs have. Even during their most successful seasons the crowds at the "Bentegodi" stadium were small. As they enjoy Serie A status and their famous city rival Hellas are in the third division they have 6000 less season ticket holders than their lowly rivals. For the 2008/09 season, Chievo had now in actual fact over taken their local rivals for season ticket holders. Chievo have slowly increased their support each season, and have a total of 8,081 season ticket holders for the 08/09 campaign, whereas their rivals Verona have a tally of 7,890 season ticket holders. Footnotes External links Official site | A.C._Chievo_Verona |@lemmatized associazione:1 calcio:1 chievoverona:4 commonly:1 call:2 simply:2 chievo:49 italian:8 professional:2 football:10 club:14 name:8 base:1 suburb:1 verona:15 veneto:1 paluani:4 cake:1 company:2 inspiration:1 original:3 nickname:4 alternatively:1 gialloblu:6 mussi:2 volanti:2 ceo:3 share:1 stadium:6 hellas:9 seater:1 marcantonio:2 bentegodi:3 slip:1 relegation:6 zone:3 final:5 match:10 day:2 demote:1 serie:27 b:7 subsequently:1 rebound:1 clinch:1 promotion:7 back:5 top:7 flight:3 first:11 year:6 cadetteria:1 history:3 early:1 team:22 found:1 small:5 number:2 fan:7 borough:1 neighbourhood:1 initially:1 officially:1 affiliate:1 federation:1 play:12 denomination:2 ond:1 impose:1 fascist:1 regime:1 several:3 amateur:1 tournament:1 friendly:1 formal:1 debut:3 official:2 league:14 date:1 november:2 colour:4 time:4 blue:4 white:2 however:4 disband:1 economic:1 woe:1 return:4 world:1 war:1 ii:1 register:1 regional:2 seconda:2 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4,041 | Dunwich | Dunwich () is a small town in Suffolk, England, within the Suffolk Coast and Heaths AONB. Dunwich was the capital of East Anglia 1,500 years ago and was once a prosperous seaport and centre of the wool trade during the Early Middle Ages, with a natural harbour formed by the mouths of the River Blyth and the River Dunwich, most of which has since been lost to erosion. Its decline began in 1286 when a sea surge hit the East Anglian coast and it was eventually reduced through coastal erosion to the village it is today. It is assumed that the Roman 'Stone Street' runs from Dunwich to Caistor St Edmund near Norwich. There is currently a project to reveal the 'lost' city with high-tech underwater cameras. BBC NEWS | England | Underwater city could be revealed History At its height Dunwich was one of the largest ports in Eastern England, with a population of around 3,000, eight churches, five houses of religious orders, three chapels and two hospitals. The main exports were wool and grain and the main imports were fish, furs and timber from Iceland and the Baltic region, cloth from the Netherlands and wine from France. Dunwich is first referred to in the 7th century when St Felix of Burgundy founded the See of East Anglia at Dommoc in 632. Years later antiquarians would describe it as being the 'former capital of East Anglia', The King's England: Suffolk. Arthur Mee, pp 124-128 although this reference is almost certainly a romantic creation as no documents survive from the town's heyday which refer to Dunwich as such. The Domesday Book of 1086 describes it as possessing three churches. The historian and diver Stuart Bacon, who has made several visits to the seabed in a bid to find the remains of the old town, has found evidence that it may have possessed up to 18 churches and chapels at the height of its fortune during the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1286 a large storm swept much of the town into the sea and the River Dunwich was partly silted up. Residents fought to save the harbour but this too was destroyed by an equally fierce storm in 1328, which also swept away the entire village of Newton, a few miles up the coast. Another large storm in 1347 swept some 400 houses into the sea. A quarter of the city had been lost and the remainder of Dunwich was lost to the sea over a period of two to three hundred years through a form of coastal erosion known as long-shore drift. Buildings that sit on the present day cliffs were once a mile inland. In 1754 the antiquarian Thomas Gardner published a highly influential history of Dunwich (and two other towns, Blythburgh and Southwold) with images of some of the lost churches, but some of his claims have been disputed by later historians. Most of the original buildings have disappeared, including all eight churches and Dunwich is now a small coastal "village", though retaining its status as a town. However, the remains of a Franciscan priory (Greyfriars) and a building constructed as a hospice for lepers can still be seen. A popular local legend says that, at certain tides, church bells can still be heard from beneath the waves. By the mid-19th century, the population had dwindled to 237 inhabitants and Dunwich was described as a "decayed and disfranchised borough". William White, History, Gazetteer, and Directory of Suffolk, R. Leader, Sheffield, 1844 A new church, St James, was built in 1832, after the last of the old churches, All Saints, which had been without a rector since 1755, was abandoned. It fell into the sea between 1904 and 1919, with the last major portion of the tower succumbing on 12 November, 1919. In 1971 the historian Stuart Bacon located the remains of All Saints' Church a few yards out to sea during a diving exhibition. Two years later in 1973 he also discovered the ruins of St Peter's Church which was lost to the sea during the 18th century. Most recently, he has located what may be the remains of shipbuilding industry on the site. BBC News, 10 October 2005: Low Tide Reveals Lost City Find As a legacy of its previous significance it retained the right to send two members to Parliament until the Reform Act 1832, making it an example of a rotten borough. Churches and other notable structures The ruins of All Saints' Church in Dunwich, here in a postcard of 1904 All Saints' Church: last of Dunwich's ancient churches to be lost to the sea, All Saints' was abandoned in the 1750s after it was decided the parishioners could no longer afford the upkeep, although burials occurred in the churchyard until the 1820s. All Saints' reached the cliff's edge in 1904 with the tower falling in 1922. Comfort: The Lost City of Dunwich: Churches and Chapels, pp 99-102 One of the tower buttresses was salvaged, however and now stands in the current Victorian-era St James' Church. St Bartholemew's: one of two 'Domesday' churches, St Bartholemew's is thought to have been lost in the storm of 1328. St John the Baptist: situated beside the market place in the centre of the city, St John's was Dunwich's leading church throughout the Middle Ages. It was a cruciform structure which also contained a chapel dedicated to St Nicholas. In 1510 a pier was erected in an attempt to act as a breakwater from the sea and in 1542 further funds were raised in a bid to save the building, but to no avail and the building was largely demolished before it went over the cliffs. During the demolition the 18th century historian Thomas Gardiner records that a stone was uncovered to reveal the remains of a man on whose breast stood 'two chalices of course metal'. It is possible that the remains may have belonged to a Saxon bishop of Dunwich and that therefore St John's may have been built on the site of the original cathedral. St Leonard's: situated in the north of the town, St Leonard's is thought to have been abandoned soon after the Black Death and was probably lost to the sea soon afterwards. St Martin's: built before 1175, it was lost to the sea between 1335 and 1408. St Michael's: the other Domesday church situated in the east of the town. It was lost to the sea in the storm of 1328. St Nicholas: like St John's this was a cruciform building which lay to the south of the city. Lost to the sea soon after the Black Death. St Peter's: similar in length to the church at nearby Blythburgh, St Peter's was stripped of anything of value as the cliff edge drew nearer. The east gable fell in 1688 and the rest of the building followed in 1697. The parish register survives and is now in the British Library. Preceptory of the Knights Templar: the preceptory is thought to have been founded around 1189 and was a circular building not dissimilar to the famous Temple Church in London. When the sheriff of Suffolk and Norfolk took an inventory in 1308 he found the sum of £111 contained in three pouches - a vast sum. In 1322, on the orders of Edward II, all the Templars' land passed to the Knights Hospitallers. Following the dissolution of the Hospitallers in 1562 the Temple was demolished and the foundations washed away during the reign of Charles I. St Francis Chapel: standing beside the Dunwich River, the chapel was lost in the 16th century. St Anthony's Chapel: lost around 1330. St Katherine's Chapel: situated in the parish of St John, this was lost in the 16th century. The Benedictine Cell: the cell was attached to Ely Cathedral and was lost during the storm of 1328. Blackfriars: Dominican priory situated in the south east of the city. It was founded during the time of Henry III by Roger Holish. By 1385 preparations were made for the Dominicans to move to nearby Blythburgh as the sea front drew nearer, although these were certainly premature as the priory remained active and above sea level until at least the Dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII, with the last building recorded as having fallen to the sea in 1717. Greyfriars: Franciscan priory founded by Richard FitzJohn between 1228 and 1230 but abandoned due to the advancing sea in 1328. It was rebuilt further inland (outside the original city limits) and the ruins survive to this day, the only building from the town's glory days to do so, although the encroaching cliffs are now but a few feet away. RAF Dunwich During the Second World War an RAF radar station was located at Dunwich. By the start of the war Britain had a very effective radar system called Chain Home (CH). The nearest CH station to Dunwich was at RAF High Street near Darsham. The CH system was supplemented with Chain Home Low (CHL) stations which, though having a shorter range, could detect much lower flying aircraft. Two CHL installations were situated on the cliffs at Dunwich Heath (now National Trust land). One site has been lost due to cliff erosion, but the other was further inland and will probably not be lost till early next century (at current rate of erosion). There is, however, very little left on the site. An outline of concrete post holes mark the boundary fence and the concrete base of the guard room are all that appear to survive. The foundations of the masts are believed to have been broken up for hard-core in the 1950s. Further to the north an American centimetric radar station was established. This site is now a private caravan park. Dunwich today Dunwich Beach today. The town lies between Walberswick and Southwold to the north and Sizewell to the south and near the birdwatching areas of Dunwich Heath and Minsmere. Dunwich is the destination of the annual semi-organised bicycle ride, the Dunwich Dynamo, which leaves Hackney in London on the Saturday night closest to the full moon in July and arrives in Dunwich on the Sunday morning. References Further reading Ancient Dunwich: Suffolk’s Lost City, Jean Carter and Stuart Bacon. (Segment, 1975) The Lost City of Dunwich, Nicholas Comfort (Terence Dalton, 1994), ISBN 0-86138-086-X Men of Dunwich, Rowland Parker (Alastair Press, 1978), ISBN 1-870567-85-4 A Suffolk Coast Garland, Ernest Read Cooper (London: Heath Cranton Ltd, 1928). Memories of Bygone Dunwich, Ernest Read Cooper (Southwold: F. Jenkins, 1948). The little freemen of Dunwich, Ormonde Pickard "By the North Sea" and Tristram of Lyonesse, Algernon Charles Swinburne, in Major Poems and Selected Prose, Jerome McGann and Charles L. Sligh, eds. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004) 189-202, 206-312. Dunwich: A Tale of the Splendid City, James Bird, 1828. See also Dunwich (UK Parliament constituency) Lost city Covehithe Easton Bavents External links All Saints, Dunwich Low tide reveals lost city find (BBC News, 10 October 2005) The town, its history, people, and destruction by coastal erosion http://www.saxmundhamcommunity.org.uk | Dunwich |@lemmatized dunwich:36 small:2 town:11 suffolk:7 england:4 within:1 coast:4 heaths:1 aonb:1 capital:2 east:7 anglia:3 year:4 ago:1 prosperous:1 seaport:1 centre:2 wool:2 trade:1 early:2 middle:2 age:2 natural:1 harbour:2 form:2 mouth:1 river:4 blyth:1 since:2 lose:22 erosion:6 decline:1 begin:1 sea:18 surge:1 hit:1 anglian:1 eventually:1 reduce:1 coastal:4 village:3 today:3 assume:1 roman:1 stone:2 street:2 run:1 caistor:1 st:23 edmund:1 near:4 norwich:1 currently:1 project:1 reveal:3 city:14 high:2 tech:1 underwater:2 camera:1 bbc:3 news:3 could:3 history:4 height:2 one:4 large:3 port:1 eastern:1 population:2 around:3 eight:2 church:21 five:1 house:2 religious:1 order:2 three:4 chapel:8 two:8 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4,042 | Harold_Alexander,_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis | Field Marshal Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis (10 December 1891 16 June 1969) was a British military commander and field marshal of Anglo-Irish descent who served with distinction in both world wars, and between 1946 and 1952 served as the Governor General of Canada. He was born in London, United Kingdom, to parents of noble heritage, and was educated at English public schools before moving on to Sandhurst for training as an army officer. He rose to prominence through his service in the First World War, receiving numerous honours and decorations, and continued his military career through various British campaigns across Europe and Asia. In the Second World War, Alexander acted as a high ranking commander in North Africa and Italy, eventually being promoted as the Supreme Allied Commander Mediterranean. On the recommendation of then Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, Alexander was appointed by George VI, the king of Canada, as the Canadian viceroy, succeeding in that role Alexander Cambridge, Earl of Athlone. Alexander proved to be enthusiastic about the Canadian wilderness, as well as a popular governor general with the Canadian people, and he would be the last non-Canadian-born governor general before the appointment of Adrienne Clarkson in 1999. After the end of his viceregal tenure, Alexander was sworn into the King's Privy Council for Canada, and thereafter into the King's British Privy Council in order to serve as the British Minister of Defence in the Cabinet of Winston Churchill. Alexander retired in 1954 and died 15 years later, when he was interred at Ridge, Hertfordshire. Early life Alexander was born in London, United Kingdom, the third son of James Alexander, Earl of Caledon, and Elizabeth Alexander, Countess of Caledon, a daughter of Hector Graham-Toler, Earl of Norbury. Alexander was educated at Hawtreys and Harrow School where, at the latter, he participated as the 11th batsman in the notorious Fowler Match against Eton College in 1910 before moving on to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. World War I From Sandhurst, Alexander was commissioned in September 1911 as a second lieutenant in the Irish Guards, which, when the First World War erupted only three years later, formed part of the original British Expeditionary Force (BEF). Alexander was by then a 22-year-old lieutenant (having been promoted in December 1912) and platoon commander, until February 1915, when he was promoted to the rank of captain, and, in February 1917, to major. However, during certain periods, Alexander acted in higher ranking capacities, notably for three months in 1917 when he was an acting lieutenant-colonel while still only a substantive captain, as well as for nearly all the time between November 1917 and the end of the war, when he acted in the same rank in command of a battalion. In October 1918, Alexander was further charged with the command of a corps infantry school as an acting lieutenant-colonel. During his service on the Western Front, Alexander was wounded twice in four years of fighting. For his bravery and sacrifice, he received in January 1916 the Military Cross, and in October of the same year was appointed to the Distinguished Service Order, the citation for which read: "For conspicuous gallantry in action. He was the life and soul of the attack, and throughout the day led forward not only his own men but men of all regiments. He held the trenches gained in spite of heavy machine gun fire." In the same month Alexander was also inducted into the French Légion d'honneur. Rudyard Kipling, who wrote a history of the Irish Guards, in which his own son fought and was killed, noted that, "it is undeniable that Colonel Alexander had the gift of handling the men on the lines to which they most readily responded... His subordinates loved him, even when he fell upon them blisteringly for their shortcomings; and his men were all his own." The inter-war years In 1919 and 1920, as a temporary lieutenant-colonel, Alexander led the Baltic German Landeswehr in the Latvian War of Independence, commanding units loyal to the Republic of Latvia in the successful drive to eject the Bolsheviks from Latgale. After later serving in Turkey and Gibraltar, in 1922 Alexander's temporary rank was made substantive when he was appointed to command the 1st battalion of his regiment, and in January 1926 he was released from that role to attend Staff College, Camberley. Alexander was then promoted to colonel in February 1928, and was the next month appointed as commandant of the Irish Guards and its regimental district, a post he held until January 1930, when he again returned to school, to attend the Imperial Defence College for one year. After the completion of his courses, on 14 October 1931, Alexander married Lady Margaret Bingham, the daughter of George Bingham, Earl of Lucan, and with whom Alexander would have two sons and two daughters, one of which was adopted during Alexander's time as Governor General of Canada. Alexander then held staff appointments as GSO2 and GSO1, before being made, in October 1934, a temporary brigadier and given command of the Nowshera Brigade, on the Northwest Frontier in India. For his service there, and in particular for his actions in the Loe-Agra operations on the northwest frontier between February and April 1936, Alexander was in 1936 made a Companion of the Order of the Star of India, and was mentioned in despatches. He was mentioned once more for his service during operations in Mohamad Province during August and October of the same year. In March 1937, Alexander was appointed as one of the aides-de-camp to the recently acceded King George VI, and returned to the United Kingdom to take part in this capacity in the state procession through London during the King's coronation in May. Alexander would have been seen in this event by two of his Canadian viceregal successors: Vincent Massey, who was then the Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom, and his secretary, Georges Vanier, who watched the procession from the roof of Canada House, on Trafalgar Square. Following the coronation celebration, Alexander returned to India, where he was made the Honorary Colonel of the 3rd Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment, and then promoted to the rank of major-general in October 1937, then the youngest general in the British Army. Alexander relinquished command of his brigade in January 1938, and returned to the United Kingdom to take command of the 1st Infantry Division in February. World War II Following the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Alexander brought the 1st Infantry Division to France, where, in late May 1940, he successfully led the division's withdrawal to Dunkirk. Shortly after Bernard Montgomery had been appointed to command II Corps, Alexander was, while still on the beachhead, placed in command of I Corps, and left the beach on 3 June after ensuring that all British troops had been evacuated. In recognition of his services in the field from March to June 1940, Alexander was again mentioned in despatches. Having been confirmed as a lieutenant-general in July 1940, Alexander returned to the UK to be made the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of the Southern Command, which was responsible for the defence of south-west England. On 1 January 1942 he was knighted and appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, and in February, after the Japanese invasion of Burma, was sent to India to become GOC-in-C Burma as a full general. While he commanded what would later be the Fourteenth Army, Alexander left the tactical conduct of the campaign to his corps commander, Bill Slim, while Alexander himself handled the more political aspects of relations with Joe Stillwell, the nominal commander of the Chinese forces. Major-General Arso Jovanović, Major-General Fitzroy MacLean, Field Marshal Harold Alexander, and Major-General Lyman Lemnitzer in Belgrade, February 1945. By July 1942, the British and Indian forces in Burma had completed their fighting retreat back into India, and Alexander, having yet again been mentioned in despatches for his Burma service, was recalled to the United Kingdom. He was at first selected to command the First Army, which was to take part in Operation Torch, the invasion of North Africa. However, following a visit in early August to Egypt by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Alan Brooke, Alexander flew to Cairo on 8 August to replace Claude Auchinleck as the Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command, the post responsible for the overall conduct of the campaign in the desert of North Africa. At the same time, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery replaced Auchinleck as the General Officer Commanding the Eighth Army. Alexander presided over Montgomery's victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein and the advance of the Eighth Army to Tripoli, for which Alexander was elevated to a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, and, after the Anglo-American forces from Operation Torch and the Eighth Army converged in Tunisia in February 1943, they were brought under the unified command of a newly-formed 18th Army Group headquarters, commanded by Alexander and reporting to Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean at the Allied Forces Headquarters. The Axis forces in Tunisia surrendered in May 1943, and Alexander's command became the 15th Army Group, which was, under Eisenhower, responsible for mounting the Allied invasion of Sicily in July, again seeing Alexander controlling two armies: Montgomery's Eighth Army and George S. Patton's Seventh United States Army. After Sicily, and in preparation for the allied invasion of Italy, the Seventh Army headquarters were replaced by those of the Fifth United States Army, lead by Mark Clark. When Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander for the planned Normandy Landings he suggested that Alexander become ground forces commander, as he was popular with both British and US officers. Brooke, however, applied pressure to keep Alexander in Italy, considering him unfit for the assignment in France. Thus, Alexander remained in command of the 15th Army Group, and, with the support of numerous allied commanders, controversially authorised the bombing of the historic abbey at Cassino, which resulted in little advance on the German Winter Line defences. It was not until the fourth attempt that the Winter Line was breached by the Allies, and Alexander's forces moved on to capture Rome in June 1944, thereby achieving one of the strategic goals of the Italian campaign. However, US Fifth Army forces at Anzio, under Clark's orders, failed to follow their original breakout plan that would have trapped the German forces escaping northwards in the aftermath of the Battle of Monte Cassino, instead favouring an early and highly publicised entry into Rome two days before the Allied landings in Normandy. Alexander remained in command of 15th Army Group, as well as its successor, the Allied Armies in Italy, for most of the Italian Campaign, until December 1944, when he relinquished his command to Clark and took over as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces Headquarters, responsible for all military operations in the Mediterranean Theatre. Alexander was concurrently promoted to the rank of field marshal, though this was backdated to the fall of Rome on 4 June 1944, so that Alexander would once again be senior to Montgomery, who had himself been made a field marshal on 1 September 1944, after the end of the Battle of Normandy. Alexander then received the German surrender in Italy, on 29 April 1945. Further, as a reward for his leadership in North Africa and Italy, Alexander, along with a number of other prominent British Second World War military leaders, was elevated to the peerage on 1 March 1946 by King George VI; he was created Viscount Alexander of Tunis and Errigal in the county of Donegal. Governor generalship With the cessation of hostilities, Alexander was under serious consideration for appointment to the post of Chief of the Imperial General Staff, the British Army's most senior position beneath the sovereign, but he was invited by Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King to be his recommendation to the King for the post of goveror general of Canada. Alexander thus chose to retire from the army and take up the new position, and, in preparation for his viceregal posting, was on 26 January 1946 appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George. It was announced from the Office of the Prime Minister of Canada on 21 March 1946 that George VI had, by commission under the royal sign-manual and signet, approved the recommendation of his prime minister, Mackenzie King, to appoint Alexander as his representative. He was subsequently sworn-in during a ceremony in the Senate chamber on 12 April that year. Alexander took his duties as the viceroy quite seriously, seeing his role to be a link between Canadians and their head of state, and travelling the country extensively; he eventually logged no less than 294,500 km (184,000 mi) during his five years as governor general. On these trips, he sought to engage with Canadians through various ceremonies and events; he was keenly interested in his role as Chief Scout of Canada, and, in preparation for his kicking of the opening ball in the 1946 Grey Cup final, he spent a number of early mornings practicing on the grounds of the royal and viceroyal residence, Rideau Hall. Also, on his first visit to western Canada, Alexander was presented on 13 July 1946 with a totem pole crafted by Kwakiutl carver Mungo Martin in commemoration of Alexander's installation as an honorary chief of the Kwakiutl tribe, the first non-aboriginal to be so honoured; the totem pole remains visible on the grounds of Rideau Hall today. By the end of the year, Alexander was also distinguished with his induction as a Knight of the Order of the Garter. In 1947, the King issued letters patent granting his Canadian governor general permission to exercise all those powers belonging to the monarch in respect of Canada, and, at the Imperial Conference of 1949, the decision was reached to use the term "member of the Commonwealth" instead of "Dominion" to refer to the non-British member states of the Commonwealth of Nations. That same year, Alexander oversaw the admission of the British Crown colony of Newfoundland into Canadian Confederation, and toured the new province that summer. Then, during a later visit to Alberta, the Governor General was admitted to the Blackfoot First Nations tribe as Chief Eagle Head. However, though the post-war period saw a boom in prosperity for Canada, the country was again at war by 1950, with Alexander, in his role as Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Forces, deploying to the Korean War soldiers, sailors, and airmen, whom he would visit prior to their departure for south-east Asia. While the Viscount travelled abroad on official trips in 1947 visiting US President Harry S. Truman, and in June 1948 Brazilian President Eurico Gaspar Dutra as well as hosting a number of dignitaries, the Alexanders led a relatively informal lifestyle at Rideau Hall. For the visit of Princess Elizabeth and her husband, Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh, who toured Canada in 1951, less than two years before the Princess acceded to the throne as Queen Elizabeth II, the Viscount and Viscountess hosted a square dance in the palace's ballroom. Alexander was also a passionate painter—setting up a studio for himself in the former dairy at Rideau Hall, and organising art classes at the National Gallery of Canada—and remained an avid sportsman and outdoorsman. He would partake in golf, ice hockey, and rugby, and enjoyed the harvest of maple syrup in Ontario and Quebec, even personally supervising the tapping of the maple trees in the grounds of Rideau Hall. The Viscount was known to escape from official duties to partake in his most favourite passtime of fishing, once departing from the 1951 royal tour of Princess Elizabeth to take in a day's fishing at Griffin Island, in Georgian Bay, and granting a day off for students in the town of Drayton, Ontario, where his train briefly stopped. Amongst Canadians, Alexander proved to be a popular viceroy, despite the calls for a Canadian-born governor general that had preceeded his appointment. Not only did Alexander have a much praised military reputation he was considered to be the best military strategest since Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington but he was also a charismatic figure with an easy ability to communicate with people. Others, however, did not fully approve of Alexander; editor Hugh Templin from Fergus, Ontario, met with Alexander during Templin's time as a special correspondent with the Canadian Press during the Second World War, and he said of the encounter: "Lord Alexander impressed us considerably, if not too favourably. He was an aristocratic type, who didn't like newspaper men." Post-viceregal life Alexander departed the Office of Governor General in early 1952, after Churchill asked him to return to London to take the post of Minister of Defence in the British government, as the ageing Churchill, had found it increasingly difficult to cope with holding that portfolio concurrently with that of prime minister. Soon after, George VI died on the night of 5-6 February, and Alexander departed quietly, in respect of the King's mourning, for the United Kingdom, leaving Chief Justice of Canada Thibaudeau Rinfret as Administrator of the Government in his place. After his return to the UK, Alexander was elevated in the peerage by the new queen on 14 March 1952, becoming Earl Alexander of Tunis, Baron Rideau of Ottawa and Castle Derg. He was also appointed to the organising committee for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, and was charged with carrying the Sovereign's Orb in the state procession on that occasion in 1953. The Earl served as the British Minister of Defence until 1954, when he retired from politics, and, in 1959, the Queen appointed Alexander to the Order of Merit. Canada remained a favourite second home for the Alexanders, and they returned frequently to visit family and friends, until Alexander died on 16 June 1969 of a perforated aorta. His funeral was held on 24 June 1969 at St. Georges Chapel, in Windsor Castle, and his remains are buried in the churchyard of Ridge, near Tyttenhanger, his family's Hertfordshire home. Titles, styles, and honours Titles United Kingdom 10 December 1891 September 1911: The Honourable Harold Alexander September 1911 February 1915: Lieutenant The Honourable Harold Alexander February 1915 February 1917: Captain The Honourable Harold Alexander February 1917 1928: Major The Honourable Harold Alexander 1928 October 1937: Colonel The Honourable Harold Alexander October 1937 July 1940: Major-General The Honourable Harold Alexander July 1940 16 January 1942: Lieutenant-General The Honourable Harold Alexander 16 January 1942 8 August 1942: General The Honourable Harold Alexander 8 August 1942 18 February 1943: General The Honourable Harold Alexander, Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command 19 February 1943 14 May 1943: General The Honourable Harold Alexander, General Officer Commanding-in-Chief 18th Army Group 10 July 1943 16 January 1944: General The Honourable Harold Alexander, General Officer Commanding-in-Chief 15th Army Group 17 January 1944 1 March 1944: General The Honourable Harold Alexander, General Officer Commanding-in-Chief Allied Central Mediterranean Force 2 March 1944 11 December 1944: General The Honourable Harold Alexander, General Officer Commanding-in-Chief Allied Armies in Italy 12 December 1944 29 September 1945: Field Marshal The Honourable Harold Alexander 30 September 1945 1 March 1946: Field Marshal The Honourable Harold Alexander 1 March 1946 29 January 1952: Field Marshal The Right Honourable The Viscount Alexander of Tunis 29 January 1952 14 March 1952: Field Marshal The Right Honourable The Viscount Alexander of Tunis 14 March 1952 16 June 1969: Field Marshal The Right Honourable The Earl Alexander of Tunis Canada 12 April 1946 1 October 1947: Field Marshal His Excellency The Right Honourable The Viscount Alexander of Tunis, Governor General and Commander-in-Chief of the Militia and Naval and Air Forces of Canada 1 October 1947 28 February 1952: Field Marshal His Excellency The Right Honourable The Viscount Alexander of Tunis, Governor General and Commander-in-Chief in and over Canada Alexander's style and title as Governor General was, in full, and in English: His Excellency The Right Honourable Sir Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, Viscount Alexander of Tunis and Errigal, Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath, Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George, Companion of the Order of the Star of India, Companion of the Distinguished Service Order, Legionnaire Fifth Class of the Légion d'honneur, Member Second Class with Swords of the Order of St. Anna, Member First Class of the Order of Suvorov, Member Grand Cross of the Royal Order of George I, Member Fifth Class of the Order Virtuti Militari, Governor General and Commander-in-Chief in and over Canada, Field Marshal of the Militia of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and in French: Son Excellence le très honorable Sir Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, vicomte Alexander de Tunis et Errigal, chevalier de le nobilissime ordre de la Jarretière, chevalier grand-croix de le très honorable ordre du Bain, chevalier grand-croix de le très distingué ordre de Saint-Michel et Saint-George, compagnon de l'ordre de l'Étoile des Indes, compagnon de l'ordre du service distingué, légionnaire cinquieme classe de le Légion d'honneur, membre deuxieme classe avec épées de l'ordre de Sainte-Anne, membre premier classe de l'ordre de Souvorov, membre grand-croix de l'ordre royale du George I, membre cinqiemme classe de l'ordre militaire de Virtuti Militari, gouverneur générale et commandant en chef du Canada, Field-Marshal de la milice du Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Norde. It should be noted that, for Alexander, Commander-in-Chief was strictly a title, and not a position that he held; the actual commander-in-chief (who can also be, and is, called such) is perpetually the monarch of Canada. In his post-viceregal life, Alexander's style and title was: The Right Honourable Sir Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, Earl Alexander of Tunis, Baron Rideau of Ottawa and Castle Derg, Viscount Alexander of Tunis and Errigal, Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath, Grand Master of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George, Companion of the Order of the Star of India, Companion of the Distinguished Service Order, Member of the Order of Merit, Legionnaire Fifth Class of the Légion d'honneur, Member Second Class with Swords of the Order of St. Anna, Member First Class of the Order of Suvorov, Member Grand Cross of the Royal Order of George I, Member Fifth Class of the Order Virtuti Militari, Field Marshal of the Militia of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Unofficial Alberta Chief Eagle Head Honours Appointments 7 February 1936 16 June 1969: Companion of the Order of the Star of India (CSI) 1938 1 January 1942: Companion of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (CB) 1 January 1942 11 November 1942: Knight Commander of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (KCB) 11 November 1942 16 June 1969: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (GCB) 1 January 1946 16 June 1969: Knight of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ) 16 September 1946 28 February 1952: Knight of Justice, Prior, and Chief Officer in Canada of the Venerable Order of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ) 20 January 1946 25 March 1960: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (GCMG) 25 March 1960 12 October 1967: Grand Master of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George 12 April 1946 28 February 1952: Chief Scout of Canada 1946 16 June 1969: Honorary Member of the Royal Military College of Canada Club 13 July 1946 16 June 1969: Honorary Chief of the Kwakiutl Tribe 3 December 1946 16 June 1969: Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (KG) 1950 16 June 1969: Chief of the Blackfoot Tribe 29 January 1952 16 June 1969: Member of the King's Privy Council for Canada (PC) 1952 16 June 1969: Member of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC) 17 May 1957 1 April 1965: Lord Lieutenant of the County of London 1 April 1965 28 December 1966: Lord Lieutenant of Greater London 1960 1965: Constable of the Tower of London 1 January 1959 16 June 1969: Member of the Order of Merit (OM) Decorations 14 January 1916: Military Cross (MC) 20 October 1916: Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) 7 June 1951: Canadian Forces Decoration (CD) Awards 4 January 1917: Mentioned in Despatches 27 December 1918: Mentioned in Despatches 8 July 1919: Mentioned in Despatches 3 February 1920: Mentioned in Despatches 7 February 1936: Mentioned in Despatches 8 May 1936: Mentioned in Despatches 20 December 1940: Mentioned in Despatches 28 October 1942: Mentioned in Despatches Foregin honours and decorations 20 October 1916 16 June 1969: Legionnaire Fifth Class of the Légion d'honneur 10 August 1943: Chief Commanders of Legion of Merit : Member Second Class with Swords of the Order of St. Anna 29 February 1944 16 June 1969: Member First Class of the Order of Suvorov 20 June 1944 16 June 1969: Member Grand Cross of the Royal Order of George I 5 December 1944 16 June 1969: Member Fifth Class of the Order Virtuti Militari 2 August 1945: Distinguished Service Medal Honorary military appointments 7 March 1936 19 November 1937: Aide-de-Camp to His Majesty the King (ADC) 2 July 1937 14 August 1947: Colonel of the 3rd Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment 20 July 19442 August 1946: Aide-de-Camp General to His Majesty the King (ADC General) 12 April 1946 28 February 1952: Colonel of the Regiment of the Governor General's Horse Guards 12 April 1946 28 February 1952: Colonel of the Regiment of the Governor General's Foot Guards 12 April 1946 28 February 1952: Colonel of the Regiment of the Canadian Grenadier Guards 28 August 194616 June 1969: Colonel of the Irish Guards 10 November 1949 n/a: Colonel of the Royal Ulster Rifles (London Irish Rifles) 10 July 1951 n/a: Colonel of the Oxford University Contingent of the University Training Corps Honorary degrees : Harvard University, Doctor of Laws (LLD) : Princeton University, Doctor of Laws (LLD) Commands 1915: 1st Battalion, Irish Guards (temporary) 1917: 2nd Battalion, Irish Guards March 1918: 4 Guards Brigade (temporary) October 1918: X Corps School July 1919 March 1920: Baltische Landeswehr 1922: 1st Battalion, Irish Guards 13 October 1934 14 January 1938: Nowshera Brigade, India 17 February 1938 7 June 1940: 1st Infantry Division 8 June 1940 14 December 1940: I Corps 15 December 1940 26 February 1942: Southern Command 5 March 1942 6 August 1942: Army in Burma 15 August 1942 15 February 1943 Playfair (1966), p. 464 : Commander-in-Chief Middle East 19 February 1943 Playfair (1966), p. 303 14 May 1943: 18th Army Group 10 July 1943 11 December 1944: Jackson (1987), p. 73 15th Army Group (renamed Allied forces in Italy on 11 January 1944, then Allied Central Mediterranean Force on 18 January 1944 and finally Allied Armies in Italy on 9 March 1944) Molony (1973), p. 861 12 December 1944 Jackson (1987), p. 370 29 September 1945: Allied Force Headquarters Supreme Allied Commander, Mediterranean Theatre List of works See also Politics of Canada List of state leaders by date Governor-General > Independent Commonwealth realms Notes Citations References External links Website of the Governor General of Canada entry for Harold Alexander The Canadian Encyclopedia entry for Harold Alexander | Harold_Alexander,_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis |@lemmatized field:16 marshal:15 harold:22 rupert:4 leofric:4 george:23 alexander:110 earl:9 tunis:12 december:15 june:28 british:16 military:11 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4,043 | Möbius_function | For the rational functions defined on the complex numbers, see Möbius transformation. The classical Möbius function μ(n) is an important multiplicative function in number theory and combinatorics. The German mathematician August Ferdinand Möbius introduced it in 1832. Hardy & Wright, Notes on ch. XVI: "... μ(n) occurs implicitly in the works of Euler as early as 1748, but Möbius, in 1832, was the first to investigate its properties systematically." In the Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801) Karl Friedrich Gauss showed that the sum of the primitive roots (mod p) is μ(p − 1), (see #Properties and applications) but he didn't make further use of the function. In particular, he didn't use Möbius inversion in the Disquisitiones. This classical Möbius function is a special case of a more general object in combinatorics (see below). Definition μ(n) is defined for all positive integers n and has its values in {, , } depending on the factorization of n into prime factors. It is defined as follows: μ(n) = 1 if n is a square-free positive integer with an even number of distinct prime factors. μ(n) = −1 if n is a square-free positive integer with an odd number of distinct prime factors. μ(n) = 0 if n is not square-free. An equivalent way to state this is to define the two functions ω(n), the number of distinct primes dividing the number n and Ω(n), the number of prime factors of n, counted with multiplicities. Clearly, ω(n) ≤ Ω(n). Then This implies that μ(1) = 1. (1 has an even number of prime factors, namely zero). The value of μ(0) is undefined. Values of μ(n) for the first 25 positive numbers : 1, −1, −1, 0, −1, 1, −1, 0, 0, 1, −1, 0, −1, 1, 1, 0, −1, 0, −1, 0, 1, 1, −1, 0, 0, ... The 50 first values of the function are plotted below: The 50 first values of the function Properties and applications The Möbius function is multiplicative (i.e. μ(ab) = μ(a) μ(b) whenever a and b are coprime). The sum over all positive divisors of n of the Möbius function is zero except when n = 1: (A consequence of the fact that every non-empty finite set has just as many subsets with an even number of elements as it has subsets with an odd number of elements.) This leads to the important Möbius inversion formula and is the main reason why μ is of relevance in the theory of multiplicative and arithmetic functions. Other applications of μ(n) in combinatorics are connected with the use of the Pólya enumeration theorem in combinatorial groups and combinatorial enumerations. In number theory another arithmetic function closely related to the Möbius function is the Mertens function, defined by for every natural number n. This function is closely linked with the positions of zeroes of the Riemann zeta function. See the article on the Mertens conjecture for more information about the connection between M(n) and the Riemann hypothesis. The Lambert series for the Möbius function is: The Dirichlet series that generates the Möbius function is the (multiplicative) inverse of the Riemann zeta function This is easy to see from its Euler product There is a formula Hardy & Wright, Thm. 273 for calculating the Möbius function without knowing the factorization of its argument: i.e. μ(n) is the sum of the primitive nth roots of unity. From this it follows that the Mertens function is given by where is the Farey sequence of order n. This formula is used in the proof of the Franel-Landau theorem. Edwards, Ch. 12.2 Gauss Gauss, Disquisitiones, Art. 81 proved that for a prime number p the sum of its primitive roots is congruent to μ(p − 1) (mod p). μ(n) sections μ(n) = 0 if and only if n is divisible by a square. The first numbers with this property are : 4, 8, 9, 12, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25, 27, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 45, 48, 49, 50, 52, 54, 56, 60, 63,.... If n is prime, then μ(n) = −1, but the converse is not true. The first non prime n for which μ(n) = −1 is 30 = 2·3·5. The first such numbers with three distinct prime factors (sphenic numbers) are: 30, 42, 66, 70, 78, 102, 105, 110, 114, 130, 138, 154, 165, 170, 174, 182, 186, 190, 195, 222, … . and the first such numbers with 5 distinct prime factors are: 2310, 2730, 3570, 3990, 4290, 4830, 5610, 6006, 6090, 6270, 6510, 6630, 7410, 7590, 7770, 7854, 8610, 8778, 8970, 9030, 9282, 9570, 9690, … . Generalization In combinatorics, every locally finite partially ordered set (poset) is assigned an incidence algebra. One distinguished member of this algebra is that poset's "Möbius function". The classical Möbius function treated in this article is essentially equal to the Möbius function of the set of all positive integers partially ordered by divisibility. See the article on incidence algebras for the precise definition and several examples of these general Möbius functions. Physics The Möbius function also arises in the primon gas or free Riemann gas model of supersymmetry. In this theory, the fundamental particles or "primons" have energies log p. Under second-quantization, multiparticle excitations are considered; these are given by log n for any natural number n. This follows from the fact that the factorization of the natural numbers into primes is unique. In the free Riemann gas, any natural number can occur, if the primons are taken as bosons. If they are taken as fermions, then the Pauli exclusion principle excludes squares. The operator (−1)F which distinguishes fermions and bosons is then none other than the Möbius function μ(n). The free Riemann gas has a number of other interesting connections to number theory, including the fact that the partition function is the Riemann zeta function. This idea underlies Alain Connes' attempted proof of the Riemann hypothesis. J.-B. Bost and Alain Connes (1995), "Hecke Algebras, Type III factors and phase transitions with spontaneous symmetry breaking in number theory", Selecta Math. (New Series), 1 411-457. See also Liouville function Ramanujan's sum Sphenic number Notes References The Disquisitiones Arithmeticae has been translated from Latin into English and German. The German edition includes all of his papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes. Computing the summation of the Möbius function by Marc Deléglise and Joël Rivat Experimental Mathematics Volume 5, Issue 4291-295 Ed Pegg, Jr., "The Möbius function (and squarefree numbers)", MAA Online Math Games (2003) | Möbius_function |@lemmatized rational:1 function:32 define:5 complex:1 number:27 see:7 möbius:21 transformation:1 classical:3 μ:22 n:35 important:2 multiplicative:4 theory:7 combinatorics:4 german:3 mathematician:1 august:1 ferdinand:1 introduce:1 hardy:2 wright:2 note:3 ch:2 xvi:1 occur:2 implicitly:1 work:1 euler:2 early:1 first:8 investigate:1 property:4 systematically:1 disquisitiones:4 arithmeticae:2 karl:1 friedrich:1 gauss:4 show:1 sum:6 primitive:3 root:3 mod:2 p:6 application:3 make:1 use:4 particular:1 inversion:2 special:1 case:1 general:2 object:1 definition:2 positive:6 integer:4 value:5 depend:1 factorization:3 prime:12 factor:8 follow:3 square:5 free:6 even:3 distinct:5 odd:2 equivalent:1 way:1 state:1 two:1 ω:4 divide:1 count:1 multiplicity:1 clearly:1 imply:1 namely:1 zero:3 undefined:1 plot:1 e:2 ab:1 b:3 whenever:1 coprime:1 divisor:1 except:1 consequence:1 fact:3 every:3 non:2 empty:1 finite:2 set:3 many:1 subset:1 element:2 subsets:1 lead:1 formula:3 main:1 reason:1 relevance:1 arithmetic:2 connect:1 pólya:1 enumeration:2 theorem:2 combinatorial:2 group:1 another:1 closely:2 relate:1 mertens:3 natural:4 link:1 position:1 riemann:8 zeta:3 article:3 conjecture:1 information:1 connection:2 hypothesis:2 lambert:1 series:3 dirichlet:1 generate:1 inverse:1 easy:1 product:1 thm:1 calculate:1 without:1 know:1 argument:1 nth:1 unity:1 give:2 farey:1 sequence:1 order:3 proof:3 franel:1 landau:1 edward:1 art:1 prove:1 congruent:1 section:1 divisible:1 converse:1 true:1 three:1 sphenic:2 generalization:1 locally:1 partially:2 poset:2 assign:1 incidence:2 algebra:4 one:1 distinguished:1 member:1 treat:1 essentially:1 equal:1 divisibility:1 precise:1 several:1 example:1 physic:1 also:2 arise:1 primon:1 gas:4 model:1 supersymmetry:1 fundamental:1 particle:1 primons:2 energy:1 log:2 second:1 quantization:1 multiparticle:1 excitation:1 consider:1 unique:1 take:2 boson:2 fermion:2 pauli:1 exclusion:1 principle:1 exclude:1 operator:1 f:1 distinguish:1 none:1 interesting:1 include:2 partition:1 idea:1 underlie:1 alain:2 connes:2 attempt:1 j:1 bost:1 hecke:1 type:1 iii:1 phase:1 transition:1 spontaneous:1 symmetry:1 break:1 selecta:1 math:2 new:1 liouville:1 ramanujan:1 reference:1 translate:1 latin:1 english:1 edition:1 paper:1 quadratic:1 reciprocity:2 determination:1 sign:1 investigation:1 biquadratic:1 unpublished:1 compute:1 summation:1 marc:1 deléglise:1 joël:1 rivat:1 experimental:1 mathematics:1 volume:1 issue:1 ed:1 pegg:1 jr:1 squarefree:1 maa:1 online:1 game:1 |@bigram hardy_wright:2 disquisitiones_arithmeticae:2 friedrich_gauss:1 möbius_inversion:2 μ_μ:1 closely_relate:1 riemann_zeta:3 zeta_function:3 riemann_hypothesis:2 multiplicative_inverse:1 wright_thm:1 nth_root:1 pauli_exclusion:1 exclusion_principle:1 fermion_boson:1 alain_connes:2 spontaneous_symmetry:1 ramanujan_sum:1 quadratic_reciprocity:1 |
4,044 | Demographics_of_Guinea | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Guinea, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of Guinea describes the condition and overview of Guinea's peoples. Demographic topics include basic education, health, and population statistics as well as identified racial and religious affiliations. Ethnic groups Fulɓe (singular Pullo). Called Peuhl or Peul (:fr:Peul) in French, Fula or Fulani in English, who are chiefly found in the mountainous region of Fouta Djallon; Maninka. Malinke in French, Mandingo in English, mostly inhabiting the savanna of Upper Guinea and the Forest region; Susus or Soussous. Susu is not a lingua franca in Guinea. Although it is commonly spoken in the coastal areas, including the capital, Conakry, it is not largely understood in the interior of the country. Several small groups (Gerzé, Toma, Kissis, etc.) in the forest region and Bagas (including Landoumas) , Koniagis etc... in the coastal area. West Africans make up the largest non-Guinean population. Non-Africans total about 30,000 (mostly Lebanese, French, and other Europeans). Seven national languages are used extensively; the major written languages are French, Pular (Fula or Peuhl), and Arabic. Other languages have established Latin orthographies that are used somewhat, notably for Susu and Maninka. The N'Ko alphabet is increasingly used on a grassroots level for the Maninka language. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 9,327,714 (July 2006 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 44.3% (male 2,226,414/female 2,183,153) 15-64 years: 52.5% (male 2,611,833/female 2,610,773) 65 years and over: 3.2% (male 138,392/female 177,249) (2006 est.) Population growth rate 2.18% (2006 est.) Birth rate 37.59 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 11.53 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) note: as a result of conflict in neighboring countries, Guinea is host to approximately 141,500 refugees from Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone (2006 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.781 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate 90 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 54.86 years male: 52.35 years female: 56.59 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 5.65 children born/woman (2006 est.) Nationality noun: Guinean(s) adjective: Guinean Ethnic groups Fula 40%, Malinke 30%, Susu 20%, smaller ethnic groups 10% Religions Muslim 85%, Christian 10% (mainly Roman Catholic Church and Evangelical denominations), indigenous beliefs 5%. International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Guinea Official census does not break in ethnicity or religion Languages French (official), each ethnic group has its own language Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 35.9% male: 49.9% female: 21.9% (1995 est.) References | Demographics_of_Guinea |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:5 feature:1 population:13 guinea:7 include:4 density:1 ethnicity:2 education:2 level:2 health:2 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:3 affiliation:2 aspect:1 describe:1 condition:1 overview:1 people:1 topic:1 basic:1 statistic:3 well:1 identify:1 racial:1 ethnic:4 group:5 fulɓe:1 singular:1 pullo:1 call:1 peuhl:2 peul:2 fr:1 french:5 fula:3 fulani:1 english:2 chiefly:1 find:1 mountainous:1 region:3 fouta:1 djallon:1 maninka:3 malinke:2 mandingo:1 mostly:2 inhabit:1 savanna:1 upper:1 forest:2 susus:1 soussous:1 susu:3 lingua:1 franca:1 although:1 commonly:1 speak:1 coastal:2 area:2 capital:1 conakry:1 largely:1 understood:1 interior:1 country:2 several:1 small:2 gerzé:1 toma:1 kissis:1 etc:2 bagas:1 landoumas:1 koniagis:1 west:1 african:2 make:1 large:1 non:2 guinean:3 total:5 lebanese:1 european:1 seven:1 national:1 language:6 use:3 extensively:1 major:1 write:2 pular:1 arabic:1 establish:1 latin:1 orthography:1 somewhat:1 notably:1 n:1 ko:1 alphabet:1 increasingly:1 grassroots:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:12 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 note:1 result:1 conflict:1 neighbor:1 host:1 approximately:1 refugee:1 cote:1 ivoire:1 liberia:1 sierra:1 leone:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 religion:2 muslim:1 christian:1 mainly:1 roman:1 catholic:1 church:1 evangelical:1 denomination:1 indigenous:1 belief:1 international:1 freedom:1 report:1 official:2 census:1 break:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:2 affiliation_aspect:1 lingua_franca:1 capital_conakry:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 cote_ivoire:1 liberia_sierra:1 sierra_leone:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 |
4,045 | Natural_resource | Rainforest on Fatu-Hiva, Marquesas Islands is an example of an undisturbed natural resource. The Upsala Glacier in the Santa Cruz Province of Argentina is an example of a natural resource. The ocean is a natural resource. Natural resources (economically referred to as land or raw materials) occur naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by mankind, in a natural form. A natural resource's is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity existent in various ecosystems. Natural resource depletion Mining, petroleum extraction, fishing, hunting, and forestry are generally considered natural-resource industries. Agriculture is considered a man-made resource. Theodore Roosevelt, a well-known conservationist and former United States president, was opposed to unregulated natural resource extraction. The term is defined by the United States Geological Survey as "The Nation's natural resources include its minerals, energy, land, water, and biota." Examples Some examples of natural resources include: Agronomy United States Department of Agriculture - Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved May 2009. Air and atmosphere Animals / Fauna Coal and Fossil fuels Forestry & Agroforestry Plants / Flora Range and Pasture Soils Water and Oceans Wildlife Wind Depletion In recent years, the depletion of natural resources and attempts to move to sustainable development have been a major focus of development agencies. This is of particular concern in rainforest regions, which hold most of the Earth's natural biodiversity - irreplaceable genetic natural capital. Conservation of natural resources is the major focus of natural capitalism, environmentalism, the ecology movement, and green politics. Some view this depletion as a major source of social unrest and conflicts in developing nations. See also Conservation biology Conservation reliant species Ecology Ecology movement Environmental protection Habitat conservation Natural environment Natural capital Rainforest Action Network Renewable resource Sierra club Sustainability Sustainable agriculture References | Natural_resource |@lemmatized rainforest:3 fatu:1 hiva:1 marquesas:1 island:1 example:3 undisturbed:2 natural:19 resource:15 upsala:1 glacier:1 santa:1 cruz:1 province:1 argentina:1 ocean:2 economically:1 refer:1 land:2 raw:1 material:1 occur:1 naturally:1 within:1 environment:2 exist:1 relatively:1 mankind:1 form:1 often:1 characterize:1 amount:1 biodiversity:2 existent:1 various:1 ecosystem:1 depletion:4 mining:1 petroleum:1 extraction:2 fishing:1 hunting:1 forestry:2 generally:1 consider:2 industry:1 agriculture:3 man:1 make:1 theodore:1 roosevelt:1 well:1 know:1 conservationist:1 former:1 united:3 state:3 president:1 oppose:1 unregulated:1 term:1 define:1 geological:1 survey:1 nation:2 include:2 mineral:1 energy:1 water:2 biota:1 examples:1 agronomy:1 department:1 conservation:5 service:1 retrieve:1 may:1 air:1 atmosphere:1 animal:1 fauna:1 coal:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 agroforestry:1 plant:1 flora:1 range:1 pasture:1 soil:1 wildlife:1 wind:1 recent:1 year:1 attempt:1 move:1 sustainable:2 development:2 major:3 focus:2 agency:1 particular:1 concern:1 region:1 hold:1 earth:1 irreplaceable:1 genetic:1 capital:2 capitalism:1 environmentalism:1 ecology:3 movement:2 green:1 politics:1 view:1 source:1 social:1 unrest:1 conflict:1 develop:1 see:1 also:1 biology:1 reliant:1 specie:1 environmental:1 protection:1 habitat:1 action:1 network:1 renewable:1 sierra:1 club:1 sustainability:1 reference:1 |@bigram marquesas_island:1 santa_cruz:1 raw_material:1 fishing_hunting:1 hunting_forestry:1 theodore_roosevelt:1 geological_survey:1 fossil_fuel:1 sustainable_agriculture:1 |
4,046 | Linear_congruence_theorem | In modular arithmetic, the question of when a linear congruence can be solved is answered by the linear congruence theorem. If a and b are any integers and n is a positive integer, then the congruence ax ≡ b (mod n) (1) has a solution for x if and only if b is divisible by the greatest common divisor d of a and n (denoted by gcd(a,n) | b). When this is the case, and x0 is one solution of (1), then the set of all solutions is given by In particular, there will be exactly d = gcd(a,n) solutions in the set of residues {0,1,2,...,n-1}. Example For example, examining the equation ax ≡ 2 (mod 6) with different values of a yields 3x ≡ 2 (mod 6) here d = gcd(3,6) = 3 but since 3 does not divide 2, there is no solution. 5x ≡ 2 (mod 6) here d = gcd(5,6) = 1, which divides any b, and so there is just one solution in {0,1,2,3,4,5}: x=4. 4x ≡ 2 (mod 6) here d = gcd(4,6) = 2, which does divide 2, and so there are exactly two solutions in {0,1,2,3,4,5}: x=2 and x=5. Solving a linear congruence In general solving equations of the form: ax ≡ b (mod n) (1) If the greatest common divisor d = gcd(a, n) divides b, then we can find a solution x to the congruence (1) as follows: the extended Euclidean algorithm yields integers r and s such ra + sn = d. Then x = rb/d is a solution. The other solutions are the numbers congruent to x modulo n/d. For example, the congruence 12x ≡ 20 (mod 28) has 4 solutions since gcd(12, 28) = 4 divides 20. The extended Euclidean algorithm gives (-2)*12 + 1*28 = 4, i.e. r = -2 and s = 1. Therefore, one solution is x = -2*20/4 = -10, and -10 = 4 modulo 7. All other solutions will also be congruent to 4 modulo 7. Since the original equation uses modulo 28, the entire solution set in the range from 0 to 27 is x = {4,11,18,25} System of linear congruences By repeatedly using the linear congruence theorem, one can also solve systems of linear congruences, as in the following example: find all numbers x such that 2x ≡ 2 (mod 6) 3x ≡ 2 (mod 7) 2x ≡ 4 (mod 8) By solving the first congruence using the method explained above, we find x ≡ 1 (mod 3), which can also be written as x = 3k + 1. Substituting this into the second congruence and simplifying, we get 9k ≡ −1 (mod 7) Solving this congruence yields k ≡ 3 (mod 7), or k = 7l + 3. It then follows that x = 3 (7l + 3) + 1 = 21l + 10. Substituting this into the third congruence and simplifying, we get 42l ≡ −16 (mod 8) which has the solution l ≡ 0 (mod 4), or l = 4m. This yields x = 21(4m) + 10 = 84m + 10, or x ≡ 10 (mod 84) which describes all solutions to the system. See also Chinese remainder theorem | Linear_congruence_theorem |@lemmatized modular:1 arithmetic:1 question:1 linear:6 congruence:13 solve:6 answer:1 theorem:3 b:7 integer:3 n:9 positive:1 ax:3 mod:16 solution:16 x:15 divisible:1 great:2 common:2 divisor:2 denote:1 gcd:7 case:1 one:4 set:3 give:2 particular:1 exactly:2 residue:1 example:4 examine:1 equation:3 different:1 value:1 yield:4 since:3 divide:5 two:1 general:1 form:1 find:3 follow:2 extended:2 euclidean:2 algorithm:2 r:2 ra:1 sn:1 rb:1 number:2 congruent:2 modulo:4 e:1 therefore:1 also:4 original:1 use:3 entire:1 range:1 system:3 repeatedly:1 following:1 first:1 method:1 explain:1 write:1 substitute:2 second:1 simplifying:2 get:2 k:2 third:1 l:2 describe:1 see:1 chinese:1 remainder:1 |@bigram modular_arithmetic:1 linear_congruence:6 common_divisor:2 mod_gcd:3 divisor_gcd:1 extended_euclidean:2 euclidean_algorithm:2 congruent_modulo:1 mod_mod:2 |
4,047 | Frederick_Douglass | Frederick Douglass (born Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, (born circa 1818 February 20, 1895) was an American abolitionist, women's suffragist, editor, orator, author, statesman and reformer. Called "The Sage of Anacostia" and "The Lion of Anacostia", Douglass is one of the most prominent figures in African-American and United States history. He was a firm believer in the equality of all people, whether black, female, Native American, or recent immigrant. He was fond of saying, "I would unite with anybody to do right and with nobody to do wrong." Life as a slave Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, who later became known as Frederick Douglass, was born a slave in Talbot County, Maryland, between Hillsboro and Cordova, in a shack east of Tappers Corner and west of Tuckahoe Creek. Amanda Barker, The Search for Frederick Douglass' Birthplace, 1996. Retrieved on April 18, 2009. He was separated from his mother, Harriet Bailey, when he was still an infant. She died when Douglass was about seven and Douglass lived with his maternal grandmother Betty Bailey. His mother's ancestors likely had Native American heritage. The identity of his father is obscure. Appearing to be of mixed race, Douglass originally stated that he was told his father was a white man, perhaps his owner Aaron Anthony. Later he said he knew nothing of his father's identity. At age seven, Douglass was separated from his grandmother and moved to the Wye House plantation, where Anthony worked as overseer. When Anthony died, Douglass was given to Lucretia Auld, wife of Thomas Auld. She sent Douglass to serve Thomas' brother Hugh Auld in Baltimore. When Douglass was about twelve, Hugh Auld's wife Sophia started teaching him the alphabet. She was breaking the law against teaching slaves to read. When Hugh Auld discovered this, he strongly disapproved, saying that if a slave learned to read, he would become dissatisfied with his condition and desire freedom. Douglass later referred to this statement as the first anti-abolitionist speech he had ever heard. As detailed in his autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845), Douglass succeeded in learning to read from white children in the neighborhood and by observing the writings of men with whom he worked. As Douglass learned and began to read newspapers, political materials, and books of every description, he was exposed to a new realm of thought that led him to question and then condemn the institution of slavery. In later years, Douglass credited The Columbian Orator, which he discovered at about age twelve, with clarifying and defining his views on freedom and human rights. When Douglass was hired out to a Mr. Freeman, he taught other slaves on the plantation how to read the New Testament at a weekly Sabbath school. As word spread, the interest among slaves in learning to read was so great that in any week more than 40 slaves would attend lessons. For about six months, their study went relatively unnoticed. While Freeman was complacent about their activities, other plantation owners became incensed that their slaves were being educated. One Sunday they burst in on the gathering, armed with clubs and stones to disperse the congregation permanently. In 1833, Thomas Auld took Douglass back from Hugh after a dispute ("[A]s a means of punishing Hugh," Douglass wrote). Dissatisfied with Douglass, Thomas Auld then sent him to work for Edward Covey, a poor farmer who had a reputation as a "slave-breaker." There Douglass was whipped regularly. The sixteen-year-old Douglass was indeed nearly broken psychologically by his ordeal under Covey, but he finally rebelled against the beatings and fought back. After losing a confrontation with Douglass, Covey never tried to beat him again. In 1837, Douglass met Anna Murray, a free black in Baltimore. They married soon after he obtained his freedom. From slavery to freedom Douglass first unsuccessfully tried to escape from Mr. Freeman, who had hired him out from his owner Colonel Lloyd. In 1836, he tried to escape from his new owner Covey, but failed again. On September 3, 1838, Douglass successfully escaped by boarding a train to Havre de Grace, Maryland. He was dressed in a sailor's uniform and carried identification papers provided by a free black seaman. He crossed the Susquehanna River by ferry at Havre de Grace, then continued by train to Wilmington, Delaware. From there he went by steamboat to "Quaker City" — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania — and eventually reached New York; the whole journey took less than 24 hours. Abolitionist activities The home and meetinghouse of the Johnsons, where Douglass lived in New Bedford Douglass continued traveling up to Massachusetts. There he joined various organizations in New Bedford, including a black church, and regularly attended abolitionist meetings. He subscribed to William Lloyd Garrison's weekly journal The Liberator, and in 1841 heard Garrison speak at a meeting of the Bristol Anti-Slavery Society. At one of these meetings, Douglass was unexpectedly asked to speak. After he told his story, he was encouraged to become an anti-slavery lecturer. Douglass was inspired by Garrison and later stated that "no face and form ever impressed me with such sentiments [of the hatred of slavery] as did those of William Lloyd Garrison." Garrison was likewise impressed with Douglass and wrote of him in The Liberator. Several days later, Douglass delivered his first speech at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society's annual convention in Nantucket. Then 23 years old, Douglass said later that his legs were shaking but he conquered his nervousness and gave an eloquent speech about his rough life as a slave. In 1843, Douglass participated in the American Anti-Slavery Society's Hundred Conventions project, a six-month tour of meeting halls throughout the Eastern and Midwestern United States. He participated in the Seneca Falls Convention, the birthplace of the American feminist movement, and signed its Declaration of Sentiments. Autobiography Frederick Douglass as a young man Douglass' best-known work is his first autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, published in 1845. At the time, some skeptics attacked the book and questioned whether a black man could have produced such an eloquent piece of literature. The book received generally positive reviews and it became an immediate bestseller. Within three years of its publication, the autobiography had been reprinted nine times with 11,000 copies circulating in the United States; it was also translated into French and Dutch and published in Europe. The book's success had an unfortunate side effect: Douglass' friends and mentors feared that the publicity would draw the attention of his ex-owner, Hugh Auld, who might try to get his "property" back. They encouraged Douglass to tour Ireland, as many other former slaves had done. Douglass set sail on the Cambria for Liverpool on August 16, 1845, and arrived in Ireland as the Irish Potato Famine was beginning. Douglass published three versions of his autobiography during his lifetime (and revised the third of these), each time expanding on the previous one. The 1845 Narrative, which was his biggest seller, was followed by My Bondage and My Freedom in 1855. In 1881, after the Civil War, Douglass published Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, which he revised in 1892. Travels to Ireland and Great Britain Mural featuring Frederick Douglass in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Starting in August 1845, Douglass spent two years in Great Britain and Ireland, where he gave many lectures, mainly in Protestant churches or chapels. His draw was such that some facilities were "crowded to suffocation"; an example was his hugely popular London Reception Speech, which Douglass delivered at Alexander Fletcher's Finsbury Chapel in May 1846. Douglass remarked that in England he was treated not "as a color, but as a man." He met and befriended the Irish nationalist Daniel O'Connell. It was during this trip that Douglass became officially free, when his freedom was purchased from his owner by British supporters. http://www.rense.com/general34/lifeand.htm British sympathizers led by Ellen Richardson of Newcastle upon Tyne collected the money needed to purchase his freedom. Douglass roused tumultuous crowds with his speeches about slavery and his experiences, and he met with acclaim. In 1846 Douglass was able to meet with Thomas Clarkson, one of the last survivors of the abolitionists who had persuaded Parliament to abolish slavery in Great Britain and its colonies. Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution, New York: HarperCollins, 2006 Pbk, pp. 415-421 After his return to the US, Douglass produced some regular abolitionist newspapers: The North Star, Frederick Douglass Weekly, Frederick Douglass' Paper, Douglass' Monthly and New National Era. The motto of The North Star was "Right is of no Sex — Truth is of no Color — God is the Father of us all, and we are all brethren." Douglass believed that education was key for African Americans to improve their lives. For this reason, he was an early advocate for desegregation of schools. In the 1850s, he was especially outspoken in New York. While the ratio of African American to white students there was 1 to 40, African Americans received education funding at a ratio of only 1 to 1,600. This meant that the facilities and instruction for African-American children were vastly inferior. Douglass criticized the situation and called for court action to open all schools to all children. He stated that inclusion within the educational system was a more pressing need for African Americans than political issues such as suffrage. Douglass' work spanned the years prior to and during the Civil War. He was acquainted with the radical abolitionist John Brown but disapproved of Brown's plan to start an armed slave rebellion in the South. Brown visited Douglass' home two months before he led the raid on the federal armory in Harpers Ferry. After the raid, Douglass fled for a time to Canada, fearing guilt by association and arrest as a co-conspirator. Douglass believed that the attack on federal property would enrage the American public. Douglass later shared a stage at a speaking engagement in Harpers Ferry with Andrew Hunter, the prosecutor who successfully convicted Brown. Douglass conferred with President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 on the treatment of black soldiers, and with President Andrew Johnson on the subject of black suffrage. His early collaborators were the white abolitionists William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips. In the early 1850s, however, Douglass split with those who supported Garrison over the issue of interpretation of the United States Constitution. He believed it provided all that was necessary to gain the freedom of African Americans and guarantee their rights. Civil War years Before the Civil War In 1851, Douglass merged the North Star with Gerrit Smith's Liberty Party Paper to form Frederick Douglass' Paper, which was published until 1860. Douglass came to agree with Smith and Lysander Spooner that the United States Constitution was an anti-slavery document. This reversed his earlier belief that it was pro-slavery. At one time he had shared the views of William Lloyd Garrison, who was concerned that support for slavery was part of the fabric of the Constitution. Garrison had publicly expressed his opinion by burning copies of the document. Further contributing to their growing separation, Garrison was worried that the North Star competed with his own National Anti-Slavery Standard and Marius Robinson's Anti-Slavery Bugle. Douglass' change of position on the Constitution was one of the most notable incidents of the division in the abolitionist movement after the publication of Spooner's book The Unconstitutionality of Slavery in 1846. This shift in opinion, and other political differences, created a rift between Douglass and Garrison. Douglass further angered Garrison by saying that the Constitution could and should be used as an instrument in the fight against slavery. With this, Douglass began to assert his independence from Garrison and his supporters. In 1848, Douglass attended the first women's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, as the only African American. Stanton, 1997, p. 85. Elizabeth Cady Stanton asked the assembly to pass a resolution asking for women's suffrage. USConstitution.net. Text of the "Declaration of Sentiments", and the Resolutions. Retrieved on April 24, 2009. Many of those present opposed the idea, including influential Quakers James and Lucretia Mott. Douglass stood and spoke eloquently in favor; he said that he could not accept the right to vote himself as a black man if woman could not also claim that right. Douglass projected that the world would be a better place if women were involved in the political sphere. "In this denial of the right to participate in government, not merely the degradation of woman and the perpetuation of a great injustice happens, but the maiming and repudiation of one-half of the moral and intellectual power of the government of the world." McMillen, 2008, pp. 93–94. Douglass's powerful words rang true with many in attendance, and the resolution passed by a large majority. Lucretia Mott spoke to end the session. National Park Service. Women's Rights. Report of the Woman's Rights Convention, July 19–20, 1848. Retrieved on April 24, 2009. In March 1860, Douglass' youngest daughter Annie died in Rochester, New York, while he was still in England. Douglass returned from England the following month. He took a route through Canada to avoid detection. By the time of the Civil War, Douglass was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his orations on the condition of the black race and on other issues such as women's rights. His eloquence gathered crowds at every location. His reception by leaders in England and Ireland added to his stature. Fight for emancipation Douglass and the abolitionists argued that because the aim of the war was to end slavery, African Americans should be allowed to engage in the fight for their freedom. Douglass publicized this view in his newspapers and several speeches. President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, which took effect on January 1, 1863, declared the freedom of all slaves in Confederate-held territory. Slaves in Union-held areas were not covered by this war-measures act. Douglass described the spirit of those awaiting the proclamation: "We were waiting and listening as for a bolt from the sky...we were watching...by the dim light of the stars for the dawn of a new day...we were longing for the answer to the agonizing prayers of centuries." With the North no longer obliged to return slaves to their owners in the South, Douglass fought for equality for his people. He made plans with Lincoln to move the liberated slaves out of the South. During the war, Douglass helped the Union by serving as a recruiter for the 54th Massachusetts Regiment. His son Frederick Douglass Jr. also served as a recruiter and his other son, Lewis Douglass, fought for the 54th Massachusetts Regiment at the Battle of Fort Wagner. Slavery everywhere in the United States was outlawed by the post-war (1865) ratification of the 13th Amendment. The 14th Amendment provided for citizenship and equal protection under the law. The 15th Amendment protected all citizens from being discriminated against in voting because of race. Lincoln's death Frederick Douglass At the unveiling of the Emancipation Memorial in Washington's Lincoln Park, Douglass was in the audience while a tribute to Lincoln was being given by a prominent lawyer. Some of the audience felt it did not do him justice and asked Douglass to speak. Reluctantly, Douglass stood up and spoke. With no preparation, he gave an eloquent tribute to the assassinated President, a speech for which he received much respect. In the speech, Douglass spoke frankly about Lincoln, balancing the good and the bad in his account. He called Lincoln "the white man's president" and cited his tardiness in joining the cause of emancipation. He noted that Lincoln initially opposed the expansion of slavery but did not support its elimination. But Douglass also stated, "Can any colored man, or any white man friendly to the freedom of all men, ever forget the night which followed the first day of January 1863, when the world was to see if Abraham Lincoln would prove to be as good as his word?" The crowd, roused by his speech, gave him a standing ovation. A witness later said, "I have heard Clay speak and many fantastic men, but never have I heard a speech as impressive as that." A long-told anecdote claims that the widow Mary Lincoln gave Douglass Lincoln's favorite walking stick in appreciation. Lincoln's walking stick still rests in Douglass' house known as Cedar Hill. It is a testimony both to the tribute and to the effect of Douglass' powerful oratory. Reconstruction era Cedar Hill, Douglass' house in Washington, D.C. After the Civil War, Douglass was appointed to several important political positions. He served as President of the Reconstruction-era Freedman's Savings Bank; as marshal of the District of Columbia; as minister-resident and consul-general to the Republic of Haiti (1889–1891); and as chargé d'affaires for the Dominican Republic. After two years, he resigned from his ambassadorship because of disagreements with U.S. government policy. In 1872, he moved to Washington, D.C., after his house on South Avenue in Rochester, New York burned down; arson was suspected. Also lost was a complete issue of The North Star. In 1868, Douglass supported the presidential campaign of Ulysses S. Grant. President Grant signed into law the Klan Act and the second and third Enforcement Acts. Grant used their provisions vigorously, suspending habeas corpus in South Carolina and sending troops there and into other states; under his leadership over 5,000 arrests were made and the Ku Klux Klan received a serious blow. Grant's vigor in disrupting the Klan made him unpopular among many whites, but Frederick Douglass praised him. An associate of Douglass wrote of Grant that African Americans "will ever cherish a grateful remembrance of his name, fame and great services." In 1872, Douglass became the first African American nominated for Vice President of the United States, as Victoria Woodhull's running mate on the Equal Rights Party ticket. He was nominated without his knowledge. During the campaign, he neither campaigned for the ticket nor acknowledged that he had been nominated. Douglass continued his speaking engagements. On the lecture circuit, he spoke at many colleges around the country during the Reconstruction era, including Bates College in Lewiston, Maine in 1873. He continued to emphasize the importance of voting rights and exercise of suffrage. White insurgents had quickly arisen in the South after the war, organizing first as secret vigilante groups like the Ku Klux Klan. Through the years, armed insurgency took different forms, the last as powerful paramilitary groups such as the White League and the Red Shirts during the 1870s in the Deep South. They operated as "the military arm of the Democratic Party", turning out Republican officeholders and disrupting elections. George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction, Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1984, p. 132 Their power continued to grow in the South; more than 10 years after the end of the war, white Democrats regained political power in every state of the former Confederacy and began to reassert white supremacy. They enforced this by a combination of violence, late 19th c. laws imposing segregation and a concerted effort to disfranchise African Americans. From 1890-1908, white Democrats passed new constitutions and statutes in the South that created requirements for voter registration and voting that effectively disfranchised most blacks and tens of thousands of poor whites. Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol.17, 2000, pp.12-13, accessed 10 Mar 2008 This disfranchisement and segregation were enforced for more than six decades into the 20th century. Family life Douglass and Anna had five children: Charles Remond Douglass, Rosetta Douglass, Lewis Henry Douglass, Frederick Douglass Jr., and Annie Douglass (died at the age of ten). The two oldest, Charles and Rossetta, helped produce his newspapers. Douglass was an ordained minister of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1877, Douglass bought his final home in Washington D.C., on a hill above the Anacostia River. He named it Cedar Hill (also spelled CedarHill). He expanded the house from 14 to 21 rooms, and included a china closet. One year later, he expanded his property to 15 acres (61,000 m²) by buying adjoining lots. The home has been designated the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site. Frederick Douglass with his second wife Helen Pitts Douglass (sitting). The woman standing is her sister Eva Pitts. After the disappointments of whites' regaining power in the South after Reconstruction, many African Americans, called Exodusters, moved to Kansas to form all-black towns where they could be free. Douglass spoke out against the movement, urging blacks to stick it out. He was condemned and booed by black audiences. In 1877, Douglass was appointed a United States Marshal. In 1881, he was appointed Recorder of Deeds for the District of Columbia. His wife, Anna Murray Douglas, died in 1882, leaving him depressed. His association with the activist Ida B. Wells brought meaning back into his life. In 1884, Douglass married Helen Pitts, a white feminist from Honeoye, New York. Pitts was the daughter of Gideon Pitts, Jr., an abolitionist colleague and friend of Douglass. Pitts was a graduate of Mount Holyoke College (then called Mount Holyoke Female Seminary). She had worked on a radical feminist publication named Alpha while living in Washington, D.C. The couple faced a storm of controversy with their marriage, since she was both white and nearly 20 years younger than he. Her family stopped speaking to her; his was bruised, as his children felt his marriage was a repudiation of their mother. But feminist Elizabeth Cady Stanton congratulated the couple. Frederick Douglas biography at winningthevote.org. Accessed October 3, 2006. The new couple traveled to England, France, Italy, Egypt and Greece from 1886 to 1887. At the 1888 Republican National Convention, Douglass became the first African American to receive a vote for President of the United States in a major party's roll call vote. "Past Convention Highlights." Republican Convention 2000. CNN/AllPolitics.com. Accessed 2008-07-01. In 1892 the Haitian government appointed Douglass as its commissioner to the Chicago World's Columbian Exposition. He spoke for Irish Home Rule and the efforts of leader Charles Stewart Parnell in Ireland. He briefly revisited Ireland in 1886. Also in 1892, he constructed rental housing for blacks in the Fells Point area of Baltimore. Now known as Douglass Place, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003. Death On February 20, 1895, Douglass attended a meeting of the National Council of Women in Washington, D.C. During that meeting, he was brought to the platform and given a standing ovation by the audience. Shortly after he returned home, Frederick Douglass died of a massive heart attack or stroke in his adopted hometown of Washington, D.C. He is buried in Mount Hope Cemetery in Rochester, New York. In 1921, members of the Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity designated Frederick Douglass as an honorary member. Theirs was the first African-American intercollegiate fraternity. Douglass was the only man to receive an honorary membership posthumously. In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante named Frederick Douglass to his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8. Establishing date of birth 1965 US Postage Stamp, published during the upsurge of the Civil Rights Movement In successive autobiographies, Douglass gave more precise estimates of when he was born, his final estimate being 1817. He adopted February 14 as his birthday because his mother Harriet Bailey used to call him her "little valentine". Douglass was born at on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, where slaves were punished for learning to read or write and so could not keep records. Historian Dickson Preston examined the records of Douglass' former owner Aaron Anthony and determined that February 1818 was when Douglass was born. McFeely, 1991, p. 8. Works Writings A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845) "The Heroic Slave." Autographs for Freedom. Ed. Julia Griffiths, Boston: Jewett and Company, 1853. pp. 174-239. My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (1881, revised 1892) Douglass also was editor of the abolitionist newspaper The North Star from 1847 to 1851. He merged The North Star with another paper to create the Frederick Douglass' Paper. Speeches "The Church and Prejudice" Self-Made Men Cultural representation The 1989 film Glory featured Frederick Douglass as a friend of Francis George Shaw, attending a party where he encouraged Shaw's son Robert and reviewing the new unit of Black Union Army soldiers. He was played by Raymond St. Jacques. The 2004 mockumentary C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America featured Douglass. Frederick Douglass is a major character in the alternate history novel How Few Remain by Harry Turtledove. Douglass is the protagonist of the novel Riversmeet (Richard Bradbury, Muswell Press, 2007), a fictionalized account of his 1845 speaking tour of the British Isles. Frederick Douglass and Riversmeet: connecting 19th century struggles, Socialist Worker online, December 1 2007 See also The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass List of African-American abolitionists Slave narrative African-American literature The Columbian Orator Sources Parts of this article are drawn from Houston A. Baker, Jr., introduction to the 1986 Penguin edition of Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. References Further reading Scholarship Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, ed. Frederick Douglass, Autobiography (Library of America, 1994) ISBN 978-0-94045079-0 Foner, Philip Sheldon. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass. New York: International Publishers, 1950. Huggins, Nathan Irvin, and Oscar Handlin. Slave and Citizen: The Life of Frederick Douglass. Library of American Biography. Boston: Little, Brown, 1980; Longman (1997). ISBN 0673393429 Lampe, Gregory P. Frederick Douglass: Freedom's Voice,. Rhetoric and Public Affairs Series. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1998. ISBN-X (alk. paper) ISBN (pbk. alk. paper) (on his oratory) Levine, Robert S. Martin Delany, Frederick Douglass, and the Politics of Representative Identity. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997. ISBN (alk. paper). ISBN (pbk.: alk. paper) (cultural history) McFeely, William S. Frederick Douglass. New York: Norton, 1991. ISBN 039331376X McMillen, Sally Gregory. Seneca Falls and the origins of the women's rights movement. Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 0195182650 Oakes, James. The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 2007. ISBN 0-39306194-9 Quarles, Benjamin. Frederick Douglass. Washington: Associated Publishers, 1948. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady; edited by Theodore Stanton and Harriot Stanton Blatch. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, As Revealed in Her Letters, Diary and Reminiscences, Harper & Brothers, 1922. Webber, Thomas, Deep Like Rivers: Education in the Slave Quarter Community 1831-1865. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. (1978). Woodson, C.G., The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861: A History of the Education of the Colored People of the United States from the Beginning of Slavery to the Civil War. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, (1915); Indy Publ. (2005) ISBN 1421926709 For young readers Miller, William. Frederick Douglass: The Last Day of Slavery. Illus. by Cedric Lucas. Lee & Low Books, 1995. ISBN 1880000423 Weidt, Maryann N. Voice of Freedom: a Story about Frederick Douglass. Illus. by Jeni Reeves. Lerner Publications, (2001). ISBN 1-575-05553-8 Documentary films Frederick Douglass and the White Negro [videorecording] / Writer/Director John J Doherty, produced by Camel Productions, Ireland. Irish Film Board/TG4/BCI.; 2008 Frederick Douglass [videorecording] / produced by Greystone Communications, Inc. for A&E Network ; executive producers, Craig Haffner and Donna E. Lusitana.; 1997 Frederick Douglass: When the Lion Wrote History [videorecording] / a co-production of ROJA Productions and WETA-TV. Frederick Douglass, Abolitionist Editor [videorecording]/a production of Schlessinger Video Productions. Race to Freedom [videorecording] : the story of the underground railroad / an Atlantis External links Douglass' sources online The Frederick Douglass Papers Edition : A Critical Edition of Douglass' Complete Works, including speeches, autobiographies, letters, and other writings. Works by Frederick Douglass at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions illustrated) Works by Frederick Douglass at Online Books Page Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Written by Himself. Boston: Anti-Slavery Office, 1845. The Heroic Slave. From Autographs for Freedom, Ed. Julia Griffiths. Boston: John P. Jewett and Company. Cleveland, Ohio: Jewett, Proctor, and Worthington. London: Low and Company., 1853. My Bondage and My Freedom. Part I. Life as a Slave. Part II. Life as a Freeman. New York: Miller, Orton & Mulligan, 1855. Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: His Early Life as a Slave, His Escape from Bondage, and His Complete History to the Present Time. Hartford, Conn.: Park Publishing Co., 1881. Frederick Douglass lecture on Haiti - Given at the World's Fair in Chicago, January 1893. Fourth of July Speech Resource Guides Frederick Douglass: Online Resources from the Library of Congress Biographical information Frederick Douglass Project at the University of Rochester. Frederick Douglass (American Memory, Library of Congress) Includes timeline. Timeline of Frederick Douglass and family Frederick Douglas Timeline Timeline of "The Life of Frederick Douglas" - Features key political events Read more about Frederick Douglass Frederick Douglass NHS - Douglass' Life Frederick Douglass NHS - Cedar Hill National Park Service site Frederick Douglass Western New York Suffragists Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Frederick Douglass Mr. Lincoln's White House: Frederick Douglass Memorials to Frederick Douglass Frederick Douglas National Historic Site The Washington, DC home of Frederick Douglass Frederick Douglass Gardens at Cedar Hill Frederick Douglass Gardens The Frederick Douglass Prize A national book prize Lewis N. 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4,048 | Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church | This article is an expansion of a section entitled Sacraments within the article: Roman Catholic Church. The Sacraments of the Catholic Church are, the Church teaches, "efficacious signs of grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us. The visible rites by which the sacraments are celebrated signify and make present the graces proper to each sacrament. They bear fruit in those who receive them with the required dispositions." Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1131 The Seven Sacraments by Rogier van der Weyden, ca. 1448. Though not every individual has to receive every sacrament, the Church affirms that, for believers as a whole, the sacraments are necessary for salvation. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1129 Through each of them Christ bestows that sacrament's particular grace, such as incorporation into Christ and the Church, forgiveness of sins, or consecration for a particular service. The Church teaches that the effect of a sacrament comes ex opere operato, by the very fact of being administered, regardless of the personal holiness of the minister administering it. New Catholic Dictionary However, a recipient's own lack of proper disposition to receive the grace conveyed can block the effectiveness of the sacrament in that person. The sacraments presuppose faith and through their words and ritual elements, nourish, strengthen and give expression to faith. Sacrosanctum Concilium, 59, quoted in Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1123 The Catechism of the Catholic Church lists the sacraments as follows: "The whole liturgical life of the Church revolves around the Eucharistic sacrifice and the sacraments. There are seven sacraments in the Church: Baptism, Confirmation or Chrismation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony." Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1113 Sacraments of Christian initiation Baptism Baptism is the first and basic sacrament of Christian initiation. In the Western or Latin Rite of the Church, baptism is usually conferred today by pouring water three times on the recipient's head, while reciting the baptismal formula: "I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" (cf. ). In the Eastern Catholic Churches immersion or submersion is used, and the formula is: "The servant of God, N., is baptized in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1239-1240 Though sprinkling is not normally used, its validity is accepted, provided that the water flows over the skin, since otherwise it is not a washing. Charles Coppens, S.J., The Catholic Religion Catholic Encyclopedia: Baptism The ordinary minister of the sacrament is a bishop or priest, or (in the Western Church, but not in the Eastern Catholic Churches) a deacon. In case of necessity, anyone intending to do what the Church does, even if that person is not a Christian, can baptize. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1256 The sacrament frees from original sin and all personal sins, and from the punishment due to them. Baptism makes the person share in the Trinitarian life of God through "sanctifying grace," the grace of justification that incorporates the person into the body of Christ and his Church), also making the person a sharer in the priesthood of Christ. It imparts the "theological" virtues (faith, hope, and charity) and the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and marks the baptized person with a spiritual seal or character that indicates permanent belonging to Christ. Baptism is the foundation of communion between all Christians. The many symbols of baptism include a white garment, symbolizing innocence and purity, a candle, symbolising the Light of Christ, the Oil of Chrism, which is used to anoint the baby or candidate (catechumen) being baptised, and the water, which symbolizes cleansing and the washing away of sin. See also Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1213–1284. Confirmation Confirmation or Chrismation is the second sacrament of Christian initiation. Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 251 "It is called Chrismation (in the Eastern Churches: anointing with holy myron or chrism) because the essential rite of the sacrament is anointing with chrism. It is called Confirmation because it confirms and strengthens baptismal grace." Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 266 It is conferred by "the anointing with Sacred Chrism (oil mixed with balsam and consecrated by the bishop), which is done by the laying on of the hand of the minister who pronounces the sacramental words proper to the rite." Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 267 These words, in both their Western and Eastern variants, refer to a gift of the Holy Spirit that marks the recipient as with a seal. Through the sacrament the grace given in baptism is "strengthened and deepened." Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1303 Like baptism, confirmation may be received only once, and the recipient must be in a state of grace (meaning free from any known unconfessed mortal sin) in order to receive its effects. The "originating" minister of the sacrament is a validly consecrated bishop; if a priest (a "presbyter") confers the sacrament — as is done ordinarily in the Eastern Churches and in special cases (such as the baptism of an adult or in danger of the death of a young child) in the Latin Church (CCC 1312–1313) — the link with the higher order is indicated by the use of oil (known as "chrism" or "myron") blessed by the bishop on Holy Thursday itself or on a day close to it. In the East, which retains the ancient practice, the sacrament is administered by the parish priest immediately after baptism. In the West, where administration is normally reserved for those who can understand its significance, it came to be postponed until the recipient's early adulthood; but in view of the earlier age at which children are now admitted to reception of the Eucharist, it is more and more restored to the traditional order and administered before giving the third sacrament of Christian initiation. See also Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1285–1321 Eucharist The Eucharist is the sacrament (the third of Christian initiation, the one that, as stated in CCC 1322, "completes Christian initiation") by which Catholics partake of the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ and participate in his one sacrifice. The first of these two aspects of the sacrament is also called Holy Communion. The bread (which must be wheaten, and which is unleavened in the Latin, Armenian and Ethiopic Rites, but is leavened in most Eastern Rites) and wine (which must be from grapes) used in the Eucharistic rite are, in Catholic faith, transformed in all but appearance into the Body and Blood of Christ, a change that is called transubstantiation. Only a bishop or priest is enabled to be a minister of the Eucharist, acting in the person of Christ himself. Deacons as well as priests are ordinary ministers of Holy Communion, and lay people may be authorized in limited circumstances to act as extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion. The Eucharist is seen as "the source and summit" of Christian living, the high point of God's sanctifying action on the faithful and of their worship of God, the point of contact between them and the liturgy of heaven. So important is it that participation in the Eucharistic celebration (see Mass) is seen as obligatory on every Sunday and holy day of obligation and is recommended on other days. Also recommended for those who participate in the Mass is reception, with the proper dispositions, of Holy Communion. This is seen as obligatory at least once a year, during Eastertide. See also Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1322–1419 Sacraments of healing Penance and Reconciliation The Sacrament of Penance is the first of two sacraments of healing. The Catechism of the Catholic Church mentions in the following orders different names of the sacrament, calling it the sacrament of conversion, Penance, confession, forgiveness and Reconciliation. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1423–1424 It is the sacrament of spiritual healing for a baptized person from the distancing from God resulting from sins committed. If a man sins after baptism, he cannot have baptism as a remedy; Baptism, which is a spiritual regeneration, cannot be given a second time. Reconciliation involves four elements: (1) Contrition (the Penitent's sincere remorse for wrongdoing or sin, repentance, without which the rite has no effect); (2) Confession to a Priest with the faculty to hear confessions (Canon 966.1) - while it may be spiritually helpful to confess to another, only a Priest has the power to administer the sacrament; (3) Absolution by the Priest; and, (4) Satisfaction or Penance. "Many sins wrong our neighbour. One must do what is possible in order to repair the harm (e.g., return stolen goods, restore the reputation of someone slandered, pay compensation for injuries). Simple justice requires as much. But sin also injures and weakens the sinner himself, as well as his relationships with God and neighbour. Absolution takes away sin, but it does not remedy all the disorders sin has caused. Raised up from sin, the sinner must still recover his full spiritual health by doing something more to make amends for the sin: he must 'make satisfaction for' or 'expiate' his sins. This satisfaction is also called 'penance'" (CCC 1459). In early Christian centuries, this element of satisfaction was quite onerous and generally preceded absolution, but now it usually involves a simple task for the penitent to perform, to make some reparation and as a medicinal means of strengthening against further temptation. The priest is bound by the "seal of confession", which is inviolable. "Accordingly, it is absolutely wrong for a confessor in any way to betray the penitent, for any reason whatsoever, whether by word or in any other fashion." canon 983 of the Code of Canon Law A confessor who directly violates the sacramental seal incurs an automatic excommunication whose lifting is reserved to the Holy See. canon 1388 In some dioceses, certain sins are "reserved" which means only certain confessors can absolve them. Some sins, such as violation of the sacramental seal, consecration of bishops without authorization by the Holy See, direct physical attacks on the Pope, and intentional desecration of the Eucharist are reserved to the Holy See. A special case by case faculty from the Sacred Penitentiary is normally required to absolve these sins. See also Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1422–1498 Anointing of the Sick Anointing of the Sick is the second sacrament of healing. In this sacrament a priest anoints the sick with oil blessed specifically for that purpose. "The anointing of the sick can be administered to any member of the faithful who, having reached the use of reason, begins to be in danger by reason of illness or old age" (canon 1004; cf. CCC 1514). A new illness or a worsening of health enables a person to receive the sacrament a further time. When, in the Western Church, the sacrament was conferred only on those in immediate danger of death, it came to be known as "Extreme Unction", i.e. "Final Anointing", administered as one of the "Last Rites". The other "Last Rites" are Confession (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, at least absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given), and the Eucharist, which when administered to the dying is known as "Viaticum", a word whose original meaning in Latin was "provision for a journey". See also Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1499–1532 Sacraments at the service of communion Holy Orders Holy Orders is the sacrament by which a man is made a bishop, a priest, or a deacon, and thus dedicated to be an image of Christ. A bishop is the minister of this sacrament. Ordination as a bishop confers the fullness of the sacrament, making the bishop a member of the body of successors of the Apostles, and giving him the mission to teach, sanctify, and guide, along with the care of all the Churches. Ordination as a priest configures the priest to Christ the Head of the Church and the one essential High Priest, and conferring on him the power, as the bishops' assistant, to celebrate the sacraments and other liturgical acts, especially the Eucharist. Ordination as a deacon configures the deacon to Christ the Servant of All, placing him at the service of the bishop, especially in the Church's exercising of Christian charity towards the poor and preaching of the word of God. Aspirants to the priesthood are required by canon law (canon 1032 of the Code of Canon Law) to go through a seminary program that includes, as well as graduate level philosophical and theological studies, a formation program that includes spiritual direction, retreats, apostolate experience, etc. The course of studies in preparation for ordination as a permanent deacon is decided by the episcopal conference concerned. See also Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1536–1600 Matrimony Matrimony, or Marriage, like Holy Orders, is a sacrament that consecrates for a particular mission in building up the Church, and that provides grace for accomplishing that mission. This sacrament, seen as a sign of the love uniting Christ and the Church, establishes between the spouses a permanent and exclusive bond, sealed by God. Accordingly, a marriage between baptized persons, validly entered into and consummated, cannot be dissolved. The sacrament confers on them the grace they need for attaining holiness in their married life and for responsible acceptance and upbringing of their children. As a condition for validity, the sacrament is celebrated in the presence of the local Ordinary or Parish Priest or of a cleric delegated by them (or in certain limited circumstances a lay person delegated by the diocesan Bishop with the approval of the Episcopal Conference and the permission of the Holy See) and at least two other witnesses, canons 1108 and 1112 of the Code of Canon Law though in the theological tradition of the Latin Church the ministers of the sacrament are the couple themselves. For a valid marriage, a man and a woman must express their conscious and free consent to a definitive self-giving to the other, excluding none of the essential properties and aims of marriage. If one of the two is a non-Catholic Christian, their marriage is licit only if the permission of the competent authority of the Catholic Church is obtained. If one of the two is not a Christian (i.e. has not been baptized), the competent authority's dispensation is necessary for validity. See also Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1601–1666, and annulment (Catholic Church). St. Thomas Aquinas St. Thomas Aquinas discussed the biblical justification for the Sacraments in Summa contra Gentiles and Summa Theologica. Validity and liceity of administration of the sacraments As stated above, the effect of the sacraments comes ex opere operato (by the very fact of being administered). Since it is Christ who operates through them, their effectiveness does not depend on the worthiness of the minister. However, an apparent administration of a sacrament is invalid, if the person acting as minister does not have the necessary power (as if a deacon were to celebrate Mass). They are also invalid if the required "matter" or "form" is lacking. The matter is the perceptible material object, such as water in baptism or wheaten bread and grape wine for the Eucharist, or the visible action. The form is the verbal statement that specifies the signification of the matter, such as, (in the Western Church), "N., I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit". Furthermore, if the minister positively excludes some essential aspect of the sacrament, the sacrament is invalid. This last condition lies behind the 1896 judgement of the Holy See denying the validity of Anglican Orders. A sacrament may be administered validly, but illicitly, if a condition imposed by canon law is not observed. Obvious cases are administration of a sacrament by a priest under a penalty of excommunication or suspension, and an episcopal ordination without a mandate from the Pope. Canon law specifies impediments to reception of the sacraments of orders and marriage. Those concerning the first of these two sacraments only concern liceity, but "a diriment impediment renders a person incapable of validly contracting a marriage" (canon 1073). In the Latin Church, only the Holy See can authentically declare when divine law prohibits or invalidates a marriage, and only the Holy See has the right to establish for those who are baptised other impediments to marriage (canon 1075). But individual Eastern Catholic Churches, after having fulfilled certain requirements that include consulting (but not necessarily obtaining approval from) the Holy See, may establish impediments (Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, canon 792). If an impediment is imposed by merely ecclesiastical law, rather than being a matter of divine law, the Church may grant a dispensation from the impediment. Conditions for validity of marriage such as sufficient use of reason (canon 1095) and freedom from coercion (canon 1103), and the requirement that, normally, a marriage be contracted in the presence of the local Ordinary or parish priest or of the priest or deacon delegated by either of them, and in the presence of two witnesses (canon 1108), are not classified in the Code of Canon Law as impediments, but have much the same effect. Three of the sacraments may not be repeated: Baptism, Confirmation and Holy Orders: their effect is permanent. This teaching has been expressed by the images of, in the West, an indelible character or mark and of, in the East, a seal (CCC 698). However, if there is doubt about the validity of the administration of one or more of these sacraments, a conditional form of conferral may be used, such as: "If you are not already baptized, I baptize you …" Ordinary and extraordinary ministers of the sacraments + Ministers of sacraments in the Catholic Church Sacrament Ordinary ministers Extraordinary ministers Baptism Clergyman (bishop, priest or deacon)); but reserved normally to the parish priest. canon 861 §1 Laity delegated by the bishop. canon 861 §2 In case of necessity: Anyone (baptized or unbaptized) who has the required intention, which is the will to do what the Church does when she baptizes. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1256 Confirmation Bishop or (in Eastern Churches and in Western Church during Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults) priest. (in Western Church) priest given faculty by law, special grant, or emergency circumstances. Eucharist Consecration: Bishop or priest Distribution: Bishop, priest, or deacon (see Holy Communion) Exposition: Bishop, priest, or deacon (see Eucharistic adoration) Consecration: None Distribution of Holy Communion (licit only if not enough clergy): Instituted acolyte or another lay person delegated by the diocesan bishop or, in special cases, authorized by the priest presiding at Mass Redemptionis sacramentum, 88, 155 Exposition: Instituted acolyte; extraordinary minister of Holy Communion or another person deputed by the local Ordinary Penance Bishop or priest None Anointing of the Sick Bishop or priest None Holy Orders Bishop (for liceity, at least three at an episcopal ordination) Episcopal ordinations may proceed with just one consecrating bishop, formal dispensation from the Pope required. In the Eastern Churches, an Archimandrite may admit his subjects to minor orders. Matrimony Husband and wife for each other (Western tradition; clergy (bishop, priest, or deacon) with proper jurisdiction act as witnesses necessary for validity); officiating priest (Eastern tradition) Requirement of clergy witness, necessary for validity, may be dispensed from and another witness substituted, as in a mixed marriage (i.e. one party is a non-Catholic; with dispensation, a Protestant minister, Orthodox priest or other clergy, for instance) References External links Catechism of the Catholic Church on the Seven Sacraments Seven Catholic Sacraments' Signs and Instruments of God's Grace The Sacraments Through the Ages produced by EWTN hosted by Fr. Charles Connor - Real Audio | Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church |@lemmatized article:2 expansion:1 section:1 entitle:1 sacrament:66 within:1 roman:1 catholic:38 church:60 teach:3 efficacious:1 sign:3 grace:12 institute:2 christ:15 entrust:1 divine:3 life:4 dispense:2 u:1 visible:2 rite:11 celebrate:4 signify:1 make:8 present:1 proper:5 bear:1 fruit:1 receive:6 required:3 disposition:3 catechism:22 seven:4 rogier:1 van:1 der:1 weyden:1 ca:1 though:3 every:3 individual:2 affirm:1 believer:1 whole:2 necessary:5 salvation:1 bestows:1 particular:3 incorporation:1 forgiveness:2 sin:18 consecration:4 service:3 effect:6 come:4 ex:2 opere:2 operato:2 fact:2 administer:10 regardless:1 personal:2 holiness:2 minister:18 new:2 dictionary:1 however:3 recipient:5 lack:2 convey:1 block:1 effectiveness:2 person:16 presuppose:1 faith:4 word:6 ritual:1 element:3 nourish:1 strengthen:4 give:8 expression:1 sacrosanctum:1 concilium:1 quote:1 list:1 follow:1 liturgical:2 revolve:1 around:1 eucharistic:4 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4,049 | Cyc | Cyc is an artificial intelligence project that attempts to assemble a comprehensive ontology and knowledge base of everyday common sense knowledge, with the goal of enabling AI applications to perform human-like reasoning. The project was started in 1984 by Douglas Lenat and is developed by company Cycorp. Parts of the project are released as OpenCyc, which provides an API, RDF endpoint, and data dump under an open source license. Overview The project was started in 1984 as part of Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation. The objective was to codify, in machine-usable form, millions of pieces of knowledge that comprise human common sense. CycL presented a proprietary knowledge representation schema that utilized first-order relationships. In 1986, Doug Lenat estimated the effort to complete Cyc would be 250,000 rules and 350 man-years of effort . The Cyc Project was spun off into Cycorp, Inc. in Austin, Texas in 1994. The name "Cyc" (from "encyclopedia", pronounced like psych) is a registered trademark owned by Cycorp. The original knowledge base is proprietary, but a smaller version of the knowledge base, intended to establish a common vocabulary for automatic reasoning, was released as OpenCyc under an open source(Apache) license. More recently, Cyc has been made available to AI researchers under a research-purposes license as ResearchCyc. Typical pieces of knowledge represented in the database are "Every tree is a plant" and "Plants die eventually". When asked whether trees die, the inference engine can draw the obvious conclusion and answer the question correctly. The Knowledge Base (KB) contains over one million human-defined assertions, rules or common sense ideas. These are formulated in the language CycL, which is based on predicate calculus and has a syntax similar to that of the Lisp programming language. Much of the current work on the Cyc project continues to be knowledge engineering, representing facts about the world by hand, and implementing efficient inference mechanisms on that knowledge. Increasingly, however, work at Cycorp involves giving the Cyc system the ability to communicate with end users in natural language, and to assist with the knowledge formation process via machine learning. Like many companies, Cyc has ambitions to use the Cyc natural language understanding tools to parse the entire internet to extract structured data. In 2008, Cyc resources were mapped to many Wikipedia articles, potentially easing the connecting with other open datasets like DBPedia and Freebase. Knowledge base The concept names in Cyc are known as constants. Constants start with an optional "#$" and are case-sensitive. There are constants for: Individual items known as individuals, such as #$BillClinton or #$France. Collections, such as #$Tree-ThePlant (containing all trees) or #$EquivalenceRelation (containing all equivalence relations). A member of a collection is called an instance of that collection. Truth Functions which can be applied to one or more other concepts and return either true or false. For example #$siblings is the sibling relationship, true if the two arguments are siblings. By convention, truth function constants start with a lower-case letter. Truth functions may be broken down into logical connectives (such as #$and, #$or, #$not, #$implies), quantifiers (#$forAll, #$thereExists, etc.) and predicates. Functions, which produce new terms from given ones. For example, #$FruitFn, when provided with an argument describing a type (or collection) of plants, will return the collection of its fruits. By convention, function constants start with an upper-case letter and end with the string "Fn". The most important predicates are #$isa and #$genls. The first one describes that one item is an instance of some collection, the second one that one collection is a subcollection of another one. Facts about concepts are asserted using certain CycL sentences. Predicates are written before their arguments, in parentheses: (#$isa #$BillClinton #$UnitedStatesPresident) "Bill Clinton belongs to the collection of U.S. presidents" and (#$genls #$Tree-ThePlant #$Plant) "All trees are plants". (#$capitalCity #$France #$Paris) "Paris is the capital of France." Sentences can also contain variables, strings starting with "?". These sentences are called "rules". One important rule asserted about the #$isa predicate reads (#$implies (#$and (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUBSET) (#$genls ?SUBSET ?SUPERSET)) (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUPERSET)) with the interpretation "if OBJ is an instance of the collection SUBSET and SUBSET is a subcollection of SUPERSET, then OBJ is an instance of the collection SUPERSET". Another typical example is (#$relationAllExists #$biologicalMother #$ChordataPhylum #$FemaleAnimal) which means that for every instance of the collection #$ChordataPhylum (i.e. for every chordate), there exists a female animal (instance of #$FemaleAnimal) which is its mother (described by the predicate #$biologicalMother). The knowledge base is divided into microtheories (Mt), collections of concepts and facts typically pertaining to one particular realm of knowledge. Unlike the knowledge base as a whole, each microtheory is required to be free from contradictions. Each microtheory has a name which is a regular constant; microtheory constants contain the string "Mt" by convention. An example is #$MathMt, the microtheory containing mathematical knowledge. The microtheories can inherit from each other and are organized in a hierarchy: one specialization of #$MathMt is #$GeometryGMt, the microtheory about geometry. Inference engine An inference engine is a computer program that tries to derive answers from a knowledge base. The Cyc inference engine performs general logical deduction (including modus ponens, modus tollens, universal quantification and existential quantification. Releases OpenCyc The latest version of OpenCyc, 1.0, was released in July 2006. OpenCyc 1.0 includes the entire Cyc ontology containing hundreds of thousands of terms, along with millions of assertions relating the terms to each other, however these are mainly taxonomic assertions, not the complex rules available in Cyc. The knowledge base contains 47,000 concepts and 306,000 facts and can be browsed on the OpenCyc website. For the first time, the world's only large-scale, task-independent, language-independent, extensible, reusable, common-sense knowledge base is being made available to the world. Beginning now, software can become increasingly and arbitrarily smarter. Cyc has a wealth of facts and rules that are not part of the OpenCyc ontology. It also has natural language capabilities that are not in OpenCyc. The most complete commonsense reasoning engine will come from a combination of the two. OpenCyc's breadth (number of concepts) will outpace that of Cyc, but Cyc's depth (complex rules) will outpace that of OpenCyc. The first version of OpenCyc was released in May 2001 and contained only 6,000 concepts and 60,000 facts. The knowledge base is released under the Apache License. Cycorp has stated its intention to release OpenCyc under parallel, unrestricted licences to meet the needs of its users. The CycL and SubL interpreter (the program that allows you to browse and edit the database as well as to draw inferences) is released free of charge, but only as a binary, without source code. It is available for Linux and Microsoft Windows. The open source Texai The open source Texai project project has released the RDF-compatible content extracted from OpenCyc. Texai SourceForge project files ResearchCyc In July 2006, Cycorp released the binaries of ResearchCyc 1.0, a version of Cyc aimed at the research community, at no charge. (ResearchCyc was in beta stage of development during all of 2004; a beta version was released in February 2005.) In addition to the taxonomic information contained in OpenCyc, ResearchCyc includes significantly more semantic knowledge (i.e., additional facts) about the concepts in its knowledge base, and includes a large lexicon, English parsing and generation tools, and Java based interfaces for knowledge editing and querying. Applications Terrorism Knowledge Base The comprehensive Terrorism Knowledge Base is an application of cyc in development that will try to ultimately contain all relevant knowledge about terrorist groups, their members, leaders, ideology, founders, sponsors, affiliations, facilities, locations, finances, capabilities, intentions, behaviors, tactics, and full descriptions of specific terrorist events. The knowledge is stored as statements in mathematical logic, suitable for computer understanding and reasoning. Criticisms of the Cyc Project The Cyc project has been described as "one of the most controversial endeavors of the artificial intelligence history", so it has inevitably garnered its share of criticism. Criticisms include: The complexity of the system - arguably necessitated by its encyclopedic ambitions - and the consequent difficulty in adding to the system by hand Scalability problems from widespread reification, especially as constants Unsatisfactory treatment of the concept of substance and the related distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic properties The lack of any meaningful benchmark or comparison for the efficiency of Cyc's inference engine The current incompleteness of the system in both breadth and depth and the related difficulty in measuring its completeness Limited documentation The lack of up-to-date on-line training material makes it difficult for new people to learn the systems A large number of gaps in not only the ontology of ordinary objects but an almost complete lack of relevant assertions describing such objects See also Categorical logic Chinese room DARPA Agent Markup Language Mindpixel Open Mind Common Sense Semantic Web SHRDLU dbpedia freebase (database) yago (database) Wolfram Alpha References Further reading Alan Belasco et al. (2004). "Representing Knowledge Gaps Effectively". In: D. Karagiannis, U. Reimer (Eds.): Practical Aspects of Knowledge Management, Proceedings of PAKM 2004, Vienna, Austria, December 2-3, 2004. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. Elisa Bertino, Gian Piero & B.C. Zarria (2001). Intelligent Database Systems. Addison-Wesley Professional. John Cabral & others (2005). "Converting Semantic Meta-Knowledge into Inductive Bias". In: Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Inductive Logic Programming. Bonn, Germany, August 2005. Jon Curtis et al. (2005). "On the Effective Use of Cyc in a Question Answering System". In: Papers from the IJCAI Workshop on Knowledge and Reasoning for Answering Questions. Edinburgh, Scotland: 2005. Chris Deaton et al. (2005). "The Comprehensive Terrorism Knowledge Base in Cyc". In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005. Kenneth Forbus et al. (2005) ."Combining analogy, intelligent information retrieval, and knowledge integration for analysis: A preliminary report". In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005 James Masters (2002). "Structured Knowledge Source Integration and its applications to information fusion". In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Information Fusion. Annapolis, MD, July 2002. James Masters and Z. Güngördü (2003). "Structured Knowledge Source Integration: A Progress Report". In: In Integration of Knowledge Intensive Multiagent Systems. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 2003. Cynthia Matuszek et al. (2005) ."Searching for Common Sense: Populating Cyc from the Web". In: Proceedings of the Twentieth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. Douglas Lenat and R. V. Guha. (1990). Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems: Representation and Inference in the Cyc Project. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-51752-3. Tom O'Hara et al. (2003). "Inducing criteria for mass noun lexical mappings using the Cyc Knowledge Base and its Extension to WordNet". In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Computational Semantics. Tilburg, 2003. Kathy Panton et al. (2002). "Knowledge Formation and Dialogue Using the KRAKEN Toolset". In: Eighteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Edmonton, Canada, 2002. Deepak Ramachandran P. Reagan & K. Goolsbey (2005). "First-Orderized ResearchCyc: Expressivity and Efficiency in a Common-Sense Ontology". In: Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Contexts and Ontologies: Theory, Practice and Applications. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. Stephen Reed and D. Lenat (2002). "Mapping Ontologies into Cyc". In: AAAI 2002 Conference Workshop on Ontologies For The Semantic Web. Edmonton, Canada, July 2002. Benjamin Rode et al. (2005). "Towards a Model of Pattern Recovery in Relational Data". In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis. McLean, Virginia, May 2005. Dave Schneider et al. (2005). "Gathering and Managing Facts for Intelligence Analysis". In: Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis". McLean, Virginia, May 2005. Blake Shepard et al. (2005). "A Knowledge-Based Approach to Network Security: Applying Cyc in the Domain of Network Risk Assessment". In: Proceedings of the Seventeenth Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005. Nick Siegel et al. (2004). "Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems". In: Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Intelligent Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems. Technical Report WS-04-07, pp. 74-79. Menlo Park, California: AAAI Press, 2004. Nick Siegel et al. (2005). Hypothesis Generation and Evidence Assembly for Intelligence Analysis: Cycorp's Nooscape Application". In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005. Michael Witbrock et al. (2002). "An Interactive Dialogue System for Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc". In: Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Acapulco, Mexico, 2003. Michael Witbrock et al. (2004). "Automated OWL Annotation Assisted by a Large Knowledge Base". In: Workshop Notes of the 2004 Workshop on Knowledge Markup and Semantic Annotation at the 3rd International Semantic Web Conference ISWC2004. Hiroshima, Japan, November 2004, pp. 71-80. Michael Witbrock et al. (2005). "Knowledge Begets Knowledge: Steps towards Assisted Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc". In: Papers from the 2005 AAAI Spring Symposium on Knowledge Collection from Volunteer Contributors (KCVC)''. pp. 99-105. Stanford, California, March 2005. External links Cycorp homepage Publications available from the Cycorp webpage Opencyc.org (includes several tutorials) research.cyc.com The Cyc Foundation Servers that allow public browsing of the OpenCyc knowledge base sourceforge.net/projects/opencyc, the open source release of the top-level Cyc ontology (release 1.0 created July 14, 2006) OpenCyc C API David Whitten's unofficial Cyc FAQ Whatever happened to machines that think? 23 April 2005, New Scientist Common sense 15 April 2006, New Scientist Official Cyc blog "Confessions of a Cyclist" - Another blog about Cyc Video Tutorials on Cyc A commonsense knowledge acquisition system using Open Cyc | Cyc |@lemmatized cyc:39 artificial:6 intelligence:13 project:13 attempt:1 assemble:1 comprehensive:3 ontology:9 knowledge:49 base:22 everyday:1 common:9 sense:8 goal:1 enable:1 ai:2 application:7 perform:2 human:3 like:4 reason:2 start:6 douglas:2 lenat:4 develop:1 company:2 cycorp:9 part:3 release:13 opencyc:18 provide:2 api:2 rdf:2 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4,050 | History_of_the_Americas | Non-Native American nations' claims over North America, 1750-2008. Political evolution of Central America and the Caribbean since 1700. European nations’ control over South America, 1700 to present The history of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean. It begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an Ice Age. These groups are generally believed to have been isolated from peoples of the "Old World" until the coming of Europeans in the 10th and 15th centuries. The ancestors of today's Native Americans were hunter-gatherers who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, Beringia, the land mass covered by the cold ocean waters in the Bering Strait. Small Paleo-Indian groups probably followed the mammoth and other prey animals. It is possible that groups of people may also have traveled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast. Cultural traits brought by the first immigrants later evolved and spawned such cultures as Iroquois on North America and Pirahã of South America. These cultures later developed into civilizations. In many cases, these cultures expanded at a later date than their Old World counterparts. Cultures that may be considered advanced or civilized include: Cahokia, Zapotec, Toltecs, Olmec, Maya, Aztecs, Purepecha, Chimor, and the Inca. Prehistory Migration into the continents The timeframe for the of arrival of the first group of people to enter the Americas has been subject to much debate. It is generally believed that the first migrants were Asian nomads who crossed the Bering Land Bridge to reach North America. For most of the 20th century, scientists considered the first culture in the Americas to be the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,500 years ago. Recent archaeological finds suggest multiple waves of migration, some of which have been tentatively dated to as early as 40,000 BCE. Evidence at the Monte Verde site in southern Chile indicates a human presence in southern South America by 12,500 BCE. Several other early Paleo-Indian artifacts have been found in both North and South America. Radiocarbon dating tests are still inconclusive on some archaeological sites identified as earlier than the Clovis remains. Many theories hold that the Inuit and related peoples arrived separately and at a much later date, probably around the 5th or 6th century CE, moving across the glaciers from Siberia into Canada. Archaic period Several thousand years after the first migrations, the first complex civilizations arose as hunter-gatherers settled into semi-agricultural communities. Identifiable sedentary settlements began to emerge in the so-called Middle Archaic period around 6000 BCE. Particular archaeological cultures can be identified, with some of the classifications including the Paleo-Indian period, Archaic Period and Woodland Period. Civilizations Civilizations were established long after migration. Several large, centralized civilizations developed in the Western Hemisphere : Norte Chico, Chavin, Nazca, Moche, Huari, Quitus, Cañaris, Chimu, Pachacamac, Tiahuanaco, Aymara and Inca in the Central Andes (Ecuador,Peru and Bolivia); Muisca in Colombia ; Olmecs, Toltecs, Mixtecs , Zapotecs, Purepecha, Aztecs and the Maya in southern North America). Cities of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas were as large and organized as the largest in the Old World, with an estimated population of 200,000 to 350,000 in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire. The market established in the city was said to have been the largest ever seen by the conquistadors when they arrived. The capital of the Cahokians, Cahokia - located near modern East St. Louis, Illinois may have reached a population of over 20,000. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia may have been the most populous city in North America. Monk's Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World. These civilizations developed agriculture as well, breeding maize (corn) from having ears 2-5 cm in length to perhaps 10-15 cm in length. Potatoes, tomatoes, pumpkins, beans, avocados, and chocolate are now the most popular of the pre-Columbian agricultural products. The civilizations did not develop extensive livestock as there were few suitable species, although alpacas and llamas were domesticated for use as beasts of burden and sources of wool and meat in the Andes. By the 15th century CE, maize was being farmed in the Mississippi River Valley after introduction from Mexico. The course of further agricultural development was greatly altered by the arrival of Europeans. North America Cahokia Oasisamerica Pueblo people The Pueblo people of what is now the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico, living conditions were that of large stone apartment like adobe structures. They live in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas. Aridoamerica Chichimeca Chichimeca was the name that the Mexica (Aztecs) generically applied to a wide range of semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, and carried the same sense as the European term "barbarian". The name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when referring especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of northern Mexico. Haudenosaune Mesoamerica Zapotec The Zapotec emerged around 1500 years BCE. Their writing system influenced the later Olmec. They left behind the great city Monte Alban. Olmec The Olmec civilization emerged around 1200 BCE in Mesoamerica and ended around 400 BCE. Olmec art and concepts influenced surrounding cultures after their downfall. This civilization was thought to be the first in America to develop a writing system. After the Olmecs abandoned their cities for unknown reasons, the Maya, Zapotec and Teotihuacan arose. Purepecha The Purepecha civilization emerged around 1000 AD in Mesoamerica . They flourished from 1100 AD to 1530 AD. They continue to live on in the state of Michaocan. Fierce warriors, they were never conquered and in their glory years, successfully sealed off huge areas from Aztec domination. Maya Maya history spans 3,000 years. The Maya may have collapsed due to changing climate in the end of the 10th century. Toltec The Toltec were a nomadic people, dating from the 10th - 12th century, whose language was also spoken by the Aztecs. Teotihuacan Teotihuacan (4th century BCE - 7/8th century CE) was both a city, and an empire of the same name, which, at its zenith between 150 and the 5th century, covered most of Mesoamerica. Aztec The Aztec having started to build their empire around 14th century found their civilization abruptly ended by the Spanish conquistadors. They lived in Mesoamerica, and surrounding lands. Their capital city Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities of all time. South America Norte Chico The oldest known civilization of the Americas was established in the Norte Chico region of modern Peru. Complex society emerged in the group of coastal valleys, between 3000 and 1800 BCE. The Quipu, a distinctive recording device among Andean civilizations, apparently dates from the era of Norte Chico's prominence. Chavín The Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the Old World) 900 BCE according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned from 900 BCE to 300 BCE. Inca Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tahuantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in Inca civilization. European rediscovery and colonization Thousands of years after the Indians arrived, the continent was rediscovered by Europeans. Initially the Vikings established a short-lived settlement in Newfoundland, known as L'Anse aux Meadows. Speculations exist about other Old World discoveries of the New World, but none of these are considered proven. For further information, see Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. The voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492 led to extensive European colonization of the Americas and the genocide of its inhabitants. Kane 1999, pp. 81-103 Ward 1997, pp.97-132 Columbus came at a time in which many technical developments in sailing techniques and communication made it possible to report his voyages easily and to spread word of them throughout western Europe. It was also a time of growing economic rivalries that led to a competition for the establishment of colonies. The mass death of the Native Americans from slavery, disease and war led to severe changes in the population and ethnic identity of America's inhabitants. The slave labor of Americans killed by European incursions was replaced by that of sub-Saharan African peoples through the slave trade. Native populations became increasingly minor as the European and African slave populations grew rapidly. The dominance of White Americans continued through the period of widespread independence from European rule, begun in the late 18th century by the United States. There is a substantial difference though, between the English and Spanish areas and models of colonization. While Native Americans suffered death, slavery and exploitation throughout the Americas and were virtually exterminated almost everywhere, Native Americans, along with Mestizos, now make up the majority of the population in many Central and South American countries. More importantly, the Southern parts were much more populated before European colonization (50m) compared to the North (2m). The number of Native Americans is increasing now in the U.S. by actual population growth, changing enrollment laws, and from the immigration from Latin America, especially from Mexico, though the term being applied to them is Hispanic. Modern history Colonial period 17th to 19th century colonies in the New World: British North America / Thirteen Colonies Danish West Indies New Netherland New France Colonial Brazil (1500 – 1815) Spanish Main Spanish West Indies Captaincy General of Guatemala Viceroyalty of Peru (1542 – 1824) Decolonization The formation of sovereign states in the New World begins with the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776. The American Revolutionary War lasted until 1783. The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the South American Wars of Independence. Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led their independence struggle. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the War of the Triple Alliance and the War of the Pacific. In the Portuguese colony Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal, upon compensation. Effects of slavery Slavery has had a significant role in the economic development the New World after the colonization of the Americas by the Europeans. Slaves helped build the roads upon which they were transported. The cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane harvested by slaves became important exports for the United States and the Caribbean countries. 20th century North America As a part of the British Empire Canada immediately was at war in 1914. Canada bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war including the use of poison gas attacks at Ypres. Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought in conscription, despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority of French Canadians. In the ensuing Conscription Crisis of 1917, riots broke out on the streets of Montreal. In neighboring Newfoundland, the new dominion suffered a devastating loss on July 1, 1916, the First day on the Somme. The United States stayed apart from the conflict until 1917, joining the Entente powers. The United States was then able to play a crucial role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that shaped interwar Europe. Mexico was not part of the war as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time. The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada. But the Wall Street Crash of 1929 combined with drought ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States and Canada. From 1936 to 1949, this was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Once again Canada found herself at war before her neighbours, however even Canadian contributions were slight before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favour of the allies. Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in the Gulf of Mexico waters, in 1942. The incident happened in spite of Mexico's neutrality at that time. This led Mexico to declare war to the Axis nations and entered the conflict. The destruction of Europe wrought by the war vaulted all North American countries to more important roles in world affairs. The United States especially emerged as a "superpower". The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part. At home, the United States witnessed convulsive change especially in the area of race relations. In Canada this was mirrored by the Quiet Revolution and the emergence of Quebec nationalism. Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as the "El Milagro Mexicano" (Mexican miracle). The Caribbean saw the beginnings of decolonization, while on the largest island the Cuban Revolution introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America. During this time the United States become involved in the Vietnam War as part of the global Cold War. This war would latter prove to be highly divisive in American society, and American troops were withdrawn. Canada during this era was dominated by the leadership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau. Eventually in 1982 at the end of his tenure, Canada received a new constitution. Canada's Brian Mulroney not only ran on a similar platform but also favored closer trade ties with the United States. This led to the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in January 1989. Mexican presidents Miguel de la Madrid, in the early 80s and Carlos Salinas de Gortari in the late 80s, started implementing liberal economic strategies that were seen as a good move. However, Mexico experienced a strong economic recession in 1982 and the Mexican peso suffered a devaluation. Presidential elections held in 1988 were forecast to be very competitive and they were. Leftist candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of Lázaro Cárdenas one of the most beloved Mexican presidents, created a successful campaign and was reported as the leader in several opinion polls. On July 6, 1988, the day of the elections, a system shutdown of the IBM AS/400 that the government was using to count the votes occurred, presumably by accident. The government simply stated that "se cayó el sistema" ("the system crashed"), to refer to the incident. When the system was finally restored, the PRI candidate Carlos Salinas was declared the official winner. It was the first time that a non-PRI candidate was so close to win the presidency. In the United States president Ronald Reagan attempted to move the United States back towards a hard anti-communist line in foreign affairs, in what his supporters saw as an attempt to assert moral leadership (compared to the Soviet Union) in the world community. Domestically, Reagan attempted to bring in a package of privatization and regulation to stimulate the economy. The End of the Cold War and the beginning of the era of sustained economic expansion coincided during the 1990s. On January 1, 1994 Canada, Mexico and the United States signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, creating the world's largest free trade area. At same time the EZLN, an indigenous guerilla movement declared war on the Mexican government and neo-liberalism in protest of the North American Free Trade Agreement. In 2000, Vicente Fox became the first non-PRI candidate to win the Mexican presidency in over 70 years. The optimism of the 1990s was shattered by the 9/11 attacks of 2001 on the United States, which prompted military intervention in Afghanistan, which also involved Canada. Canada did not support the United States' later move to invade Iraq, however. Central America Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept of Central American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, rises from time to time. In 1856-1857 the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by U.S. adventurer William Walker. Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. (Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor). In 1907 a Central American Court of Justice was created. On December 13, 1960, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua established the Central American Common Market ("CACM"). Costa Rica, because of its relative economic prosperity and political stability, chose not to participate in the CACM. The goals for the CACM were to create greater political unification and success of Import Substitution Industrialization policies. The project was an immediate economic success, but was abandoned after the 1969 "Football War" between El Salvador and Honduras. A Central American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991. Costa Rica has repeatedly declined invitations to join the regional parliament, which seats deputies from the four other former members of the Union, as well as from Panama and the Dominican Republic. South America In the 1960s and 1970s, the governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned military dictatorships. These dictatorships detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed (on inter-state collaboration, see Operation Condor). Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the U.S. Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued. International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century. In recent years South American governments have drifted to the left, with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, and a leftist president in Argentina and Uruguay. Despite the move to the left, South America is still largely capitalist. With the founding of the Union of South American Nations, South America has started down the road of economic integration, with plans for political integration in the European Union style. See also Notes References Kane , Katie Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination Cultural Critique, No. 42 (Spring, 1999), pp. 81-103 doi:10.2307/1354592 Churchill, Ward A Little Matter of Genocide 1997 City Lights Books ISBN 0872863239 | History_of_the_Americas |@lemmatized non:3 native:7 american:22 nation:7 claim:1 north:17 america:34 political:6 evolution:1 central:9 caribbean:4 since:2 european:13 control:1 south:13 present:1 history:5 collective:1 include:4 begin:5 people:11 migrate:2 area:6 asia:1 height:1 ice:2 age:2 group:5 generally:2 believe:2 isolate:1 old:7 world:14 come:4 century:16 ancestor:1 today:2 hunter:3 gatherer:3 popular:3 theory:2 asserts:1 migrant:2 via:1 bering:3 land:5 bridge:2 beringia:1 mass:2 cover:2 cold:6 ocean:1 water:2 strait:1 small:1 paleo:3 indian:4 probably:2 follow:1 mammoth:1 prey:1 animal:1 possible:2 may:5 also:8 travel:1 shelf:1 sheet:1 along:2 northern:3 pacific:2 coast:1 cultural:2 trait:1 bring:4 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4,051 | Economy_of_Oman | Oman is a remarkably stable country in the Middle East. Current GDP per capita has expanded continuously in the past half-a-century. It grew 339% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 1,370% in the Seventies scaling back to modest 12% growth in the turbulent Eighties and rising again to 34% in the Nineties. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Oman at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Omani Rials. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 2,190 0.34 Omani Rials 80 1985 3,591 0.34 Omani Rials 76 1990 4,493 0.38 Omani Rials 95 1995 5,307 0.38 Omani Rials 100 2000 7,639 0.38 Omani Rials 100 2005 11,660 0.38 Omani Rials 101 For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 0.29 Omani Rials only. Average wages in 2007 hover around $76–92 per day. Economy - overview Oman's economic performance improved significantly in 1999 due largely to the mid-year upturn in oil prices. The government is moving ahead with privatization of its utilities, the development of a body of commercial law to facilitate foreign investment, and increased budgetary outlays. Oman liberalized its markets in an effort to accede to the World Trade Organization (WTO) and gained membership in 2000. When Oman declined as an entrepot for arms and slaves in the mid-19th century, much of its former prosperity was lost, and the economy turned almost exclusively to agriculture, camel and goat herding, fishing, and traditional handicrafts. Today, oil fuels the economy and revenues from petroleum products have enabled Oman's dramatic development over the past 30 years. Omani exports in 2006 Oil was first discovered in the interior near Fahud in the western desert in 1964. Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) began production in August 1967. The Omani Government owns 60% of PDO, and foreign interests own 40% (Royal Dutch Shell owns 34%; the remaining 6% is owned by Compagnie Francaise des Petroles [Total] and Partex). In 1976, Oman's oil production rose to 366,000 barrels (58,000 m³) per day but declined gradually to about 285,000 barrels (45,000 m³) per day in late 1980 due to the depletion of recoverable reserves. From 1981 to 1986, Oman compensated for declining oil prices, by increasing production levels to 600,000 b/d. With the collapse of oil prices in 1986, however, revenues dropped dramatically. Production was cut back temporarily in coordination with the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and production levels again reached 600,000 b/d by mid-1987, which helped increase revenues. By mid-2000, production had climbed to more than 900,000 b/d where they remain. Oman is not a member of OPEC. Natural gas reserves, which will increasingly provide the fuel for power generation and desalination, stand at 18 trillion ft³ (510 km³). The Oman LNG processing plant located in Sur was opened in 2000, with production capacity of 6.6 million tons/YR, as well as unsubstantial gas liquids, including condensates. Oman does not have the immense oil resources of some of its neighbors. Nevertheless, in recent years, it has found more oil than it has produced, and total proven reserves rose to more than 5 billion barrels (0.8 km³) by the mid-1990s. Oman's complex geology makes exploration and production an expensive challenge. Recent improvements in technology, however, have enhanced recovery. Agriculture and fishing are the traditional way of life in Oman. Dates and limes, grown extensively in the Batinah coastal plain and the highlands, make up most of the country's agricultural exports. Coconut palms, wheat, and bananas also are grown, and cattle are raised in Dhofar. Other areas grow cereals and forage crops. Poultry production is steadily rising. Fish and shellfish exports totaled $34 million in 2000. Modernisation The government is undertaking many development projects to modernise the economy, improve the standard of living, and become a more active player in the global marketplace. Oman became a member of the World Trade Organization in October 2000, and continues to amend its financial and commercial practices to conform to international standards. Increases in agriculture and especially fish production are believed possible with the application of modern technology. The Muscat capital area has both an international airport at Seeb and a deepwater port at Mina Qaboos. The newly opened (1999), largescale modern container port at Salalah, capital of the Dhofar Governorate, and a seaport at nearby Raysut were recently completed. A national road network includes a $400 million highway linking the northern and southern regions. In an effort to diversify the economy, in the early 1980s, the government built a $200-million copper mining and refining plant at Sohar. Other large industrial projects include an 80,000 b/d oil refinery and two cement factories. An industrial zone at Rusayl showcases the country's modest light industries. Marble, limestone, and gypsum may prove commercially viable in the future. The Omani Government is implementing its sixth 5-year plan, launched in 2000, to reduce its dependence on oil and expatriate labor. The plan focuses on income diversification, job creation for Omanis in the private sector, and development of Oman's interior. Government programs offer soft loans and propose the building of new industrial estates in population centers outside the capital area. The government is giving greater emphasis to "Omanization" of the labor force, particularly in banking, hotels, and municipally sponsored shops benefiting from government subsidies. Currently, efforts are underway to liberalize investment opportunities in order to attract foreign capital. Some of the largest budgetary outlays are in the areas of health services and basic education. The number of schools, hospitals, and clinics has risen exponentially since the accession of Sultan Qaboos in 1970. United States firms face a small and highly competitive market dominated by trade with Japan and Britain and re-exports from the United Arab Emirates. The sale of U.S. products also is hampered by higher transportation costs and the lack of familiarity with Oman on the part of U.S. exporters. However, the traditional U.S. market in Oman, oil field supplies and services, should grow as the country's major oil producer continues a major expansion of fields and wells. In addition, on 20 July 2006 the U.S. Congress approved the US-Oman Free Trade Agreement. U.S. President Bush is expected to sign it, and after implementation, U.S. firms will be able to buy from and sell to Oman duty free on most items. Omanization Introduction In Oman, the Omanisation programme has been in operation since 1988, working toward replacing expatriates with trained Omani personnel. by the end of 1999, the number of Omanis in government services exceeded the set target of 72%, and in most departments reached 86% of employees. The Ministry has also stipulated fixed Omanisation targets in six areas of the private sector. Most companies have registered Omanisation plans. Since April 1998 a 'green card' has been awarded to companies that meet their Omanisation targets and comply with the eligibility criteria for labour relations. The names of these companies are published in the local press and they receive preferential treatment in their dealings with the Ministry. Training & Omanisation In order to meet the training and Omanisation requirements of the banking sector, the Omani Institute of Bankers was established in 1983 and has since played a leading role in increasing the number of Omanis working in the sector. The Central Bank monitors the progress made by the commercial banks with Omanisation and in July 1995 issued a circular stipulating that by the year 2000, at least 75% of senior and middle management positions should be held by Omanis. In the clerical grades 95% of staff should be Omanised and 100% in all other grades. At the end of 1999, no less than 78.8% of all positions were held by Omanis which is a considerable achievement for the banking sector in general. Women made up 30% of the total. During 1999 the percentage of Omanis employed at senior and middle management levels went up from 76.7% to 78.8%. There was a slight increase in the clerical grade percentage to 98.7%, while the non-clerical grades had already reached 100% Omanisation in 1998. The banking sector currently employs 2,113 senior and middle managers supported by 4,757 other staff. The Ministry has issued a decision regulating tourist guides, who in future will be required to have a licence. This Ministerial decision aims at encouraging professionalism in the industry as well as providing career opportunities for Omanis who will be encouraged to learn foreign languages so as to replace foreign tour guides. In January 1996, a major step forward in the training of Omanis in the hotel industry came with the opening of the National Hospitality Institute (NHI). The Institute is a public company quoted on the Omani Stock exchange. In February 1997, the first batch of 55 male and female trainees, sponsored by the Vocational Training Authority, were awarded their first level certificates and were given on-the-job training in several hotels. In May 1999, the fourth batch of 95 trainees obtained their NVQs, bringing the number of Omanis trained by the Institute to around 450. Omanis now make up 37% of the 34,549 employees in the hotel and catering business, which exceeds the Omanisation target of 30% set by the Government. The NHI has also trained catering staff from the Sultan’s Armed Forces and has launched a two year tour guide course, which includes language training, safe driving, first aid and a knowledge of local history and geography. Investment The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Oman was valued at $15,269 million in 2005 by the World Bank. Statistics Household income by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Industrial production growth rate: 5.9% (2006 est.) Electricity - production: 14.33 billion kWh (2004) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% Electricity - consumption: 13.33 billion kWh (2004) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: dates, limes, bananas, alfalfa, vegetables; camels, cattle; fish Exchange rates: Omani rials per US dollar - 0.3845 (2005), 0.3845 (2004), 0.3845 (2003), 0.3845 (2002), 0.3845 (2001) See also Central Bank of Oman Omani Rial List of companies of Oman US-Oman Free Trade Agreement References http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/fs/oman.pdf External links Government Other | Economy_of_Oman |@lemmatized oman:26 remarkably:1 stable:1 country:5 middle:4 east:1 current:1 gdp:1 per:5 caput:1 expand:1 continuously:1 past:2 half:1 century:2 grow:5 sixty:1 reach:4 peak:1 growth:3 seventy:1 scale:1 back:2 modest:2 turbulent:1 eighty:1 rise:5 ninety:1 macro:1 economic:2 trend:2 chart:1 gross:2 domestic:2 product:5 market:5 price:4 estimate:1 international:3 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4,052 | Ceawlin_of_Wessex | Ceawlin (also spelled "Ceaulin" or "Caelin") (died c. 593) was a king of Wessex, in what is now southwestern England. He may have been the son of Cynric of Wessex, and the grandson of Cerdic of Wessex, who is recorded in early sources as the leader of the first group of West Saxons to come to England. Ceawlin was active at a time when the Anglo-Saxon invasion of England was being completed; by the time he died, little of southern England remained in the hands of the native Britons. An early source, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, records several battles of his, from 556 to 592, including the first record of a battle between different groups of Anglo-Saxons. The chronology of his life is highly uncertain: his reign is variously listed as lasting seven, seventeen, or thirty-two years, and the historical accuracy and dating of many of the events in the Chronicle have been called into question. However, it appears that under Ceawlin Wessex acquired significant territory, though some was later lost to other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Ceawlin is also named as one of the eight "bretwaldas": this was a name given in the Chronicle to eight rulers who had overlordship over southern Britain, though the actual extent of Ceawlin’s control is not known. Ceawlin died in 593, having been deposed the year before, possibly by his successor, Ceol. He is recorded in various sources as having two sons, Cutha and Cuthwine, but the genealogies in which this information is found are known to be unreliable. Historical context In the fifth century, raids on Britain by continental peoples had developed into full-scale migrations. The newcomers are known to have included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, and there is evidence of other groups as well. These groups captured territory in the east and south of England, but at about the end of the fifth century, a British victory at the battle of Mons Badonicus halted the Anglo-Saxon advance for fifty years. Hunter Blair, An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 13–16. Campbell & al, The Anglo-Saxons, p. 23. Beginning in about 550, however, the British began to lose ground once more, and within 25 years it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders. Hunter Blair (Roman Britain, p. 204) gives the twenty-five years from 550 to 575 as the dates of the final conquest. The peace following the battle of Mons Badonicus is attested partly by Gildas, a monk who in about the middle of the sixth century wrote De Excidio Britanniae, or “On the Ruin of Britain”. This essay is a polemic against corruption, and Gildas provides little in the way of names and dates. However, he does make it clear that peace had lasted from the year of his birth to the time he was writing. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 2–7. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the other main source that bears on this period, in particular in an entry for the year 827 that records a list of the kings who bore the title "bretwalda", or "Britain-ruler". That list shows a gap in the early sixth century that matches Gildas’s version of events. Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 60–61 Ceawlin’s reign belongs to the period of Anglo-Saxon expansion at the end of the sixth century. Though there are many unanswered questions about the chronology and activities of the early West Saxon rulers, it is clear that Ceawlin was one of the key figures in the final Anglo-Saxon conquest of southern Britain. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 30. Early West Saxon sources The two main written sources for early West Saxon history are the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. The Chronicle is a set of annals which were put together in about 890, in the reign of King Alfred the Great of Wessex. Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great,p. 41. They contain earlier material for the older entries, which were assembled from earlier annals that no longer survive, as well as from saga material that was perhaps transmitted orally. Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. xix Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms, p. 132. The Chronicle dates the West Saxon arrival in Britain to 495, when Cerdic and his son, Cynric, land at "Cerdices ora", or Cerdic’s shore. Almost twenty annals describing Cerdic’s campaigns, and those of his descendants, appear interspersed through the next hundred years of entries in the Chronicle. Kirby, Earliest English Kings, pp. 50–51. Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 14–21 Although these annals provide most of what is known about Ceawlin, it should also be noted that the historicity of many of the entries is uncertain. Kirby, Earliest English Kings, p. 55 The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List is a list of kings of Wessex, including the lengths of their reigns. It survives in several forms, including as a preface to the [B] manuscript of the Chronicle. The Regnal List is now separated from the main body of the Chronicle, and as result the manuscripts are recorded separately in the British Library, as MS Cotton Tiberius Aii, f. 178 (for the Regnal List), and MS Cotton Tiberius Avi, ff. 1–34 (the [B] manuscript of the Chronicle). See Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. xxii. See also Lapidge, Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England, p. 388. Like the Chronicle, it was composed during the reign of Alfred the Great, and both the List and the Chronicle are influenced by the desire of their writers to trace the lineage of the Kings of Wessex through Cerdic to Gewis, the legendary ancestor of the West Saxons, through a single line of descent. The result served the political purposes of the scribe, but is riddled with contradictions for the historian. D.P. Kirby (Earliest English Kings, p. 49) refers to the combination of the Chronicle and the Regnal List as a "political fiction". This can be seen clearly by calculating dates by different methods from the various sources. The first event in West Saxon history the date of which can be regarded as reasonably certain is the baptism of Cynegils, which occurred in the late 630s, perhaps as late as 640. The Chronicle dates Cerdic’s arrival to 495, but adding up the lengths of the reigns as given in the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List leads to the conclusion that Cerdic’s reign started in about 532, a difference of 37 years. However, neither 495 nor 532 can be treated as reliable; the latter date relies on the assumption that the Regnal List is correct in presenting the kings of Wessex as having succeeded one another, with no omitted kings and no joint kingships, and that the durations of the reigns are correct as given. None of these assumptions can be made safely. The sources are also inconsistent on the length of Ceawlin’s reign. The Chronicle gives it as thirty-two years, from 560 to 592; but the Regnal Lists disagree: different versions give it as seven or seventeen years. A recent detailed study of the Regnal List dates the arrival of the West Saxons in England to 538, and favours seven years as the most likely length of Ceawlin's reign, with dates of 581–588 proposed. D.N. Dumville, "The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List and the chronology of Wessex", 1985, cited in Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms, p. 133. The sources do agree that Ceawlin is the son of Cynric, and he is usually named as the father of Cuthwine. See the "Genealogical Tables" in the appendices to Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. There is one discrepancy to be noted in this case: the entry for 685 in the [A] version of the Chronicle assigns Ceawlin a son, Cutha, but in the 855 entry in the same manuscript, Cutha is listed as the son of Cuthwine. Cutha is also named as Ceawlin’s brother in the [E] and [F] versions of the Chronicle, in the 571 and 568 entries, respectively. Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 18–19. For tables showing the variations in the Wessex genealogy, see also figures 3 and 4 in Kirby, Earliest English Kings, pp. 223–224. Whether Ceawlin is a descendant of Cerdic is a matter of debate. Subgroupings of different West Saxon lineages give the impression of separate groups, of which Ceawlin's line is one. Some of the problems in the Wessex genealogies may have come about because of efforts to integrate Ceawlin's line with the other lineages: it was very important to the West Saxons to be able to trace their ancestors back to Cerdic. Yorke (Kings and Kingdoms, p. 133) gives this argument in some detail. Another reason for doubting the literal nature of these early genealogies is that the etymology of the names of several early members of the dynasty do not appear to be Germanic. The name Ceawlin is one of the names that does not have a convincing Anglo-Saxon origin; it seems more likely to be British. "Records of the West Saxon dynasties survive in versions which have been subject to later manipulation, which may make it all the more significant that some of the founding 'Saxon' fathers have British names: Cerdic, Ceawlin, Cenwalh." in: Hills, C., Origins of the English, Duckworth (2003), p. 105. Also "The names Cerdic, Ceawlin and Caedwalla, all in the genealogy of the West Saxon kings, are apparently British." in: Ward-Perkins, B., Why did the Anglo-Saxons not become more British? The English Historical Review 115.462 (June 2000): p513. It should also be noted that the earliest sources do not use the term "West Saxon". According to Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, the term is interchangeable with the Gewisse, meaning the descendants of Gewis. The term "West Saxon" only appears in the late seventh century, after the reign of Cædwalla. Kirby, Earliest English Kings, pp. 48, 223 West Saxon expansion A map of places mentioned by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in annals relating to Ceawlin. Modern versions of the place names are given here, rather than the Anglo-Saxon names used in the chronicle. The kingdom of Wessex ultimately occupied the southwest of England, but the initial stages in this expansion are not apparent from the sources. Cerdic’s landing, whenever it is to be dated, seems to have been near the Isle of Wight, and the annals record the conquest of the island in 530. In 534, according to the Chronicle, Cerdic died, and his son Cynric took the throne; the Chronicle adds that "they gave the Isle of Wight to their nephews, Stuf and Wihtgar". It should be noted that these records are in direct conflict with Bede, who states that the Isle of Wight was settled by Jutes, not Saxons; the archaeological record is somewhat in favour of Bede on this. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 22–23. Subsequent entries in the Chronicle give details of some of the battles by which the West Saxons won their kingdom. Ceawlin’s campaigns are not near the coast: they range along the Thames valley and beyond, as far as Surrey in the east, and the mouth of the Severn in the west. Ceawlin is clearly part of the West Saxon expansion, but the military history of the period is difficult to understand. In what follows the dates are as given in the Chronicle, though as noted above these are likely to be too early. 556: Beran byrg The first record of a battle fought by Ceawlin is in 556, when he and his father, Cynric, fought the British at "Beran byrg", or Bera's Stronghold. This is now identified as Barbury Castle, an Iron Age hill fort in Wiltshire, near Swindon. Cynric would have been king of Wessex at this time. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 26–28. 568: Wibbandun The first battle Ceawlin fought as king is dated by the Chronicle to 568, when he and Cutha fought with Æthelberht, the king of Kent. The entry says "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against Aethelberht and drove him into Kent; and they killed two ealdormen, Oslaf and Cnebba, on Wibbandun." The location of "Wibbandun", which can be translated as "Wibba’s Mount", has not been definitely identified; it was at one time thought to be Wimbledon, but this is now known to be incorrect. Plummer, Two Saxon Chronicles, vol. 2 p. 16 English Place-Name Society (1926), p. xiv, cited in Hodgkins, A History, p. 188 n. 2 This battle is notable as the first recorded conflict between the invading peoples: previous battles recorded in the Chronicle are between the Anglo-Saxons and the British. There are multiple examples of joint kingship in Anglo-Saxon history, and this may be another: it is not clear what Cutha's relationship to Ceawlin is, but it is certainly possible he was also a king. The annal for 577, below, is another possible example. Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms, pp. 143–144. 571: Bedcanford The annal for 571 reads: "Here Cuthwulf fought against the Britons at Bedcanford, and took 4 settlements: Limbury and Aylesbury, Benson and Eynsham; and in the same year he passed away." Cuthwulf's relationship with Ceawlin is unknown, but the alliteration common to Anglo-Saxon royal families suggests Cuthwulf may be part of the West Saxon royal line. The location of the battle itself is unidentified. It has been suggested that it was Bedford, but what is known of the early history of Bedford’s names does not support this. This battle is of interest because it is surprising that an area so far east should still be in British hands this late: there is ample archaeological evidence of early Saxon and Anglian presence in the midlands, and historians have generally interpreted Gildas's De Excidio as implying that the British had lost control of this area by the mid-sixth century. One possible explanation is that this annal records a reconquest of land that was lost to the British in the campaigns ending in the battle of Mons Badonicus. 577: The lower Severn The annal for 577 reads "Here Cuthwine and Ceawlin fought against the Britons, and they killed 3 kings, Coinmail and Condidan and Farinmail, in the place which is called Dyrham, and took 3 cities: Gloucester and Cirencester and Bath." Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 18–19 This entry is all that is known of these British kings; their names are in an archaic form that makes it very likely this annal derives from a much older written source. The battle itself has long been regarded as a key moment in the Saxon advance, since in reaching the Bristol Channel the West Saxons divided the Britons west of the Severn from land communication with those in the peninsula to the south of the Channel. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 29. Wessex almost certainly lost this territory to Penda of Mercia in 628, when the Chronicle records that "Cynegils and Cwichelm fought against Penda at Cirencester, and then came to an agreement." Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 45. Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 24–25. It is possible that when Ceawlin and Cuthwine took Bath, they found the Roman baths still operating to some extent. Nennius, a ninth-century historian, mentions a "Hot Lake" in the land of the Hwicce, which was along the Severn, and adds "It is surrounded by a wall, made of brick and stone, and men may go there to bathe at any time, and every man can have the kind of bath he likes. If he wants, it will be a cold bath; and if he wants a hot bath, it will be hot". Bede also describes hot baths in the geographical introduction to the Ecclesiastical History, in terms very like Nennius's. Campbell & al, The Anglo-Saxons, pp. 40–41. Wansdyke, an early medieval defensive linear earthwork, runs from south of Bristol to near Marlborough, passing not far from Bath. It was probably built in the fifth or sixth centuries, perhaps by Ceawlin. Fletcher, Who's Who, pp. 25–26. <big>584: Fethan leag</big> Ceawlin’s last recorded victory is in 584. The entry reads: "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against the Britons at the place which is named Fethan leag, and Cutha was killed; and Ceawlin took many towns and countless war-loot, and in anger he turned back to his own [territory]." There is a wood named "Fethelée" mentioned in a 12th century document that relates to Stoke Lyne, in Oxfordshire, and it is now thought that the battle of Fethan leag must have been fought in this area. The phrase “in anger he turned back to his own” probably indicates that this annal is drawn from saga material, as perhaps are all of the early Wessex annals. It has also been used to argue that perhaps Ceawlin did not in fact win the battle, and that the chronicler chose not to record the outcome fully – a king does not usually come home “in anger” after taking "many towns and countless war-loot". It may be that Ceawlin’s overlordship of the southern English came to an end with this battle. Bretwaldaship The entry for 827 in the [C] manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, listing the eight bretwaldas. Ceawlin's name can be seen in the fifth line, spelled "Ceaulin". About 731, Bede, a Northumbrian monk and chronicler, wrote a work called the Ecclesiastical History of the English People. The work was not primarily a secular history, but Bede provides much information about the history of the Anglo-Saxons, including a list early in the history of seven kings who, he said, held “imperium” over the other kingdoms south of the Humber. The usual translation for “imperium” is “overlordship”. Bede names Ceawlin as the second on the list, though he spells it "Caelin", and adds that he was "known in the speech of his own people as Ceaulin". Bede also makes it clear that Ceawlin was not a Christian—Bede mentions a later king, Æthelberht of Kent, as "the first to enter the kingdom of heaven". Bede, Ecclesiastical History, II 5, quoted from Sherley-Price's translation, p. 111 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in an entry for the year 827, repeats Bede’s list, adds Egbert of Wessex, and also mentions that they were known as "bretwalda", or "Britain-ruler". A great deal of scholarly attention has been given to the meaning of this word. It has been described as a term "of encomiastic poetry", Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 34–35. but there is also evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership. Kirby, Earliest English Kings, p. 17. Bede says that these kings had authority "south of the Humber", but the actual span of control, at least of the earlier bretwaldas, was no doubt less than this. Campbell & al, The Anglo-Saxons, pp. 53–54. In Ceawlin’s case the range of control is hard to determine accurately, but Bede's inclusion of Ceawlin in the list of kings who held imperium, and the list of battles he is recorded as having won, indicate an energetic and successful leader who, from a base in the upper Thames valley, dominated much of the surrounding area and held overlordship over the southern English for some period. Despite Ceawlin's military successes, the northern conquests he made could not always be retained: Mercia took much of the upper Thames valley, and the north-eastern towns won in 571 were in territory subsequently under the control of Kent and Mercia at different times. Bede's concept of the power of these overlords must also be regarded as the product of his eighth-century viewpoint. When the Ecclesiastical History was written, Æthelbald of Mercia dominated the English south of the Humber, and Bede's view of the earlier kings is doubtless strongly coloured by the state of England at that time. For the earlier bretwaldas, such as Ælle and Ceawlin, there must be some element of anachronism in Bede's description. It is also possible that Bede only meant to refer to power over Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, not the native Britons. Ceawlin is the second king in Bede’s list. All the subsequent bretwaldas followed more or less consecutively, but there is a long gap, perhaps fifty years, between Ælle of Sussex, the first bretwalda, and Ceawlin. The lack of gaps between the overlordships of the later bretwaldas has been used to make an argument for Ceawlin's dates matching the later entries in the Chronicle with reasonable accuracy. According to this analysis, the next bretwalda, Æthelberht of Kent, must have been already a dominant king by the time Pope Gregory the Great wrote to him in 601, since Gregory would have not written to an underking. Ceawlin defeated Æthelberht in 568 according to the Chronicle. Æthelberht's dates are a matter of debate, but recent scholarly consensus has his reign starting no earlier than 580. The 568 date for the battle at Wibbandun is thought to be unlikely because of the assertion in various versions of the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List that Ceawlin's reign lasted either seven or seventeen years. If this battle is placed at around 590, before Æthelberht has established himself as a powerful king, then the subsequent annals relating to Ceawlin's defeat and death may be reasonably close to the correct date. In any case, the battle with Æthelberht is unlikely to have been more than a few years on either side of 590. The argument is made in more detail in Kirby, Earliest English Kings, p. 56. See also pp. 50–51 for a review of the evidence concerning the length of Ceawlin's reign. The gap between Aelle and Ceawlin, on the other hand, has been taken as supporting evidence for the story told by Gildas in De Excidio of a peace lasting a generation or more following a British victory at Mons Badonicus. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 19. Æthelberht of Kent succeeds Ceawlin on the list of bretwaldas, but the reigns may overlap somewhat: recent evaluations give Ceawlin a likely reign of perhaps 581–588, and place Æthelberht's accession in about 589, but these analyses are no more than scholarly guesses. Kirby (Earliest English Kings, pp. 31–34) provides a very detailed analysis of the chronology of Æthelberht's reign. Ceawlin’s eclipse in 592, probably by Ceol, may have been the occasion for Æthelberht to rise to prominence; Æthelberht was very likely the dominant Anglo-Saxon king by 597. Kirby, Earliest English Kings, p. 56. Æthelberht’s rise may have been earlier: the 584 annal, even if it records a victory, is the last victory of Ceawlin’s in the Chronicle, and the period after that may have been one of Æthelberht’s ascent and Ceawlin’s decline. Wessex at Ceawlin’s death The state of Anglo-Saxon England at Ceawlin's death Ceawlin lost the throne of Wessex in 592. The annal for that year reads, in part: “Here there was great slaughter at Woden’s Barrow, and Ceawlin was driven out.” Woden’s Barrow is a tumulus, now called Adam’s Grave, at Alton Priors, Wiltshire. No details of his opponent are given. The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury, writing in about 1120, says that it was "the Angles and the British conspiring together", Quoted in Plummer, Two Saxon Chronicles, vol. 2 p. 17 Alternatively, it may have been Ceol, who is supposed to have been the next king of Wessex, ruling for six years according to the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Ceawlin died the following year. The relevant part of the annal reads: "Here Ceawlin and Cwichelm and Crida perished." Nothing more is known of Cwichelm and Crida, though they may have been members of the Wessex royal house – their names fit the alliterative pattern common to royal houses of the time. Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms, p. 143 According to the Regnal List, Ceol was a son of Cutha, who was a son of Cynric; and Ceolwulf, his brother, reigned for seventeen years after him. It is possible that some fragmentation of control among the West Saxons occurred at Ceawlin's death: Ceol and Ceolwulf may have been based in Wiltshire, as opposed to the upper Thames valley. This split may have also contributed to Æthelberht's ability to rise to dominance in southern England. The West Saxons remained influential in military terms, however: the Chronicle and Bede record continued military activity against Essex and Sussex within twenty or thirty years of Ceawlin's death. 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4,053 | Bipyramid | Set of bipyramids(Example hexagonal form)Faces2n trianglesEdges3nVerticesn + 2Face configurationV4.4.nSymmetry groupDnhDual polyhedronn-gonal prismPropertiesconvex, face-transitiveNetA n-gonal bipyramid net, in this example a pentagonal bipyramid An n-gonal bipyramid or dipyramid is a polyhedron formed by joining an n-gonal pyramid and its mirror image base-to-base. The referenced n-gon in the name of the bipyramids is not an external face but an internal one, existing on the primary symmetry plane which connects the two pyramid halves. The face-transitive bipyramids are the dual polyhedra of the uniform prisms and will generally have isosceles triangle faces. A bipyramid can be projected on a sphere or globe as n equally spaced lines of longitude going from pole to pole, and bisected by a line around the equator. Bipyramid faces, projected as spherical triangles, represent the fundamental domains in the dihedral symmetry Dnh. Volume The volume of a bipyramid is where B is the area of the base and h the height from the base to the apex. This works for any location of the apex, provided that h is measured as the perpendicular distance from the plane which contains the base. The volume of a bipyramid whose base is a regular n-sided polygon with side length s and whose height is h is therefore: Equilateral triangle bipyramids Only three kinds of bipyramids can have all edges of the same length (which implies that all faces are equilateral triangles, and thus the bipyramid is a deltahedron): the triangular, tetragonal, and pentagonal bipyramids. The tetragonal bipyramid with identical edges, or regular octahedron, counts among the Platonic solids, while the triangular and pentagonal bipyramids with identical edges count among the Johnson solids (J12 and J13). Triangular bipyramidTetragonal bipyramidPentagonal bipyramid Forms Triangular bipyramid - 6 faces - dual triangular prism Tetragonal bipyramid (the regular octahedron is a special case) - 8 faces - dual cube Pentagonal bipyramid - 10 faces - dual pentagonal prism Hexagonal bipyramid - 12 faces - dual hexagonal prism Heptagonal bipyramid - 14 faces - dual heptagonal prism Octagonal bipyramid - 16 faces - dual octagonal prism Enneagonal bipyramid - 18 faces - dual enneagonal prism Decagonal bipyramid - 20 faces - dual decagonal prism ...n-agonal bipyramid - 2n faces - dual n-agonal prism 3456810 Symmetry groups If the base is regular and the line through the apexes intersects the base at its center, the symmetry group of the n-agonal bipyramid has dihedral symmetry Dnh of order 4n, except in the case of a regular octahedron, which has the larger octahedral symmetry group Oh of order 48, which has three versions of D4h as subgroups. The rotation group is Dn of order 2n, except in the case of a regular octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group O of order 24, which has three versions of D4 as subgroups. Star bipyramids Self-intersecting bipyramids exist with a star polygon central figure, defined by triangular faces connecting each polygon edge to these two points. For example, a pentagrammic dipyramid is an isohedral star polyhedron composed of 10 intersecting isoceles triangles. It is the dual to the pentagrammic prism. See also Trapezohedron External links The Uniform Polyhedra Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra VRML models (George Hart) <3> <4> <5> <6> <7> <8> <9> <10> Conway Notation for Polyhedra Try: "dPn", where n = 3, 4, 5, 6, ... example "dP4" is an octahedron. | Bipyramid |@lemmatized set:1 bipyramids:9 example:4 hexagonal:3 form:3 nsymmetry:1 groupdnhdual:1 polyhedronn:1 gonal:4 prismpropertiesconvex:1 face:16 transitiveneta:1 n:10 bipyramid:20 net:1 pentagonal:5 dipyramid:2 polyhedron:5 join:1 pyramid:2 mirror:1 image:1 base:8 referenced:1 gon:1 name:1 external:2 internal:1 one:1 exist:2 primary:1 symmetry:7 plane:2 connect:2 two:2 half:1 transitive:1 dual:11 uniform:2 prism:10 generally:1 isosceles:1 triangle:5 project:2 sphere:1 globe:1 equally:1 spaced:1 line:3 longitude:1 go:1 pole:2 bisect:1 around:1 equator:1 spherical:1 represent:1 fundamental:1 domain:1 dihedral:2 dnh:2 volume:3 b:1 area:1 h:3 height:2 apex:3 work:1 location:1 provide:1 measure:1 perpendicular:1 distance:1 contain:1 whose:2 regular:6 side:2 polygon:3 length:2 therefore:1 equilateral:2 three:3 kind:1 edge:4 imply:1 thus:1 deltahedron:1 triangular:6 tetragonal:3 identical:2 octahedron:5 count:2 among:2 platonic:1 solid:2 johnson:1 bipyramidtetragonal:1 bipyramidpentagonal:1 special:1 case:3 cube:1 heptagonal:2 octagonal:2 enneagonal:2 decagonal:2 agonal:3 group:5 intersect:2 center:1 order:4 except:2 large:2 octahedral:1 oh:1 version:2 subgroup:2 rotation:1 dn:1 star:3 self:1 intersecting:1 central:1 figure:1 define:1 point:1 pentagrammic:2 isohedral:1 compose:1 isoceles:1 see:1 also:1 trapezohedron:1 link:1 virtual:1 reality:1 polyhedra:2 encyclopedia:1 vrml:1 model:1 george:1 hart:1 conway:1 notation:1 try:1 dpn:1 |@bigram dual_polyhedron:1 isosceles_triangle:1 bipyramid_face:9 equilateral_triangle:2 regular_octahedron:4 platonic_solid:1 triangular_prism:1 hexagonal_prism:1 octahedral_symmetry:1 external_link:1 uniform_polyhedron:1 reality_polyhedra:1 polyhedra_encyclopedia:1 vrml_model:1 |
4,054 | Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change | The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific intergovernmental body tasked to evaluate the risk of climate change caused by human activity. The panel was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), two organizations of the United Nations. The IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former Vice President of the United States Al Gore. The Nobel Peace Prize for 2007 The IPCC does not carry out research, nor does it monitor climate or related phenomena. A main activity of the IPCC is publishing special reports on topics relevant to the implementation of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international treaty that acknowledges the possibility of harmful climate change; implementation of the UNFCCC led eventually to the Kyoto Protocol. The IPCC bases its assessment mainly on peer reviewed and published scientific literature. The IPCC is only open to member states of the WMO and UNEP. IPCC reports are widely cited in almost any debate related to climate change. National and international responses to climate change generally regard the UN climate panel as authoritative. The summary reports (i.e. Summary for Policymakers), which draw the most media attention, include review by participating governments in addition to scientific review. Principles Governing IPCC Work Aims The principles of the IPCC operation IPCC. . Retrieved December 19, 2006. are assigned by the relevant WMO Executive Council and UNEP Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on actions in support of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change process. The stated aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information relevant to: human-induced climate change, the impacts of human-induced climate change, options for adaptation and mitigation. The history of the IPCC is described in a . The IPCC has been chaired by Rajendra Pachauri since 2002. IPCC Assessment Reports The IPCC published its first assessment report in 1990, a supplementary report in 1992, a second assessment report (SAR) in 1995, and a third assessment report (TAR) in 2001. A fourth assessment report (AR4) was released in 2007. Each assessment report is in three volumes, corresponding to Working Groups I, II and III. Unqualified, "the IPCC report" is often used to mean the Working Group I report, which covers the basic science of climate change. IPCC First Assessment Report: 1990 The IPCC first assessment report was completed in 1990, and served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The executive summary of the WG I Summary for Policymakers report says they are certain that emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases, resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth's surface. They calculate with confidence that CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect. They predict that under BAU increase of global mean temperature during the [21st] century of about 0.3 oC per decade. They judge that: global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability. The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more. IPCC Supplementary Report: 1992 The 1992 supplementary report was an update, requested in the context of the negotiations on the Framework Convention on Climate Change at the Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did "not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment". It noted that transient (time-dependent) simulations, which had been very preliminary in the FAR, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes. IPCC Second Assessment Report: Climate Change 1995 Climate Change 1995, the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR), was finished in 1996. It is split into four parts: A synthesis to help interpret UNFCCC article 2. The Science of Climate Change (WG I) Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change (WG II) Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change (WG III) Each of the last three parts was completed by a separate working group, and each has a Summary for Policymakers (SPM) that represents a consensus of national representatives. The SPM of the WG I report contains headings: Greenhouse gas concentrations have continued to increase Anthropogenic aerosols tend to produce negative radiative forcings Climate has changed over the past century (air temperature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6 °C since the late 19th century; this estimate has not significantly changed since the 1990 report). The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate (considerable progress since the 1990 report in distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic influences on climate, because of: including aerosols; coupled models; pattern-based studies) Climate is expected to continue to change in the future (increasing realism of simulations increases confidence; important uncertainties remain but are taken into account in the range of model projections) There are still many uncertainties (estimates of future emissions and biogeochemical cycling; models; instrument data for model testing, assessment of variability, and detection studies) Debate A December 20, 1995, Reuters report quoted British scientist Keith Shine, one of IPCC's lead authors, discussing the Policymakers' Summary. He said: "We produce a draft, and then the policymakers go through it line by line and change the way it is presented.... It's peculiar that they have the final say in what goes into a scientists' report". It is not clear, in this case, whether Shine was complaining that the report had been changed to be more skeptical, or less, or something else entirely. Solid-state physicist Frederick Seitz, president emeritus of Rockefeller University, past president of the National Academy of Sciences, and former health consultant for R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company has publicly denounced the IPCC report, writing "I have never witnessed a more disturbing corruption of the peer-review process than the events that led to this IPCC report". He opposed it in the Leipzig Declaration of S. Fred Singer's Science and Environmental Policy Project. In turn, Seitz's comments were vigorously opposed by the presidents of the American Meteorological Society and University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, who wrote about a systematic effort by some individuals to undermine and discredit the scientific process that has led many scientists working on understanding climate to conclude that there is a very real possibility that humans are modifying Earth's climate on a global scale. Rather than carrying out a legitimate scientific debate... they are waging in the public media a vocal campaign against scientific results with which they disagree. Special insert S. Fred Singer disseminated a letter about Chapter 8, asserting that: http://web.archive.org/web/19980629122454/http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/ipccflap.htm Chapter 8 was altered substantially to make it conform to the Summary; Three key clauses — expressing the consensus of authors, contributors, and reviewers — should have been placed into the Summary instead of being deleted from the approved draft chapter; Benjamin D. Santer, Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 IPCC Working Group I Report, replied: http://web.archive.org/web/19981202173029/http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/Item08.htm All revisions were made with the sole purpose of producing the best-possible and most clearly explained assessment of the science, and were under the full scientific control of the Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8. None of the changes were politically motivated. Debate over value of a statistical life The Second Assessment Report was the first and last to include a chapter on the economic impacts of climate change, of which impacts on human mortality are an important part. As is customary in environmental economics, health impacts of climate change are valued on the basis of willingness to pay for risk reduction. The advantage of this method is that health risks of climate change are treated like any other health risk. The disadvantage of this method is that health risks in different parts of the world are valued differently. Specifically, the value of a statistical life is much higher in rich countries than in poor countries. The chapter authored by David Pearce, Amrita Achanta, Bill Cline, Sam Fankhauser, Rajendra Pachauri, Richard Tol, and Pier Vellinga faithfully reflected the state of the art of the literature, but the chapter was attacked: the IPCC was accused of blasphemy and David Pearce's offices were occupied. F. Pearce (1995), 'Global Row over Value of Human Life', New Scientist, August 19, 7. E. Masood (1995), 'Developing Countries Dispute Use of Figures on Climate Change Impact', Nature, 376, 374. E. Masood and A. Ochert (1995), 'UN Climate Change Report Turns up the Heat', Nature, 378, 119. A. Meyer (1995), 'Economics of Climate Change', Nature, 378, 433. N. Sundaraman (1995), 'Impact of Climate Change', Nature, 377, 472. T. O'Riordan (1997), 'Review of Climate Change 1995 – Economic and Social Dimension', Environment, 39 (9), 34-39. This chapter is the only instance in which the authors of the chapter officially denounced the policy makers' summary for inaccuracy. National Center for Environmental Economics IPCC Third Assessment Report: Climate Change 2001 The Third Assessment Report (TAR) consists of four reports, three of them from its working groups: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis Working Group 1, IPCC. Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability Working Group 2, IPCC. Working Group III: Mitigation Working Group 3, IPCC. Synthesis Report Synthesis Report, IPCC. The "headlines" from the Summary for Policymakers Headlines, IPCC. in The Scientific Basis were: An increasing body of observations gives a collective picture of a warming world and other changes in the climate system (The global average surface temperature has increased over the 20th century by about 0.6 °C; Temperatures have risen during the past four decades in the lowest 8 kilometers of the atmosphere; Snow cover and ice extent have decreased) Emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols due to human activities continue to alter the atmosphere in ways that are expected to affect the climate (Anthropogenic aerosols are short-lived and mostly produce negative radiative forcing; Natural factors have made small contributions to radiative forcing over the past century) Confidence in the ability of models to project future climate has increased (Complex physically based climate models are required to provide detailed estimates of feedback and of regional features. Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols. Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales. Working Group 1, IPCC. ) There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the past 50 years is attributable to human activities Human influences will continue to change atmospheric composition throughout the 21st century Global average temperature and sea level are projected to rise under all IPCC SRES scenarios The TAR estimate for the climate sensitivity is 1.5 to 4.5 °C; and the average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees over the period 1990 to 2100, and the sea level is projected to rise by 0.1 to 0.9 meters over the same period. The wide range in predictions is based on scenarios that assume different levels of future CO2 emissions. Each scenario then has a range of possible outcomes associated with it. The most optimistic outcome assumes an aggressive campaign to reduce CO2 emissions; the most pessimistic is a "business as usual" scenario. Other scenarios fall in between. IPCC uses the best available predictions and their reports are under strong scientific scrutiny. The IPCC concedes that there is a need for better models and better scientific understanding of some climate phenomena, as well as the uncertainties involved. Critics assert that the data is insufficient to determine the real importance of greenhouse gases in climate change. Sensitivity of climate to greenhouse gases may be overestimated or underestimated because of flaws in the models and because the importance of some external factors may be misestimated. The predictions are based on scenarios, and the IPCC did not assign any probability to the 35 scenarios used. Economic growth estimates debate Castles and Henderson asserted that the IPCC's use of market exchange rates in the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios to convert GDP measures into a common currency is inappropriate, and that, for most countries a Purchasing Power Parity conversion would yield higher estimates of income. It follows that the rate of growth implied by an assumption of income convergence is higher if exchange rate conversions are used. They imply that this is likely to produce biased projections of emissions. Castles and Henderson (2003), Energy & Environment, 14:159-185 Nebojsa Nakicenovic et al. claim that this is incorrect because, provided an internally consistent procedure is used, projections of emissions are unaffected by the choice of index number used to measure GDP. See the discussion under Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. Physical modeling debate MIT professor Richard Lindzen, one of the scientists in IPCC Working Group I, has expressed disagreement with the IPCC reports. He expressed his unhappiness about those portions in the Executive Summary based on his contributions in May 2001 before the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation: The Summary for Policymakers of the WG1 reports does include caveats on model treatments: Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols. Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis These statements are in turn supported by the executive summary of chapter 8 of the report, which includes: Coupled models can provide credible simulations of both the present annual mean climate and the climatological seasonal cycle over broad continental scales for most variables of interest for climate change. Clouds and humidity remain sources of significant uncertainty but there have been incremental improvements in simulations of these quantities. Confidence in the ability of models to project future climates is increased by the ability of several models to reproduce the warming trend in 20th century surface air temperature when driven by radiative forcing due to increasing greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols. However, only idealised scenarios of only sulphate aerosols have been used. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 The four SRES scenario families according to: Canadian Institute for Climate Studies, CCIS project: Frequently Asked Questions IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios, Chapter 4: An Overview of Scenarios / 4.2. SRES Scenario Taxonomy / Table 4- 2: Overview of SRES scenario quantifications. Figure 2.11: Schematic illustration of SRES scenarios (IPCC) of the Fourth Assessment Report vs. associated changes in global-mean temperature until 2100AR4more economic focusmore environmental focusGlobalisation(homogeneous world)A1 rapid economic growth(groups: A1T/A1B/A1Fl)1.4 - 6.4 °C B1global environmental sustainability 1.1 - 2.9 °CRegionalisation(heterogeneous world) A2regionally orientedeconomic development2.0 - 5.4 °C B2local environmental sustainability1.4 - 3.8 °C The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) was completed in early 2007. IPCC WG1, UCAR. Like previous assessment reports, it consists of four reports, three of them from its working groups. Working Group I dealt with the "Physical Science Basis of Climate Change." The Working Group I Summary for Policymakers (SPM) was published on February 2, 2007 and revised on February 5, 2007. There was also a February 2, 2007 press release. Press release, IPCC, 2007-02-02. The full WGI report was published in March. The key conclusions of the SPM were that: , IPCC 2007-02-02. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal. Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic (human) greenhouse gas concentrations. Anthropogenic warming and sea level rise would continue for centuries due to the timescales associated with climate processes and feedbacks, even if greenhouse gas concentrations were to be stabilized, although the likely amount of temperature and sea level rise varies greatly depending on the fossil intensity of human activity during the next century (pages 13 and 18). The probability that this is caused by natural climatic processes alone is less than 5%. World temperatures could rise by between 1.1 and 6.4 °C (2.0 and 11.5 °F) during the 21st century (table 3) and that: Sea levels will probably rise by 18 to 59 cm (7.08 to 23.22 in) [table 3]. There is a confidence level >90% that there will be more frequent warm spells, heat waves and heavy rainfall. There is a confidence level >66% that there will be an increase in droughts, tropical cyclones and extreme high tides. Both past and future anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions will continue to contribute to warming and sea level rise for more than a millennium. Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed pre-industrial values over the past 650,000 years In IPCC statements "most" means greater than 50%, "likely" means at least a 66% likelihood, and "very likely" means at least a 90% likelihood. An outline of chapters in the WGI report (as of November 3, 2005) and a list of the report's authors (as of March 10, 2005) were made available before publication of the SPM. The Summary for Policymakers for the Working Group II IPCC WGII web site report was released on April 6, 2007. Working Group II Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007: Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: (23 page PDF file) The Summary for Policymakers for the Working Group III report was released on May 4, 2007. The AR4 Synthesis Report (SYR) was released on November 17, 2007. IPCC Fifth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2014 The IPCC is currently starting to outline its Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) which will be finalized in 2014. As it has been the case in the past, the outline of the AR5 will be developed through a scoping process which involves climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports, in particular representatives from governments. As a first step, experts, governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Assessment Report have been asked to submit comments and observations in writing. These submissions are currently being analysed by members of the Bureau. Further input from governments and organizations is expected at the 30th Session of the IPCC (21-23 April 2009, Antalya, Turkey). The scoping meeting of experts to define the outline of the AR5 is scheduled for mid July 2009. http://www.ipcc.ch/ IPCC Methodology Reports Within IPCC the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Program (IPCC-NGGIP) develops methods and methodologies to estimate emissions of greenhouse gases. IPCC-NGGIP has been undertaken since 1991 by the IPCC WG I in close collaboration with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the International Energy Agency (IEA). The objectives of the IPCC-NGGIP are: to develop and refine an internationally-agreed methodology and software for the calculation and reporting of national GHG emissions and removals; and to encourage the widespread use of this methodology by countries participating in the IPCC and by signatories of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories The Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (1996 GLs) provide the methodological basis for the estimation of national greenhouse gas emission inventory. Over time these 1996GLs have been completed with guidance on so-called "Good Practice": Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories; and Good Practice Guidance for Land Use,Land-Use Change and Forestry Together the 1996 GLs and both good practice reports are to be used by parties to the UNFCCC and to the Kyoto Protocol in their annual submissions of national greenhouse gas inventories 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories The 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC 2006 GLs) comprises the latest versions of these emission estimation methodologies, including a large number of default emission factors. Although the IPCC has prepared these new version of the guidelines on request of the partires to the UNFCCC, the methods have not been officially accepted yet for use in national greenhouse gas emisiosns reporting under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. Operations The Chair of the IPCC is Rajendra K. Pachauri, elected in May 2002; previously Robert Watson headed the IPCC. The chair is assisted by an elected Bureau including vice-chairs, Working Group co-chairs and a Secretariat (see below). The IPCC Panel is composed of representatives appointed by governments and organizations. Participation of delegates with appropriate expertise is encouraged. Plenary sessions of the IPCC and IPCC Working Groups are held at the level of government representatives. Non Governmental and Intergovernmental Organizations may be allowed to attend as observers. Sessions of the IPCC Bureau, workshops, expert and lead authors meetings are by invitation only. IPCC. Official documents. Retrieved December 2006. Attendance at the 2003 meeting included 350 government officials and climate change experts. After the opening ceremonies, closed plenary sessions were held. IPCC. . February 19, 2006. Retrieved December 20, 2006. The meeting report IPCC. . February 19, 2006. Retrieved December 20, 2006. states there were 322 persons in attendance at Sessions with about seven-eighths of participants being from governmental organizations. The IPCC has published four comprehensive assessment reports reviewing the latest climate science, as well as a number of special reports on particular topics. These reports are prepared by teams of relevant researchers selected by the Bureau from government nominations. Drafts of these reports are made available for comment in open review processes to which anyone may contribute. The IPCC does not carry out research nor does it monitor climate related data. The responsibility of the lead authors of IPCC reports is to assess available information about climate change drawn mainly from the peer reviewed and published scientific/technical literature. IPCC. Mandate and Membership of IPCC. Retrieved December 20, 2006. There are several major groups: IPCC Panel: Meets in plenary session about once a year and controls the organization's structure, procedures, and work programme. The Panel is the IPCC corporate entity. Chair: Elected by the Panel. Secretariat: Oversees and manages all activities. Supported by UNEP and WMO. Bureau: Elected by the Panel. Chaired by the Chair. 30 members include IPCC Vice-Chairs, Co-Chairs and Vice-Chairs of Working Groups and Task Force. Working Groups: Each has two Co-Chairs, one from the developed and one from developing world, and a technical support unit. Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change. Working Group II: Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to climate change, consequences, and adaptation options. Working Group III: Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and otherwise mitigating climate change. Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories The IPCC receives funding from UNEP, WMO, and its own Trust Fund for which it solicits contributions from governments. Contributors People from over 130 countries contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report over the previous 6 years. These people included more than 2500 scientific expert reviewers, more than 800 contributing authors, and more than 450 lead authors. Press flyer announcing 2007 report IPCC Of these, the Working Group 1 report (including the summary for policy makers) included contributions by 600 authors from 40 countries, over 620 expert reviewers, a large number of government reviewers, and representatives from 113 governments. Working Group I press release IPCC via a copy at KlimaAktiv.com Activities The IPCC concentrates its activities on the tasks allotted to it by the relevant WMO Executive Council and UNEP Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on actions in support of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change process. In April 2006, the IPCC released the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report or AR4. IPCC. Activities — Assessment Reports. Retrieved December 20, 2006. Reports of the workshops held so far are available at the IPCC website. IPCC. Activities — Workshops & Expert Meetings. Retrieved December 20, 2006. Working Group I: IPCC AR4 WGI Report was due to be finalized during February 2007 http://www.ipcc.ch/press/pr02052006.htm and was finished on schedule. By May 2005, there had been 3 AR4 meetings, with only public information being meeting locations, an author list, one invitation, one agenda, and one list of presentation titles. By December 2006, governments were reviewing the revised summary for policy makers. Working Group II: http://www.gtp89.dial.pipex.com/index.htm Report was due to be finalized in mid-2007 and was completed on schedule. In May 2005, there had been 2 AR4 meetings, with no public information released. One shared meeting with WG III had taken place, with a published summary. Working Group III: Report was due to be finalized in mid-2007. In May 2005, there had been 1 AR4 meeting, with no public information released. The AR4 Synthesis Report (SYR) was finalized in November 2007. Documentation on the scoping meetings for the AR4 are available http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/ar4scope.htm as are the outlines for the WG I report and a provisional author list . While the preparation of the assessment reports is a major IPCC function, it also supports other activities, such as the Data Distribution Centre Welcome to the IPCC Data Distribution Centre and the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, IPCC - National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme required under the UNFCCC. This involves publishing default emission factors, which are factors used to derive emissions estimates based on the levels of fuel consumption, industrial production and so on. The IPCC also often answers inquiries from the UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA). Publications Scope and preparation of the reports The IPCC reports are a compendium of peer reviewed and published science. Each subsequent IPCC report notes areas where the science has improved since the previous report and also notes areas where further research is required. There are generally three stages in the review process : Expert review (6-8 weeks) Government/expert review Government review of: Summaries for Policymakers Overview Chapters Synthesis Report Review comments are in an open archive for at least five years. There are several types of endorsement which documents receive : approval: Material has been subjected to detailed, line by line discussion and agreement. Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are approved by their Working Groups. Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers is approved by Panel. adoption: Endorsed section by section (and not line by line). Panel adopts Overview Chapters of Methodology Reports. Panel adopts IPCC Synthesis Report. acceptance: Not been subject to line by line discussion and agreement, but presents a comprehensive, objective, and balanced view of the subject matter. Working Groups accept their reports. Task Force Reports are accepted by the Panel. Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are accepted by the Panel after group approval. The Panel is responsible for the IPCC and its endorsement of Reports allows it to ensure they meet IPCC standards. The Panel's approval process has been criticized for changing the product of the experts who create the Reports. On the other hand, not requiring Panel re-endorsement of Reports has also been criticized, after changes required by the approval process were made to Reports. Authors Each chapter has a number of authors who are responsible for writing and editing the material. A chapter typically has two Coordinating Lead Authors, ten to fifteen Lead Authors, and a somewhat larger number of Contributing Authors. The Coordinating Lead Authors are responsible for assembling the contributions of the other authors, ensuring that they meet stylistic and formatting requirements, and reporting to the Working Group chairs. Lead Authors are responsible for writing sections of chapters. Contributing Authors prepare text, graphs or data for inclusion by the Lead Authors. Authors for the IPCC reports are chosen from a list of researchers prepared by governments, and participating organisations and the Working Group/Task Force Bureaux, and other experts as appropriate, known through their publications and works (, 4.2.1,2). The composition of the group of Coordinating Lead Authors and Lead Authors for a section or chapter of a Report is intended to reflect the need to aim for a range of views, expertise and geographical representation (ensuring appropriate representation of experts from developing and developed countries and countries with economies in transition). Nobel Peace Prize 2007 In December 2007, the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize 2007 "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change." The award is shared with Former U.S. Vice-President Al Gore for his work on climate change and the documentary An Inconvenient Truth. Criticism of IPCC Christopher Landsea resignation In January 2005 Christopher Landsea resigned from work on the IPCC AR4, saying that he viewed the process "as both being motivated by pre-conceived agendas and being scientifically unsound" because of Kevin Trenberth's public contention that global warming was contributing to recent hurricane activity. Chris Landsea Leaves Roger A. Pielke, Jr. who published Landsea's letter writes: "How anyone can deny that political factors were everpresent in the negotiations isn't paying attention [sic]", but notes that the actual report "Despite the pressures, on tropical cyclones they figured out a way to maintain consistency with the actual balance of opinion(s) in the community of relevant experts." He continues "So there might be a human contribution (and presumably this is just to the observed upwards trends observed in some basins, and not to downward trends observed in others, but this is unclear) but the human contribution itself has not been quantitatively assessed, yet the experts, using their judgment, expect it to be there. In plain English this is what is called a 'hypothesis' and not a 'conclusion.' And it is a fair representation of the issue." Follow Up: IPCC and Hurricanes Emphasis of the "hockey stick" graph The third assessment report (TAR) prominently featured a graph labeled "Millennial Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction" from a paper by Michael E. Mann, Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes (MBH98 ) often referred to as the "Hockey Stick Graph". This graph differed from a schematic in the first assessment report which depicted larger global temperature variations over the past 1000 years, and higher temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period than the present day. (The schematic was not an actual plot of data.) The appearance of MBH98 in the TAR was widely construed as demonstrating that the current warming period is exceptional in comparison to temperatures between 1000 and 1900. The methodology used to produce this graph was criticized in an article by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick. In a 2006 letter to Nature, Bradley, Hughes and Mann pointed out that their original article had said that "more widespread high-resolution data are needed before more confident conclusions can be reached" and that the uncertainties were "the point of the article." Conservative nature of IPCC reports Some critics have contended that the IPCC reports tend to underestimate dangers, understate risks, and report only the "lowest common denominator" findings. Warning on Warming - The New York Review of Books On February 1, 2007, the eve of the publication of IPCC's major report on climate, a study was published suggesting that temperatures and sea levels have been rising at or above the maximum rates proposed during the last IPCC report in 2001. The study compared IPCC 2001 projections on temperature and sea level change with observations. Over the six years studied, the actual temperature rise was near the top end of the range given by IPCC's 2001 projection and the actual rise was above the top of the range of the IPCC projection. An example of scientific research which has indicated that previous estimates by the IPCC, far from overstating dangers and risks, has actually understated them (this may be due, in part, to the expanding human understanding of climate) is a study on projected rises in sea levels. When the researchers' analysis was "applied to the possible scenarios outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the researchers found that in 2100 sea levels would be 0.5–1.4 m above 1990 levels. These values are much greater than the 9–88 cm as projected by the IPCC itself in its Third Assessment Report, published in 2001. In reporting criticism by some scientists that IPCC's then-impending January 2007 report understates certain risks, particularly sea level rises, an AP story quoted Stefan Ramstorf, professor of physics and oceanography at Potsdam University as saying: In his December 2006 book, Hell and High Water: Global Warming, and in an interview on Fox News on January 31, 2007, energy expert Joseph Romm noted that the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report is already out of date and omits recent observations and factors contributing to global warming, such as the release of greenhouse gases from thawing tundra. Fox interview Political influence on the IPCC has been documented by the release of a memo by ExxonMobil to the Bush administration, and its effects on the IPCC's leadership. The memo led to strong Bush administration lobbying, evidently at the behest of ExxonMobil, to oust Robert Watson, a climate scientist, from the IPCC chairmanship, and to have him replaced by Pachauri, who was seen at the time as more mild-mannered and industry-friendly. IPCC processes In 2005, the UK House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs produced a report on the economics of climate change. It commented on the IPCC process: Interestingly, the Stern Review ordered by the UK government, whose findings were released in October 2006, made a stronger argument in favor of urgent action to combat human-made climate change than previous analyses, including some by IPCC. The conclusions of the Stern Review have been contested, however. See main article on Stern Review The structural elements of the IPCC processes have been criticized in other ways, with the design of the processes during the formation of the IPCC making its reports prone not to exaggerations, but to underestimating dangers, under-stating risks, and reporting only the "least common denominator" findings which by design make it through the bureaucracy. As noted by Spencer Weart, Director of the Center for History of Physics at the American Institute of Physics, Outdatedness of reports Since the IPCC does not carry out its own research, it operates on the basis of scientific papers and independently documented results from other scientific bodies, and its schedule for producing reports requires a deadline for submissions prior to the report’s final release. In principle, this means that any significant new evidence or events that change our understanding of climate science between this deadline and publication of an IPCC report cannot be included. In an area of science where our scientific understanding is rapidly changing, this has been raised as a serious shortcoming in a body which is widely regarded as the ultimate authority on the science. Example of concerns over outdatedness of IPCC reports, see p.3 However, there has generally been a steady evolution of key findings and levels of scientific confidence from one assessment report to the next. The submission deadlines for the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) differed for the reports of each Working Group. Deadlines for the Working Group I report were adjusted during the drafting and review process in order to ensure that reviewers had access to unpublished material being cited by the authors. The final deadline for cited publications was July 24, 2006. Guidelines for inclusion of recent scientific literature in the Working Group I Fourth Assessment Report. The final WG I report was released on April 30, 2007 and the final AR4 Synthesis Report was released on November 17, 2007. Rajendra Pachauri, the IPCC chair, admitted at the launch of this report that since the IPCC began work on it, scientists have recorded "much stronger trends in climate change", like the unforeseen dramatic melting of polar ice in the summer of 2007, Carbon Equity report on the Arctic summer of 2007 and added, "that means you better start with intervention much earlier". Pachauri comments on worsening climate trends Burden on participating scientists Scientists who participate in the IPCC assessment process do so without any compensation other than the normal salaries they receive from their home institutions. The process is labor intensive, diverting time and resources from participating scientists' research programs. Concerns have been raised that the large uncompensated time commitment and disruption to their own research may discourage qualified scientists from participating. Praise for IPCC Various scientific bodies have issued official statements praising the IPCC and endorsing their findings. Joint science academies' statement-2001 The work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) represents the consensus of the international scientific community on climate change science. We recognise IPCC as the world’s most reliable source of information on climate change and its causes, and we endorse its method of achieving this consensus. The Science of Climate Change from www.royalsociety.org Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences We concur with the climate science assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2001 ... We endorse the conclusions of the IPCC assessment... CFCAS Letter to PM, November 25, 2005 Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society CMOS endorses the process of periodic climate science assessment carried out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and supports the conclusion, in its Third Assessment Report, which states that the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate. CMOS Position Statement on Global Warming European Geosciences Union The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change...is the main representative of the global scientific community....IPCC third assessment report...represents the state-of-the-art of climate science supported by the major science academies around the world and by the vast majority of scientific researchers and investigations as documented by the peer-reviewed scientific literature. National Research Council (US) The IPCC's conclusion that most of the observed warming of the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations accurately reflects the current thinking of the scientific community on this issue. NRC Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions p. 11 Network of African Science Academies The IPCC should be congratulated for the contribution it has made to public understanding of the nexus that exists between energy, climate and sustainability. Royal Meteorological Society In response to the release of the Fourth Assessment Report, the Royal Meteorological Society referred to the IPCC as “The world’s best climate scientists”. Royal Meteorological Society’s statement on the IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report. Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society of London The most authoritative assessment of climate change in the near future is provided by the Inter-Governmental Panel for Climate Change. Global warming: a perspective from earth history See also Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change – international conference (2005) Global warming Scientific opinion on climate change List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming List of authors from Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis G8+5 Summary for policymakers Post-Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Bert Bolin Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Notes and references External links The IPCC web site IPCC Organisation IPCC publications IPCC AR4 WG1 Report Available for Purchase Summaries for Policymakers (SPMs) of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: , A summary of the Fourth Assessment Report SPMs by GreenFacts. IPCC article at the Encyclopedia of Earth - General overview of the IPCC Climate Change - What Is the IPCC by Jean-Marc Jancovici Climate Change Freeview Video Interview 2006 - Sherwood Rowland, Nobel Laureate (1995) for work on ozone depletion discusses climate change. 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4,055 | Goitre | A goitre (BrE), or goiter (AmE) (Latin struma), also called a bronchocele, is a swelling in the thyroid gland, which can lead to a swelling of the neck or larynx. Classification They are classified in different ways: A "diffuse goiter" is a goiter that has spread through all of the thyroid (and can be a "simple goitre", or a "multinodular goitre"). "Toxic goiter" refers to goiter with hyperthyroidism. These most commonly due to Graves' disease, but can be caused by inflammation or a multinodular goiter. "Nontoxic goiter" (associated with normal or low thyroid levels) refers to all other types (such as that caused by lithium or certain other autoimmune diseases). Other type of classification: I - palpation struma - in normal posture of head it cannot be seen. Only found when palpating. II - struma is palpative and can be easily seen. III - struma is very big and is retrosternal. Pressure and compression marks. Causes Worldwide, the most common cause for goiter is iodine deficiency. In countries that use iodized salt, Hashimoto's thyroiditis becomes the most common cause. Other causes are: Hypothyroid Inborn errors of thyroid hormone synthesis, causing congenital hypothyroidism (E03.0) Ingestion of goitrogens, such as cassava. Side-effects of pharmacological therapy (E03.2) Hyperthyroid Graves' disease (E05.0) Thyroiditis (acute, chronic) (E06) Thyroid cancer Occurrence Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). In endemic goitre, iodine deficiency leaves the thyroid gland unable to produce its hormones because the hormones are made out of iodine. When levels of thyroid hormones fall, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is produced by the hypothalamus. TRH then prompts the pituitary gland to make thyrotropin or thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the thyroid gland’s production of T4 and T3. It also causes the thyroid gland to grow in size by increasing cell division. Nodular goitre of a young woman. Goiter is more common among women, but this includes the many types of goitre caused by autoimmune problems, and not only those caused by simple lack of iodine. Treatment Treatment may not be necessary if the goiter is small. Goiter may be related to hyper- and hypothyroidism (especially Graves' disease) and may be reversed by treatment of hyper- and hypothyroidism. Graves' disease can be corrected with antithyroid drugs (such as propylthiouracil and methimazole), thyroidectomy (surgical removal of the thyroid gland), and iodine-131 (131I - a radioactive isotope of iodine that is absorbed by the thyroid gland and destroys it). Hypothyroidism may raise the risk of goitre because it usually increases the production of TRH and TSH. Levothyroxine, used to treat hypothyroidism, can also be used in euthyroid patients for the treatment of goitre. Levothyroxine suppressive therapy decreases the production of TRH and TSH and may reduce goitre, thyroid nodules, and thyroid cancer. Blood tests are needed to ensure that TSH is still in range and the patient has not become subclinically hyperthyroid. If TSH levels are not carefully monitored, it is alleged that levothyroxine may increase the risk of osteoporosis but no peer reviewed studies on levothyroxine replacement of Hypothyroid patients causing this effect have actually been produced. Thyroidectomy with 131I may be necessary in euthyroid goitrous patients who do not respond to levothyroxine treatment, especially if the patients have difficulty breathing or swallowing. 131I, with or without the pre-injection of synthetic TSH, can relieve obstruction and reduce the size of the goitre by thirty to sixty-five percent. Depending on how large the goiter is and how much of the thyroid gland must be removed or destroyed, thyroidectomy or 131I may produce hypothyroidism requiring life-long treatment. Symptoms The symptoms of goiter are mainly the swelling of the front part of the neck and protruding eyes. History Chinese physicians of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) were the first to successfully treat patients with goitre by using the iodine-rich thyroid gland of animals such as sheep and pigs—in raw, pill, or powdered-mixture-in-wine form. Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Pages 133–134. This was outlined in Zhen Quan's (d. 643 AD) book, as well as several others. Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Page 134. One Chinese book (i.e. The Pharmacopoeia of the Heavenly Husbandman) asserted that iodine-rich sargassum was used to treat goitre patients by the 1st century BC, but this book was written much later. Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Pages 134–135 In the 12th century, Zayn al-Din al-Jurjani, a Persian physician, provided the first description of Graves' disease after noting the association of goitre and exophthalmos in his Thesaurus of the Shah of Khwarazm, the major medical dictionary of its time. - the history and naming of the disease Al-Jurjani also established an association between goitre and palpitation. The disease was later named after Irish doctor Robert James Graves, who described a case of goiter with exophthalmos in 1835. The German Karl Adolph von Basedow also independently reported the same constellation of symptoms in 1840, while earlier reports of the disease were also published by the Italians Giuseppe Flajani and Antonio Giuseppe Testa, in 1802 and 1810 respectively, and by the English physician Caleb Hillier Parry (a friend of Edward Jenner) in the late 18th century. Paracelsus (1493–1541) was the first person to propose a relationship between goitre and minerals (particularly lead) in drinking water. "Paracelsus" Britannica Iodine was later discovered by Bernard Courtois in 1811 from seaweed ash. Goitre was previously common in many areas that were deficient in iodine in the soil. For example, in the English Midlands, the condition was known as Derbyshire Neck. In the United States, goitre was found in the Great Lakes, Midwest, and Intermountain regions. The condition now is practically absent in affluent nations, where table salt is supplemented with iodine. However, it is still prevalent in India, "In Raising the World’s I.Q., the Secret’s in the Salt", article by Donald G. McNeil, Jr., December 16, 2006, New York Times Central Asia and Central Africa. Famous goitre sufferers Edward Gibbon Former President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara Bush both were diagnosed with Graves' disease and goitres, within two years of each other. In the president's case, the disease caused hyperthyroidism and cardiac dysrhythmia. The Health and Medical History of President George Bush DoctorZebra.com. 8 August 2004. Retrieved 8 October 2006. "George H.W. Bush." NNDB. Robert G. Lahita and Ina Yalof. Women and Autoimmune Disease: The Mysterious Ways Your Body Betrays Itself. Page 158. Lawrence K. Altman, M.D. “Doctors Say Bush Is in Good Health.” The New York Times. September 14, 1991. Scientists said that the odds of both George and Barbara Bush having Graves’ disease might be 1 in 100,000 or as low as 1 in 3,000,000 Lawrence K. Altman, M.D. “The Doctor’s World; A White House Puzzle: Immunity Ailments.”, The New York Times. May 28, 1991] Andrea True (according to an interview on VH-1) “Andrea True.” Elle. Jose Fadul See also Struma ovarii (a kind of teratoma) David Marine conducted substantial research on the treatment of goiter with iodine. Exophthalmic goiter (also known as Basedow's disease) References External links Goiter National Health Services, UK Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency - alternate site at Emory University's School of Public Health A case and photograph of a huge goiter from Photobucket.com and Doctorkhodadoust.net | Goitre |@lemmatized goitre:19 bre:1 goiter:18 ame:1 latin:1 struma:5 also:8 call:1 bronchocele:1 swell:1 thyroid:17 gland:9 lead:2 swelling:2 neck:3 larynx:1 classification:2 classify:1 different:1 way:2 diffuse:1 spread:1 simple:2 multinodular:2 toxic:1 refers:2 hyperthyroidism:2 commonly:1 due:1 graf:7 disease:14 cause:12 inflammation:1 nontoxic:1 associate:1 normal:2 low:2 level:3 type:3 lithium:1 certain:1 autoimmune:3 palpation:1 posture:1 head:1 cannot:1 see:3 find:2 palpate:1 ii:1 palpative:1 easily:1 iii:1 big:1 retrosternal:1 pressure:1 compression:1 mark:1 worldwide:1 common:4 iodine:15 deficiency:4 country:1 use:5 iodized:1 salt:3 hashimoto:1 thyroiditis:2 become:2 hypothyroid:2 inborn:1 error:1 hormone:7 synthesis:2 congenital:1 hypothyroidism:6 ingestion:1 goitrogen:1 cassava:1 side:1 effect:2 pharmacological:1 therapy:2 hyperthyroid:2 acute:1 chronic:1 cancer:2 occurrence:1 necessary:3 thyroxine:1 triiodothyronine:1 endemic:1 leave:1 unable:1 produce:4 make:2 fall:1 thyrotropin:2 release:1 trh:4 hypothalamus:1 prompt:1 pituitary:1 stimulate:2 tsh:6 production:3 grow:1 size:2 increase:3 cell:1 division:1 nodular:1 young:1 woman:3 among:1 include:1 many:2 problem:1 lack:1 treatment:7 may:9 small:1 relate:1 hyper:2 especially:2 grave:1 reverse:1 correct:1 antithyroid:1 drug:1 propylthiouracil:1 methimazole:1 thyroidectomy:3 surgical:1 removal:1 radioactive:1 isotope:1 absorb:1 destroy:2 raise:2 risk:2 usually:1 levothyroxine:5 treat:3 euthyroid:2 patient:7 suppressive:1 decrease:1 reduce:2 nodule:1 blood:1 test:1 need:1 ensure:1 still:2 range:1 subclinically:1 carefully:1 monitor:1 allege:1 osteoporosis:1 peer:1 review:1 study:1 replacement:1 actually:1 goitrous:1 respond:1 difficulty:1 breathing:1 swallowing:1 without:1 pre:1 injection:1 synthetic:1 relieve:1 obstruction:1 thirty:1 sixty:1 five:1 percent:1 depend:1 large:1 much:2 must:1 remove:1 require:1 life:1 long:1 symptoms:1 symptom:2 mainly:1 front:1 part:1 protrude:1 eye:1 history:3 chinese:2 physician:3 tang:1 dynasty:1 first:3 successfully:1 rich:2 animal:1 sheep:1 pig:1 raw:1 pill:1 powder:1 mixture:1 wine:1 form:1 temple:3 robert:5 genius:3 china:3 year:4 science:3 discovery:3 invention:3 forward:3 joseph:3 needham:3 new:6 york:6 simon:3 schuster:3 inc:3 isbn:3 page:4 outline:1 zhen:1 quan:1 ad:1 book:3 well:1 several:1 others:1 one:1 e:1 pharmacopoeia:1 heavenly:1 husbandman:1 assert:1 sargassum:1 century:3 bc:1 write:1 later:3 zayn:1 al:3 din:1 jurjani:2 persian:1 provide:1 description:1 note:1 association:2 exophthalmos:2 thesaurus:1 shah:1 khwarazm:1 major:1 medical:2 dictionary:1 time:4 naming:1 establish:1 palpitation:1 name:1 irish:1 doctor:3 jam:1 describe:1 case:3 german:1 karl:1 adolph:1 von:1 basedow:2 independently:1 report:2 constellation:1 early:1 publish:1 italian:1 giuseppe:2 flajani:1 antonio:1 testa:1 respectively:1 english:2 caleb:1 hillier:1 parry:1 friend:1 edward:2 jenner:1 late:1 paracelsus:2 person:1 propose:1 relationship:1 mineral:1 particularly:1 drinking:1 water:1 britannica:1 discover:1 bernard:1 courtois:1 seaweed:1 ash:1 previously:1 area:1 deficient:1 soil:1 example:1 midland:1 condition:2 know:2 derbyshire:1 united:1 state:1 great:1 lake:1 midwest:1 intermountain:1 region:1 practically:1 absent:1 affluent:1 nation:1 table:1 supplement:1 however:1 prevalent:1 india:1 world:2 q:1 secret:1 article:1 donald:1 g:2 mcneil:1 jr:1 december:1 central:2 asia:1 africa:1 famous:1 sufferer:1 gibbon:1 former:1 president:3 george:4 h:2 w:2 bush:6 wife:1 barbara:2 diagnose:1 within:1 two:1 cardiac:1 dysrhythmia:1 health:4 doctorzebra:1 com:2 august:1 retrieve:1 october:1 nndb:1 lahita:1 ina:1 yalof:1 mysterious:1 body:1 betray:1 lawrence:2 k:2 altman:2 say:2 good:1 september:1 scientist:1 odds:1 might:1 white:1 house:1 puzzle:1 immunity:1 ailment:1 andrea:2 true:2 accord:1 interview:1 vh:1 elle:1 jose:1 fadul:1 ovarii:1 kind:1 teratoma:1 david:1 marine:1 conduct:1 substantial:1 research:1 exophthalmic:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 national:1 service:1 uk:1 network:2 sustained:2 elimination:2 alternate:1 site:1 emory:1 university:1 school:1 public:1 photograph:1 huge:1 photobucket:1 doctorkhodadoust:1 net:1 |@bigram thyroid_gland:8 autoimmune_disease:2 iodine_deficiency:4 inborn_error:1 thyroid_hormone:3 acute_chronic:1 pituitary_gland:1 thyroid_stimulate:1 stimulate_hormone:1 surgical_removal:1 radioactive_isotope:1 peer_review:1 tang_dynasty:1 sheep_pig:1 joseph_needham:3 simon_schuster:3 edward_jenner:1 edward_gibbon:1 w_bush:2 external_link:1 |
4,056 | Wikipedia:Phase_II_feature_requests%2FWiki_shortcuts | This page is obsolete! It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software. Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community. See Wikipedia:Feature requests for current requests. Should this be called Wiki code? HTML comments in Wiki pages. I'd like to be able to add comments to a page for authors and editors that are permanent, not like discussions on a Talk page. Things like "Note the layout of this table; if you want to add an item, do it this way..." or "Someone included this example here, but I think it's better on this other page, so I moved it there", and so on. Why permanent? What would be the point of that? I mean "permanent" only in the sense of "saved with the rest of the text"--of course, it's just as editable as the rest of the text as well. Yes please! This is something that I've been wanting several times. --Pinkunicorn, User:Lee Daniel Crocker Anchors and internal links like#this. Anchors within a single page would be great, but inter-page anchors are probably not a good idea. One possible implementation could be: [#foo] ... [$foo], where the hash is the reference and the dollar is the target. I'd really like to have that on the Wikipedia FAQ page. Redirects to anchors would be wonderful! For example, there was disagreement on whether there should be a separate Anarchist page or whether it should redirect to Anarchism. Instead, we could redirect to Anarchism#Anarchists. The reader gets the proper information and full context, and the writers don't have to summarize Anarchism and Anarchist in each other for context. I second the request for anchors. Why not use the power of the medium some more, eh?--branko Ewww - do we have to use # for anchors? I would use it to begin lines for comments. InsertPagesIntoOtherPages Not likely to happen soon. Opens too many new issues for minimal gain. --CliffordAdams The KeheiWiki has an include functionality. If you ever wish to explore this let me know and I can give pointers. -- BryceHarrington I'm quite interested in having templates. -- TheCunctator Currently ISBNs appear in a page as: "ISBN 123456789X (Amazon, Pricescan)" and this is hard-coded into the wiki.pl script. The link to Barnes and Noble is not explicit in the displayed text. I'd like to see this changed as follows (not just for Wikipedia, but for vanilla UseMod as well): An ISBN link on a page simply appears as: "ISBN 123456789X", and links to an external script, for example: href=/cgi-bin/isbn.pl?123456789X The isbn.pl script could present a standard page that looks roughly like this, where the vendor name itself links to the book's page on the vendor site: Some standard copy here, blah blah .... Amazon - blah blah .... Barnes and Noble - blah blah .... Pricescan - blah blah ... With the ISBN code decoupled from the main script, it's easier for a site to implement their own policy regarding book linkages without messing with the vanilla wiki script. UseModWiki upgrades would no longer impact vendor selection. Unlike the current version, all links are explicit and there is room to explain why those vendors were chosen (or why some were left out), and room for a brief description of the vendor. --User:Hornlo Misspelling redirects. It's useful for searchers and browsers to have misspelled entries which just redirect to the correct spelling, but we want to discourage misspellings in the actual entries, which simply using #REDIRECT doesn't do. Thus the nomenclature: #MISSPELLING_OF [[Correct spelling]] would allow us to mark any pages which link to a misspelling, and correct them. See also talk:Page titles to be deleted Seconded! This would be a great feature to have. Common misspellings ought to be redirected to their correct entry, but I have severe doubts about whether it's a good idea to make redirects for them... ~KJ Mon 13 May 2002 See also : Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests | Wikipedia:Phase_II_feature_requests%2FWiki_shortcuts |@lemmatized page:15 obsolete:2 archive:1 old:1 feature:4 request:6 still:1 active:1 july:1 move:2 phase:3 ii:2 iii:1 software:1 many:2 implement:2 others:1 become:1 due:1 reject:1 community:1 see:4 wikipedia:4 current:2 call:1 wiki:4 code:2 html:1 comment:3 like:7 able:1 add:2 author:1 editor:1 permanent:3 discussion:1 talk:2 thing:1 note:1 layout:1 table:1 want:3 item:1 way:1 someone:1 include:2 example:3 think:1 well:3 would:7 point:1 mean:1 sense:1 save:1 rest:2 text:3 course:1 editable:1 yes:1 please:1 something:1 several:1 time:1 pinkunicorn:1 user:2 lee:1 daniel:1 crocker:1 anchor:6 internal:1 link:7 within:1 single:1 great:2 inter:1 probably:1 good:2 idea:2 one:1 possible:1 implementation:1 could:3 foo:2 hash:1 reference:1 dollar:1 target:1 really:1 faq:1 redirects:3 wonderful:1 disagreement:1 whether:3 separate:1 anarchist:3 redirect:5 anarchism:3 instead:1 reader:1 get:1 proper:1 information:1 full:1 context:2 writer:1 summarize:1 second:1 use:4 power:1 medium:1 eh:1 branko:1 ewww:1 begin:1 line:1 insertpagesintootherpages:1 likely:1 happen:1 soon:1 open:1 new:1 issue:1 minimal:1 gain:1 cliffordadams:1 keheiwiki:1 functionality:1 ever:1 wish:1 explore:1 let:1 know:1 give:1 pointer:1 bryceharrington:1 quite:1 interested:1 template:1 thecunctator:1 currently:1 isbns:1 appear:2 isbn:6 amazon:2 pricescan:2 hard:1 cod:1 pl:3 script:5 barnes:2 noble:2 explicit:2 displayed:1 change:1 follow:1 vanilla:2 usemod:1 simply:2 external:1 href:1 cgi:1 bin:1 present:1 standard:2 look:1 roughly:1 vendor:5 name:1 book:2 site:2 copy:1 blah:8 decouple:1 main:1 easy:1 policy:1 regard:1 linkage:1 without:1 mess:1 usemodwiki:1 upgrade:1 longer:1 impact:1 selection:1 unlike:1 version:1 room:2 explain:1 choose:1 leave:1 brief:1 description:1 hornlo:1 misspell:2 useful:1 searcher:1 browser:1 entry:3 correct:4 spelling:1 discourage:1 misspelling:3 actual:1 thus:1 nomenclature:1 spell:1 allow:1 u:1 mark:1 also:2 title:1 delete:1 seconded:1 common:1 ought:1 severe:1 doubt:1 make:1 kj:1 mon:1 may:1 |@bigram barnes_noble:2 cgi_bin:1 |
4,057 | Economy_of_Ghana | The economy of Ghana, West Africa has a diverse and rich resource base, and as such, has one of the highest GDP per capita in Africa. Ghana remains somewhat dependent on international financial and technical assistance as well as the activities of the extensive Ghanaian diaspora. Gold, timber, cocoa, diamond, bauxite, and manganese exports are major sources of foreign exchange. The World Factbook An oilfield which is reported to contain up to of light oil was discovered in 2007. Oil exploration is ongoing and, the amount of oil continues to increase . RIGZONE - Kosmos Makes Second Oil Discovery Offshore Ghana The domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 50% of GDP and employs 85% of the work force, mainly small landholders. On the negative side, public sector wage increases and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, depreciation of the Cedi, and rising public discontent with Ghana's austerity measures. Even so, Ghana remains one of the more economically sound countries in all of Africa. The country has since July, 2007, embarked on a currency re-denomination exercise, from Cedi (¢) to the new currency, the Ghana Cedi (GH¢). The transfer rate is 1 Ghana Cedi for every 10,000 Cedis. The Bank of Ghana has embarked upon an aggressive media campaign to educate the public about what re-denomination entails. The new Ghana Cedi is now exchanging at a rate of $1 USD =Gh¢ 0.93 Value Added Tax is a consumption tax administered in Ghana. The tax regime which started in 1998 had a single rate but since September 2007 entered into a multiple rate regime. In 1998, the rate of tax was 10% and amended in 2000 to 12.5%. Industries Agriculture The country is mainly agricultural,with a majority of its workers engaged in farming. Mining and petroleum Manufacturing Ghana's industrial base is relatively advanced compared to many other African countries. Import-substitution industries include textiles; steel (using scrap); tires; oil refining; flour milling; beverages; tobacco; simple consumer goods; and car, truck, and bus assembly. Services Tourism has become one of Ghana's largest foreign income earners (ranking third in 1997), and the Ghanaian Government has placed great emphasis upon further tourism support and development. The financial services in Ghana has seen a lot of reforms in the past years. Ghana through the Banking (Amendment) Act 2007 has include the awarding of General Banking license to qualified Banks and this allows Offshore Banks to operate in the country.Barclays Bank (Ghana) limited has become the first Bank in Ghana to be awarded the General banking license in the Country. It has therefore become possible for non-resident individuals and foreign companies to open offshore Bank Accounts in Ghana. Economic History Independence At independence, Ghana had a substantial physical and social infrastructure and $481 million in foreign reserves. The Nkrumah government further developed the infrastructure and made important public investments in the industrial sector. With assistance from the United States, the World Bank, and the United Kingdom, construction of the Akosombo Dam was completed on the Volta River in 1966. Two U.S. companies built Valco, Africa's largest aluminium smelter, to use power generated at the dam. Aluminium exports from Valco were a major source of foreign exchange for Ghana. Many Nkrumah-era investments were monumental public works projects which were assets for the country, agricultural and industrial schemes. With cocoa prices falling and the country's foreign exchange reserves fast disappearing, the government resorted to supplier credits to finance many projects. By the mid-1960s, Ghana's reserves were gone, and the country could not meet repayment schedules. To rationalize, the National Liberation Council abandoned unprofitable projects, and some inefficient state-owned enterprises were sold to private investors. On three occasions, Ghana's creditors agreed to reschedule repayments due on Nkrumah-era supplier credits. Led by the United States, foreign donors provided import loans to enable the foreign exchange-strapped government to import essential commodities. Acheampong government To restructure the economy, the NRC, under General Acheampong (1972-78), undertook an austerity program that emphasized self-reliance, particularly in food production. These plans were not realized, however, primarily because of post-1973 oil price increases and a drought in 1975-77 that particularly affected northern Ghana. The NRC, which had inherited foreign debts of almost $1 billion, abrogated existing rescheduling arrangements for some debts and rejected other repayments. After creditors objected to this unilateral action, a 1974 agreement rescheduled the medium-term debt on liberal terms. The NRC also imposed the Investment Policy Decree of 1975—effective on January 1977—that required 51% Ghanaian equity participation in most foreign firms, but the government took 40% in specified industries. Many shares were sold directly to the public. Akuffo government Continued mismanagement of the economy, record inflation (more than 100% in 1977), and increasing corruption, notably at the highest political levels, led to growing dissatisfaction. The post-July 1978 military regime led by General Fred Akuffo attempted to deal with Ghana's economic problems by making small changes in the overvalued cedi and by restraining government spending and monetary growth. Under a one-year standby agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in January 1979, the government promised to undertake economic reforms, including a reduction of the budget deficit, in return for a $68 million IMF support program and $27 million in IMF Trust Fund loans. The agreement became inoperative, however, after the 4 June coup that brought Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings and the AFRC to power for 4 months. Limann government In September 1979, the civilian government of Hilla Limann inherited declining per capita income; stagnant industrial and agricultural production due to inadequate imported supplies; shortages of imported and locally produced goods; a sizable budget deficit (almost 40% of expenditures in 1979); high inflation, "moderating" to 54% in 1979; an increasingly overvalued cedi; flourishing smuggling and other black-market activities; unemployment and underemployment, particularly among urban youth; deterioration in the transport network; and continued foreign exchange constraints. Limann's PNP government announced yet another (2-year) reconstruction program, emphasizing increased food production and productivity, exports, and transport improvements. Import austerity was imposed and external payments arrears cut. However, declining cocoa production combined with falling cocoa prices, while oil prices soared. No effective measures were taken to reduce rampant corruption and black marketing. While it was waiting for realisations from its 2 year plan, the Limann government was interrupted by a Coup staged by Flt. Lt. Jeremiah John Rawlings. Rawlings government When Rawlings again seized power at the end of 1981, cocoa output had fallen to half the 1970-71 level and its world price to one-third the 1975 level. By 1982, oil would constitute half of Ghana's imports, while overall trade contracted greatly. Internal transport had slowed to a crawl, and inflation remained high. During Rawlings' first year, the economy was stagnant. Industry ran at about 10% of capacity due to the chronic shortage of foreign exchange to cover the importation of required raw materials and replacement parts. Economic conditions deteriorated further in early 1983 when Nigeria expelled an estimated 1 million Ghanaians who had to be absorbed by Ghana. In April 1983, in coordination with the IMF, the PNDC launched an economic recovery program, perhaps the most stringent and consistent of its day in Africa, aimed at reopening infrastructural bottlenecks and reviving moribund productive sectors—agriculture, mining, and timber. The largely distorted exchange rate and prices were realigned to encourage production and exports. Increased fiscal and monetary discipline was imposed to curb inflation and to focus on priorities. Through November 1987, the cedi was devalued by more than 6,300%, and widespread direct price controls were substantially reduced. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Ghana at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Ghanaian Cedis. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar exchange 1980 43,229 2.74 Cedis 1985 361,370 54.36 Cedis 1990 2,158,213 326.30 Cedis 1995 7,751,700 1,200.51 Cedis 2000 27,152,500 5,455.59 Cedis 2005 97,017,315 9,072.12 Cedis Returning refugees The economy's response to these reforms was initially hampered by the absorption of one million returnees from Nigeria, the onset of the worst drought since independence, which brought on widespread bushfires and forced closure of the aluminium smelter and severe power cuts for industry and decline in foreign aid. In 1985, the country absorbed an additional 100,000 expellees from Nigeria. In 1987, cocoa prices began declining again; however, initial infrastructure repairs, improved weather, and producer incentives and support revived output in the early 1990s. During 1984-88 the economy experienced solid growth for the first time since 1978. Renewed exports, aid inflows, and a foreign exchange auction have eased hard currency constraints. IMF support Since an initial August 1983 IMF standby agreement, the economic recovery program has been supported by three IMF standbys and two other credits totaling $611 million, $1.1 billion from the World Bank, and hundreds of millions of dollars more from other donors. In November 1987, the IMF approved a $318-million, 3-year extended fund facility. The second phase (1987-90) of the recovery program concentrated on economic restructuring and revitalizing social services. The third phase, focused on financial transparency and macroeconomic stability is scheduled for March 1998. Ghana intends to achieve its goals of accelerated economic growth, improved quality of life for all Ghanaians, and reduced poverty through macroeconomic stability, higher private investment, broad-based social and rural development, as well as direct poverty-alleviation efforts. These plans are fully supported by the international donor community and have been forcefully reiterated in the 1995 government report, Ghana: Vision 2020. Privatization of state-owned enterprises continues, with about two-thirds of 300 parastatal enterprises sold to private owners. Other reforms adopted under the government's structural adjustment program include the elimination of exchange rate controls and the lifting of virtually all restrictions on imports. The establishment of an interbank foreign exchange market has greatly expanded access to foreign exchange. The medium-term macroeconomic forecast assumes political stability, successful economic stabilization, and the implementation of a policy agenda for private sector growth, and adequate public spending on social services and rural infrastructure. The ninth Consultative Group Meeting for Ghana ended 5 November 1997 after deliberations in Paris. Twenty-four countries and donor entities were represented at this meeting called by the World Bank on behalf of the Ghanaian Government. The World Bank announced that, of the targeted disbursement level of $1.6 billion sought from the donor community for 1998-99, they foresaw only a $150 million shortfall in commitments, and that this shortfall would be easily realized should Ghana rapidly enact its macroeconomic program. The government repealed a 17.% value-added tax (VAT) shortly after its introduction in 1995, which resulted in widespread public protests. The government reverted to several previously imposed taxes, including a sales tax. The government has set in motion a program to reintroduce a VAT bill, with implementation in 1998 after an extensive public education campaign. Statistics GDP - official exchange rate $10.21 billion (2006 est.) GDP - purchasing power parity $60 billion (2006 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 6.2% (2006 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,700 (2006 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 37.3% industry: 25.3% services: 37.5% (2006 est.) Investment (gross fixed): 29% of GDP (2006 est.) Population below poverty line: 31.4% (1992 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.2% highest 10%: 30.1% (1999) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 30 (1999) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 10.9% (2006 est.) Labor force: 10.87 million (2006 est.) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 60%, industry 15%, services 25% (1999 est.) Unemployment rate: 20% (1997 est.) Budget: revenues: $3.616 billion expenditures: $3.947 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2006 est.) Agriculture - products: cocoa, rice, coffee, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, corn, shea nuts, bananas; timber Industries: mining, lumber, light manufacturing, aluminium smelting, food processing Industrial production growth rate: 3.8% (2000 est.) Electricity - production: 6.489 billion kWh (2004) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 0.1% hydro: 99.9% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 7.095 billion kWh (2004) Electricity - exports: 900 million kWh (2004) Electricity - imports: 1.96 billion kWh (2004) Oil - production: 7,477 barrel/day (2004 est.) Oil - consumption: 44,000 barrel/day (2004 est.) Oil - exports: NA (2001) Oil - imports: NA (2001) Oil - proved reserves: 8.255 million barrel (1 January 2002) Natural gas - proved reserves: 23.79 billion m³ (1 January 2005) Current account balance: -$219 million (2006 est.) Exports: $3.286 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.) Exports - commodities: gold, cocoa, timber, tuna, bauxite, aluminium, manganese ore, diamonds Exports - partners: Netherlands 12.5%, United Kingdom 8.3%, United States 6.7%, Belgium 5.8%, France 5.6%, Germany 4.4%, (2005) Imports: $5.666 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.) Imports - commodities: capital equipment, petroleum, foodstuffs Imports - partners: Nigeria 15.2%, the People's Republic of China 12.5%, United States 6.3%, United Kingdom 5.23%,South Africa 4.5%, Brazil 4.1%, Netherlands 4.0% (2005) Reserves of foreign exchange & gold: $2.098 billion (2006 est.) Debt - external: $2.7 billion (April 30, 2007) Economic aid - recipient: $6.9 billion (1999) Currency: cedi (GHS) Exchange rates: cedis per US dollar - 0.9215 (July 2007), 9,174.8 (2006), 9,072.5 (2005), 9,004.6 (2004, 8,677.4 (2003), 7,932.7 (2002), 7,170.76 (2001), 5,455.06 (2000), 2,669.3 (1999) Fiscal year: calendar year References | Economy_of_Ghana |@lemmatized economy:7 ghana:30 west:1 africa:6 diverse:1 rich:1 resource:1 base:3 one:6 high:6 gdp:8 per:4 caput:2 remain:3 somewhat:1 dependent:1 international:4 financial:3 technical:1 assistance:2 well:2 activity:2 extensive:2 ghanaian:5 diaspora:1 gold:3 timber:4 cocoa:8 diamond:1 bauxite:2 manganese:2 export:10 major:2 source:3 foreign:17 exchange:16 world:6 factbook:1 oilfield:1 report:2 contain:1 light:2 oil:13 discover:1 exploration:1 ongoing:1 amount:1 continue:6 increase:6 rigzone:1 kosmos:1 make:3 second:2 discovery:1 offshore:3 domestic:3 revolve:1 around:1 subsistence:1 agriculture:6 account:3 employ:1 work:2 force:3 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4,058 | Habeas_corpus | Habeas corpus () (Latin: You (shall) have the body ) is a legal action, or writ, through which a person can seek relief from the unlawful detention of him or herself, or of another person. It protects the individual from harming him or herself, or from being harmed by the judicial system. The writ of habeas corpus has historically been an important instrument for the safeguarding of individual freedom against arbitrary state action. Of English origin, it is also known as "The Great Writ," a writ of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum is a summons with the force of a court order addressed to the custodian (such as a prison official) demanding that a prisoner be brought before the court, together with proof of authority, allowing the court to determine whether that custodian has lawful authority to hold that person; if not, the person shall be released from custody forthwith. The prisoner, or another person on her behalf (for example, where the prisoner is being held incommunicado), may petition the court or an individual judge for a writ of habeas corpus. The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus has long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject. The British jurist Albert Venn Dicey wrote that the Habeas Corpus Acts "declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty." In most countries, however, the procedure of habeas corpus can be suspended in time of national emergency. In most civil law jurisdictions, comparable provisions exist, but they may not be called "habeas corpus." Google books scan of book Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution By Albert Venn Dicey The reach of habeas corpus is currently being tested in the United States. Oral arguments on a consolidated Guantanamo Bay detention camp detainee habeas corpus petition, Al Odah v. United States were heard by the Supreme Court of the United States on December 5, 2007. On June 12, 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Boumediene v. Bush recognized habeas corpus rights for the Guantanamo prisoners. On October 7, 2008, the first Guantanamo prisoners were ordered released by a court considering a habeas corpus petition. http://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/Guantanamo-10072008123140.html The writ of habeas corpus is one of what are called the "extraordinary," "common law," or "prerogative writs," which were historically issued by the courts in the name of the monarch to control inferior courts and public authorities within the kingdom. The most common of the other such prerogative writs are quo warranto, prohibito, mandamus, procedendo, and certiorari. When the original 13 American Colonies declared independence and became a constitutional republic in which the people are the sovereign, any person, in the name of the people, acquired authority to initiate such writs. The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, because they incorporate the presumption of nonauthority. The official who is the respondent has the burden to prove his authority to do or not do something. Failing this, the court must decide for the petitioner, who may be any person, not just an interested party. This differs from a motion in a civil process in which the movant must have standing, and bears the burden of proof. Derivation and form The right of habeas corpus is referred to in full in legal texts as habeas corpus ad subjiciendum or more rarely ad subjiciendum et recipiendum. The name derives from the operative words of the writ in Medieval Latin: {{cquote|Praecipimus tibi quod corpus A.B. in prisona nostra sub custodia tua detentum, ut dicitur, una cum die et causa captionis et detentionis suae, quocumque nomine praedictus A.B. censeatur in eadem, habeas coram nobis ... ad subjiciendum et recipiendum ea quae curia nostra de eo adtunc et ibidem ordinare contigerit in hac parte. Et hoc nullatenus omittatis periculo incumbente. Et habeas ibi hoc breve.' We command you, that the body of A.B. in Our prison under your custody detained, as it is said, together with the day and cause of his taking and detention, by whatsoever name the said A.B. may be known therein, you have at our Court ... to undergo and to receive that which our Court shall then and there consider and order in that behalf. Hereof in no way fail, at your peril. And have you then there this writ.}} The word habeas in the writ is not in the indicative mood ("You have ..."), but in the subjunctive (specifically the volitive subjunctive): "We command that you have ...". The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs: Habeas corpus ad deliberandum et recipiendum, a writ for bringing an accused from a different county into a court in the place where a crime had been committed for purposes of trial, or more literally to return holding the body for purposes of “deliberation and receipt” of a decision; Habeas corpus ad faciendum et recipiendum, also called habeas corpus cum causa, a writ of a superior court to a custodian to return with the body being held by the order of a lower court "with reasons", for the purpose of “receiving” the decision of the superior court and of “doing” what it ordered; Habeas corpus ad prosequendum, a writ ordering return with a prisoner for the purpose of “prosecuting” him before the court; Habeas corpus ad respondendum, a writ ordering return to allow the prisoner to “answer” to new proceedings before the court; Habeas corpus ad satisfaciendum, a writ ordering return with the body of a prisoner for “satisfaction” or execution of a judgment of the issuing court; and Habeas corpus ad testificandum, a writ ordering return with the body of a prisoner for the purposes of “testifying”. That the basic form of the writs of habeas corpus, now written in English, has changed little over the centuries can be seen from the following examples: History of habeas corpus in England Blackstone cites the first recorded usage of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum in 1305, during the reign of King Edward I. However, other writs were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of Henry II in the 12th century. Blackstone explained the basis of the writ, saying: The procedure for the issuing of writs of habeas corpus was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, following judicial rulings which had restricted the effectiveness of the writ. A previous act had been passed in 1640 to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of habeas corpus. Then, as now, the writ of habeas corpus was issued by a superior court in the name of the Sovereign, and commanded the addressee (a lower court, sheriff, or private subject) to produce the prisoner before the Royal courts of law. A habeas corpus petition could be made by the prisoner himself or by a third party on his behalf and, as a result of the Habeas Corpus Acts, could be made regardless of whether the court was in session, by presenting the petition to a judge. Since the 18th century the writ has also been used in cases of unlawful detention by private individuals, most famously in Somersett's Case (1771), where the black slave Somersett was ordered to be freed, the famous words being quoted (or misquoted, see Somersett's Case): The privilege of habeas corpus has been suspended or restricted several times during English history, most recently during the 18th and 19th centuries. Although internment without trial has been authorised by statute since that time, for example during the two World Wars and the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the procedure of habeas corpus has in modern times always technically remained available to such internees. However, as habeas corpus is only a procedural device to examine the lawfulness of a prisoner's detention, so long as the detention was in accordance with an Act of Parliament, the petition for habeas corpus would be unsuccessful. Since the passage of the Human Rights Act 1998, the courts have been able to declare an Act of Parliament to be incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights. However, such a declaration of incompatibility has no immediate legal effect until it is acted upon by the government. The wording of the writ of habeas corpus implies that the prisoner is brought to the court for the legality of the imprisonment to be examined. However, rather than issuing the writ immediately and waiting for the return of the writ by the custodian, modern practice in England is for the original application to be followed by a hearing with both parties present to decide the legality of the detention, without any writ being issued. If the detention is held to be unlawful, the prisoner can usually then be released or bailed by order of the court without having to be produced before it. It is also possible for individuals held by the state to petition for judicial review, and individuals held by non-state entities to apply for an injunction. Scotland's approach The Parliament of Scotland passed law to have similar effect to Habeas Corpus in 1701, the Act for preventing wrongful imprisonment and against undue delays in trials, now known as the Criminal Procedure Act 1701 c.6 (being the short title given by Statute Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1964). This Act is still in force although certain parts have been repealed. Australia The writ of habeas corpus as a procedural remedy is part of Australia's English law inheritance. Clark, David and Gerard McCoy (1998), "Habeas Corpus" (Federation Press) In 2005, the Australian parliament passed the Australian Anti-Terrorism Act 2005. Some legal experts questioned the constitutionality of the act, due in part to limitations it placed on habeas corpus. Submission to the Australian Senate Canada Habeas corpus rights are part of the British Common Law tradition inherited by Canada. They existed in case law before they were were enshrined in the Constitution Act 1982, via Section Ten of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms: Everyone has the right to on arrest or detention... c) to have the validity of the detention determined by way of habeas corpus and to be released if the detention is not lawful. Suspension of the writ in Canadian history occurred famously during the October Crisis, during which the War Measures Act was invoked by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau at the request of the Quebec and Montreal governments. The Act was also used to justify German, Slavic, and Ukrainian Canadian internment during the First World War, and Japanese Canadian internment during the Second World War. Both internments were eventually recognized by acts of parliament as historical wrongs. Ireland In Ireland the principle of habeas corpus is guaranteed by Article 40, Section 4 of the Irish constitution. This guarantees "personal liberty" to each individual and outlines a detailed habeas corpus procedure, without actually mentioning the Latin term. However it also provides that habeas corpus is not binding on the Defence Forces during a state of war or armed rebellion. The state inherited habeas corpus as part of the common law when it seceded from the United Kingdom in 1922, but the principle was also guaranteed by Article 6 of the Constitution of the Irish Free State in force from 1922 to 1937. A similar provision was included when the current constitution was adopted in 1937. Since that date habeas corpus has been restricted by two constitutional amendments, the Second Amendment in 1941 and the Sixteenth Amendment in 1996. Before the Second Amendment, an individual detained had the constitutional right to apply to any High Court judge for a writ of habeas corpus and to as many High Court judges as they wished. Since the Second Amendment, a prisoner has a right to apply to only one judge, and, once a writ has been issued, the President of the High Court has authority to choose the judge or panel of three judges who will decide the case. The amendment also added a requirement that when the High Court believed someone's detention to be invalid due to the unconstitutionality of a law, it must refer the matter to the Irish Supreme Court and may release the individual on bail only in the interim. In 1965, the Supreme Court ruled in the O'Callaghan case that the provisions of the constitution meant that an individual charged with a crime could be refused bail only if they were likely to flee or to interfere with witnesses or evidence. Since the Sixteenth Amendment, it has been possible for a court to take into account whether a person has committed serious crimes while on bail in the past. India The Indian judiciary in a catena of cases has effectively resorted to the writ of habeas corpus only to secure release of a person from illegal detention. The Indian judiciary has dispensed with the traditional doctrine of locus standi. If a detained person is not in a position to file a petition, it can be moved on his behalf by any other person. The scope of habeas relief has expanded in recent times by actions of the Indian judiciary. Writ Of Habeas Corpus For Securing Liberty - Author - Puneet Vyas The habeas writ was used in the Rajan criminal case. Malaysia In Malaysia, the right of habeas corpus, short of the name, is enshrined in the Federal Constitution. Article 5(2) provides that "Where complaint is made to a High Court or any judge thereof that a person is being unlawfully detained the court shall inquire into the complaint and, unless satisfied that the detention is lawful, shall order him to be produced before the court and release him." As there are several statutes, for example, the Internal Security Act 1960, that still permit detention without trial, the procedure is usually effective in such cases only if it can be shown that there was a procedural error in the way that the detention was ordered. New Zealand While habeas corpus is generally used on the government, it can also be used on individuals. In 2006, a child was allegedly kidnapped by his mother's father after a custody dispute. The father filed habeas corpus against the mother, the grandfather, the grandmother, the great grandmother, and another person alleged to have assisted in the kidnap of the child. The mother did not present the child to the court and was imprisoned for contempt of court. New Zealand Herald newspaper She was released when the child's grandfather came forward with him in late January 2007. Philippines In the Bill of Rights in the Filipino Constitution, habeas corpus is listed near-identically to the U.S. Constitution in Article 3, Section 15: "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in cases of invasion or rebellion when the public safety requires it." In 1971, The Marcos Administration lifted the writ of Habeas Corpus, in an attempt to curb insurgency, and as a prelude to Martial Law. Poland An act similar to Habeas corpus was adopted in Poland as early as in 1430. Neminem captivabimus, short for , (Latin, "We shall not arrest anyone without a court verdict") was one of the basic rights in Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, stating that the king can neither punish nor imprison any member of the szlachta without a viable court verdict. Its purpose is to release someone who has been arrested unlawfully. Neminem captivabimus has nothing to do with whether the prisoner is guilty, only with whether due process has been observed. Portugal The Constitution of Portugal states that Habeas corpus shall be available to counter the misuse of power in the form of illegal arrest, imprisonment or detention. According to the Portuguese Penal Process Code, the application for it shall be made to the judge conducting the preliminary investigations or to the Portuguese Supreme Court of Justice. The reasons that may justify an habeas corpus are: exceeded the period to deliver the detainee to judicial power; exceeded the detention period stated by law or judicial decision; detention outside the legally allowed places; detention ordered by an incompetent authority; and detention motivated for fact for which the law does not allow detention. Spain In 1526 the Fuero Nuevo of Señorío de Vizcaya establishes the hábeas corpus in its territory. The present Spanish Constitution states that A habeas corpus procedure shall be provided for by law to ensure the immediate handing over to the judicial authorities of any person illegally arrested. The law which regulates the procedure is the Law of Habeas Corpus of 24 May 1984 which provides that a person imprisoned may, on his own or through a third person, allege his Habeas Corpus right and request to appear before a judge. The request must specify the grounds on which the detention is considered to be unlawful which can be, for example, that the imprisoner does not have the legal authority, or that the prisoner's constitutional rights were violated or that he was subject to mistreatment, etc. The judge may then request additional information if needed and may issue an Habeas Corpus order at which point the holding authority has 24 hours to bring the prisoner before the judge. United States The United States Constitution specifically included the English common law procedure in the Suspension Clause, located in Article One, Section 9. It states: The writ of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum is a civil, not criminal, ex parte proceeding in which a court inquires as to the legitimacy of a prisoner's custody. Typically, habeas corpus proceedings are to determine whether the court which imposed sentence on the defendant had jurisdiction and authority to do so, or whether the defendant's sentence has expired. Habeas corpus is also used as a legal avenue to challenge other types of custody such as pretrial detention or detention by the United States Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement pursuant to a deportation proceeding. Scope The writ of Habeas Corpus was originally understood to apply only to those held in custody by officials of the Executive Branch of the federal government and not to those held by state governments, which independently afford habeas corpus pursuant to their respective constitutions and laws. The United States Congress granted all federal courts jurisdiction under to issue writs of habeas corpus to release prisoners held by any government entity within the country from custody in the following circumstances: Is in custody under or by color of the authority of the United States or is committed for trial before some court thereof; or Is in custody for an act done or omitted in pursuance of an Act of Congress, or an order, process, judgment or decree of a court or judge of the United States; or Is in custody in violation of the Constitution or laws or treaties of the United States; or Being a citizen of a foreign state and domiciled therein is in custody for an act done or omitted under any alleged right, title, authority, privilege, protection, or exemption claimed under the commission, order or sanction of any foreign state, or under color thereof, the validity and effect of which depend upon the law of nations; or It is necessary to bring said persons into court to testify or for trial. In the 1950s and 1960s, decisions by the Warren Supreme Court greatly expanded the use and scope of the federal writ, and the most publicized use of the writ of Habeas corpus in modern times has been to allow federal courts to review death penalty proceedings; however, far more non-capital habeas petitions are reviewed by the federal courts. In the last thirty years, decisions by the Burger and Rehnquist Courts have somewhat narrowed the writ, though the number of habeas petitions filed has continued to rise. The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 further limited the use of the federal writ by imposing a one-year statute of limitations and dramatically increasing the federal judiciary's deference to decisions previously made in state court proceedings either on direct appeal from the conviction and sentence, or in a state court habeas corpus action and the associated second round of state appeal (both of which, in the usual case, occur before a federal habeas petition is filed). Suspension during the Civil War and Reconstruction On April 27, 1861, President Abraham Lincoln suspended habeas corpus in Maryland and parts of Midwestern states. In the early 1870s, President Ulysses S. Grant suspended habeas corpus in nine counties in South Carolina, as part of federal civil rights action against the Ku Klux Klan under the 1870 Force Act and 1871 Ku Klux Klan Act. Suspension during World War II and its aftermath In 1942, the Supreme Court ruled in Ex parte Quirin that unlawful combatant saboteurs could be denied habeas corpus and tried by military commission, making a distinction between lawful and unlawful combatants. The writ was suspended in Hawaii during World War II, pursuant to a section of the Hawaiian Organic Act, when martial law was declared in Hawaii in the aftermath of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The period of martial law in Hawaii ended in October 1944, and the Organic Act's authorization of martial law was ruled not to include the power to close civilian courts in Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304 (1946). The 1950 case Johnson v. Eisentrager denied access to habeas corpus for nonresident aliens captured and imprisoned abroad in a US-administered foreign court. Domestic terrorism and AEDPA In 1996, following the Oklahoma City bombing, Congress passed (91-8-1 in the Senate, 293-133-7 in the House) and President Clinton signed into law the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA). The AEDPA was to "deter terrorism, provide justice for victims, provide for an effective death penalty, and for other purposes." The AEDPA contained one of the few limitations on habeas corpus. For the first time, its Section 101 set a statute of limitations of one year following conviction for prisoners to seek the writ. It limits the power of federal judges to grant relief unless the state court's adjudication of the claim resulted in a decision that was (1) contrary to, or involved an unreasonable application of clearly established federal law as determined by the Supreme Court of the United States; or (2) resulted in a decision that was based on an unreasonable determination of the facts in light of the evidence presented in the state court proceeding. It generally but not absolutely barred second or successive petitions, with several exceptions. Petitioners who had already filed a federal habeas petition were required first to secure authorization from the appropriate United States Court of Appeals, to ensure that such an exception was at least facially made out. War on Terror The November 13, 2001, Presidential Military Order gave the President of the United States the power to detain suspects, suspected of connection to terrorists or terrorism as an unlawful combatant. As such, it was asserted that a person could be held indefinitely without charges being filed against him or her, without a court hearing, and without entitlement to a legal consultant. Many legal and constitutional scholars contended that these provisions were in direct opposition to habeas corpus and the United States Bill of Rights. In Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507 (2004), the Supreme Court reaffirmed the right of United States citizens to seek writs of habeas corpus even when declared enemy combatants. In Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006), Salim Ahmed Hamdan petitioned for a writ of habeas corpus, challenging that the military commissions set up by the Bush administration to try detainees at Guantánamo Bay “violate both the Uniform Code of Military Justice and the four Geneva Conventions.” In a 5-3 ruling, the Supreme Court rejected Congress's attempts to strip the courts of jurisdiction over habeas corpus appeals by detainees at Guantánamo Bay. Congress had previously passed the Department of Defense Appropriations Act of 2006 which stated in Section 1005(e), “Procedures for Status Review of Detainees Outside the United States”: “(1) Except as provided in section 1005 of the Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, no court, justice, or judge shall have jurisdiction to hear or consider an application for a writ of habeas corpus filed by or on behalf of an alien detained by the Department of Defense at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. “(2) The jurisdiction of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit on any claims with respect to an alien under this paragraph shall be limited to the consideration of whether the status determination … was consistent with the standards and procedures specified by the Secretary of Defense for Combatant Status Review Tribunals (including the requirement that the conclusion of the Tribunal be supported by a preponderance of the evidence and allowing a rebuttable presumption in favor of the Government's evidence), and to the extent the Constitution and laws of the United States are applicable, whether the use of such standards and procedures to make the determination is consistent with the Constitution and laws of the United States.” On 29 September, 2006, the House and Senate approved the Military Commissions Act of 2006 (MCA), a bill that would remove habeas corpus for any person determined to be an “unlawful enemy combatant" engaged in hostilities or having supported hostilities against the United States” Search Results - THOMAS (Library of Congress) by a vote of 65–34. (This was the result on the bill to approve the military trials for detainees; an amendment to remove the unavailability of habeas corpus failed 48–51. Search Results - THOMAS (Library of Congress) ) President Bush signed the Military Commissions Act of 2006 into law on October 17, 2006. The declaration of a person as an "unlawful enemy combatant" is at the discretion of the US executive branch of the administration, and there is no right of appeal, with the result that this potentially eliminates habeas corpus for any non-citizen. With the MCA's passage, the law altered the language from “alien detained … at Guantánamo Bay”: “Except as provided in section 1005 of the Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, no court, justice, or judge shall have jurisdiction to hear or consider an application for a writ of habeas corpus filed by or on behalf of an alien detained by the United States who has been determined by the United States to have been properly detained as an enemy combatant or is awaiting such determination.” §1005(e)(1), 119 Stat. 2742. On 20 February, 2007, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit upheld this provision of the MCA in a 2-1 decision of the Case Boumediene v. Bush. The Supreme Court let the Circuit Court's decision stand by refusing to hear the detainees' appeal. On June 29, 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed its April 2007 decision and agreed to hear the appeals of Guantanamo detainees who are seeking habeas corpus review of their detentions. Under the MCA, the law restricts habeas appeals for only those aliens detained as "enemy combatants," or awaiting such determination. Left unchanged is the provision that, after such determination is made, it is subject to appeal in U.S. Court, including a review of whether the evidence warrants the determination. If the status is upheld, then their imprisonment is deemed lawful. There is, however, no legal time limit which would force the government to provide a Combatant Status Review Tribunal (CSRT) hearing. Prisoners are legally prohibited from petitioning any court for any reason before a CSRT hearing takes place. On January 17, 2007, Attorney General Gonzales asserted in Senate testimony that while habeas corpus is "one of our most cherished rights," the United States Constitution does not expressly guarantee habeas rights to United States residents or citizens. As such, the law could be extended to U.S. citizens and held if left unchecked. As Robert Parry writes in the Baltimore Chronicle & Sentinel: To date, there has been at least one confirmed case in which non-American civilians have been incorrectly classified as enemy combatants. On June 7, 2007, the Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007 was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee with an 11-8 vote split along party lines, with all but one Republican voting against it. Although the Act would restore statutory habeas corpus to enemy combatants, it would not overturn the provisions of the AEDPA which set a statute of limitations on habeas corpus claims from ordinary civilian federal and state prisoners. On June 11, 2007, a federal appeals court ruled that Ali Saleh Kahlah al-Marri, a legal resident of the United States, could not be detained indefinitely without charge. In a two-to-one ruling by the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals, the Court held the President of the United States lacks legal authority to detain al-Marri without charge; all three judges ruled that al-Marri is entitled to traditional habeas corpus protections which give him the right to challenge his detainment in a U.S. Court. On June 12, 2008, the United States Supreme Court ruled 5-4 in Boumediene v. Bush that terror suspects detained by the United States in Guantanamo Bay detainment camp have the right to seek a writ of habeas corpus in US Federal Court. In July 2008, the Richmond-based 4th Circuit Court rules: "if properly designated an enemy combatant pursuant to the legal authority of the President, such persons may be detained without charge or criminal proceedings for the duration of the relevant hosilities." On October 7, 2008, US District Court judge Ricardo M. Urbina ruled that 17 Uyghurs, Muslims from China's northwestern Xinjiang region, must be brought to appear in his court in Washington, DC, three days later: "Because the Constitution prohibits indefinite detentions without cause, the continued detention is unlawful." http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia-35845620081008?sp=true On January 21, 2009, US President Barack Obama issued an executive order regarding the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base and the individuals held there. This order asserted that "[they] have the constitutional privilege of the writ of habeas corpus". http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ClosureOfGuantanamoDetentionFacilities/ Differences in post-trial actions Habeas Corpus is an action often taken after sentencing by a defendant who seeks relief for some perceived error in his criminal trial. There are a number of such post-trial actions and proceedings, their differences being potentially confusing, thus bearing some explanation. Some of the of the most common are an appeal to which the defendant has as a right, a writ of certiorari, a writ coram nobis and a writ of habeas corpus. An appeal to which the defendant has a right cannot be abridged by the court which is, by designation of its jurisdiction, obligated to hear the appeal. In such an appeal, the appellant feels that some error has been made in his trial, necessitating an appeal. A matter of importance is the basis on which such an appeal might be filed: generally appeals as a matter of right may only address issues which were originally raised in trial (as evidenced by documentation in the official record). Any issue not raised in the original trial may not be considered on appeal and will be considered estoppel. A convenient test for whether a petition is likely to succeed on the grounds of error is confirming that (1) a mistake was indeed made (2) an objection to that mistake was presented by counsel and (3) that mistake negatively affected the defendant’s trial. A writ of certiorari, otherwise known simply as cert, is an order by a higher court directing a lower court to send record of a case for review, and is the next logical step in post-trial procedure. While states may have similar processes, a writ of cert is usually only issued, in the United States, by the Supreme Court, although some states retain this procedure. Unlike the aforementioned appeal, a writ of cert is not a matter of right. A writ of cert will have to be petitioned for, the higher court issuing such writs on limited bases according to constraints such as time. In another sense, a writ of cert is like an appeal in its constraints; it too may only seek relief on grounds raised in the original trial. A petition for a writ coram nobis, is a post-judgment attack on the outcome of the case. It is made to the trial court and claims that there are errors requiring the court to set aside the verdict and/or the sentence. Use of the writ coram nobis varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. However, in most jurisdictions it is limited to situations where a direct appeal was not previously possible--usually because the issue was simply unknown at the time of appeal (that is, a "latent" issue) or because the issue otherwise could not be raised on appeal because of procedural barriers. A common basis for coram nobis petitions is the claim of ineffective assistance of counsel where the alleged ineffectiveness is not shown on the record of the court. In such cases, direct appeal is usually impossible because the critical events are not visible on the record where the appellate court can see them. Thus, a prompt coram nobis petition might be an important vehicle for a defendant to use. A writ of habeas corpus is often the last opportunity for the defendant to find relief against his guilty conviction. Habeas corpus may be pursued if a defendant is unsatisfied with the outcome of his appeal and has been refused (or did not pursue) a writ of cert, at which point he may petition one of several courts for a writ of habeas corpus. Again, these are granted at the discretion of the court and require a petition. Like appeals or writs of cert, a writ of habeas corpus may overturn a defendant's guilty conviction by finding some error in the original trial. The major difference is that writs of habeas corpus may, and often, focus on issues that lay outside the original premises of the trial, i.e., issues that could not be raised by appeal or writs of cert. These often fall in two logical categories: (1) that the trial lawyer was ineffectual or incompetent or (2) that some constitutional right has been violated. As one moves farther down the chain of post-trial actions, relief becomes progressively more unlikely. Knowing the differences between these actions and their intended use are an important tool in increasing one's chances for a favorable outcome. Use of a lawyer is therefore often considered advisable to aid one attempting to traverse the complex post-trial landscape. Notes and references Further reading on historical background and other topics Asha Bandele "Habeas Corpus is a legal Entitlement", a poem in Absence in the Palms of My Hands & Other Poems. New York: Harlem River Press. 1996. A.H. Carpenter. "Habeas Corpus in the Colonies." The American Historical Review. Vol. 8., No. 1 (October 1902), pages 18–27. Louis Fisher. 2003. Nazi Saboteurs on Trial: A Military Tribunal and American Law. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1238-6. Michael Dobbs. 2004. Saboteurs: The Nazi Raid on America. Vintage. ISBN 1-4000-3042-0. Peter Irons. 1999. A People's History of the Supreme Court. Viking. ISBN 0-670-87006-4. Political context for Ex Parte Milligan explained on Pp. 186–189. Helen A. Nutting. "The Most Wholesome Law--The Habeas Corpus Act of 1679." The American Historical Review. Vol. 65., No. 3 (April 1960), pages 527-543. Geoffrey R. Stone. 2004. Perilous Times, Free Speech in Wartime From the Sedition Act to the War on Terrorism. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05880-8. Cary Federman. 2006. The Body and the State: Habeas Corpus and American Jurisprudence''. SUNY. ISBN 0-7914-6703-1. Eric M. Freedman. 2001. Habeas Corpus: Rethinking the Great Writ of Liberty (NYU Press) ISBN 0-8147-2717-4 Donald E. Wilkes, Jr., The Georgia Death Penalty Habeas Corpus Reform Act of 1995 (1995) & Habeas Corpus: The Great Writ Hit (2006) & Habeas Corpus Uncorpsed (2008) & Habeas Corpus and Baseball (2006). See also Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007 Military Commissions Act of 2006 Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon Neminem captivabimus Arbitrary arrest and detention Philippine Habeas Corpus Cases Habeas Corpus (play) The Play by the English author Alan Bennett List of legal Latin terms subpoena duces tecum subpoena ad testificandum Murder conviction without a body External links Amnesty International page on Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007 Barristermagazine.com Inmatelaw.org LectLaw.com Petition for Habeas Corpus April 16, 1843 From Texas Tides This American Life: 331: Habeas Schmabeas 2007 Find Habeas | Habeas_corpus |@lemmatized habeas:127 corpus:116 latin:5 shall:13 body:8 legal:14 action:10 writ:76 person:21 seek:7 relief:7 unlawful:10 detention:29 another:4 protect:1 individual:13 harm:2 judicial:6 system:1 historically:2 important:3 instrument:1 safeguarding:1 freedom:2 arbitrary:2 state:54 english:7 origin:1 also:11 know:5 great:4 ad:13 subjiciendum:6 summons:1 force:6 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4,059 | Nokia | Nokia Corporation ( in Finnish) (, , ) is a Finnish multinational communications corporation that is headquartered in Keilaniemi, Espoo, a city neighbouring Finland's capital Helsinki. Nokia is focused on wireless and wired telecommunications, with 128,445 employees in 120 countries, sales in more than 150 countries and global annual revenue of EUR 50.7 billion and operating profit of 5.0 billion as of 2008. It is the world's largest manufacturer of mobile telephones: its global device market share was about 37% in Q1 2009, down from 39% in Q1 2008 and unchanged from Q4 2008. Nokia produces mobile phones for every major market segment and protocol, including GSM, CDMA, and W-CDMA (UMTS). Nokia's subsidiary Nokia Siemens Networks produces telecommunications network equipment, solutions and services. Navteq is part of Nokia's strategy of focusing on mobile navigation. Nokia has sites for research and development, manufacture and sales in many countries throughout the world. As of December 2008, Nokia had R&D presence in 16 countries and employed 39,350 people in research and development, representing approximately 31% of the group's total workforce. The Nokia Research Center, founded in 1986, is Nokia's industrial research unit, consisting of about 500 researchers, engineers and scientists. It has sites in seven countries: Finland, China, India, Kenya, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Besides its research centers, in 2001 Nokia founded (and owns) INdT – Nokia Institute of Technology, a R&D institute located in Brazil. Nokia's production facilities are located at Espoo, Oulu and Salo, Finland; Manaus, Brazil; Beijing, Dongguan and Suzhou, China; Farnborough, England; Komárom, Hungary; Chennai, India; Reynosa, Mexico; Jucu, Romania and Masan, South Korea. Nokia's Design Department remains in Salo, Finland. Nokia is a public limited liability company listed on the Helsinki, Frankfurt, and New York stock exchanges. Nokia plays a very large role in the economy of Finland; it is by far the largest Finnish company, accounting for about a third of the market capitalization of the Helsinki Stock Exchange (OMX Helsinki) as of 2007, a unique situation for an industrialized country. It is an important employer in Finland and several small companies have grown into large ones as its partners and subcontractors. Nokia increased Finland's GDP by more than 1.5% in 1999 alone. In 2004 Nokia's share of the Finnish GDP was 3.5% and accounted for almost a quarter of Finland's exports in 2003. Finns have consistently ranked Nokia as both the best Finnish brand and the best employer. The Nokia brand, valued at $35.9 billion, is listed as the fifth most valuable global brand in Interbrand/BusinessWeek's Best Global Brands list of 2008 (first non-US company). It is the number one brand in Asia (as of 2007) and Europe (as of 2008), the 42nd most admirable company worldwide in Fortune's World's Most Admired Companies list of 2009 (third in Network Communications, seventh non-US company), and is the world's 88th largest company in Fortune Global 500 list of 2008, up from 119th the previous year. As of 2008, AMR Research ranks Nokia's global supply chain number two in the world. History Pre-telecommunications era The predecessors of the modern Nokia were Nokia Company (Nokia Aktiebolag), Finnish Rubber Works Ltd (Suomen Gummitehdas Oy) and Finnish Cable Works Ltd (Suomen Kaapelitehdas Oy). Nokia's history starts in 1865 when engineer Fredrik Idestam established a groundwood pulp mill on the banks of the Tammerkoski rapids in the town of Tampere, in southwestern Finland, and started manufacturing paper. In 1868, Idestam built a second mill near the town of Nokia, fifteen kilometres (nine miles) west of Tampere by the Nokianvirta river, which had better resources for hydropower production. In 1871, Idestam, with the help of his close friend statesman Leo Mechelin, renamed and transformed his firm into a share company, thereby founding the Nokia Company, the name it is still known by today. The name of the town, Nokia, originated from the river which flowed through the town. The river itself, Nokianvirta, was named after the archaic Finnish word originally meaning a small, dark-furred animal that lived on the banks of the Nokianvirta river. In modern Finnish, noki means soot and nokia is its inflected plural, although this form of the word is rarely if ever used. The old word, nois (pl. nokia) or nokinäätä ("soot marten"), meant sable. After sable was hunted to extinction in Finland, the word was applied to any dark-furred animal of the genus Martes, such as the pine marten, which are found in the area to this day. Toward the end of the 19th century, Mechelin's wishes to expand into the electricity business were at first thwarted by Idestam's opposition. However, Idestam retired from the management of the company in 1896, allowing Mechelin to become company chairman (from 1898–1914) and sell most shareholders on his plans, thus realizing his vision. In 1902, Nokia added electricity generation to its business activities. Industrial conglomerate At the beginning of the 20th century, Finnish Rubber Works, manufacturer of galoshes and other rubber products, established its factories nearby and began using Nokia as its brand. In the 1910s, shortly after World War I, Nokia Company was nearing bankruptcy. To ensure the continuation of electricity supply from Nokia's generators, Finnish Rubber Works acquired the business of the insolvent company. In 1922, Finnish Rubber Works acquired Finnish Cable Works, producer of telephone, telegraph and electricity cables. In 1937, Verner Weckman, a sport wrestler and Finland's first Olympic Gold medalist, became President of Finnish Cable Works, after 16 years as its Technical Director. After World War II, Finnish Cable Works supplied cables to the Soviet Union as part of Finland's war reparations. This gave the company a good foothold for later trade. The three companies, which had been jointly owned since 1922, were merged to form a new industrial conglomerate, Nokia Corporation in 1967 and paved the way for Nokia's future as a global corporation. The new company was involved in many sectors, producing at one time or another paper products, bicycle and car tires, footwear (including Wellington boots), personal computers, communications cables, televisions, electricity generation machinery, capacitors and aluminium. Each business unit had its own director who reported to the first Nokia Corporation President, Björn Westerlund. As the president of Finnish Cable Works, he had been responsible for setting up the company’s first electronics department in 1960, sowing the seeds of Nokia’s future in telecommunications. Eventually, the company decided to leave consumer electronics behind in the 1990s and focused solely on telecommunications. Nokian Tyres, manufacturer of tires split from Nokia Corporation to form its own company in 1988 and two years later Nokian Footwear, manufacturer of rubber boots, was founded. During the rest of the 1990s, Nokia divested itself of all of its non-telecommunications businesses. Telecommunications era The seeds of the current incarnation of Nokia were planted with the founding of the electronics section of the cable division in 1960 and the production of its first electronic device in 1962: a pulse analyzer designed for use in nuclear power plants. In the 1967 fusion, that section was separated into its own division, and began manufacturing telecommunications equipment. Networking equipment In the 1970s, Nokia became more involved in the telecommunications industry by developing the Nokia DX200, a digital switch for telephone exchanges. In 1982, a DX200 switch became the world's first digital telephone switch to be put into operational use. The DX200 became the workhorse of the network equipment division. Its modular and flexible architecture enabled it to be developed into various switching products. For a while in the 1970s, Nokia's network equipment production was separated into Telefenno, a company jointly owned by the parent corporation and by a company owned by the Finnish state. In 1987, the state sold its shares to Nokia and in 1992 the name was changed to Nokia Telecommunications. In the 1970s and 1980s, Nokia developed the Sanomalaitejärjestelmä ("Message device system") for Finnish Defence Forces. First mobile phones The technologies that preceded modern cellular mobile telephony systems were the various "0G" pre-cellular mobile radio telephony standards. Nokia had been producing commercial and military mobile radio communications technology since the 1960s. Since 1964, Nokia had developed VHF-radio simultaneously with Salora Oy. In 1966, Nokia and Salora started developing the ARP standard (which stands for Autoradiopuhelin, or "car radio phone"), a car-based mobile radio telephony system and the first commercially operated public mobile phone network in Finland. It went online in 1971 and offered 100% coverage in 1978. In 1979, the merger of these two companies resulted in the establishment of Mobira Oy. Mobira began developing mobile phones for the NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephony) network standard, the first-generation, first fully-automatic cellular phone system that went online in 1981. In 1982, Mobira introduced its first car phone, the Mobira Senator for NMT-450 networks. Nokia bought Salora Oy in 1984 and now owning 100% of the company, changed the company's telecommunication branch name to Nokia-Mobira Oy. The Mobira Talkman, launched in 1984, was one of the world's first transportable phones. In 1987, Nokia introduced one of the world's first handheld phones, the Mobira Cityman 900 for NMT-900 networks (which offered a better signal, yet a shorter roam). While the Mobira Senator of 1982 had weighed and the Talkman just under , the Mobira Cityman weighed only with the battery and had a price tag of 24,000 Finnish marks (approximately €4,560). Despite the high price, the first phones were almost snatched from the sales assistants’ hands. Initially, the mobile phone was a "yuppie" product and a status symbol. Nokia's mobile phones got a big publicity boost in 1987, when Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev was pictured using a Mobira Cityman to make a call from Helsinki to his communications minister in Moscow. This led to the phone's nickname of the "Gorba". In 1988, Jorma Nieminen, resigning from the post of CEO of the mobile phone unit, along with two other employees from the unit, started a notable mobile phone company of their own, Benefon Oy (since renamed to GeoSentric). One year later, Nokia-Mobira Oy became Nokia Mobile Phones. Involvement in GSM Nokia was one of the key developers of GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), the second-generation mobile technology which could carry data as well as voice traffic. NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephony), the world's first mobile telephony standard that enabled international roaming, provided valuable experience for Nokia for its close participation in developing GSM, which was adopted in 1987 as the new European standard for digital mobile technology. Nokia delivered its first GSM network to the Finnish operator Radiolinja in 1989. The world's first commercial GSM call was made on July 1, 1991 in Helsinki, Finland over a Nokia-supplied network, by then Prime Minister of Finland Harri Holkeri, using a prototype Nokia GSM phone. In 1992, the first GSM phone, the Nokia 1011, was launched. The model number refers to its launch date, 10 November. The Nokia 1011 did not yet employ Nokia's characteristic ringtone, the Nokia tune. It was introduced as a ringtone in 1994 with the Nokia 2100 series. GSM's high-quality voice calls, easy international roaming and support for new services like text messaging (SMS) laid the foundations for a worldwide boom in mobile phone use. GSM came to dominate the world of mobile telephony in the 1990s, in mid-2008 accounting for about three billion mobile telephone subscribers in the world, with more than 700 mobile operators across 218 countries and territories. New connections are added at the rate of 15 per second, or 1.3 million per day. Personal computers and IT equipment In the 1980s, Nokia's computer division Nokia Data produced a series of personal computers called MikroMikko. MikroMikko was Nokia Data's attempt to enter the business computer market. The first model in the line, MikroMikko 1, was released on September 29, 1981, around the same time as the first IBM PC. However, the personal computer division was sold to the British ICL (International Computers Limited) in 1991, which later became part of Fujitsu. MikroMikko remained a trademark of ICL and later Fujitsu. Internationally the MikroMikko line was marketed by Fujitsu as the ErgoPro. Fujitsu later transferred its personal computer operations to Fujitsu Siemens Computers, which shut down its only factory in Espoo, Finland (in the Kilo district, where computers had been produced since the 1960s) at the end of March 2000, thus ending large-scale PC manufacturing in the country. Nokia was also known for producing very high quality CRT and early TFT LCD displays for PC and larger systems application. The Nokia Display Products' branded business was sold to ViewSonic in 2000. In addition to personal computers and displays, Nokia used to manufacture DSL modems and digital set-top boxes. Challenges of growth In the 1980s, during the era of its CEO Kari Kairamo, Nokia expanded into new fields, mostly by acquisitions. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the corporation ran into serious financial problems, a major reason being its heavy losses by the television manufacturing division and businesses that were just too diverse. These problems, and a suspected total burnout, probably contributed to Kairamo taking his own life in 1988. After Kairamo's death, Simo Vuorilehto became Nokia's Chairman and CEO. In 1990–1993, Finland underwent severe economic depression, which also struck Nokia. Under Vuorilehto's management, Nokia was severely overhauled. The company responded by streamlining its telecommunications divisions, and by divesting itself of the television and PC divisions. Probably the most important strategic change in Nokia's history was made in 1992, however, when the new CEO Jorma Ollila made a crucial strategic decision to concentrate solely on telecommunications. Thus, during the rest of the 1990s, the rubber, cable and consumer electronics divisions were gradually sold as Nokia continued to divest itself of all of its non-telecommunications businesses. As late as 1991, more than a quarter of Nokia's turnover still came from sales in Finland. However, after the strategic change of 1992, Nokia saw a huge increase in sales to North America, South America and Asia. The exploding worldwide popularity of mobile telephones, beyond even Nokia's most optimistic predictions, caused a logistics crisis in the mid-1990s. This prompted Nokia to overhaul its entire logistics operation. By 1998, Nokia’s focus on telecommunications and its early investment in GSM technologies had made the company the world's largest mobile phone manufacturer. Between 1996 and 2001, Nokia’s turnover increased almost fivefold from 6.5 billion euros to 31 billion euros. Logistics continues to be one of Nokia's major advantages over its rivals, along with greater economies of scale. Recent history Nokia opened its Komárom, Hungary mobile phone factory on May 5, 2000. In April 2003, the troubles of the networks equipment division caused the corporation to resort to similar streamlining practices on that side, including layoffs and organizational restructuring. This diminished Nokia's public image in Finland, and produced a number of court cases and an episode of a documentary television show critical of Nokia. On September 22, 2003, Nokia acquired Sega.com, a branch of Sega which has been the major basis to develop the Nokia N-Gage device. On November 16, 2005, Nokia and Intellisync Corporation, a provider of data and PIM synchronization software, signed a definitive agreement for Nokia to acquire Intellisync. Nokia completed the acquisition on February 10, 2006. Despite these occasional crises, Nokia has been phenomenally successful in its chosen field. Its growth has come mostly during the era of Jorma Ollila as CEO and his team of about six close colleagues. In June 2006, Ollila left to become the chairman of Royal Dutch Shell and to give way for Olli-Pekka Kallasvuo. On February 2006, Nokia and Sanyo announced a memorandum of understanding to create a joint venture addressing the CDMA handset business. But in June, they announced ending negotiations without agreement. Nokia also stated its decision to pull out of CDMA research and development, to continue CDMA business in selected markets. On June 19, 2006, Nokia and Siemens AG announced the companies would merge their mobile and fixed-line phone network equipment businesses to create one of the world's largest network firms, Nokia Siemens Networks. Each company has a 50% stake in the infrastructure company, and it is headquartered in Espoo, Finland. The companies predicted annual sales of €16 bn and cost savings of €1.5 bn a year by 2010. About 20,000 Nokia employees were transferred to this new company. On August 8, 2006, Nokia and Loudeye Corp. announced that they had signed an agreement for Nokia to acquire online music distributor Loudeye Corporation for approximately US $60 million. The company has been developing this into an online music service in the hope of using it to generate handset sales. The service, launched on August 29, 2007, is aimed to rival iTunes. Nokia completed the acquisition on October 16, 2006. In March 2007, Nokia signed a memorandum with Cluj County Council, Romania to open a new plant near the city in Jucu commune. Moving the production from the Bochum, Germany factory to a low wage country created an uproar in Germany. In May 2007, Nokia announced that its Nokia 1100 handset, launched in 2003, with over 200 million units shipped, was the best-selling mobile phone of all time and the world's top-selling consumer electronics product. In July 2007, Nokia acquired all assets of Twango, the comprehensive media sharing solution for organizing and sharing photos, videos and other personal media. In September 2007, Nokia announced its intention to acquire Enpocket, a supplier of mobile advertising technology and services. In October 2007, pending shareholder and regulatory approval, Nokia bought Navteq, a U.S.-based supplier of digital mapping data, for a price of $8.1 billion. Nokia finalized the acquisition on July 10, 2008. In November 2007, Nokia announced and released the Nokia N82, its first (and currently, only) Nseries phone with Xenon flash. At the Nokia World conference in December 2007, Nokia announced their "Comes With Music" program: Nokia device buyers are to receive a year of complimentary access to music downloads. The service became commercially available in the second half of 2008. In April 2008, Nokia began finding new ways to connect people, asking the "audience" to use their creativity and their mobile devices to become Nokia’s production company – to take part in filming, acting, editing and producing a collaborative film. Nokia Productions will be the first ever mobile filmmaking project directed by Spike Lee. This will be a collaborative experience that exists across borders and perspectives—working off a common script. In May 2008, Nokia announced on their annual stockholder meeting that they want to shift to the internet business as a whole. Nokia no longer wants to be seen as the telephone company. Google, Apple and Microsoft are not seen as natural competition for their new image but they are considered as major important players to deal with. In September, 2008, Nokia acquired OZ Communications, a privately held company with approximately 220 employees headquartered in Montreal, Canada. In 2008, Nokia released the Nokia E71 in the United Kingdom which was marketed to directly compete with the other Blackberry devices offering a full keyboard and cheaper prices. In November 2008, Nokia announced it was ceasing mobile phone distribution in Japan. Following early December, distribution of Nokia E71 is cancelled, both from NTT docomo and SoftBank Mobile. Nokia Japan retains global research & development programs, sourcing business, and an MVNO venture of Vertu luxury phones, using docomo's telecommunication network. Corporate affairs Corporate structure Divisions Since January 1, 2008, Nokia comprises three business groups: Devices, Services and Markets. The three main units receive operational support from the Corporate Development Office, led by Mary T. McDowell, which is also responsible for exploring corporate strategic and future growth opportunities. On April 1, 2007, Nokia’s Networks business group was combined with Siemens’ carrier-related operations for fixed and mobile networks to form Nokia Siemens Networks, jointly owned by Nokia and Siemens and consolidated by Nokia. Devices The Devices division is responsible for developing and managing Nokia's mobile device portfolio, including the sourcing of components, headed by Kai Öistämö. The division consists of the previous mainline Mobile Phones division with the separate subdivisions Multimedia (Nseries devices) and Enterprise Solutions (Eseries devices) as well as formerly centralized core devices R&D – called Technology Platforms. This division provides the general public with mobile voice and data products across a wide range of mobile devices, including high-volume, consumer oriented mobile phones and devices, and more expensive multimedia and enterprise-class devices. The devices are based on GSM/EDGE, 3G/W-CDMA and CDMA cellular technologies. Nokia's Nseries Multimedia Computers extensively uses Symbian OS. In the first quarter of 2006 Nokia sold over 15 million MP3 capable mobile phones, which means that Nokia is not only the world's leading supplier of mobile phones and digital cameras (as most of Nokia's mobile telephones feature digital cameras, it is also believed that Nokia has recently overtaken Kodak in camera production making it the largest in the world), Nokia is now also the leading supplier of digital audio players (MP3 players), outpacing sales of devices such as the iPod from Apple. At the end of the year 2007, Nokia managed to sell almost 440 million mobile phones which accounted for 40% of all global mobile phones sales. Services The Services division operates in five areas of consumer Internet services: music, maps, media, messaging and games. The division consists of the previous enterprise and consumer driver services businesses previously hosted in Multimedia and Enterprise Solutions divisions, as well as a number of new acquisitions (Loudeye, Gate5, Enpocket, Intellisync, Avvenu and OZ Communications), headed by Niklas Savander. The group works with companies outside the telecommunications industry to make advances in the technology and bring new applications and possibilities in areas such as online services, optics, music synchronization and streaming media. Markets The Markets division, the successor organization to Nokia's Customer and Market Operations division, is responsible for the management of the supply chains, sales channels, brand and marketing functions of the company, headed by Anssi Vanjoki. Subsidiaries Nokia has several subsidiaries, of which the two most significant as of 2009 are Nokia Siemens Networks and Navteq. Other notable subsidiaries include, but are not limited to Symbian Limited, a software development and licensing company that produces Symbian OS, a smartphone operating system used by Nokia and other manufacturers; Vertu, a British-based manufacturer and retailer of luxury mobile phones; Qt Software, a Norwegian-based software company, and OZ Communications, a consumer e-mail and instant messaging provider. Nokia Siemens Networks Nokia Siemens Networks (previously Nokia Networks) provides wireless and wired network infrastructure, communications and networks service platforms, as well as professional services to operators and service providers. Nokia Siemens Networks focuses in GSM, EDGE, 3G/W-CDMA and WiMAX radio access networks; core networks with increasing IP and multiaccess capabilities; and services. On June 19, 2006 Nokia and Siemens AG announced the companies are to merge their mobile and fixed-line phone network equipment businesses to create one of the world's largest network firms, called Nokia Siemens Networks. The Nokia Siemens Networks brand identity was subsequently launched at the 3GSM World Congress in Barcelona in February 2007. As of March 2009, Nokia Siemens Networks serves more than 600 operator customers in more than 150 countries, with over 1.5 billion people connected through its networks. Navteq Navteq, which was acquired by Nokia on October 1, 2007, is a Chicago, Illinois-based provider of digital map data for automotive navigation systems, mobile navigation devices, Internet-based mapping applications, and government and business solutions. Navteq’s map data will be part of the Nokia Maps online service where users can download maps, use voice-guided navigation and other context-aware web services. Corporate governance The control and management of Nokia is divided among the shareholders at a general meeting and the Group Executive Board (left), under the direction of the Board of Directors (right). The Chairman and the rest of the Group Executive Board members are appointed by the Board of Directors. Only the Chairman of the Group Executive Board can belong to both, the Board of Directors and the Group Executive Board. The Board of Directors' committees consist of the Audit Committee, the Personnel Committee and the Corporate Governance and Nomination Committee. The operations of the company are managed within the framework set by the Finnish Companies Act, Nokia's Articles of Association and Corporate Governance Guidelines, and related Board of Directors adopted charters. Group Executive Board Olli-Pekka Kallasvuo (Chairman), b. 1953President, CEO and Group Executive Board Chairman of Nokia Corporation since June 1, 2006Member of the Nokia Board of Directors since May 3, 2007With Nokia 1980–1981, rejoined 1982, Group Executive Board member since 1990 Esko Aho, b. 1954Executive Vice President, Corporate Relations and ResponsibilityJoined Nokia November 1, 2008, Group Executive Board member since 2009 Robert Andersson, b. 1960Executive Vice President, Devices Finance, Strategy and SourcingJoined Nokia 1985, Group Executive Board member since 2005/ Simon Beresford-Wylie, b. 1958Chief Executive Officer, Nokia Siemens NetworksJoined Nokia 1998, Group Executive Board member since 2005 Timo Ihamuotila, b. 1966Executive Vice President, SalesWith Nokia 1993–1996, rejoined 1999, Group Executive Board member since 2007 Mary T. McDowell, b. 1964Executive Vice President, Chief Development OfficerJoined Nokia 2004, Group Executive Board member since 2004 Hallstein Mørk, b. 1953Executive Vice President, Human ResourcesJoined Nokia 1999, Group Executive Board member since 2004 Dr. Tero Ojanperä, b. 1966Executive Vice President, ServicesJoined Nokia 1990, Group Executive Board member since 2005 Niklas Savander, b. 1962Executive Vice President, ServicesJoined Nokia 1997, Group Executive Board member since 2006 Richard A. Simonson, b. 1958Executive Vice President, Chief Financial OfficerJoined Nokia 2001, Group Executive Board member since 2004 Anssi Vanjoki, b. 1956Executive Vice President, MarketsJoined Nokia 1991, Group Executive Board member since 1998 Dr. Kai Öistämö, b. 1964Executive Vice President, DevicesJoined Nokia 1991, Group Executive Board member since 2005Board of Directors Jorma Ollila (Chairman), b. 1950Board member since 1995, Chairman of the Board of Directors since 1999Chairman of the Board of Directors of Royal Dutch Shell PLC Dame Marjorie Scardino (Vice Chairman), b. 1947Board member since 2001Chairman of the Corporate Governance and Nomination Committee, Member of the Personnel CommitteeChief Executive Officer and member of the Board of Directors of Pearson PLC Georg Ehrnrooth, b. 1940Board member since 2000Member of the Audit Committee, Member of the Corporate Governance and Nomination Committee Lalita D. Gupte, b. 1948Board member since 2007Member of the Audit CommitteeNon-executive Chairman of the ICICI Venture Funds Management Co Ltd. Dr. Bengt Holmström, b. 1949Board member since 1999Paul A. Samuelson Professor of Economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology,joint appointment at the MIT Sloan School of Management Dr. Henning Kagermann, b. 1947Board member since 2007CEO and Chairman of the Executive Board of SAP AG Olli-Pekka Kallasvuo, b. 1953Board member since 2007President and CEO of Nokia Corporation Per Karlsson, b. 1955Board member since 2002, Independent Corporate AdvisorChairman of the Personnel Committee, Member of the Corporate Governance and Nomination Committee Risto Siilasmaa, b. 1966Board member since 2008Member of the Audit CommitteeFounder and Chairman of F-Secure Keijo Suila, b. 1945Board member since 2006Member of the Audit Committee Former corporate officers Chief Executive Officers Chairmen of the Board of Directors Björn Westerlund 1967–1977 Lauri J. Kivekäs 1967–1977 Simo Vuorilehto 1988–1990 Kari Kairamo 1977–1988 Björn Westerlund 1977–1979 Mika Tiivola 1990–1992 Simo Vuorilehto 1988–1992 Mika Tiivola 1979–1986 Casimir Ehrnrooth 1992–1999 Jorma Ollila 1992–2006 Kari Kairamo 1986–1988 Jorma Ollila 1999– Olli-Pekka Kallasvuo 2006– Historical logos Corporate culture Nokia's official corporate culture manifesto, The Nokia Way, emphasises the speed and flexibility of decision-making in a flat, networked organization, although the corporation's size necessarily imposes a certain amount of bureaucracy. The official business language of Nokia is English. All documentation is written in English, and is used in official intra-company spoken communication and e-mail. Until May 2007, the Nokia Values were Customer Satisfaction, Respect, Achievement, and Renewal. In May 2007, Nokia redefined its values after initiating a series of discussions worldwide as to what the new values of the company should be. Based on the employee suggestions, the new values were defined as: Engaging You, Achieving Together, Passion for Innovation and Very Human. Online services .mobi and the Mobile Web Nokia was the first proponent of a Top Level Domain (TLD) specifically for the Mobile Web and, as a result, was instrumental in the launch of the .mobi domain name extension in September 2006 as an official backer. Since then, Nokia has launched the largest mobile portal, Nokia.mobi, which receives over 100 million visits a month. It followed that with the launch of a mobile Ad Service to cater to the growing demand for mobile advertisement. Ovi Ovi, announced on August 29, 2007, is the name for Nokia's "umbrella concept" Internet services. Centered on Ovi.com, it is marketed as a "personal dashboard" where users can share photos with friends, download music, maps and games directly to their phones and access third-party services like Yahoo's Flickr photo site. It has some significance in that Nokia is moving deeper into the world of Internet services, where head-on competition with Microsoft, Google and Apple is inevitable. The services so far announced to be offered through Ovi include the Nokia Music Store, Nokia Maps, Ovi Mail, the N-Gage mobile gaming platform available for several S60 smartphones, Share on Ovi, Files on Ovi, and Contacts and Calendar. The Ovi Store, the Ovi application store will be launched in May 2009. MOSH In August 2007, Nokia launched their new social network, dubbed MOSH. MOSH by Nokia is the first-ever social network built by a handset manufacturer. MOSH aims to bring social, media-based networks to the mobile environment. Users can upload, download, share, and bookmark a variety of media – audio files, video files, documents, applications, games, images. Mosh is currently being phased out and will be replaced with Ovi Store. Comes With Music On December 4, 2007, Nokia unveiled their plans for the "Nokia Comes With Music" initiative, a program that would partner with Universal Music Group International and Sony BMG to bundle a year's worth of unlimited, DRM-encumbered downloads with the purchase of a Nokia phone. Following the termination of the year of free downloads, tracks can be kept without having to renew the subscription. Downloads will be both PC and mobile-based. Nokia Messaging On August 13, 2008, Nokia launched a beta release of "Nokia Email service", a new push e-mail service, since graduated as part of Nokia Messaging. Nokia Messaging can sync personal e-mail accounts offered by a variety of ISPs (Internet Service Providers). Nokia Messaging is available at email.nokia.com. Environmental record Electronic products such as cell phones impact the environment both during production and after their useful life when they are discarded and turned into electronic waste. According to environmental organization Greenpeace, Nokia has a good track record in limiting the amount of toxic chemicals in its products, supporting recycling, and reducing impact on climate change, compared to other large electronics brands. In the 11th Greenpeace Guide to Greener Electronics, Nokia stays in first place with an improved total score of 7.5/10. In an effort to further reduce their environmental impact, Nokia released a new phone concept, Remade, in February 2008. The phone has been constructed of solely recyclable materials. The outer part of the phone is made from recycled materials such as aluminum cans, plastic bottles, and used car tires. The screen is constructed of recycled glass, and the hinges have been created from rubber tires. The interior of the phone is entirely constructed with refurbished phone parts, and there is a feature that encourages energy saving habits by reducing the backlight to the ideal level, which then allows the battery to last longer without frequent charges. Research cooperation with universities Nokia is actively exploring and engaging in open innovation through selective research collaborations with major universities and institutions by sharing resources and leveraging ideas. Current collaborations include: École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland ETH Zurich, Switzerland Helsinki University of Technology, Finland Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States Stanford University, United States Tampere University of Technology, Finland Tsinghua University, China University of California, Berkeley, United States University of Cambridge, United Kingdom University of Southern California, United States See also Gnokii List of Nokia products Maemo Nokia Software Updater Nokia Sugar Bowl Nokian Footwear Nokian Tyres Symbian OS References Further reading Title Author Publisher Year Length ISBN External links Official Nokia portal (with complete list of regional websites) Nokia Corporation Company Profile at Yahoo! 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4,060 | Arraignment | Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal complaint in the presence of the defendant to inform him of the charges against him. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a plea. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdictions, but they generally include "guilty", "not guilty", and the peremptory pleas (or pleas in bar) setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. Pleas of "nolo contendere" (no contest) and the "Alford plea" are allowed in some circumstances. In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment. The defendant is asked whether he or she pleads guilty or not guilty to each individual charge. Guilty and not guilty pleas If the defendant pleads guilty, an evidentiary hearing usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge will assess the offense, mitigating factors, and the defendant's character, and pass sentence. If the defendant pleads not guilty, a date will be set for a preliminary hearing or a trial. In the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or "stood mute") would be subject to peine forte et dure (Law French for "strong and hard punishment"). Today in common law jurisdictions, defendants who refuse to enter a plea will have a plea of not guilty entered for them on their behalf. Federal rules of criminal procedure Under the federal rules of criminal procedure, "arraignment shall...[consist of an] open...reading [of] the indictment...to the defendant...and calling on him to plead thereto. He shall be given a copy of the indictment...before he is called upon to plead." | Arraignment |@lemmatized arraignment:4 formal:1 reading:1 criminal:4 complaint:1 presence:1 defendant:8 inform:1 charge:2 response:1 accuse:1 expect:1 enter:3 plea:9 acceptable:1 pleas:1 vary:1 among:1 jurisdiction:2 generally:1 include:1 guilty:10 peremptory:1 bar:1 set:2 reason:1 trial:3 cannot:1 proceed:1 nolo:1 contendere:1 contest:1 alford:1 allow:1 circumstance:1 england:1 wale:1 northern:1 ireland:1 first:1 eleven:1 stage:1 involve:1 clerk:1 court:2 read:2 indictment:3 ask:1 whether:1 plead:6 individual:1 evidentiary:1 hearing:3 usually:1 follow:1 require:1 accept:1 judge:1 assess:1 offense:1 mitigate:1 factor:1 character:1 pas:1 sentence:1 date:1 preliminary:1 past:1 refuse:2 stood:1 mute:1 would:1 subject:1 peine:1 forte:1 et:1 dure:1 law:2 french:1 strong:1 hard:1 punishment:1 today:1 common:1 behalf:1 federal:2 rule:2 procedure:2 shall:2 consist:1 open:1 call:2 thereto:1 give:1 copy:1 upon:1 |@bigram guilty_guilty:3 plea_nolo:1 nolo_contendere:1 alford_plea:1 plead_guilty:3 guilty_plea:2 defendant_plead:2 preliminary_hearing:1 plea_guilty:1 |
4,061 | NTSC | Television encoding systems by nation, Countries using the NTSC system are shown in green. NTSC (National Television System Committee) is the analog television system used in most of the Americas, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Burma, and some Pacific island nations and territories (see map). NTSC is also the name of the U.S. standardization body that adopted the NTSC broadcast standard. National Television System Committee (1951-1953), [Report and Reports of Panel No. 11, 11-A, 12-19, with Some supplementary references cited in the Reports, and the Petition for adoption of transmission standards for color television before the Federal Communications Commission, n.p., 1953], 17 v. illus., diagrs., tables. 28 cm. LC Control No.:54021386 Library of Congress Online Catalog The first black-and-white NTSC standard for broadcast was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color transmissions. In 1953 a second modified version of the NTSC standard was adopted which allowed color broadcasting to be compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers while maintaining the broadcast channel bandwidth already in use. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system. After over a half-century of use, the vast majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States will be replaced with ATSC on June 12, 2009 and by August 31, 2011 in Canada. History The National Television System Committee was established in 1940 by the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to resolve the conflicts that arose between companies over the introduction of a nationwide analog television system in the United States. In March 1941, the committee issued a technical standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA). Technical advancements of the vestigial sideband technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCA's 441–scan line standard (already being used by RCA's NBC TV network) and Philco's and DuMont's desire to increase the number of scan lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames (images) per second, consisting of two interlaced fields per frame at 262.5 lines per field and 60 fields per second. Other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4:3, and frequency modulation (FM) for the sound signal (which was quite new at the time). In January 1950, the Committee was reconstituted to standardize color television. In December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard (later defined as RS-170a). The "compatible color" standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets. Color information was added to the black-and-white image by adding a color subcarrier of 4.5 × 455/572 MHz (approximately 3.58 MHz) to the video signal. To reduce interference between the chrominance signal and FM sound carrier required a slight reduction of the frame rate from 30 frames per second to 30/1.001 (very close to 29.97) frames per second, and changing the line frequency from 15,750 Hz to 15,734.26 Hz. The FCC had briefly approved a different color television standard, starting in October 1950, which was developed by CBS. A third "line sequential" system from Color Television Inc. (CTI) was also considered. The CBS and final NTSC systems were called "field sequential" and "dot sequential" systems, respectively. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts. It used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144 (but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames a second). Legal action by rival RCA kept commercial use of the system off the air until June 1951, and regular broadcasts only lasted a few months before manufacture of all color television sets was banned by the Office of Defense Mobilization (ODM) in October, ostensibly due to the Korean War. "Color TV Shelved As a Defense Step", The New York Times, October 20, 1951, p. 1. "Action of Defense Mobilizer in Postponing Color TV Poses Many Question for the Industry", The New York Times, October 22, 1951, p. 23. "TV Research Curb on Color Avoided", The New York Times, October 26, 1951. Ed Reitan, CBS Field Sequential Color System, 1997. A variant of the CBS system was later used by NASA to broadcast pictures of astronauts from space. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, "CBS Says Confusion Now Bars Color TV," Washington Post, March 26, 1953, p. 39. and the FCC replaced it on December 17, 1953 with the NTSC color standard, which was cooperatively developed by several companies (including RCA and Philco). "F.C.C. Rules Color TV Can Go on Air at Once", The New York Times, December 19, 1953, p. 1. The first publicly announced network TV broadcast of a program using the NTSC "compatible color" system was an episode of NBC's Kukla, Fran and Ollie on August 30, 1953, although it was viewable in color only at the network's headquarters. "NBC Launches First Publicly-Announced Color Television Show", Wall Street Journal, August 31, 1953, p. 4. The first nationwide view of NTSC color came on the following January 1 with the coast-to-coast broadcast of the Tournament of Roses Parade, viewable on prototype color receivers at special presentations across the country. The first color NTSC television camera was the RCA TK-40, used for experimental broadcasts in 1953; an improved version, the TK-40A, introduced in March 1954, was the first commercially available color TV camera. Later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by other countries, including most of the Americas and Japan. With the advent of digital television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most U. S. NTSC broadcasters are mandated by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009. Low-power stations, Class A stations and translators are not immediately affected. An analog cut-off date for those stations is to be determined. Technical details Lines and refresh rate NTSC color encoding is used with the M format, which consists of 29.97 interlaced frames of video per second. Each frame consists of a total of 525 scanlines, of which 486 make up the visible raster. The remainder (the vertical blanking interval) are used for synchronization and vertical retrace. Originally designed to be blank to allow for the simple analog circuits and slow vertical retrace of early TV receivers, some of these lines now can contain other data such as closed captioning and vertical interval timecode (VITC). In the complete raster (ignoring half-lines), the even-numbered or 'lower" scanlines (lines 21 to 263 in the video signal) are drawn in the first field, and the odd-numbered or "upper" (signal lines 283 to 525) are drawn in the second field, to yield a flicker-free image at the field refresh frequency of approximately 59.94 (actually 60 Hz/1.001). For comparison, PAL uses 625 lines (576 visible), and so has a higher vertical resolution, but a lower temporal resolution of 25 frames or 50 fields per second. The NTSC field refresh frequency in the black-and-white system originally exactly matched the nominal 60 Hz frequency of alternating current power used in the United States. Matching the field refresh rate to the power source avoided intermodulation (also called beating) which produces rolling bars on the screen. Synchronization of the refresh rate to the power incidentally helped kinescope cameras record early live television broadcasts, as it was very simple to synchronize a film camera to capture one frame of video on each film frame by using the alternating current frequency as a shutter trigger. (By the time the frame rate changed to 29.97 Hz for color, it was nearly as easy to trigger the camera shutter from the video signal itself.) The figure of 525 lines was chosen as a consequence of the limitations of the vacuum-tube-based technologies of the day. In early TV systems, a master voltage-controlled oscillator was run at twice the horizontal line frequency, and this frequency was divided down by the number of lines used (in this case 525) to give the field frequency (60 Hz in this case). This frequency was then compared with the 60 Hz power-line frequency and any discrepancy corrected by adjusting the frequency of the master oscillator. The only practical method of frequency division available at the time was the use of multivibrators, which could only divide by small numbers. For interlaced scanning, an odd number of lines per frame was required in order to make the vertical retrace distance identical for the odd and even fields; an extra odd line means that the same distance is covered in retracing from the final odd line to the first even line as from the final even line to the first odd line, so simplifying the retrace circuitry. This meant that a chain of multivibrators was needed, each of which had to divide by a small, odd number. (Note that an odd number is never integrally divisible by any even number). The closest practical sequence to 500 was 3 × 5 × 5 × 7 = 525. Similarly, 625-line PAL and SECAM uses 5 × 5 × 5 × 5. The British 405-line system used 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5, the French 819-line system used 3 × 3 × 7 × 13. Although other values were theoretically possible, all of them involved division by unacceptably large numbers, which produced reliability problems. In the color system the refresh frequency was shifted slightly downward to 59.94 Hz to eliminate stationary dot patterns in the color carrier, as explained below in "Color encoding". Color encoding For backward compatibility with black-and-white television, NTSC uses a luminance-chrominance encoding system invented in 1938 by Georges Valensi. Luminance (derived mathematically from the composite color signal) takes the place of the original monochrome signal. Chrominance carries color information. This allows black-and-white receivers to display NTSC signals simply by ignoring the chrominance. The original chromaticities of the NTSC color primaries were R=[0.67,0.33], G=[0.21,0.71], B=[0.14,0.08] , yielding a far larger gamut than most of today's monitors. Over the decades, however, desire for a brighter picture prompted TV manufacturers to deviate from that specification, sacrificing saturation for increased brightness DeMarsh, Leroy (1993): TV Display Phosphors/Primaries - Some History. SMPTE Journal, December 1993: 1095-1098. . This deviation from the standard, which happened both at the receiver and broadcaster stage, was the source of considerable color variation in the 1960s Sharma, Gaurav; Trussell, H. Joel (1997): Digital Color Imaging. IEEE Transactions on Image Processing 6 (7): 901-932. As a result, in 1968 the SMPTE recommended a new set of phosphor primaries for studio use SMPTE RP (Recommended Practice) 145. SMPTE C Color Monitor Colorimetry , which in 1979 became part of SMPTE 170M, the engineering standard describing the American broadcasting system. Although the old 1953 NTSC specifications are still part of the United States Code of Federal Regulations, all modern broadcast equipment follows the SMPTE 170M standard instead and thus encodes a signal for the SMPTE "C" set of phosphor primaries. In NTSC, chrominance is encoded using two 3.579545 MHz signals which are 90 degrees out of phase, known as I (in-phase) and Q (quadrature) QAM. These two signals are each amplitude modulated and then added together. Mathematically, the combination can be viewed as a single sine wave with varying phase relative to a reference and varying amplitude. The phase represents the instantaneous color hue captured by a TV camera, and the amplitude represents the instantaneous color saturation. For a TV to recover hue information from the I/Q phase, it must have a zero phase reference. It also needs a reference for amplitude to recover the saturation information. So, the NTSC signal includes a short sample of this reference signal, known as the color burst, located on the 'back porch' of each horizontal line (the time between the end of the horizontal synchronization pulse and the end of the blanking pulse.) The color burst consists of a minimum of eight cycles of the unmodulated (fixed phase and amplitude) color subcarrier. The TV receiver has a "local oscillator" which it synchronizes to the color bursts and then uses as a reference for decoding the chrominance. By comparing the reference signal derived from color burst to the chrominance signal's amplitude and phase at a particular point in the raster scan, the device determines what chrominance to display at that point. Combining that with the amplitude of the luminance signal, the receiver calculates exactly what color to make the point, i.e. the point at the instantaneous position of the continuously scanning beam. Note that analog TV is discrete in the vertical dimension (there are distinct lines) but continuous in the horizontal dimension (every point blends into the next with no boundaries), hence there are no pixels in analog TV. (Digital TV sets receiving analog signals convert the continuous horizontal scan lines into discrete pixels before displaying them. This process of discretization necessarily degrades the picture information somewhat, though in the best sets the effect may be imperceptible. Digital sets include all sets with a matrix of discrete pixels built into the display device, such as LCD, plasma, and DLP screens, but not conventional CRTs. The high quality image from a plasma or DLP display panel may offset all loss of image quality incurred through discretization.) When a transmitter broadcasts an NTSC signal, it amplitude-modulates a radio-frequency carrier with the NTSC signal just described, while it frequency-modulates a carrier 4.5 MHz higher with the audio signal. If non-linear distortion happens to the broadcast signal, the 3.579545 MHz color carrier may beat with the sound carrier to produce a dot pattern on the screen. To make the resulting pattern less noticeable, designers adjusted the original 60 Hz field rate down by a factor of 1.001 (0.1%), to approximately 59.94 fields per second. This adjustment ensures that the sums and differences of the sound carrier and the color subcarrier and their multiples (i.e., the intermodulation products of the two carriers) are not exact multiples of the frame rate, which is the necessary condition for the dots to remain stationary on the screen, making them most noticeable. The 59.94 rate is derived from the following calculations. Designers chose to make the chrominance subcarrier frequency an n + 0.5 multiple of the line frequency to minimize interference between the luminance signal and the chrominance signal. (Another way this is often stated is that the color subcarrier frequency is an odd multiple of half the line frequency.) They then chose to make the audio subcarrier frequency an integer multiple of the line frequency to minimize visible (intermodulation) interference between the audio signal and the chrominance signal. The original black-and-white standard, with its 15750 Hz line frequency and 4.5 MHz audio subcarrier, does not meet these requirements, so designers had either to raise the audio subcarrier frequency or lower the line frequency. Raising the audio subcarrier frequency would prevent existing (black and white) receivers from properly tuning in the audio signal. Lowering the line frequency is comparatively innocuous, because the horizontal and vertical synchronization information in the NTSC signal allows a receiver to tolerate a substantial amount of variation in the line frequency. So the engineers chose the line frequency to be changed for the color standard. In the black-and-white standard, the ratio of audio subcarrier frequency to line frequency is 4.5 MHz / 15,750 = 285.71. In the color standard, this becomes rounded to the integer 286, which means the color standard's line rate is 4.5 MHz / 286 = approximately 15,734 lines per second. Maintaining the same number of scan lines per field (and frame), the lower line rate must yield a lower field rate. Dividing (4,500,000 / 286) lines per second by 262.5 lines per field gives approximately 59.94 fields per second. Transmission modulation scheme Spectrum of a System M television channel with NTSC color. An NTSC television channel as transmitted occupies a total bandwidth of 6 MHz. A guard band, which does not carry any signals, occupies the lowest 250 kHz of the channel to avoid interference between the video signal of one channel and the audio signals of the next channel down. The actual video signal, which is amplitude-modulated, is transmitted between 500 kHz and 5.45 MHz above the lower bound of the channel. The video carrier is 1.25 MHz above the lower bound of the channel. Like most AM signals, the video carrier generates two sidebands, one above the carrier and one below. The sidebands are each 4.2 MHz wide. The entire upper sideband is transmitted, but only 1.25 MHz of the lower sideband, known as a vestigial sideband, is transmitted. The color subcarrier, as noted above, is 3.579545 MHz above the video carrier, and is quadrature-amplitude-modulated with suppressed carrier. The highest 25 kHz of each channel contains the audio signal, which is frequency-modulated, making it compatible with the audio signals broadcast by FM radio stations in the 88–108 MHz band. The main audio carrier is 4.5 MHz above the video carrier. Sometimes a channel may contain an MTS signal, which is simply more than one audio signal. This is normally the case when stereo audio and/or second audio program signals are used. The Cvbs (Composite vertical blanking signal) (sometimes called "setup") is a voltage offset between the "black" and "blanking" levels. Cvbs is unique to NTSC. Cvbs has the advantage of making NTSC video more easily separated from its primary sync signals. The disadvantage is that Cvbs results in a smaller dynamic range when compared with PAL or SECAM. Framerate conversion There is a large difference in framerate between film, which runs at 24.0 frames per second, and the NTSC standard, which runs at approximately 29.97 frames per second. Unlike the two other video formats, PAL and SECAM, this difference cannot be overcome by a simple speed-up. A complex process called "3:2 pulldown" is used. One film frame is transmitted for three video fields (1½ video frame times), and the next frame is transmitted for two video fields (one video frame time). Two 24 frame/s film frames are therefore transmitted in five 60 Hz video fields, for an average of 2½ video fields per film frame. The average frame rate is thus 60 / 2.5 = 24 frame/s, so the average film speed is exactly what it should be. There are drawbacks, however. Still-framing on playback can display a video frame with fields from two different film frames, so any motion between the frames will appear as a rapid back-and-forth flicker. There can also be noticeable jitter/"stutter" during slow camera pans (telecine judder). To avoid 3:2 pulldown, film shot specifically for NTSC television is often taken at 30 frame/s. For viewing native PAL or SECAM material (such as European television series and some European movies) on NTSC equipment, a standards conversion has to take place. There are basically two ways to accomplish this. The framerate can be slowed from 25 to 23.976 frames per second (a slowdown of about 4%) to subsequently apply 3:2 pulldown. Interpolation of the contents of adjacent frames in order to produce new intermediate frames; this introduces artifacts, and even the most modestly trained of eyes can quickly spot video which has been converted between formats. Modulation for analog satellite transmission Because satellite power is severely limited, analog video transmission through satellites differs from terrestrial TV transmission. AM is a linear modulation method, so a given demodulated signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) requires an equally high received RF SNR. The SNR of studio quality video is over 50 dB, so AM would require prohibitively high powers and/or large antennas. Wideband FM is used instead to trade RF bandwidth for reduced power. Increasing the channel bandwidth from 6 to 36 MHz allows a RF SNR of only 10 dB or less. The wider noise bandwidth reduces this 40 dB power saving by 36 MHz / 6 MHz = 8 dB for a substantial net reduction of 32 dB. Sound is on a FM subcarrier as in terrestrial transmission, but frequencies above 4.5 MHz are used to reduce aural/visual interference. 6.8, 5.8 and 6.2 MHz are commonly used. Stereo can be multiplex or discrete, and unrelated audio and data signals may be placed on additional subcarriers. A triangular 60 Hz energy dispersal waveform is added to the composite baseband signal (video plus audio and data subcarriers) before modulation. This limits the satellite downlink power spectral density in case the video signal is lost. Otherwise the satellite might transmit all of its power on a single frequency, interfering with terrestrial microwave links in the same frequency band. In half transponder mode, the frequency deviation of the composite baseband signal is reduced to 18 MHz to allow another signal in the other half of the 36 MHz transponder. This reduces the FM benefit somewhat, and the recovered SNRs are further reduced because the combined signal power must be "backed off" to avoid intermodulation distortion in the satellite transponder. A single FM signal is constant amplitude, so it can saturate a transponder without distortion. Field order Unlike PAL or SECAM in which a 'frame' of video consists of an 'odd' field followed by an 'even' field, an NTSC 'frame' consists of an 'even' field followed by an 'odd' field. As far as the reception of an analog signal is concerned, this is purely a matter of convention and, it makes no difference. It's rather like the broken lines running down the middle of a road, it doesn't matter whether it is a line/space pair or a space/line pair, the effect to a driver is exactly the same. Indeed if NTSC is converted to PAL or vice versa, again it is of no consequence, the frame boundaries just shift by one field. The introduction of digital television formats has changed things somewhat. Most digital TV formats including the popular DVD format record NTSC originated video with the even frame first in the recorded field (The development of DVD took place in the NTSC format). However this frame sequence has migrated through to the so called PAL format (actually a technically incorrect description) of digital video with the result that the even field is often recorded first in the frame. This is no longer a matter of convention because a frame of digital video is a distinct entity on the recorded medium. This means that when reproducing many digital formats (including DVD) it is necessary to reverse the frame order otherwise an unacceptable shuddering 'comb' effect occurs on moving objects as they are shown ahead in one field and then jump back in the next. Also, authoring DVD videos from computer based video formats requires reversal of the field order. This has also become a hazard where progressive video is transcoded to interlaced and vice versa. Systems which recover progressive frames or transcode video should ensure that this 'Field Order' is obeyed, otherwise the recovered frame will consist of a field from one frame and a field from an adjacent frame, resulting in 'comb' interlacing artifacts. Comparative quality Reception problems can degrade an NTSC picture by changing the phase of the color signal (actually differential phase distortion), so the color balance of the picture will be altered unless a compensation is made in the receiver. This necessitates the inclusion of a tint control on NTSC sets, which is not necessary on PAL or SECAM systems. When compared to PAL in particular, NTSC color accuracy and consistency is considerably inferior, leading to video professionals and television engineers jokingly referring to NTSC as Never The Same Color, Never Twice the Same Color or No True Skin Colors. Jain, Anal K., Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing, Upper Saddle River NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989, p. 82. The use of NTSC coded color in S-Video systems completely eliminates the phase distortions. As a consequence, the use of NTSC color encoding gives the highest resolution picture quality of the three color systems. The mismatch between NTSC's 30 frames per second and film's 24 frames is overcome by a process which capitalizes on the field rate of the interlaced NTSC signal, thus avoiding the film playback speedup used for PAL and SECAM at 25 frames per second (which causes the accompanying audio to increase in pitch slightly, recently fixed with the use of a pitch shifter) at the price of some jerkiness in the video. See Framerate conversion above. The coming of digital television and high-definition television will end the need for analog television systems. NTSC broadcasts are mandated by the FCC to end in the United States on June 12, 2009. Variants NTSC-M Unlike PAL, with its many varied underlying broadcast television systems in use throughout the world, NTSC color encoding is invariably used with broadcast system M, giving NTSC-M. NTSC-J Only Japan's variant "NTSC-J" is slightly different: in Japan, black level and blanking level of the signal are identical (at 0 IRE), as they are in PAL, while in American NTSC, black level is slightly higher (7.5 IRE) than blanking level. Since the difference is quite small, a slight turn of the brightness knob is all that is required to enjoy the "other" variant of NTSC on any set as it is supposed to be; most watchers might not even notice the difference in the first place. PAL-M The Brazilian PAL-M system uses the same broadcast bandwidth, frame rate, and number of lines as NTSC, but using PAL color encoding. It is therefore partially NTSC-compatible. NTSC-M tv sets can receive terrestrial PAL-M broadcasts, NTSC VCRs can play videotapes recorded in PAL-M and vice versa, but only in black & white due to the fact that the color information cannot be decoded. Conversely, DVD players sold for the PAL-M market are identical to NTSC DVD players, as the frame rates match and the difference in analog color encoding becomes irrelevant in digital formats. PAL-N This is used in Paraguay and Bolivia (though Bolivia has recently switched to NTSC-M from PAL-N). This is very similar to PAL-M (used in Brazil). It is also closely related to PAL-Nc (used in Argentina) and PAL-N (used in Uruguay). The similarities of NTSC-M and NTSC-N can be seen on the ITU identification scheme table, which is reproduced here: + World television systems System Lines Frame rate Channel b/w Visual b/w Sound offset Vestigial sideband Vision mod. Sound mod. Notes M 525 29.97 6 4.2 +4.5 0.75 Neg. FM Most of the Americas and Caribbean, Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan (all NTSC-M) and Brazil (PAL-M). N 625 25 6 4.2 +4.5 0.75 Neg. FM Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay (all PAL-N). Greater number of lines results in higher quality. As it is shown, aside from the number of lines and frames per second, the systems are identical. NTSC-N/PAL-N/PAL-Nc are compatible with sources such as game consoles, VHS/Betamax VCRs, and DVD players. However, they are not compatible with baseband broadcasts (which are received over an antenna), though some newer sets come with baseband NTSC 3.58 support (NTSC 3.58 being the frequency for color modulation in NTSC: 3.58 MHz). NTSC 4.43 In what can be considered an opposite of PAL-60, NTSC 4.43 is a pseudo color system which transmits NTSC encoding (525/29.97) in a color subcarrier of 4.43 MHz instead of 3.58 MHz. The resulting output is only viewable by TVs which support the resulting pseudo-system (usually multi-standard TVs). Using a native NTSC TV to decode the signal yields no color, while using a PAL TV to decode the system yields erratic colors (observed to be lacking red and flickering randomly). The format is apparently limited to few early laserdisc players and some game consoles sold in markets where the PAL system is used. The NTSC 4.43 system, while not a broadcast format, appears most often as a playback function of PAL cassette format VCRs, beginning with the Sony 3/4" U-Matic format and then following onto Betamax and VHS format machines. As Hollywood has the claim of providing the most cassette software (movies and television series) for VCRs for the world's viewers, and as not all cassette releases were made available in PAL formats, a means of playing NTSC format cassettes was highly desired. Multi-standard video monitors were already in use in Europe to accommodate broadcast sources in PAL, SECAM, and NTSC video formats. The heterodyne color-under process of U-Matic, Betamax & VHS lent itself to minor modification of VCR players to accommodate NTSC format cassettes. The color-under format of VHS uses a 629 kHz subcarrier while U-Matic & Betamax use a 688 kHz subcarrier to carry an amplitude modulated chroma signal for both NTSC and PAL formats. Since the VCR was ready to play the color portion of the NTSC recording using PAL color mode, the PAL scanner and capstan speeds had to be adjusted from PAL's 50 Hz field rate to NTSC's 59.94 Hz field rate, and faster linear tape speed. The changes to the PAL VCR are minor thanks to the existing VCR recording formats. The output of the VCR when playing an NTSC cassette in NTSC 4.43 mode is 525 lines/29.97 frames per second with PAL compatible heterodyned color. The multi-standard receiver is already set to support the NTSC H & V frequencies; it just needs to do so while receiving PAL color. The existence of those multi-standard receivers was probably part of the drive for region coding of DVDs. As the color signals are component on disc for all display formats, almost no changes would be required for PAL DVD players to play NTSC (525/29.97) discs as long as the display was frame-rate compatible. NTSC-film NTSC with a frame rate of 23.976 frame/s is described in the NTSC-film standard. Canada/US Video Game Region Sometimes NTSC-US or NTSC-U/C is used to describe the video gaming region of North America (the U/C refers to US + Canada), as regional lockout usually restricts games released within a region to that region. Vertical Interval Reference The standard NTSC video image contains some lines (lines 1–21 of each field) which are not visible (this is known as the Vertical Blanking Interval, or VBI); all are beyond the edge of the viewable image, but only lines 1–9 are used for the vertical-sync and equalizing pulses. The remaining lines were deliberately blanked in the original NTSC specification to provide time for the electron beam in CRT-based screens to return to the top of the display. VIR (or Vertical interval reference), widely adopted in the 1980s, attempts to correct some of the color problems with NTSC video by adding studio-inserted reference data for luminance and chrominance levels on line 19. Suitably-equipped television sets could then employ these data in order to adjust the display to a closer match of the original studio image. The actual VIR signal contains three sections, the first having 70 percent luminance and the same chrominance as the color burst signal, and the other two having 50 percent and 7.5 percent luminance respectively. A less-used successor to VIR, GCR, also added ghost (multipath interference) removal capabilities. The remaining vertical blanking interval lines are typically used for datacasting or ancillary data such as video editing timestamps (vertical interval timecodes or SMPTE timecodes on lines 12–14 ), test data on lines 17–18, a network source code on line 20 and closed captioning, XDS, and V-chip data on line 21. Early teletext applications also used vertical blanking interval lines 14–18 and 20, but teletext over NTSC was never widely adopted by viewers . Many stations transmit TV Guide On Screen (TVGOS) data for an electronic program guide on VBI lines. The primary station in a market will broadcast 4 lines of data, and backup stations will broadcast 1 line. In most markets the PBS station is the primary host. TVGOS data can occupy any line from 10-25, but in practice its limited to 11-18, 20 and line 22. Line 22 is only used for 2 broadcast, DirecTV and CFPL-TV. Countries and territories using NTSC North America , NTSC broadcast to be abandoned by August 2011, simulcast in ATSC Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) Press release May 2007 , NTSC broadcast to be abandoned on December 31, 2021 simulcast in ATSC Transicion a TDT (Transition to DT) (Spanish) , NTSC broadcast currently scheduled to be abandoned on June 12, 2009 http://commerce.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=PressReleases.Detail&PressRelease_Id=84452e41-ca68-4aef-b15f-bbca7bab2973 Central America and the Caribbean Leeward Islands (U.S.) U.S. Virgin Islands South America (until 2006 Paraguay used PAL) Asia , NTSC-J broadcast will be abandoned by July 2011, simulcasting ISDB-T , NTSC broadcast to be abandoned by December 31,2015, simulcasting DVB-T or ATSC , NTSC broadcast to be abandoned by December 2012, simulcast in ATSC Republic of China (Taiwan), NTSC broadcast to be abandoned by 2010, simulcast in DVB-T Union of Myanmar (Burma) Historic - Countries that have now changed to PAL: (Propaganda station aimed at South Korea; domestic broadcasts use PAL) (Historic; Cambodia now uses PAL) (Historic; Vietnam now uses PAL) , Former used shortly by Thai TV Channel 4 Bangkunbrohma, Later changed to PAL in late 1950s. Pacific US Territories Northern Mariana Islands Midway Atoll (a US military base) Other Pacific island nations (in Compact of Free Association with US; US aid funded NTSC adoption) Micronesia (in Compact of Free Association with US) (in Compact of Free Association with US; adopted NTSC before independence) (closely tied to American Samoa; US aid funded NTSC adoption) (US aid funded NTSC adoption) Historic (used NTSC experimentally before adopting PAL) (Historic; used before 1989, Fiji has used PAL since 1990) (Historic; All of Australia uses PAL) Indian Ocean Diego Garcia Middle East (Historic; all of Yemen now uses PAL) Europe (Experimented with a 405-line variant of NTSC in the 1950s and 1960s; dropped in favor of PAL) See also Broadcast television systems ATSC Standards BTSC NTSC-J PAL RCA SECAM Moving image formats Oldest television station Television channel frequencies Very high frequency Ultra high frequency Knife-edge effect Channel 1 Channel 37 North American broadcast television frequencies North American cable television frequencies Australasian TV frequencies Broadcast safe Notes References A standard defining the NTSC system was published by the International Telecommunication Union in 1998 under the title "Recommendation ITU-R BT.470-7, Conventional Analog Television Systems". It isn't publicly available on the Internet, but it can be purchased from the ITU. Ed Reitan (1997). CBS Field Sequential Color System. External links U.S. cable television channel frequencies TVTower.com - Commercial Television Frequencies Representation of the NTSC refresh rate on a television and on a DVD Understanding & Measuring Video TV-RF Signals by Glen Kropuenske, CET, Sencore Application Engineer The horizontal resolution numbers in the following tables and graphs may not reflect reality, when transmitted over an analog medium in NTSC format. | NTSC |@lemmatized television:42 encode:10 system:44 nation:3 country:5 use:64 ntsc:110 show:4 green:1 national:3 committee:5 analog:16 america:7 japan:4 south:4 korea:3 taiwan:3 burma:2 pacific:3 island:4 territory:3 see:4 map:1 also:11 name:1 u:21 standardization:1 body:1 adopt:8 broadcast:38 standard:33 report:3 panel:2 supplementary:1 reference:11 cite:1 petition:1 adoption:4 transmission:8 color:83 federal:3 communication:2 commission:3 n:10 p:7 v:3 illus:1 diagrs:1 table:3 cm:1 lc:1 control:3 library:1 congress:1 online:1 catalog:1 first:14 black:16 white:13 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4,062 | Kingsley_Amis | Sir Kingsley William Amis, CBE (16 April 1922 – 22 October 1995) was an English novelist, poet, critic and teacher. He wrote more than twenty novels, three collections of poetry, short stories, radio and television scripts, and books of social and literary criticism. According to his biographer, Zachary Leader, Amis was 'the finest British comic novelist of the second half of the twentieth century'. Leader, 2006, p.1 He is the father of the English novelist Martin Amis. Biography Kingsley Amis was born in Clapham, south London, the son of William Robert Amis, a mustard manufacturer's clerk. Family detective - Telegraph He was educated at the City of London School, and in April 1941 was admitted to St. John's College, Oxford, where he read English. It was there that he met Philip Larkin, with whom he formed the most important friendship of his life. After only a year, he was called up for Army service in July 1942. After serving in the Royal Corps of Signals in the Second World War, Amis returned to Oxford in October 1945 to complete his degree. Although he worked hard and got a first in English in 1947, he had by then decided to give much of his time to writing. In 1946, he became a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain. In 1946 he met Hilary Bardwell, and they married in 1948. He became a lecturer in English at the University of Wales Swansea (1949–61). Leader, 2006, p.452 Amis achieved popular success with his first novel Lucky Jim, which was considered to have 'caught the temper' of Britain in the 1950s Bradbury, Malcolm, 1989, p.205 and ushered in a new style of fiction. Ritchie, Harry, 1988, p.64 By 1972, in addition to impressive sales in Britain, one and a quarter million paperback copies had been sold in the United States, and it was eventually translated into twenty languages, including Czech, Hebrew, Korean, and Serbo-Croat. Jacobs, 1995, p.162 The novel won the Somerset Maugham Award for fiction and Amis was associated with the writers labelled the Angry Young Men. Lucky Jim was the first British campus novel, setting a precedent for later generations of writers such as Malcolm Bradbury, David Lodge, Tom Sharpe and Howard Jacobson. As a poet, Amis was associated with The Movement. During 1958-59 he made the first of two visits to the United States, where he was Visiting Fellow in Creative Writing at Princeton University and a visiting lecturer in other northeastern universities. On returning to Britain, he felt in a rut, and he began looking for another post; after thirteen years at Swansea, Amis became a fellow of Peterhouse at Cambridge (1961–63). He regretted the move within a year, finding Cambridge an academic and social disappointment and resigned in 1963, intent on moving to Majorca; he went no further than London. Memoirs, "Cambridge" Bradford, Ch 10 In 1963, Hilary discovered Kingsley's love affair with novelist Elizabeth Jane Howard. Hilary and Kingsley separated in August; he went to live with Jane. He divorced Hilary in 1965, and then married Jane the same year; Jane and Kingsley divorced in 1983. In his last years, Amis shared a house with his first wife Hilary and her third husband, Alastair Boyd, 7th Baron Kilmarnock. Hilary and Kingsley Amis had three children, among them novelist Martin Amis, who wrote the memoir Experience about the life and decline of his father. Kingsley Amis was knighted in 1990. In August 1995 he fell, suffering a suspected stroke. After apparently recovering, he worsened, was re-admitted to hospital, and died on 22 October 1995 at St Pancras Hospital, London. "Sir Kingsley Amis Dies; British Novelist and Poet ", The Washington Post, 23 October 1995 Bradford, Ch 23 He was cremated; his ashes are at Golders Green Crematorium. Literary work Amis is chiefly known as a comedic novelist of mid- to late-20th century British life, but his literary work extended into many genres — poetry, essays and criticism, short stories, food and drink writing, anthologies and a number of novels in genres such as science fiction and mystery. His career initially developed in a pattern which was, ironically, the inverse of that followed by his close friend Philip Larkin. Before becoming known as a poet, Larkin had published two novels; Amis, on the other hand, originally wished to be a poet, and turned to writing novels only after publishing several volumes of verse. He continued throughout his career to write poetry which is known for its typically straightforward and accessible style, which yet often, e. g. in “Bookshop Idyll” or “Against Romanticism”, masks a nuance of thought, just as it does in his novels. Amis’s first novel, Lucky Jim (1954), is perhaps his most famous. Taking its germ from Amis's observation of the common room at the University of Leicester, where his friend Larkin held a post, Jacobs, 1995, p. 131. the novel satirizes the high-brow academic set of a redbrick university, seen through the eyes of its protagonist, Jim Dixon, as he tries to make his way as a young lecturer of history. The novel was perceived by many as part of the Angry Young Men movement of the 1950s which reacted against the stultifications of conventional British life, though Amis never encouraged this interpretation. Amis’s other novels of the 1950s and early 1960s similarly depict situations from contemporary British life, often drawn from Amis’s own experiences. That Uncertain Feeling (1955) centres on a young provincial librarian (again perhaps with reference to Larkin, librarian at Hull) and his temptation towards adultery; I Like It Here (1958) presents Amis’s contemptuous view of “abroad” and followed upon his own travels on the Continent with a young family; Take a Girl Like You (1960), perhaps Amis’s second best-known novel, steps away from the immediately autobiographical, but remains grounded in the concerns of sex and love in ordinary modern life, tracing the courtship and ultimate seduction of the heroine Jenny Bunn by a young schoolmaster, Patrick Standish. With The Anti-Death League (1966), Amis begins to show some of the experimentation — with content, if not with style — which would mark much of his work in the 1960s and 70s. Amis’s departure from the strict realism of his early comedic novels is not so abrupt as might first appear. He had avidly read science fiction since a boy, and had developed that interest into the Christian Gauss Lectures of 1958, while visiting Princeton University. The lectures were published in that year as New Maps of Hell: a Survey of Science Fiction, a serious but light-handed treatment of what the genre had to say about man and society. Amis was particularly enthusiastic about the dystopian works of Frederik Pohl and C. M. Kornbluth, and in New Maps of Hell coined the term "comic inferno" to describe a type of humorous dystopia, particularly as exemplified in the works of Robert Sheckley. Amis further displayed his devotion to the genre in editing, with the Sovietologist Robert Conquest, the science fiction anthology series Spectrum I–V, which drew heavily upon 1950s numbers of the magazine Astounding Science Fiction. Though not explicitly science fiction, The Anti-Death League takes liberties with reality not found in Amis’s earlier novels, and introduces a speculative bent into his fiction, one which would continue to develop in other of his genre novels, such as The Green Man (1969) (mystery/horror) and The Alteration (1976) (alternate history). Much of this speculation was about the improbable existence of any benevolent deity involved in human affairs. In The Anti-Death League, The Green Man, The Alteration and elsewhere, including poems such as “The Huge Artifice: an interim assessment” and “New Approach Needed,” Amis showed frustration with a God who could lace the world with such cruelty and injustice, and championed the preservation of ordinary human happiness — in family, in friendships, in physical pleasure — against the demands of any cosmological scheme. The matter of Amis’s religious views is perhaps ultimately summed up in his response, reported in his Memoirs, to the Russian poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko’s question, in his broken English: “You atheist?” Amis replied, “It’s more that I hate Him.” During this time, Amis had not turned completely away from the comedic realism of Lucky Jim and Take a Girl Like You. I Want It Now (1968) and Girl, 20 (1971) both depict the “swinging” atmosphere of London in the late '60s, in which Amis certainly participated, though neither book is strictly autobiographical. Girl, 20, for instance, is framed in the world of classical (and pop) music, of which Amis was not a part — the book’s relatively impressive command of musical terminology and opinion shows both Amis’s amateur devotion to music and the almost journalistic capacity of his intelligence to take hold of a subject which interested him. That intelligence is similarly on display in, for instance, the presentation of ecclesiastical matters in The Alteration, when Amis was neither a Roman Catholic nor, for that matter, a devotee of any Church. Throughout the 1950s, '60s and '70s, Amis was regularly producing essays and criticism, principally for journalistic publication. Some of these pieces were collected in 1968’s What Became of Jane Austen? and Other Essays, in which Amis’s wit and literary and social opinions were on display ranging over books such as Colin Wilson’s The Outsider (panned), Iris Murdoch’s debut novel Under the Net (praised), or William Empson’s Milton’s God (inclined to agree with). Amis’s opinions on books and people tended to appear (and often, be) conservative, and yet, as the title essay of the collection shows, he was not merely reverent of “the classics” and of traditional morals, but was more disposed to exercise his own rather independent judgment in all things. Amis became associated with Ian Fleming's James Bond novels, which he greatly admired, in the late 1960s, when he began composing critical works connected with the fictional spy, either under a pseudonym or uncredited. In 1965, he wrote the popular The James Bond Dossier under his own name. That same year, he wrote The Book of Bond, or, Every Man His Own 007, a tongue-in-cheek how-to manual about being a sophisticated spy, under the pseudonym "Lt Col. William ('Bill') Tanner", Tanner being M's Chief of Staff in many of Fleming's Bond novels. In 1968 the owners of the James Bond franchise attempted to continue the series by hiring different novelists, all of whom were to publish under the pseudonym "Robert Markham". In the event, Amis's Colonel Sun was the only Bond novel to be published under that name. With the possible exception of The Old Devils, a Booker Prize winner, Amis's literary style and tone changed significantly after 1970; several critics accused him of being old fashioned and misogynistic, while others said his output lacked the humanity, wit and compassion of earlier efforts. This period also saw Amis the anthologist, a role in which his wide knowledge of all kinds of English poetry was on display. The New Oxford Book of Light Verse (1978), which he edited, was a revision of the original volume done by W. H. Auden. Amis took the anthology in a markedly new direction; where Auden had interpreted light verse to include “low” verse of working-class or lower-class origin, regardless of subject matter, Amis defined light verse as essentially light in tone, though not necessarily simple in composition. The Amis Anthology (1988), a personal selection of his favourite poems, grew out of his work for a London newspaper, in which he selected a poem daily and presented it with a brief introduction. Fussell, The Anti-Egotist Personal life and political views As a young man at Oxford, Amis briefly joined the Communist Party. He later described this stage of his political life as "the callow Marxist phase that seemed almost compulsory in Oxford." See Amis's Socialism and the Intellectuals, cited by Leader, 2006, p. 366 Amis remained nominally on the Left for sometime after the war, declaring in the 1950s that he would always vote for the Labour Party. Leader, 2006, p. 366 But he eventually moved further right, a development he discussed in the essay "Why Lucky Jim Turned Right" (1967); his conservativism and anti-communism can be seen in such later works of his as the dystopian novel Russian Hide and Seek (1980). Amis was by his own admission and as revealed by his biographers a serial adulterer for much of his life. Inevitably this was one of the main contributory factors in the breakdown of his first marriage. A famous photograph of a sleeping Amis on a Yugoslav beach shows the slogan (written by wife Hilly) on his back "1 Fat Englishman - I fuck anything". In one of his memoirs, Amis wrote: "Now and then I become conscious of having the reputation of being one of the great drinkers, if not one of the great drunks, of our time". Memoirs: Booze He suggests that this is due to a naive tendency on the part of his readers to apply the behaviour of his characters to himself. This was disingenuous; the fact was that he enjoyed drink, and spent a good deal of his time in pubs. Hilary Rubinstein, who commissioned Lucky Jim, commented "I doubted whether Jim Dixon would have gone to the pub and drunk ten pints of beer ... I didn't know Kingsley very well, you see". Quoted in Bradford, Ch 5 Clive James comments: "All on his own, he had the weekly drinks bill of a whole table at the Garrick Club even before he was elected. After he was, he would get so tight there that he could barely make it to the taxi." "Kingsley without the women", by Clive James, TLS February 2nd 2007 Amis was, however, adamant in his belief that inspiration did not come from a bottle: "whatever part drink may play in the writer's life, it must play none in his or her work." That this was certainly the case is attested to by Amis's highly disciplined approach to writing. For 'many years', Jacobs, 1995, p. 17 Amis imposed a rigorous daily schedule upon himself in which writing and drinking were strictly segregated. Mornings were devoted to writing with a minimum daily output of 500 words. Jacobs, 1995, p. 6 The drinking would only begin around lunchtime when this output had been achieved. Amis's prodigious output would not have been possible without this kind of self discipline. Nevertheless, according to Clive James, Amis reached a turning point when his drinking ceased to be social, and became a way of dulling his remorse and regret at his behaviour toward Hilly. "Amis had turned against himself deliberately ... it seems fair to guess that the troubled grandee came to disapprove of his own conduct." His friend Christopher Hitchens ironically said, "The booze got to him in the end, and robbed him of his wit and charm as well as of his health." Kingsley Amis, Everyday Drinking, Bloomsbury USA, NY, 2008, editor's introduction. Family Amis was married firstly for fifteen years to Hilary Bardwell Hilary Amis was later wife of the classicist D.R. Shackleton Bailey (married 1967; divorced 1975) and of the late Lord Kilmarnock (married 1977; died 19 March 2009). She had one son James or Jaime, born out of wedlock, by her third husband (usually called her second husband by the media) who was therefore unable to inherit his father's peerage. , daughter of a shoe millionaire,<ref name=Martin>Mira Stout. "Martin Amis: Down London's Mean Streets New York Times Book Review, 4 February 1990. Sunday, Late Edition - Final Section 6; Page 32, Column 1; Magazine Desk </ref> by whom he had two sons and one daughter. Philip Amis, a graphics designer, who is divorced and remarried. Sarah Sands. "My life with the unfaithful old devil Kingsley Amis" Daily Mail 6 October 2006] Martin Amis the novelist; who has been twice married, firstly in 1984 (divorced) to Antonia Phillips, a widowed Bostonian philosophy teacher, with two sons Louis and Jacob, and then to Isabel Fonseca with two daughters. He also has an illegitimate daughter named Delilah. Boyd Tonkin. "Martin Amis: The man who fell to earth" The Independent 13 May 2000. Sally Amis, who died 2000. < He married secondly the novelist Elizabeth Jane Howard, by whom he had no issue. At the end of his second marriage, he went to live with his ex-wife Hilary and her third husband, in a deal brokered by their two sons Philip and Martin, so that he could be cared for until his death. < References Further reading Lucky Him: The Life of Kingsley Amis, Richard Bradford, Peter Owen, 2001. ISBN 0 7206 1117 2 Kingsley Amis: Memoirs, Kingsley Amis, Penguin, 1992. The Letters of Kingsley Amis, edited by Zachary Leader, HarperCollins, 2000. ISBN 0 00 257095 5 Kingsley Amis, a Biography, Eric Jacobs, Hodder & Stoughton, 1995. ISBN 0 340 59072 6 The Life of Kingsley Amis, Zachary Leader, Jonathan Cape, 2006. ISBN 0224062271 The Anti-Egotist: Kingsley Amis, Man of Letters, Paul Fussell, Oxford UP, 1994. "Kingsley Amis's Troublesome Fun", Michael Dirda. The Chronicle of Higher Education 22 June 2007. B9-B11. AMIS & SON - Two literary generations by Neil Powell, Pan Macmillan, 2008. No, Not Bloomsbury, Malcolm Bradbury, Arena, 1989. ISBN 0 09 9544105 Success Stories: Literature and the Media in England, 1950 - 1959, Harry Ritchie, Faber & Faber, 1988. ISBN 0 571 14764 X Partial bibliography 1947 Bright November1953 A Frame of Mind1954 Poems: Fantasy Portraits. 1954 Lucky Jim1955 That Uncertain Feeling1956 A Case of Samples: Poems 1946-1956. 1957 Socialism and the Intellectuals. A Fabian Society pamphlet 1958 I Like it Here1960 Take A Girl Like You1960 New Maps of Hell: a Survey of Science Fiction1960 Hemingway in Space (short story), Punch December 1960 1962 My Enemy's Enemy1962 The Evans County1963 One Fat Englishman1965 The Egyptologists (with Robert Conquest). 1965 The James Bond Dossier1965 The Book of Bond, or Every Man His Own 007 (pseud. Lt.-Col William ('Bill') Tanner) 1966 The Anti-Death League1968 Colonel Sun: a James Bond Adventure (pseud. Robert Markham) 1968 I Want It Now1968 A Look Round the Estate: Poems, 1957-19671969 The Green Man1970 What Became of Jane Austen?, and Other Questions1971 Girl, 201972 On Drink1973 The Riverside Villas Murder1974 Ending Up1974 Rudyard Kipling and his World1975 The Crime Of The Century1976 The Alteration1978 Jake's Thing1978 The New Oxford Book of Light Verse (ed.) 1979 Collected Poems 1944-781980 Russian Hide-and-Seek1980 Collected Short Stories1983 Every Day Drinking1984 How's Your Glass?1984 Stanley and the Women1986 The Old Devils1988 Difficulties With Girls1990 The Folks That Live on the Hill1990 The Amis Collection1991 Memoirs1991 Mr Barrett's Secret and Other Stories1991 We Are All Guilty1992 The Russian Girl1994 You Can't Do Both1995 The Biographer's Moustache1997 The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage2001 The Letters of Kingsley Amis, Edited by Zachary Leader 2008 Everyday Drinking: The Distilled Kingsley Amis, Introduction by Christopher Hitchens Poets in The Amis Anthology: A Personal Choice of English Verse (1988) Richard Aldington - Kenneth Allott - Matthew Arnold - Kenneth Ashley - W. H. Auden - William Barnes - Oliver Bayley - Hilaire Belloc - John Betjeman - Laurence Binyon - William Blake - Edmund Blunden - Rupert Brooke - Robert Browning - Robert Burns - Thomas Campbell - Thomas Campion - G. K. Chesterton - Hartley Coleridge - Robert Conquest - W. J. Cory - John Davidson - Donald Davie - C. Day Lewis - Walter De la Mare - Ernest Dowson - Michael Drayton - Lawrence Durrell - Jean Elliot - George Farewell - James Elroy Flecker - Thomas Ford - Roy Fuller - Robert Graves - Thomas Gray - Fulke Greville - Heath - Reginald Heber - Felicia Dorothea Hemans - W. E. Henley - George Herbert - Ralph Hodgson - Thomas Hood - Teresa Hooley - Gerard Manley Hopkins - A. E. Housman - Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey - T. E. Hulme - Leigh Hunt - Elizabeth Jennings - Samuel Johnson - John Keats - Henry King - Charles Kingsley - Rudyard Kipling - Philip Larkin - Henry Wadsworth Longfellow - John Lydgate - H. F. Lyte - Louis MacNeice - Andrew Marvell - John Masefield - Alice Meynell - Harold Monro - William Morris - Edwin Muir - Henry Newbolt - Alfred Noyes - Wilfred Owen - Thomas Love Peacock - George Peele - Alexander Pope - Frederic Prokosch - Walter Ralegh - John Crowe Ransom - Christina Rossetti - Siegfried Sassoon - John Skelton - Robert Southey - Edmund Spenser - Sir John Squire - Robert Louis Stevenson - Sir John Suckling - Algernon Charles Swinburne - George Szirtes - Alfred, Lord Tennyson - Dylan Thomas - Edward Thomas - R. S. Thomas - Francis Thompson - Anthony Thwaite - Chidiock Tichborne - Aurelian Townsend - W. J. Turner - Oscar Wilde - John Wilmot, Lord Rochester - Roger Woddis - Charles Wolfe - William Wordsworth - William Butler Yeats - Andrew Young External links "Kingsley without the women", by Clive James, TLS 2 February 2007 "Kingsley Amis in the Great Tradition and in Our Time," by Robert H. Bell, Williams College. Introduction to Critical Essays on Kingsley Amis, ed. Robert H. Bell, New York: G.K. Hall, 1998. Guardian Books "Author Page", with profile and links to further articles. The Paris Review interview, with downloadable PDF "The Serious Comedian", by Tom Chatfield, Prospect Magazine, a review of Zachary Leader's biography. "The old devil" - article on Amis by Mark Steyn in The New Criterion The Amis Inheritance—Profile on Martin and Kingsley Amis by Charles McGrath from New York Times Magazine (4/22/2007). 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4,063 | Hopwood_Program | The Hopwood Program administers the University of Michigan Hopwood Award in literature, as well as several other awards in writing. It is located in the Hopwood Room at the University of Michigan and serves the needs and interests of Hopwood contestants. The Room was established by Professor Roy W. Cowden, Director of the Hopwood Awards from 1933 to 1952, who generously contributed a part of his library, which has grown through the addition of many volumes of contemporary literature. In addition to housing the winning manuscripts from the past years of the contests, the Hopwood Room has a lending library of twentieth -century literature, a generous supply of non-circulating current periodicals, some reference books on how to get published, information on graduate and summer writing programs, and a collection of screen plays donated by former Hopwood winner Lawrence Kasdan. Prizes Administered by the Hopwood Program The Hopwood Program also administers the following writing contests: The Kasdan Scholarship in Creative Writing Arthur Miller Award of The U-M Club of New York Scholarship The Jeffery L. Weisberg Poetry Prize The Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing The Dennis McIntyre Poetry Prize The Andrea Beauchamp Prize The Helen S. and John Wagner Prize The Robert F. Haugh Prize The Meader Family Award The Naomi Saferstein Literary Award The Leonard and Eileen Newman Writing Prizes The Paul and Sonia Handleman Poetry Award Notable Hopwood Winners Max Apple, (BA 1963). Author of: The Oranging of America (1976, short stories),Zip: A Novel of the Left and the Right (1978, novel),Three Stories (1983, short stories), Free Agents (1984, novel),The Propheteers: A Novel (1987, novel),Roommates: My Grandfather's Story (1994, biography, of Apple's grandfather) John Ciardi, author of:A Browser's Dictionary ,A Second Browser's Dictionary, A Third Browser's Dictionary,The Collected Poems of John Ciardi,Good Words to You: An All-New Dictionary and Native's Guide to the Unknown ,American Language, How Does a Poem Mean?, His translation of The Inferno,Limericks (with Isaac Asimov),You Read to Me, I'll Read to You, (illustrated by Edward Gorey) Mary Gaitskill,Bad Behavior (1988),Two Girls, Fat and Thin (1991),Because They Wanted To (1997) (stories),Veronica (2005). Steve Hamilton, 1983, author of “Blood Is the Sky”, “North of Nowhere”, “A Cold Day in Paradise”, “Winter of the Wolf Moon”, “The Hunting Wind”, “North of Nowhere”, and “Ice Run”. "A Cold Day In Paradise," won the 1999 Edgar Allan Poe Award, one of the mystery genre's most prestigious awards. Robert Hayden, (M.A. 1944). He enrolled in a graduate English Literature program at the University of Michigan where he studied with W. H. Auden. In 1969 he joined the English Department of the University of Michigan, where he taught until his death in 1980. Lawrence Kasdan Laura Kasischke Jane Kenyon, (BA 1970, MA 1972). New Hampshire's poet laureate Elizabeth Kostova, Novel-in-Progress The Historian Arthur Miller Howard Moss, won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for Selected Poems in 1971. Davi Napoleon, (BA 1966, MA 1968; known then as Davi Skurnick), theater historian and critic, author of Chelsea on the Edge: The Adventures of an American Theater. Frank O’Hara, M.A. 1951. Author of: “A City Winter and Other Poems”,“Oranges: 12 pastorals”, “Second Avenue”, “Odes”, “Lunch Poems. Love Poems”. Patrick O'Keeffe, (MFA), winner of the Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing for "Above the Bar." (administered by the Hopwood Program) and instructor in the University of Michigan’s Sweetland Writing Center has won the 2005 Story Prize, the richest U.S. prize for short fiction, for "The Hill Road", a collection of four novellas set in a fictional Irish farming village. O'Keeffe's writing has been compared to the Irish short-story and novel writer William Trevor. Marge Piercy, Poetry and Fiction (1957); author of seventeen volumes of poems Ronald Wallace Nancy Willard External links http://www.lsa.umich.edu/english/hopwood/hopwood.htm Hopwood 75th Anniversary see literature, University of Michigan, Arthur Miller, Hopwood Award | Hopwood_Program |@lemmatized hopwood:15 program:6 administer:4 university:6 michigan:6 award:12 literature:5 well:1 several:1 write:4 locate:1 room:3 serve:1 need:1 interest:1 contestant:1 establish:1 professor:1 roy:1 w:2 cowden:1 director:1 generously:1 contribute:1 part:1 library:2 grow:1 addition:2 many:1 volume:2 contemporary:1 housing:1 win:4 manuscript:1 past:1 year:1 contest:2 lending:1 twentieth:1 century:1 generous:1 supply:1 non:1 circulate:1 current:1 periodical:1 reference:1 book:1 get:1 publish:1 information:1 graduate:2 summer:1 writing:5 collection:2 screen:1 play:1 donate:1 former:1 winner:3 lawrence:2 kasdan:3 prize:10 also:1 follow:1 scholarship:2 creative:3 arthur:3 miller:3 u:2 club:1 new:3 york:1 jeffery:1 l:1 weisberg:1 poetry:5 chamberlain:2 dennis:1 mcintyre:1 andrea:1 beauchamp:1 helen:1 john:3 wagner:1 robert:2 f:1 haugh:1 meader:1 family:1 naomi:1 saferstein:1 literary:1 leonard:1 eileen:1 newman:1 paul:1 sonia:1 handleman:1 notable:1 max:1 apple:2 ba:3 author:6 oranging:1 america:1 short:4 story:7 zip:1 novel:7 left:1 right:1 three:1 free:1 agent:1 propheteers:1 roommate:1 grandfather:2 biography:1 ciardi:2 browser:3 dictionary:4 second:2 third:1 collected:1 poem:7 good:1 word:1 native:1 guide:1 unknown:1 american:2 language:1 mean:1 translation:1 inferno:1 limerick:1 isaac:1 asimov:1 read:2 illustrate:1 edward:1 gorey:1 mary:1 gaitskill:1 bad:1 behavior:1 two:1 girl:1 fat:1 thin:1 want:1 veronica:1 steve:1 hamilton:1 blood:1 sky:1 north:2 nowhere:2 cold:2 day:2 paradise:2 winter:2 wolf:1 moon:1 hunting:1 wind:1 ice:1 run:1 edgar:1 allan:1 poe:1 one:1 mystery:1 genre:1 prestigious:1 hayden:1 enrol:1 english:3 study:1 h:1 auden:1 join:1 department:1 teach:1 death:1 laura:1 kasischke:1 jane:1 kenyon:1 hampshire:1 poet:1 laureate:1 elizabeth:1 kostova:1 progress:1 historian:2 howard:1 moss:1 pulitzer:1 select:1 davi:2 napoleon:1 know:1 skurnick:1 theater:2 critic:1 chelsea:1 edge:1 adventure:1 frank:1 hara:1 city:1 orange:1 pastoral:1 avenue:1 odes:1 lunch:1 love:1 patrick:1 keeffe:2 mfa:1 bar:1 instructor:1 sweetland:1 center:1 rich:1 fiction:2 hill:1 road:1 four:1 novella:1 set:1 fictional:1 irish:2 farming:1 village:1 compare:1 writer:1 william:1 trevor:1 marge:1 piercy:1 seventeen:1 ronald:1 wallace:1 nancy:1 willard:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 www:1 lsa:1 umich:1 edu:1 htm:1 anniversary:1 see:1 |@bigram twentieth_century:1 isaac_asimov:1 edgar_allan:1 allan_poe:1 h_auden:1 poet_laureate:1 pulitzer_prize:1 marge_piercy:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 umich_edu:1 |
4,064 | Macbeth | Poster for a circa 1884 American production of Macbeth, starring Thomas W. Keene. Top-left: Macbeth and Banquo meet the three witches. Middle-left: Just after the murder of Duncan. Bottom-left: Banquo's ghost. Bottom-right: Macbeth duels Macduff. Macbeth is a tragedy by William Shakespeare about a regicide and its aftermath. It is Shakespeare's shortest tragedy and is believed to have been written sometime between 1603 and 1606, with 1607 being the very latest possible date. The earliest account of a performance of what was likely Shakespeare's play is April 1611, when Simon Forman recorded seeing such a play at the Globe Theatre. It was first published in the Folio of 1623, possibly from a prompt book for a specific performance. Shakespeare's sources for the tragedy are the accounts of Kings Macbeth, Duff, and Duncan in Holinshed's Chronicles (1587), a history of England, Scotland and Ireland familiar to Shakespeare and his contemporaries. In the back-stage world of theatre, some believe the play is cursed and will not mention its name aloud, referring to it instead as The Scottish play. Over the centuries, the play has attracted the greatest actors in the roles of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. The play has been adapted to film, television, opera, novels, comic books, and other media. Characters Duncan – King of Scotland Malcolm – Duncan's eldest son Donalbain – Duncan's youngest son Macbeth – A general in the army of King Duncan, originally Thane of Glamis,then Thane of Cawdor and later King of Scotland Lady Macbeth – Macbeth's wife, and later Queen of Scotland Banquo – Macbeth's friend and a general in the army of King Duncan, later his ghost torments Macbeth Fleance – Banquo's son Macduff – The Thane of Fife Lady Macduff – Macduff's wife Macduff's son Ross, Lennox, Angus, Menteith, Caithness – Scottish lords Siward – Earl of Northumberland, General of the English forces Young Siward – Siward's son Seyton – Macbeth's servant and attendant Hecate – Chief witch/Goddess of Witchcraft Three Witches Three Murderers Porter (or Messenger) - Gatekeeper at Macbeth's home Scottish Doctor - Lady Macbeth's doctor Synopsis Scene from Macbeth, depicting the witches' conjuring of an apparition in Act IV, Scene I. Painting by William Rimmer The first act of the play opens amidst thunder and lightning, with the Three Witches deciding that their next meeting shall be with Macbeth. In the following scene, a wounded captain reports to King Duncan of Scotland that his generals Macbeth, who is the Thane of Glamis, and Banquo, have just defeated the allied forces of Norway and Ireland, who were led by the rebel Macdonald. Macbeth, the King's kinsman, is praised for his bravery and fighting prowess. The scene changes. Macbeth and Banquo enter, discussing the weather and their victory ("So foul and fair a day I have not seen"). As they wander onto a heath, the three Witches, who have been waiting, greet them with prophecies. Even though it is Banquo who first challenges them, they address Macbeth. The first hails Macbeth as "Thane of Glamis", the second as "Thane of Cawdor", and the third proclaims that he shall "be King hereafter". Macbeth appears to be stunned to silence, so again Banquo challenges them. The Witches inform Banquo he shall father a line of kings, though he himself will not be one. While the two men wonder at these pronouncements, the Witches vanish, and another Thane, Ross, a messenger from the King, arrives and informs Macbeth of his newly bestowed title—Thane of Cawdor. The first prophecy is thus fulfilled. Immediately, Macbeth begins to harbour ambitions of becoming king. Macbeth writes to his wife about the Witches' prophecies. When Duncan decides to stay at the Macbeths' castle at Inverness, Lady Macbeth hatches a plan to murder him and secure the throne for her husband. Although Macbeth raises concerns about the regicide, Lady Macbeth eventually persuades him, by challenging his manhood, to follow her plan. On the night of the king's visit, Macbeth kills Duncan. The deed is not seen by the audience, but it leaves Macbeth so shaken that Lady Macbeth has to take charge. In accordance with her plan, she frames Duncan's sleeping servants for the murder by planting bloody daggers on them. Early the next morning, Lennox, a Scottish nobleman, and Macduff, the loyal Thane of Fife, arrive. See On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth. The drunken porter opens the gate and Macbeth leads them to the king's chamber, where Macduff discovers Duncan's corpse. In a feigned fit of anger, Macbeth murders the guards before they can protest their innocence. Macduff is immediately suspicious of Macbeth, but does not reveal his suspicions publicly. Fearing for their lives, Duncan's sons flee, Malcolm to England and his brother Donalbain to Ireland. The rightful heirs' flight makes them suspects and Macbeth assumes the throne as the new King of Scotland as a kinsman of the dead king. Macbeth seeing the Ghost of Banquo by Théodore Chassériau. Despite his success, Macbeth remains uneasy about the prophecy about Banquo. So Macbeth invites him to a royal banquet and discovers that Banquo and his young son, Fleance, will be riding out that night. He hires two men to kill them. A third murderer appears mysteriously in the park before the murder. While the assassins kill Banquo, Fleance escapes. At the banquet, Banquo's ghost enters and sits in Macbeth's place. Only Macbeth can see the spectre; the rest panic at the sight of Macbeth raging at an empty chair, until a desperate Lady Macbeth orders them to leave. Macbeth, disturbed, goes to the Witches once more. They conjure up three spirits with three further warnings and prophecies, which tell him to "beware Macduff", but also that "none of woman born shall harm Macbeth" and he will "never vanquish'd be until Great Birnam Wood to high Dunsinane Hill shall come against him". Since Macduff is in exile in England, Macbeth assumes that he is safe; so he puts to death everyone in Macduff's castle, including Macduff's wife and their young children. Lady Macbeth becomes racked with guilt from the crimes she and her husband have committed. In a famous scene, she sleepwalks and tries to wash imaginary bloodstains from her hands, all the while speaking of the terrible things she knows. Lady Macbeth sleepwalking by Johann Heinrich Füssli. In England, Malcolm and Macduff are informed by Ross that "your castle is surprised, your wives and babes savagely slaughtered." Macbeth, now viewed as a tyrant, sees many of his thanes defecting. Malcolm leads an army, along with Macduff and Englishmen Siward (the Elder), the Earl of Northumberland, against Dunsinane Castle. While encamped in Birnam Wood, the soldiers are ordered to cut down and carry tree limbs to camouflage their numbers, thus fulfilling the Witches' third prophecy. Meanwhile, Macbeth delivers a famous soliloquy ("Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow") upon his learning of Lady Macbeth's death (the cause is undisclosed, and it is assumed by some that she committed suicide, as Malcolm's final reference to her reveals "'tis thought, by self and violent hands / took off her life"). A battle culminates in the slaying of the young Siward and Macduff's confrontation with Macbeth. Macbeth boasts that he has no reason to fear Macduff, for he cannot be killed by any man born of woman. Macduff declares that he was "from his mother's womb untimely ripp'd" (i.e., born by Caesarean section) and was therefore not "of woman born". Macbeth realizes, too late, the Witches have misled him. Macduff beheads Macbeth off stage and thereby fulfills the last of the prophecies. Although Malcolm is placed on the throne and not Fleance, the witches' prophecy concerning Banquo, "Thou shalt [be]get kings", was known to the audience of Shakespeare's time to be true, for James I of England (also James VI of Scotland) was supposedly a descendant of Banquo. Sources Macbeth has been compared to Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra. Both Antony and Macbeth as characters seek a new world, even at the cost of the old one. Both are fighting for a throne and have a 'nemesis' to face in order to achieve that throne. For Antony the nemesis is Octavius, whereas for Macbeth it is Banquo. At one point Macbeth even compares himself to Antony, saying "under [Banquo] / My Genius is rebuk'd, as it is said / Mark Antonies was by Caesar." Lastly, both plays contain powerful female figures: Cleopatra and Lady Macbeth. Coursen (1997, 11-13) Shakespeare borrowed the story from several tales in Holinshed's Chronicles, a popular history of the British Isles known to Shakespeare and his contemporaries. In Chronicles, a man named Donwald finds several of his family put to death by his king, King Duff, for dealing with witches. After being pressured by his wife, he and four of his servants kill the King in his own house. As regards Macbeth himself, Chronicles portrays him as struggling to maintain the kingdom in the face of King Duncan's ineptitude. He and Banquo meet the three witches, who make exactly the same prophecies as in Shakespeare's version. Macbeth and Banquo then together plot the murder of Duncan, at Lady Macbeth's urging. Macbeth has a long, ten-year reign before eventually being overthrown by Macduff and Malcolm. The parallels between the two versions are clear. However, some scholars think that George Buchanan's Rerum Scoticarum Historia matches Shakespeare's version more closely. Buchanan's work was available in Latin in Shakespeare's day. Coursen (1997, 15-21) No other version of the story has Macbeth kill the king in Macbeth's own castle. Scholars have seen this change of Shakespeare's as adding to the darkness of Macbeth's crime as the worst violation of hospitality. Versions of the story that were common at the time had Duncan being killed in an ambush at Inverness, not in a castle. Shakespeare conflated the story of Donwald and King Duff in what was a significant change to the story. Coursen (1997, 17) Shakespeare made another revealing change. In the Chronicles, Banquo is an accomplice in Macbeth's murder of King Duncan. He also plays an important part in ensuring that Macbeth, not Malcolm, takes the throne in the coup that follows. In Shakespeare's day, Banquo was thought to be a direct ancestor of the Stuart King James I. Palmer, J. Foster. "The Celt in Power: Tudor and Cromwell" Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 1886 Vol. 3 pgs. 343–370 Banquo's Stuart descent was disproven in the 19th century, when it was discovered that the Fitzalans actually descended from a Breton family. The Banquo portrayed in historical sources is significantly different from the Banquo created by Shakespeare. Critics have proposed several reasons for this change. First, to portray the king's ancestor as a murderer would have been risky. Second, Shakespeare may have altered Banquo's character simply because there was no dramatic need for another accomplice to the murder; there was, however, a need to provide a dramatic contrast to Macbeth—a role which many scholars argue is filled by Banquo. Nagarajan, S. "A Note on Banquo." Shakespeare Quarterly. (Oct 1956) 7.4 pgs. 371–376 Other authors of the time who wrote about Banquo, such as Jean de Schelandre in his Stuartide, also changed history by portraying Banquo as a noble man rather than a murderer, probably for the same reasons. Maskell, D. W. "The Transformation of History into Epic: The 'Stuartide' (1611) of Jean de Schelandre." The Modern Language Review. (Jan 1971) 66.1 pgs. 53–65. Date and text Facsimile of the first page of Macbeth from the First Folio, published in 1623Macbeth cannot be dated precisely owing to significant evidence of later revisions. Many scholars conjecture the likely date of composition to be between 1603 and 1606. Charles Boyce, Encyclopaedia of Shakespeare, New York, Roundtable Press, 1990, p. 350. A.R. Braunmuller, ed. Macbeth (CUP, 1997), 5-8. As the play seems to be aimed at celebrating King James's ancestors and the Stuart accession to the throne in 1603 (James believed himself to be descended from Banquo), Braunmuller, Macbeth, pp. 2-3. they argue that the play is unlikely to have been composed earlier than 1603; and suggest that the parade of eight kings—which the witches show Macbeth in a vision in Act IV—is a compliment to King James VI of Scots. Other editors conjecture a more specific date of 1605-6, the principal reasons being possible allusions to the Gunpowder Plot and its ensuing trials. The Porter's speech (Act II, scene III, lines1-21), in particular, may contain allusions to the trial of the Jesuit Henry Garnet in spring, 1606; "equivocator" (line 8) may refer to Garnet's defence of "equivocation" [see: Doctrine of mental reservation], and "farmer" (4) to one of Garnet's aliases. Frank Kermode, "Macbeth," The Riverside Shakespeare (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), p. 1308; for details on Garnet, see Perez Zagorin, "The Historical Significance of Lying and Dissimulation—Truth-Telling, Lying, and self-Deception," Social Research, Fall 1996. However, "farmer" is a common word, and the concept of "equivocation" was also the subject of a 1583 tract by Queen Elizabeth's chief councillor Lord Burghley, and of the 1584 Doctrine of Equivocation by the Spanish prelate Martin Azpilcueta, which was disseminated across Europe and into England in the 1590s. Mark Anderson, Shakespeare By Another Name, 2005, pp. 402-403 Scholars also cite an entertainment seen by King James at Oxford in the summer of 1605 that featured three "sibyls" like the weird sisters; Kermode surmises that Shakespeare could have heard about this and alluded to it with the weird sisters. Kermode, Riverside Shakespeare, p. 1308. However, A. R. Braunmuller in the New Cambridge edition finds the 1605-6 arguments inconclusive, and argues only for an earliest date of 1603. Braunmuller, Macbeth, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997; pp. 5-8. The play is not considered to have been written any later than 1607, since, as Kermode notes, there are "fairly clear allusions to the play in 1607." The earliest account of a performance of the play is April 1611, when Simon Forman recorded seeing it at the Globe Theatre. If, that is, the Forman document is genuine; see the entry on Simon Forman for the question of the authenticity of the Book of Plays. Macbeth was first printed in the First Folio of 1623 and the Folio is the only source for the text. The text that survives had been plainly altered by later hands. Most notable is the inclusion of two songs from Thomas Middleton's play The Witch (1615); Middleton is conjectured to have inserted an extra scene involving the witches and Hecate, for these scenes had proven highly popular with audiences. These revisions, which since the Clarendon edition of 1869 have been assumed to include all of Act III, scene v, and a portion of Act IV, scene I, are often indicated in modern texts. Brooke, Nicholas, ed. The Tragedy of Macbeth Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998:57 On this basis, many scholars reject all three of the interludes with the goddess Hecate as inauthentic. Even with the Hecate material, the play is conspicuously short, and so the Folio text may derive from a prompt book that had been substantially cut for performance, or an adapter cut the text himself. Themes and motifs Macbeth is an anomaly among Shakespeare's tragedies in certain critical ways. It is short: more than a thousand lines shorter than Othello and King Lear, and only slightly more than half as long as Hamlet. This brevity has suggested to many critics that the received version is based on a heavily cut source, perhaps a prompt-book for a particular performance. That brevity has also been connected to other unusual features: the fast pace of the first act, which has seemed to be "stripped for action"; the comparative flatness of the characters other than Macbeth; the oddness of Macbeth himself compared with other Shakespearean tragic heroes. Macbeth as a tragedy of character At least since the days of Alexander Pope and Samuel Johnson, analysis of the play has centred on the question of Macbeth's ambition, commonly seen as so dominant a trait that it defines the character. Johnson asserted that Macbeth, though esteemed for his military bravery, is wholly reviled. This opinion recurs in critical literature. Like Richard III, but without that character's perversely appealing exuberance, Macbeth wades through blood until his inevitable fall. As Kenneth Muir writes, "Macbeth has not a predisposition to murder; he has merely an inordinate ambition that makes murder itself seem to be a lesser evil than failure to achieve the crown." Some critics, such as E. E. Stoll, explain this characterisation as a holdover from Senecan or medieval tradition. Shakespeare's audience, in this view, expected villains to be wholly bad, and Senecan style, far from prohibiting a villainous protagonist, all but demanded it. Yet for other critics, it has not been so easy to resolve the question of Macbeth's motivation. Robert Bridges, for instance, perceived a paradox: a character able to express such convincing horror before Duncan's murder would likely be incapable of committing the crime. For many critics, Macbeth's motivations in the first act appear vague and insufficient. John Dover Wilson hypothesised that Shakespeare's original text had an extra scene or scenes in which husband and wife discussed their plans. This interpretation is not fully provable; however, the motivating role of ambition for Macbeth is universally recognised. The evil actions motivated by his ambition seem to trap him in a cycle of increasing evil, as Macbeth himself recognises: "I am in blood; stepp'd insofar that, should I wade no more, returning were as tedious as to go o'er." Macbeth as a tragedy of moral order The disastrous consequences of Macbeth's ambition are not limited to him, of course. Almost from the moment of the murder, the play depicts Scotland as a land shaken by inversions of the natural order. Shakespeare may have intended a reference to the great chain of being, although the play's images of disorder are mostly not specific enough to support detailed intellectual readings. He may also have intended an elaborate compliment to James's belief in the divine right of kings, although this hypothesis, outlined at greatest length by Henry N. Paul, is not universally accepted. As in Julius Caesar, though, perturbations in the political sphere are echoed and even amplified by events in the material world. Among the most frequently depicted of the inversions of the natural order is sleep. Macbeth's announcement that he has "murdered sleep" is figuratively mirrored in Lady Macbeth's sleepwalking. Macbeth's generally accepted indebtedness to medieval tragedy is often seen as particularly significant in the play's treatment of moral order. Glynne Wickham connects the play, through the Porter, to a mystery play on the harrowing of hell. Howard Felperin argues that the play has a more complex attitude toward "orthodox Christian tragedy" than is often admitted; he sees a kinship between the play and the tyrant plays within the medieval liturgical drama. The theme of androgyny is often seen as a special aspect of the theme of disorder. Inversion of normative gender roles is most famously associated with the witches and with Lady Macbeth as she appears in the first act. Whatever Shakespeare's degree of sympathy with such inversions, the play ends with a fairly thorough return to normative gender values. Some feminist psychoanalytic critics, such as Janet Adelman, have connected the play's treatment of gender roles to its larger theme of inverted natural order. In this light, Macbeth is punished for his violation of the moral order by being removed from the cycles of nature (which are figured as female); nature itself (as embodied in the movement of Birnam Wood) is part of the restoration of moral order. Macbeth as a poetic tragedy Critics in the early twentieth century reacted against what they saw as an excessive dependence on the study of character in criticism of the play. This dependence, though most closely associated with Andrew Cecil Bradley, is evident as early as the time of Mary Cowden Clarke, who offered precise, if fanciful, accounts of the predramatic lives of Shakespeare's female leads. She suggested, for instance, that the child Lady Macbeth refers to in the first act died during a foolish military action. Witchcraft and evil Macbeth and Banquo with the Witches by Henry Fuseli. In the play, the Three Witches represent darkness, chaos, and conflict, while their role is as agents and witnesses. Kliman, 14. Their presence communicates treason and impending doom. During Shakespeare's day, witches were seen as worse than rebels, "the most notorious traytor and rebell that can be." They were not only political traitors, but spiritual traitors as well. Much of the confusion that springs from them comes from their ability to straddle the play's borders between reality and the supernatural. They are so deeply entrenched in both worlds that it is unclear whether they control fate, or whether they are merely its agents. They defy logic, not being subject to the rules of the real world. Coddon, Karin S. "'Unreal Mockery': Unreason and the Problem of Spectacle in Macbeth." ELH. (Oct 1989) 56.3 pp. 485-501. The witches' lines in the first act: "Fair is foul, and foul is fair: Hover through the fog and filthy air" are often said to set the tone for the remainder of the play by establishing a sense of confusion. Indeed, the play is filled with situations in which evil is depicted as good, while good is rendered evil. The line "Double, double toil and trouble," (often sensationalized to a point that it loses meaning), communicates the witches' intent clearly: they seek to only trouble for the mortals around them. While the witches do not directly advise Macbeth to kill King Duncan, they use a subtle form of temptation when they inform Macbeth that he is destined to be king. By placing this thought in his mind, they effectively guide him on the path to his own destruction. This follows the pattern of temptation many believed the Devil used at the time of Shakespeare. First, they argued, a thought is put in a man's mind, then the person may either indulge in the thought or reject it. Macbeth indulges in it, while Banquo rejects. Frye, Roland Mushat. "Launching the Tragedy of Macbeth: Temptation, Deliberation, and Consent in Act I." The Huntington Library Quarterly. (Jul 1987) 50.3 pp. 249-261 Superstition and "the Scottish play" While many today would simply chalk up any misfortune surrounding a production to coincidence, actors and other theatre people often consider it bad luck to mention Macbeth by name while inside a theatre, and usually refer to it superstitiously as The Scottish Play, or "MacBee", or when referencing the character rather than the play, "Mr. and Mrs. M", or "The Scottish King". This is because Shakespeare is said to have used the spells of real witches in his text, purportedly angering the witches and causing them to curse the play. Thus, to say the name of the play inside a theatre is believed to doom the production to failure, and perhaps cause physical injury or death to cast members. A large mythology has built up surrounding this superstition, with countless stories of accidents, misfortunes and even deaths, all mysteriously taking place during runs of Macbeth (or by actors who had uttered the name). The Austin Chronicle: Arts: The Curse of the Play An alternative explanation for the superstition is that struggling theatres or companies would often put on this popular 'blockbuster' in an effort to save their flagging fortunes. However, it is a tall order for any single production to reverse a long-running trend of poor business. Therefore, the last play performed before a theatre shut down was often Macbeth, and thus the growth of the idea that it was an 'unlucky' play. One particular incident that lent itself to the superstition was the Astor Place Riot. Because the cause of these riots was based on a conflict over two performances of Macbeth, this is often thought of as having been caused by the curse. Another explanation for this superstition is that theatre companies may have used Macbeth as a back-up play if they were to lose an actor and were not able to perform the production originally planned for the performance. This is because this play requires fewer actors (when doubling of characters for actors occurs) and has the least amount of text for the actors to memorize. "Macbeth" may have been the play that kept in theatre companies' back pockets, just in case some bad luck were to occur prior to any planning of a performance. Several methods exist to dispel the curse, depending on the actor. One, attributed to Michael York, is to immediately leave the building the stage is in with the person who uttered the name, walk around it three times, spit over their left shoulders, say an obscenity then wait to be invited back into the building. Babylon 5 - The Scripts of J. Michael Straczynski, Volume 6 by J. Michael Straczynski, Synthetic Labs Publishing (2006) A related practice is to spin around three times as fast as possible on the spot, sometimes accompanied by spitting over their shoulder, and uttering an obscenity. Another popular "ritual" is to leave the room, knock three times, be invited in, and then quote a line from Hamlet. Yet another is to recite one of Shylock's monologues from The Merchant of Venice. Performance history Shakespeare's day Apart from the one mentioned in the Forman document, there are no performances known with certainty in Shakespeare's era. Because of its Scottish theme, the play is sometimes said to have been written for, and perhaps debuted for, King James; however, no external evidence supports this hypothesis. The play's brevity and certain aspects of its staging (for instance, the large proportion of night-time scenes and the unusually large number of off-stage sounds) have been taken as suggesting that the text now extant was revised for production indoors, perhaps at the Blackfriars Theatre, which the King's Men acquired in 1608. For the date of acquisition, see, for instance, Adams, J. Q., Shakespearean Playhouses, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917: 224; Bentley, G. E. The Jacobean and Caroline Stage, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1941: 6.13-17; Chambers, E. K., The Elizabethan Stage, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923: 2.498. For Macbeth as an indoor play, see, for instance Bald, R.C., "Macbeth and the Short Plays," Review of English Studies 4 (1928): 430; Shirley, Frances, Shakespeare's Use of Off-stage Sounds, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1963: 168-89. Restoration and 18th century In the Restoration, Sir William Davenant produced a spectacular "operatic" adaptation of Macbeth, "with all the singing and dancing in it" and special effects like "flyings for the witches" (John Downes, Roscius Anglicanus, 1708). Davenant's revision also enhanced the role of Lady Macduff, making her a thematic foil to Lady Macbeth. In an April 19, 1667 entry in his Diary, Samuel Pepys called Davenant's MacBeth "one of the best plays for a stage, and variety of dancing and music, that ever I saw." The Davenant version held the stage until the middle of the next century. It was this version that the famous Macbeths of the early eighteenth century, such as James Quin, employed. Charles Macklin, not otherwise recalled as a great Macbeth, is remembered for performances at the Covent Garden in 1773 at which riots broke out, related to Macklin's rivalries with Garrick and William Smith. Macklin performed in Scottish dress, reversing an earlier tendency to dress Macbeth as an English brigadier; he also removed Garrick's death speech and further trimmed Lady Macduff's role. The performance received generally respectful reviews, although George Steevens remarked on the inappropriateness of Macklin (then in his eighties) for the role. After Garrick, the most celebrated Macbeth of the eighteenth century was John Philip Kemble; he performed the role most famously with his sister, Sarah Siddons, whose Lady Macbeth was widely regarded as unsurpassable. Kemble continued the trends toward realistic costume and to Shakespeare's language that had marked Macklin's production; Walter Scott reports that he experimented continually with the Scottish dress of the play. Response to Kemble's interpretation was divided; however, Siddons was unanimously praised. Her performance of the "sleepwalking" scene in the fifth act was especially noted; Leigh Hunt called it "sublime." The Kemble-Siddons performances were the first widely influential productions in which Lady Macbeth's villainy was presented as deeper and more powerful than Macbeth's. It was also the first in which Banquo's ghost did not appear on stage. Kemble's Macbeth struck some critics as too mannered and polite for Shakespeare's text. His successor as the leading actor of London, Edmund Kean, was more often criticised for emotional excess, particularly in the fifth act. Kean's Macbeth was not universally admired; William Hazlitt, for instance, complained that Kean's Macbeth was too like his Richard III. As he did in other roles, Kean exploited his athleticism as a key component of Macbeth's mental collapse. He reversed Kemble's emphasis on Macbeth as noble, instead presenting him as a ruthless politician who collapses under the weight of guilt and fear. Kean, however, did nothing to halt the trend toward extravagance in scene and costume. Nineteenth century The Macbeth of the next predominant London actor, William Charles Macready, provoked responses at least as mixed as those given Kean. Macready debuted in the role in 1820 at Covent Garden. As Hazlitt noted, Macready's reading of the character was purely psychological; the witches lost all supernatural power, and Macbeth's downfall arose purely from the conflicts in Macbeth's character. Macready's most famous Lady Macbeth was Helena Faucit, who debuted dismally in the role while still in her mid-20s, but who later achieved acclaim in the role for an interpretation that, unlike Siddons', accorded with contemporary notions of female decorum. After Macready "retired" to America, he continued to perform in the role; in 1849, he was involved in a rivalry with American actor Edwin Forrest, whose partisans hissed Macready at Astor Place, leading to what is commonly called the Astor Place Riot. Charles Kean and his wife as Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, in costumes aiming to be historically accurate (1858). The two most prominent Macbeths of mid-century, Samuel Phelps and Charles Kean, were both received with critical ambivalence and popular success. Both are famous less for their interpretation of character than for certain aspects of staging. At Sadler's Wells Theatre, Phelps brought back nearly all of Shakespeare's original text. He brought back the first half of the Porter scene, which had been ignored by directors since D'Avenant; the second remained cut because of its ribaldry. He abandoned Irving's music and reduced the witches to their role in the folio. Just as significantly, he returned to the folio treatment of Macbeth's death. Not all of these decisions succeeded in the Victorian context, and Phelps experimented with various combinations of Shakespeare and D'Avenant in his more than a dozen productions between 1844 and 1861. His most successful Lady Macbeth was Isabella Glyn, whose commanding presence reminded some critics of Siddons. The outstanding feature of Kean's productions at the Princess's Theatre after 1850 was their accuracy of costume. Kean achieved his greatest success in modern melodrama, and he was widely viewed as not prepossessing enough for the greatest Elizabethan roles. Audiences did not mind, however; one 1853 production ran for twenty weeks. Presumably part of the draw was Kean's famous attention to historical accuracy; in his productions, as Allardyce Nicoll notes, "even the botany was historically correct." Henry Irving's first attempt at the role, at the Lyceum Theatre, London in 1875, was a failure. Under the production of Sidney Frances Bateman, and starring alongside Kate Josephine Bateman, Irving may have been affected by the recent death of his manager Hezekiah Linthicum Bateman. Although the production lasted eighty performances, his Macbeth was judged inferior to his Hamlet. His next essay, opposite Ellen Terry at the Lyceum in 1888, fared better, playing for 150 performances. "Henry Irving as Macbeth", PeoplePlay UK website At the urging of Herman Klein, Irving engaged Arthur Sullivan to write a suite of incidental music for the piece. Information about Sullivan's incidental music to Macbeth in 1888, The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive Friends such as Bram Stoker defended his "psychological" reading, based on the supposition that Macbeth had dreamed of killing Duncan before the start of the play. His detractors, among them Henry James, deplored his somewhat arbitrary word changes ("would have" for "should have" in the speech at Lady Macbeth's death) and his "neurasthenic" approach to the character. Twentieth century to present Barry Vincent Jackson staged an influential modern-dress production with the Birmingham Repertory in 1928; the production reached London, playing at the Royal Court Theatre. It received mixed reviews; Eric Maturin was judged an inadequate Macbeth, though Mary Merrall's vampish Lady was reviewed favourably. Though The Times judged it a "miserable failure," the production did much to overturn the tendency to scenic and antiquarian excess that had peaked with Charles Kean. The Federal Theatre Project Negro Unit's production of Macbeth, 1935 Among the most publicised productions of the twentieth century was mounted by the Federal Theater Project at the Lafayette Theatre in Harlem from 14 April to 20 June 1936. Orson Welles, in his first stage production, directed Jack Carter and Edna Thomas, with Canada Lee playing Banquo, in an all African American production. Welles set the play in post-colonial Haiti, and his direction emphasised spectacle and suspense: his dozens of "African" drums recalled Davenant's chorus of witches. Laurence Olivier played Malcolm in the 1929 production and Macbeth in 1937 at the Old Vic Theatre in a production that saw the Vic's artistic director Lilian Baylis pass away the night before it opened. Olivier's makeup was so thick and stylised for that production that Vivien Leigh was quoted as saying "You hear Macbeth's first line, then Larry's makeup comes on, then Banquo comes on, then Larry comes on". Robert Tanitch, Olivier, Abbeville Press (1985) Olivier later starred in what is among the most famous twentieth-century productions, by Glen Byam Shaw at Stratford-upon-Avon in 1955. Vivien Leigh played Lady Macbeth. The supporting cast, which Harold Hobson denigrated, included many actors who went on to successful Shakespearean careers: Ian Holm played Donalbain, Keith Michell was Macduff, and Patrick Wymark the Porter. Olivier was the key to success. The intensity of his performance, particularly in the conversation with the murderers and in confronting Banquo's ghost, seemed to many reviewers to recall Edmund Kean. Plans for a film version faltered after the box-office failure of Olivier's Richard III. It was of this performance that Kenneth Tynan asserted flatly that "no one has ever succeeded as Macbeth"—until Olivier. Olivier's co-star in his 1937 Old Vic Theatre production, Judith Anderson, had an equally triumphant association with the play. She played Lady Macbeth on Broadway opposite Maurice Evans in a production directed by Margaret Webster that ran for 131 performances in 1941, the longest run of the play in Broadway history. Anderson and Evans performed the play on television twice, in 1954 and 1962, with Maurice Evans winning an Emmy Award the 1962 production and Anderson winning the award for both presentations. A film adaptation in 1971 titled The Tragedy of Macbeth was executive produced by Hugh Hefner. One of the most notable twentieth-century productions is that of Trevor Nunn for the Royal Shakespeare Company in 1976. Nunn had directed Nicol Williamson and Helen Mirren in the play two years earlier, but that production had largely failed to impress. In 1976, Nunn produced the play with a minimalist set at The Other Place; this small, nearly round stage focused attention on the psychological dynamics of the characters. Both Ian McKellen in the title role and Judi Dench as Lady Macbeth received exceptionally favourable reviews. Dench won the 1977 SWET Best Actress award for her performance and in 2004, members of the RSC voted her performance the greatest by an actress in the history of the company. Nunn's production transferred to London in 1977 and was later filmed for television. It was to overshadow Peter Hall's 1978 production with Albert Finney as Macbeth and Dorothy Tutin as Lady Macbeth. But the most infamous recent Macbeth was staged at the Old Vic in 1980. Peter O'Toole and Frances Tomelty took the leads in a production (by Bryan Forbes) that was publicly disowned by Timothy West, artistic director of the theatre, before opening night, despite being a sellout because of its notoriety. As critic Jack Tinker noted in the Daily Mail: "The performance is not so much downright bad as heroically ludicrous." London Stage in the 20th Century by Robert Tanitch, Haus Publishing (2007) ISBN 9781904950745 On the stage, Lady Macbeth is considered one of the more "commanding and challenging" roles in Shakespeare's work. Brown, Langdon. Shakespeare around the Globe: A Guide to Notable Postwar Revivals. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986: 355. Other actresses who have succeeded in the role include Gwen Ffrangcon-Davies, Glenda Jackson, and Jane Lapotaire. A performance was staged in the real Macbeth's home of Moray, produced by the National Theatre of Scotland, to take place at Elgin Cathedral. Professional actors, dancers, musicians, school children, and a community cast from the Moray area all took part in what was an important event in the Highland Year of Culture (2007). In the same year there was general consent among critics that Rupert Goold's production for the Chichester Festival 2007, starring Patrick Stewart and Kate Fleetwood, rivalled Trevor Nunn's acclaimed 1976 RSC production. And when it transferred to the Gielgud Theatre in London, Charles Spencer reviewing for the Daily Telegraph pronounced it the best Macbeth he had ever seen. At the Evening Standard Theatre Awards 2007 the production won both the Best Actor award for Stewart, and the Best Director award for Goold. Winning performances on the West End stage | News . The same production opened in the US at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in 2008, moving to Broadway (Lyceum Theatre) after a sold-out run. In 2003, Indian Director Vishal Bharadwaj directed his own adaptation to Macbeth, titled Maqbool. Set in the current timeline in the Mumbai underworld, the movie starred Irrfan Khan, Tabu, Pankaj Kapur, Om Puri, Naseeruddin Shah and Piyush Jha in prominent roles. The movie was highly acclaimed and shot both, director Vishal Bharadwaj as well as Irrfan Khan to fame. In 2008, Pegasus Books published The Tragedy of Macbeth Part II: The Seed of Banquo, a play by American author and playwright Noah Lukeman which endeavored to pick up where the original Macbeth left off, and to resolve its many loose ends. Written in blank verse, the play was published to critical acclaim. References Secondary sources External links Performances Performances and Photographs from London and Stratford performances of Macbeth 1960 - 2000 - From the Designing Shakespeare resource The Shakespeare Video Society edition (Google Video - 2 hours 12 mins) Macbeth on Film Audio Recording Macbeth: Free Full-length Recording on ejunto.com Text of Play Macbeth Navigator - searchable, annotated HTML version of Macbeth. The Complete Works of William Shakespeare - Entire play in basic HTML. Classic Literature Library - HTML version of Macbeth. Project Gutenberg : Macbeth - ASCII plain-text from Project Gutenberg shakespeareNet - Act by Act summary of Macbeth No Fear Shakespeare - By Sparknotes - Original Text and a Modern Translation side-by-side Macbeth - Searchable and scene-indexed version of Macbeth. Commentary Sparknotes CliffsNotes Macbeth - study guide, themes, quotes, teachers' guide Lesson plans for Macbeth at Web English Teacher Shakespeare and the Uses of Power by Steven Greenblatt Macbeth Text-Based Game - Full text of Macbeth with a Text-Based Game. 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4,065 | Dalhousie_University | Dalhousie University is a university located in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. As the largest post-secondary educational institution in the Maritime Provinces it offers a wide array of programs, including a medical program and the Dalhousie Law School. The chancellor is Mr. Fred Fountain; Dr. Tom Traves serves as president and vice-chancellor. Dalhousie is consistently named among Canada's top research universities. It is a member of the Group of Thirteen, more commonly referred to as the G13, a group of the leading universities in Canada. In 2003 and 2004, The Scientist magazine placed Dalhousie among the top five places in the world, outside the United States, for postdoctoral work and conducting scientific research. Dalhousie Research In 2007 Dalhousie topped the list of The Scientist’s “Best Places to Work in Academia”. The annual list divides research and academic institutions into American and international lists; Dalhousie University is ranked first in the international category. According to a survey conducted by The Scientist magazine, Dal was named the best non-commercial scientific institute in which to work in Canada. Dalhousie Communication and Marketing Dalhousie University was ranked as the eighth-best university (Medical Doctoral Rankings) in Canada by Maclean's Magazine in 2008. Macleans Medical Doctoral Ranking 2008 In addition, Maclean's ranked Dalhousie's law school sixth overall for two consecutive years. In the 2008 edition of the annual Times Higher Education Supplement-Quacquarelli Symonds World University Rankings, Dalhousie ranked 11th in Canada and 197th internationally. History Dalhousie College was founded in 1818 as a non-denominational university by the 9th Earl of Dalhousie, at the time the Governor of Nova Scotia. Dalhousie University Dalhousie University awarded its first BA in 1866. Using money acquired from the duties collected during the occupation of parts of Maine in the War of 1812, Ramsay established Dalhousie as a college open to all people regardless of class or creed. At the laying of the cornerstone on May 22, 1820, Lord Dalhousie said that this University was "founded on the principles of religious tolerance." Dalhousie remained one of only three universities founded on secular constitutional premises until as late as the 1950s. Although it was technically founded in 1818, Dalhousie did not have its first students until November 1st, 1838. However, following the death of the University's first principal, Thomas McCulloch, in 1843 the school was once again allowed to fall into inactivity. Dalhousie did not permanently open its door again until November 10, 1863. In 1876 the experiment was commenced in Halifax, Nova Scotia of a University to hold examinations in arts, law, and medicine, and to confer degrees. http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/tlctd10.txt The Project Gutenberg EBook #6466 of 'The Intellectual Development of the Canadian People, A historical review' by John George Bourinot, House of Commons, Ottawa, February 17th, 1881 Dalhousie was distinctive as an urban institution, situated in downtown Halifax on the site of the present City Hall. This status was seen not only, in the early days at least, in the use of much of the college's lowest floor as vault space for Oland Brewery, but also in the consistent drawing of about one-third of the student body from the city and in the college's ability to draw upon local professional populations in the establishment of professional faculties such as medicine (1868) and law (1883). Finances remained difficult into the 1880s, but by the end of that decade the accumulated donations of the philanthropist George Munro, brother-in-law of Board of Governors member John Forrest, had provided the stimulus that led to growth in student numbers and the emergence of Dalhousie as a centre of scholarship acknowledged throughout the dominion. Dalhousie's colours of black and gold come from the jerseys worn by the Dalhousie University Rugby Football Club (who still wear those colours, as well as the school crest on their jerseys). The Halifax Conservatory became affiliated with Dalhousie in 1889. Dalhousie Henry Hicks Academic Administration Building, September 2002|Henry Hicks building. In 1920 the University of King's College in Windsor, Nova Scotia, English Canada's oldest degree granting institution, burned down. Through a grant from the Carnegie Foundation, King's College was able to relocate to Halifax and entered into a partnership with Dalhousie University. While often seen as a separate but integrated institution, King's shares Dalhousie's Arts and Sciences Faculty, but offers several interdisciplinary humanities degree programmes, such as Contemporary Studies, History of Science and Technology and Early Modern Studies. University of Kings College In 1936, the Institute of Public Affairs was established at Dalhousie University. Dalhousie expanded its presence in south-end Halifax during the 1960s and 1970s when it built the Dalplex athletic facility, the Killam Library, the Life Sciences Centre, the Dalhousie Student Union building and a district heating plant, all on what is referred to as the Studley Campus (the main campus). Also at this time, Dalhousie built the Tupper Building for its Faculty of Medicine and expanded existing buildings to house the Faculty of Dentistry and College of Pharmacy, all on the adjacent Carleton Campus, located immediately to the east of the Studley Campus, and co-located with two of Halifax's teaching hospitals (the Victoria General Site of the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre and the IWK Health Centre for Women, Children, and Youth). Killam libray atrium Nova Scotia Technical College in Halifax launched its program in architecture in 1961. Nova Scotia Technical College was later the Technical University of Nova Scotia (TUNS). Architectural Education Following a period of government-mandated consolidation of post-secondary institutions during the 1990s, the Technical University of Nova Scotia was merged with Dalhousie University in 1997. It was initially known as Dalhousie University Polytechnic, or DalTech, but in 2000 the DalTech nickname was dropped and the engineering, architecture and computer science faculties of TUNS were fully integrated into Dalhousie University. The Faculty of Engineering and the Faculty of Architecture and Planning are located on the Sexton Campus, east of the Carleton Campus and closer to downtown Halifax. The Faculty of Computer Science moved to its own building, the Goldberg Computer Science Building on Studley Campus, in 1999. Sexton Campus Gymnasium Dalhousie is part of the Canadian Ivy League. Among North American universities, only Harvard, Yale, Princeton, McGill and the University of Toronto boast more Rhodes Scholars than Dalhousie. Faculties and departments Dalhousie University, Henry Hicks building, January 2009 Dalhousie comprises eleven faculties: Architecture and Planning The following degrees are offered: Bachelor of Commmunity Design, Bachelor of Community Design Honours, Master of Planning, Master of Planning Studies, Bachelor of Environmental Design Studies, Master of Architecture Dalhousie University, Tupper Medical Building.jpg Arts and Social Sciences Computer Science Dentistry Engineering Students can choose to specialize in the following disciplines: Biological Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Metallurgical Engineering and Mining Engineering Canadian Engineering Memorial Foundation - University List Graduate Studies Health Professions Law Management Medicine Science Campus life Dalhousie's campus newspaper, the Dalhousie Gazette, was founded in 1868, making it the oldest student newspaper in Canada and one of the oldest continuously-running student newspapers in North America. Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement and convocation, and athletic games are: Carmina Dalhousiana (Halifax 1882). Dalhousie University Song-book, compiled by Charles B. Weikel [Halifax 1904] http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0000759SUBReadings The first Friday in February of each year is Munro Day, a holiday celebrating financial contributions made to the school in its infancy by George Munro. Athletics The University’s Department of Athletics and Recreational Services is represented in Atlantic University Sport (AUS) competition by the Dalhousie Tigers. Dalhousie has 14 varsity teams, including men’s and women’s teams in cross country, soccer, track and field, basketball, hockey, volleyball and swimming. Representing these teams are over 300 athletes, coaches, trainers and managers. Since 1990, the Dalhousie Tigers have brought home 127 AUS championships, five Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) team championships and numerous individual national medals. During the 2007-08 varsity season the Tigers captured six AUS championships including: men’s cross country, men’s volleyball, men’s swimming, women’s swimming, men’s track and field, and women’s track and field. Dalhousie also has dozens of intramural and club sports, from rock climbing and rugby to field hockey and sailing. Facilities Dalhousie University is spread over three campuses on the Halifax peninsula, all within walking distance of one another. The largest, the Studley Campus, was originally designed by Andrew R. Cobb. It is generally rectangular in shape, and is bounded by Coburg Street to the north, Robie Street to the east, South Street to the south, and Oxford Street to the west. University Avenue acts as the main thoroughfare. Studley Campus is the main campus for undergraduate studies in the arts, social sciences, and sciences, as well as being the home of the first-year engineering program, and the law school. Its wide range of facilities include the Henry Hicks Academic Administration building, the Killam Library, the Life Sciences Centre, the Marion McCain Arts and Social Sciences building, the Kenneth C. Rowe Management building, the Student Union building (commonly called the SUB), an a new academic building currently under construction with an expected completion date of 2010. Directly to the east of the Studley Campus, on the opposite side of Robie Street, is the Carleton Campus. It is home to the faculties of Dentistry, Medicine, and Health Professions, including the departments of pharmacology, nursing, and occupational therapy. Further east, on Barrington Street, downtown, is the Sexton Campus. Originally the Technical University of Nova Scotia (until 1997), it is home to the Architecture, Engineering, and Planning faculties. Current issues Dalhousie's preliminary enrolment for 2007-08 consists of 10,254 full-time undergraduate students and 2,793 full-time graduate students Association of Atlantic Universities (2007). Survey of Preliminary Enrolments as of October 1, 2007. Retrieved December 11, 2007. . Dalhousie has balanced 20 straight budgets, but like many of Canada's universities, is facing long-term challenges in deferred maintenance. The university is going through a building phase. A new building for the Faculty of Computer Science opened in October 1999 followed shortly thereafter by the Marion McCain Arts and Social Sciences Building. The Howe Hall residence was expanded with the addition of Fountain House and a new residence was also built, named John Risley Hall. The Kenneth C. Rowe Management Building opened in October 2005. The university is presently constructing the New Academic Building on Coburg Street, and has received $15 million from the federal government towards the present construction of the new Life Sciences Research Institute, which the university will share with project partners Capital Health and the IWK Health Centre. Dalhousie University, Rowe Management Building, 2009 On March 6 and 7 2007, the Dalhousie Student Union held a referendum on a plan from the university administration which proposed the addition of new student areas and the renovation of existing spaces across the Dalhousie campus Dalhousie News (2007). Dalhousie News - A chance to shape Dalhousie for the better. . The final vote was No, with 57.3% of voters agreeing that the proposed improvements were unnecessary or should not be funded solely by student dollars. Had the referendum succeeded, the construction and renovations would have been funded through an increase in student fees of $10.00 per course, reaching a maximum of $100 per year, for several decades. Dalhousie University is building Canada's only corporate residency MBA. It's a 22-month program integrating North America's top employers into the academic process, providing students with exceptional paid work experience, innovative curriculum, and leadership development skills to launch their careers. Dalhousie MBA Program . Dalhousie is noted as one the top research facilities in Canada and was ranked number 8 for its category in Maclean's for the year of 2007.[] Notable Dalhousie University people Faculty members View of lawn in front of A&A building Dr. Said Awad, Urology Dr. Stephen L. Bearne - Biochemistry Dr. Mike Gray - Biochemistry, Evolution Dr. Patrick Lee - Microbiology and Immunology Dr. Ford Doolittle - Biochemistry, Evolution Dr. Axel Becke - Chemistry Dr. Stanimir Bonev - Physics Dr. Jonathan Borwein - Computer Science, Experimental mathematics Dr. David M. Cameron - Political Science Dr. Vlado Keselj - Computer Science, Natural Language Processing Dr. Hans Jürgen Kreuzer - Physics Dr. J. Michael Lee - Biomedical Engineering Dr. Evangelos E. Milios - Computer Science, Machine Learning Dr. Patrick McGrath - Psychology Dr. Lars Osberg - Economics Dr. Jane Parpart - International Development Studies Dr. Shelly Phipps - Economics Dr. Victor F. Rafuse - Anatomy & Neurobiology/Neuroscience Dr. Robert Rosen - Biophysics Dr. Keith R. Thompson - Oceanography, Statistics Dr. Richard J. Wood - Math Dr. Norbert Zeh - Computer Science, Algorithms Alumni (See Dalhousie Law School for law school alumni.) Richard Bennett Hatfield, former Premier of New Brunswick Scott Brison, Canadian Member of Parliament and past Candidate for leadership of the Liberal Party of Canada - Bachelor of Commerce Barbara Fris, Canadian operatic soprano - Bachelor of Music (Performance) http://www.barbarafris.com Erik Demaine - MacArthur Fellowship recipient Albert Ross Hill - president of the University of Missouri (1908 - 1921) George Laurence - nuclear physicist Michael Leir, Canadian High Commissioner to Australia Shaun Majumder, Actor/Comedian Alexa McDonough, previous national leader of the NDP Lucy Maud (L.M.) Montgomery, author of Anne of Green Gables (attended 1895, 1896) Chris Murphy, Bassist and vocalist of rock group Sloan Kathryn D. Sullivan, First American woman to walk in space George Elliot Clarke, Author and recipient of the Governor General's Award Charles Peter McColough, Xerox CEO Kishore Mahbubani, former Ambassador of the Republic of Singapore to the United Nations, Dean of the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy Sean Durfy, President and CEO of WestJet Julia McGrath, President and CEO of iParty References See also Dalhousie Student Union Dalhousie Law School Dalhousie Tigers - varsity athletics teams Fenwick Place Fraternities and sororities at Dalhousie University Dalhousie Arts Centre University of King's College Canadian Interuniversity Sport Canadian government scientific research organizations Canadian university scientific research organizations Canadian industrial research and development organizations List of agricultural universities and colleges List of universities with industrial engineering faculty List of colleges and universities named after people Higher education in Nova Scotia List of universities in Nova Scotia Histories of the University Heather Alder 'The Lives of Dalhousie University, Vol. 1: Lord Dalhousie's College, 1818-1925' (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, January 6, 1994) Dr. Peter Busby Waite, PhD. Professor Emeritus 'The Lives of Dalhousie University' Vol I (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994) Dr. Peter Busby Waite, PhD. Professor Emeritus 'The Lives of Dalhousie University' Vol II (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1998) Henry Roper and James W. Clark. "Religion and Intellectual Freedom on the Dalhousie Campus in the 1920s: The Case of Norman J. Symons." Dalhousie Review 69, no. 2 (Spring 1989). External links Dalhousie University The Buildings of Dalhousie Dalhousie Gazette - Student Newspaper Webcam views of Dalhousie Dalhousie University Faculty of Computer Science Dalhousie University School of Biomedical Engineering DSU Events Posting CKDU - Listen online Dalhousie Law School Dalhousie Academic Timetable Review of The Lives of Dalhousie University The Earls of Dalhousie Dalhousie Senior Administration Salaries Dalhousie Athletic & Recreational Services Dalhousie University Faculty of Medicine | Dalhousie_University |@lemmatized dalhousie:85 university:65 locate:4 halifax:12 nova:11 scotia:11 canada:12 large:2 post:3 secondary:2 educational:1 institution:6 maritime:1 provinces:1 offer:3 wide:2 array:1 program:6 include:5 medical:4 law:11 school:12 chancellor:2 mr:1 fred:1 fountain:2 dr:25 tom:1 traves:1 serf:1 president:4 vice:1 consistently:1 name:4 among:4 top:5 research:9 member:4 group:3 thirteen:1 commonly:3 refer:2 lead:2 scientist:3 magazine:3 place:4 five:2 world:2 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4,066 | IEEE_802.3 | IEEE 802.3 is a collection of IEEE standards defining the physical layer, and the media access control (MAC) sublayer of the data link layer, of wired Ethernet. This is generally a LAN technology with some WAN applications. Physical connections are made between nodes and/or infrastructure devices (hubs, switches, routers) by various types of copper or fiber cable. 802.3 is a technology that can support the IEEE 802.1 network architecture. The maximum packet size is 1518 bytes, although to allow the Q-tag for Virtual LAN and priority data in 802.3ac it is extended to 1522 bytes. If the upper layer protocol submits a protocol data unit (PDU) less than 64 bytes, 802.3 will pad the data field to achieve the minimum 64 bytes. The minimum Frame size will then always be of 64 bytes. Although it is not technically correct, the terms packet and frame are often used interchangeably. The ISO/IEC 8802-3 and ANSI/IEEE 802.3 standards refer to MAC sub-layer frames consisting of the destination address, the source address, length/type, data payload, and frame check sequence (FCS) fields. The preamble and Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) are (usually) together considered a header to the MAC frame. This header and the MAC frame constitute a packet. The original Ethernet is called Experimental Ethernet today. It was developed by Robert Metcalfe in 1972 (patented in 1978) and was based in part on the wireless ALOHAnet protocol. The first Ethernet that was generally used outside Xerox was DIX Ethernet, followed by Ethernet II. IEEE defines a 802.3 standard where the Type field is replaced by Length, and an 802.2 LLC header follows with the Type field. However, as DIX Ethernet was derived from Experimental Ethernet, and as many standards have been developed that are based on DIX Ethernet, the technical community has accepted the term Ethernet for all of them. Therefore, the term Ethernet can be used to name networks using any of the following standardized media and functions: IEEE 802.3 Standards Ethernet StandardDateDescriptionExperimentalEthernet19722.94 Mbit/s (367 kB/s) over coaxial cable (coax) cable busEthernet II(DIX v2.0)198210 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thin coax (thinnet) - Frames have a Type field. This frame format is used on all forms of Ethernet by protocols in the Internet protocol suite.IEEE 802.3198310BASE5 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thick coax — same as DIX except Type field is replaced by Length, and an 802.2 LLC header follows the 802.3 header802.3a198510BASE2 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thin Coax (thinnet or cheapernet)802.3b198510BROAD36802.3c198510 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) repeater specs802.3d1987FOIRL (Fiber-Optic Inter-Repeater Link)802.3e19871BASE5 or StarLAN802.3i199010BASE-T 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over twisted pair802.3j199310BASE-F 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over Fiber-Optic802.3u1995100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4, 100BASE-FX Fast Ethernet at 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s) w/autonegotiation802.3x1997Full Duplex and flow control; also incorporates DIX framing, so there's no longer a DIX/802.3 split802.3y1998100BASE-T2 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s) over low quality twisted pair802.3z19981000BASE-X Gbit/s Ethernet over Fiber-Optic at 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s)802.3-19981998A revision of base standard incorporating the above amendments and errata802.3ab19991000BASE-T Gbit/s Ethernet over twisted pair at 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s)802.3ac1998Max frame size extended to 1522 bytes (to allow "Q-tag") The Q-tag includes 802.1Q VLAN information and 802.1p priority information.802.3ad2000Link aggregation for parallel links, since moved to IEEE 802.1AX802.3-20022002A revision of base standard incorporating the three prior amendments and errata802.3ae200310 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over fiber; 10GBASE-SR, 10GBASE-LR, 10GBASE-ER, 10GBASE-SW, 10GBASE-LW, 10GBASE-EW802.3af2003Power over Ethernet802.3ah2004Ethernet in the First Mile802.3ak200410GBASE-CX4 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over twin-axial cable802.3-20052005A revision of base standard incorporating the four prior amendments and errata.802.3an200610GBASE-T 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair(UTP)802.3ap2007Backplane Ethernet (1 and 10 Gbit/s (125 and 1,250 MB/s) over printed circuit boards)802.3aq200610GBASE-LRM 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over multimode fiber802.3arCancelledCongestion management802.3as2006Frame expansion802.3at~ Sep 2009 Closing report at http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/3/minutes/mar09/index.html Power over Ethernet enhancements802.3au2006Isolation requirements for Power Over Ethernet (802.3-2005/Cor 1)802.3av~ Sep 200910 Gbit/s EPON802.3aw2007Fixed an equation in the publication of 10GBASE-T (released as 802.3-2005/Cor 2)802.3-20082008A revision of base standard incorporating the 802.3an/ap/aq/as amendments, two corrigenda and errata. Link aggregation was moved to 802.1AX.802.3az~ Sep 2010Energy Efficient Ethernet802.3ba~ Jun 201040 Gbit/s and 100 Gbit/s Ethernet. 40 Gbit/s over 1m backplane, 10m Cu cable assembly (4x25 Gbit or 10x10 Gbit lanes) and 100 m of MMF and 100 Gbit/s up to 10 m or Cu cable assembly, 100 m of MMF or 40 km of SMF respectively802.3bb~ Autumn 2009Increase Pause Reaction Delay timings which are insufficient for 10G/sec (to be released as 802.3-2008/Cor 1)802.3bc~ Autumn 2009Ethernet Organizationally Specific type, length, values (TLVs). Move and update ethernet related TLVs currently specified in IEEE 802.1AB.802.3bd~ 2011Priority-based Flow Control. A amendment by the IEEE 802.1 Data Center Bridging Task Group to develop an amendment to IEEE Std 802.3 to add a MAC Control Frame to support IEEE 802.1Qbb Priority-based Flow Control.802.3be~ 2010Creates an IEEE 802.3.1 MIB definitions for Ethernet that consolidates the ethernet related MIBs present in Annex 30A&B, various IETF RFCs, and 802.1AB annex F into one master document with a machine readable extract. What is defined in earlier IEEE 802.3 standards is often confused for what is used in practice: most network frames you will find on an Ethernet will be DIX frames, since the Internet protocol suite will use this format, with the type field set to the corresponding IETF protocol type. IEEE 802.3x-1997 allows the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses to be used as a type field or a length field, so that DIX frames are also valid 802.3 frames in 802.3x-1997 and later versions of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard. See also IEEE 802 IEEE 802.1, the network architecture IEEE 802.11, a set of wireless networking standards IEEE 802.16, a set of WiMAX standards References The IEEE 802.3 Working Group Get IEEE 802.3 LAN/MAN CSMA/CD Access Method -- Download 802.3 specifications. | IEEE_802.3 |@lemmatized ieee:23 collection:1 standard:13 define:3 physical:2 layer:4 medium:2 access:2 control:5 mac:6 sublayer:1 data:6 link:4 wired:1 ethernet:29 generally:2 lan:3 technology:2 wan:1 application:1 connection:1 make:1 node:1 infrastructure:1 device:1 hub:1 switch:1 router:1 various:2 type:10 copper:1 fiber:5 cable:5 support:2 network:4 architecture:2 maximum:1 packet:3 size:3 byte:6 although:2 allow:3 q:3 tag:3 virtual:1 priority:3 extend:2 upper:1 protocol:7 submit:1 unit:1 pdu:1 less:1 pad:1 field:10 achieve:1 minimum:2 frame:15 always:1 technically:1 correct:1 term:3 often:2 use:8 interchangeably:1 iso:1 iec:1 ansi:1 refer:1 sub:1 consist:1 destination:1 address:3 source:1 length:5 payload:1 check:1 sequence:1 fcs:1 preamble:1 start:1 delimiter:1 sfd:1 usually:1 together:1 consider:1 header:4 constitute:1 original:1 call:1 experimental:2 today:1 develop:3 robert:1 metcalfe:1 patent:1 base:8 part:1 wireless:2 alohanet:1 first:2 outside:1 xerox:1 dix:9 follow:4 ii:2 replace:2 llc:2 however:1 derive:1 many:1 technical:1 community:1 accept:1 therefore:1 name:1 standardized:1 function:1 mbit:9 kb:1 coaxial:1 coax:4 busethernet:1 mb:15 thin:2 thinnet:2 format:2 form:1 internet:2 suite:2 thick:1 except:1 cheapernet:1 repeater:2 optic:2 inter:1 twisted:3 f:2 tx:1 fx:1 fast:1 w:1 duplex:1 flow:3 also:3 incorporate:5 framing:1 longer:1 low:1 quality:1 twist:1 x:1 gbit:16 revision:4 amendment:6 pair:2 include:1 vlan:1 information:2 aggregation:2 parallel:1 since:2 move:3 three:1 prior:2 sr:1 lr:1 er:1 sw:1 lw:1 twin:1 axial:1 four:1 erratum:2 unshielded:1 utp:1 print:1 circuit:1 board:1 lrm:1 multimode:1 sep:3 closing:1 report:1 http:1 grouper:1 org:1 group:3 minute:1 index:1 html:1 power:2 requirement:1 cor:3 equation:1 publication:1 release:2 ap:1 aq:1 two:1 corrigenda:1 efficient:1 jun:1 backplane:1 cu:2 assembly:2 lane:1 mmf:2 km:1 smf:1 autumn:2 pause:1 reaction:1 delay:1 timing:1 insufficient:1 sec:1 organizationally:1 specific:1 value:1 tlvs:2 update:1 relate:2 currently:1 specify:1 center:1 bridge:1 task:1 std:1 add:1 mib:1 definition:1 consolidate:1 mibs:1 present:1 annex:2 b:1 ietf:2 rfcs:1 one:1 master:1 document:1 machine:1 readable:1 extract:1 early:1 confuse:1 practice:1 find:1 set:3 corresponding:1 bit:1 valid:1 late:1 version:1 see:1 networking:1 wimax:1 reference:1 work:1 get:1 man:1 csma:1 cd:1 method:1 download:1 specification:1 |@bigram mac_sublayer:1 switch_router:1 iso_iec:1 ansi_ieee:1 llc_header:2 coaxial_cable:1 mbit_mb:8 protocol_suite:2 fiber_optic:2 gbit_mb:7 twisted_pair:2 ieee_std:1 ieee_ethernet:1 ieee_ieee:1 wireless_networking:1 |
4,067 | Mieszko_I_of_Poland | <font size="+1">Mieszko IImage:MieszkoDagome.jpg Imagined image by Jan MatejkoReign c. 960 – May 25, 992Royal House PiastCoat of Arms The Piast EagleParents Siemomysł,mother unknownConsorts Dubrawka,OdaChildren With Dubrawka:Bolesław I the Brave,ŚwiętosławaWith Oda:Mieszko,Świętopełk,LambertDate of Birth c. 935Place of Birth ?Date of Death May 25, 992Place of Death Poznań, PolandPlace of Burial Cathedral Basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul, Poznań, Poland Poland and its neighbours as of 960-992 Mieszko I (c. 935 – May 25, 992) was a duke of the Polans and the first historical ruler of Poland. Member of the Piast dynasty, he was son of the legendary Siemomysł, grandchild of Lestek and father to Bolesław Chrobry, the first crowned prince of Poland, and Świętosława-Sygryda, a Nordic queen. Mieszko also appeared as Dagome Iudex or Dagone in a papal document from about 1085 AD called Dagome iudex, which mentions a gift of land to the Pope almost a hundred years earlier. Life In 965 Mieszko married Dobrawa (Dobrava, Dubrawka), daughter of Boleslav I, Duke of Bohemia. In 977 Dobrawa died, and in 980 Mieszko married Oda von Haldensleben, daughter of Dietrich of Haldensleben, Count of the North March (965-985), after abducting her from the monastery of Kalbe. Mieszko's coin The early career of Mieszko was dominated by fighting with the tribes of Wieletes and Volinians south of the Baltic Sea, and their ally, the Saxon count Wichman. Mieszko was baptised in 966, probably under the influence of his Christian first wife or perhaps in order to avoid confrontation with the Holy Roman Empire to the west. He built a church dedicated to Saint George at Gniezno and in 968 he founded the first cathedral in Poznań, placed under the archdiocese of Magdeburg and dedicated to Saint Peter. Those events are also known as the baptism of Poland. At the time of the reign of Mieszko there was no single place serving as the capital, instead he built several castles around his country. Of the most important were: Poznań, Gniezno and Ostrów Lednicki. The latter was a ring-fort some 460 feet in diameter, containing his residence, a fine stone palace, the country's first monumental architecture. He had probably one sister of unknown name, and two brothers: one of them, name unknown, was killed in battle around 964; the second, chronicled as Cidebur (Polish: Czcibor), helped Mieszko to defeat margrave Hodo, successor of Dietrich von Haldensleben in the Battle of Cedynia in 972. Some historians suggest that Mieszko I had pledged allegiance to emperor Otto I the Great, to emperor Otto II and again to emperor Otto III. However, there is much dispute over this point from the Polish side - mainly whether his allegiance represented the whole of Poland, or only part (the disputed fragment is "usque in Vurta fluvium" from Thietmari chronicon). Reign His reign began around 962 in territory later called Greater Poland, Kuyavia and possibly in eastern Pomerania. In the 960s he probably at least partially conquered western Pomerania, and in the 990s he conquered Silesia and Lesser Poland. Much of his military activity was along the Baltic coast, in territory later called Pomerania. He defeated Odo I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark, at Cedynia in 972, and reached the mouth of the Oder in 976. The decisive battle, fought in 979, ensured Mieszko's position as ruler of the area (or forced him to make an allegiance with Emperor Otto II). The following year he celebrated his temporary conquest by dedicating a fortress at Gdańsk in 999. In 981 Mieszko I lost the land known only as Grody Czerwieńskie to Vladimir I, prince of Kiev (but this territory could belong to another Polish tribe: Lędzianie, which wasn't under Mieszko's control before 987/988). In 986, upon the death of Emperor Otto II (d. 983), after a short time of being opposed to the idea, he pledged allegiance to the Emperor Otto III, and helped Otto with wars against the Polabian Slavs. According to the 1085 papal note, he and his wife Ote, shortly before his death, gifted the state to the Pope and in turn received it as a fief of the Pope in a document usually called the Dagome Iudex (this is one of many theories, which try to explain motives of making this document). This document indexes the lands of (Mieszko), referred to as "Dagome" in the document, and his wife "Ote" (former nun Oda von Haldensleben) and her sons by him. The other son Boleslaw I is not mentioned, perhaps as assurance that Oda and her sons retain the territory (by papal protection). As it turned out, upon his father's death Boleslaw did expel Oda and her sons in order to claim all territory for himself. From his first marriage he had a son, his successor Boleslaus, and two daughters, Sygryda (Świętosława) and one whose name is unknown. Sygryda was the wife (as queen Sigrid the Haughty) of Eric the Victorious, king of Sweden and then (as queen Gunhilda) of king Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark, and mother of king Canute of Denmark and England. "Świętosława" is generally accepted by historians as the best approximation of this first daughter's Slavic name. The second daughter was most likely married to a Pomeranian Slavic Prince. From his second marriage he had three sons; Mieszko, Lambert, and Świętopełk. In 1999 the archeologist Hanna Kóčka-Krenz found Mieszko's palace in Poznań. Origin and meaning of the name There are three major theories concerning the origin and meaning of Mieszko's name. The most popular theory, proposed by Jan Długosz, explains that Mieszko is a diminutive of Mieczysław, a combination of two elements or lexemes: Miecz meaning sword and Sław meaning famous. Today, this theory is rejected by the majority of Polish historians, who consider the name Mieczysław to have been invented by Jan Długosz to explain the origin of the name Mieszko. Today, we know that ancient Slavs never formed their names using either animal names or weapon names. Ancient Slavic names were abstract in nature. The same explanation rules out another theory about the origin of name Mieszko, which links the name with the Polish word miś/miśko meaning bear, as no animal names were used to form honorable Polish names among Polish nobility. Włodzimierz K. Krzyżanowski, "Arystokracja rodowa w Polsce", Warszawa, 2007 The second most popular theory about the origin and sense of Mieszko name can be traced to the very old legend, according to which Mieszko was blind for the first seven years after he was born. This legend was first described by Gallus Anonymus. Slavian word “mzec” can be interpreted as “having his eyes closed” or “be blind”. Yet again, today it is almost certain that a legend used a metaphor. It refers to the old pagan ceremony known as an ancient Slavs rite “postrzyzyny”. During that ceremony hair cutting was performed to every boy at the age of seven. In that symbolic rite a child become a man. That explains that Mieszko was not blind in fact. He was blind only metaphorically. Besides his son’s name was also Mieszko and it is hard to believe that he was also blind. In addition as we know today ancient Slavs used only abstract names among nobilities. The third theory links name Mieszko with his other name Dagome as it appeared in a document called Dagome iudex. We know this document only from a copy prepared by anonymous monk who was not familiar with Polish language or Polish names. It is possible that while coping the document he made a mistake and wrote down Dagome instead of Dagomer or even Dagomir. The name Dagomir is used to this day and its construction is similar to other Polish names like for example: Władimir/Włodzimierz or Casimir/Kazimierz. The evolution of the “-mir” element to “-mierz” is due to two separate developments: first, the regular change of the vowel "i" to "(i)e" before "r", and second, the modification of the nominative case by the vocative for certain names (hence, Kazimierz replaced Kazimier based on the vocative Kazimierze). It is debatable whether the name Mieszko is a nickname formed from the second part of name *Dago-mierz, since the merger in pronunciation of "sz" with the devoiced "rz" which would appear in this position is quite recent. The word mir can be translated as peace. Bibliography Jasiński K., Rodowód pierwszych Piastów, Warszawa-Wrocław (1992), s. 54-70. Labuda G., Mieszko I, (w:) Polski Słownik Biograficzny, t. 21, 1976. Labuda G., Mieszko I, Wyd. Ossolineum, Wrocław 2002, ISBN 83-04-04619-9 Labuda G., Pierwsze państwo polskie, Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, Kraków 1989, ISBN 83-03-02969-X Szczur S., Historia Polski średniowiecze", rozdz. 2.2.1 Państwo gnieźnieńskie Mieszka I (s. 47-57) i 2.4.1 Drużyna książęca (s. 83-84), Wydawnictwo Literackie 2002, ISBN 83-08-03272-9 See also Prehistory of Poland (until 966) Poland in the Early Middle Ages History of Poland (966-1385) References | Mieszko_I_of_Poland |@lemmatized font:1 size:1 mieszko:30 iimage:1 mieszkodagome:1 jpg:1 imagine:1 image:1 jan:3 matejkoreign:1 c:3 may:3 house:1 piastcoat:1 arm:1 piast:2 eagleparents:1 siemomysł:2 mother:2 unknownconsorts:1 dubrawka:3 odachildren:1 bolesław:2 brave:1 świętosławawith:1 oda:5 świętopełk:2 lambertdate:1 birth:2 date:1 death:5 poznań:5 polandplace:1 burial:1 cathedral:2 basilica:1 st:2 peter:2 paul:1 poland:11 neighbour:1 duke:2 polans:1 first:10 historical:1 ruler:2 member:1 dynasty:1 son:8 legendary:1 grandchild:1 lestek:1 father:2 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4,068 | Book_of_Joshua | The Book of Joshua () is the sixth book in both the Hebrew Tanakh and the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. This book stands as the first in the Former (or First) Prophets covering the history of Israel from the possession of the Promised Land to the Babylonian Captivity. Summary The book of Joshua contains a history of the Israelites from the death of Moses to that of Joshua. After Moses' death, Joshua, by virtue of his previous appointment as Moses' successor, received from God the command to cross the Jordan River. In execution of this order Joshua issues the requisite instructions to the stewards of the people for the crossing of the Jordan; and he reminds the Reubenites, Gadites, and the half of Manasseh of their pledge given to Moses to help their brethren. The book essentially consists of three parts: The history of the conquest of the land (1-12). The allotment of the land to the different tribes, with the appointment of cities of refuge, the provision for the Levites (13-22), and the dismissal of the eastern tribes to their homes. This section has been compared to the Domesday Book of the Norman Conquest (though significantly shorter and not the work of one man). The farewell addresses of Joshua, with an account of his death (23, 24). Conquest Joshua sends out two spies from Shittim to explore the city of Jericho. They are saved from falling into the hands of the king by the shrewd tactics of Rahab, in return for promising to spare her family when they later invade. Joshua and the Israelites crossing the Jordan Having re-iterated the duty to follow the mitzvah, Joshua orders the Israelites to set forth, and they leave Shittim. When they reach the Jordan River, Joshua states that the Ark will miraculously cross the Jordan. As soon as the Ark reaches the river, a miracle duly occurs, and the river stops flowing and rapidly dries up, so the priests carrying it halt, allowing the rest of the Israelites to cross as well. In commemoration of the event, Joshua orders two monuments to be erected: one in the river-bed; the other on the western bank, where the Israelites encamp. The Israelites are circumcised at Gibeath-Haaraloth (translating as hill of foreskins). Those who had been born in the desert had not been circumcised. The people are therefore circumcised, and the area is named Gilgal in memory (Gilgal sounds like Gallothi - I have removed, but is more likely to translate as circle of standing stones). The Israelites then commence with the Battle of Jericho. Placing Jericho under siege, the Israelites circle it once a day for six days, and on the seventh make seven circuits, each time loudly blowing horns and shouting. On the final circuit, the walls cave in, and the inhabitants, except Rahab and her family, are slaughtered. A curse is pronounced against rebuilding the city. Ai is surveyed and pronounced weak, so the Israelite army sends only a small group to attack them. However they are defeated, causing Joshua and the people to despair. But God announces that the people have sinned: someone has stolen some of the spoils from Jericho which are meant to be for the temple. Consequently the Israelites set out to discover the sinner by casting lots, whittling them down first by tribe (Judah), then clan (Zarhites), then sept (Zabdi), then finally detecting it as Achan. Achan admits having taken a costly Babylonian garment, besides silver and gold, and his confession is verified by the finding of the treasure buried in his tent, so Achan is taken into the valley of Achor, where he and his household are stoned and burned to death. Afterwards, 30,000 Israelites set an ambush of Ai overnight, and in the morning another Israelite force attack and then feign retreat, drawing the forces of Ai far away from the city. When Joshua raises his lance, the 30,000 men preparing the ambush strike, while Joshua starts attacking again, thus surrounding Ai's forces. The entire city is burned and its inhabitants slaughtered. The king of Ai, however, is taken alive and delivered to Joshua. He is then impaled on a stake for public display before being buried outside the city gates, following Hebrew guidelines for the guilty. (see Deuteronomy 21.23). Joshua erects an altar on Mount Ebal and makes offerings upon it and carves into it the law of Moses. The people are arranged into two sections, with one facing Ebal and the other facing Gerizim. They each read the blessings and curses specified in Deuteronomy as appropriate. The Hivites fool the Israelites into thinking them foreigners and gain a non-aggression treaty from the Israelites. Even after its detection, the fraud is not abrogated, though the Hivites are punished by being treated as the lowest social class (referred to via the Hebrew idiom "hewers of wood and drawers of water for the altar of Yhwh"). Adonizedek, king of Jerusalem, brings about an alliance of the "five kings of the Amorites" (the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, and himself), and they besiege the Hivites in Gibeon, whom they perceive as traitors. The Hivites implore Joshua's help, and so he launches a surprise attack following a night march, causing the Amorites to panic and flee as far as Beth-horon. A poem is quoted from the Book of Jasher, which states that the sun stood still at Gibeon, and the moon in the valley of Ajalon, in order that Joshua could complete the battle. Despite the five kings' cowardly attempt at avoiding retribution by hiding inside a cave, they are discovered and trapped there until their army has been completely obliterated. Afterwards, the kings are brought to Joshua, who first humiliates them, then orders their death and has them impaled for public display. At sunset, the bodies are thrown back into the cave from which they hid, and the entrance sealed. Jabin, king of Hazor, his army, and his vassals, rendezvous at Merom. Joshua, however, executes a swift attack and is able to defeat them. Pursuing them to a great distance, he hamstrings their horses, burns their chariots, captures Hazor, slaughters its inhabitants, and burns it to the ground. Lesser royal residences are also captured and their inhabitants slaughtered, although the cities on the hill remain. Historicity Joshua commands the sun to stand still in the sky The archaeological evidence tends to disprove the historical reliability of the Book of Joshua: the time periods involved in the destruction layers of the cities overlap the campaigns of the Sea Peoples (who consistently burnt rich cities to the ground, even if they intended to later settle on the ruins), and the currently unexplained general late Bronze Age collapse of civilisation in the whole eastern Mediterranean; it is far more plausible, from the point of view of an increasing majority of archaeologists, for these causes to have been responsible for the destruction of the cities, rather than an invasion of Israelites lasting only about 20 or so years. Israel Finkelstein, The Bible Unearthed In addition, since archaeological remains show a smooth cultural continuity in this period, rather than the destruction of one culture (Canaanite) and replacement by another (Israelite), a large body of archaeologists believe that the Israelites were simply an emergent subculture within Canaanite society — i.e. that an Israelite conquest would be a logical nonsense — it would have involved the Canaanites invading themselves, from Canaan. ibid From the point of view of Biblical scholars, it is more plausible that the author(s) of Joshua combined a series of independent traditions about battles and destruction of various cities at differing times, in order to create a nationalistic narrative that could dovetail neatly with the tradition of an exodus from Egypt. Ethical problem of war and genocide One difficulty in this book arises out of the command given by God to completely exterminate "anything that breathes" in the cities in the land to be inherited. Deuteronomy 20:16-18 During the conquest God commands his people to kill inhabitants of numerous cities (often including women and children). No explicit justification is given in the book for these commands. At many points in the Tanakh, God orders men to kill other people for their faithlessness including at the scene of the golden calf when 4,000 Jews were slain for idolatry. Liberal theologians see this as an ethically unjustifiable order to commit genocide, which is inconsistent with the overall view in the Hebrew and Christian scriptures of God as a loving, compassionate Creator. They see it as a theological polemic, with the majority of events invented during or after the Babylonian captivity, to encourage faithfulness to the Jewish creed at a time when it was being threatened. For instance, Morton says that Joshua "should be understood as a rite of ancient peoples (Israel among them) whereby within the context of their times, they attempted to please God (or the gods)". Morton, pp. 324-325 Conservative theologians, who see the book as a historically accurate account written during or soon after the life of Joshua, give one of the following explanations to this problem: War was an essential part of the history of the Near East in the fifteenth century BC. Although it is still sinful, some commentators argue that the book shows God using sinful activities in order to accomplish his just purposes. This does not mean that God supports war, simply that he works with humans as they are. These commentators emphasise what they see as the depraved nature of Canaanite society, pointing to archaeological evidence of practices such as child sacrifice (burning the infant victims alive). For instance, Hallam, who takes this view, lists a number of pieces of archaeological evidence to support this thesis: "Just a few steps from this temple was a cemetery, where many jars were found, containing remains of infants who had been sacrificed in this temple . . . Prophets of Baal and Ashtoreth were official murderers of little children." "Another horrible practice was [what] they called `foundation sacrifices.' When a house was to be built, a child would be sacrificed, and its body built into the wall. . . . The worship of Baal, Ashtoreth, and other Canaanite gods consisted in the most extravagant orgies; their temples were centers of vice. . . . Canaanites worshiped, by immoral indulgence, . . . and then, by murdering their first-born children, as a sacrifice to these same gods." However, some of this evidence is disputed, with others arguing that it may have been invented at a later date in order to justify the act of extermination. Some Christian theologians have tended to emphasise what they see as the progressive nature of revelation in the Bible. As the Bible progresses, God is seen to reveal himself in ways that are fuller, clearer and more accurate, culminating in the ultimate revelation of God in Jesus Christ. God's command through Joshua to take possession of the land by force of arms is viewed in the context of God's command through the second Joshua, Jesus Christ, to bring about his kingdom through the peaceful application of his teaching. Authorship The Book of Joshua has been traditionally ascribed to Joshua himself by early Jewish writers and by the Early Church Fathers. Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, R. K. Harrison and Thomas Nelson Publishers, “Joshua, Book of,” in, Nelson's New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Rev. Ed. of: Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary.; Includes Index. (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1995). However, it is no where stated in the book that Joshua was indeed the author. In fact much of modern scholarship denies his authorship (see below). There are sections that obviously could not have been written by Joshua, namely his death (). But it is thought (for example) that the author of Judges could have appended this section to the end of the Book of Joshua as he began to write his book. In favor of Joshua being the author, are some of the vivid descriptions of various battle scenes. Richard L. Pratt, Jr., ed., “Joshua: Introduction,” in, Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003), p. 306. Despite this tradition of authorship by Joshua, there is a segment in modern scholarship that argue that the Book of Joshua must be regarded as a compilation. These scholars now believe that Joshua is a continuation of the JE version of the torah, and thus two of the main spliced-together narrative sources within it - Jahwist (J), and Elohist (E) - or at least deriving from sources from the same schools of thought as these. The Deuteronomist is considered to have detached the Joshua section of this at some later point and embedded it within the Deuteronomic history, making a number of minor edits and framing additions (mainly Joshua , , , and ). Thus the work would be mainly the work of writers from the 8th and 7th century, but with retouchings from the exilic period Notes References Morton, William H. Joshua. The Broadman Bible Commentary, Vol. 2. Ed. Clifton J. Allen, et al. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1970. Halley, Henry H. Halley's Bible Handbook. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1927, 1965. Mazar, Amihai. The Archaeology of the land of the Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1990. Anati, Emmanuel. The Time of Exodus In the Light of Archaeological Testimony, Epigraphy and Palaeoclimate. Har Karkom, a guide to major sites, Capo di Ponte [Edizioni del Centro], 2005. External links Book of Joshua article (Jewish Encyclopedia) Translations Original text יְהוֹשֻׁעַ Yehoshua - Joshua (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Jewish translations Joshua at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) Yehoshua - Joshua (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures Online Bible at GospelHall.org Joshua at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version) | Book_of_Joshua |@lemmatized book:19 joshua:46 sixth:1 hebrew:5 tanakh:2 old:1 testament:1 christian:4 bible:11 stand:4 first:5 former:1 prophet:2 cover:1 history:5 israel:3 possession:2 promised:1 land:6 babylonian:3 captivity:2 summary:1 contain:2 israelite:18 death:6 moses:5 virtue:1 previous:1 appointment:2 successor:1 receive:1 god:16 command:7 cross:4 jordan:5 river:5 execution:1 order:10 issue:1 requisite:1 instruction:1 steward:1 people:9 crossing:1 remind:1 reubenites:1 gadites:1 half:1 manasseh:1 pledge:1 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4,069 | Costa_Smeralda | A view of the Costa Smeralda near Capriccioli. The Costa Smeralda (English: “Emerald Coast”) is a coastal area in northern Sardinia, 55 km long and covering more than 30 km², with enchanting beaches and a system of villages built according to an extremely detailed urban plan. The area is a luxurious tourist destination featuring exquisite white sand beaches, Pervero golf club, private jet access in Olbia, and helicopter service for highly affluent American, European, Russian, and Arabian VIPs visiting from the fields of investment banking, entertainment, politics and industry. The main towns and villages in the area are Arzachena, Olbia, Porto Cervo, Liscia di Vacca, Capriccioli and Romazzino. Annually in September the Sardinia Cup sailing regatta is held off the coast, usually featuring famous boats. Polo matches are held seasonally between April and October at Gershan near Arzachena. The Italian film festival is held in Tavolara and a vintage car rally entertains antique car enthusiasts. Cala Di Volpe, Hotel Romazzino, Hotel Pitrizza, and Cervo Hotel form the nucleus of luxury hotel choices within the Starwood Luxury Collection and Sheraton respectively. Guests spend US$2,000 - 3,000 per night in the peak season for access to la dolce vita in complete privacy. Celebrities flock to this region in season and explore the aquamarine waters with chartered boats, docking at these hotels with marina access and congregate in Porto Cervo for a gala celebrations on a grand scale. June and September and October are not as crowded and offer comfortable climates between 72-84°F. Achaeological sites include the Li Muri “Tomba dei Giganti” (Giants’ Grave). The development of the area started in 1961, and was financed by a consortium of companies. The president of the consortium and representative figure was Prince Karim Aga Khan. Famous architects involved in the project included Busiri-Vici, Jacques Couëlle, Savin Couëlle and Vietti. See also Tourist destinations of Sardinia External links | Costa_Smeralda |@lemmatized view:1 costa:2 smeralda:2 near:2 capriccioli:2 english:1 emerald:1 coast:2 coastal:1 area:4 northern:1 sardinia:3 km:1 long:1 cover:1 enchant:1 beach:2 system:1 village:2 build:1 accord:1 extremely:1 detailed:1 urban:1 plan:1 luxurious:1 tourist:2 destination:2 feature:2 exquisite:1 white:1 sand:1 pervero:1 golf:1 club:1 private:1 jet:1 access:3 olbia:2 helicopter:1 service:1 highly:1 affluent:1 american:1 european:1 russian:1 arabian:1 vip:1 visit:1 field:1 investment:1 banking:1 entertainment:1 politics:1 industry:1 main:1 town:1 arzachena:2 porto:2 cervo:3 liscia:1 di:2 vacca:1 romazzino:2 annually:1 september:2 cup:1 sail:1 regatta:1 hold:3 usually:1 famous:2 boat:2 polo:1 match:1 seasonally:1 april:1 october:2 gershan:1 italian:1 film:1 festival:1 tavolara:1 vintage:1 car:2 rally:1 entertain:1 antique:1 enthusiast:1 cala:1 volpe:1 hotel:5 pitrizza:1 form:1 nucleus:1 luxury:2 choice:1 within:1 starwood:1 collection:1 sheraton:1 respectively:1 guest:1 spend:1 u:1 per:1 night:1 peak:1 season:2 la:1 dolce:1 vita:1 complete:1 privacy:1 celebrity:1 flock:1 region:1 explore:1 aquamarine:1 water:1 chartered:1 dock:1 marina:1 congregate:1 gala:1 celebration:1 grand:1 scale:1 june:1 crowd:1 offer:1 comfortable:1 climate:1 f:1 achaeological:1 site:1 include:2 li:1 muri:1 tomba:1 dei:1 giganti:1 giant:1 grave:1 development:1 start:1 finance:1 consortium:2 company:1 president:1 representative:1 figure:1 prince:1 karim:1 aga:1 khan:1 architect:1 involve:1 project:1 busiri:1 vici:1 jacques:1 couëlle:2 savin:1 vietti:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram tourist_destination:2 luxury_hotel:1 la_dolce:1 dolce_vita:1 aga_khan:1 external_link:1 |
4,070 | Alkali_metal | Group → 1 ↓ Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The alkali metals are a series of chemical elements comprising Group 1 (IUPAC style) of the periodic table: lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). (Hydrogen, although nominally also a member of Group 1, very rarely exhibits behavior comparable to the alkali metals). The alkali metals provide one of the best examples of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with well characterized homologous behavior down the group. Properties The alkali metals are all highly reactive and are never found in elemental form in nature. As a result, in the laboratory they are stored under mineral oil. They also tarnish easily and have low melting points and densities. Potassium and rubidium possess a weak radioactive characteristic due to the presence of long duration radioactive isotopes. The alkali metals are silver-colored (caesium has a golden tinge), soft, low-density metals, which react readily with halogens to form ionic salts, and with water to form strongly alkaline (basic) hydroxides. These elements all have one electron in their outermost shell, so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled electron shell is to lose one electron to form a singly charged positive ion, i.e. cation. Hydrogen, with a solitary electron, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table, but it is not considered an alkali metal; rather it exists naturally as a diatomic gas. Removal of its single electron requires considerably more energy than removal of the outer electron for the alkali metals. As in the halogens, only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, so hydrogen can in some circumstances behave like a halogen, forming the negative hydride ion. Binary compounds of hydride with the alkali metals and some transition metals have been prepared. Under extremely high pressure, such as is found at the core of Jupiter, hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; see metallic hydrogen. Alkali metals have the lowest ionization potentials in their respective periods, as removing the single electron from the outermost shell gives them the stable inert gas configuration. Their second ionization potentials are very high, as removing an electron from a species having a noble gas configuration is very difficult. Series of alkali metals, stored in mineral oil (note "natrium" is sodium.) Alkali metals are famous for their vigorous reactions with water, and these reactions become increasingly violent as one moves down the group. The reaction with water is as follows: Alkali metal + water → Alkali metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas With potassium as an example: 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g) Trends Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 1 Hydrogen 1 3 Lithium 2, 1 11 Sodium 2, 8, 1 19 Potassium 2, 8, 8, 1 37 Rubidium 2, 8, 18, 8, 1 55 Caesium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1 87 Francium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1 The alkali metals show a number of trends when moving down the group - for instance,decreasing electronegativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling point. Density generally increases, with the notable exception of potassium being less dense than sodium, and the possible exception of francium being less dense than caesium. Alkali metal Standard Atomic Weight (u) Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K) Density (g·cm−3) Electronegativity (Pauling) Lithium 6.941 453 1615 0.534 0.98 Sodium 22.990 370 1156 0.968 0.93 Potassium 39.098 336 1032 0.89 0.82 Rubidium 85.468 312 961 1.532 0.82 Caesium 132.905 301 944 1.93 0.79 Francium (223) 295 950 1.87 0.70 Reference material "Physics Update." Physics Today June 1996: 9. "Visual Elements: Group 1 - The Alkali Metals." Visual Elements. Royal Society of Chemistry. <http://www.chemsoc.org/Viselements/pages/data/intro_groupi_data.html>. See also Lithium Sodium Potassium Rubidium Caesium Francium External links Science aid:Alkali metals A simple look at alkali metals Atomic and Physical Properties of the Group 1 Elements An in-depth look at alkali metals + Explanation of above periodic table slice: Alkali metals Atomic numbers in are solids Solid borders indicate primordial elements (older than the Earth) Dashed borders indicate natural radioactive elements with no isotopes older than the Earth | Alkali_metal |@lemmatized group:11 period:2 alkali:21 metal:23 series:2 chemical:2 element:8 comprise:1 iupac:1 style:1 periodic:4 table:4 lithium:4 li:1 sodium:6 na:1 potassium:7 k:3 rubidium:5 rb:1 caesium:6 cs:1 francium:5 fr:1 hydrogen:8 although:1 nominally:1 also:3 member:2 rarely:1 exhibit:1 behavior:3 comparable:1 provide:1 one:5 best:1 example:2 trend:4 property:3 well:1 characterize:1 homologous:1 highly:1 reactive:1 never:1 find:2 elemental:1 form:5 nature:1 result:2 laboratory:1 store:2 mineral:2 oil:2 tarnish:1 easily:1 low:3 melting:2 point:4 density:4 posse:1 weak:1 radioactive:3 characteristic:1 due:1 presence:1 long:1 duration:1 isotope:2 silver:1 color:1 golden:1 tinge:1 soft:1 react:1 readily:1 halogen:3 ionic:1 salt:1 water:4 strongly:1 alkaline:1 basic:1 hydroxide:2 electron:11 outermost:4 shell:6 energetically:1 preferred:1 state:1 achieve:1 fill:2 lose:1 singly:1 charge:1 positive:1 ion:2 e:1 cation:1 solitary:1 usually:1 place:1 top:1 consider:1 rather:1 exist:1 naturally:1 diatomic:1 gas:4 removal:2 single:2 require:2 considerably:1 energy:1 outer:1 additional:1 atom:1 circumstance:1 behave:1 like:3 negative:1 hydride:2 binary:1 compound:1 transition:1 prepare:1 extremely:1 high:2 pressure:1 core:1 jupiter:1 become:2 metallic:2 behaves:1 see:2 ionization:2 potential:2 respective:1 remove:2 give:1 stable:1 inert:1 configuration:3 second:1 specie:1 noble:1 difficult:1 note:1 natrium:1 famous:1 vigorous:1 reaction:3 increasingly:1 violent:1 move:2 follow:1 l:1 aq:1 g:2 family:1 show:2 pattern:1 especially:1 z:1 number:2 instance:1 decrease:2 electronegativity:2 increase:2 reactivity:1 boiling:2 generally:1 notable:1 exception:2 less:2 dense:2 possible:1 standard:1 atomic:3 weight:1 u:1 melt:1 cm:1 pauling:1 reference:1 material:1 physic:2 update:1 today:1 june:1 visual:2 royal:1 society:1 chemistry:1 http:1 www:1 chemsoc:1 org:1 viselements:1 page:1 data:1 html:1 external:1 link:1 science:1 aid:1 simple:1 look:2 physical:1 depth:1 explanation:1 slice:1 solids:1 solid:1 border:2 indicate:2 primordial:1 old:2 earth:2 dash:1 natural:1 |@bigram alkali_metal:21 periodic_table:4 potassium_rubidium:4 radioactive_isotope:1 electron_outermost:2 outermost_shell:4 diatomic_gas:1 hydrogen_atom:1 ionization_potential:2 inert_gas:1 sodium_potassium:3 rubidium_caesium:3 caesium_francium:3 melting_boiling:1 boiling_point:2 electronegativity_pauling:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
4,071 | First_Council_of_Nicaea | The First Council of Nicaea was a council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in AD 325. The Council was historically significant as the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom. Richard Kieckhefer (1989). "Papacy". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISBN 0-684-18275-0. Overview The First Council of Nicaea is believed to have been the first Ecumenical council of the Christian Church. Most significantly, it resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. With the creation of the creed, a precedent was established for subsequent general (ecumenical) councils of Bishops (Synods) to create statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy— the intent being to define unity of beliefs for the whole of Christendom. Derived from Greek oikoumenikos, "ecumenical" literally means worldwide but generally is assumed to be limited to the Roman Empire, as in Augustus' claim to be ruler of the oikoumene/world; the earliest extant uses of the term for a council are Eusebius' Life of Constantine 3.6 around 338 "" (he convoked an Ecumenical council), Athanasius' Ad Afros Epistola Synodica in 369, and the Letter in 382 to Pope Damasus I and the Latin bishops from the First Council of Constantinople. The purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements arising from within the Church of Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father; in particular, whether Jesus was the literal son of God or was he a figurative son, like the other "sons of God" in the Bible. St. Alexander of Alexandria and Athanasius took the first position; the popular presbyter Arius, from whom the term Arian controversy comes, took the second. The council decided against the Arians overwhelmingly (of the estimated 250–318 attendees, all but two voted against Arius Schaff's History of the Christian Church, Volume III, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity, § 120. The Council of Nicaea, 325: "Only two Egyptian bishops, Theonas and Secundus, persistently refused to sign, and were banished with Arius to Illyria. The books of Arius were burned and his followers branded as enemies of Christianity." ). Another result of the council was an agreement on when to celebrate the Resurrection, the most important feast of the ecclesiastical calendar. The council decided in favour of celebrating the resurrection on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox, independently of the Hebrew Calendar (see also Quartodecimanism and Easter controversy). It authorized the Bishop of Alexandria (presumably using the Alexandrian calendar) to announce annually the exact date to his fellow bishops. Historically significant as the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom, Richard Kieckhefer (1989). "Papacy". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISBN 0-684-18275-0 the Council was the first occasion for the development of technical Christology. Through it a precedent was set for subsequent general councils to adopt creeds and canons. This council is generally considered the beginning of the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils in the History of Christianity. Character and purpose The First Council of Nicaea was convened by Constantine I upon the recommendations of a synod led by Hosius of Cordoba in the Eastertide of 325. This synod had been charged with investigation of the trouble brought about by the Arian controversy in the Greek-speaking east. Carroll, 10 To most bishops, the teachings of Arius were heretical and dangerous to the salvation of souls. In the summer of 325, the bishops of all provinces were summoned to Nicaea (now known as İznik, in modern-day Turkey), a place easily accessible to the majority of them, particularly those of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Thrace. Approximately 250 to 318 bishops attended, from every region of the Empire except Britain. Of the bishops whose successors would much later be termed Patriarchs (see Pentarchy), Alexander of Alexandria, Eustathius of Antioch, and Macarius of Jerusalem attended, and Sylvester I, Bishop of Rome, sent legates. Constantinople had not yet been founded. Another participant was the first church historian, Eusebius of Caesarea. Athanasius of Alexandria, famous for his battles against Arianism, was also present, but was then only a deacon. This was the first general council in the history of the Church since the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem, which had established the conditions upon which Gentiles could join the Church. In the Council of Nicaea, “the Church had taken her first great step to define doctrine more precisely in response to a challenge from a heretical theology.” The writings and teachings of early church fathers presented even greater challenges for the Church in defining exactly what was considered the heretical theology prior to the First Council of Nicaea. Early Christian apologist Justin Martyr clearly presented his earlier teachings on the logos (Jesus relationship to Father) in the Dialogue with Trypho (Dialogue with Trypho, 56). The resolutions in the council, being ecumenical, were intended for the whole Church. Attendees Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west), but a lesser and unknown number attended. Eusebius of Caesarea counted 250, Athanasius of Alexandria counted 318, Ad Afros Epistola Synodica 2 and Eustathius of Antioch counted 270 Theodoret H.E. 1.7 (all three were present at the council). Later, Socrates Scholasticus recorded more than 300, H.E. 1.8 and Evagrius, H.E. 3.31 Hilarius, Contra Constantium Jerome Chronicon and Rufinus recorded 318. The participating bishops were given free travel to and from their episcopal sees to the council, as well as lodging. These bishops did not travel alone; each one had permission to bring with him two priests and three deacons; so the total number of attendees would have been above 1,500. Eusebius speaks of an almost innumerable host of accompanying priests, deacons and acolytes. A special prominence was also attached to this council because the persecution of Christians had just ended with the February 313 Edict of Milan by Emperors Constantine and Licinius. The Eastern bishops formed the great majority. Of these, the first rank was held by the three patriarchs: Alexander of Alexandria, Eustathius of Antioch, and Macarius of Jerusalem. Many of the assembled fathers—for instance, Paphnutius of Thebes, Potamon of Heraclea and Paul of Neocaesarea—had stood forth as confessors of the faith and came to the council with the marks of persecution on their faces. Other remarkable attendees were Eusebius of Nicomedia; Eusebius of Caesarea; Nicholas of Myra; Aristakes of Armenia (son of Saint Gregory the Illuminator); Leontius of Caesarea; Jacob of Nisibis, a former hermit; Hypatius of Gangra; Protogenes of Sardica; Melitius of Sebastopolis; Achilleus of Larissa; Athanasius of Thessaly Atiya, Aziz S.. The Coptic Encyclopedia. New York:Macmillan Publishing Company, 1991. ISBN 0-02-897025-X. and Spyridion of Trimythous, who even while a bishop made his living as a shepherd. From foreign places came a Persian bishop John, a Gothic bishop Theophilus and Stratophilus, bishop of Pitiunt in Egrisi (located in the western part of modern-day Georgia outside of the Roman Empire). The Latin-speaking provinces sent at least five representatives: Marcus of Calabria from Italia, Cecilian of Carthage from Africa, Hosius of Córdoba from Hispania, Nicasius of Dijon from Gaul, Atiya, Aziz S.. The Coptic Encyclopedia. New York:Macmillan Publishing Company, 1991. ISBN 0-02-897025-X. and Domnus of Stridon from the province of the Danube. Pope Silvester I declined to attend, pleading infirmity, but he was represented by two priests. Athanasius of Alexandria, a young deacon and companion of Bishop Alexander of Alexandria, was among these assistants. Athanasius eventually spent most of his life battling against Arianism. Alexander of Constantinople, then a presbyter, was also present as representative of his aged bishop. The supporters of Arius included Secundus of Ptolemais, Theonus of Marmarica, Zphyrius, and Dathes, all of whom hailed from Libya and the Pentapolis. Other supporters included Eusebius of Nicomedia, Philostorgius, in Photius, Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, book 1, chapter 9. Eusebius of Caesarea, Paulinus of Tyrus, Actius of Lydda, Menophantus of Ephesus, and Theognus of Nicaea. Philostorgius, in Photius, Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, book 1, chapter 9. "Resplendent in purple and gold, Constantine made a ceremonial entrance at the opening of the council, probably in early June, but respectfully seated the bishops ahead of himself." As Eusebius described, Constantine "himself proceeded through the midst of the assembly, like some heavenly messenger of God, clothed in raiment which glittered as it were with rays of light, reflecting the glowing radiance of a purple robe, and adorned with the brilliant splendor of gold and precious stones." Eusebius, The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine, Book 3, Chapter 10. He was present as an observer, but he did not vote. Constantine organized the Council along the lines of the Roman Senate. "Ossius [Hosius] presided over its deliberations; he probably, and the two priests of Rome certainly, came as representatives of the Pope." “Eusebius of Nicomedia probably gave the welcoming address." Original lists of attendees can be found in Patrum Nicaenorum nomina Latine, Graece, Coptice, Syriace, Arabice, Armeniace, ed. Henricus Gelzer, Henricus Hilgenfeld, Otto Cuntz. 2nd edition. (Stuttgart: Teubner, 1995) Agenda and procedure The agenda of the synod were: The council was formally opened May 20, in the central structure of the imperial palace, with preliminary discussions on the Arian question. In these discussions, some dominant figures were Arius, with several adherents. "Some 22 of the bishops at the council, led by Eusebius of Nicomedia, came as supporters of Arius. But when some of the more shocking passages from his writings were read, they were almost universally seen as blasphemous." Carroll, 11 Bishops Theognis of Nicaea and Maris of Chalcedon were among the initial supporters of Arius. Eusebius of Caesarea called to mind the baptismal creed (symbol) of his own diocese at Caesarea in Palestine, as a form of reconciliation. The majority of the bishops agreed. For some time, scholars thought that the original Nicene Creed was based on this statement of Eusebius. Today, most scholars think that this Creed is derived from the baptismal creed of Jerusalem, as Hans Lietzmann proposed. Another possibility is the Apostle's Creed. In any case, as the council went on, the orthodox bishops won approval of every one of their proposals. After being in session for an entire month, the council promulgated on June 19 the original Nicene Creed. This profession of faith was adopted by all the bishops "but two from Libya who had been closely associated with Arius from the beginning." Carroll, 12 No historical record of their dissent actually exists; the signatures of these bishops are simply absent from the creed. Arian controversy The Arian controversy was a Christological dispute that began in Alexandria between the followers of Arius (the Arians) and the followers of St. Alexander of Alexandria (now known as Homoousians). Alexander and his followers believed that the Son was of the same substance as the Father, co-eternal with him. The Arians believed that they were different and that the Son, though he may be the most perfect of creations, was only a creation of God the Father. A third group (now known as Homoiousians) later tried to make a compromise position, saying that the Father and the Son were of similar substance. Catholic Encyclopedia: Arianism: "And a new party had arisen, the strict and pious Homoiousians, not friends of Athanasius, nor willing to subscribe to the Nicene terms, yet slowly drawing nearer to the true creed and finally accepting it. In the councils which now follow these good men play their part." Much of the debate hinged on the difference between being "born" or "created" and being "begotten". Arians saw these as the same; followers of Alexander did not. Indeed, the exact meaning of many of the words used in the debates at Nicaea were still unclear to speakers of other languages. Greek words like "essence" (ousia), "substance" (hypostasis), "nature" (physis), "person" (prosopon) bore a variety of meanings drawn from pre-Christian philosophers, which could not but entail misunderstandings until they were cleared up. The word homoousia, in particular, was initially disliked by many bishops because of its associations with Gnostic heretics (who used it in their theology), and because it had been condemned at the 264–268 Synods of Antioch. Homoousians believed that to follow the Arian view destroyed the unity of the Godhead, and made the Son unequal to the Father, in contravention of the Scriptures ("The Father and I are one", ). Arians, on the other hand, believed that since God the Father created the Son, he must have emanated from the Father, and thus be lesser than the Father, in that the Father is eternal, but the Son was created afterward and, thus, is not eternal. The Arians likewise appealed to Scripture, quoting verses such as : "the Father is greater than I". Homoousians countered the Arians' argument, saying that the Father's fatherhood, like all of his attributes, is eternal. Thus, the Father was always a father, and that the Son, therefore, always existed with him. The Council declared that the Father and the Son are of the same substance and are co-eternal, basing the declaration in the claim that this was a formulation of traditional Christian belief handed down from the Apostles. This belief was expressed in the Nicene Creed. The Nicene Creed By and large, many creeds were acceptable to the members of the council. From his perspective, even Arius could cite such a creed. For Bishop Alexander and others, however, greater clarity was required. Some distinctive elements in the Nicene Creed, perhaps from the hand of Hosius of Cordova, were added. Of the third article only the words "and in the Holy Spirit" were left; the original Nicene Creed ended with these words. Then followed immediately the canons of the council. Thus, instead of a baptismal creed acceptable to both the homoousian and Arian parties, as proposed by Eusebius, the council promulgated one which was unambiguous in the aspects touching upon the points of contention between these two positions, and one which was incompatible with the beliefs of Arians. From earliest times, various creeds served as a means of identification for Christians, as a means of inclusion and recognition, especially at baptism. In Rome, for example, the Apostles' Creed was popular, especially for use in Lent and the Easter season. In the Council of Nicaea, one specific creed was used to define the Church's faith clearly, to include those who professed it, and to exclude those who did not. The text of this profession of faith is preserved in a letter of Eusebius to his congregation, in Athanasius, and elsewhere. Although the most vocal of anti-Arians, the Homoousians (from the Koine Greek word translated as "of same substance" which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264–268), were in the minority, the Creed was accepted by the council as an expression of the bishops' common faith and the ancient faith of the whole Church. Bishop Hosius of Cordova, one of the firm Homoousians, may well have helped bring the council to consensus. At the time of the council, he was the confidant of the emperor in all Church matters. Hosius stands at the head of the lists of bishops, and Athanasius ascribes to him the actual formulation of the creed. Great leaders such as Eustathius of Antioch, Alexander of Alexandria, Athanasius, and Marcellus of Ancyra all adhered to the Homoousian position. In spite of his sympathy for Arius, Eusebius of Caesarea adhered to the decisions of the council, accepting the entire creed. The initial number of bishops supporting Arius was small. After a month of discussion, on June 19, there were only two left: Theonas of Marmarica in Libya, and Secundus of Ptolemais. Maris of Chalcedon, who initially supported Arianism, agreed to the whole creed. Similarly, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nice also agreed, except for the certain statements. The emperor carried out his earlier statement: everybody who refuses to endorse the Creed will be exiled. Arius, Theonas, and Secundus refused to adhere to the creed, and were thus exiled to Illyria, in addition to being excommunicated. The works of Arius were ordered to be confiscated and consigned to the flames while all persons found possessing them were to be executed. Nevertheless, the controversy, already festering, continued in various parts of the empire. Separation of Easter computation from Jewish calendar After the June 19 settlement of the most important topic, the question of the date of the Christian Passover (Easter) was brought up. This feast is linked to the Jewish Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread, as the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus occurred at the time of those observances. As early as Pope Sixtus I, some Christians had set Easter to a Sunday in the lunar month of Nisan. To determine which lunar month was to be designated as Nisan, Christians relied on the Jewish community. By the later 3rd century, however, some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with what they took to be the disorderly state of the Jewish calendar. These Christians argued that contemporary Jews were identifying the wrong lunar month as the month of Nisan, choosing a month whose 14th day fell before the spring equinox. "Those who place [the first lunar month of the year] in [the twelfth zodiacal sign before the spring equinox] and fix the Paschal fourteenth day accordingly, make a great and indeed an extraordinary mistake", Anatolius of Laodicea, quoted in Eusebius, Church History 7.32. Christians, these thinkers argued, should abandon the custom of relying on Jewish informants and instead do their own computations to determine which month should be styled Nisan, setting the Easter festival within this independently-computed, Christian Nisan, which would always locate the festival after the equinox. They justified this break with tradition by arguing that it was in fact the contemporary Jewish calendar that had broken with tradition by ignoring the equinox, and that in former times the 14th of Nisan had never preceded the equinox. "On the fourteenth day of [the month], being accurately observed after the equinox, the ancients celebrated the Passover, according to the divine command. Whereas the men of the present day now celebrate it before the equinox, and that altogether through negligence and error", Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, quoted in the Chronicon Paschale Others, however, felt that the customary practice of reliance on the Jewish calendar should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error from a Christian point of view. A version of the Apostolic Constitutions used by the sect of the Audiani advised: "Do not do your own computations, but instead observe Passover when your brethren from the circumcision do. If they err [in the computation], it is no matter to you...." Epiphanius, Panarion 3.1.10 (Heresy #70, 10,1), PG 42,355-360. Frank Williams, ed., The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis Books II and III, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1994, p. 412. Also quoted in Margaret Dunlop Gibson, The Didascalia Apostolorum in Syriac, London, 1903, p. vii. The controversy between those who argued for independent computations, and those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar, was formally resolved by the Council, which endorsed the independent procedure that had been in use for some time at Rome and Alexandria. Easter was henceforward to be a Sunday in a lunar month chosen according to Christian criteria--in effect, a Christian Nisan-- not in the month of Nisan as defined by Jews. Those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar (called "protopaschites" by later historians) were urged to come around to the majority position. That they did not all immediately do so is revealed by the existence of sermons, St. John Chrysostom, "Against those who keep the first Passover", in Saint John Chrysostom: Discourses against Judaizing Christians, translated by Paul W. Harkins, Washington, D.C., 1979, p. 47ff. canons, Apostolic Canon 7: If any bishop, presbyter, or deacon shall celebrate the holy day of Easter before the vernal equinox with the Jews, let him be deposed. A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series, Volume 14: The Seven Ecumenical Councils, Eerdmans, 1956, p. 594 and tracts Epiphanius of Salamis, "Against the Audians", Panairion 3.1 (Heresy #70), PG 42, 339. Frank Williams, ed., The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis Books II and III, Leiden, 1994, p. 402. written against the protopaschite practice in the later 4th century. These two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. (See also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter.) In particular, the Council did not decree that Easter must fall on Sunday. This was already the practice almost everywhere. The Quartodeciman practice recorded by Eusebius in the late 2nd century, if it still existed at the time of the Council, is not known to have been followed outside the Roman Province of Asia. The Pepuzites, or "solar quartodecimans", held Easter on the Sunday falling in the week of April 6th, Sozomen, Church History, 7.18. Nor did the Council decree that Easter must never coincide with Nisan 15 (the first Day of Unleavened Bread, now commonly called "Passover") in the Hebrew calendar. By endorsing the move to independent computations, the Council had separated the Easter computation from all dependence, positive or negative, on the Jewish calendar. The "Zonaras proviso", the claim that Easter must always follow Nisan 15 in the Hebrew calendar, was not formulated until after some centuries the accumulation of errors in the Julian solar and lunar calendars had made it the de-facto state of affairs that Julian Easter always followed Hebrew Nisan 15. Peter L'Huillier, The Church of the Ancient Councils, St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, 1996, p. 25. Meletian Schism The suppression of the Meletian schism was one of the three important matters that came before the Council of Nicaea. Meletius, it was decided, should remain in his own city of Lycopolis, but without exercising authority or the power to ordain new clergy; moreover he was forbidden to go into the environs of the town or to enter another diocese for the purpose of ordaining its subjects. Melitius retained his episcopal title, but the ecclesiastics ordained by him were to receive again the imposition of hands, the ordinations performed by Meletius being therefore regarded as invalid. Clergy ordained by Meletius were ordered to yield precedence to those ordained by Alexander, and they were not to do anything without the consent of Bishop Alexander. In the event of the death of a non-Meletian bishop or ecclesiastic, the vacant see might be given to a Meletian, provided he were worthy and the popular election were ratified by Alexander. As to Meletius himself, episcopal rights and prerogatives were taken from him. These mild measures, however, were in vain; the Meletians joined the Arians and caused more dissension than ever, being among the worst enemies of Athanasius. The Meletians ultimately died out around the middle of the fifth century. Other problems Finally, the council promulgated twenty new church laws, called canons, (though the exact number is subject to debate ), that is, unchanging rules of discipline. The twenty as listed in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers are as follows: 1. prohibition of self-castration; (see Origen) 2. establishment of a minimum term for catechumen; 3. prohibition of the presence in the house of a cleric of a younger woman who might bring him under suspicion; 4. ordination of a bishop in the presence of at least three provincial bishops and confirmation by the metropolitan; 5. provision for two provincial synods to be held annually; 6. exceptional authority acknowledged for the patriarchs of Alexandria and Rome, for their respective regions; 7. recognition of the honorary rights of the see of Jerusalem; 8. provision for agreement with the Novatianists; 9–14. provision for mild procedure against the lapsed during the persecution under Licinius; 15–16. prohibition of the removal of priests; 17. prohibition of usury among the clergy; 18. precedence of bishops and presbyters before deacons in receiving Holy Communion, the Eucharist; 19. declaration of the invalidity of baptism by Paulian heretics; 20. prohibition of kneeling during the liturgy, on Sundays and in the fifty days of Eastertide ("the pentecost"). Standing was the normative posture for prayer at this time, as it still is among the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholics. (In time, Western Christianity adopted the term Pentecost to refer to the last Sunday of Eastertide, the fiftieth day.) For the exact text of the prohibition of kneeling, in Greek and in English translation, see canon 20 of the acts of the council. On July 25, 325, in conclusion, the fathers of the council celebrated the emperor's twentieth anniversary. In his valedictory address, Constantine again informed his hearers how averse he was to dogmatic controversy; he wanted the Church to live in harmony and peace. In a circular letter, he announced the accomplished unity of practice by the whole Church in the date of the celebration of Christian Passover (now called Easter). Effects of the Council The long-term effects of the Council of Nicaea were significant. For the first time, representatives of many of the bishops of the Church convened to agree on a doctrinal statement. Also for the first time, the Emperor played a role, by calling together the bishops under his authority, and using the power of the state to give the Council's orders effect. In the short-term, however, the council did not completely solve the problems it was convened to discuss and a period of conflict and upheaval continued for some time. Constantine himself was succeeded by two Arian Emperors in the Eastern Empire: his son, Constantius II and Valens. Valens could not resolve the outstanding ecclesiastical issues, and unsuccessfully confronted St. Basil over the Nicene Creed. Pagan powers within the Empire sought to maintain and at times re-establish Paganism into the seat of Emperor (see Arbogast and Julian the Apostate). Arians and the Meletians soon regained nearly all of the rights they had lost, and consequently, Arianism continued to spread and to cause division in the Church during the remainder of the fourth century. Almost immediately, Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop and cousin to Constantine I, used his influence at court to sway Constantine's favor from the orthodox Nicene bishops to the Arians. Eustathius of Antioch was deposed and exiled in 330. Athanasius, who had succeeded Alexander as Bishop of Alexandria, was deposed by the First Synod of Tyre in 335 and Marcellus of Ancyra followed him in 336. Arius himself returned to Constantinople to be readmitted into the Church, but died shortly before he could be received. Constantine died the next year, after finally receiving baptism from Arian Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, and "with his passing the first round in the battle after the Council of Nicaea was ended." Leo Donald Davis, S.J., "The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787)", 77, ISBN 0-8146-5616-1 Bibliography Primary sources Eusebius of Caesarea, Letter of Eusebius of Cæsarea to the people of his Diocese Account of the Council of Nicea; The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine Book 3, Chapters VI-XXI treat the First Council of Nicaea. Athanasius of Alexandria, Defence of the Nicene Definition; Ad Afros Epistola Synodica Eustathius of Antioch, Letter recorded in Theodoret H.E. 1.7 Socrates, Of the Synod which was held at Nicæa in Bithynia, and the Creed there put forth Book 1 Chapter 8 of his Ecclesiastical History, 5th century source. Sozomen, Of the Council convened at Nicæa on Account of Arius Book 1 Chapter 17 of his Ecclesiastical History, a 5th century source. Theodoret, General Council of Nicæa Book 1 Chapter 6 of his Ecclesiastical History; The Epistle of the Emperor Constantine, concerning the matters transacted at the Council, addressed to those Bishops who were not present Book 1 Chapter 9 of his Ecclesiastical History, a 5th century source; Philostorgius, Epitome of the Church History. Literature Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and Its Legacy, 2004. Carroll, Warren H., The Building of Christendom, 1987, ISBN 0-931888-24-7 Davis, S.J., Leo Donald, The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787), 1983, ISBN 0-8146-5616-1 Kelly, J.N.D., The Nicene Crisis in Early Christian Doctrines, 1978, ISBN 0-06-064334-X Kelly, J.N.D., The Creed of Nicea in Early Christian Creeds, 1982, ISBN 0-582-49219-X Newman, John Henry., The Ecumenical Council of Nicæa in the Reign of Constantine from Arians of the Fourth Century, 1871 Rubenstein, Richard E., When Jesus Became God: The Epic Fight Over Christ's Divinity in the Last Days of Rome, 2003, ISBN 0-15-100368-8 Rusch, William G. "The Trinitarian Controversy", Sources of Christian Thought Series, ISBN 0-8006-1410-0 Schaff, Philip The first ecumenical council'' includes creed and canons of the council. Tanner S.J., Norman P., "The Councils of the Church: A Short History", 2001, ISBN 0-8245-1904-3 References External links Updated English translations of the Creed, Rulings (Canons), and Letters connected to the Council . The Road to Nicaea a descriptive overview of the events of the Council, by John Anthony McGuckin. The Council of Nicaea and the Bible. This article deals with the legend that the canon of the bible was discussed at the council. 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4,072 | Benjamin | Benjamin Exterior view of Kever Binyamin (Tomb of Benjamin), located outside Kfar Saba, Israel. Benjamin () in the Book of Genesis, is a son of Jacob, the second (and last) son of Rachel, and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Benjamin; Genesis 35:18 in the Biblical account, unlike Rachel's first son - Joseph, the father of Ephraim and Manasseh - Benjamin was born after Jacob and Rachel arrived in Canaan. However, some view these details as postdiction, an eponymous metaphor providing an etiology of the connectedness of the tribe to others in the Israelite confederation. Origin Biblical scholars regard it as obvious, from their geographic overlap and their treatment in older passages, that originally Ephraim and Manasseh were considered one tribe, that of Joseph. Jewish Encyclopedia, Ephraim According to several biblical scholars, Benjamin was also originally part of this single tribe, but the biblical account of Joseph as his father became lost. Peake's commentary on the Bible The description of Benjamin being born after the arrival in Canaan is thought by some scholars to refer to the tribe of Benjamin coming into existence by branching from the Joseph group after the tribe had settled in Canaan. A number of biblical scholars suspect that the distinction of the Joseph tribes (including Benjamin) is that they were the only Israelites which went to Egypt and returned, while the main Israelite tribes simply emerged as a subculture from the Canaanites and had remained in Canaan throughout. Israel Finkelstein, The Bible Unearthed According to this view, the story of Jacob's visit to Laban to obtain a wife originated as a metaphor for this migration, with the property and family which were gained from Laban representing the gains of the Joseph tribes by the time they returned from Egypt; according to textual scholars, the Jahwist version of the Laban narrative only mentions the Joseph tribes, and Rachel, and does not mention the other tribal matriarchs whatsoever. ibid Richard Elliott Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible? Name Russian icon The Torah argues that Benjamin's name arose when Jacob deliberately corrupted the name Benoni, the original name of Benjamin, since Benoni was an allusion to Rachel dying just after she had given birth, as it means son of my pain. Genesis 35:19 Textual scholars regard these two names as fragments of naming narratives coming from different sources - one being the Jahwist and the other being the Elohist. Richard Elliott Friedman, Who wrote the Bible? The true etymology of the name Benjamin is a matter of dispute, though most agree that it is composed of two parts - ben and jamin - the former meaning son of. The literal translation of Benjamin is son of right (as opposed to left), generally interpreted as meaning son of my right hand, though sometimes interpreted as son of the right [hand] side; being associated with the right hand side was traditionally a reference to strength and virtue (cf sinister, which derives from the latin for left). This is, however, not the only literal translation, as the root for right is identical to that for south, hence Benjamin also literally translates as son of the south; this meaning is advocated by several classical rabbinical sources, which argue that it refers to the birth of Benjamin in Canaan, as compared with the birth of all the other sons of Jacob in Aram. Jewish Encyclopedia Modern scholars have instead proposed that, with the eponymous Benjamin being just a metaphor, son of the south/son of the right are references to the tribe coming into existence in a geographic situation to the south of Ephraim, the more dominant tribe. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the name is consistently written as בן ימים - with a terminal mem - making it Benjamim, and would literally translate as son of days; some classical rabbinical literature argues that this was the original form of the name and was a reference to the old age of Jacob when Benjamin was born. According to classical rabbinical sources, Benjamin was only born after Rachel had fasted for a long time, as a religious devotion with the hope of a new child as a reward, and by then Jacob had become over 100 years old. Benjamin is treated as a young child in most of the Biblical narrative, but at one point is abruptly described as the father of ten sons; Genesis 46:21 textual scholars believe that this is caused by the genealogical passage, in which his children are named, being from a much later source than the Jahwist and Elohist narratives, which make up most of the Joseph narrative, and which consistently describe Benjamin as a child. Benjamin's sons The genealogical passage names each of the sons; classical rabbinical tradition adds that each son's name honors Joseph: Belah (meaning swallow), in reference to Joseph disappearing (being swallowed up) Becher (meaning first born), in reference to Joseph being the first child of Rachel Ashbel (meaning capture), in reference to Joseph having suffered captivity Gera (meaning grain), in reference to Joseph living in a foreign land (Egypt) Naaman (meaning grace), in reference to Joseph having graceful speech Ehi (meaning my brother), in reference to Joseph being Benjamin's only full-brother (as opposed to half-brothers) Rosh (meaning elder), in reference to Joseph being older than Benjamin Muppim (meaning double mouth), in reference to Joseph passing on what he had been taught by Jacob Huppim (meaning marriage canopies), in reference to Joseph being married in Egypt, while Benjamin was not there Ard (meaning wanderer/fugitive), in reference to Joseph being like a rose The Torah's Joseph narrative, at a stage when Joseph is unrecognised by his brothers, describes Joseph as testing whether his brothers have reformed, by secretly planting a silver cup in Benjamin's bag, then publicly searching the bags for it, and after finding it in Benjamin's possession, demanding that Benjamin become his slave as a punishment; Genesis 44 the narrative goes on to state that when Judah (on behalf of the other brothers) begged Joseph not to enslave Benjamin and instead enslave him, since enslavement of Benjamin would break Jacob's heart, this caused Joseph to recant and reveal his identity. The midrashic book of Jasher argues that prior to revealing his identity, Joseph asked Benjamin to find his missing brother (ie. Joseph) via astrology, using an astrolabe-like tool; it continues by stating that Benjamin divined that the man on the throne was Joseph, so Joseph identified himself to Benjamin (but not the other brothers), and revealed his scheme (as in the Torah) to test how fraternal the other brothers were. However, some classical rabbinical sources argue that Joseph identified himself for other reasons. In these sources, Benjamin swore an oath, on the memory of Joseph, that he was innocent of theft, and, when challenged about how believable the oath would be, explained that remembering Joseph was so important to him that he had named his sons in Joseph's honour; these sources go on to state that Benjamin's oath touched Joseph so deeply that Joseph was no longer able to pretend to be a stranger. In the narrative, just prior to this test, when Joseph had first met all of his brothers (but not identified himself to them), he had held a feast for them; Genesis 43 the narrative heavily implies that Benjamin was Joseph's favorite brother, since he is overcome with tears when he first meets Benjamin in particular, Genesis 43:30 and he gives Benjamin five times as much food as he apportions to the others. Genesis 43:34 According to textual scholars, this is really the Jahwist's account of the reunion after Joseph identifies himself, and the account of the threat to enslave Benjamin is just the Elohist's version of the same event, with the Elohist being more terse about Joseph's emotions towards Benjamin, merely mentioning that Benjamin was given five times as many gifts as the others. A version of the Joseph narrative appears in the Qu'ran, which also mentions Benjamin (though it does so without naming him), describing him as having been regarded particularly highly by Joseph, and by Jacob; Sura Yusuf Baidawi, the quintessential mediaeval commentator on the Qu'ran, records that there was a tradition that the brothers had been made to sit in pairs at the feast, so that Benjamin had to sit on his own, which resulted in Benjamin weeping over the loss of Joseph. Not only is Benjamin treated as the favourite brother of Joseph, and a favourite of Jacob, but classical rabbinical sources also stress the fact that Benjamin is referred to as the beloved of Yahweh in Deuteronomy; these rabbinical sources concluded that Benjamin died without ever committing sin - one of only four men to have done so (the other three being Amram, Jesse, and Kileab). Shabbat 55b See also Benjamin (disambiguation) For a list of persons with the given name Benjamin see Kever Benjamin Tribe of Benjamin Citations References External links The Jewish Encyclopedia, 1908: Benjamin. Material on the tribe, its territory, Rabbinical tradition and Islam, where Benjamin is not specifically mentioned in the Qur'an. | Benjamin |@lemmatized benjamin:52 exterior:1 view:3 kever:2 binyamin:1 tomb:1 locate:1 outside:1 kfar:1 saba:1 israel:2 book:2 genesis:8 son:18 jacob:11 second:1 last:1 rachel:7 founder:1 israelite:4 tribe:14 biblical:6 account:4 unlike:1 first:5 joseph:42 father:3 ephraim:4 manasseh:2 bear:5 arrive:1 canaan:5 however:3 detail:1 postdiction:1 eponymous:2 metaphor:3 provide:1 etiology:1 connectedness:1 others:3 confederation:1 origin:1 scholar:9 regard:3 obvious:1 geographic:2 overlap:1 treatment:1 old:4 passage:3 originally:2 consider:1 one:4 jewish:3 encyclopedia:3 accord:5 several:2 also:5 part:2 single:1 become:3 lose:1 peake:1 commentary:1 bible:4 description:1 arrival:1 think:1 refer:3 come:3 existence:2 branch:1 group:1 settle:1 number:1 suspect:1 distinction:1 include:1 go:3 egypt:4 return:2 main:1 simply:1 emerge:1 subculture:1 canaanite:1 remain:1 throughout:1 finkelstein:1 unearthed:1 story:1 visit:1 laban:3 obtain:1 wife:1 originate:1 migration:1 property:1 family:1 gain:2 represent:1 time:4 textual:4 jahwist:4 version:3 narrative:10 mention:5 tribal:1 matriarch:1 whatsoever:1 ibid:1 richard:2 elliott:2 friedman:2 write:3 name:15 russian:1 icon:1 torah:3 argue:4 arise:1 deliberately:1 corrupt:1 benoni:2 original:2 since:3 allusion:1 die:2 give:4 birth:3 mean:11 pain:1 two:2 fragment:1 different:1 source:9 elohist:4 true:1 etymology:1 matter:1 dispute:1 though:3 agree:1 compose:1 ben:1 jamin:1 former:1 meaning:3 literal:2 translation:2 right:6 oppose:2 leave:1 generally:1 interpret:2 hand:3 sometimes:1 side:2 associate:1 traditionally:1 reference:14 strength:1 virtue:1 cf:1 sinister:1 derive:1 latin:1 left:1 root:1 identical:1 south:4 hence:1 literally:2 translate:2 advocate:1 classical:6 rabbinical:8 compare:1 aram:1 modern:1 instead:2 propose:1 situation:1 dominant:1 samaritan:1 pentateuch:1 consistently:2 בן:1 ימים:1 terminal:1 mem:1 make:3 benjamim:1 would:3 day:1 literature:1 form:1 age:1 fast:1 long:1 religious:1 devotion:1 hope:1 new:1 child:5 reward:1 year:1 treat:2 young:1 point:1 abruptly:1 describe:4 ten:1 believe:1 cause:2 genealogical:2 much:2 later:1 tradition:3 add:1 honor:1 belah:1 swallow:2 disappearing:1 becher:1 ashbel:1 capture:1 suffer:1 captivity:1 gera:1 grain:1 living:1 foreign:1 land:1 naaman:1 grace:1 graceful:1 speech:1 ehi:1 brother:13 full:1 half:1 rosh:1 elder:1 muppim:1 double:1 mouth:1 pass:1 teach:1 huppim:1 marriage:1 canopy:1 marry:1 ard:1 wanderer:1 fugitive:1 like:2 rise:1 stage:1 unrecognised:1 test:3 whether:1 reform:1 secretly:1 plant:1 silver:1 cup:1 bag:2 publicly:1 search:1 find:2 possession:1 demand:1 slave:1 punishment:1 state:3 judah:1 behalf:1 beg:1 enslave:3 enslavement:1 break:1 heart:1 recant:1 reveal:3 identity:2 midrashic:1 jasher:1 argues:1 prior:2 ask:1 miss:1 ie:1 via:1 astrology:1 use:1 astrolabe:1 tool:1 continue:1 divine:1 man:1 throne:1 identify:3 scheme:1 fraternal:1 reason:1 swear:1 oath:3 memory:1 innocent:1 theft:1 challenge:1 believable:1 explain:1 remember:1 important:1 honour:1 touch:1 deeply:1 longer:1 able:1 pretend:1 stranger:1 meet:2 hold:1 feast:2 heavily:1 imply:1 favorite:1 overcome:1 tear:1 particular:1 five:2 food:1 apportion:1 really:1 reunion:1 identifies:1 threat:1 event:1 terse:1 emotion:1 towards:1 merely:1 many:1 gift:1 appear:1 qu:2 ran:2 without:2 particularly:1 highly:1 sura:1 yusuf:1 baidawi:1 quintessential:1 mediaeval:1 commentator:1 record:1 sit:2 pair:1 result:1 weeping:1 loss:1 favourite:2 stress:1 fact:1 beloved:1 yahweh:1 deuteronomy:1 conclude:1 ever:1 commit:1 sin:1 four:1 men:1 three:1 amram:1 jesse:1 kileab:1 shabbat:1 see:2 disambiguation:1 list:1 person:1 citation:1 external:1 link:1 material:1 territory:1 islam:1 specifically:1 qur:1 |@bigram ephraim_manasseh:2 israel_finkelstein:1 bible_unearthed:1 elliott_friedman:2 jahwist_elohist:2 literal_translation:2 swear_oath:1 qu_ran:2 external_link:1 |
4,073 | Bioinformatics | Map of the human X chromosome (from the NCBI website). Assembly of the human genome is one of the greatest achievements of bioinformatics. Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the field of molecular biology. The term bioinformatics was coined by Paulien Hogeweg in 1978 for the study of informatic processes in biotic systems. Bioinformatics nowadays entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational and statistical techniques, and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the management and analysis of biological data. Over the past few decades rapid developments in genomic and other molecular research technologies and developments in information technologies have combined to produce a tremendous amount of information related to molecular biology. It is the name given to these mathematical and computing approaches used to glean understanding of biological processes. Common activities in bioinformatics include mapping and analyzing DNA and protein sequences, aligning different DNA and protein sequences to compare them and creating and viewing 3-D models of protein structures. The primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase our understanding of biological processes. What sets it apart from other approaches, however, is its focus on developing and applying computationally intensive techniques (e.g., data mining, and machine learning algorithms) to achieve this goal. Major research efforts in the field include sequence alignment, gene finding, genome assembly, protein structure alignment, protein structure prediction, prediction of gene expression and protein-protein interactions, genome-wide association studies and the modeling of evolution. Introduction Bioinformatics was applied in the creation and maintenance of a database to store biological information at the beginning of the "genomic revolution", such as nucleotide and amino acid sequences. Development of this type of database involved not only design issues but the development of complex interfaces whereby researchers could both access existing data as well as submit new or revised data. In order to study how normal cellular activities are altered in different disease states, the biological data must be combined to form a comprehensive picture of these activities. Therefore, the field of bioinformatics has evolved such that the most pressing task now involves the analysis and interpretation of various types of data, including nucleotide and amino acid sequences, protein domains, and protein structures. The actual process of analyzing and interpreting data is referred to as computational biology. Important sub-disciplines within bioinformatics and computational biology include: a) the development and implementation of tools that enable efficient access to, and use and management of, various types of information. b) the development of new algorithms (mathematical formulas) and statistics with which to assess relationships among members of large data sets, such as methods to locate a gene within a sequence, predict protein structure and/or function, and cluster protein sequences into families of related sequences. Major research areas Sequence analysis Since the Phage Φ-X174 was sequenced in 1977, the DNA sequences of hundreds of organisms have been decoded and stored in databases. The information is analyzed to determine genes that encode polypeptides, as well as regulatory sequences. A comparison of genes within a species or between different species can show similarities between protein functions, or relations between species (the use of molecular systematics to construct phylogenetic trees). With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually. Today, computer programs are used to search the genome of thousands of organisms, containing billions of nucleotides. These programs would compensate for mutations (exchanged, deleted or inserted bases) in the DNA sequence, in order to identify sequences that are related, but not identical. A variant of this sequence alignment is used in the sequencing process itself. The so-called shotgun sequencing technique (which was used, for example, by The Institute for Genomic Research to sequence the first bacterial genome, Haemophilus influenzae) does not give a sequential list of nucleotides, but instead the sequences of thousands of small DNA fragments (each about 600-800 nucleotides long). The ends of these fragments overlap and, when aligned in the right way, make up the complete genome. Shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly, but the task of assembling the fragments can be quite complicated for larger genomes. In the case of the Human Genome Project, it took several days of CPU time (on one hundred Pentium III desktop machines clustered specifically for the purpose) to assemble the fragments. Shotgun sequencing is the method of choice for virtually all genomes sequenced today, and genome assembly algorithms are a critical area of bioinformatics research. Another aspect of bioinformatics in sequence analysis is the automatic search for genes and regulatory sequences within a genome. Not all of the nucleotides within a genome are genes. Within the genome of higher organisms, large parts of the DNA do not serve any obvious purpose. This so-called junk DNA may, however, contain unrecognized functional elements. Bioinformatics helps to bridge the gap between genome and proteome projects--for example, in the use of DNA sequences for protein identification. See also: sequence analysis, sequence profiling tool, sequence motif. Genome annotation In the context of genomics, annotation is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence. The first genome annotation software system was designed in 1995 by Dr. Owen White, who was part of the team that sequenced and analyzed the first genome of a free-living organism to be decoded, the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. Dr. White built a software system to find the genes (places in the DNA sequence that encode a protein), the transfer RNA, and other features, and to make initial assignments of function to those genes. Most current genome annotation systems work similarly, but the programs available for analysis of genomic DNA are constantly changing and improving. Computational evolutionary biology Evolutionary biology is the study of the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time. Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists in several key ways; it has enabled researchers to: trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their DNA, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone, more recently, compare entire genomes, which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in bacterial speciation, build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms Future work endeavours to reconstruct the now more complex tree of life. The area of research within computer science that uses genetic algorithms is sometimes confused with computational evolutionary biology, but the two areas are unrelated. Measuring biodiversity Biodiversity of an ecosystem might be defined as the total genomic complement of a particular environment, from all of the species present, whether it is a biofilm in an abandoned mine, a drop of sea water, a scoop of soil, or the entire biosphere of the planet Earth. Databases are used to collect the species names, descriptions, distributions, genetic information, status and size of populations, habitat needs, and how each organism interacts with other species. Specialized software programs are used to find, visualize, and analyze the information, and most importantly, communicate it to other people. Computer simulations model such things as population dynamics, or calculate the cumulative genetic health of a breeding pool (in agriculture) or endangered population (in conservation). One very exciting potential of this field is that entire DNA sequences, or genomes of endangered species can be preserved, allowing the results of Nature's genetic experiment to be remembered in silico, and possibly reused in the future, even if that species is eventually lost. Important projects: Species 2000 project; uBio Project; Partnership for Biodiversity Informatics Analysis of gene expression The expression of many genes can be determined by measuring mRNA levels with multiple techniques including microarrays, expressed cDNA sequence tag (EST) sequencing, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) tag sequencing, massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS), or various applications of multiplexed in-situ hybridization. All of these techniques are extremely noise-prone and/or subject to bias in the biological measurement, and a major research area in computational biology involves developing statistical tools to separate signal from noise in high-throughput gene expression studies. Such studies are often used to determine the genes implicated in a disorder: one might compare microarray data from cancerous epithelial cells to data from non-cancerous cells to determine the transcripts that are up-regulated and down-regulated in a particular population of cancer cells. Analysis of regulation Regulation is the complex orchestration of events starting with an extracellular signal such as a hormone and leading to an increase or decrease in the activity of one or more proteins. Bioinformatics techniques have been applied to explore various steps in this process. For example, promoter analysis involves the identification and study of sequence motifs in the DNA surrounding the coding region of a gene. These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into mRNA. Expression data can be used to infer gene regulation: one might compare microarray data from a wide variety of states of an organism to form hypotheses about the genes involved in each state. In a single-cell organism, one might compare stages of the cell cycle, along with various stress conditions (heat shock, starvation, etc.). One can then apply clustering algorithms to that expression data to determine which genes are co-expressed. For example, the upstream regions (promoters) of co-expressed genes can be searched for over-represented regulatory elements. Analysis of protein expression Protein microarrays and high throughput (HT) mass spectrometry (MS) can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample. Bioinformatics is very much involved in making sense of protein microarray and HT MS data; the former approach faces similar problems as with microarrays targeted at mRNA, the latter involves the problem of matching large amounts of mass data against predicted masses from protein sequence databases, and the complicated statistical analysis of samples where multiple, but incomplete peptides from each protein are detected. Analysis of mutations in cancer In cancer, the genomes of affected cells are rearranged in complex or even unpredictable ways. Massive sequencing efforts are used to identify previously unknown point mutations in a variety of genes in cancer. Bioinformaticians continue to produce specialized automated systems to manage the sheer volume of sequence data produced, and they create new algorithms and software to compare the sequencing results to the growing collection of human genome sequences and germline polymorphisms. New physical detection technology are employed, such as oligonucleotide microarrays to identify chromosomal gains and losses (called comparative genomic hybridization), and single nucleotide polymorphism arrays to detect known point mutations. These detection methods simultaneously measure several hundred thousand sites throughout the genome, and when used in high-throughput to measure thousands of samples, generate terabytes of data per experiment. Again the massive amounts and new types of data generate new opportunities for bioinformaticians. The data is often found to contain considerable variability, or noise, and thus Hidden Markov model and change-point analysis methods are being developed to infer real copy number changes. Another type of data that requires novel informatics development is the analysis of lesions found to be recurrent among many tumors . Prediction of protein structure Protein structure prediction is another important application of bioinformatics. The amino acid sequence of a protein, the so-called primary structure, can be easily determined from the sequence on the gene that codes for it. In the vast majority of cases, this primary structure uniquely determines a structure in its native environment. (Of course, there are exceptions, such as the bovine spongiform encephalopathy - aka Mad Cow Disease - prion.) Knowledge of this structure is vital in understanding the function of the protein. For lack of better terms, structural information is usually classified as one of secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure. A viable general solution to such predictions remains an open problem. As of now, most efforts have been directed towards heuristics that work most of the time. One of the key ideas in bioinformatics is the notion of homology. In the genomic branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to predict the function of a gene: if the sequence of gene A, whose function is known, is homologous to the sequence of gene B, whose function is unknown, one could infer that B may share A's function. In the structural branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to determine which parts of a protein are important in structure formation and interaction with other proteins. In a technique called homology modeling, this information is used to predict the structure of a protein once the structure of a homologous protein is known. This currently remains the only way to predict protein structures reliably. One example of this is the similar protein homology between hemoglobin in humans and the hemoglobin in legumes (leghemoglobin). Both serve the same purpose of transporting oxygen in the organism. Though both of these proteins have completely different amino acid sequences, their protein structures are virtually identical, which reflects their near identical purposes. Other techniques for predicting protein structure include protein threading and de novo (from scratch) physics-based modeling. See also: structural motif and structural domain. Comparative genomics The core of comparative genome analysis is the establishment of the correspondence between genes (orthology analysis) or other genomic features in different organisms. It is these intergenomic maps that make it possible to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes. A multitude of evolutionary events acting at various organizational levels shape genome evolution. At the lowest level, point mutations affect individual nucleotides. At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion. Ultimately, whole genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and endosymbiosis, often leading to rapid speciation. The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a spectra of algorithmic, statistical and mathematical techniques, ranging from exact, heuristics, fixed parameter and approximation algorithms for problems based on parsimony models to Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithms for Bayesian analysis of problems based on probabilistic models. Many of these studies are based on the homology detection and protein families computation. Modeling biological systems Systems biology involves the use of computer simulations of cellular subsystems (such as the networks of metabolites and enzymes which comprise metabolism, signal transduction pathways and gene regulatory networks) to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes. Artificial life or virtual evolution attempts to understand evolutionary processes via the computer simulation of simple (artificial) life forms. High-throughput image analysis Computational technologies are used to accelerate or fully automate the processing, quantification and analysis of large amounts of high-information-content biomedical imagery. Modern image analysis systems augment an observer's ability to make measurements from a large or complex set of images, by improving accuracy, objectivity, or speed. A fully developed analysis system may completely replace the observer. Although these systems are not unique to biomedical imagery, biomedical imaging is becoming more important for both diagnostics and research. Some examples are: high-throughput and high-fidelity quantification and sub-cellular localization (high-content screening, cytohistopathology) morphometrics clinical image analysis and visualization determining the real-time air-flow patterns in breathing lungs of living animals quantifying occlusion size in real-time imagery from the development of and recovery during arterial injury making behavioral observations from extended video recordings of laboratory animals infrared measurements for metabolic activity determination inferring clone overlaps in DNA mapping, e.g. the Sulston score Protein-protein docking In the last two decades, tens of thousands of protein three-dimensional structures have been determined by X-ray crystallography and Protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (protein NMR). One central question for the biological scientist is whether it is practical to predict possible protein-protein interactions only based on these 3D shapes, without doing protein-protein interaction experiments. A variety of methods have been developed to tackle the Protein-protein docking problem, though it seems that there is still much work to be done in this field. Software and tools Software tools for bioinformatics range from simple command-line tools, to more complex graphical programs and standalone web-services available from various bioinformatics companies or public institutions. The computational biology tool best-known among biologists is probably BLAST, an algorithm for determining the similarity of arbitrary sequences against other sequences, possibly from curated databases of protein or DNA sequences. BLAST is one of a number of generally available programs for doing sequence alignment. The NCBI provides a popular web-based implementation that searches their databases. Web services in bioinformatics SOAP and REST-based interfaces have been developed for a wide variety of bioinformatics applications allowing an application running on one computer in one part of the world to use algorithms, data and computing resources on servers in other parts of the world. The main advantages lay in the end user not having to deal with software and database maintenance overheads. Basic bioinformatics services are classified by the EBI into three categories: SSS (Sequence Search Services), MSA (Multiple Sequence Alignment) and BSA (Biological Sequence Analysis). The availability of these service-oriented bioinformatics resources demonstrate the applicability of web based bioinformatics solutions, and range from a collection of standalone tools with a common data format under a single, standalone or web-based interface, to integrative, distributed and extensible bioinformatics workflow management systems. See also Related topics Biocybernetics Bioinformatics companies Biologically-inspired computing Biomedical informatics Computational biology Computational biomodeling Computational genomics DNA sequencing theory Dot plot (bioinformatics) Dry lab Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Metabolic network modelling Molecular Design software Morphometrics Natural computation Pharmaceutical company Protein-protein interaction prediction List of nucleic acid simulation software List of numerical analysis software List of protein structure prediction software List of scientific journals in bioinformatics Related fields Applied mathematics Artificial intelligence Biology Cheminformatics Clinomics Comparative genomics Computational biology Computational epigenetics Computational science Computer science Cybernetics Ecoinformatics Genomics Informatics Information theory Mathematical biology Molecular modelling Neuroinformatics Proteomics Pervasive adaptation Scientific computing Statistics Structural biology Systems biology Theoretical biology Veterinary informatics References Achuthsankar S Nair Computational Biology & Bioinformatics - A gentle Overview, Communications of Computer Society of India, January 2007 Aluru, Srinivas, ed. Handbook of Computational Molecular Biology. Chapman & Hall/Crc, 2006. ISBN 1584884061 (Chapman & Hall/Crc Computer and Information Science Series) Baldi, P and Brunak, S, Bioinformatics: The Machine Learning Approach, 2nd edition. MIT Press, 2001. ISBN 0-262-02506-X Barnes, M.R. and Gray, I.C., eds., Bioinformatics for Geneticists, first edition. Wiley, 2003. ISBN 0-470-84394-2 Baxevanis, A.D. and Ouellette, B.F.F., eds., Bioinformatics: A Practical Guide to the Analysis of Genes and Proteins, third edition. Wiley, 2005. ISBN 0-471-47878-4 Baxevanis, A.D., Petsko, G.A., Stein, L.D., and Stormo, G.D., eds., Current Protocols in Bioinformatics. Wiley, 2007. ISBN 0-471-25093-7 Claverie, J.M. and C. Notredame, Bioinformatics for Dummies. Wiley, 2003. ISBN 0-7645-1696-5 Cristianini, N. and Hahn, M. Introduction to Computational Genomics, Cambridge University Press, 2006. (ISBN 9780521671910 | ISBN 0521671914) Durbin, R., S. Eddy, A. Krogh and G. Mitchison, Biological sequence analysis. Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-62971-3 Gilbert, D. Bioinformatics software resources. Briefings in Bioinformatics, Briefings in Bioinformatics, 2004 5(3):300-304. Keedwell, E., Intelligent Bioinformatics: The Application of Artificial Intelligence Techniques to Bioinformatics Problems. Wiley, 2005. ISBN 0-470-02175-6 Kohane, et al. Microarrays for an Integrative Genomics. The MIT Press, 2002. ISBN 0-262-11271-X Lund, O. et al. Immunological Bioinformatics. The MIT Press, 2005. ISBN 0-262-12280-4 Michael S. Waterman, Introduction to Computational Biology: Sequences, Maps and Genomes. CRC Press, 1995. ISBN 0-412-99391-0 Mount, David W. Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis Spring Harbor Press, May 2002. ISBN 0-87969-608-7 Pachter, Lior and Sturmfels, Bernd. "Algebraic Statistics for Computational Biology" Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-85700-7 Pevzner, Pavel A. Computational Molecular Biology: An Algorithmic Approach The MIT Press, 2000. ISBN 0-262-16197-4 Tisdall, James. "Beginning Perl for Bioinformatics" O'Reilly, 2001. ISBN 0-596-00080-4 Dedicated issue of Philosophical Transactions B on Bioinformatics freely available Catalyzing Inquiry at the Interface of Computing and Biology (2005) CSTB report Calculating the Secrets of Life: Contributions of the Mathematical Sciences and computing to Molecular Biology (1995) Foundations of Computational and Systems Biology MIT Course Computational Biology: Genomes, Networks, Evolution Free MIT Course Algorithms for Computational Biology Free MIT Course Zhang, Z., Cheung, K.H. and Townsend, J.P. Bringing Web 2.0 to bioinformatics, Briefing in Bioinformatics. In press External links Major Organizations Bioinformatics Organization (Bioinformatics.Org): The Open-Access Institute EMBnet European Bioinformatics Institute European Molecular Biology Laboratory The International Society for Computational Biology National Center for Biotechnology Information National Institutes of Health homepage Open Bioinformatics Foundation: umbrella non-profit organization supporting certain open-source projects in bioinformatics Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute Major Journals Algorithms in Molecular Biology Bioinformatics BMC Bioinformatics Briefings in Bioinformatics Journal of Advanced Research in Bioinformatics Evolutionary Bioinformatics Genome Research The International Journal of Biostatistics Journal of Computational Biology Cancer Informatics Journal of the Royal Society Interface Molecular Systems Biology PLoS Computational Biology Statistical Applications in Genetic and Molecular Biology Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics - IEEE/ACM International Journal of Bioinformatics Research and Applications List of Bioinformatics journals at Bioinformatics.fr EMBnet.News at EMBnet.org International Journal of Computational Biology and Drug Design (IJCBDD) International Journal of Functional Informatics and Personalized Medicine (IJFIPM) Other sites The Collection of Biostatistics Research Archive Human Genome Project and Bioinformatics List of Bioinformatics Research Groups at Bioinformatics.fr Tutorials / Resources / Primers Bioinformatics - A Science Primer — by NCBI See also International Society of Intelligent Biological Medicine (ISIBM) | Bioinformatics |@lemmatized map:4 human:6 x:4 chromosome:1 ncbi:3 website:1 assembly:3 genome:33 one:16 great:1 achievement:1 bioinformatics:65 application:8 information:15 technology:5 field:6 molecular:13 biology:36 term:2 coin:1 paulien:1 hogeweg:1 study:9 informatic:1 process:11 biotic:1 system:15 nowadays:1 entail:1 creation:2 advancement:1 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4,074 | End_zone | A player rushes into the red painted end zone, scoring a touchdown during a college football game. The University of Texas Longhorn Band performing on the football field of Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas, the end zone of which is decorated in colors of The University of Texas at Austin. The end zone is a term used in both Canadian football and American football. The end zone is the area between the end line and goal line bounded by the sidelines. There are two end zones, each being on an opposite side of the field. It is bordered on all sides by a white line indicating its beginning and end points, with orange, square pylons placed at each of the four corners as a visual aid. Canadian rule books use the term goal area instead of end zone, but the latter term is the more common in colloquial Canadian English. History The end zones were invented as a result of the creation of the forward pass. Prior to this, the goal line and end line were the same, and players scored a touchdown by leaving the field of play through that line. Goal posts were placed on the goal line, and any kicks that did not result in field goals but left the field through the end lines were simply recorded as touchbacks. In the earliest days of the forward pass, the pass would have to be caught in-bounds, and could not be thrown across the goal line (as the receiver would be out of bounds). This also made it difficult to pass the ball when very close to one's own end zone, since merely dropping back to pass or kick would result in a safety (rules of the forward pass at the time required the passer to be five yards behind the line of scrimmage, which would make throwing the forward pass when the ball was snapped from behind one's own five-yard line illegal in itself). Thus, the end zone was born. Each league used a different approach: Canadian football merely appended 20- to 25-yard end zones to the ends of the existing 110-yard field, leaving the goal posts on the goal line and creating a much larger field of play. American football, on the other hand, took a different approach: 10 yards of end zone were added to each end of the field, but in return, the playing field was shortened from 110 yards to 100, resulting in the physical size of the field being only slightly longer than before. Goal posts were originally kept on the goal lines, but after they began to interfere with play, they moved back to the end lines in 1927, where they have remained in college football ever since. The National Football League moved the goal posts up to the goal line again in 1932, then back again to the end line in 1974. Scoring A team scores a touchdown by entering their opponent's end zone while carrying the ball or catching the ball while being within the end zone. If the ball is carried by an offensive player across the goal line, it is considered a score as soon as the ball crosses the imaginary vertical plane of the goal line, which theoretically extends in a great circle around the world and infinitely into space as long as the player does not set any part of his body on the ground out of bounds (i.e. outside the sidelines) before the ball penetrates the plane. A touchdown can also be scored if the player makes contact with one of the pylons by the sideline. In addition, a two-point conversion may be scored after a touchdown by similar means. The goal post The location and dimensions of a goal post differs from league to league, but it is always within the boundaries of the end zone. In earlier football games (both professional and collegiate), the goal post began at the goal line, and was usually an H-shaped bar. Nowadays, almost all goal posts in the professional and collegiate levels are T-shaped, and reside at the front line of the end zone, by the goal line. Decoration Most professional and collegiate teams have their logo, team name, or both painted on the surface of the end zone, with team colors filling the background. Many championship games at college and professional level are commemorated by the names of the opposing teams each being painted in one of the opposite end zones. Size The end zone in Canadian football is 20 yards long by 60 yards wide, while the end zone in American football is 10 yards long by 53⅓ yards wide (Canadian football is played on a longer and wider field). The end zone stretches from pylon to pylon on an American football field. See also | End_zone |@lemmatized player:5 rush:1 red:1 painted:1 end:28 zone:20 score:7 touchdown:5 college:3 football:13 game:3 university:2 texas:3 longhorn:1 band:1 perform:1 field:12 reliant:1 stadium:1 houston:1 decorate:1 color:2 austin:1 term:3 use:3 canadian:6 american:4 area:2 line:21 goal:21 bound:4 sideline:3 two:2 opposite:2 side:2 border:1 white:1 indicate:1 beginning:1 point:2 orange:1 square:1 pylon:4 place:2 four:1 corner:1 visual:1 aid:1 rule:2 book:1 instead:1 latter:1 common:1 colloquial:1 english:1 history:1 invent:1 result:4 creation:1 forward:4 pas:6 prior:1 leave:3 play:4 post:8 kick:2 simply:1 record:1 touchback:1 early:2 day:1 would:4 catch:2 could:1 throw:2 across:2 receiver:1 also:3 make:3 difficult:1 pass:1 ball:7 close:1 one:4 since:2 merely:2 drop:1 back:3 safety:1 time:1 require:1 passer:1 five:2 yard:10 behind:2 scrimmage:1 snap:1 illegal:1 thus:1 bear:1 league:4 different:2 approach:2 append:1 exist:1 create:1 much:1 large:1 hand:1 take:1 add:1 return:1 playing:1 shorten:1 physical:1 size:2 slightly:1 long:4 originally:1 keep:1 begin:2 interfere:1 move:2 remain:1 ever:1 national:1 team:5 enter:1 opponent:1 carry:2 within:2 offensive:1 consider:1 soon:1 cross:1 imaginary:1 vertical:1 plane:2 theoretically:1 extend:1 great:1 circle:1 around:1 world:1 infinitely:1 space:1 set:1 part:1 body:1 ground:1 e:1 outside:1 penetrate:1 contact:1 addition:1 conversion:1 may:1 similar:1 mean:1 location:1 dimension:1 differs:1 always:1 boundary:1 professional:4 collegiate:3 usually:1 h:1 shaped:1 bar:1 nowadays:1 almost:1 level:2 shape:1 reside:1 front:1 decoration:1 logo:1 name:2 paint:2 surface:1 fill:1 background:1 many:1 championship:1 commemorate:1 oppose:1 wide:2 longer:1 wider:1 stretch:1 see:1 |@bigram reliant_stadium:1 texas_austin:1 forward_pas:4 line_scrimmage:1 |
4,075 | Economy_of_Burkina_Faso | Burkina Faso is one of the poorest countries in the world with an average income per capita of €250 (US$300). More than 80 percent of the population relies on subsistence agriculture, with only a small fraction directly involved in industry and services. Highly variable rainfall, poor soils, lack of adequate communications and other infrastructure, a low literacy rate, and a stagnant economy are all longstanding problems of this landlocked country. The export economy also remains subject to fluctuations in world prices. The country has a has a high population density, few natural resources, and a fragile soil. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January 1994 the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. Maintenance of its macroeconomic progress depends on continued low inflation, reduction in the trade deficit, and reforms designed to encourage private investment. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Burkina Faso at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of CFA Francs. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 412,240 211.29 CFA Francs 45 1985 642,387 449.22 CFA Francs 67 1990 848,910 272.26 CFA Francs 65 1995 1,330,159 499.12 CFA Francs 88 2000 1,861,522 711.86 CFA Francs 100 2005 3,027,196 526.56 CFA Francs 115 For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 179.70 CFA Francs only. Current GDP per capita Earthtrends data of Burkina Faso grew 13 percent in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 237 percent in the Seventies. But this proved unsustainable and growth consequently scaled back to 23 percent in the Eighties. Finally, it shrank by 37 percent in the Nineties. Average wages in 2007 hover around 2 to 3 dollars per day. Although handicapped by an extremely resource-deprived domestic economy, Burkina remains committed to the structural adjustment program it launched in 1991. It has largely recovered from the devaluation of the CFA in January 1994, with a 1996 growth rate of 5.9 percent. Many Burkinabe migrate to neighbouring countries for work, and their remittances provide a substantial contribution to the balance of payments. Burkina is attempting to improve the economy by developing its mineral resources, improving its infrastructure, making its agricultural and livestock sectors more productive and competitive, and stabilizing the supplies and prices of cereals. The agricultural economy remains highly vulnerable to fluctuations in rainfall. The Mossi Plateau in north central Burkina faces encroachment from the Sahara. The resultant southward migration means heightened competition for control of very limited water resources south of the Mossi Plateau. Most of the population ekes out a living as subsistence farmers, living with problems of climate, soil erosion, and rudimentary technology. The staple crops are pearl millet, sorghum, maize, and rice. The cash crops are cotton, groundnuts, karite (shea nuts), and sesame. Livestock, once a major export, has declined. External trade Burkinabe exports in 2006 Industry, still in an embryonic stage, is located primarily in Bobo-Dioulasso, Ouagadougou, Banfora, and Koudougou. Manufacturing is limited to food processing, textiles, and other import substitution heavily protected by tariffs. Some factories are privately owned, and others are set to be privatized. Burkina's exploitable natural resources are limited, although a manganese ore deposit is located in the remote northeast. Gold mining has increased greatly since the mid-1980s and, along with cotton, is a leading export moneyearner. References External links West African Agricultural Market Observer/Observatoire du Marché Agricole (RESIMAO), a project of the West-African Market Information Network (WAMIS-NET), provides live market and commodity prices from fifty seven regional and local public agricultural markets across Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Niger, Mali, Senegal, Togo, and Nigeria. Sixty commodities are tracked weekly. The project is run by the Benin Ministry of Agriculture, and a number of European, African, and United Nations agencies. | Economy_of_Burkina_Faso |@lemmatized burkina:8 faso:4 one:1 poor:2 country:4 world:2 average:2 income:1 per:3 caput:2 u:3 percent:6 population:3 relies:1 subsistence:2 agriculture:2 small:1 fraction:1 directly:1 involve:1 industry:3 service:1 highly:2 variable:1 rainfall:2 soil:3 lack:1 adequate:1 communication:1 infrastructure:2 low:2 literacy:1 rate:2 stagnant:1 economy:5 longstanding:1 problem:2 landlocked:1 export:5 also:1 remain:3 subject:1 fluctuation:2 price:4 high:1 density:1 natural:2 resource:5 fragile:1 dominate:1 unprofitable:1 government:2 control:2 corporation:1 follow:1 african:4 franc:9 currency:1 devaluation:2 january:2 update:1 development:1 program:2 conjunction:1 international:2 agency:2 economic:2 growth:4 increase:2 maintenance:1 macroeconomic:1 progress:1 depend:1 continued:1 inflation:2 reduction:1 trade:2 deficit:1 reform:1 design:1 encourage:1 private:1 investment:1 macro:1 trend:2 chart:1 gross:2 domestic:3 product:2 market:5 estimate:1 monetary:1 fund:1 figure:1 million:1 cfa:9 year:1 dollar:3 exchange:2 index:1 purchase:1 power:1 parity:1 comparison:1 current:1 gdp:1 earthtrends:1 data:1 grow:1 sixty:2 reach:1 peak:1 seventy:1 prove:1 unsustainable:1 consequently:1 scale:1 back:1 eighty:1 finally:1 shrink:1 ninety:1 wage:1 hover:1 around:1 day:1 although:2 handicap:1 extremely:1 deprive:1 remains:1 commit:1 structural:1 adjustment:1 launch:1 largely:1 recover:1 many:1 burkinabe:2 migrate:1 neighbouring:1 work:1 remittance:1 provide:2 substantial:1 contribution:1 balance:1 payment:1 attempt:1 improve:2 develop:1 mineral:1 make:1 agricultural:4 livestock:2 sector:1 productive:1 competitive:1 stabilize:1 supply:1 cereal:1 vulnerable:1 mossi:2 plateau:2 north:1 central:1 face:1 encroachment:1 sahara:1 resultant:1 southward:1 migration:1 mean:1 heighten:1 competition:1 limited:2 water:1 south:1 ekes:1 living:1 farmer:1 live:2 climate:1 erosion:1 rudimentary:1 technology:1 staple:1 crop:2 pearl:1 millet:1 sorghum:1 maize:1 rice:1 cash:1 cotton:2 groundnut:1 karite:1 shea:1 nut:1 sesame:1 major:1 decline:1 external:2 still:1 embryonic:1 stage:1 locate:2 primarily:1 bobo:1 dioulasso:1 ouagadougou:1 banfora:1 koudougou:1 manufacturing:1 limit:1 food:1 processing:1 textile:1 import:1 substitution:1 heavily:1 protect:1 tariff:1 factory:1 privately:1 others:1 set:1 privatize:1 exploitable:1 manganese:1 ore:1 deposit:1 remote:1 northeast:1 gold:1 mining:1 greatly:1 since:1 mid:1 along:1 lead:1 moneyearner:1 reference:1 link:1 west:2 observer:1 observatoire:1 du:1 marché:1 agricole:1 resimao:1 project:2 information:1 network:1 wamis:1 net:1 commodity:2 fifty:1 seven:1 regional:1 local:1 public:1 across:1 benin:2 côte:1 ivoire:1 guinea:1 niger:1 mali:1 senegal:1 togo:1 nigeria:1 tracked:1 weekly:1 run:1 ministry:1 number:1 european:1 united:1 nation:1 |@bigram burkina_faso:4 per_caput:2 subsistence_agriculture:1 currency_devaluation:1 gross_domestic:2 monetary_fund:1 cfa_franc:8 franc_cfa:5 prove_unsustainable:1 unsustainable_growth:1 wage_hover:1 structural_adjustment:1 devaluation_cfa:1 balance_payment:1 subsistence_farmer:1 soil_erosion:1 pearl_millet:1 millet_sorghum:1 maize_rice:1 cash_crop:1 bobo_dioulasso:1 manganese_ore:1 ore_deposit:1 external_link:1 observer_observatoire:1 observatoire_du:1 du_marché:1 marché_agricole:1 agricole_resimao:1 resimao_project:1 network_wamis:1 wamis_net:1 benin_burkina:1 faso_côte:1 côte_ivoire:1 mali_senegal:1 senegal_togo:1 togo_nigeria:1 commodity_tracked:1 tracked_weekly:1 |
4,076 | Chinese_cuisine | Chinese cuisine (Traditional Chinese: 中國菜 or 中餐, Simplified Chinese: 中国菜 or 中餐) originated from the various regions of China and has become widespread in many other parts of the world — from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa. In recent years, connoisseurs of Chinese cuisine have also sprouted in Eastern Europe and South Asia. American Chinese cuisine and Canadian Chinese food are popular examples of local varieties. Regional cultural differences vary greatly within China, giving rise to the different styles of food across the nation. Traditionally there are eight main regional cuisines, or Eight Great Traditions (菜系): Anhui, Cantonese, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Sichuan and Zhejiang. Sometimes four of the Eight Great Traditions are given greater emphasis, and are considered to dominate the culinary heritage of China, known in turn as the "Four Great Traditions"(四大菜系). http://www.visitvineyards.com/food/food-growers-markets/wine-food-travel-articles/matching-chinese-food-with-wine-edward-ragg] They are notably defined along geographical lines: Sichuan (Western China), Cantonese (Southern China),Shandong (Northern China), as well as Huaiyang Cuisine (Eastern China), a major style derived from Jiangsu cuisine and even viewed as the representation of that region's cooking. In modern times, Beijing cuisine and Shanghai cuisine on occasion are also cited along with the classical eight regional styles as the Ten Great Traditions (十大菜系). There are also featured Buddhist and Muslim sub-cuisines within the greater Chinese cuisine, with an emphasis on vegetarian and halal-based diets respectively. Presentation A Song Dynasty Chinese painting of an outdoor banquet, the painting is a remake of a Tang Dynasty original. In most dishes in Chinese cuisine, food is prepared in bite-sized pieces, ready for direct picking up and eating. In traditional Chinese cultures, chopsticks are used at the table. Vegetarianism Vegetarianism is not uncommon or unusual in China; though, as is the case in the West, it is only practiced by a relatively small fraction of the population. Most Chinese vegetarians are Buddhists, following the Buddhist teachings about minimizing suffering. Chinese vegetarian dishes often contain large varieties of vegetables (e.g. Bok Choy, shiitake mushroom, sprouts, corn) and some imitation meat. Such imitation meat is created mostly with soy protein and/or wheat gluten to imitate the texture, taste, and appearance of duck, chicken, or pork. Imitation seafood items, made from other vegetable substances such as konjac, are also available. Contemporary health trends According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates for 2001–2003, 12% of the population of the People’s Republic of China was undernourished. The number of undernourished people in the country has fallen from 386.6 million in 1969–1971 to 150.0 million in 2001–2003. Undernourishment is a problem mainly in the central and western part of the country, while "unbalanced nutrition" is a problem in developed coastal and urban areas. Decades of food shortages and rationing ended in the 1980s. A study in 2004 showed that fat intake among urban dwellers had grown to 38.4 percent, beyond the 30 percent limit set by the World Health Organization. Excessive consumption of fats and animal protein has made chronic diseases more prevalent. As of 2008, 22.8 percent of the population were overweight and 18.8 percent had high blood pressure. The number of diabetes cases in China is the highest in the world. In 1959, the incidence of high blood pressure was only 5.9 percent. A typical Chinese peasant before industrialization would have eaten meat rarely and most meals would have consisted of rice accompanied with green vegetables, with protein coming from foods like peanuts and soya product. Fats and sugar were luxuries not eaten on a regular basis by most of the population. With increasing wealth, Chinese diets have become richer over time, consuming more meats, fats, and sugar. Health advocates put some of the blame on the increased popularity of Western foods, especially fast food, and other culinary products and habits. Many Western, especially American, fast food chains have appeared in China, and are highly successful economically. These include McDonald's, Pizza Hut, and Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC). An extensive epidemiological study called the China Project is being conducted to observe the relationship of disease patterns to diet, particularly the move from the traditional Chinese diet to one which incorporates more rich Western-style foods. Controversially, Professor T. Colin Campbell has implicated the increased consumption of animal protein in particular as having a strong correlation with cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and other diseases that, while common in Western countries, were once considered rare in China. He suggests that even a small increase in the consumption of animal protein can dramatically raise the risk of the aforementioned diseases. See also Culture of China Chinese beer Chinese tea Chinese wine Chinese desserts Cantonese restaurant Chinese food therapy American Chinese cuisine List of Sources of a Chinese Culinary History Wok hei Five Chinese cereals Traditional Chinese medicine List of Chinese Cuisine Names Notes References How to Cook and Eat in Chinese, Buwei Yang Chao, first ed. 1945. External links Times Online Ching He Huang 10 basic ingredients for Chinese cooking BBC TWO Chinese food made easy Chinese Food Flavor Map Regional chinese cuisines, edu site Chinese Restaurants Are Adding Herbs for Flavor and Health - The New York Times | Chinese_cuisine |@lemmatized chinese:32 cuisine:14 traditional:4 中國菜:1 中餐:2 simplify:1 中国菜:1 originate:1 various:1 region:2 china:14 become:2 widespread:1 many:2 part:2 world:3 asia:2 america:1 australia:1 western:7 europe:2 southern:2 africa:1 recent:1 year:1 connoisseur:1 also:5 sprout:2 eastern:2 south:1 american:3 canadian:1 food:17 popular:1 example:1 local:1 variety:2 regional:4 cultural:1 difference:1 vary:1 greatly:1 within:2 give:2 rise:1 different:1 style:4 across:1 nation:2 traditionally:1 eight:4 main:1 great:6 tradition:4 菜系:1 anhui:1 cantonese:3 fujian:1 hunan:1 jiangsu:2 shandong:2 sichuan:2 zhejiang:1 sometimes:1 four:2 emphasis:2 consider:2 dominate:1 culinary:3 heritage:1 know:1 turn:1 四大菜系:1 http:1 www:1 visitvineyards:1 com:1 grower:1 market:1 wine:3 travel:1 article:1 match:1 edward:1 ragg:1 notably:1 define:1 along:2 geographical:1 line:1 northern:1 well:1 huaiyang:1 major:1 derive:1 even:2 view:1 representation:1 cooking:1 modern:1 time:4 beijing:1 shanghai:1 occasion:1 cite:1 classical:1 ten:1 十大菜系:1 feature:1 buddhist:3 muslim:1 sub:1 vegetarian:3 halal:1 base:1 diet:4 respectively:1 presentation:1 song:1 dynasty:2 painting:2 outdoor:1 banquet:1 remake:1 tang:1 original:1 dish:2 prepare:1 bite:1 sized:1 piece:1 ready:1 direct:1 pick:1 eat:4 culture:2 chopstick:1 use:1 table:1 vegetarianism:2 uncommon:1 unusual:1 though:1 case:2 west:1 practice:1 relatively:1 small:2 fraction:1 population:4 follow:1 teaching:1 minimize:1 suffering:1 often:1 contain:1 large:1 vegetable:3 e:1 g:1 bok:1 choy:1 shiitake:1 mushroom:1 corn:1 imitation:3 meat:4 create:1 mostly:1 soy:1 protein:5 wheat:1 gluten:1 imitate:1 texture:1 taste:1 appearance:1 duck:1 chicken:2 pork:1 seafood:1 item:1 make:3 substance:1 konjac:1 available:1 contemporary:1 health:4 trend:1 accord:1 united:1 agriculture:1 organization:2 estimate:1 people:2 republic:1 undernourished:2 number:2 country:3 fall:1 million:2 undernourishment:1 problem:2 mainly:1 central:1 unbalanced:1 nutrition:1 developed:1 coastal:1 urban:2 area:1 decade:1 shortage:1 ration:1 end:1 study:2 show:1 fat:4 intake:1 among:1 dweller:1 grow:1 percent:5 beyond:1 limit:1 set:1 excessive:1 consumption:3 animal:3 chronic:1 disease:5 prevalent:1 overweight:1 high:3 blood:2 pressure:2 diabetes:2 incidence:1 typical:1 peasant:1 industrialization:1 would:2 rarely:1 meal:1 consist:1 rice:1 accompany:1 green:1 come:1 like:1 peanut:1 soya:1 product:2 sugar:2 luxury:1 regular:1 basis:1 increase:3 wealth:1 richer:1 consume:1 advocate:1 put:1 blame:1 popularity:1 especially:2 fast:2 habit:1 chain:1 appear:1 highly:1 successful:1 economically:1 include:1 mcdonald:1 pizza:1 hut:1 kentucky:1 fry:1 kfc:1 extensive:1 epidemiological:1 call:1 project:1 conduct:1 observe:1 relationship:1 pattern:1 particularly:1 move:1 one:1 incorporate:1 rich:1 controversially:1 professor:1 colin:1 campbell:1 implicate:1 increased:1 particular:1 strong:1 correlation:1 cancer:1 heart:1 common:1 rare:1 suggest:1 dramatically:1 raise:1 risk:1 aforementioned:1 see:1 beer:1 tea:1 dessert:1 restaurant:2 therapy:1 list:2 source:1 history:1 wok:1 hei:1 five:1 cereal:1 medicine:1 name:1 note:1 reference:1 cook:2 buwei:1 yang:1 chao:1 first:1 ed:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 ching:1 huang:1 basic:1 ingredient:1 bbc:1 two:1 easy:1 flavor:2 map:1 edu:1 site:1 add:1 herb:1 new:1 york:1 |@bigram http_www:1 beijing_cuisine:1 tang_dynasty:1 shiitake_mushroom:1 wheat_gluten:1 urban_dweller:1 pizza_hut:1 fry_chicken:1 external_link:1 |
4,077 | Kryptonite | {{Infobox comics elements |image = Kryptonite.JPG |imagesize = |caption = Lex Luthor in front of a display of kryptonite and holding Green Kryptonite.From a panel in Action Comics Annual #10, 2007. |publisher = DC Comics |debut = |creators = |type = Element |material = y |supports = Superman |subcat = DC Comics |sortkey = Kryptonite }} Kryptonite is a fictional element from the Superman mythos, originating in the Superman radio show series. The material is usually shown as having been created from the remains of Superman's native planet of Krypton, and generally has detrimental effects on Superman and other Kryptonians. The name "Kryptonite" covers a variety of forms of the substance, but usually refers to the most common "green" form. The word Kryptonite is also used in modern speech as a synonym for Achilles' heel, the one weakness of an otherwise invulnerable hero. Fictional history Original versions A forerunner of the Kryptonite concept was the unpublished 1940 story "The K-Metal from Krypton", by Superman co-creator Jerry Siegel. The K-metal in the story was a piece of Krypton which robbed Superman of his strength while giving humans superpowers, a plot point which made its way into the TV series Smallville. "Kryptonite" was introduced in 1943 on the Superman radio series, as both a plot device and to allow Superman's actor, Bud Collyer, to occasionally take time off. The substance played a part in at least one major plot-line during the course of the program. It was not until 1949 that the comic book writers incorporated it into their stories, as both a convenient danger and weakness for Superman and to add an interesting element to his stories. Kryptonite is most commonly depicted as green in coloring, with a few exceptions; it was red in its first appearance in Superman (volume 1) #61 in 1949. When Superman followed the time trail of a piece of red rock that weakened him, he was able to trace his origin back to Krypton for the first time. Other colors of Kryptonite, having different effects, began to show up frequently beginning in late 1950s comics, reaching a peak in appearances in 1960s Superman series. Kryptonite was depicted as being so abundant that many ordinary criminals kept a supply as a precaution against Superman's interference. In an effort to reduce the use of Kryptonite in Superman storylines, all known Kryptonite on Earth was transmuted into k-iron in a 1971 storyline, though Kryptonite could still be synthetically manufactured by a variety of known and unknown means, and additional material left over from the destruction of Krypton would continue to fall from space. Post-Crisis Versions Upon the John Byrne reboot of the Superman mythos after Crisis on Infinite Earths, kryptonite was made much rarer in the DC Universe and the more fantastical multicolored varieties were eliminated. The only sample of kryptonite on Earth was a fist-sized chunk, caught in the tail of the infant Kal-El's rocket and carried to earth along with him upon the explosion of Krypton. This sample had been stolen by rogue government operatives before Superman ever knew of it and cut apart for examination. Several samples ended up in the possession of criminals, especially Lex Luthor, who used a piece to power the cyborg Metallo and, after discovering its debilitating effects on Kryptonians, created a ring with a kryptonite gem to keep Superman at bay. This backfired badly on Luthor, as long-term exposure to kryptonite radiation from the ring gave him cancer, leading to the amputation of his hand and then (seemingly) his death. Superman took possession of the ring and entrusted it to Batman, stating that he was the only person he could trust with the ability to kill him if necessary. Action Comics #654 (June 1990) Red Kryptonite made a brief appearance during this era, where it had the effect of rendering Superman permanently powerless. However, the red kryptonite and resulting powerlessness turned out to be a magical illusion created by Mister Mxyzptlk. In time, through the use of Batman's notes, Ra's al Ghul was able to fashion a synthetic Red Kryptonite. Even after quantities have been reduced there's still a fair amount of Kryptonite available, which prompts Superman-friendly corporations, such as Wayne Enterprises and Kord Industries, to take it upon themselves to round up all remaining pieces so as to make its acquisition by small-time crooks more difficult. Countdown to Infinite Crisis After the second recreation of the Multiverse, the amount of Kryptonite on Earth skyrockets, carried down to Earth in a huge meteorite by the rocket that brought Kara to Gotham City. In the recreated Universe Kryptonite is in such abundance that it again becomes easily available to ordinary criminals and crooks. Following orders issued by Lex Luthor and Lana Lang, LexCorp starts stockpiling and selling it to government facilities and weapon makers. Superman and Batman embark on a mission to rid Earth of Kryptonite, a mission that almost fails when the cornered Lana Lang launches a large number of dirty Kryptonite warheads, tainting the whole Earth atmosphere. Hiro Okamura builds and frees a storm of nanobots devised to capture and deactivate the tiniest fragments of Kryptonite. Superman/Batman #47/#48 Once again, as in the 1971 storyline, virtually all Kryptonite is destroyed. The remaining fragments are wrapped in lead and hurled into the Sun by Superman himself, save for one fragment, which Superman gives to Batman. However, it is later revealed that Batman has acquired a fair amount of every variety of the alien material, keeping his samples in the Batcave Superman/Batman #49 By the events told in the New Krypton storyline however, several Superman villains, like Metallo and Reactron, have acquired some Kryptonite samples to use against the Kryptonians on Earth. Lex Luthor and Sam Lane, working for the government, have a cache of the precious material too. Action Comics #871 Scientific basis Superman suffering Kryptonite poisoning. Despite the matching name, it was never suggested that the element krypton had any significance to the name of the planet Krypton. Under standard chemical naming procedures, the -ite suffix of kryptonite would denote an oxyanion of the element krypton. However, krypton is a noble gas that forms compounds only with great difficulty, and such an oxyanion is not known. (Nevertheless, the University of Leicester presented the Geological Society with krypton difluoride to commemorate the 70th anniversary of Superman http://www.le.ac.uk/press/press/themanofsteel.html .) The term kryptonite instead implies a meteorite from the planet Krypton, as in the Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman episode "The Green, Green Glow of Home", where it is given as "period element 126", which in reality corresponds to unbihexium/eka-plutonium, the most stable of the elements in the so-called island of stability. Superman: The Man of Steel Sourcebook (1992), while non-canon, concurs, referring to kryptonite as "the common ore of the super-actinide kryptonium, an unusually stable transuranic element, whose atomic number is believed to be 126". Kryptonium is given a radioactive half-life of 250,000 years. In Superman: The Movie, Lex Luthor describes Superman's enhanced Kryptonian physiology as being vulnerable to kryptonite's particular radioactive "signature". More recently, some issues of Superman indicate the mechanism by which green kryptonite may hurt Superman. Superman's cells absorb electromagnetic radiation from stars (like Earth's sun). Kryptonite's radioactivity interferes with this semi-photosynthetic process, driving the energy out of his cells in a painful fashion. Long-term exposure to kryptonite is said to have the same effects on human beings as exposure to other radioactive materials; an extended storyline in the comics around 1990 involved Lex Luthor developing cancer from the kryptonite ring he kept on his finger. Forms of kryptonite Variations The various known forms of Kryptonite in the Superman comics: Colors of KryptoniteEffectsGreen KryptoniteThe most common form of kryptonite, created by the "radioactive chain reaction" which destroyed Krypton, and "scattered throughout space as meteors." In superpowered Kryptonians, causes immediate physical pain and debilitation, reduces their powers, and kills within hours. Green kryptonite is a radioactive substance and as such, prolonged exposure to green kryptonite can cause cancer in humans. Green kryptonite has been shown to strengthen Bizarro. Lead as well as normal containment methods for radioactive substances has been shown to block kryptonite radiation. In the Superman movie continuity and the television series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman(in the episode where kryptonite is introduced, but usually not in the others), green kryptonite is shown as effectively removing Superman's powers during the time he is exposed. In Lois & Clark he remains as vulnerable to injury as a human for a few minutes afterward. In most comics continuity, however, Superman retains his powers to some degree while exposed to green kryptonite, although dramatically weakened and in severe pain. His skin also begins to turn green. In various stories, Superman is shown to have become immune to the effects of green kryptonite due to either repeated non-fatal exposure "The Great Kryptonite Mystery", Superboy (volume 1) #58, July 1957 , continuous long-term absorption of solar radiation Kingdom Come or extremely high short-term exposure to the Sun. All-Star Superman #1 (January 2006) Green kryptonite is typically shown to have no short-term effects on humans or non-superpowered Kryptonians. However, in post-Crisis continuity, long-term exposure can cause radiation poisoning in humans. In Smallville, green kryptonite can cause normal humans to mutate and acquire superhuman abilities, although an outside catalyst (such as a strong electrical charge) is usually required. In the episode "Void", kryptonite injections cause near-death experiences in humans. After Clark is injected with kryptonite and apparently dies, Chloe reports "actually dying neutralizes the kryptonite in your system". Green kryptonite, being radioactive, has been used as an energy source to power reactors in power stations. The supervillain Metallo uses green kryptonite to power his cyborg body. In the cartoon series "Justice League Unlimited" it is shown that prolonged exposure to kryptonite in humans causes them to contract cancer. Lex Luthor contracts cancer due to his constant exposure. The chemical composition for the Kryptonite according to Superman III is Plutonium: 15.08%, Tantalum: 18.06%, Xenon: 27.71%, Promethium: 24.02%, Dialium: 10.62%, Mercury: 3.94%, Unknown: 0.57%.Red KryptoniteNo two chunks of red kryptonite have the same, "unexpected," effect on Kryptonians. "The Untold Story of Red Kryptonite!" in Superman #139 (Aug 1960). Story by Otto Binder, Pencils by Curt Swan, inks by George Klein. In one episode of Superfriends, 3 Kryptonian criminals exposed at the same time were all affected differently. Effects are typically depicted to last for 1-2 Days, after which the Kryptonian in question is always immune to that specific chunk of red kryptonite. However, in some incarnations the effects of red kryptonite last only as long as the Kryptonian is exposed to it. The Brave and the Bold (vol. 2) #7 Pre-Crisis red kryptonite was created from a "flock" of green kryptonite which passed through a (red-hued) "strange cosmic cloud," some of which arrived on Earth. In post-Crisis continuity, red kryptonite first appears as an artificial construct of Mr. Mxyzptlk, then as a synthetic variant created by Ra's al Ghul, using notes stolen from Batman JLA #44, August 2000 . In The Brave and the Bold series, the cloud was drawn to Earth by the deranged alchemist Megistus to shield humanity against the effects of the Final Crisis by warping it into something totally different; the villain Doctor Alchemy also proved capable of transmuting the Fortress of Solitude in its entirety into Red Kryptonite using his Philosopher's Stone. Superman has suffered the following random effects upon exposure to various pieces of red kryptonite: being turned into a dragon, a non-powered giant, a dwarf, an ant-headed humanoid, a lunatic, and an amnesiac; being made unable to see anything colored green; growing incredibly long hair, nails, and beard; being rendered totally powerless; growing fat; gaining the ability to read thoughts; growing a third eye in the back of his head; losing his invulnerability along the left side of his body; being split into an evil Superman and a good Clark Kent; being split into young and old forms (Superboy and Superman); being rendered unable to speak or write anything but Kryptonese; growing an extra set of arms; becoming clumsy; swapping bodies with the person nearest him upon exposure to it; transferring his powers; rapidly aging; multiple personality changes; and having his skin rendered transparent, overloading him with solar power. In Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, red Kryptonite initially caused Superman to become apathetic. He simply did not care about catching criminals; instead shrugging his shoulders, blaming others and talking to a girl. It was hypothesized that, given enough exposure to red Kryptonite, Clark's condition would become permanent. However, after talking to a psychiatrist, Clark was able to resist the effects of the red Kryptonite, and he picked up the rock and threw it out of a window. Its later appearances included a red Kryptonite laser which caused Superman's powers to transfer to Lois, and exposure causing Superman's powers to be increased beyond his ability to control them. On the TV series Smallville, red kryptonite has a drug-like effect, causing severe changes in Clark Kent's personality. Under this influence, Clark loses his inhibitions, becoming unpredictable and acting purely on erotic and selfish emotions. Once he ran away to Metropolis and became a criminal who broke into teller machines to impress girls with expensive toys such as sports cars. He also stole his father's credit card to buy large screen TVs and high end audio equipment. Smallville red kryptonite requires close contact with skin to be effective, such as being worn in a ring or necklace. In Krypto the Superdog, effects on Krypto include temporary amnesia, losing all super powers, causing Krypto's tail to detach from his body and come to life, turning into a fish, and body-swapping.Gold Kryptonite Pre-Crisis, it permanently removes superpowers from Kryptonians, by destroying the ability of Kryptonian cells to process solar energy. Action Comics Annual #10, 2007 Because it was said to be permanent, this variety was little-used in Superman stories. Gold Kryptonite appears in The Flash (vol. 1) #175 and plays a key role in the 1982 limited series "The Phantom Zone", as well as the 1986 "imaginary story" Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?, a possible conclusion to the story of Superman of Earth-One. Post-Crisis, gold kryptonite has appeared in Adventures of Superman #444 and Superman (vol. 2) #22. In the Legion of Super-Heroes (vol. 2) #293, during the Great Darkness Saga, it is shown that Element Lad can transmute matter into gold kryptonite. In one instance, gold kryptonite is shown to instead cause cellular degeneration and accelerated aging; however, it is not confirmed if this is true of all gold kryptonite because this version was presumably created by the time traveller Gog. In Action Comics Annual #11, Metallo mentions that the modern age Gold Kryptonite in his chest only temporarily removes a Kryptonian's powers. The exact time period is later revealed to be fifteen seconds. Supergirl #37 Blue Kryptonite Blue kryptonite is the Bizarro analogue to green kryptonite. Using Bizarro logic, this, in general, hurts Bizarros while having beneficial effects on ordinary Kryptonians. Pre-Crisis, blue kryptonite is the result of using Professor Potter's "duplicator ray" on some green kryptonite. Here, blue kryptonite affects Bizarros like green kryptonite affects Kryptonians. Blue Kryptonite radiation is not blocked by normal lead, but by imperfectly duplicated lead. Bizarro World, a sentient planet, had animated Blue Kryptonite golems underground that surfaced and attacked the Super-Powered Bizarros while the delighted non-powered bizarros cheered them on. When Jimmy Olsen had his mind turned to that of a Bizarro, Exposure to Blue Kryptonite radiation turned his mind back to normal. In an episode of Super Friends, blue kryptonite heals Superman from the effects of red kryptonite. Post-Crisis, its origin is unknown. Here, blue kryptonite makes Bizarros become polite, goodhearted, coherent, and intelligent. Superman/Batman #25 It also causes physical pain much like green kryptonite affects Superman. In Smallville, blue kryptonite suppresses Kryptonians' powers and removes their sensitivity to green kryptonite. Blue kryptonite was first introduced as a Victory Ring given to Clark by a replicant of his mother Lara-El in "Blue". Also in Smallville, Bizarro's powers were increased exponentially by blue kryptonite, overloading his body with power and killing him, much like "a light bulb being powered by a nuclear reactor", in the episode "Persona". Blue kryptonite has also been used in Superman video games as a life restorative due to its bizarro nature.Black Kryptonite Black Kryptonite was first introduced in the Smallville television series, in the fourth season premiere episode "Crusade", as Kryptonite with the ability to split the personality of Kryptonians along with reversing this process. It later appears in the fourth season episode "Onyx", where it is revealed it can also affect humans and vegetations as well in the same way as Kryptonians. In the series, Black Kryptonite can be created by super-heating Green Kryptonite. Later in the season eight finale "Doomsday", Clark acquires and uses black Kryptonite to successfully separate the Kryptonian monster Doomsday from its human alter ego Davis Bloom in order to defeat Doomsday without having to kill Davis. It later made its first appearance in a DC comic in September 2005's Supergirl #2, where it apparently possessed the ability to split a person or a person's personality into two separate entities. In Supergirl #3, Luthor used Black Kryptonite on Supergirl, which caused her to split into two separate people, one wearing Supergirl's traditional costume, and another wearing a black-and-white version. Her black-and-white costume is similar to the one that Superman was wearing when he returned from the dead. Luthor noted that he was given the Black Kryptonite by the self-proclaimed god Darkseid, who may have been responsible for its creation (a synthesized version of Kryptonite in the feature film Superman III had similar effects on Superman, creating an evil Superman). In All-Star Superman, which takes place outside of DC Universe continuity, Black Kryptonite makes Superman evil.White Kryptonite Kills all plant life, whether Kryptonian or not. Induces decay immediately upon exposure, with a range of about 25 yards. The most prominent use of this variety in the comics was to destroy Virus X, which was revealed in a storyline in 1968's Action Comics #362-366 to actually be a form of plant life.Orange Kryptonite Gives superpowers, stronger than Krypto's, for precisely 24 hours to any animal that touches it; ineffective on humans. May be repeated immediately following the 24 hours for quasi-continuous superpowers. Introduced in Krypto Comics #4, Feb. 2007.Jewel Kryptonite Jewel Kryptonite amplifies the psychic powers of Phantom Zone residents, allowing them to project illusions into the "real world" or perform mind control. It was made from what was left of a mountain range on Krypton called the Jewel Mountains. In the post-Crisis limited series Silver Age, a "prismatic gem from the Jewel Mountains of Krypton" was used by the Injustice League to amplify the psychic powers of the Absorbascon, but was not referred to as Jewel Kryptonite.Anti-Kryptonite Has no effect on superpowered Kryptonians, but has the same effects as Green Kryptonite on non-superpowered Kryptonians. This version of Kryptonite is what killed most of the residents of Argo City in the pre-Crisis comics. Anti-Kryptonite was likely introduced to cover a writer error, as in the original Argo City story, the residents of Argo City are killed by Green Kryptonite even though it should have had no effect on non-superpowered Kryptonians. Post-Crisis, it is the power source of Ultraman, Superman's evil counterpart who lives in an alternate antimatter universe. Anti-Kryptonite was also used by Green Lantern Hal Jordan while rescuing a member of the Green Lantern Corps (Guy Gardner) from the Phantom Zone to cause pain to General Zod, Kru-El, and Faora (since regular Kryptonite has no effect on individuals in the Phantom Zone). This was shown in the Green Lantern comic book series of the 1980s.X-Kryptonite Created accidentally (and unknowingly) by pre-Crisis Supergirl during experimentation with Green Kryptonite, in an attempt to find an antidote. "Supergirl's Super Pet!" in Action Comics #261 (Feb 1960). Written by Jerry Siegel, Art by Jim Mooney. The "unique combination of chemicals" used by Supergirl created "something new under the sun," whose radiation (and odor "The World's Mightiest Cat!" in Action Comics #266 (Jul 1960). Written by Jerry Siegel, Art by Jim Mooney. ) can imbue Earth-based life-forms with temporary superpowers. It has no additional effect on Kryptonians (although the latent kryptonite radiation is still harmful to them), and is primarily known as the source of Supergirl's pet cat, Streaky's superpowers. Not to be confused with Kryptonite-X.Slow Kryptonite A modified variety of Green Kryptonite produced by supervillain Metallo that affects humans in a manner similar to normal Green Kryptonite on Kryptonians, appearing in The Brave and the Bold #175. Its effect on Kryptonians, if any, is undocumented. Magno-Kryptonite Artificially created by the villain Nero, "Magno-Kryptonite" is magnetically attracted to all substances originally from Krypton, with such incredible force that not even the strength of Superman or Bizarro can escape it according to Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen #92. It is not specifically stated if any parts of its alloy are of Kryptonian origin.Bizarro Red Kryptonite Affects humans the same way Red Kryptonite affects Kryptonians. Appeared in Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen #80.Kryptonite-X or Kryptisium A form of filtered/purified Kryptonite. Professor Emil Hamilton used the term "Kryptonite-X" (The Adventures of Superman #511, April 1994, page 13) to describe the substance that restored Superman's powers after a confrontation with the villain known as the Cyborg Superman in Engine City (Superman v2, #82, part of the "Return of Superman" storyline). This substance was created when the Cyborg used a huge chunk of Green Kryptonite in an attempt to kill the weak, powerless, recovering Superman. The Eradicator, who had fashioned a faux-Kryptonian body, jumped in front of Superman before the release of the Kryptonite energy could kill him. Despite the Eradicator's efforts, the Kryptonite energy hit Superman, but instead of killing him, it transferred all of the characteristic Kryptonian powers from the Eradicator to Superman, as well as saturating Superman's body with a purified/filtered form of Kryptonite. This substance eventually led to Superman becoming an over-muscled giant, due to his accelerated sunlight absorption and overstorage of energy. (This Kryptonite is not to be confused with X-Kryptonite.)Magic KryptoniteIn Superman/Batman #46, an enchanted piece of Kryptonite has effects similar to Marijuana, until Batman finds another piece which cancels out the effects of the first piece. The first piece is a silver crescent. The second piece is a lavender round rock that fits into the crescent.Pink Kryptonite From Supergirl (vol. 2) #79, an alternate timeline in a 2003 Supergirl storyline by Peter David. It affected the Superman of this reality; one of the results is Superman giving flattering compliments to Jimmy Olsen about his wardrobe and decorative sense. It spoofs the more "innocent times" of the Silver Age (Lois Lane is depicted in this story as not understanding what's gotten into Superman). Superdickery.com: Seduction of the Innocent Simulated kryptonite Green Lantern Corps power rings can be used to emit simulated green kryptonite radiation. Kyle Rayner did so in Man of Tomorrow #19 (1998). The duplicate "Hal Jordan" Green Lantern form of N'Gon also created Power Ring-based Green Kryptonite in "DC Comics Presents" #26, and Superman used the yellow of his cape's "S" design to block the effect. This radiation is apparently just as powerful and painful to Superman and other Kryptonians as the genuine rays, but it can be blocked by interposing anything yellow between the Green Lantern's green kryptonite and the Kryptonian (however, this may no longer be an option due to the recent development of yellow no longer being an automatic weakness of power rings). Breaking the ring-bearer's concentration will also dispel the effect. Synthetic kryptonite (usually the green or, occasionally, red variety) has been successfully produced by Lex Luthor, Batman, and Ra's al Ghul in the comics. It has proven to be less powerful than genuine kryptonite, to be extremely difficult to create, and to have a short half-life that renders it useless after a short period of time. In the Elseworlds story Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, Green Arrow wounds Superman with a synthetic kryptonite arrow, allowing Batman to defeat him. Bruce Wayne notes it was very expensive to develop, taking years to properly synthesize. Superman III featured synthetic kryptonite with substituted ingredients, that altered Superman's personality and eventually caused him to split into two beings with differing personalities. Magic: Individuals adept at the use of magic may be able to create kryptonite, such as Mr. Mxyzptlk did in the "Krisis of the Krimson Kryptonite" storyline (though his version of Red Kryptonite differed from the traditional version in its workings, temporarily eliminating Superman's powers). Jimmy Olsen, when changed into a Genie in Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen #42 (January 1960), was ordered by his master, Abdul, to turn himself into Living Kryptonite, Jimmy chose Green Kryptonite. On one occasion, Lex Luthor combined the element-duplicating substance that composes the robots known as the Metal Men into a single robot that imperfectly duplicated the properties of green kryptonite. While its presence caused Superman severe pain, it was not severe enough to completely incapacitate him, and did not affect his powers at all; thus, Superman was able to focus past the pain and defeat the robot. Radiation: In the film Superman III, the computer Webster built was able to analyze Superman and find his weakness, and emitted a beam of radiation that simulates that of green kryptonite. It was stopped only when Gus Gorman pulled the plug. Crystals: The film Superman Returns has Lex Luthor combining Kryptonian crystal technology with green kryptonite, causing the rapidly-growing crystals to take on the properties of kryptonite and making the entire landmass of "New Krypton" deadly to Superman. Hoaxes In the comics and other media, some varieties of kryptonite that turned out to be hoaxes: Silver Kryptonite: Featured in Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen #70, Silver Kryptonite is a hoax revolving around the silver anniversary (25th) of Superman's career. Silver Kryptonite in another form is a part of the Smallville TV series (see Smallville below), and was shown in the comics continuity in Superman/Batman #46. Yellow Kryptonite: This one was used in a hoax masterminded by Lex Luthor Action Comics #277. Blood Kryptonite: In 52, the Cult of Conner - a religious sect dedicated to resurrecting Superboy, employed "Blood Kryptonite" in a preliminary ritual to resurrect Sue Dibny. While physically resembling Green Kryptonite, the "Blood" variant drains a portion of life force from present attendees, intended to direct this energy towards an effigy of the deceased as part of a Kryptonian resurrection ceremony. It is later revealed that this was a manipulation of Felix Faust and the rock was either regular green Kryptonite or not Kryptonite at all. Kryptonite Plus: 30 or so non-glowing, varicolored, banded rocks invading unnamed Super-aliens had left on Earth's moon and then said were Kryptonite Plus or maybe a form of Ultra-Kryptonite. They are really Tikron Stones. From Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen #126 (January 1970). Purple Spotted Kryptonite: Mentioned in Streaky's fictional story in the animated cartoon Krypto the Superdog. This phony Kryptonite made Krypto chase his tail. Fake Kryptonite: Seen in an episode of Superboy 1988 TV series, Superboy's friends are selling crystals which are labeled as "fake Kryptonite" to raise money for charity. These crystals are clearly false and the vendors make no dispute about it. However, they use humorous references such as "Buy one and have nothing to fear; even Superboy will run away from you!" Other media As noted above, kryptonite was originally created for the 1940s Superman radio series. Kryptonite has appeared in various forms in the various Superman media spinoffs, however. Kryptonite was used in a rap song called Kryptonite by rapper Big Boi, but in the song kryptonite means marijuana because they are both green. Kryptonite also appears in the 2000 3 Doors Down hit by the same title as well as the Five For Fighting 2000 song "Superman." Both songs deal with the often over-looked difficulties in being a superhero, depicting a trend in the superhero genre where these classic heroes--once seen as untouchable and, indeed, superhuman--are portrayed as flawed and troubled. Kryptonite was used as a double entendre on the album Pocket Full of Kryptonite and song "Jimmy Olsen's Blues" by the rock band Spin Doctors. "Black Kryptonite" was what Will Smith described the Men in Black to be in the soundtrack to Men in Black II. Professional wrestler Mike Bucci, who performed under a superhero gimmick called Super Nova, named his finishing move the "Kryptonite Krunch". In the TV series Empty Nest, the main character, a pediatrician, facetiously speculates that kryptonite, though harmful to Superman, may be of medical benefit to Spider-Man. Depictions of kryptonite in the various films and TV series of Superman have largely been limited to green kryptonite, with occasional appearances of the red and blue varieties. In the TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, while attempting to deduce Buffy's sudden loss of abilities, Xander suggests the cause may be a form of "slayer kryptonite". Oz then suggests this is a faulty metaphor as kryptonite kills, igniting a debate as to which form of kryptonite (green, red, or gold) drains Superman's abilities. Five Iron Frenzy's song American Kryptonite is about the danger and selfishness of mass consumerism, a common theme of the band's. In the 2009 NBA Slam Dunk Contest Nate Robinson dressed in a green New York Knicks uniform complete with a green compression sleeve and green shoes. Using a green basketball, the five-foot-nine Knicks guard leaped over the six-foot-eleven Orlando Magic center Dwight Howard to secure the victory. Robinson made this wardrobe change in the middle of the competition to parody himself as "Krypto-Nate" after Howard dressed in a Superman cape in the contest and the year before. Adventures of Superman Kryptonite was used in several episodes of Adventures of Superman, proceeding from straightforward to increasingly far-fetched plotlines. The specific color is not definite, given that it is never mentioned and that the series was initially in black & white, but from its effects, it is presumed to be green kryptonite in all cases: In "Panic in the Sky", Superman’s attempt to shift a meteor hurtling toward earth leaves him with amnesia. Although the scientists in the episode only say the meteor consist of "unknown elements", a fragment of this meteor is later used in "The Deadly Rock", then referred to as Kryptonite. In "The Defeat of Superman", an overacting scientist working for a crime boss synthesizes kryptonite after working out the formula from a tiny fragment found in a meteorite. As Superman lies dying from the metal's effects, Lois and Jimmy rescue him for once, sealing the block of kryptonite in a lead pipe, and Superman recovers. He then flings the pipe through the sky and into the sea with a super-throw. The escaping criminals, startled by the rocketing pipe, veer off the road and plummet to their deaths, keeping this dangerous secret "safe" in the hands of Superman's two friends. In "Superman Week", Jimmy manages to blurt out the secret to the wrong listener. Superman stages an elaborate ruse in which he pretends to have retrieved the lead-encased metal from the ocean, and uses it to lead a wanted criminal into a trap. This ruse also presumably proves that Superman is not vulnerable to it, thus staving off criminals' thoughts of using it...for awhile. In "The Deadly Rock", another eccentric scientist finds a meteorite that happens to be from Krypton, and a crime boss tries to use it to destroy Superman, who instead destroys it through the unlikely method of burning it with a flame-thrower. In "The Magic Secret", yet another eccentric scientist teams with a criminal, this time tricking Superman into descending a narrow and deep well to rescue Lois and Jimmy, then proceeding to shower the Man of Steel with kryptonite particles. In "The Gentle Monster", a very eccentric but good-natured scientist constructs a super-powered robot whose strength is derived from a chunk of the metal that the scientist has found, not knowing the danger it poses to Superman. Movies Kryptonite was featured in Superman: The Movie. In the film, Lex Luthor (Gene Hackman) and his cronies (Ned Beatty and Valerie Perrine) track a large chunk to Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, where they steal it from a museum under the cover of night. In this film's usage, the term "kryptonite" seems to mean simply a "Kryptonian meteorite". After co-opting and launching two missiles for opposite ends of the United States, Luthor places the kryptonite on a chain around Superman's (Christopher Reeve) neck and drops him into a swimming pool. When Perrine's character Miss Tessmacher learns that one of the missiles is headed for Hackensack, New Jersey (where her mother lives), she rescues Superman from drowning and removes the kryptonite, after which his strength and powers quickly return. An imperfect synthesis of artificial kryptonite containing tar appeared in Superman III. Ross Webster (Robert Vaughn) orders the creation of synthetic kryptonite after remembering a Daily Planet story about the last original chunk disappearing years earlier after falling to Earth (whether Webster references the kryptonite robbery in Superman: The Movie is unclear.) Developed by Gus Gorman (played by Richard Pryor), it was intended to be a copy of Green Kryptonite. After scanning the coordinates of Krypton's former location via satellite, results return a small percentage of an unknown component. The substitution of tar (which Gorman used after glancing at a cigarette carton) for a crucial, but unknown, component resulted in the synthetic kryptonite behaving like a combination of Red Kryptonite and Black Kryptonite; in this case, the kryptonite turned Superman evil and eventually split him into two people. The evil Superman and Clark Kent, the embodiment of Superman's remaining good qualities, then engage in an epic battle at a deserted junkyard, where Clark emerges victorious and the evil Superman fades from sight (it should be noted that this might only have been an hallucination on Superman's part). Later in the film, Gorman's creation, the Ultimate Computer, severely weakens Superman with a kryptonite ray before Gorman has a change of heart and attacks his own machine. In Superman Returns, an additional piece of kryptonite is found in a rock fragment, once more in Addis Ababa. Lex Luthor steals it from a Metropolis museum and uses it in his quest to create a new kryptonite landmass, much like how young Clark created the Fortress of Solitude. In addition, he uses a shard leftover from processing it to create a kryptonite shiv, which he uses to stab Superman with at one point. Interestingly, Kryptonite is never once referred to as the term "meteor" as it is in the previous movies and Smallville series, only as "distant remains" or "radioactive pieces of [Superman's] home-world". This may have been an attempt on the writers' part to distinguish the Kryptonite of the movie away from Smallville, which is almost always referred to as "meteors". The Adventures of Superboy Kryptonite made frequent appearances in the syndicated "Superboy" TV series, most of it green. It first appeared in the first-season episode "Kryptonite Kills" in which Professor Peterson retrieved it from Addis Adaba believing it to be a harmless meteorite and brought it to his gemology class at Shuster University. Superboy in his guise as Clark Kent(played by John Haymes Newton in Season 1, Gerard Christopher in Seasons 2-4), a student in Peterson's science class, collapsed from the radiation and felt its effects for the first time. He later threw most of the Kryptonite into space, except for one piece which was washed into the sewer. That piece was discovered by a mixed-up scientist who used it as a power source for Metallo (Roger Corben) in the second season episode "Metallo". Green Kryptonite made several more appearances throughout the series, used mostly by Lex Luthor (played by Sherman Howard) and Metallo (played by Michael Callan). In the third season episode "Bride of Bizarro", Luthor sent Bizarro to a military research base to steal a large amount of Kryptonite, which Luthor was seen using on Superboy in later episodes. In the fourth season episode "Kryptonite Kid", a young man named Mike Walker (played by Jay Underwood) working at the same military research base was caught in a Kryptonite explosion while working to find a cure which would make Superboy immune to the radiation. The Kryptonite entered his bloodstream and turned his skin green and he became "living, breathing Kryptonite" able to fire Kryptonite radiation from his hands. In "Obituary for a Super-Hero", Luthor used a Kryptonite bomb planted on a yacht to attempt to kill Superboy. Red Kryptonite made an appearance in the second season episode "Super Menace". This version of Red K was created at a military research base where scientists were working to neutralize Kryptonite's effect on Superboy while still retaining its radioactive properties so it could be used as a power source. Their experiments turned the Kryptonite red, making it useless as a power source and altering its effect on Superboy. This Red Kryptonite turned Superboy evil, much like Red K would later do in the "Smallville" TV Series, except only a single exposure to it was required, rather than constant exposure. After Superboy wreaked havoc with Metallo, Lana Lang (played by Stacy Haiduk) tricked Superboy into being exposed to another chunk of Red Kryptonite which reversed the effects of the first. This is Red Kryptonite's only appearance in the series, so it is unknown if the substance would have had other effects on Superboy if it had appeared again. The "Superboy" series also introduced a form of White Kryptonite, however this was not the white kryptonite that kills plant life (as seen in the Pre-Crisis comic books). This White K was created by Professor Peterson's duplicating ray in an attempt to create a form of Kryptonite that would kill the molecularly unstable Bizarro. This Kryptonite did not kill Bizarro, however. It instead had an opposite effect on him and actually stabilized and cured him, preventing him from eventually exploding as previous Bizarro duplicates had. White Kryptonite made only one appearance in the series in the episode "The Battle With Bizarro". It is referred to again in "The Bride of Bizarro" but it is not seen. Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman Kryptonite was used throughout the 1990s television series Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman. In "The Green, Green Glow of Home" the first piece was unearthed on the Smallville farm of Kent family friend Wayne Irig. He sent a sample of the rock to a local university. This came to the attention of Jason Trask. Trask headed Bureau 39, a secret government organization that investigated perceived alien threats. Trask had the paranoid belief that Superman was the first agent of an alien invasion. Understanding that the radioactive meteorite came from Krypton, he attempted to use the rock to kill Superman. Subsequently the main fragment of the meteorite was destroyed and Trask was killed by the local Sheriff. Consequently only Clark Kent and his parents knew of its true existence. Clark and his partner Lois Lane reported on the incident in The Daily Planet and described Trask's delusions of a fabled rock that could kill Superman. Ironically in this article it was Clark Kent himself who first named it "Kryptonite". As shown in "Barbarians at the Planet" and "The House of Luthor" The story of kryptonite intrigued Superman's archenemy Lex Luthor. He used the many resources at his disposal to track down and confirm the existence of the original sample that Irig had sent to be studied. Luthor ground down part of this kryptonite and used it to coat the bars of a cage to entrap the Man of Steel. It is mentioned earlier that Lex's people were studying the "K-field", and probably found a way to enhance the natural radiation of kryptonite, since the bars had relatively minor effect on Superman until somehow activated. After Superman's escape from this kryptonite prison and Luthor's apparent death, the legend of kryptonite continued to grow. Many criminals and former Lexcorp employees sought to acquire Luthor's kryptonite. In fact most of the kryptonite to be featured on the series originated from that first chunk found by Wayne Irig. During the 3rd season a new second piece was discovered, which Superman turned over to S.T.A.R. Labs for testing. This was the source of most of the kryptonite featured for the remainder of the series. It was attempted by S.T.A.R. Labs to make Superman immune to Kryptonite by controlled exposure to the radiation. The exact amount of success is unknown, but it is known that Kryptonite never affected Superman as strongly as the very first time, when a short exposure caused a temporary complete loss of powers. On Lois and Clark, green kryptonite was delivered in a variety of ingenious ways. A bullet was fashioned from pure kryptonite in one episode, and in another, a wicked woman tried to bring about Superman's demise by kissing him after coating her lips with a kryptonite-contaminated lipstick. In the episode "Metallo", scientist Emmett Vale, who studied Luthor's kryptonite while working at Lexlabs, used a piece to power the cyborg he created from fatally wounded criminal John Corben. Red Kryptonite was also featured in the series. In one episode, it made Superman apathetic; in another, it transferred his powers to Lois Lane after being focused through a laser beam. In yet another, it uncontrollably supercharged his powers, causing him to do things such as accidentally fly through the sidewalk when landing. A renegade S.T.A.R. Labs scientist created a "Hybrid Kryptonite," which was supposed to be just as deadly to humans as to Kryptonians. When used however, it was discovered that while the Hybrid Kryptonite made humans sick, it had no effect on Superman. Smallville In the 2000s television series Smallville, a large quantity of green kryptonite comes to earth at the same time as the infant Kal-El. It is referred to as "Meteor Rock", rather than "kryptonite," even by Clark Kent. In the season two episode "Rosetta", Clark learns the name of his home planet for the first time, and the term "kryptonite" eventually comes into use by those characters who know Clark's secret. On the show, not only is green kryptonite harmful to Clark Kent, but it can produce bizarre changes in humans, animals, and plants, typically turning them into powerful mutant menaces, commonly known by the inhabitants of Smallville as "Meteor Freaks," that Clark must oppose. These changes seem to be linked to the circumstances under which the subject was exposed to kryptonite and the subject's emotional state (similar to how gamma radiation affects people in the Marvel Comics universe). Groups of people have been shown to acquire the same powers from kryptonite by exposing themselves to it in the same manner. The harm inflicted on Clark by kryptonite on Smallville is varied. He cannot be near green kryptonite without doubling over in nausea and pain, and if he were to hold a fragment of it in his hand, it would burn to the touch and the veins in his hand would become exposed and green. However, on other separate occasions Clark has held and even ingested kryptonite (albeit in dilluted form) and been merely weakened. When a vial of Clark's blood was held up to kryptonite to verify its authenticity, the blood began to boil. In season eight episode "Power", Lana Lang, in an effort to gain the power necessary to fight crime alongside Clark, acquires an experimental skin-replacing "suit" known as "Project Prometheus". The suit was designed for Lex Luthor and grants Lana super-human abilities. In season eight's "Requiem", she learns that the suit has the added ability to absorb and emit kryptonite radiation. In a cruel setup by Lex, Lana is forced to absorb a large amount of kryptonite radiation, which is being used as an explosive capable of leveling most of Metropolis. As a result, Lana is forced to leave Smallville and Clark forever, or risk killing Clark as she gets too close to him. Lex also fashioned kryptonite rings with LuthorCorp insignia for himself in preparation for his eventual confrontations with Clark. Oliver Queen took one of the rings from Lex after his apparent death, though he does not confirm when confronted by Clark whether he intended it for use as an insurance policy against Clark himself. Red kryptonite has also been shown in Smallville. Its effect on Clark Kent is to rid him of all inhibitions, making him rebellious and potentially dangerous if exposed to it for too long. Also created for the series was black kryptonite (first appearing in the episode "Crusade" ), which is capable of separating certain entities within individual organisms, e.g., splitting a person's good and evil sides. Black kryptonite was formed by heating up green kryptonite. In the series, after Clark's "reprogramming" by Jor-El in the caves, Martha Kent used black kryptonite to reveal the two psyches of Clark, the militant Kal-El (not to be confused with the rebellious "Kal" alias caused by red kryptonite), and normal Clark. In a later episode, Lex Luthor was experimenting with a process to heat up green kryptonite and irradiate seeds, in order to separate the "weak" genes from the "strong" genes in the seeds. The result was hardy but rotten-tasting fruit, implying a yin and yang balance within fruit, as well as within humans. An accident with this process caused Lex to split into a good Lex and a bad Lex who referred to himself as "Alexander". In the eighth season episode "Injustice", Oliver Queen retrieved a supply of black kryptonite, which Chloe used on Davis in "Doomsday". Silver kryptonite made an appearance in the fifth season episode entitled "Splinter'. Like the previous comics incarnation, this silver form was not a true form of the stone. In the episode, Clark pricked his finger on a rock that was black and had silver-metallic clusters, and subsequently became increasingly paranoid, hallucinating that others were conspiring against him. In the episode's final scenes, it was revealed that a splinter of the element entered Clark's bloodstream. It was also shown that silver kryptonite was created artificially from the liquid metal which forms Brainiac's body. In the eighth episode of Smallville's 7th Season, entitled "Blue," there was a new form of Kryptonite. It was blue kryptonite, and it stripped Clark of his powers. This happened when Lara-El, Clark's mother, gave Clark his father's blue ring to wear, without knowing the effect it would have on him. The ring was impossible to remove until Clark returned to The Fortress of Solitude. As in the comics, blue kryptonite is fatal to Bizarro. It increases Bizarro's power exponentially so that his body is not able to contain it, causing him to explode. Animated Series Super Friends The 1970s and 1980s Super Friends animated series featured kryptonite in various episodes. In the episode "Rest in Peace", Sinestro refers to a form of kryptonite called "Krypton Steel" as "a harmless form of kryptonite that only Superman can penetrate". In another episode, "Darkseid's Golden Trap", gold kryptonite appears, which is stated to have an effective range of 20 ft (6.1 m). Blue kryptonite also makes an appearance in an episode entitled "Terror From the Phantom Zone"; Superman, aging rapidly from exposure to Red Kryptonite, acquires a sample of Blue Kryptonite which had been discovered floating in space. Since Blue Kryptonite harms Bizarros, Superman reasons that it would help normal Kryptonians, and thus uses it to cure himself. In "Uncle Mxyzptlk", the Wonder Twins find a red, glowing stone and take it to the Hall of Justice. They show it to Superman, who immediately reacts to it. Samurai knocks the red kryptonite to the floor but the effects of the red kryptonite cause Superman to decrease in age, becoming a young child. The rest of the Superfriends refer to the kid as 'Super Brat'. In another episode, red kryptonite is exposed to Superman by Bizarro himself, causing Superman to transform into a gangly, weak klutz. In yet another episode, red kryptonite causes Superman to grow additional arms and legs. Most of the action takes place at the Fortress of Solitude where Superman finds some blue kryptonite hidden away to fight off Bizarro. DC Animated Universe In the 1990s series, Superman: The Animated Series, one explanation offered for the science of kryptonite is that Superman feels the detrimental effects of kryptonite radiation quicker than normal humans because his body absorbs it more readily, as a result of sharing a common point of origin with the element. The effect is so potent that even a tiny shard is enough to painfully affect Superman at a short distance. This makes it impossible for Superman to even touch the substance, as it would be the equivalent of a normal man touching radioactive rods from a nuclear reactor with his bare skin. Only the element lead can block the radiation, and it is therefore Superman's only protection. Fortunately, Professor Hamilton supplies Superman with a distinctive and durable lead protection suit for such situations. Kryptonite, in the animated series, still has effects on normal humans as well. Two moments are evidence of this. First, the "Jade Dragon" from The Batman/Superman Movie (a crossover between The New Batman Adventures and Superman: The Animated Series) is a statue of kryptonite carved in the form of a Chinese dragon, said to be cursed because all of its owners all died within a few years of acquiring the piece. Second is Lex Luthor's kryptonite poisoning/cancer as seen in Justice League, attributed to Lex's admitted habit of keeping a fist-sized chunk of kryptonite in his pocket for years. This does bring up the question of Batman's habit of also carrying a piece of kryptonite in his own belt; however, since Batman has seen what the kryptonite did to Luthor, the famed methodicality of Batman may mean that he likely has the pouch lined with lead. The lead pouch theory seems to be confirmed by the fact that Superman can stand near Batman without being affected by the piece. In Batman Beyond, it was revealed in the two part episode "The Call" that Bruce Wayne kept the kryptonite for the rest of his life, and kept the needle of kryptonite locked up very securely in the Bat Cave. The Justice League series also reveals how Batman obtained the kryptonite. Green kryptonite remains the only variety of the substance ever seen in the DC Animated Universe. Krypto the Superdog As mentioned above, the Krypto the Superdog'' episode "Streaky's Cat Tail" features "purple-spotted kryptonite", which causes Superdog to compulsively chase his tail. However, this was almost certainly a product of Streaky's imagination. Red Kryptonite has appeared and is stated as having weird effects on Kryptonians for a day; it has swapped the minds of Kevin and Krypto, removed Krypto's powers, and in another episode caused Krypto's tail to become sentient and separated from his body. Legion of Super Heroes Kryptonite also appears in an episode of the Legion of Super Heroes cartoon, where it is revealed Brainiac 5 has a piece of it, and that the villain Drax, who, despite being an analogue to Superman, is immune to it. In the season 2 episode "Dark Victory", a brainwashed Brainiac 5 not only attacks Superman with a Kryptonite ray, but also produces a band of Kryptonite from within him and places it on the hero's head, the band then tightening around it. See also The Kryptonite Man Krypton (comics) Kryptonite (song) by 3 Doors Down Pocket Full of Kryptonite (album) and "Jimmy Olsen's Blues" (song) by Spin Doctors Kryptonite lock (Line of bicycle locks manufactured by the Ingersoll Rand Company) References External links BBC Nature The Superman Homepage's section on kryptonite Supermanica entry on Pre-Crisis forms of kryptonite The first appearance of K-metal The Superman.nu Encyclopaedia entry on Kryptonite The Colors Out of Space The Photonucleic Effect The Superman.nu Encyclopaedia entry on K-Metal Howstuffworks.com: "How Kryptonite Works" Superdickery | Kryptonite |@lemmatized infobox:1 comic:31 element:15 image:1 kryptonite:325 jpg:1 imagesize:1 caption:1 lex:26 luthor:31 front:2 display:1 hold:4 green:70 panel:1 action:10 annual:3 publisher:1 dc:8 debut:1 creator:2 type:1 material:6 support:1 superman:174 subcat:1 sortkey:1 fictional:3 mythos:2 originate:2 radio:3 show:19 series:41 usually:5 create:27 remains:1 native:1 planet:8 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4,078 | Nirvana | In sramanic thought, Nirvana (, ; , ; Prakrit: णिव्वाण) is the state of being free from both suffering and the cycle of rebirth. It is an important concept in Buddhism and Jainism. "Nibbāna" is a Pāli word that means "blowing out" — that is, blowing out the fires of greed, hatred, and delusion. Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 63: "Nibbana means 'blowing out.' What must be blown out is the triple fire of greed, hatred, and delusion." Nirvana in Buddhism Buddha described nirvana as the perfect peace of the state of mind that is free from craving, anger and other afflictive states (kilesa). The subject is at peace with the world, has compassion for all and gives up obsessions and fixations. This peace is achieved when the existing volitional formations are pacified, and the conditions for the production of new ones are eradicated. In Nibbana the root causes of craving and aversion have been extinguished such that one is no longer subject to human suffering (dukkha) or further states of rebirths in samsara. The Pali Canon also contains other perspectives on nirvana; for one, it is linked to the seeing-through of the empty nature of phenomena. It is also presented as a radical reordering of consciousness and unleashing of awareness. Peter Harvey, Consciousness mysticism in the discourses of the Buddha. in Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic; Studies in Indian and Comparative Mysticism." Routledge, 1995, page 82; .</ref> Scholar Herbert Guenther states that with nirvana "the ideal personality, the true human being" becomes reality. Guenther, The Problem of the Soul in Early Buddhism, Curt Weller Verlag, Constanz, 1949, pp. 156-157. The Buddha in the Dhammapada says of nirvana that it is "the highest happiness". This happiness is an enduring, transcendental happiness integral to the calmness attained through enlightenment or bodhi, rather than the happiness derived from impermanent things. The knowledge accompanying nirvana is expressed through the word bodhi. The Buddha explains nirvana as "the unconditioned" (asankhata) mind, a mind that has come to a point of perfect lucidity and clarity due to the cessation of the production of volitional formations. This is described by the Buddha as "deathlessness" (Pali: amata or amaravati) and as the highest spiritual attainment, the natural result that accrues to one who lives a life of virtuous conduct and practice in accordance with the Noble Eightfold Path. Such a life engenders increasing control over the generation of karma (Skt; Pali, kamma). It produces wholesome karma with positive results and finally allows the cessation of the origination of karma altogether with the attainment of nibbana. Otherwise, beings forever wander through the impermanent and suffering-generating realms of desire, form, and formlessness, collectively termed samsara. Each liberated individual produces no new karma, but preserves a particular individual personality which is the result of the traces of his or her karmic heritage. The very fact that there is a psycho-physical substrate during the remainder of an arahant's lifetime shows the continuing effect of karma. Steven Collins, Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1982, page 207. While nirvana is "unconditioned", it is not "uncaused" or "independent." David Kalupahana, Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidass, 2006, page 41. The stance of the early scriptures is that attaining nibbana in either the current or some future birth depends on effort, and is not pre-determined. Peter Harvey, "The Selfless Mind." Curzon Press 1995, page 87. Furthermore, salvation according to the Pali Nikayas is not the recognition of a pre-existing or eternal perfection, but is the attainment of something that is hitherto unattained. Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1998, page 352. This is also the orthodox Yogacara position, and that of Buddhaghosa. Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology. Routledge, 2002, page 126, and note 7, page 154. Etymology Nirvana is a compound of the prefix ni[r]- (ni, nis, nih) which means "out, away from, without", and the root vâ[na] (Pali. vâti) which can be translated as "blowing" as in "blowing of the wind", and also as "smelling, etc". The Abhidharma-mahavibhāsa-sāstra, a Sarvastivādin commentary, gives the complete context of the possible meanings from its Sanskrit roots: Vāna, implying the path of rebirth, + nir, meaning leaving off' or "being away from the path of rebirth." Vāna, meaning 'stench', + nir, meaning "freedom": "freedom from the stench of distressing karma." Vāna, meaning "dense forests", + nir, meaning "to get rid of" = "to be permanently rid of the dense forest of the five aggregates" (panca skandha), or the "three roots of greed, hate and delusion" (raga, dvesa, avidya) or "three characteristics of existence" (impermanence, anitya; unsatisfactoriness, dukkha, soullessness, anàtman). Vāna, meaning "weaving", + nir, meaning "knot" = "freedom from the knot of the distressful thread of karma." Overview Nirvana in sutra is never conceived of as a place (such as one might conceive heaven), but rather the antinomy of samsara (see below) which itself is synonymous with ignorance (avidyā, Pāli avijjā). This said: "'the liberated mind (citta) that no longer clings' means Nibbāna" (Majjhima Nikaya 2-Att. 4.68). Nirvāna is meant specifically - as pertains gnosis - that which ends the identity of the mind (citta) with empirical phenomena. Doctrinally Nibbāna is said of the mind which "no longer is coming (bhava) and going (vibhava)", but which has attained a status in perpetuity, whereby "liberation (vimutta) can be said". It carries further connotations of stilling, cooling, and peace. The realizing of nirvana is compared to the ending of avidyā (ignorance) which perpetuates the will (cetana) into effecting the incarnation of mind into biological or other form passing on forever through life after life (samsara). Samsara is caused principally by craving and ignorance (see dependent origination). A person can attain nirvana without dying. When a person who has realized nirvana dies, his death is referred as (Pali: parinibbana), his fully passing away, as his life was his last link to the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara), and he will not be reborn again. Buddhism holds that the ultimate goal and end of samsaric existence (of ever "becoming" and "dying" and never truly being) is realization of nirvana; what happens to a person after his cannot be explained, as it is outside of all conceivable experience. Through a series of questions, Sariputta brings a monk to admit that he cannot pin down the Tathagata as a truth or reality even in the present life, so to speculate regarding the ontological status of an arahant after death is not proper. Yamaka Sutta, SN 22.85. See Tathagata#Beyond range. Individuals up to the level of non-returning may experience nirvana as an object of mental consciousness. Thanissaro Bhikkhu's commentary to the Brahma-nimantantika Sutta, . See for example the Jhana Sutta, . Certain contemplations while nibbana is an object of samadhi lead, if developed, to the level of non-returning or the gnosis of the arahant. Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, page 91. At that point of contemplation, which is reached through a progression of insight, if the meditator realizes that even that state is constructed and therefore impermanent, the fetters are destroyed, arahantship is attained, and nibbana is realized. Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, page 93. Luminous consciousness Although an enlightened individual's consciousness is a karmic result, it is not limited by usual samsaric constraints. Steven Collins, Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1982, page 207. The Buddha discusses in the context of nirvana a kind of consciousness described as: <blockquote>Consciousness without feature, without end, luminous all around. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, <ref>Peter Harvey, Consciousness mysticism in the discourses of the Buddha. in Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic; Studies in Indian and Comparative Mysticism." Routledge, 1995, page 82; . </blockquote> This "consciousness without surface" differs from the kinds of consciousness associated to the six sense media, which have a "surface" that they fall upon and arise in response to. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, In a liberated individual it is directly known, without intermediary, free from any dependence on conditions at all. Thanissaro Bhukkhu's commentary on the Brahma-nimantanika Sutta, . Thanissaro Bhikkhu, According to Peter Harvey, the early texts are ambivalent as to whether or not the term "consciousness" is accurate. Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, pages 87, 90. In one interpretation, the "luminous consciousness" is identical with nirvana. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, , . See also Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Others disagree, finding it to be not nirvana itself, but instead to be a kind of consciousness accessible only to arahants. Ajahn Brahm, . Rupert Gethin objects to parts of Harvey's argument; . A passage in the Majjhima Nikaya likens it to empty space. Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, page 88. The quote is MN I, 127-128. For liberated ones the luminous, unsupported consciousness associated with nibbana is directly known without mediation of the mental consciousness factor in dependent co-arising, and is the transcending of all objects of mental consciousness. Thanissaro Bhikkhu's commentary to the Brahma-nimantantika Sutta, . Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, page 93. It differs radically from the concept in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita of Self-realization, described as accessing the individual's inmost consciousness, in that it is not considered an aspect, even the deepest aspect, of the individual's personality, and is not to be confused in any way with a "Self". Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1998, page 355. Furthermore, it transcends the sphere of infinite consciousness, the sixth of the Buddhist jhanas, which is in itself not the ending of the conceit of "I". Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1998, pages 354-356. Nagarjuna alluded to a passage regarding this level of consciousness in the Dighanikaya (DN 11) in two different works. He wrote: The Sage has declared that earth, water, fire, and wind, long, short, fine and coarse, good, and so on are extinguished in consciousness ... Here long and short, fine and coarse, good and bad, here name and form all stop. Christian Lindtner, Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing, 1997, page 322. Lindtner says that Nagarjuna is referencing the DN. A related idea, which finds support in the Pali Canon and the contemporary Theravada practice tradition despite its absence in the Theravada commentaries and Abhidhamma, is that the mind of the arahant is itself nibbana. Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, page 100. There is a clear reference in the Anguttara Nikaya to a "luminous mind" present within all people, be they corrupt or pure, whether or not it itself is pure or impure. Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, page 94. The reference is at A I, 8-10. The Canon does not support the identification of the "luminous mind" with nirvanic consciousness, though it plays a role in the realization of nirvana. Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, pages 94, 97. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, . Upon the destruction of the fetters, according to one scholar, "the shining nibbanic consciousness flashes out" of it, "being without object or support, so transcending all limitations." Harvey, page 99. Nirvana and samsara In Mahāyāna Buddhism, nirvana and samsara are said to be not-different in the sense that there is no metaphysical barrier between the two. An individual can attain nirvana by following the Buddhist path. If they were ultimately different this would be impossible. Thus, the duality between nirvana and samsara is only accurate on the conventional level. Another way to arrive at this conclusion is through the analysis that all phenomena are empty of an essential identity, and therefore suffering is never inherent in any situation. Thus liberation from suffering and its causes is not a metaphysical shift of any kind. For better explication of this thinking see two-truths doctrine. The Theravāda school makes the antithesis of samsara and Nibbāna the starting point of the entire quest for deliverance. Even more, it treats this antithesis as determinative of the final goal, which is precisely the transcendence of samsara and the attainment of liberation in Nibbāna. Where Theravada differs significantly from the Mahāyāna schools, which also start with the duality of samsara and nirvana, is in not regarding this polarity as a mere preparatory lesson tailored for those with blunt faculties, to be eventually superseded by some higher realization of non-duality. From the standpoint of the Pāli Suttas, even for the Buddha and the Arahants suffering and its cessation, samsara and Nibbāna, remain distinct. Both schools agree that Shakyamuni Buddha was in saṃsāra while having attained Nirvāṇa, in so far as he was seen by all while simultaneously free from samsara. Paths to nirvana in the Pali canon In the Visuddhimagga, Ch. I, v. 6 (Buddhaghosa & , 1999, pp. 6–7), Buddhaghosa identifies various options within the Pali canon for pursuing a path to nirvana, A number of the suttas referenced below as well as Buddhaghosa himself refer not explicitly to nirvana but to "the path of purification" (Pali: Visuddhimagga). In Visuddhimagga, Ch. I, v. 5, Buddhaghosa notes: "Herein, purification should be understood as nibbana, which being devoid of all stains, is utterly pure" (Buddhaghosa & , 1999, p. 6). including: by insight (vipassana) alone (see Dh. 277) See Buddharakkhita (1996a). In the Paramattha-mañjūsā (the Visuddhimagga commentary), vv. 9-10, it adds the following caveat regarding this option of "insight alone": The words 'insight alone' are meant to exclude, not virtue, etc., but serenity (i.e., jhana), ... [as typically reflected] in the pair, serenity and insight.... [T]he word 'alone' actually excludes only that concentration with distinction [of jhanic absorption]; for concentration is classed as both access [or momentary] and absorption.... Taking this stanza as the teaching for one whose vehicle is insight does not imply that there is no concentration; for no insight comes about with momentary concentration. And again, insight should be understood as the three contemplations of impermanence, pain and not-self [see tilakkhana]; not contemplation of impermanence alone (Buddhaghosa & , 1999, p. 750, n. 3). by jhana and understanding (see Dh. 372) See Buddharakkhita (1996b). by deeds, vision and righteousness (see MN iii.262) See Thanissaro (2003). Verse 262 of this sutta is translated by Thanissaro as: Action, clear-knowing, & mental qualities, virtue, the highest [way of] life: through this are mortals purified, not through clan or wealth. by virtue, consciousness and understanding (7SN i.13) The option expressed by SN i.13 is the basis for the entire rest of the Visuddhimagga's exposition. It is the very first paragraph of the Visuddhimagga and states: When a wise man, established well in virtue, Develops consciousness and understanding, Then as a bhikku ardent and sagacious He succeeds in disentangling this tangle. (Buddhaghosa & , 1999, p. 1) In the Visuddhimagga, Ch. I, verse 2, Buddhaghosa comments that this tangle refers to "the network of craving." In verse 7, Buddhaghosa states that develops consciousness and understanding means "develops both concentration and insight." (Buddhaghosa & , 1999, pp. 1, 7) by virtue, understanding, concentration and effort (see SN i.53) Buddhaghosa & (1999), p. 7, translate SN i.53 as: He who is possessed of constant virtue, Who has understanding, and is concentrated, Who is strenuous and diligent as well, Will cross the flood so difficult to cross. by the four foundations of mindfulness (see Satipatthana Sutta, DN ii.290) See Thanissaro (2000). Verse 290 of this sutta is translated by Thanissaro as: The Blessed One said this: "This is the direct path for the purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrow & lamentation, for the disappearance of pain & distress, for the attainment of the right method, & for the realization of Unbinding — in other words, the four frames of reference.... Depending on one's analysis, each of these options could be seen as a reframing of the Buddha's Threefold Training of virtue, mental development In the Nikayas mental development generally suggests the attainment of jhanic absorption; however, as indicated above in the note regarding the "insight alone" option, in some contexts it can refer to attaining "access" or "momentary" concentration without full absorption. and wisdom. Some Mahayana Perspectives on Nirvana The idea of Nirvana as purified, non-dualistic 'superior mind' can be found in some Mahayana/Tantric texts. The Samputa, for instance, states: 'Undefiled by lust and emotional impurities, unclouded by any dualistic perceptions, this superior mind is indeed the supreme nirvana.' Takpo Tashi Namgyal, Mahamudra Shambhala, Boston and London, 1986, p.219 Some Mahayana traditions see the Buddha in almost docetic terms, viewing his visible manifestations as projections from within the state of Nirvana. According to Professor Etienne Lamotte, Buddhas are always and at all times in Nirvana, and their corporeal displays of themselves and their Buddhic careers are ultimately illusory. Lamotte writes of the Buddhas: ‘they are born, reach enlightenment, set turning the Wheel of Dharma, and enter Nirvana. However, all this is only illusion: the appearance of a Buddha is the absence of arising, duration and destruction; their Nirvana is the fact that they are always and at all times in Nirvana.’ Professor Etienne Lamotte, tr. Sara Boin-Webb, Suramgamasamadhisutra, Curzon, London, 1998, p.4 Some Mahayana sutras go further and attempt to characterize the nature of Nirvana itself. The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, which has as one of its main topics precisely the realm or dhatu of Nirvana, has the Buddha speak of four essential elements which make up Nirvana. One of these is ‘Self’ (atman), which is construed as the enduring Self of the Buddha. Writing on this Mahayana understanding of Nirvana, William Edward Soothill and Lewis Hodous state: ‘The Nirvana Sutra claims for nirvana the ancient ideas of permanence, bliss, personality, purity in the transcendental realm. Mahayana declares that Hinayana, by denying personality in the transcendental realm, denies the existence of the Buddha. In Mahayana, final nirvana is transcendental, and is also used as a term for the Absolute.’ William Edward Soothill, Lewis Hodous, A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1997, p. 328 At the time this scripture was written, there was already a long tradition of positive language about nirvana and the Buddha. Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.Taylor & Francis, 1989, page 100. While in early Buddhist thought nirvana is characterized by permanence, bliss, and purity, it is viewed as being the stopping of the breeding-ground for the "I am" attitude, and is beyond all possibility of the Self delusion. Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press, 1995, page 53. Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology. Routledge, 2002, page 126, and note 7, page 154. The Mahaparinirvana Sutra, a long and highly composite Mahayana scripture, Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.Taylor & Francis, 1989, page 98, see also page 99. refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics. Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.Taylor & Francis, 1989, page 100. "... it refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics." From this, it continues: "The Buddha-nature is in fact not the self. For the sake of [guiding] sentient beings, I describe it as the self." Youru Wang, Linguistic Strategies in Daoist Zhuangzi and Chan Buddhism: The Other Way of Speaking. Routledge, 2003, page 58. The Ratnagotravibhaga, a related text, points out that the teaching of the tathagatagarbha is intended to win sentient beings over to abandoning "affection for one's self" - one of the five defects caused by non-Buddhist teaching. Youru Wang notes similar language in the Lankavatara Sutra, then writes: "Noticing this context is important. It will help us to avoid jumping to the conclusion that tathagatagarbha thought is simply another case of metaphysical imagination." Youru Wang, Linguistic Strategies in Daoist Zhuangzi and Chan Buddhism: The Other Way of Speaking. Routledge, 2003, page 58. However, some have objected to this reading regarding the Mahaparinirvana Sutra in particular, and claim that the Buddha then caps his comments in this passage with an affirmation of the reality of the Self, declaring that he is in fact that Self: 'Due to various causes and conditions, I have also taught that that which is the self is devoid of self, for though there is truly the self, I have taught that there is no self, and yet there is no falsehood in that. The Buddha-dhatu is devoid of self. When the Tathagata teaches that there is no self, it is because of the Eternal. The Tathagata is the Self, and his teaching that there is no self is because he has attained mastery/sovereignty [aisvarya].' Kosho Yamamoto, The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra in 3 Volumes, Vol, 3, p. 660, Karinbunko, Ube City, Japan, 1975 In the Nirvana Sutra, the Buddha states that he will now teach previously undisclosed doctrines (including on Nirvana) and that his earlier teaching on non-Self was one of expediency only. Dr. Kosho Yamamoto writes: ‘He says that the non-Self which he once taught is none but of expediency … He says that he is now ready to speak about the undisclosed teachings. Men abide in upside-down thoughts. So he will now speak of the affirmative attributes of Nirvana, which are none other than the Eternal, Bliss, the Self and the Pure.’ Dr. Kosho Yamamoto, Mahayanism: A Critical Exposition of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, Karinbunko, Ube City, Japan, 1975, pp. 141, 142 According to some scholars, the language used in the Tathagatagarbha genre of sutras can be seen as an attempt to state orthodox Buddhist teachings of dependent origination using positive language instead, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism. For example, in some of these sutras the perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self; the ultimate goal of the path is then characterized using a range of positive language that had been used in Indian philosophy previously by essentialist philosophers, but which was now transmuted into a new Buddhist vocabulary to describe a being who has successfully completed the Buddhist path. Sallie B. King, The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature is impeccably Buddhist. , pages 1-6. Dr. Yamamoto points out that this ‘affirmative’ characterization of Nirvana pertains to a higher form of Nirvana – that of ‘Great Nirvana’. The ordinary Nirvana which is normally spoken about might be likened to eating only a little food after a period of hunger: the bliss and peace that ensue are commensurate with that Yamamoto, op. cit., p. 165 . Yamamoto goes on to state: ‘But such a nirvana cannot be called “Great Nirvana”. And it [i.e. the Buddha’s new revelation regarding Nirvana] goes on to dwell on the “Great Self”, “Great Bliss”, and “Great Purity”, all of which, along with the Eternal, constitute the four attributes of Great Nirvana.’ Yamamoto, ibid According to some scholars, the "Self" discussed in the and related sutras does not represent a substantial Self. Rather, it is a positive language expression of emptiness and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. In this view, the intention of the teaching of 'tathagatagarbha'/Buddha nature is soteriological rather than theoretical. Heng-Ching Shih, "The Significance Of 'Tathagatagarbha' -- A Positive Expression Of 'Sunyata.'" http://zencomp.com/greatwisdom/ebud/ebdha191.htm. However, this interpretation is contentious. Not all scholars share it. Writing on the diverse understandings of tathagatagarbha doctrine as found in the Nirvana Sutra and similar scriptures, Dr. Jamie Hubbard comments on how some scholars see a tendency towards absolutism and monism in this Tathagatagarbha [a tendency which Japanese scholar Matsumoto castigates as non-Buddhist]. Dr. Hubbard comments: 'Matsumoto [calls] attention to the similarity between the extremely positive language and causal structure of enlightenment found in the tathagatagarbha literature and that of the substantial monism found in the atman/Brahman tradition. Matsumoto, of course, is not the only one to have noted this resemblance. Takasaki Jikido, for example, the preeminent scholar of the tathagatagarbha tradition, sees monism in the doctrine of the tathagatagarbha and the Mahayana in general … Obermiller wedded this notion of a monistic Absolute to the tathagatagarbha literature in his translation and comments to the Ratnagotra, which he aptly subtitled “A Manual of Buddhist Monism” … Lamotte and Frauwallner have seen the tathagatagarbha doctrine as diametrically opposed to the Madhyamika and representing something akin to the monism of the atman/Brahman strain, while yet others such as Nagao, Seyfort Ruegg, and Johnston (the editor of the Ratnagotra) simply voice their doubts and state that it seems similar to post-Vedic forms of monism. Yet another camp, represented by Yamaguchi Susumu and his student Ogawa Ichijo, is able to understand tathagatagarbha thought without recourse to Vedic notions by putting it squarely within the Buddhist tradition of conditioned causality and emptiness, which, of course, explicitly rejects monism of any sort. Obviously, the question of the monist or absolutist nature of the tathagatagarbha and Buddha-nature traditions is complex. Dr. Jamie Hubbard, Absolute Delusion, Perfect Buddhahood,University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu, 2001, pp. 99-100 Dr. Hubbard summarises his research on tathagatagarbha doctrines with the words: 'the teaching of the tathagatagarbha has always been debatable, for it is fundamentally an affirmative approach to truth and wisdom, offering descriptions of reality not in negative terms of what it is lacking or empty of (apophatic description, typical of the Pefection of Wisdom corpus and the Madhyhamika school) but rather in positive terms of what it is (cataphatic description, more typical of the devotional, tantric, Mahaparinirvana and Lotus Sutra traditions, and, it should be noted, the monistic terms of the orthodox Brahmanic systems)' Dr. Jamie Hubbard, op. cit., pp. 120-121 According to Paul Williams, the similarity to the monism of atman/Brahman thought is explained when the Nirvana sutra presents its Self teachings as an attempt to win over non-Buddhist ascetics:It is tempting to speak of Hindu influence on Buddhism at this point, but simply to talk of influences is almost always too easy ... Having said that, of course the Mahaparinirvana-Sutra itself admits Hindu influence in a sense when it refers to the Buddha using the term 'Self' in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics. Nevertheless, it would be wrong to think in particular of the transcendental Self-Brahman of Advaita Vedanta as necessarily influencing Buddhism at this point. It is by no means clear that the Self which is really no-Self of the Mahaparinirvana-Sutra is at all comparably to the Advaita Brahman, and anyway these Tathagatagarbha sutras are earlier than Gaudapada (seventh century), the founder of the Hindu Advaita school ... Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.Taylor & Francis, 1989, page 100. The sutra also states that the Buddha-nature is really no-Self, but is said to be a Self in a manner of speaking. Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.Taylor & Francis, 1989, page 99. "Here the Buddha-nature is really no-Self, but it is said to be a Self in a manner of speaking." In another section of the same sutra, it is stated that there are three ways for a person to "have" something; to have it in the past, to have it in the present, and to have it in the future. It states that what it means by "all beings have Buddha-nature" is that all beings will in the future become Buddhas. Heng-Ching Shih, "The Significance Of 'Tathagatagarbha' -- A Positive Expression Of 'Sunyata.'" http://zencomp.com/greatwisdom/ebud/ebdha191.htm. Quotations Gautama Buddha: "Nirvana is the highest happiness." [Dp 204] "Where there is nothing; where naught is grasped, there is the Isle of No-Beyond. Nirvana do I call it -- the utter extinction of aging and dying." "There is, monks, an unborn -- unbecome -- unmade -- unfabricated. If there were not that unborn -- unbecome -- unmade -- unfabricated, there would not be the case that emancipation from the born -- become -- made -- fabricated would be discerned. But precisely because there is an unborn -- unbecome -- unmade -- unfabricated, emancipation from the born -- become -- made -- fabricated is discerned." [Udana VIII.3] This said: ‘the liberated mind/will (citta) which does not cling’ means Nibbāna” [MN2-Att. 4.68] “'The subjugation of becoming means nirvana'; this means the subjugation of the five aggregates means nirvana.” [SN-Att. 2.123] In Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta the Buddha likens nibbana to the cessation and extinguishing of a fire where the materials for sustenance has been removed: "Profound, Vaccha, is this phenomenon, hard to see, hard to realize, tranquil, refined, beyond the scope of conjecture, subtle, to-be-experienced by the wise." "There is that dimension where there is neither earth, nor water, nor fire, nor wind; neither dimension of the infinitude of space, nor dimension of the infinitude of consciousness, nor dimension of nothingness, nor dimension of neither perception nor non-perception; neither this world, nor the next world, nor sun, nor moon. And there, I say, there is neither coming, nor going, nor stasis; neither passing away nor arising: without stance, without foundation, without support [mental object]. This, just this, is the end of stress." Said immediately after the physical death of Gotama Buddha wherein his mind (citta) is ==the essence of liberation: [DN 2.157] “No longer with (subsists by) in-breath nor out-breath, so is him (Gotama) who is steadfast in mind (citta), inherently quelled from all desires the mighty sage has passed beyond. With mind (citta) limitless he no longer bears sensations; illumined and unbound (nibbana), his mind (citta) is definitely (ahu) liberated.” Sutta Nipāta, tr. Rune Johansson: Like a flame that has been blown out by a strong wind goes to rest and cannot be defined, just so the sage who is freed from name and body goes to rest and cannot be defined. For him who has gone to rest there is no measure by means of which one could describe him; that is not for him. When all (dharmas) have gone, all signs of recognition have also gone. The Buddha's use of the metaphor of the extinguished flame should not be taken either in the sense of the Vedas, where fire is immortal, or the modern sense, where an extinguished fire ceases to exist. Instead he discusses a situation beyond questions of existence or non-existence. See Venerable Sariputta: The destruction of greed, hatred and delusion is nirvana. Nirvana in Jainism In Jainism, it means final release from the karmic bondage. When an enlightened human, such as, an Arhat or a Tirthankara extinguishes his remaining aghatiya karmas and thus ends his worldly existence, it is called parinirvana. Technically, the death of an Arhat is called nirvana of Arhat, as he has ended his wordly existence and attained liberation. Moksha, that is to say, liberation follows nirvana. An Arhat becomes a siddha, the liberated one, after attaining nirvana. Nirvana in Jainism means :- Death of an Arhat, who becomes liberated thereafter, and Moksa (Jainism) Description of nirvana of a Tirthankara in Jain Texts Jains celebrate Diwali as the day of Nirvana of Mahavira. Kalpasutra gives an elaborate account of Mahavira’s nirvana. Nirvana as Moksha Uttaradhyana Sutra provides an account of Gautama explaining the meaning of nirvana to Kesi a disciple of Parsva. See also Ataraxia Baqaa Bodhi Bhagavad Gita Dzogchen Hinduism Jainism Moksha Parinirvana Satori Void (Buddhism) Voidness Zen Notes ^ Kawamura, Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1981, pp.11. External links Nibbana - more excerpts from the Pali Tripitaka defining Nibbana English translation of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra Encyclopaedia Britannica, Nirvana Bhikkhu Thanissaro: The mind like fire unbound - An Image of Nirvana in the Early Buddhist Discourses Nirvana as what the Buddha taught | Nirvana |@lemmatized sramanic:1 thought:7 nirvana:76 prakrit:1 ण:2 व:2 state:19 free:5 suffering:4 cycle:2 rebirth:5 important:2 concept:2 buddhism:23 jainism:6 nibbāna:7 pāli:3 word:6 mean:23 blow:6 fire:8 greed:4 hatred:3 delusion:6 richard:1 gombrich:1 theravada:6 social:1 history:1 ancient:2 benares:1 modern:2 colombo:1 routledge:7 kegan:1 paul:7 page:34 nibbana:13 must:1 triple:1 buddha:46 describe:7 perfect:3 peace:5 mind:21 crave:4 anger:1 afflictive:1 kilesa:1 subject:2 world:3 compassion:1 give:3 obsession:1 fixation:1 achieve:1 exist:3 volitional:2 formation:2 pacify:1 condition:4 production:2 new:4 one:19 eradicate:1 root:4 cause:5 aversion:1 extinguish:3 longer:4 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4,079 | Ellensburg,_Washington | Davidson Building, historic downtown Ellensburg Barge Hall, Central Washington University Ellensburg is a city in, and the county seat of, Kittitas County, Washington, United States. The population was 15,414 at the 2000 census. This number includes the college student population, which accounts for nearly 8,000. Ellensburg is located just east of the Cascade Range on I-90. Ellensburg is the home of Central Washington University (CWU). The surrounding Kittitas Valley is internationally known for the timothy-hay that it produces. There are several local hay brokering and processing operations that ship to Pacific Rim countries. The old part of the town is fairly historic, with old brick buildings from the late 19th century. This is a legacy of its bid to be the state capital, which it lost to Olympia. Ellensburg loses its bid to become state capital on November 4, 1890. CWU being placed there is another product of that legacy; the state legislature selected Ellensburg as the location for the then Normal School as a consolation prize. Ruth Kirk, Carmela Alexander. Exploring Washington's Past: A Road Guide to History. University of Washington Press, 1995. p.124 Eastern Washington has a much drier climate than Western Washington, and some Seattle-area residents visit the area to spend a weekend without rain; many former Puget Sound residents have moved to the city and commute over Snoqualmie Pass on I-90 to jobs located in the Puget Sound region. Ellensburg is a stop on the PRCA professional rodeo circuit, occurring each year on Labor Day weekend. The Ellensburg Rodeo has been a town tradition since 1923, and is the largest rodeo in Washington state. Visit Ellensburg History Ellensburg was officially incorporated on November 26, 1883. John A. Shoudy came to the Kittitas Valley in 1871, and purchased a small trading post from A.J. Splawn, called "Robber's Roost." Shoudy named the town after his wife, Mary Ellen Shoudy, and officialy began the city of Ellensburg. Robber's Roost was the first business in the valley, other than the early trading that occurred among Indians, cattle drivers, and military personnel. Robber's Roost was located on the present-day 3rd Avenue, just west of Main Street near the alley. There is a placard on the wall commemorating the location, as well as a small stone monument against the wall by the sidewalk on 3rd. Shoudy was not the first settler in the Kittitas Valley, nor was he the first businessperson, but he was responsible for platting the city of Ellensburg in the 1870s, and he was the person who named the streets in town. The city was originally named Ellensburgh, until the final -h was dropped under standardization pressure from the United States Postal Service and Board of Geography Names in 1894. Kirk (1995:123) Ellensburg is one of the cities featured in the Hank Snow song, "I've Been Everywhere." Also recorded by Johnny Cash. There were several early newspapers in Ellensburg. The Daily Record, however, began in 1909 and is still the name of the local newspaper today. Visit Ellensburg Ellensburg hosts the annual Jazz in the Valley music festival on the last weekend in July. Jazz In The Valley Concerns over the state of Ellensburg's historic downtown have lead to the formation of the Ellensburg Downtown Association to work on revitalizing the area. Ellensburg Downtown Association Geography Ellensburg is located at 46°59'49" North, 120°32'42" West (46.997064, -120.545119). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 6.6 square miles (17.2 km²), of which, 6.6 square miles (17.1 km²) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.1 km²) of it (0.75%) is water. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 15,414 people, 6,249 households, and 2,649 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,338.9 people per square mile (903.1/km²). There were 6,732 housing units at an average density of 1,021.5/sq mi (394.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 88.07% White, 1.17% Black or African American, 0.95% Native American, 4.09% Asian, 0.16% Pacific Islander, 2.86% from other races, and 2.69% from two or more races. 6.33% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 6,249 households out of which 20.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.4% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 57.6% were non-families. 35.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.84. In the city the population was spread out with 15.8% under the age of 18, 39.3% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 12.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females there were 95.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.1 males. The median income for a household in the city was $20,034, and the median income for a family was $37,625. Males had a median income of $31,022 versus $22,829 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,662. About 18.8% of families and 34.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.0% of those under age 18 and 11.2% of those age 65 or over. Ellensburg City Council The City of Ellensburg utilizes the Manager/Council form of government with a City Manager hired by the City Council. The seven member City Council is elected at large and serve 4-year terms. The City Council elects a Mayor and Deputy Mayor from the Council to serve 2-year terms. The Council meets the first and third Monday of each month, 7:00 p.m., in the City Council Chambers at City Hall, 501 North Anderson Street. Position 1: Nancy Lillquist, Mayor Position 2: Richard E. Elliot Position 3: Obie O'Brien Position 4: Bruce Tabb Position 5: Stan Bassett Position 6: Fennelle Miller Position 7: George Bottcher See also Ellensburg High School Further reading Kirk, Ruth, and Carmela Alexander, (1990, revised edition 1995), Exploring Washington's Past, University of Washington Press, Seattle. ISBN 0-295-97443-5 References External links Ellensburg official website Ellensburg Chamber of Commerce Ellensburg Downtown Association City Council, City Manager & Departments Ellensburg Rodeo Ellensburg Public Library's Digital Collections Kittitas County Fair Central Washington University Ellensburg Heritage - Ellensburg, Washington | Ellensburg,_Washington |@lemmatized davidson:1 building:2 historic:3 downtown:5 ellensburg:30 barge:1 hall:2 central:3 washington:12 university:5 city:22 county:3 seat:1 kittitas:5 united:3 state:8 population:6 census:3 number:1 include:2 college:1 student:1 account:1 nearly:1 locate:4 east:1 cascade:1 range:1 home:1 cwu:2 surround:1 valley:6 internationally:1 know:1 timothy:1 hay:2 produce:1 several:2 local:2 brokering:1 processing:1 operation:1 ship:1 pacific:2 rim:1 country:1 old:4 part:1 town:4 fairly:1 brick:1 late:1 century:1 legacy:2 bid:2 capital:2 lose:2 olympia:1 become:1 november:2 place:1 another:1 product:1 legislature:1 select:1 location:2 normal:1 school:2 consolation:1 prize:1 ruth:2 kirk:3 carmela:2 alexander:2 explore:2 past:2 road:1 guide:1 history:2 press:2 p:2 eastern:1 much:1 dry:1 climate:1 western:1 seattle:2 area:4 resident:2 visit:3 spend:1 weekend:3 without:1 rain:1 many:1 former:1 puget:2 sound:2 move:1 commute:1 snoqualmie:1 pas:1 job:1 region:1 stop:1 prca:1 professional:1 rodeo:4 circuit:1 occur:2 year:6 labor:1 day:2 tradition:1 since:1 large:2 officially:1 incorporate:1 john:1 shoudy:4 come:1 purchase:1 small:2 trading:2 post:1 j:1 splawn:1 call:1 robber:3 roost:3 name:5 wife:1 mary:1 ellen:1 officialy:1 begin:2 first:4 business:1 early:2 among:1 indian:1 cattle:1 driver:1 military:1 personnel:1 present:2 avenue:1 west:2 main:1 street:3 near:1 alley:1 placard:1 wall:2 commemorate:1 well:1 stone:1 monument:1 sidewalk:1 settler:1 businessperson:1 responsible:1 plat:1 person:1 originally:1 ellensburgh:1 final:1 h:1 drop:1 standardization:1 pressure:1 postal:1 service:1 board:1 geography:2 one:1 feature:1 hank:1 snow:1 song:1 everywhere:1 also:2 record:2 johnny:1 cash:1 newspaper:2 daily:1 however:1 still:1 today:1 host:1 annual:1 jazz:2 music:1 festival:1 last:1 july:1 concern:1 lead:1 formation:1 association:3 work:1 revitalize:1 north:2 accord:1 bureau:1 total:1 square:4 mile:4 land:1 water:1 demographic:1 people:2 household:5 family:5 reside:1 density:2 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 black:1 african:1 american:2 native:1 asian:1 islander:1 race:3 two:1 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:1 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:2 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 non:1 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:2 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 line:1 council:9 utilize:1 manager:3 form:1 government:1 hire:1 seven:1 member:1 elect:2 serve:2 term:2 mayor:3 deputy:1 meet:1 third:1 monday:1 month:1 chamber:2 anderson:1 position:7 nancy:1 lillquist:1 richard:1 e:1 elliot:1 obie:1 brien:1 bruce:1 tabb:1 stan:1 bassett:1 fennelle:1 miller:1 george:1 bottcher:1 see:1 high:1 far:1 reading:1 revise:1 edition:1 isbn:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 commerce:1 department:1 public:1 library:1 digital:1 collection:1 fair:1 heritage:1 |@bigram pacific_rim:1 puget_sound:2 johnny_cash:1 census_bureau:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 pacific_islander:1 islander_race:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 external_link:1 chamber_commerce:1 |
4,080 | Insertion_sort | Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm, a comparison sort in which the sorted array (or list) is built one entry at a time. It is much less efficient on large lists than more advanced algorithms such as quicksort, heapsort, or merge sort. However, insertion sort provides several advantages: simple implementation efficient for (quite) small data sets adaptive, i.e. efficient for data sets that are already substantially sorted: the time complexity is O(n + d), where d is the number of inversions more efficient in practice than most other simple quadratic (i.e. O(n2)) algorithms such as selection sort or bubble sort: the average running time is n2/4, and the running time is linear in the best case stable, i.e. does not change the relative order of elements with equal keys in-place, i.e. only requires a constant amount O(1) of additional memory space online, i.e. can sort a list as it receives it Most humans when sorting—ordering a deck of cards, for example—use a method that is similar to insertion sort. Algorithm In abstract terms, every iteration of insertion sort removes an element from the input data, inserting it into the correct position in the already-sorted list, until no input elements remain. The choice of which element to remove from the input is arbitrary, and can be made using almost any choice algorithm. Sorting is typically done in-place. The resulting array after k iterations has the property where the first k + 1 entries are sorted. In each iteration the first remaining entry of the input is removed, inserted into the result at the correct position, thus extending the result: Array prior to the insertion of x becomes Array after the insertion of x with each element greater than x copied to the right as it is compared against x. The most common variant of insertion sort, which operates on arrays, can be described as follows: Suppose there exists a function called Insert designed to insert a value into a sorted sequence at the beginning of an array. It operates by beginning at the end of the sequence and shifting each element one place to the right until a suitable position is found for the new element. The function has the side effect of overwriting the value stored immediately after the sorted sequence in the array. To perform an insertion sort, begin at the left-most element of the array and invoke Insert to insert each element encountered into its correct position. The ordered sequence into which the element is inserted is stored at the beginning of the array in the set of indices already examined. Each insertion overwrites a single value: the value being inserted. Pseudocode of the complete algorithm follows, where the arrays are zero-based and the for-loop includes both the top and bottom limits (as in Pascal): insertionSort(array A) begin for i := 1 to length[A]-1 do begin value := A[i]; j := i-1; while j ≥ 0 and A[j] > value do begin A[j + 1] := A[j]; j := j-1; end; A[j+1] := value; end; end; Best, worst, and average cases The best case input is an array that is already sorted. In this case insertion sort has a linear running time (i.e., O(n)). During each iteration, the first remaining element of the input is only compared with the right-most element of the sorted subsection of the array. The worst case input is an array sorted in reverse order. In this case every iteration of the inner loop will scan and shift the entire sorted subsection of the array before inserting the next element. For this case insertion sort has a quadratic running time (i.e., O(n2)). The average case is also quadratic, which makes insertion sort impractical for sorting large arrays. However, insertion sort is one of the fastest algorithms for sorting arrays containing fewer than ten elements. Comparisons to other sorting algorithms Insertion sort is very similar to selection sort. As in selection sort, after k passes through the array, the first k elements are in sorted order. For selection sort these are the k smallest elements, while in insertion sort they are whatever the first k elements were in the unsorted array. Insertion sort's advantage is that it only scans as many elements as needed to determine the correct location of the k+1th element, while selection sort must scan all remaining elements to find the absolute smallest element. Calculations show that insertion sort will usually perform about half as many comparisons as selection sort. Assuming the k+1th element's rank is random, insertion sort will on average require shifting half of the previous k elements, while selection sort always requires scanning all unplaced elements. If the input array is reverse-sorted, insertion sort performs as many comparisons as selection sort. If the input array is already sorted, insertion sort performs as few as n-1 comparisons, thus making insertion sort more efficient when given sorted or "nearly-sorted" arrays. While insertion sort typically makes fewer comparisons than selection sort, it requires more writes because the inner loop can require shifting large sections of the sorted portion of the array. In general, insertion sort will write to the array O(n2) times, whereas selection sort will write only O(n) times. For this reason selection sort may be preferable in cases where writing to memory is significantly more expensive than reading, such as with EEPROM or flash memory. Some divide-and-conquer algorithms such as quicksort and mergesort sort by recursively dividing the list into smaller sublists which are then sorted. A useful optimization in practice for these algorithms is to use insertion sort for sorting small sublists, as insertion sort outperforms these more complex algorithms. The size of list for which insertion sort has the advantage varies by environment and implementation, but is typically between eight and twenty elements. Variants D.L. Shell made substantial improvements to the algorithm; the modified version is called Shell sort. The sorting algorithm compares elements separated by a distance that decreases on each pass. Shell sort has distinctly improved running times in practical work, with two simple variants requiring O(n3/2) and O(n4/3) running time. If the cost of comparisons exceeds the cost of swaps, as is the case for example with string keys stored by reference or with human interaction (such as choosing one of a pair displayed side-by-side), then using binary insertion sort may yield better performance. Binary insertion sort employs a binary search to determine the correct location to insert new elements, and therefore performs comparisons in the worst case, which is Θ(n log n). The algorithm as a whole still has a running time of Θ(n2) on average because of the series of swaps required for each insertion. The best-case running time is no longer Ω(n), but Ω(n log n). To avoid having to make a series of swaps for each insertion, the input could be stored in a linked list, which allows elements to be inserted and deleted in constant-time. However, performing a binary search on a linked list is impossible because a linked list does not support random access to its elements; therefore, the running time required for searching is O(n2). If a more sophisticated data structure (e.g., heap or binary tree) is used, the time required for searching and insertion can be reduced significantly; this is the essence of heap sort and binary tree sort. In 2004 Bender, Farach-Colton, and Mosteiro published a new variant of insertion sort called library sort or gapped insertion sort that leaves a small number of unused spaces (i.e., "gaps") spread throughout the array. The benefit is that insertions need only shift elements over until a gap is reached. The authors show that this sorting algorithm runs with high probability in O(n log n) time. References Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Second Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1998. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 5.2.1: Sorting by Insertion, pp.80–105. Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 2.1: Insertion sort, pp.15–21. External links Insertion Sort - a comparison with other O(n^2) sorting algorithms Animated Sorting Algorithms: Insertion Sort – graphical demonstration and discussion of insertion sort Category:Insertion Sort - LiteratePrograms – implementations of insertion sort in various programming languages InsertionSort – colored, graphical Java applet that allows experimentation with the initial input and provides statistics Insertion Sort Demonstration – an animated Java applet showing a step-by-step insertion sort Sorting Algorithms Demo – visual demonstrations of sorting algorithms (implemented in Java) TIDE 2.0 beta – analyze insertion sort in an online Javascript IDE Insertion sort illustrated explanation. Java and C++ implementations. | Insertion_sort |@lemmatized insertion:45 sort:77 simple:4 sorting:4 algorithm:16 comparison:9 sorted:9 array:25 list:9 build:1 one:4 entry:3 time:16 much:1 less:1 efficient:5 large:3 advanced:1 quicksort:2 heapsort:1 merge:1 however:3 provide:2 several:1 advantage:3 implementation:4 quite:1 small:6 data:4 set:3 adaptive:1 e:10 already:5 substantially:1 complexity:1 n:12 number:2 inversion:1 practice:2 quadratic:3 selection:11 bubble:1 average:5 running:8 linear:2 best:4 case:12 stable:1 change:1 relative:1 order:4 element:30 equal:1 key:2 place:3 require:9 constant:2 amount:1 additional:1 memory:3 space:2 online:2 receive:1 human:2 deck:1 card:1 example:2 use:5 method:1 similar:2 abstract:1 term:1 every:2 iteration:5 remove:3 input:11 insert:11 correct:5 position:4 remain:4 choice:2 arbitrary:1 make:6 almost:1 typically:3 result:3 k:9 property:1 first:5 thus:2 extend:1 prior:1 x:4 becomes:1 great:1 copy:1 right:3 compare:3 common:1 variant:4 operate:2 describe:1 follow:2 suppose:1 exist:1 function:2 call:3 design:1 value:7 sequence:4 beginning:2 begin:5 end:4 shift:5 suitable:1 find:2 new:3 side:3 effect:1 overwrite:2 store:4 immediately:1 perform:3 leave:2 invoke:1 encounter:1 ordered:1 index:1 examine:1 single:1 pseudocode:1 complete:1 zero:1 base:1 loop:3 include:1 top:1 bottom:1 limit:1 pascal:1 insertionsort:2 length:1 j:8 bad:3 subsection:2 reverse:2 inner:2 scan:4 entire:1 next:1 also:1 impractical:1 fast:1 contain:1 ten:1 algorithms:4 pass:1 whatever:1 unsorted:1 many:3 need:2 determine:2 location:2 must:1 absolute:1 calculation:1 show:3 usually:1 half:2 assume:1 rank:1 random:2 previous:1 always:1 unplaced:1 performs:3 give:1 nearly:1 writes:1 section:3 portion:1 general:1 write:3 whereas:1 reason:1 may:2 preferable:1 significantly:2 expensive:1 read:1 eeprom:1 flash:1 divide:2 conquer:1 mergesort:1 recursively:1 sublists:2 useful:1 optimization:1 outperform:1 complex:1 size:1 varies:1 environment:1 eight:1 twenty:1 l:2 shell:3 substantial:1 improvement:1 modified:1 version:1 separate:1 distance:1 decrease:1 pas:1 distinctly:1 improve:1 run:2 practical:1 work:1 two:1 cost:2 exceed:1 swap:3 string:1 reference:2 interaction:1 choose:1 pair:1 displayed:1 binary:6 yield:1 good:1 performance:1 employ:1 search:4 therefore:2 θ:2 log:3 whole:1 still:1 series:2 longer:1 ω:2 avoid:1 could:1 linked:2 allow:2 delete:1 link:2 impossible:1 support:1 access:1 sophisticated:1 structure:1 g:1 heap:2 tree:2 reduce:1 essence:1 bender:1 farach:1 colton:1 mosteiro:1 publish:1 library:1 gap:3 unused:1 spread:1 throughout:1 benefit:1 reach:1 author:1 high:1 probability:1 donald:1 knuth:1 art:1 computer:1 programming:1 volume:1 searching:1 second:2 edition:2 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:2 pp:2 thomas:1 h:1 cormen:1 charles:1 leiserson:1 ronald:1 rivest:1 clifford:1 stein:1 introduction:1 mit:1 press:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 external:1 animate:1 graphical:2 demonstration:3 discussion:1 category:1 literateprograms:1 various:1 program:1 language:1 color:1 java:4 applet:2 experimentation:1 initial:1 statistic:1 animated:1 step:2 demo:1 visual:1 implement:1 tide:1 beta:1 analyze:1 javascript:1 ide:1 illustrate:1 explanation:1 c:1 |@bigram insertion_sort:37 sorted_array:2 algorithm_quicksort:2 merge_sort:1 linked_list:2 insert_delete:1 donald_knuth:1 volume_sorting:1 sorting_searching:1 addison_wesley:1 h_cormen:1 cormen_charles:1 e_leiserson:1 leiserson_ronald:1 l_rivest:1 rivest_clifford:1 clifford_stein:1 introduction_algorithms:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 java_applet:2 |
4,081 | Dryope | In Greek mythology, Dryope Drys, "oak"; dryope "woodpecker" (Graves) (Δρυόπη) was the daughter of Dryops ("oak-man") or of Eurytus (and hence half-sister to Iole). She was sometimes thought of as one of the Pleiades. There are two stories of her metamorphosis into a black poplar. According to the first, Apollo seduced her by a trick. Dryope had been accustomed to play with the hamadryads of the woods on Mount Oeta. Apollo chased her, and in order to win her favours turned himself into a tortoise, of which the girls made a pet. When Dryope had the tortoise on her lap, he turned into a snake. She tried to flee, but he coiled around her legs and held her arms tightly against her sides as he raped her. The nymphs then abandoned her, and she eventually gave birth to her son Amphissus. She married Andraemon. Amphissus eventually built a temple to his father Apollo in the city of Oeta, which he founded. Here the nymphs came to converse with Dryope, who had become a priestess of the temple, but one day Apollo again returned in the form of a serpent and coiled around her while she stood by a spring. This time Dryope was turned into a poplar tree. Antoninus Liberalis, 32; Stephanus Byzantinus, "Dryope"; In Ovid's version of the story, Ovid, Metamorphoses, IX.325ff. Dryope was wandering by a lake, suckling her baby Amphissus, when she saw the bright red flowers of the lotus tree, formerly the nymph Lotis who, when fleeing from Priapus, had been changed into a tree. Dryope wanted to give the blossoms to her baby to play with, but when she picked one the tree started to tremble and bleed. She tried to run away, but the blood of the tree had touched her skin and she found her feet rooted to the spot. She slowly began to turn into a black poplar, the bark spreading up her legs from the earth, but just before the woody stiffness finally reached her throat and as her arms began sprouting twigs her husband Andraemon heard her cries and came to her. She had just enough time to warn her husband to take care of their child and make sure that he did not pick flowers. In some accounts, Hermes fathered Pan upon Dryope, daughter of Dryops, for whom he was tending kine, but in point of fact Pan was far older than Hermes (Graves 1960). In Virgil's Aeneid, Aeneas kills mercilessly a man called Tarquitus who is said to be the son of Faunus the god of the woods and Dryope. In Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica it is recalled that Heracles had mercilessly slain the excellent Theiodamas in the "land of the Dryopes", upon whom Heracles made war "because they gave no heed to justice in their lives". Richard Hunter, translator, Jason and the Golden Fleece (Oxford:Clarendon Press), 1993, p 31f. Notes References Graves, Robert, (1955) 1960. The Greek Myths. 21.j; 26.5; 56.2; 150.b, 1. Kerenyi, Karl. 1951. The Gods of the Greeks 141, 173. See also Dryopia | Dryope |@lemmatized greek:3 mythology:1 dryope:11 dry:1 oak:2 woodpecker:1 graf:3 δρυόπη:1 daughter:2 dryops:2 man:2 eurytus:1 hence:1 half:1 sister:1 iole:1 sometimes:1 think:1 one:3 pleiades:1 two:1 story:2 metamorphosis:2 black:2 poplar:3 accord:1 first:1 apollo:4 seduce:1 trick:1 accustom:1 play:2 hamadryad:1 wood:2 mount:1 oeta:2 chase:1 order:1 win:1 favour:1 turn:4 tortoise:2 girl:1 make:3 pet:1 lap:1 snake:1 try:2 flee:2 coil:2 around:2 leg:2 hold:1 arm:2 tightly:1 side:1 rap:1 nymphs:1 abandon:1 eventually:2 give:3 birth:1 son:2 amphissus:3 marry:1 andraemon:2 build:1 temple:2 father:2 city:1 found:1 nymph:2 come:2 converse:1 become:1 priestess:1 day:1 return:1 form:1 serpent:1 stand:1 spring:1 time:2 tree:5 antoninus:1 liberalis:1 stephanus:1 byzantinus:1 ovid:2 version:1 ix:1 wander:1 lake:1 suckle:1 baby:2 saw:1 bright:1 red:1 flower:2 lotus:1 formerly:1 loti:1 priapus:1 change:1 want:1 blossom:1 pick:2 start:1 tremble:1 bleed:1 run:1 away:1 blood:1 touch:1 skin:1 find:1 foot:1 root:1 spot:1 slowly:1 begin:2 bark:1 spread:1 earth:1 woody:1 stiffness:1 finally:1 reach:1 throat:1 sprout:1 twigs:1 husband:2 hear:1 cry:1 enough:1 warn:1 take:1 care:1 child:1 sure:1 account:1 hermes:2 pan:2 upon:2 tend:1 kine:1 point:1 fact:1 far:1 old:1 virgil:1 aeneid:1 aeneas:1 kill:1 mercilessly:2 call:1 tarquitus:1 say:1 faunus:1 god:2 apollonius:1 rhodes:1 argonautica:1 recall:1 heracles:2 slay:1 excellent:1 theiodamas:1 land:1 dryopes:1 war:1 heed:1 justice:1 life:1 richard:1 hunter:1 translator:1 jason:1 golden:1 fleece:1 oxford:1 clarendon:1 press:1 p:1 note:1 reference:1 robert:1 myth:1 j:1 b:1 kerenyi:1 karl:1 see:1 also:1 dryopia:1 |@bigram ovid_metamorphosis:1 virgil_aeneid:1 apollonius_rhodes:1 rhodes_argonautica:1 golden_fleece:1 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 kerenyi_karl:1 |
4,082 | Björn_Borg | (; born 6 June 1956) is a former World No. 1 tennis player from Sweden who is widely regarded by observers and tennis players as one of the greatest players in the sport's history. "Navratilova joins Laver and Borg on the shortlist (as voted for by . . . Navratilova)", Alastair Campbell, bon jovuThe Times, 3 July 2004 <ref>"When he was king", Tim Pears, The Observer, 5 June 2005</ref> He won 11 Grand Slam singles titles between 1974 and 1981 (five at Wimbledon and six at the French Open). Biography Borg was born in Södertälje, Sweden. Just before his 18th birthday Borg was the youngest winner of the Italian Championship, and two weeks later he was the youngest winner of the French Championship (a record lowered by countryman Mats Wilander, 17, in 1982, and subsequently by Michael Chang, a younger 17 in 1989). Eighteen months later, at 19, he climaxed a Davis Cup record winning streak of 19 singles by lifting Sweden to the 1975 Cup for the first time in a 3-2 final-round victory over Czechoslovakia. His Cup singles streak of 33 was intact at his retirement, still a record. During a nine-year career, Borg won 41 percent of the Grand Slam singles tournaments he entered (11 of 27) and 89.8 percent of the Grand Slam singles matches he played. Both are male open era records. In addition, Borg's six French Open singles titles is the all-time record for a male player. "Compare and contrast", Jon Wertheim, Sports Illustrated, 23 September 2002 "Borg still making the shots", Douglas Robson, USA Today, 25 May 2006 Borg is the only player in the open era to have won both Wimbledon and the French Open in the same year more than once; he did so in three consecutive years. (In 2008 Rafael Nadal became the first player since Borg to win both titles in the same year.) Career overview As a child growing up in Södertälje, a town near Stockholm, Borg became fascinated with a golden tennis racquet that his father won at a table-tennis tournament. His father gave him the racquet, beginning one of the brightest careers in tennis history. Borg joined the professional circuit at age 14. In 1972, at the age of 15, Borg became one of the youngest players ever to represent his country in the Davis Cup and won his debut singles rubber in five sets against seasoned professional Onny Parun of New Zealand. Later that year, he won the Wimbledon junior singles title, recovering from a 5-2 deficit in the final set to overcome Britain’s Buster Mottram. In 1973, Borg reached the Wimbledon main draw quarterfinals in his first attempt. In 1974, Borg won his first top-level singles title at the Italian Open. Two weeks later, he won his first Grand Slam title at the French Open, defeating Manuel Orantes in the final 2–6, 6–7, 6–0, 6–1, 6–1. Barely 18 at the time, Borg was the youngest-ever male French Open champion (the record has since been lowered by Mats Wilander in 1982 and Michael Chang in 1989). In early 1975, Borg defeated Rod Laver, then 36 years old, in a semifinal of the World Championship Tennis (WCT) finals in Dallas, Texas 7–6, 3–6, 5–7, 7–5, 6–2. Borg then lost to Arthur Ashe in the final. A player of great strength and endurance, he had a distinctive and unorthodox style and appearance, bowlegged, yet very fast. His muscular shoulders and well-developed torso gave him the strength to lash at the ball with heavy topspin on both forehand and backhand. He used a two-handed backhand, adapted from the slap shot in hockey, a game he favored as a child. By the time he was 13 he was beating the best of Sweden's under-18 players and Davis Cup captain Lennart Bergelin cautioned against anyone trying to change Borg's rough-looking, jerky strokes. They were effective. Through 1977 he had never lost to a player younger than himself. Borg retained his French Open title in 1975, beating Guillermo Vilas in the final in straight sets. Borg then reached the Wimbledon quarterfinals, where he lost to eventual champion Ashe 2-6, 6-4, 8-6, 6-1. Borg did not lose another match at Wimbledon until 1981. Borg won two singles and one doubles rubber in the 1975 Davis Cup final as Sweden beat Czechoslovakia 3–2. With these singles wins, Borg had won 19 consecutive Davis Cup singles rubbers since 1973. That was already a record at the time. But Borg never lost another Davis Cup singles rubber, and, by the end of his career, he had stretched that winning streak to 33--a Davis Cup record that still stands. The only player who defeated Björn Borg at the French Open is the Italian Adriano Panatta. This happened twice – in the fourth round in 1973 (7–6, 2–6, 7–5, 7–6), and in quarter-finals in 1976 (6–3, 6–3, 2–6, 7–6). Borg won Wimbledon in 1976 without losing a set, defeating the much-favoured Ilie Năstase in the final. Borg became the youngest male Wimbledon champion of the modern era at 20 years and 1 month (a record subsequently broken by Boris Becker, who won Wimbledon aged 17 in 1985). Some speculate that Borg's surviving the first week of Wimbledon, when the courts were slick and fast, was the key to his success. This might have been due to the unusually hot conditions that summer. The courts played slower in the second week, which suited Borg's baseline game. Borg also reached the final of the 1976 US Open, which was then being played on clay courts. Borg lost in four sets to World No. 1 Jimmy Connors. Borg missed the French Open in 1977 because he was under contract with WTT, but he repeated his Wimbledon triumph, although this time he was pushed much harder. He defeated his good friend Vitas Gerulaitis in a semifinal 6–4, 3–6, 6–3, 3–6, 8–6. "Classic Matches: Borg v Gerulaitis", BBC Sport, 31 May 2004 In the final, Borg was pushed to five sets for the third time in the tournament, this time by Connors. The win propelled Borg to the #1 ranking on the computer, albeit for just one week in August. Borg was at the height of his career from 1978 through 1980, winning the French Open and Wimbledon all three years. In 1978, Borg won straight-set finals over Vilas at the French Open and Connors at Wimbledon but was defeated in straight sets by Connors in the final of the US Open, now held on hard courts in Flushing Meadow, New York. That autumn, Borg faced John McEnroe for the first time in a semifinal of the Stockholm Open and was upset 6–3, 6–4. Borg did not drop a set at the 1978 French Open, a feat only he, Năstase, and Rafael Nadal have accomplished during the open era. Borg lost to McEnroe again in four sets in the final of the 1979 WCT Finals but was now overtaking Connors for the top ranking. Borg established himself firmly in the top spot with his fourth French Open singles title and fourth straight Wimbledon singles title, defeating Connors in a straight-set semifinal at the latter tournament. At the French Open, Borg defeated big-serving Victor Pecci in a four-set final, and at Wimbledon, Borg took five sets to overcome an even bigger server, Roscoe Tanner. Borg was upset by Tanner at the US Open, in a four-set quarterfinal played under the lights. At the season-ending Masters tournament in January 1980, Borg survived a close semifinal against McEnroe 6–7, 6-3, 7–6(8). He then beat Gerulaitis in straight sets, winning his first Masters and first title in New York. In June, he overcame Gerulaitis, again in straight sets, for his fifth French Open title. Again, he did not drop a set. Borg won his fifth consecutive Wimbledon singles title in 1980 by defeating McEnroe in a five-set match, often cited as the best Wimbledon final ever played. Having lost the opening set 6-1 to an all-out McEnroe assault, Borg took the next two 7-5, 6-3 and had two Championship points at 5-4 in the fourth. But McEnroe averted disaster and went on to level the match in Wimbledon’s most memorable 34-point tiebreaker, which he won 18-16. In the fourth-set tiebreak, McEnroe saved five match points and Borg six set points before McEnroe won the set. Borg then won 19 straight points on serve in the deciding set and prevailed after 3 hours, 53 minutes. Borg himself commented years later that this was the first time that he was afraid that he would lose, as well as feeling that it was the beginning of the end of his dominance. Borg married Romanian tennis pro Mariana Simionescu in Bucharest on 24 July 1980. Borg lost to McEnroe in another five-set final, this one lasting 4 hours and 13 minutes, at the 1980 US Open. He then defeated McEnroe in the final of the Stockholm Open, 6–3, 6–4, and faced him one more time that year, in the round-robin portion of the year-end Masters, played in January 1981. With 19,103 fans in attendance, Borg won a deciding third-set tie-break for the second year in a row, 6–4, 6–7, 7–6(3). Borg then defeated Ivan Lendl for his second Masters title, 6–4, 6–2, 6–2. Borg won his last Grand Slam title at the French Open in 1981, defeating Lendl in a five-set final. Borg's six French Open singles titles remains a record for a male player. In reaching the Wimbledon final in 1981, Borg stretched his winning streak at the All England Club to a record 41 matches. In a semifinal, Borg was down to Connors by two sets to none before coming back to win the match 0–6, 4–6, 6–3, 6–0, 6–4. However, Borg's streak was brought to an end by McEnroe, who defeated him in four sets, 4-6, 7-6, 7-6, 6-4. Borg went on to lose to McEnroe at the 1981 US Open, 4-6, 6-2, 6-4, 6-3, and the defeat effectively ended Borg's career. After that defeat, Borg walked off court and out of the stadium before the ceremonies and press conference had begun. It would turn out to be the Swede's last Grand Slam final. By the end of 1981, Borg was on the verge of break-down and was mentally drained and physically exhausted. The U.S. Open was his particular jinx. He failed to win in 10 tries, losing four finals, 1976 and 1978 to Jimmy Connors, and 1980 and 1981 to McEnroe. Thrice (1978, 1979 and 1980) he was halfway to a Grand Slam after victories at the French and Wimbledon only to falter at the three-quarter pole at Flushing Meadow, lefty Tanner his conqueror in 1979. He had appeared only once at the Australian Open, earlier in his career, at which he lost in one of the earlier rounds. In 1982, Borg played only one tournament, losing to Yannick Noah in the quarterfinals of Monte Carlo. Nevertheless, Borg's announcement in January 1983 that he was retiring from the game at the age of 26 was a shock to the tennis world. McEnroe tried unsuccessfully to persuade Borg to continue. Retirement When he retired, he had a choice of homes, a penthouse in Monte Carlo, not far from his successful pro shop, and a small island off the Swedish coast. Borg's marriage to the tennis player Mariana Simionescu ended in divorce, he fathered a child by another woman, and he was briefly married to the Italian singer Loredana Bertè. There were rumors of a drug overdose and an attempted suicide, both of which Borg denies, and he narrowly averted personal bankruptcy. He later bounced back as the owner of the Björn Borg fashion label, whose most noted advertising campaigns asked Swedes (from the pages of a leading national newspaper) to "Fuck for the Future." His label has since become second only to Calvin Klein in his home country. bjornborg.com homepage Attempted comeback In the early-1990s, Borg attempted a comeback on the men's professional tennis tour. This time around, however, he was completely unsuccessful. Playing with his old wooden rackets in an attempt to regain his once-indomitable touch, he lost his first comeback match in 1991 to Jordi Arrese at the Monte Carlo Open. A series of first-round losses to low-ranked players followed over the next two years. The closest he came to winning a match was in 1993 in Moscow, when he pushed Alexander Volkov to three sets and lost a final set tiebreaker 9–7. After that match, he retired from the tour for good and confined himself to playing on the senior tour, with modern rackets, where he renewed his old rivalries with John McEnroe (he was 7-7 lifetime against McEnroe), Jimmy Connors (against whom he had been 10-7) and Guillermo Vilas. Memorabilia preserved In March 2006, Bonhams Auction House in London announced that it would auction Borg's Wimbledon trophies and two of his winning rackets on 21 June 2006. Borg to auction off Wimbledon trophies Several players then called Borg wondering what he was thinking, but only McEnroe was able to make Borg reconsider. According to Dagens Nyheter – who had talked to Borg – McEnroe called from New York and asked, "What's up? Have you gone mad?" The conversation apparently persuaded Borg to buy out the trophies from Bonhams at an undisclosed amount. Distinctions and honors Borg was ranked by the ATP rankings World No. 1 in six different stretches between 1977 and 1981, totaling 109 weeks. During his career, he won a total of 77 (61 listed on the Association of Tennis Professionals website) top-level singles and four doubles titles. Borg won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality Award in 1979. Borg was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987. On 10 December 2006, the British Broadcasting Corporation gave Borg a Lifetime Achievement Award, which was presented by Boris Becker. Sports Personality: The winners Place among the all-time greats With 11 titles, Borg ranks fourth in the list of male tennis players who have won the most Grand Slam singles titles behind Pete Sampras (14), Roger Federer (13), and Roy Emerson (12). The French Open-Wimbledon double he achieved three times consecutively was called by Wimbledon officials "the most difficult double in tennis" "Wimbledon Legends: Bjorn Borg", Wimbledon official website and "a feat considered impossible among today's players." "Strokes for Agassi: He belongs among the 10 greatest ever", Bruce Jenkins, San Francisco Chronicle, 13 September 2006 Only Rafael Nadal has managed to achieve this double since, and Nadal and Andre Agassi are the only male players since Borg to have won the French Open and Wimbledon men's singles titles over their career. In his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer, the long-time tennis promoter and great player himself, had already included Borg in his list of the 21 greatest players of all time. And in 2003, Bud Collins chose Borg as one of his top-five male players of all time. "Top Stars of Tennis", Bud Collins, MSNBC In 2008, ESPN.com asked tennis analysts, writers, and former players to build the perfect open era player. Borg was the only player mentioned in five categories -- defense, footwork, intangibles, and mental toughness -- with his mental game and footwork singled-out as the best in open era history. GO.com homepage Borg never won the US Open or the Australian Open, losing in the final at the US Open four times. The only players to defeat Borg in a Grand Slam final were fellow World No. 1 tennis players John McEnroe and Jimmy Connors. Borg chose to play the Australian Open only once, in 1974, where he lost in the third round. Chris Evert, a contemporary of Borg, has pointed out that skipping Grand Slam tournaments was not unusual then, before counting Grand Slam titles became the norm. Chris Evert owned Roland Garros like no other (During Borg's career, the Australian Open was the last Grand Slam tournament of each year.) Playing style Borg had one of the most distinctive playing styles in the open era. Borg played from the baseline, with powerful ground-strokes and a double-handed backhand (very rare at the time and unorthodox). He hit the ball hard and high from the back of the court and brought it down with considerable topspin, which made his ground strokes very consistent. There had been other players, particularly Rod Laver and Arthur Ashe, who played with topspin on both the forehand and backhand. Yet Laver and Ashe used topspin only as a way to mix up their shots and pass their opponents at the net easily. Borg was one of the first top players to use heavy topspin on his shots consistently. Complementing his consistent ground-strokes was his fitness. Both of these factors allowed Borg to be dominant at the French Open. One of the factors that made Borg unique was his dominance on the grass courts of Wimbledon, where baseliners since World War II did not usually succeed. Some experts attributed his dominance on this surface to his consistency, an underrated serve, and his adaptation to grass courts. Against the best players, he almost always served-and-volleyed on his first serves (but he naturally played from the baseline after his second serves). Another trait usually associated with Borg is his grace under pressure. His calm court demeanor earned him the nickname of the "Ice Man" or "Ice-Borg." Borg's physical conditioning was legendary as he could outlast most of his opponents under the most grueling conditions. Contrary to popular belief, however, this wasn't due to his exceptionally low resting heart rate, often reported to be near 35 beats per minute. In his intro to Borg's autobiography My Life and Game, Eugene Scott relates that this myth arose from a medical exam the 18-year-old Borg once took for military service, where his pulse was recorded as 38. Scott goes on to reveal Borg's true pulse rate as "about 50 when he wakes up and around 60 in the afternoon." Borg, Björn, and Eugene L. Scott. My Life and Game (1980), page 11 Borg is credited with helping to develop the style of play that has come to dominate the game today. Grand Slam singles finals (16) Wins (11) YearChampionshipSurfaceOpponent in FinalScore in Final 1974 French Open Clay Manuel Orantes 2–6, 6–7(1), 6–0, 6–1, 6–1 1975 French Open <small>(2) Clay Guillermo Vilas 6–2, 6–3, 6–4 1976 Wimbledon Grass Ilie Năstase 6–4, 6–2, 9–7 1977 Wimbledon <small>(2) Grass Jimmy Connors 3–6, 6–2, 6–1, 5–7, 6–4 1978 French Open <small>(3) Clay Guillermo Vilas 6–1, 6–1, 6–3 1978 Wimbledon <small>(3) Grass Jimmy Connors 6–2, 6–2, 6–3 1979 French Open <small>(4) Clay Víctor Pecci 6–3, 6–1, 6–7(6), 6–4 1979 Wimbledon <small>(4) Grass Roscoe Tanner6–7(4), 6–1, 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 1980 French Open <small>(5) Clay Vitas Gerulaitis 6–4, 6–1, 6–2 1980 Wimbledon <small>(5) Grass John McEnroe 1–6, 7–5, 6–3, 6–7(16), 8–6 1981 French Open <small>(6) Clay Ivan Lendl 6–1, 4–6, 6–2, 3–6, 6–1 Runner-ups (5) YearChampionshipSurfaceOpponent in FinalScore in Final 1976 US Open Clay Jimmy Connors 6–4, 3–6, 7–6(9), 6–4 1978 US Open Hard Jimmy Connors 6–4, 6–2, 6–2 1980 US Open Hard John McEnroe 7–6(4), 6–1, 6–7(5), 5–7, 6–4 1981 Wimbledon Grass John McEnroe 4–6, 7–6(1), 7–6(4), 6–4 1981 US Open Hard John McEnroe 4–6, 6–2, 6–4, 6–3 Career singles titles (100) Singles titles listed on the ATP website (63) No.DateTournamentSurfaceOpponent in the finalScore 1. 1974 London WCT, England Hard (i) Mark Cox 6–7, 7–6, 6–4 2. 1974 Sao Paulo WCT, Brazil (1) Hard (i) Arthur Ashe 6–2, 3–6, 6–3 3. 1974 Rome, Italy (1) Clay Ilie Năstase 6–3, 6–4, 6–2 4. 1974 French Open, Paris (1) Clay Manuel Orantes 2–6, 6–7, 6–0, 6–1, 6–1 5. 1974 Båstad, Sweden (1) Clay Adriano Panatta 6–3, 6–0, 6–7, 6–3 6. 1974 Boston, U.S. (1) Clay Tom Okker 7–6, 6–1, 6–1 7. 1974 Adelaide, Australia Grass Onny Parun 6–4, 6–4, 3–6, 6–2 8. 1975 Richmond WCT, U.S. (1) Carpet Arthur Ashe 4–6, 6–4, 6–4 9. 1975 Bologna WCT, Italy Carpet Arthur Ashe 7–6, 4–6, 7–6 10. 1975 French Open, Paris (2) Clay Guillermo Vilas 6–2, 6–3, 6–4 11. 1975 Boston, U.S. (2) Clay Guillermo Vilas 6–3, 6–4, 6–2 12. 1975 Barcelona, Spain (1) Clay Adriano Panatta 1–6, 7–6, 6–3, 6–2 13. 1976 Toronto Indoor WCT, Canada Carpet Vitas Gerulaitis 2–6, 6–3, 6–1 14. 1976 Sao Paulo WCT, Brazil (2) Carpet Vitas Gerulaitis 7–6, 6–2 15. 1976 Dallas WCT, U.S. – WCT Finals Carpet Guillermo Vilas 1–6, 6–1, 7–5, 6–1 16. 1976 Düsseldorf, West Germany Clay Manuel Orantes 6–2, 6–2, 6–0 17. 1976 Wimbledon, London (1) Grass Ilie Năstase 6–4, 6–2, 9–7 18. 1976 Boston, U.S. (3) Clay Harold Solomon 6–7, 6–4, 6–1, 6–2 19. 1977 Memphis, U.S. Carpet Brian Gottfried 6–4, 6–3, 4–6, 7–5 20. 1977 Nice, France (1) Clay Guillermo Vilas 6–4, 1–6, 6–2, 6–0 21. 1977 Monte Carlo WCT, Monaco (1) Clay Corrado Barazzutti 6–3, 7–5, 6–0 22. 1977 Denver, U.S. Carpet Brian Gottfried 7–5, 6–2 23. 1977 Wimbledon, London (2) Grass Jimmy Connors 3–6, 6–2, 6–1, 5–7, 6–4 24. 1977 Boca Raton – Pepsi Grand Slam (1) Clay Jimmy Connors 6–4, 5–7, 6–3 25. 1977 Madrid, Spain Clay Jaime Fillol Sr. 6–3, 6–0, 6–7, 7–6 26. 1977 Barcelona, Spain (2) Clay Manuel Orantes 6–2, 7–5, 6–2 27. 1977 Basel, Switzerland Carpet John Lloyd 6–4, 6–2, 6–3 28. 1977 Cologne, West Germany Carpet Wojtek Fibak 2–6, 7–5, 6–3 29. 1977 Wembley, England Hard John Lloyd 6–4, 6–4, 6–3 30. 1978 Birmingham WCT, U.S. Carpet Dick Stockton 7–6, 7–5 31. 1978 Boca Raton – Pepsi Grand Slam (2) Clay Jimmy Connors 7–6, 3–6, 6–1 32. 1978 Las Vegas, U.S. – WCT Tournament of Champions Hard Vitas Gerulaitis 6–5, 5–6, 6–4, 6–5 33. 1978 Milan WCT, Italy Carpet Vitas Gerulaitis 6–3, 6–3 34. 1978 Rome, Italy (2) Clay Adriano Panatta 1–6, 6–3, 6–1, 4–6, 6–3 35. 1978 French Open, Paris (3) Clay Guillermo Vilas 6–1, 6–1, 6–3 36. 1978 Wimbledon, London (3) Grass Jimmy Connors 6–2, 6–2, 6–3 37. 1978 Båstad, Sweden (2) Clay Corrado Barazzutti 6–1, 6–2 38. 1978 Tokyo Indoor, Japan (1) Carpet Brian Teacher 6–3, 6–4 39. 1979 Richmond WCT, U.S. (2) Carpet Guillermo Vilas 6–3, 6–1 40. 1979 Boca Raton – Pepsi Grand Slam (3) Hard Jimmy Connors 6–2, 6–3 41. 1979 Rotterdam, Netherlands Carpet John McEnroe 6–4, 6–2 42. 1979 Monte Carlo, Monaco (2) Clay Vitas Gerulaitis 6–2, 6–1, 6–3 43. 1979 Las Vegas, U.S. (1) Hard Jimmy Connors 6–3, 6–2 44. 1979 French Open, Paris (4) Clay Víctor Pecci 6–3, 6–1, 6–7, 6–4 45. 1979 Wimbledon, London (4) Grass Roscoe Tanner 6–7, 6–1, 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 46. 1979 Båstad, Sweden (3) Clay Balázs Taróczy 6–1, 7–5 47. 1979 Toronto, Canada Hard John McEnroe 6–3, 6–3 48. 1979 Palermo, Italy Clay Corrado Barazzutti 6–4, 6–0, 6–4 49. 1979 Tokyo Indoor, Japan (2) Carpet Jimmy Connors 6–2, 6–2 50. 1979 Montreal, Canada – WCT Challenge Cup Carpet Jimmy Connors 6–4, 6–2, 2–6, 6–4 51. 1979 Masters, New York (1) Carpet Vitas Gerulaitis 6–2, 6–2 52. 1980 Salisbury, Maryland, U.S. – WCT Invitational Carpet Vijay Amritraj 7–5, 6–1, 6–3 53. 1980 Boca Raton, U.S. – Pepsi Grand Slam (4) Hard Vitas Gerulaitis 6–1, 5–7, 6–1 54. 1980 Nice, France (2) Clay Manuel Orantes 6–2, 6–0, 6–1 55. 1980 Monte Carlo, Monaco (3) Clay Guillermo Vilas 6–1, 6–0, 6–2 56. 1980 Las Vegas, U.S. (2) Hard Harold Solomon 6–3, 6–1 57. 1980 French Open, Paris (5) Clay Vitas Gerulaitis 6–4, 6–1, 6–2 58. 1980 Wimbledon, London (5) Grass John McEnroe 1–6, 7–5, 6–3, 6–7, 8–6 59. 1980 Stockholm, Sweden Carpet John McEnroe 6–3, 6–4 60. 1980 Masters, New York (2) Carpet Ivan Lendl 6–4, 6–2, 6–2 61. 1981 French Open, Paris (6) Clay Ivan Lendl 6–1, 4–6, 6–2, 3–6, 6–1 62. 1981 Stuttgart Outdoor, West Germany Clay Ivan Lendl 1–6, 7–6, 6–2, 6–4 63. 1981 Geneva, Switzerland Clay Tomáš Šmíd 6–4, 6–3 Singles titles not listed by the ATP, including invitational tournament titles (37) Non-ATP, exhibition, invitational, or special events singles titles – draw at least eight players (10) Year Date Tournament Surface Final Opponent Final Result Winners Prize 1973 30 January – 4 February Helsinki Scandinavian Indoor Open Tennis Championships Carpet Jacek Niedzwiedzki 6–3, 6–7, 6–3, 6–4 1974 6 January–12 Auckland New Zealand Open Grass Onny Parun 6–4, 6–3, 6–1 1974 28 January – 3 February Oslo Scandinavian Indoor Open Tennis Championships Carpet Raymond Moore 2–6, 6–4, 6–4, 6–1 1978 October 19-21 Hamburg Rothenbaum TennisClub Carpet Wojtek Fibak 6-1, 6-1 1979 September 28–30 Marbella European Championships of Tennis Clay Adriano Panatta 6–2, 6–2, 7–5 1979 November 26-29 Milan – Brooklyn Masters Tennis Tournament Carpet John McEnroe 1–6, 6–1, 6–4 1979 29 Nov-Dec 2 Frankfurt Cup Invitational Tennis Tournament Round Robin Carpet Jimmy Connors 6–3, 4–6, 6–3, 6–4 1981 October 12-15 Edmonton – Challenge Cup Carpet José Luis Clerc 6–2, 6–2, 7–5 1984 May 10-13 Osaka Gunze World Tennis Carpet Bill Scanlon 6-2, 6-2 1985 May 12-15 Kobe & Tokyo Gunze World Tennis Carpet Anders Järryd 6-4, 6-3 Non-ATP, exhibition, invitational, or special events singles titles – draw fewer than eight players (27) Year Date Tournament Surface Final Opponent Final Result Winners Prize 1976 Sept 14-16 Guadalajara, Jalisco Round Robin Clay Ilie Năstase 6–3, 6–3 1976 Sept 17-19 Mexico Marlboro Round Robin Clay Ilie Nastase 7–6, 0–6, 6–1 1976 11 Oct–15 Hilton Head World Invitational Tennis Classic Clay Arthur Ashe 6–1, 6–2 1976 Nov 3-5 Chicago Stadium Invitational Carpet John Newcombe Unknown score 1976 Nov 6-7 Detroit Michigan Pro Tennis 4-men invitational Carpet Rod Laver 6–3, 6–1 1976 24 Nov–28 Copenhagen Pondus Cup Invitational Round Robin Carpet Wojtek Fibak 7–5, 3–6, 7–6, 7–5 1977 27 Sep–30 Hilton Head World Invitational Tennis Classic Clay Roscoe Tanner 6–4, 7–5 1978 7 Mar–9 Goteborg Scandinavian Cup Carpet Vitas Gerulaitis 6–4, 1–6, 6–3 1978 18 Apr–20 Copenhagen Pondus Cup Invitational Carpet Vitas Gerulaitis 2–6, 6–4, 6–4 1978 21 Apr–23 Tokyo Suntory Cup Carpet Jimmy Connors 6–1, 6–2 1978 Aug 14-15 Menton French Riviera Invitational Clay Guillermo Vilas 6–4, 6–3 1978 Aug 16-17 Frejus Arena Trophy Clay Guillermo Vilas 7–6, 7–5 1978 16 Oct–18 Essen Gruga Hall International Clay Vitas Gerulaitis 6–3, 7–6 1978 28 Oct–29 Manila Smash tennis Clay Vitas Gerulaitis 6–2, 7–6 1978 Nov 23-24 Antwerp European Tennis Championships Carpet Tom Okker 6–4, 6–3 1979 March 6-7 Vienna Velo Cup Tennis – 4-men invitational Carpet John McEnroe 3–6, 6–1, 6–4 1979 Sept 26–27 Essen Gruga Hall International – 4-men invitational Clay Ilie Năstase 6–1, 6–4 1979 2 Oct–7 Holland - 5 city (Final at Rotterdam) Roxy Tennis Round Robin – 5-men Carpet Eddie Dibbs 6–3, 6–0 1979 Nov 24-25 Brussels Belgian Cup – 4-men invitational Carpet Adriano Panatta 6–1, 7–6 1979 Dec 14-16 Cairo Egypt's First International Round Robin Clay Ismail El Shafei 6–2, 6–3 1980 8 March–9 Stuttgart Cup-80 – 4-men invitational Carpet Adriano Panatta 6–2, 5–7, 6–1 1980 Oct 25-26 Berlin West Berlin Cup – 4-men invitational Carpet Vitas Gerulaitis 7–6, 6–3 1981 26 Jan–27 Bologna – 4-men invitational Carpet José Luis Clerc 6–7, 7–5, 7–6 1982 March 24-25 Cascais – $68,000 4-men invitational Carpet Vitas Gerulaitis 7–6, 6–1 1982 April 16-18 Tokyo – $250,000 Suntory Cup Carpet Guillermo Vilas 6–1, 6–2 $110,000 1982 30 April-1 May Cairo Four Master Championships 4-men invitational Clay Peter McNamara 6–1 6–4 1982 5 Nov–7 Sydney – Akai Gold Challenge Round Robin Carpet Ivan Lendl 6–1, 6–4, 6–2 Career singles runner-ups listed by the atp web site (24) No.DateTournamentSurfaceOpponent in the finalScore 1. 1973 Monte Carlo, Monaco Clay Ilie Năstase 6–4, 6–1, 6–2 2. 1973 San Francisco, U.S. Carpet Roy Emerson 5–7, 6–1, 6–4 3. 1973 Stockholm, U.S. Hard (i) Tom Gorman 6–3, 4–6, 7–6 4. 1973 Buenos Aires, Argentina Clay Guillermo Vilas 3–6. 6–7, 6–4, 6–6, RET. 5. 1974 Barcelona WCT, Spain Carpet Arthur Ashe 6–4, 3–6, 6–3 6. 1974 Houston, U.S. Clay Rod Laver 7–6, 6–2 7. 1974 Dallas WCT, U.S. – WCT Finals Carpet John Newcombe 4–6, 6–3, 6–3, 6–2 8. 1974 Indianapolis, U.S. Clay Jimmy Connors 5–7, 6–3, 6–4 9. 1974 Madrid, Spain Clay Ilie Năstase 6–4, 5–7, 6–2, 4–6, 6–4 10. 1975 Barcelona WCT, Spain Carpet Arthur Ashe 7–6, 6–3 11. 1975 Munich WCT, West Germany Carpet Arthur Ashe 6–4, 7–6 12. 1975 Dallas WCT, U.S. – WCT Finals Carpet Arthur Ashe 3–6, 6–4, 6–4, 6–0 13. 1975 Masters, Stockholm Hard (i) Ilie Năstase 6–2, 6–2, 6–1 14. 1976 Philadelphia WCT, U.S. Carpet Jimmy Connors 7–6, 6–4, 6–0 15. 1976 US Open, New York Clay Jimmy Connors 6–4, 3–6, 7–6, 6–4 16. 1977 Masters, New York Carpet Jimmy Connors 6–4, 1–6, 6–4 17. 1978 US Open, New York Hard Jimmy Connors 6–4, 6–4, 6–2 18. 1979 Dallas WCT, U.S. – WCT Finals Carpet John McEnroe 7–5, 4–6, 6–2, 7–6 19. 1980 Toronto, Canada Hard Ivan Lendl 4–6, 5–4, RET. 20. 1980 US Open, New York Hard John McEnroe 7–6, 6–1, 6–7, 5–7, 6–4 21. 1980 Basel, Switzerland Hard (i) Ivan Lendl 6–3, 6–2, 5–7, 0–6, 6–4 22. 1981 Milan, Italy Carpet John McEnroe 7–6, 6–4 23. 1981 Wimbledon, London Grass John McEnroe 4–6, 7–6, 7–6, 6–4 24. 1981 US Open, New York Hard John McEnroe 4–6, 6–2, 6–4, 6–3 Grand Slam and Masters singles tournament timeline {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- bgcolor="#efefef" ! Tournament !! 1973 !! 1974 !! 1975 !! 1976 !! 1977 !! 1978 !! 1979 !! 1980 !! 1981 !! width="65"|Career WR !! width="65"|Career Win–Loss |- | align="left" colspan="12" | Grand Slam Tournaments |- | align="left" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |Australian Open | A | style="background:#afeeee;"|3R | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |0 / 1 | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |1–1 |- | align="left" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |French Open | style="background:#afeeee;"|4R | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#ffebcd;"|QF | A | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |6 / 8 | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |49–2 |- | align="left" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |Wimbledon | style="background:#ffebcd;"|QF | style="background:#afeeee;"|3R | style="background:#ffebcd;"|QF | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#D8BFD8;"|F | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |5 / 9 | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |51–4 |- | align="left" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |US Open | style="background:#afeeee;"|4R | style="background:#afeeee;"|2R | style="background:yellow;"|SF | style="background:#D8BFD8;"|F | style="background:#afeeee;"|4R | style="background:#D8BFD8;"|F | style="background:#ffebcd;"|QF | style="background:#D8BFD8;"|F | style="background:#D8BFD8;"|F | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |0 / 9 | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |40–9 |- style="background-color:#EFEFEF;" | align="left" | Win Ratio | 0 / 3 | 1 / 4 | 1 / 3 | 1 / 3 | 1 / 2 | 2 / 3 | 2 / 3 | 2 / 3 | 1 / 3 | 11 / 27 | N/A |- style="background-color:#EFEFEF;" | align="left" | Win–Loss | 10–3 | 11–3 | 16–2 | 17–2 | 10–1 | 20–1 | 18–1 | 20–1 | 19–2 | N/A | 141–16 |- | align="left" colspan="12" | Year-End Championship |- | align="left" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |The Masters1 | A | style="background:#afeeee;"|RR | style="background:#D8BFD8;"|F | A | style="background:#D8BFD8;"|F | A | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | style="background:#00ff00;"|W | A | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2 / 5 | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |15–7 |- | align="left" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |Year End Rankings |align="center" |18 |align="center" style="background:#EEE8AA;"|3 |align="center" style="background:#EEE8AA;"|3 |align=center style="background:#D8BFD8;"|2 |align="center" style="background:#EEE8AA;"|3 |align=center style="background:#D8BFD8;"|2 |align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"|1 |align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"|1 |align="center" style="background:#EEE8AA;"|'''4 | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |N/A | style="background:#EFEFEF;" |N/A |} A = did not participate in the tournament WR = the ratio of the number of won tournaments to the number of tournaments played 1The Masters tournaments for calendar years 1977, 1979, and 1980 were actually held in January of the following year. In this table, however, the year of the tournament is listed for the preceding year. Records Grand Slam singles tournament records Borg's 11 Grand Slam singles titles out of 27 tournaments played gives him a male open era record 41 winning percentage. Margaret Court holds the record among all players. In Grand Slam singles tournaments, Borg's match record is 141–16, giving him an 89.8 winning percentage, better than any male player ever. The only other male players in the open era with winning percentages over 80 are Roger Federer (86.6), Rafael Nadal (86.1), Pete Sampras (84.2), Jimmy Connors (82.6), Ivan Lendl (81.9), John McEnroe (81.5), and Andre Agassi (80.9). These percentages are available on the respective players pages Borg played in 16 Grand Slam singles finals, which as of the end of his career was a male record for the open era and second in tennis history only to Rod Laver's 17 finals. This record was broken by Lendl who played in 19 singles finals. Borg (1974–1981) and Sampras (1993–2000) won at least one Grand Slam singles title for eight consecutive years, an all-time men's record. Borg and Sampras have defeated 9 players in Grand Slam singles finals. Federer has defeated 10 players in Grand Slam Finals more than any other player in the history. Borg (1976-80 Wimbledon and the 1978-81 French Open) is the first player to have won two different Grand Slam singles tournaments at least four consecutive times. Federer has won two different Grand Slams five consecutive times (2003-07 Wimbledon and 2004-08 US Open). Borg (6 French Open and 5 Wimbledon), Sampras (7 Wimbledon and 5 US Open) and Federer (5 US Opens and 5 Wimbledons) are the only male players to have won two different Grand Slam singles tournaments at least five times. Borg's five Wimbledon singles titles is the second highest number of titles won by a male player since the abolition of the Challenge Round in 1922. Sampras won seven singles titles, the last of which was in 2000. Borg and Federer have won more consecutive Wimbledon singles titles (5) than any other male player under modern rules. Only William Renshaw won more consecutive singles titles (1881–86), but in Renshaw's day, the defending champion played only one match, the Challenge Round. Borg (1976–1981) and Federer (2003–2008) played in six consecutive Wimbledon singles finals, still a record since the abolition of the Challenge Round in 1922. Borg's 41 consecutive singles match winning streak at Wimbledon remains an all-time record. Federer has come closest to matching this, with a winning streak of 40 consecutive Wimbledon singles matches from 2003 through 2008, before being beaten by Nadal. Borg won more French Open singles titles (6) than any other male player in tennis history. Borg and Nadal won four consecutive French Open singles titles, the only players to do so, during the open era. Borg retired while on a winning streak of record 28 consecutive matches at the French Open. Later, Nadal broke this record by winning 29 consecutive matches in the first round of 2009 French Open. Borg (1978–81), Lendl (1984–87), and Nadal (2005–08) played in four consecutive French Open singles finals, a men's open era record. Borg won the French Open singles title without losing a set in 1978 and 1980, and he was the last man to do so until Nadal in 2008. Borg is the only male player to have appeared in the singles finals of both the French Open and Wimbledon in the same year for four consecutive years (1978–81). Borg is the only male player to have won both the French Open and Wimbledon singles titles in the same year for three consecutive years (1978–80). During the open era, Borg was the first male to play in six finals of two different Grand Slam tournaments (6 at the French Open and 6 at Wimbledon). Later, Sampras appeared in at least seven finals of two different Grand Slam tournaments (7 at Wimbledon and 8 at the US Open). During the open era, Borg is the first player to win the same Grand Slam 6 times (6 French Open). Later, Sampras broke this record by winning 7 Wimbledon titles. During the open era, Borg is the first player to win at least 28 consecutive matches at two different Grand Slams (1978-1981 French Open and 1976-81 Wimbledon). Later, Federer broke this record by winning at least 34 consecutive matches at Wimbledon (2003-2008) and US Open (2004-2008). During the open era, Borg is the first player to appear in 3 Grand Slam Finals in a calendar year three different times in his career (1978, 1980-81). Later Federer broke this record by appearing in 3 Grand Slam Finals in a calendar year four different times in his career (2004, 2006-08). Borg (6) and Nadal (4) never lost a French Open Final. During the open era, Borg is the first player to win 11 Grand Slams just by succeeding at two Grand Slams (French Open and Wimbledon). His record was first broken by Sampras who won record 14 Grand Slams and then by Federer who won 13 Grand Slams. Youngest to win In 1972, Borg became the youngest-ever winner of a Davis Cup match, at age 15. In 1974, one month before his 18th birthday, Borg became the youngest winner of the Italian Open. That record has since been broken. In 1974, only days after his 18th birthday, Borg became the youngest man ever to hold a Grand Slam singles title. He retained that distinction until another Swede, Mats Wilander, won the French Open in 1982. At 18, he was the youngest winner of the U.S. Professional Championships until Aaron Krickstein won in 1983. In 1976 at age 20, Borg became the youngest winner of Wimbledon during the open era until Boris Becker became the youngest Grand Slam winner of all time by taking Wimbledon at age 17 years, 7 months in 1985 (a record broken by Michael Chang who won the French Open when he was 17 years, 3 months in 1989). Borg won his 11th Grand Slam singles title in 1981 aged 25 years and 1 day, the youngest male to reach that number of titles. By comparison, Roger Federer won his 11th aged 25 years and 324 days; Pete Sampras won his 11th at almost age 27, Roy Emerson at age 30, and Rod Laver at age 31. Match competition Borg compiled a 576–124 win–loss singles record, winning 82.29 percent of the matches he played. By comparison, Jimmy Connors won 81.96 percent, Ivan Lendl won 81.75 percent, John McEnroe won 81.66 percent, Pete Sampras won 77.44 percent, and Andre Agassi won 76.05 percent. Borg won 19 consecutive points on serve in the fifth set on two occasions: his 1980 Wimbledon final against McEnroe and his 1980 US Open quarterfinal against Roscoe Tanner. Career winning streaks On the list of open era winning streaks, Borg is third (43 consecutive tour matches in 1978). The only other men with winning streaks of at least 40 matches are Guillermo Vilas (46), Ivan Lendl (44), John McEnroe (42), and Roger Federer (41). Borg previously held the record for most consecutive wins on grass, with 41 victories (all at Wimbledon). Federer, who customarily plays a lesser grass tournament in Halle in addition to Wimbledon, had his 65 match winning streak on grass (from 2003 through the 2008 Wimbledon final) ended by Rafael Nadal. Borg holds the Davis Cup record singles winning streak at 33 consecutive victories. Borg holds third place for most consecutive wins on clay, with 46 victories in 1977–79. Only Rafael Nadal with 81 and Vilas with 53 have won more consecutive clay court matches. Miscellaneous Borg's 63 career titles as listed on the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) website places him fifth on that website's open era list behind Jimmy Connors (107), Ivan Lendl (94), John McEnroe (77), and Pete Sampras (64). Borg retired with US$ 3.6 million in career prize money, a record at the time. According to the match scores listed on the ATP website, Borg bageled his opponents (sets won 6–0) 116 times from 1973 through 1981, compared to Federer's 55 bagels from 1999 through the 2007 French Open. Borg was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987 at only 30 years of age. In 1999, Borg was elected the best Swedish sportsman ever by a jury in his home country. His tennis rivals included a pair of top ranked players: Mats Wilander (who won seven Grand Slam titles) and Stefan Edberg (who won six). In their only career match-up, Borg defeated Wilander in September 1981 in the first round of a tournament in Geneva, Switzerland. The score was 6–1, 6–1. Geneva was the last tournament that Borg won during his career. Borg won the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal in 1974 and 1978, the latter being shared with alpine skier Ingemar Stenmark. They are the only men to have won this honor twice. Borg was well-known for his sleek signature line of Fila 'BJ' sportswear, particularly the pin-striped tennis shirts that became a trademark. Although Borg wore Fila throughout the world (except Sweden where he was contracted to Jockey,) he used different rackets and shoes for different parts of the world. In North America, he wore Tretorn sneakers and used a Bancroft Borg frame, while everywhere else it was the Donnay Allwood or Borg Pro, with Diadora Borg Elite shoes. There was superstition in what he wore, too. Borg always reverted to the traditional green pinstripe shirt for Wimbledon, no matter what other design he may have worn at the time. See also List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions List of Swedish sportspeople Tennis male players statistics World number one male tennis player rankings Borg-McEnroe rivalry References Bibliography John Barrett, editor, World of Tennis Yearbooks, London, from 1976 through 1983. Michel Sutter, Vainqueurs Winners 1946–2003, Paris, 2003. Sutter has attempted to list all tournaments meeting his criteria for selection beginning with 1946 and ending in the fall of 1991 . For each tournament, he has indicated the city, the date of the final, the winner, the runner-up, and the score of the final. A tournament is included in his list if: (1) the draw for the tournament included at least eight players (with a few exceptions, such as the Pepsi Grand Slam tournaments in the second half of the 1970s); and (2) the level of the tournaments was at least equal to the present day challenger tournaments. Sutter's book is probably the most exhaustive source of tennis tournament information since World War II, even though some professional tournaments held before the start of the open era are missing. Later, Sutter issued a second edition of his book, with only the players, their wins, and years for the 1946 through 27 April 2003, period. VideoThe Wimbledon Collection – Legends of Wimbledon – Bjorn Borg Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 21 September 2004, Run Time: 52 minutes, ASIN: B0002HODA4.The Wimbledon Collection – The Classic Match – Borg vs. McEnroe 1981 Final Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 21 September 2004, Run Time: 210 minutes, ASIN: B0002HODAE.The Wimbledon Collection – The Classic Match – Borg vs. McEnroe 1980 Final Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 21 September 2004, Run Time: 240 minutes; ASIN: B0002HOEK8.Wimbledon Classic Match: Gerulaitis vs Borg'' Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 31 October 2006, Run Time: 180 minutes, ASIN: B000ICLR8O. External links Official Wimbledon website profile BBC profile | Björn_Borg |@lemmatized bear:2 june:4 former:2 world:16 tennis:42 player:55 sweden:10 widely:1 regard:1 observer:2 one:17 great:6 sport:5 history:6 navratilova:2 join:2 laver:8 borg:157 shortlist:1 vote:1 alastair:1 campbell:1 bon:1 jovuthe:1 time:36 july:2 ref:2 king:1 tim:1 pear:1 win:95 grand:45 slam:45 single:56 title:43 five:13 wimbledon:72 six:8 french:53 open:106 biography:1 södertälje:2 birthday:3 young:15 winner:12 italian:5 championship:11 two:17 week:6 later:12 record:36 lower:2 countryman:1 mat:4 wilander:5 subsequently:2 michael:3 chang:3 eighteen:1 month:5 climax:1 davis:9 cup:23 streak:13 lift:1 first:24 final:57 round:18 victory:5 czechoslovakia:2 intact:1 retirement:2 still:4 nine:1 year:37 career:22 percent:8 tournament:41 enter:1 match:32 play:25 male:22 era:21 addition:2 compare:2 contrast:1 jon:1 wertheim:1 illustrate:1 september:7 make:4 shot:4 douglas:1 robson:1 usa:1 today:3 may:6 three:7 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4,083 | Ghent | Ghent (; Dutch Gent ; French Gand ; and formerly Gaunt in English) is a city and a municipality located in the Flemish region, Belgium. It is the capital and biggest city of the East Flanders province. The city started as a settlement at the confluence of the Rivers Scheldt and Lys and became in the Middle Ages one of the largest and richest cities of northern Europe. Today it is a busy city with a port and a university. The municipality comprises the city of Ghent proper and the towns of Afsnee, Desteldonk, Drongen, Gentbrugge, Ledeberg, Mariakerke, Mendonk, Oostakker, Sint-Amandsberg, Sint-Denijs-Westrem, Sint-Kruis-Winkel, Wondelgem and Zwijnaarde. With 237,250 inhabitants in the beginning of 2008, Statistics Belgium; Population de droit par commune au 1 janvier 2008 (excel-file) Population of all municipalities in Belgium, as of 1 January 2008. Retrieved on 2008-10-19. Ghent is Belgium's second largest municipality by number of inhabitants. The metropolitan area, including the outer commuter zone, covers an area of 1,205 km² and has a total population of 594,582 as of 1 January 2008, which ranks it as the fourth most populous in Belgium. Statistics Belgium; De Belgische Stadsgewesten 2001 (pdf-file) Definitions of metropolitan areas in Belgium. The metropolitan area of Ghent is divided into three levels. First, the central agglomeration (agglomeratie) with 278,457 inhabitants (2008-01-01). Adding the closest surroundings (banlieue) gives a total of 423,320. And, including the outer commuter zone (forensenwoonzone) the population is 594,582. Retrieved on 2008-10-19. The current mayor of Ghent, Daniël Termont, leads a coalition of the SP.a/VlaamsProgressieven and VLD. Every year a ten day long street festival is held called the "Ghent Fests" (Gentse Feesten in Dutch). About 2 million visitors attend the festival every year. Geography Municipalities After the 1965 and 1977 fusions the city is made up of: Municipalities I Ghent II Mariakerke III Drongen IV Wondelgem V Sint-Amandsberg VI Oostakker VII Desteldonk VIII Mendonk IX Sint-Kruis-Winkel X Ledeberg XI Gentbrugge XII Afsnee XIII Sint-Denijs-Westrem XIV Zwijnaarde Neighbouring municipalities Wachtebeke Lochristi Destelbergen Melle Merelbeke De Pinte Sint-Martens-Latem Deinze Nevele Lovendegem Evergem Zelzate History Ghent in 1775 Archeological evidence shows human presence in the region of the confluence of Scheldt and Lys going back as far as the Stone Age and the Iron Age . Most historians believe that the older name for Ghent, 'Ganda' is derived from the Celtic word 'ganda' which means confluence. There are no written records of the Roman period but archeological research confirms that the region of Ghent was further inhabited. When the Franks invaded the Roman territories (from the end of the 4th century and well into the 5th century) they brought their language with them and Celtic and Latin were replaced by Old Dutch. Around 650 Saint Amand founded two abbeys in Ghent: the Saint Peter Abbey and the St. Bavo's Abbey . The city grew from several nuclei, the abbeys and a commercial centre. Around 800 Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne, appointed Einhard, the biographer of Charlemagne, as abbot of both abbeys. In 851 and 879 the city was however attacked and plundered twice by the Vikings. The city recovered and flourished from the 11th century on. Until the 13th century Ghent was the biggest city in Europe after Paris; it was bigger than London, Cologne or Moscow. Within the city walls lived up to 65,000 people. Today, the belfry and the towers of the Saint Bavo Cathedral and Saint Nicholas' Church are just a few examples of the skyline of the period. Belfry of Ghent. Behind it the Saint Nicholas church is visible. The rivers flowed in an area where a lot of land was periodically inundated. These richly grassed 'meersen' ("water-meadows": a word related to the English 'marsh', but not meaning exactly the same, a 'meers' is not permanently under water) were ideally suited for herding sheep, the wool of which was used for making cloth. In fact, Ghent was during the Middle Ages the most important city for cloth. The wool-industry, originally established at Bruges, created the first European industrialized zone in Ghent in the High Middle Ages. The mercantile zone was so highly-developed that wool had to be imported from England. This was one of the reasons for Flanders' good relationship with England. Ghent was the birthplace of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. The trade with England suffered significantly during the Hundred Years' War. The city recovered in the 14th century, while Flanders was united with neighbouring provinces under the Dukes of Burgundy. High taxes led to a rebellion and eventually the Battle of Gavere, in which Ghent suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of Philip the Good. Around this time the center of gravity in the Low Countries started to shift from Flanders (Bruges–Ghent) to Brabant (Antwerp–Brussels), although Ghent would continue to play an important role. Vernacular structures along a waterway In 1500 Juana of Castile gave birth to Charles V, who became Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. Although native to Ghent, he punished the city after the 1539 Revolt of Ghent and obliged the city's nobles to walk in front of the emperor barefoot with a noose (Dutch: strop) around the neck; since this incident, the people of Ghent have been called "Stroppendragers" (noose bearers). The Saint Bavo Abbey was abolished, torn down, and replaced with a fortress for Spanish troops. Only a small portion of the abbey was spared demolition. The late 16th and the 17th century brought devastation because of the Religious wars. At one time Ghent was a Calvinistic republic, but eventually the Spanish army reinstated Catholicism. The wars ended the role of Ghent as a center of international importance. In the 18th and 19th century Ghent the textile industry flourished again in Ghent. Lieven Bauwens introduced the first mechanical weaving machine on the European continent, of which he smuggled the plans out of England, in 1800. Ghent was also the site of the signing of the Treaty of Ghent which formally ended the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States of America. After the battle of Waterloo Ghent became a part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands for 15 years. In this period Ghent got its own university (1817) and a new connection to the sea (1824–27). After the Belgian Revolution, with the loss of port access to the sea for more than a decade, the local economy collapsed and the first Belgian trade-union originated in Ghent. In 1913 there was a World exhibition in Ghent. As a preparation for these festivities the Sint-Pieters railway station, was completed in 1912. Tourism The Graslei is one of the most scenic places in Ghent's old city centre. The bridge to the right is the Sint-Michielsbrug, the building on the corner is the former postal office and in the distance to the right the three towers of Ghent can be seen. Architecture |Historical centre of Ghent – from left to right: Old post office, Saint-Nicholas Church, Belfry, and Saint Bavo Cathedral. |- |Ghent at Night |} Much of the city's medieval architecture remains intact and is remarkably well preserved and restored. Its centre is the largest carfree area in Belgium. Interesting highlights are the Saint Bavo Cathedral with the Ghent Altarpiece, the belfry, the Gravensteen castle, and the splendid architecture along the old Graslei harbour. Ghent established a nice blend between comfort of living and history – it is not a city-museum. The city of Ghent houses also three béguinages and numerous churches, among which the Saint-Jacobs church and the Saint-Nicolas Church are the most beautiful examples. In the nineteenth century Ghent's most famous architect, Louis Roelandt, built the university hall Aula, the opera and the main courthouse. Highlights of modern architecture are the university buildings (the Boekentoren or Book Tower) by Henry Van de Velde. There are also a few theatres from diverse periods. The beguinages, as well as the belfry and adjacent cloth hall, were recognized by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites in 1998 and 1999. Museums Important museums in Ghent are the Museum voor Schone Kunsten (Museum of Fine Arts), with paintings by Hieronymus Bosch, Jean Fouquet, and many Flemish masters; the SMAK or Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst (City Museum for Contemporary Art), with works of the 20th century, including Joseph Beuys and Panamarenko; and the Designmuseum. The Huis van Alijn (House of the Alijn family) was originally a beguinage and is now a museum for folk art. This museum often presents theatre and puppet shows for children. There is also a museum presenting the industrial strength of Ghent, the Museum voor Industriële Archeologie en Textiel or MIAT. Here you can find recreations of workshops and stores from the 1800s and can see the spinning and weaving machines that remain in this building what was once a weaving mill. Restaurants and culinary traditions As most Belgian cities, Ghent offers a rich variety of local and foreign cuisine. Especially the quarter called "Patershol" has a concentration of restaurants. The "Sleepstraat" a little bit further north houses a number of Turkish restaurants and food bars. In Ghent and other regions of East-Flanders, bakeries sell a donut-shaped bun called a "mastel". "Mastellen" are also called "Saint Hubert bread", because on the Saint's feast day, which is 3 November, the bakers bring their batches to the early Mass to be blessed. Traditionally, it is thought that blessed mastellen immunize against rabies. The city promotes a meat-free day on Thursdays called Veggiedag "Belgian city plans 'veggie' days" on BBCNews (2009-05-12). , with vegetarian-only food in public canteens for civil servants and elected concillors, soon in all schools, and promotion of vegetarian eating options in town (through the distribution of "veggie street maps"). This campaign is linked to the recognition of the detrimental environmental effects of meat production, which the United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organization has established to represent nearly one-fifth of global greenhouse gas emissions. Festivities The city is host to some big cultural events such as the Gentse Feesten, I Love Techno, "10 Days Off" musical festival, Flanders International Film Festival Ghent (with the World Soundtrack Awards) and the Internationaal Festival van Vlaanderen Gent. Also, every five years, a huge botanical exhibition (Gentse Floraliën) takes place in Ghent, attracting numerous visitors to the city. The International Festival van Vlaanderen, which had its 50th celebration in 2008, is one of the fastest growing music festivals in Europe. Yearly it opens with the OdeGand City festivities that takes place on the second Saturday of September. Some 50 concerts takes place in diverse locations throughout the medieval inner-city and some 250 internationally acclaimed virtuosi performs. The new Festival MADE dimension of the festival introduces in its program both the innovative experiments of local artists and feature the original version of Mozart's Kleine Nacht Music. Since 2002, the festivities have begun with the now renowned OdeGand street festival that takes Classical Music to every corner of the city, even onto the boats on the canals where spectators get 'live' classical rides. The whole of the medieval town of Ghent turns classical in September, and although the Festival has something of the exuberance of a 'Night of the Proms', it is many notches higher on the scales of inventiveness and quality. Other major Flemish cities follow suit with similar events during Festival Time, all of which form part of the International Festival (Antwerp with Laus Polyphoniae; Bruges with MAfestival; Brussels with KlaraFestival; Limburg with Basilica, Mechelen and Brabant with Novecento and Transit). Economy The port of Ghent, in the north of the city, is the third largest port of Belgium. It is accessed by the Ghent-Terneuzen Canal, which ends near the Dutch port of Terneuzen on the Western Scheldt. The port houses, among others, big companies like Sidmar, Volvo Cars, Volvo Trucks, Volvo Parts, Honda, and Stora Enso. The Ghent University and a number of research oriented companies are situated in the central and southern part of the city. As the biggest city of East-Flanders, Ghent has many hospitals, schools and shopping streets. Tourism is increasingly becoming a major employer in the local area. Transport As one of the largest cities in Belgium, Ghent has a highly developed transportation system. By car the city is accessible by two of the country's main roads: The E40: connects Ghent with Bruges and Ostend to the west, and with Brussels, Leuven and Liège to the east. The E17: connects Ghent with Sint-Niklaas and Antwerp to the north, and with Kortrijk and Lille to the south. In addition Ghent also has two ringways: The R4: connects the outskirts of Ghent with each other and the surrounding villages, and also leads to the E40 and E17 roads. The R40: connects the different downtown quarters with each other, and provides access to the main avenues. The municipality of Ghent comprises five train stations: Gent-Sint-Pieters Station: an international train station with connections to Bruges, Brussels, Antwerp, Kortrijk, other Belgian towns and Lille. The station also offers a direct connection to Brussels Airport. Gent-Dampoort Station: an intercity train station with connections to Sint-Niklaas, Antwerp, Kortrijk and Eeklo. Gentbrugge Station: a regional train station in between the two main train stations, Sint-Pieters and Dampoort. Wondelgem Station: a regional train station with connections to Eeklo once an hour. Drongen Station: a regional train station in the village of Drongen with only a limited number of trains a day. Ghent has an extensive web of public transport lines, operated by De Lijn: Tram (see pictures below): Line 1: Flanders Expo - Sint-Pieters-Station - Korenmarkt (city centre) - Evergem Line 4: Sint-Pieters-Station - Muide - Korenmarkt (city centre) - Zuid - Moscou Line 21: Zwijnaardebrug - UZ - Sint-Pieters-Station - Zonnestraat (city centre) - Zuid - Melle Leeuw Line 22: Zwijnaardebrug - UZ - Sint-Pieters-Station - Zonnestraat (city centre) - Zuid - Gentbrugge Trolleybus (unique in Belgium; see picture below): Line 3: Mariakerke - Korenmarkt (city centre) - Dampoort-Station - Gentbrugge City buses (see picture below): Line 5: Van Beverenplein - Sint-Jacobs (city centre) - Zuid - UZ - Zwijnaarde Line 6: Watersportbaan - Zuid - Dampoort-Station - Wondelgem - Mariakerke Line 8: Zuid - University - Sint-Pieters-Station - Blaarmeersen Line 9: Mariakerke - Malem - Sint-Pieters-Station - Gentbrugge Line 17/18: Drongen - Korenmarkt (city centre) - Dampoort-Station - Oostakker Line 38/39: Blaarmeersen - Korenmarkt (city centre) - Dampoort-Station - Sint-Amandsberg At Sint-Pieters-Station and the Zuid bus station there are several regional buses as well. When arriving in Ghent, it is best to leave cars in Park & Ride zones next to the road. The actual city centre is a car free area, and parking is difficult and expensive in the city. On weekends, night buses provide free transportation through the night. Famous people Emperor Charles V was born in Ghent in 1500Statue of Jacob van Artevelde on the Friday market in Ghent See also: Notable people from Ghent Saint Bavo, patron saint of Ghent (589-654) Henry of Ghent, scholastic philosopher (c. 1217-1293) Jacob van Artevelde, statesman and political leader (c. 1290-1345) John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (1340-1399) Jan van Eyck, painter (c. 1385-1441) Hugo van der Goes, painter (c. 1440-1482) Jacob Obrecht, composer of the Renaissance (c. 1457-1505) Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Karel V, Charles Quint (1500-1558) Cornelius Canis, composer of the Renaissance, music director for the chapel of Charles V in the 1540s-1550s Daniel Heinsius, scholar of the Dutch Renaissance (1580-1655) Caspar de Crayer, painter (1582-1669) Frans de Potter, writer, (1834-1904) Jan Frans Willems, writer (1793-1846) Joseph Guislain, physician (1797-1860) Hippolyte Metdepenningen, lawyer and politician (1799-1881) Louis XVIII of France was exiled in Ghent during the Hundred Days in 1815 Charles John Seghers, Jesuit clergyman and missionary (1839-1886) Victor Horta, Art Nouveau architect (1861-1947) Maurice Maeterlinck, poet, playwright, essayist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature (1862-1949) Frans Rens, writer, (1805-1874) Leo Baekeland, chemist and inventor of Bakelite (1863-1944) Pierre Louÿs, poet and romantic writer (1870-1925) Marthe Boël, feminist (1877-1956) Corneille Jean François Heymans, physiologist and recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1892-1968) Suzanne Lilar, essayist, novelist, and playwright (1901-1992) Jean Daskalidès, gynecologist and founder of Leonidas chocolates (1922-1992) Jacques Rogge, International Olympic Committee President (1942-) Gabriel Rios, musician Kristof Ongenaet, basketball player Jan Robbe, electronic musician and founder of Entity Sister Cities Ghent has seven sister cities: Gent van A tot Z: Zustersteden. : Nottingham : Tallinn : Wiesbaden : Kanazawa, Ishikawa Prefecture : Melle : Mohammedia : Saint-Raphaël : Atlanta, Georgia See also List of Mayors of Ghent Ghent University K.A.A. Gent References External links Official website - Information only available in Dutch Official Tourist website - Information available in Dutch, English, French, German and Spanish be-x-old:Гент | Ghent |@lemmatized ghent:68 dutch:8 gent:6 french:2 gand:1 formerly:1 gaunt:3 english:3 city:48 municipality:8 locate:1 flemish:3 region:4 belgium:11 capital:1 big:6 east:4 flanders:8 province:2 start:2 settlement:1 confluence:3 river:2 scheldt:3 lys:2 become:4 middle:3 age:5 one:7 large:5 rich:2 northern:1 europe:3 today:2 busy:1 port:6 university:7 comprise:1 proper:1 town:4 afsnee:2 desteldonk:2 drongen:5 gentbrugge:6 ledeberg:2 mariakerke:5 mendonk:2 oostakker:3 sint:22 amandsberg:3 denijs:2 westrem:2 kruis:2 winkel:2 wondelgem:4 zwijnaarde:3 inhabitant:3 beginning:1 statistic:2 population:4 de:7 droit:1 par:1 commune:1 au:1 janvier:1 excel:1 file:2 january:2 retrieve:2 second:2 number:4 metropolitan:3 area:8 include:3 outer:2 commuter:2 zone:5 cover:1 total:2 rank:1 fourth:1 populous:1 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4,084 | Militia | The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000 to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with multiple distinct but related meanings. Legal and historical meanings of militia include: Defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. p.7, Sumner The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, available to be called to arms. A subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation. A private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries such as; the Army Reserve, National Guard, or State Defense Forces. The national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia, and other former CIS countries. See: Militia (Police). In France the equivilent term "Milice" has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, often politicized. Etymology The term "militia" is derived from Latin roots: miles /miːles/ : soldier Charlton T. Lewis, An Elementary Latin Dictionary, p. 505, Oxford U. Pr., 1997. -itia /iːtia/ : a state, activity, quality or condition of being Noun Formation, Class Notes in Latin, U. Idaho John B. Van Sickle, Roots of Style: A Guide to Latin & Greek Elements in English, Brooklyn College, City University of New York. militia /mil:iːtia/: Military service In English, the word "militia" dates to 1590 when it was recorded in a book by Sir John Smythe, Certain Discourses Military with the meanings: a military force; a body of soldiers and military affairs; a body of military discipline Oxford English Dictionary, March 2002. Oxford University Press. Australia Militia was an alternative name for the Citizens' Military Forces (CMF), the reserve units of the Australian Army between 1901 and 1980. After Australian federation, the six former colonial militias were merged to form the CMF. Initially the CMF infantry forces formed the vast bulk of the Australian Army, along with standing artillery and engineer units. The Defence Act of 1903 granted the Australian federal government the powers to conscript men of military age for home defense. However, these powers were unpopular and were used only for short periods at a time. The government was also forbidden by law from deploying the CMF outside Australian territories, or using it in strikes and other industrial disputes. As a result of the ban on foreign service, during World War I and World War II, all-volunteer Australian Imperial Forces were formed for overseas deployment. CMF units were sometimes scorned by AIF soldiers as "chocolate soldiers" or "chockos", because "they would melt under the pressure" of military operations; or in an alternative version of the story of the origin of this term, as a result of the 1930s' uniforms of Militia soldiers, these soldiers were considered by AIF volunteers and some civilians as soldiers only for show like the soldiers in garish 19th century dress uniforms shown on tins of chocolates that were commonly sold in Australia in the 1930s, hence the name "chocolate-tin soldiers" for Militia members. Nevertheless, some Militia units distinguished themselves in action against the Empire of Japan during the Pacific War, and suffered extremely high casualties. In mid-1942 Militia units fought in two significant battles, both in New Guinea, which was then an Australian territory. The exploits of the young and poorly trained soldiers of the 39th (Militia) Battalion during the rearguard action on the Kokoda Track remain celebrated to this day, as is the contribution of the 7th Brigade at the Battle of Milne Bay. Later in the war, the law was changed to allow the transfer of Militia units to the 2nd AIF; of these Militia units, 65% of their personnel had volunteered for overseas service. Another change allowed Militia units to serve anywhere south of the Equator in South-East Asia. Consequently they also saw action against Japanese forces in the Dutch East Indies. In addition to the CMF, the Volunteer Defence Corps, a volunteer force modeled on the British Home Guard, was formed in 1940 and had a strength of almost 100,000 men across Australia at its peak. After the war, CMF units continued to form the bulk of the peacetime army, although the creation of standing infantry units — such as the Royal Australian Regiment — from 1947, meant that the regular army grew in importance. By 1980, when the name of the CMF was changed to the Army Reserve, the regular army was the more significant force. Australian Reservists have a comparatively high level of commitment, with an expected obligation of up to 4 nights and 2 full days per month, alongside a two week annual course. Since September 2006, Reservist Salaries have been streamlined with those of regular forces as a reflection of overall higher standard of training. This initiative shows that since 1975, there are now many positions for which there is little training gap at all between Reservists and Permanent Force members Austria After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to find many of them occupied by Slovene and Yugoslav forces, especially in the southern province of Carinthia. During the First Republic, increasing radicalization of politics led to certain militias associating with certain political parties. The Heimwehr (German: Home Defense) became affiliated with the Christian Social Party and the Republikanischer Schutzbund (German: Republican Defense League) became affiliated with the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria. Violence increasingly escalated, breaking out during the July Revolt of 1927 and finally the Austrian Civil War, when the Schutzbund was defeated by the Heimwehr, police, and federal army. See also: Republikanischer Schutzbund, Heimwehr Canada In Canada the title "Militia" historically referred to the land component of the armed forces, both regular (full time) and reserve. In 1940 the Permanent Active Militia and Non-Permanent Active Militia were renamed to become the Canadian Army. The term Militia continued from then to the present day to refer to the part-time army reserve component of the Canadian Forces. Currently, Militia troops usually train one night a week and every other weekend of the month, except in the summer. Summertime training may consist of courses, individual call-outs, or concentrations (unit and formation training of one to two weeks' duration). In addition, Primary Reserve members are increasingly used for voluntary service as augmentation to the regular force overseas—usually NATO or United Nations missions. Most Canadian cities have one or more militia units. Since the mid 1990s, the term Militia has all but vanished in favor of the term Primary Reserve. 'Milita' is generally associated with an earlier, less professional organization than the reserve forces that directly support the regular forces in Canada today. China China's Militia, a mass force engaged in daily production under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CCP), forms part of the Chinese armed forces. Under the command of the military organs, it undertakes such jobs as war preparation services, security and defense operation tasks and assistance in maintaining social order and public security. The Components of the Armed Forces, PRC's official website Cuba Cuba has three militia organizations: The Territorial Militia Troops Milicias de Tropas Territoriales of about one million people (half women), the Youth Labor Army Ejército Juvenil del Trabajo devoted to agricultural production, and a naval militia. Denmark The Danish Militia played a major role in repelling the Swedish attackers during The assault on Copenhagen in 1659. Modern times See Danish Home Guard France The first notable militia in French history was the resistance of the Gauls to invasion by the Romans until they were defeated by Julius Caesar. Gilliver, Kate. Caesar's Gallic Wars 58-50 BC. London: Osprey Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-415-96858-5 The next notable militia was organized and led by Joan of Arc until her capture and execution in 1431. It settled the succession to the French crown and laid the basis for the formation of the modern nation of France. Joan of Arc: Her Story, by Régine Pernoud (Author), Marie-Véronique Clin (Author), Jeremy duQuesnay Adams (Translator), Palgrave Macmillan (1999), ISBN 0312227302 During the French Revolution the term levée en masse came into use. During the Franco-Prussian War the Parisian National Guard, which was founded during the time of the American Revolution, engaged the Prussian Army and later rebelled against the Versailles Army under Marshal McMahon. During World War II under German occupation, militia usually called the French Resistance emerged to conduct a guerrilla war of attrition against German forces and prepare the way for the D-Day Allied Invasion of France. David Schoenbrun, Soldiers of the Night, The Story of the French Resistance, New American Library, 1980. ISBN 0-452-00612-0 The Resistance militia were opposed by the collaborationist French Militia - the paramilitary police force of the German puppet state of Vichy. Germany The earliest reports of Germanic militia was the system of hundreds which was described in 98 A.D. by Tacitus as the centeni. It was similar to the Anglo-Saxon fyrd. The name Freikorps (German for "Free Corps") was originally applied to voluntary armies. The first freikorps were recruited by Frederick II of Prussia during the Seven Years' War. The freikorps were regarded as unreliable by regular armies, so that they were mainly used as sentries and for minor duties. However, after 1918, the term was used for nationalist paramilitary organizations that sprang up around Germany as soldiers returned in defeat from World War I. They were one of the many Weimar paramilitary groups active during that time. They received considerable support from Gustav Noske, the German Defence Minister who used them to crush the Spartakist League with enormous violence, including the murders of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg on January 15, 1919. They were also used to put down the Bavarian Soviet Republic in 1919. They were officially "disbanded" in 1920, resulting in the ill-fated Kapp Putsch in March 1920. The Einwohnerwehr, active in Germany from 1919 to 1921 as a paramilitary citizens' militia consisting of hundreds of thousands of mostly former servicemen. Campbell, Bruce: The Sa Generals and the Rise of Nazism, Page 99. University Press of Kentucky, 1998. ISBN 0813190983 Formed by the Prussian Ministry of the Interior on April 15, 1919, for the purpose to allow citizens to protect themselves from looters, armed gangs, and revolutionaries. The Einwohnerwehr was under the command of the local Reichswehr regiments and which supplied its guns. In 1921, the Berlin government dissolved the Einwohnerwehr. Many of its members went on to join the Nazi Party. In 1944-45, as World War II was coming to a close in Europe the German high command deployed increasing numbers of Volkssturm units to combat duties. These regiments were composed of men and women too old or otherwise unfit for service in the Wehrmacht (German Regular Army). Their primary role was assisting the army with fortification duties and digging anti-tank ditches, but would as the shortage of manpower became severe be used as front line infantry, most often in urban settings. Due to the physical state of members, almost non-existent training and shortage of weapons most there was not much the Volkssturm could do except act like shields for regular army units. However, armed with Panzerfausts and deeply entrenched a unit of Volkssturm could cause serious trouble for Soviet armor. Iran The Basij militia and the IRGC founded by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in November 1979 is composed of 90,000 regular soldiers, and 300,000 reservists and ultimately draws from about 11 million members, and is subordinate to their Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution in Iran. Iraq Peshmurga Kurdish Militia, cleaning weapons Several armed militia groups are presently active in Iraq. The Mehdi Army is a sectarian armed force created by the Iraqi Shi'a cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June 2003. The Badr armed force is based in and around Karbala. The Anbar Salvation Council is a Sunni armed group in Iraq formed by members of baathist and nationalist elements to fight Al-Qaeda in Iraq. The Kurdish militia, the peshmerga, is estimated to number upwards of 50,000. The Awakening Councils or "concerned citizens" are emerging to defend their neighborhoods against insurgents of every kind, functioning as a form of vigilante "militia" similar to the model of militia in the U.S.. Concerned citizens detain insurgents, press release of Operation iraqi Freedom, 11 october 2007. Israel The earliest historical record of militia is found in the Old Testament and particularly the Book of Judges, when the Israelites fought as militia against threatening neighboring tribes. A prominent instance of that was the militia led by Deborah against the Canaanites. Daniel J. Elazar, The Book of Judges: The Israelite Tribal Federation and Its Discontents, Jeruselem center of Public Affairs E. A. Speiser, "The City" and the "Gates of the City" in Oriental and Biblical Studies: Collected Writings of E.A. Speiser, edited with an introduction by J.J. Finkelstein and Moshe Greenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1967). In modern times there is a universal military service requirement for Israeli citizens that leaves most of them in the reserves of the Israel Defense Forces, authorized to carry and keep in their possession weapons during the periods when they're called back to the army. Bregman, Ahron (2002). Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28716-2 Mexico The Free-Colored Militia, interracial militias of New Spain, Colonial Mexico. Vinson, Ben III. Bearing Arms for His Majesty: The Free-Colored Militia in Colonial Mexico. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8047-4229-4 The Rurales The Zapatista Army of National Liberation New Zealand Many localized Militia saw service, together with British Imperial troops, during the New Zealand land wars. The Militia were disbanded and reformed as the Territorial Army in 1911. Norway See Norwegian Home Guard Russia and Soviet Union Neither the Russian Empire, nor the Soviet Union ever had an organised force that could be equated to a militia. Instead a form of organisation that pre-dated the Russian state was used during national emergencies called Narodnoe Opolcheniye (People's Regimentation). More comparable to the English Fyrd, it was a popular voluntary joining of the local полк polk, or a regiment, though it had no regular established strength or officers, these usually elected from prominent local citizens. Although these spontaneously created popular forces had participated in several major wars of the Russian Empire, including in combat, they were not obligated to serve for more then one year, and notably departed for home during the 1813 campaign in Germany. On only one occasion, during the military history of the Soviet Union, the Narodnoe Opolcheniye was incorporated into the regular forces of the Red Army, notably in Leningrad and Moscow. Sri Lanka The first militias formed in Sri Lanka were by Lankan Kings, who raised militia armies for their military campaigns both within and out side the island. This was due to the reason that the Kings never maintained a standing army instead had a Royal Guard during peace time and formed a militia in wartime. When the Portuguese who were the first colonial power to dominate the island raised local militias under the command of local leaders known as Mudaliyars. These militias took part in the many Portuguese campaigns against the Lankan Kings. The Dutch continued to employ these militias but due to their unreliability tended to favor employing Swiss and Malay mercenaries in their campaigns in the island. The British Empire then ousted the Dutch from the coastal areas of the country, and sought to conquer the independent Kandyan Kingdom. In 1802, the British became the first foreign power to raise a regular unit of Sinhalese with British officers, which was named the 2nd Ceylon Regiment, also known as the Sepoy Corps.It fought alongside British troops in the Kandyan wars. After the Matale Rebellion lead by Puran Appu in 1848, in which a number of Sinhalese recruits defected to the side of the rebels, the recruitment of Sinhalese to the British forces was temporarily halted and the Ceylon Regiments disbanded. In 1861 the Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers were raised as a militia, but soon became a military reserve force. This became the Ceylon Defence Force in 1910 and consisted of militia units. These were the Colombo Town Guard and the Town Guard Artillery formed during the two world wars. With the escalation of the Sri Lankan Civil War, local villagers under threat of attack were formed into localized militia to protect their families and homes. Civil Defence militia rise beyond expectations, sundayobserver.lk According to the Sri Lankan Military these militias were formed after "massacres done by the LTTE" and in the early 1990s they were reformed as the Sri Lankan Home Guard. In 2007 the Home Guard became the Sri Lanka Civil Defence Force. Home Guard Service, Ministry of Defence, Sri Lanka, defence.lk In 2008, the government called for the formation of nearly 15,000 civil defence committees at the village level for additional protection. In 2004, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam established a voluntary "Tamil Eelam auxiliary force". According to the LTTE's head of police, the force would be assigned to tasks such as rehabilitation, construction, forest conservation and agriculture, but would also be used to battle the Sri Lankan military if the need arose. ‘Citizens of Eelam come join us’ LTTE recruits volunteers for auxiliary forces LTTE setting up auxiliary force of Thamil Eelam Sudan Janjaweed "militiaman" The Janjaweed militia consists of armed Arab Muslims fighting for the government in Khartoum against non-Arab Muslim "rebels". They are active in the Darfur region of western Sudan and also in eastern Chad. According to Human Rights Watch these partisans are responsible for abuses including war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing. Sweden See Swedish Home Guard Switzerland One of the most famous and ancient militias is the Swiss Armed Forces. Switzerland long maintained, proportionally, the second largest military force in the world, with about half the proportional amount of reserve forces of the Israeli Defence Force, a militia of some 33% of the total population. Article 58.1 of the 1999 Swiss constitution provides that the armed forces (armee) is "in principle" organized as a militia, implicitly allowing a small number of professional soldiers. In 1995, the number of soldiers was reduced to 400,000 (including reservists, amounting to some 5.6% of the population) and again in 2004, to 200,000 (including 80,000 reservists, or 2.7% of the population). However, the Swiss Militia continues to consist of most of the adult male population (with voluntary participation by women) required to keep an automatic rifle at home and to periodically engage in combat and marksmanship training. The Swiss Report: A special study for Western Goals Foundation, Gen. Lewis W. Walt and Maj. Gen. George S. Patton. (1983) The militia clauses of the Swiss Federal Constitution are contained in Art. 59, where it is referred to as "military service" (English), "Militärdienst" (German), "service militaire" (French), "servizio militare" (Italian), "servetsch militar" (Romansch), and translated into "servicio militar" (Spanish and Portuguese), all synonyms for "militia" in Latin. United Kingdom Origins The obligation to serve in the militia in England derives from a common law tradition, and dates back to Anglo-Saxon times. The tradition was that all able-bodied males were liable to be called out to serve in one of two organisations. These were the posse comitatus, an ad hoc assembly called together by a law officer to apprehend lawbreakers, and the fyrd, Oxford English Dictionary. Second Edition 1989 a military body intended to preserve internal order or defend the locality against an invader. The latter developed into the militia, and was usually embodied by a royal warrant. The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward I, Pollock and Maitland, Cambridge U. Pr. (1898) Service in each organisation involved different levels of preparedness. Century Dictionary (1891) articles on posse comitatus and miltia. Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries With the decay of the feudal system and the military revolution of the sixteenth century, the militia began to become an important institution in English life. It was organized on the basis of the shire county, and was one of the responsibilities of the Lord Lieutenant, a royal official (usually a trusted nobleman). Each of the county hundreds was likewise the responsibility of a Deputy Lieutenant, who relayed orders to the justices of the peace or magistrates. Every parish furnished a quota of eligible men, whose names were recorded on muster rolls. Likewise, each household was assessed for the purpose of finding weapons, armour, horses, or their financial equivalent, according to their status. The militia was supposed to be mustered for training purposes from time to time, but this was rarely done. The militia regiments were consequently ill-prepared for an emergency, and could not be relied upon to serve outside their own counties. This state of affairs concerned many people. Consequently, an elite force was created, composed of members of the militia who were prepared to meet regularly for military training and exercise. These were formed into trained band regiments, particularly in the City of London, where the Artillery Garden was used as a training ground. The trained bands performed an important role in the English Civil War on the side of parliament, in marching to raise the siege of Gloucester (5 September 1643). Except for the London trained bands, both sides in the Civil War made little use of the militia, preferring to recruit their armies by other means. Militia in the British Empire Captain John Smith's 1624 map of the Somers Isles (Bermuda), showing St. George's Town and related fortifications, including the Castle Islands Fortifications with their garrisons of militiamen As successful English settlement of North America began to take place in 1607 in the face of the hostile intentions of the powerful Spanish, and of the native populations, it became immediately necessary to raise militia amongst the settlers. The militia in Jamestown saw constant action against the Powhatan Federation and other native polities. In the Virginia Company's other outpost, Bermuda, fortification began immediately in 1612. A Spanish attack in 1614 was repulsed by two shots fired from the incomplete Castle Islands Fortifications manned by Bermudian Militiamen. In the Nineteenth century, Fortress Bermuda would become Britain's Gibraltar of the West, heavily fortified by a Regular Army garrison to protect the Royal Navy's headquarters and dockyard in the Western Atlantic. In the 17th Century, however, Bermuda's defence was left entirely in the hands of the Militia. In addition to requiring all male civilians to train and serve in the militia of their Parish, the Bermudian Militia included a standing body of trained artillerymen to garrison the numerous fortifications which ringed New London (St. George's). This standing body was created by recruiting volunteers, and by sentencing criminals to serve as punishment. The Bermudian militiamen were called out on numerous occasions of war, and, on one notable occasion, to quell rioting privateers. In 1710, four years after Spanish and French forces seized the Turks Islands from Bermudian salt producers in 1706, they were expelled by Bermudian militia. By this time, the 1707 Acts of Union had made Bermudian and other English militiamen British. Political issues Up until the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the Crown and Parliament were in strong disagreement. The English Civil War left a rather unusual military legacy. Both Whigs and Tories distrusted the creation of a large standing army not under civilian control. The former feared that it would be used as an instrument of royal tyranny. The latter had memories of the New Model Army and the anti-monarchical social and political revolution that it brought about. Consequently, both preferred a small standing army under civilian control for defensive deterrence and to prosecute foreign wars, a large navy as the first line of national defence, and a militia composed of their neighbours as additional defence and to preserve domestic order. Consequently, the English Bill of Rights (1689) declared, amongst other things: "that the raising or keeping a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of Parliament, is against law..." and "that the subjects which are Protestants may have arms for their defense suitable to their conditions and as allowed by law." This implies that they are fitted to serve in the militia, which was intended to serve as a counterweight to the standing army and preserve civil liberties against the use of the army by a tyrannical monarch or government. The Crown still (in the British constitution) controls the use of the army. This ensures that officers and enlisted men swear an oath to a politically neutral head of state, and not to a politician. While the funding of the standing army subsists on annual financial votes by parliament, the Mutiny Act is also renewed on an annual basis by parliament. If it lapses, the legal basis for enforcing discipline disappears, and soldiers lose their legal indemnity for acts committed under orders. With the creation of the British Empire, militias were also raised in the colonies, where little support could be provided by regular forces. Overseas militias were first raised in Jamestown, Virginia, and in Bermuda, where the Bermuda Militia followed a similar trajectory over the next two centuries to that in Britain. Eighteenth century and the Acts of Union In 1707, the Acts of Union united the Kingdom of England with the Kingdom of Scotland. The Scottish navy was incorporated into the Royal Navy. The Scottish military (as oppsed to naval) forces merged with the English, with pre-existing regular Scottish regiments maintaining their identities, though command of the new British Army was from England. How this affected militias either side of the border is unclear. British Militia The Militia Act of 1757 created a more professional force. Better records were kept, and the men were selected by ballot to serve for longer periods. Proper uniforms and better weapons were provided, and the force was 'embodied' from time to time for training sessions. The militia was widely embodied at various times during the French and Napoleonic Wars. It served at several vulnerable locations, and was particularly stationed on the South Coast and in Ireland. A number of camps were held at Brighton, where the militia regiments were reviewed by the Prince Regent. (This is the origin of the song "Brighton Camp".) The militia could not be compelled to serve overseas, but it was seen as a training reserve for the army, as bounties were offered to men who opted to 'exchange' from the militia to the regular army. Irish militia The Parliament of Ireland passed an act in 1715 raising regiments of militia in each county and county corporate. Membership was restricted to Protestants between the ages of 16 and 60. In 1793, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Irish militia were reorganized to form thirty-seven county and city regiments. While officers of the reorganized force were Protestant, membership of the other ranks was now made available to members of all denominations. Scottish militia In the late Seventeenth century came calls for the resurrection of militia in Scotland that had the understated aim of protecting the rights of Scots from English oppression. A Discourse of Government with Relation to Militias, Andrew Fletcher (1698) ISBN 0521439949 The 1757 Militia Act did not apply in Scotland. The old traditional system continued, so that militia regiments only existed in some places. This was resented by some and the Militia Club, soon to become the Poker Club, was formed to promote the raising of a Scottish militia. This and several other Edinburgh clubs became the crucible of the Scottish Enlightenment. The Militia Act of 1797 empowered Scottish Lord Lieutenants to raise and command militia regiments in each of the "Counties, Stewartries, Cities, and Places" under their jurisdiction. Nineteenth century Although muster rolls were prepared as late as 1820, the element of compulsion was abandoned, and the militia was transformed into a volunteer force. It was intended to be seen as an alternative to the army. Men would volunteer and undertake basic training for several months at an army depot. Thereafter, they would return to civilian life, but report for regular periods of military training (usually on the weapons ranges) and an annual two week training camp. In return, they would receive military pay and a financial retainer, a useful addition to their civilian wage. Of course, many saw the annual camp as the equivalent of a paid holiday. The militia thus appealed to agricultural labourers, colliers and the like, men in casual occupations, who could leave their civilian job and pick it up again. Until 1861 the militia were an entirely infantry force, but in that year a number of county regiments were converted to artillery. In 1877 the militia of Anglesey and Monmouthshire were converted to engineers. Under the reforms introduced by Secretary of State for War Hugh Childers in 1881, the remaining militia infantry regiments were redesignated as numbered battalions of regiments of the line, ranking after the two regular battalions. Typically, an English, Welsh or Scottish regiment would have two militia battalions (the 3rd and 4th) and Irish regiments three (numbered 3rd - 5th). The militia must not be confused with the volunteer units created in a wave of enthusiasm in the second half of the nineteenth century. In contrast with the Volunteer Force, and the similar Yeomanry Cavalry, they were considered rather plebeian. The Special Reserve The militia was transformed into the Special Reserve by the military reforms of Haldane in the reforming post 1906 Liberal government. In 1908 the militia infantry battalions were redesignated as "reserve" and a number were amalgamated or disbanded. Numbered Territorial Force battalions, ranking after the Special Reserve, were formed from the volunteer units at the same time. Altogether, 101 infantry battalions, 33 artillery regiments and two engineer regiments of special reservists were formed. Units of the Militia to be transferred to the Special Reserve, published as schedule to order in council made April 9, 1908, The London Gazette, April 10, 1908 Upon mobilisation, the special reserve units would be formed at the depot and continue training while guarding vulnerable points in Britain. The special reserve units remained in Britain throughout the First World War, but their rank and file did not, since the object of the special reserve was to supply drafts of replacements for the overseas units of the regiment. The original militiamen soon disappeared, and the battalions became training units pure and simple. The Special Reserve reverted to its militia designation in 1921, then to Supplementary Reserve in 1924, though the units were effectively placed in "suspended animation" until disbanded in 1953. The Militiamen The name was briefly revived in 1939, in the aftermath of the Munich Crisis. Leslie Hore-Belisha, the then Minister of War, wished to introduce a limited form of conscription, an unheard of thing in peacetime. It was thought that calling the conscripts 'militiamen' would make this more acceptable, as it would render them distinct from the rest of the army. Only single men of a certain age group were conscripted (they were given a free suit of civilian clothes as well as a uniform), and after serving for about a year, would be discharged into the reserve. Although the first intake were called up, the war broke out soon after, and the militiamen lost their identity in the rapidly expanding army. Modern survivals Three units still maintain their militia designation in the British Army, two in the Territorial Army and one in the Army Cadet Force. These are the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (formed in 1539), the Jersey Field Squadron (The Royal Militia Island of Jersey) (formed in 1337), and the Royal Alderney Militia (created in the 13th century and reformed in 1984). Additionally, the Atholl Highlanders are a (ceremonial) private army maintained by the Duke of Atholl — they are the only legal private "army" in the United Kingdom. The Troubles and Irish War of Independence The various non-state paramilitary groups involved in the 20th century conflicts in Northern Ireland and the island of Ireland, such as the various Irish Republican Army groups and loyalist paramilitaries, could also be described as militias and are occasionally referred to as such. United States Lexington Minuteman representing militia minuteman John Parker The history of militia in the United States dates from the colonial era, such as in the American Revolutionary War. Based on the British system, colonial militias were drawn from the body of adult male citizens of a community, town, or local region. Because there were usually few British regulars garrisoned in North America, colonial militia served a vital role in local conflicts, particularly in the French and Indian Wars. Before shooting began in the American War of Independence, American revolutionaries took control of the militia system, reinvigorating training and excluding men with Loyalist inclinations. John Shy, "Mobilizing Armed Force in the American Revolution", in John Parker and Carol Urness, eds., The American Revolution: A Heritage of Change (Minneapolis, 1975), pp. 104–5. Regulation of the militia was codified by the Second Continental Congress with the Articles of Confederation. The revolutionaries also created a full-time regular army—the Continental Army—but because of manpower shortages the militia provided short-term support to the regulars in the field throughout the war. In colonial era Anglo-American usage, militia service was distinguished from military service in that the latter was normally a commitment for a fixed period of time, probably at least a year, for a salary, whereas militia was only to meet a threat, or prepare to meet a threat, for periods of time expected to be short. Militia persons were normally expected to provide their own weapons, equipment, or supplies, although they may later be compensated for losses or expenditures. Stephen P. Halbrook, The Right of the People or the Power of the State Bearing Arms, Arming Militias, and the Second Amendment, Valparaiso Law Review, vol. 26, number 1, page 131 (1991). A related concept is the jury, which can be regarded as a specialized form of militia convened to render a verdict in a court proceeding (known as a petit jury or trial jury) or to investigate a public matter and render a presentment or indictment (grand jury). William E. Nelson, The Eighteenth-Century Background of John Marshall's Constitutional Jurisprudence, 76 Mich. L. Rev. 893 (1978), ch. 23, 23. The Jury and Consensus Government in Mid-Eighteenth-Century America With the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and Article 1 Section 8 of the United States Constitution, control of the army and the power to direct the militia of the states was concurrently delegated to the federal Congress. Wills, Garry (1999). A Necessary Evil, A History of American Distrust of Government. New York, NY; Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684844893 The Militia Clauses gave Congress authority for "organizing, arming, and disciplining" the militia, and "governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States", with the States retaining authority to appoint officers and to impose the training specified by Congress. Proponents describe a key element in the concept of "militia" was that to be "genuine" it not be a "select militia", composed of an unrepresentative subset of the population. This was an argument presented in the ratification debates. Right to Keep and Bear Arms, U. S. Senate. Paladin Press (2001). ISBN 1581602545 The first legislation on the subject was The Militia Act of 1792 which provided, in part: That each and every free able-bodied white male citizen of the respective States, resident therein, who is or shall be of age of eighteen years, and under the age of forty-five years (except as is herein after excepted) shall severally and respectively be enrolled in the militia, ... every citizen, so enrolled and notified, shall, within six months thereafter, provide himself with a good musket or firelock.... During the nineteenth century, each of the states maintained its militia differently, some more than others. Prior to the Civil War, militia units were sometimes used by southern states for slave control. In free states, Republican militias - called "Wide Awakes" - sided with abolitionists in sometimes violent confrontations with Federal authorities. Manski, Ben (2006). States Rights for Civil Rights, Liberty Tree Journal, Vol 1, Issue 4. During Reconstruction after the Civil War, Republican state governments had militias composed almost entirely of freed slaves because conservative whites did not participate. Their deployment to maintain order in the former Confederate states, caused increased resentment among Southern whites. Catton, Bruce (2004). The Civil War, Pages 28-29. Mariner Books. ISBN 0618001875 The war did not end with Lee's surrender at Appomattox and continued to be fought by insurgent groups through Reconstruction. Reconstruction paramilitary groups Secret white vigilante groups like the Ku Klux Klan and Knights of the White Camellia arose quickly in states across the South, reaching a peak in the late 1860s. Even more significant in terms of effect were private militias, paramilitary organizations that formed starting in 1874, including the White League in Louisiana, which quickly formed chapters in other states; the Red Shirts in Mississippi in 1875, and with force in South Carolina and North Carolina; as well as other "White Line" militias and rifle clubs. In contrast to the KKK, they were open, members were often well-known in the communities, and they directed their efforts at political aims: using force, intimidation and violence, including murder, to push out Republican officeholders, break up organizing, and suppress freedmen's voting and civil rights. Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War, New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux paperback, 2007, pp.25, 167, 170 The paramilitary groups were described as "the military arm of the Democratic Party" and were instrumental in helping secure Democratic victories in the South in the elections of 1876. George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984, p. 132 19th and 20th c. state militias Also, during this century, when the militia was called up to fight the War of 1812, the Civil War, and the Spanish-American War, militia units were sometimes found to be unprepared, ill supplied, and at first unwilling. Wills, Garry (1999). A Necessary Evil, A History of American Distrust of Government. New York, NY; Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684844893 The Spanish American War, by Russell Alexander Alger, Harper & Bros. (1901). Sumner, William H.: An Inquiry Into the Importance of the Militia to a Free Commonwealth, Page 23. Cummings and Hillard, 1823. ASIN B00085OK9E. Reprinted in Richard H. Kohn, Anglo-American Antimilitary Tracts, 1697-1830, Arno Press (1979) ISBN 0405118864. The Militia Act of 1903 divided what had been the militia into what it termed the "organized" militia, created from portions of the former state guards to become state National Guard units, and the "unorganized" militia consisting of all males from ages 17 to 45, with the exception of certain officials and others, which is codified in . Some states, such as Texas and California, created separate State Defense Forces for assistance in local emergencies. Congress later established National Defense Act Amendments of 1933, Act of June 15, 1933, ch. 87, 48 Stat. 153. a system of "dual enlistment" for the National Guard, so that anyone who enlisted in the National Guard also enlisted in the U.S. Army. The Citizen Soldier under Federal and State Law, by James Biser Whisker, West Virginia Law Review 94 (1992): 947. Privately organized citizen militia-related groups blossomed in the mid 1990s, which collectively became known as the constitutional militia movement. The supporters have not been affiliated with any government organization, although most of them have been military and law enforcement veterans. In its original sense, militia meant "the state, quality, condition, or activity of being a fighter or warrior." It can be thought of as "combatant activity", "the fighter frame of mind", "the militant mode", "the soldierly status", or "the warrior way". Beckett, Ian, The Amateur Military Tradition, 1558-1945 (Manchester, 1991). In this latter usage, a militia is a body of private persons who respond to an emergency threat to public safety, usually one that requires an armed response, but which can also include ordinary law enforcement or disaster responses. The act of bringing to bear arms contextually changes the status of the person, from peaceful citizen, to warrior citizen. The militia is the sum total of persons undergoing this change of state. Joyce Lee Malcolm, The Right of the People to Keep and Bear Arms: The Common Law Tradition, Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly, Vol. 10:285-314, 1983 Persons have been said to engage in militia in response to a "call up" by any person aware of the threat requiring the response, and thence to be in "called up" status until the emergency is past. Joyce Lee Malcolm, The Role of the Militia in the Development of the Englishman's Right to be Armed — Clarifying the Legacy, Royal Historical Society and Humanities Press, 1996 There is no minimum size to militia, and a solitary act of defense, including self-defense, can be thought of as one person calling up himself to defend the community, represented by himself or others, and to enforce the law. Cases & Comments on Criminal Procedure, Fred E. Inbau and James R. Thompson, Foundation Press, Mineola, NY (1982) See citizen's arrest and hue and cry. 21st Century: Federally-organized or not Following the 2008 decision of the Supreme Court in District of Columbia v. Heller, the de jure definition of "militia" as used in United States jurisprudence broadened once again. The court's opinion made explicit, in its obiter dicta, that the term "militia", as used in colonial times, and still today in this originalist decision, included both the federally-organized militia and the citizen-organized militias of the several States: "... the 'militia' in colonial America consisted of a subset of 'the people'—those who were male, able-bodied, and within a certain age range" (7) ... Although the militia consists of all able-bodied men, the federally organized militia may consist of a subset of them"(23). SFR Yugoslavia Beside the federal Yugoslav People's Army, each constituent republic of the former SFR Yugoslavia had its own Territorial Defense Forces. The Non-Aligned Yugoslavia was concerned about an eventual aggression from any of the superpowers, especially by the Warsaw Pact after the Prague Spring, so the Territorial Defense Forces were formed as an integral part of the total war military doctrine called Total National Defense. Those forces corresponded to military reserve forces, paramilitary or militia, the latter, in the military meaning of the term (like military formation). It should not be confused with the Yugoslav Militia- Milicija which was a term for a police. Militia service as a civic duty The Militia Information Service (MIS) contends that militia membership is a civic duty much like voting, neither of which they believe should be restricted to government officials in a true democracy. MIS also states that the people need to maintain the power of the sword so they can fulfil their duty, implicit in the social contract, to protect the rights and liberties of their fellow citizens, much as individual citizens have a legal and ethical duty to protect dependents under their care, such as a child, an elderly parent or a disabled spouse. See also General Armed forces Guerrilla Historical reenactment Irregular military Paramilitary Militia (band) Militia Information Service Scouting Public militias in Europe Blackshirts Milice (Vichy France) Swiss Army Militsiya (Eastern European police) Volkssturm Public militias in the United States 39th (Militia) Battalion New Hampshire Militia Ohio Military Reserve Ohio Naval Militia Rogers' Rangers The forerunner of Modern "ranger" units State Defense Forces Texas State Guard United States National Guard Virginia Militia Private militias in the United States Militia (United States) Idaho Militia Colorado State Defense Force (Provisional) Michigan Militia Minuteman Project Ranch Rescue 51st Missouri Militia Militia Movement Citations and notes References Sumner, William Hyslop, An Inquiry Into the Importance of the Militia to a Free Commonwealth: In a Letter from William H. Sumner ... to John Adams, Late President of the United States; with His Answer, Cummings and Hilliard, Boston, 1823 Further reading The Rise and Decline of the American Militia System, by James B. Whisker, Susquehanna University Press (1999) ISBN 094563692X Cooper, Jerry M. 1998. The rise of the National Guard: the evolution of the American militia, 1865-1920''. Studies in war, society, and the military, v. 1. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 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4,085 | Gallienus | Gallienus depicted on a lead seal Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (c.218-268) ruled the Roman Empire as co-emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and then as the sole Roman Emperor from 260 to 268. He took control of the empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis. His record in dealing with those crises is mixed, as he won a number of military victories but was unable to keep much of his realm from seceding. Life Rise to power Based on the testimony of John Malalas and the Epitome de Caesaribus that Gallienus was about 50 years old at the time of his death, it is generally considered he was born around 218, son of Valerian and Mariniana, a woman possibly of senatorial rank and daughter of Egnatius Victor Marinianus. It is generally accepted that he was 35 years old when he was raised to the throne in 253, see J. Bray (1997), p.16 Inscriptions on coins connect him with Falerii in Etruria and this may well have been his birthplace; it has yielded many inscriptions relating to his mother's family, the Egnatii. R. Syme, Historia Augusta Papers (Oxford, 1983), p. 197. When his father Valerian was proclaimed emperor, he asked the Senate to ratify Gallienus' elevation to Augustus, in order to share the power between two persons. As Marcus Aurelius and his adopted brother Lucius Verus had done a hundred years before them, Gallienus and his father divided the Empire; Valerian struck for the East to stem the Persian threat and Gallienus remained in Italy to repel the Germanic tribes on the Rhine and Danube. This policy made sense not simply because the unhappy fates of several Emperors previous to this duo had made it clear that one man simply could not rule a state this size; equally, a 'barbarian' enemy suing for peace in this time tended to demand that they be allowed to apply to the 'chief' or 'king' of the victorious side. Therefore, an Emperor had to be available to negotiate if such a situation arose. Early reign and Ingenuus' revolt While spending most of his time in the provinces of Rhine area (Germania Inferior, Germania Superior, Raetia, Noricum), it is almost certain that, during 253 to 258, Gallienus visited Danube area and Illyricum. According to Eutropius and Aurelius Victor, he was particularly energetic and successful in keeping off the Germanic invaders from Germanies and Gaul, after the weakness caused by Valerian's march on Italy against Aemilianus in 253. A. Watson (1999), p.33 Indeed, according to numismatic evidence, it seems that he won many victories there Andreas Alfoldi mentions five: see his The Numbering of the Victories of the Emperor Gallienus and of the Loyalty of his Legions, Numismatic Chronicle, 1959, reprinted New York, Attic Books, 1977, ISBN 0 915018-28-4. and a victory in Dacia might also be dated to that period. Even the hostile Latin tradition attributes him success at this time. J. Bray (1997), pp.56-58 In 255 and 257 he was made consul again; this perhaps indicates that he briefly visited Rome on that occasions, although no record has been left of it. J. Bray (1997), p.56 During his Danube sojourn (Drinkwater suggests in 255 or 256) he proclaimed his elder son Valerian II Caesar and thus official heir to himself and Valerian I; the boy probably now joined Gallienus on campaign and when Gallienus moved west to the Rhine provinces in 257 remained behind on the Danube as the personification of Imperial authority. J. Drinkwater, The Gallic Empire (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1987, ISBN 3-515-04806-5), pp. 21-22. However, somewhere between 258 and 260 (the exact date is unclear), Gallienus had to face the first major revolt in his reign. Ingenuus, governor of at least one of the Pannonias J. Bray (1997), p.57; Drinkwater (1987), p.22 suggests he also had responsibility for Moesia. , took advantage of Valerian's distraction with the ongoing invasion of Shapur in the East and the preoccupation of Gallienus with his problems in the West and assumed the purple. Valerian II had apparently died on the Danube, most likely in 258, Drinkwater (1987), p. 22. and Ingenuus may have been responsible - or wrongly held responsible - for that calamity. According to another view, Valerian's disaster and capture at the battle of Edessa was the trigger for the subsequent revolts of Ingenuus, Regalianus and Postumus. For a very thorough presentation of the contrasting views, see J. Bray (1997), p.72-73. Also A. Watson (1999), p.230, note 34 In any case, Gallienus reacted with great speed. First, he left his son Saloninus as Caesar at Cologne, under the supervision of Albanus (or Silvanus) and the military leadership of Postumus. Then he hastily crossed through the Balkans, taking with him the new cavalry corps (comitatus) under the command of Aureolus J. Bray (1997), pp.74-75 and defeated the usurper at Mursa Aurelius Victor, 33,2, Orosius, Historiae adversus Paganos 7.10, Eutropius 9.8 or Sirmium. Zonaras, 12.24 The victory must be attributed mainly to the cavalry and its brilliant commander. Ingenuus was killed by his own guards or committed suicide by drowning himself after the fall of his capital, Sirmium. J. Bray (1997), p.76. J. Fitz, INGENUUS ET REGALIEN, p.44. Invasion of the Alamanni A major invasion of the Alamanni and other Germanic tribes occurred somewhere between 258 and 260 (it is hard to fix the precise date of these events J. Bray (1997), p.47 ). The reason probably was the vacuum left by the withdrawal of troops for supporting Gallienus in the campaign against Ingenuus. First Franks broke through the lower Rhine, invading Gaul. A band of them reach as far as southern Spain, sacking Tarraco (modern Tarragona). A. Watson (1999), p.34 Then Alamanni broke in, probably through Agri Decumates (an area between the upper Rhine and the upper Danube) J. Bray (1997), p.78 , probably followed by the Juthungi. A. Watson (1999), p.34 After devastating Germania Superior and Raetia (parts of southern France and Switzerland), they entered Italy. It was the first invasion of the peninsula, apart from its remotest northern regions, since the days of Hanibal, 500 years before. When invaders reached the outskirts of Rome, they were repelled by an improvised army assembled by the Senate. That army consisted of local troops (probably praetorian guards) and the strongest of the civilian population. J. Bray (1997), p.79 On their retreat through the northern Italy, they were intercepted by the Gallienus' army near present day Milan and defeated in the battle of Mediolanum. He had advanced from Gaul, after dealing with the Franks J. Bray (1997), p.79 or came from the Balkans. Juthungi managed to cross the Alps with their booty and captives from Italy A. Watson (1999), p.34 D.S.Potter (2004), p.256 but, in any case, the victory at the battle of Mediolanum was decisive. Alamanni didn't bother the Empire for the next 10 years. An historian in the 19th century suggested that the initiative of the Senate gave rise to the jealousy and suspicion of Gallienus, thus contributing in the exclusion of senators from military commands. Victor Duruy, History of the Roman Empire, vol VI, part II, p.418, London, 1886 Regalianus' revolt At some time before or after the Alamannic invasion, Regalianus, a military commander of Illyricum assumed the purple. The reasons for his usurpation are unclear and Historia Augusta, our almost sole resource for the events, does not provide a credible story. It is possible that the usurpation can be attributed to the discontent of the civilian and military provincials, when they felt that that defense of the province was neglected. J. Bray (1997), pp.82,83 Nevertheless, it seems that Regalianus held power for some six months and issued coins bearing his image. After some success against the Sarmatians, his revolt was put down by the invasion of Roxolani into Pannonia and Regalianus himself was killed when the invaders took the important city of Sirmium. J. Bray (1997), p.83 There is a suggestion that Gallienus invited Roxolani against Regalianus but other historians dismiss the accusation. T. Nagy, Les moments historiques de Budapest, vol.II, 1962, for the former and J. Fitz, INGENUUS ET REGALIEN, p.50 for the latter, as cited in J. Bray (1997), p.83 It is also suggested that the invasion was finally checked by Gallienus near Verona and he directed the restoration of the province, probably in person. J. Fitz, LA PANNONIE SOUS GALLIEN, Latomus, vol.148, Brussels, 1976, pp.5-81, as cited in J. Bray (1997), p.83 Capture of Valerian, Macrianus' revolt On the Eastern part of the Empire, Valerian was confronted with serious troubles. A band of "Scythians" set a naval raid against Pontus, in the northern part of modern Turkey. After they ravaged the province, they move to the south, into Cappadocia. Valerian led troops to intercept them but failed, perhaps because of a plague that gravely weakened his army and the contemporary Iranian invasion of northern Mesopotamia by Shapur I, ruler of the Sassanid Empire. In 259 or 260, during the battle of Edessa, Valerian was taken prisoner by Shapur. After its victory, Shapur's army raided Cilicia and Cappadocia (in present day Turkey) sacking, as Shapur's inscriptions claim, 36 cities. It took a rally by an officer Callistus (Ballista), a fiscal official named Fulvius Macrianus, the remains of the Eastern Roman legions and one Odenathus and his Palmyrene horsemen to turn the tide against Shapur. D.S.Potter (2004), pp.255-256 The Persians were driven back but then Macrianus proclaimed his two sons Quietus and Macrianus (sometimes wrongly spelled Macrinus) as emperors towards the end of the summer of that year. D.S.Potter (2004), p.256 Coins struck for them in major cities of the East show the acknowledgement of the usurpation. The two Macriani left Quietus, Ballista, and, presumably, Odenathus to deal with the Persians while they invaded Europe with an army of 30,000 men, according to the Historia Augusta. At first they met no opposition. J. Bray (1997), p.142 Historia Augusta, The two Gallienii, II.6 The Pannonian legions joined the invaders, being resentful of the absence of Gallienus. However, the latter sent his successful commander Aureolus against the rebels. The decisive battle was fought in the spring or early summer of 261, most likely in Illyricum, although Zonaras locates it in Pannonia. In any case, the army of the usurpers surrendered and their two leaders were killed. J. Bray (1997), pp.143-144 In the aftermath of the battle, the rebellion of Postumus had already started, therefore Gallienus had no time to deal with the rest of the usurpers, namely Ballista and Quietus. He came to an agreement with Odenathus who had just returned from his victorious Persian expedition. The latter received the title of dux Romanorum and besieged the usurpers who were based at Emesa. Eventually, the people of Emesa killed Quietus and Odenathus arrested and executed Ballista about November 261. J. Bray (1997), pp.144-145 Postumus' revolt One more consequence of the catastrophe at the battle of Edessa was that Gallienus lost control over the two provinces of Germania, Britain, Spain and a large part of Gaul, when another general, Postumus, had declared his own realm (typically known today as the Gallic Empire). The revolt partially coincided with that of Macrianus in the East. The circumstances of the usurpation were, once more, dramatic. In Cologne, Gallienus son, Saloninus, and his supervisor Silvanus were installed by Gallienus in 258. Postumus, a general in command of the troops on the banks of the Rhine, took possession of the booty which some raiders were carrying, after defeating them. Instead of returning it to the original owners, he preferred to distribute it amongst his soldiers. When these news reached Silvanus, he demanded that the spoil be sent to him. Postumus made a show of submission but, as expected, his soldiers mutinied and proclaimed him Emperor. Under his command, they besieged Cologne and, after some weeks, the defenders of the city opened the gates and handed Saloninus and Silvanus to Postumus who had them killed. J. Bray (1997), p.133 Again, the dating of the events is not safe but perhaps all these happened just before the end of 260. Andreas Älfoldi, The Numbering of the Victories of the Emperor Gallienus and of the Loyalty of his Legions, Numismatic Chronicle, 1959, reprinted New York, Attic Books, 1977, as cited in J. Bray (1997), p.359, note 5 . After their death, Postumus claimed the consulship for himself and one of his associates, Honoratianus but, according to D.S.Potter, he never tried to unseat Gallienus or invade Italy. D.S.Potter (2004), p.260 On the news of the killing of his son, the enraged Gallienus started gathering forces to face the usurper. However, the invasion of the Macriani forced him to dispatch Aureolus with a large force against them, leaving him with insufficient troops. He suffered some initial defeats before the victorious army of Aureolus joined him again. Postumus was defeated and the pursuit was entrusted to Aureolus. The latter deliberately allowed Postumus to escape and gather new forces. J. Bray (1997), pp.136-137 Gallienus returned in 263 Andreas Älfoldi, The Numbering of the Victories of the Emperor Gallienus and of the Loyalty of his Legions, Numismatic Chronicle, 1959, reprinted New York, Attic Books, 1977, as cited in J. Bray (1997), p.359, note 27 or 265 D.S.Potter (2004), p.263 and, as even Historia Augusta admits, was entirely successful, finally besieging Postumus in an unnamed Gallic city. However, during the siege, he was severely wounded by an arrow and had to leave the field. Then there was a standstill until the end of Gallienus reign. J. Bray (1997), p.138 The Gallic Empire remained independent until 274. Aemilianus' revolt In 261, the mint in Alexandria started again to issue coins for Gallienus. This shows that, after suppressing the revolt of Macriani, Aegypt had returned to Gallienus' control. However, in spring of 262, the city is reported to be rent by civil tumult, as a result of a new usurpation. This time, the rebel was the prefect of Aegypt, Lucius Mussius Aemilianus who had already given support to the revolt of Macriani. The correspondence of bishop Dionysius of Alexandria provides a colourful commentary on the sombre background of invasion, civil war, plague and famine that characterized this age. J. Bray (1997), p.146 Gallienus, knowing that he could not afford the loss of control on the vital Egyptian granaries, sent his general Theodotus against Aemilianus. The expedition was probably naval. The decisive battle probably took place near Thebes and the result was a clear defeat of Aemilianus. J. Bray (1997), p.147 Herulian invasions, Aureolus' revolt, conspiracy and death In the years 267-269, Goths and other barbarians invaded Balkans in great numbers. Sources are extremely confused on the dating of these invasions, the participants, and their targets. Modern historians are even not able to tell with enough certainty whether there were two or more of these invasions or a single prolonged one. It seems that, at first, a major naval expedition was led by Heruli, starting from northern Black Sea and leading in the ravaging of many cities of Greece (among them, Athens and Sparta). Then another, even more numerous, army of invaders started a second naval invasion of the Balkans. Romans defeated the barbarians on sea at first, then a battle in Thrace was won by Gallienus army and the emperor kept pursuing the invaders. According to some historians, he was the leader of the army who won the great Battle of Naissus, while the majority believes that the victory must be attributed to his successor Claudius II. J. Bray (1997), pp.279-288, Pat Southern 2001, p.109. Also see Alaric Watson 1999, p.215, David S. Potter 2004, p.266, Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths (transl. by Thomas J. Dunlap), University of California Press, 1988. ISBN 0-520-06983-8, p.54 In 268, at some time before or soon after the battle of Naissus, Gallienus' authority was challenged by Aureolus, commander of the cavalry stationed in Mediolanum (Milan), who was supposed to keep an eye on Postumus. Instead, he acted as Postumus deputy until the very last days of his revolt, when he seems to have assumed the purple for himself. J. Bray (1997), pp.290-291 The decisive battle took place at what is now Pontirolo Nuovo near Milan. Aureolus was clearly defeated and driven back to Milan. J. Bray (1997), p.292 Then Gallienus laid siege to the city, but he was murdered during the siege. There are different accounts of the murder but the sources agree on the fact that most of Gallienus' officials wanted him dead. D.S.Potter (2004), p.264 According to the Historia Augusta, an unreliable source compiled long after the events it describes R. Syme (1968) , a conspiracy was led by the commander of the guard Aurelius Heraclianus and one Marcianus. Cecropius, commander of the Dalmatians, spread the word that Aureolus was leaving the city, and Gallienus left his tent without his bodyguard, only to be struck down by Cecropius Historia Augusta, The two Gallieni, XIV.4-11 . One version has Claudius selected as emperor by the conspirators, another chosen by Gallienus on his death bed; the Historia Augusta was concerned to substantiate the descent of the Constantinian dynasty from Claudius, and this may explain its accounts which do not involve Claudius in the murder. The other sources (Zosimus i.40 and Zonaras xii.25), report that the conspiracy was organized by Heraclianus, Claudius and Aurelian. Gallienus' wife, Cornelia Salonina, had given him three sons: Valerianus (who died in 258), Saloninus (who, after becoming co-emperor, died in 260 by the hand of his general Postumus), and Egnatius Marinianus (consul in 268). According to Aurelius Victor and Zonaras, on hearing the news of Gallienus death, the Senate at Rome ordered the execution of his family (including his brother) and their supporters, just before receiving a message from Claudius to spare their lives and deify his predecessor. J. Bray (1997), pp.307-309 Policy One of the key characteristics of the Crisis of the Third Century was the inability of the Emperors to maintain their hold on the Imperium for any marked length of time. Gallienus' reign was an exception to this rule. The fact that he served as junior Emperor with his father from 253 to 260 may have had something to do with his successes. Father and son did each wield authority over about half of the empire, thus allowing for more flexible control. Another, more probable reason, lay in Gallienus' success in convincing Rome that he was the best man for the job. However, Gallienus still had to handle many rebellions of the so-called "Gallienus usurpers". Little time was allowed this emperor for anything but the defence of the realm, but unlike some who occupied the throne before and after him, Gallienus appeared to understand that the Empire's history had to be preserved if it were to have been worth fighting for. Culture and the ancient humanities required promotion, and Gallienus was up to the task when he was allowed a breath. Traveling to Attica in Greece, he had himself initiated into the mystery-cult of Eleusis The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.12, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p.46. ISBN 0-521-30199-8 and encouraged others to do the same. His coin series (further elucidated below), in which he was depicted in the disguise of several Greek deities, powerfully reminded ordinary Romans of the Hellenic side of their own culture. And Plotinus of Lycopolis, referred to as 'the last man of antiquity' by German historian Ivar Lissner, was encouraged and patronized by the Roman royal family during this time. Given Plotinus' Neo-Platonist beliefs and their concentrated nature centering about an ur-Soul or nous, it is very possible that Gallienus, in an attempt to counter Christianity, sought to curb its growth via some method other than persecution. For this he is well spoken of in Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiastica, just as he is not as fondly recalled for losing Gaul in Eutropius' Breviarium. Arch of Gallienus in Rome, 262 - dedicated to, rather than built by, Gallienus. Gallienus's chief method of reinforcing his position is seen in the coinage produced during his reign. The coins provide clear evidence of a successful propaganda campaign in a time previous to television or newspapers. Quite a few of the Roman mints' issue had images of soldiers and the legend FIDES MILITVM ("loyalty of the soldiers") as well, despite the constant usurper problems. Gallienus took pains to make sure that he was regularly represented as victorious, merciful, and pious. The peasants and merchants who used these coins on a daily basis saw these messages and, with little evidence to the contrary, remained supportive of their Emperor. Word of mouth, one hoped (and Rome's rumor mill was second to none in the ancient world), did the rest. Legacy Gallienus has not been dealt with well by ancient historians, partly due to the secession of Gaul and his inability to get it back. According to the modern scholar Pat Southern, however, some historians now see him in a more positive light. Gallienus was the father of some useful reforms. His contribution to military history was the first commissioning of a cavalry only unit which could be dispatched anywhere within the empire within short order. This reform arguably created a precedent for the future emperors Diocletian and Constantine I. The biographer Aurelius Victor also reports that Gallienus forbade senators from becoming military commanders Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 33-34 . This policy undermined senatorial power, as more reliable equestrian commanders rose to prominence. In Southern's opinion, these reforms and the decline in senatorial influence not only helped Aurelian to salvage the Empire, but they also make Gallienus one of the emperors most responsible for the creation of the dominate, along with Septimius Severus, Diocletian and Constantine I. In portraying himself with the attributes of the gods on his coinage, Gallienus began the final separation of the Emperor from his subjects. A late bust of Gallienus (see above) shows him of largely blank face and gazing heavenward as we see on the famous stone head of Constantine I. One of the last rulers of Rome to be theoretically called "Princeps" or First Citizen, Gallienus' shrewd self-promotion assisted in paving the way for those who would be addressed with the words "Dominus et Deus" (Lord and God). Citations References Primary Sources Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta (Augustan History), The Two Gallieni Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum, extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222-284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary Sources Bray, John. Gallienus : A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics, Wakefield Press, Kent Town, 1997, ISBN 1-862-54337-2 Drinkwater, John F. The Gallic Empire. Separatism and Continuity in the North-Western Provinces of the Roman Empire A.D. 260-274. Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1987. ISBN 3-515-04806-5 Lissner, Ivar. "Power and Folly; The Story of the Caesars". Jonathan Cape Ltd., London, 1958. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, Routledge, Oxon, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, London and New York, 2001. Syme, Ronald. Ammianus and the Historia Augusta, The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1968. Syme, Ronald. Historia Augusta Papers, The Clarendon press, Oxford, 1983. ISBN 0-19-814853-4 Watson, Alaric. Aurelian and the Third Century, Routledge, Oxon, 1999. ISBN 0-415-30187-4 See also Thirty Tyrants (Roman) External links "Valerian and Gallienus", at De Imperatoribus Romanis. 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4,086 | Dodo | The dodo (Raphus cucullatus) was a flightless bird endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius. Related to pigeons and doves, it stood about a meter tall, weighing about , living on fruit and nesting on the ground. The dodo has been extinct since the mid-to-late 17th century. Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as extinct. It is commonly used as the archetype of an extinct species because its extinction occurred during recorded human history, and was directly attributable to human activity. The adjective phrase "to be as dead as a dodo" means undoubtedly and unquestionably dead, whilst the phrase "to go the way of the dodo" means to become extinct or obsolete, to fall out of common usage or practice, or to become a thing of the past. Discovery and etymology Drawings of the dodo from the travel journal of the VOC ship Gelderland (1601–1603) The first known descriptions of the bird were made by the Dutch. They called the Mauritius bird the walghvogel ("wallow bird" or "loathsome bird") in reference to its taste. Although many later writings say that the meat tasted bad, the early journals only say that the meat was tough but good, though not as good as the abundantly available pigeons. A trve report of the gainefull, prosperous, and speedy voiage to Iava in the East Indies, performed by a fleete of eight ships of Amsterdam: which set forth from Texell in Holland, the first of Maie 1598. Stilo Novo. Whereof foure returned againe the 19. of Iuly Anno 1599. in lesse thaen 15 moneths: the other foure went forward from Iava for the Moluccas The name walgvogel was used for the first time in the journal of vice-admiral Wybrand van Warwijck who visited the island in 1598 and named it Mauritius. The etymology of the word dodo is not clear. Some ascribe it to the Dutch word dodoor for "sluggard", but it probably is related to dodaars ("knot-arse"), referring to the knot of feathers on the hind end. The first recording of the word dodaerse is in captain Willem van Westsanen's journal in 1602. Staub, France (1996): Dodo and solitaires, myths and reality. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Arts & Sciences of Mauritius 6: 89-122 HTML fulltext Thomas Herbert used the word dodo in 1627 Strickland, H.E. (1848) The Dodo and its Kindred London: Reeve, Benham and Reeve. p.128 but it is unclear whether he was the first one, for the Portuguese had already visited the island in 1507, but as far as is known did not mention the bird. Nevertheless, according to Encarta Dictionary and Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, "dodo" derives from Portuguese doudo (currently doido) meaning "fool" or "crazy". The Portuguese word doudo or doido may itself be a loanword from Old English (cf. English "dolt"). However, the present Portuguese name for the bird, dodô, is taken from the internationally used word dodo. David Quammen considered the idea that dodo was an onomatopoeic approximation of the bird's own call, a two-note pigeony sound like "doo-doo". Quammen, David (1996): The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction. Touchstone, New York. ISBN 0684827123 In 1606 Cornelis Matelief de Jonge wrote an important description of the dodo, some other birds, plants and animals on the island. Systematics and evolution An illustration by Mughal artist Ustad Mansur, one of the first illustrations of the Dodo The dodo was a close relative of modern pigeons and doves. mtDNA cytochrome b and 12S rRNA sequences Shapiro, Beth; Sibthorpe, Dean; Rambaut, Andrew; Austin, Jeremy; Wragg, Graham M.; Bininda-Emonds, Olaf R. P.; Lee, Patricia L. M. & Cooper, Alan (2002): Flight of the Dodo. Science 295: 1683. (HTML abstract) Supplementary information analysis suggests that the dodo's ancestors diverged from those of its closest known relative, the Rodrigues Solitaire (which is also extinct), around the Paleogene-Neogene boundary. See Raphidae as for why the date "25 mya" is suspect As the Mascarenes are of volcanic origin and less than 10 million years old, both birds' ancestors remained most likely capable of flight for considerable time after their lineages' separation. The same study has been interpreted to show that the Southeast Asian Nicobar Pigeon is the closest living relative of the dodo and the Réunion Solitaire. However, the proposed phylogeny is rather questionable regarding the relationships of other taxa Johnson, Kevin P. and Dale H. Clayton (2000): Nuclear and Mitochondrial Genes Contain Similar Phylogenetic. Signal for Pigeons and Doves (Aves: Columbiformes). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 14(1): 141–151. PDF fulltext and must therefore be considered hypothetical pending further research; considering biogeographical data, it is very likely to be erroneous. All that can be presently said with any certainty is that the ancestors of the didine birds were pigeons from Southeast Asia or the Wallacea, which agrees with the origin of most of the Mascarenes' birds. Whether the dodo and Rodrigues Solitaire were actually closest to the Nicobar Pigeon among the living birds, or whether they are closer to other groups of the same radiation such as Ducula, Treron, or Goura pigeons is not clear at the moment. For a long time, the dodo and the Rodrigues Solitaire (collectively termed "didines") were placed in a family of their own, the Raphidae. This was because their relationships to other groups of birds (such as rails) had yet to be resolved. As of recently, it appears more warranted to include the didines as a subfamily Raphinae in the Columbidae. Painting of an albino dodo, previously mislabeled as "Raphus solitarius". The supposed "White Dodo" is now thought to be based on misinterpreted reports of the Réunion Sacred Ibis and paintings of apparently albinistic dodos; a higher frequency of albinos is known to occur occasionally in island species (see also Lord Howe Swamphen). Morphology and flightlessness Skeleton of a dodo put together from bones found in a marshy pool on Mauritius, and the dried leg of a specimen which was brought alive to Europe about the year 1600, in Natural History Museum In October 2005, part of the Mare aux Songes, the most important site of dodo remains, was excavated by an international team of researchers. Many remains were found, including bones from birds of various stages of maturity, and several bones obviously belonging to the skeleton of one individual bird and preserved in natural position. These findings were made public in December 2005 in the Naturalis in Leiden. Before this, few associated dodo specimens were known, most of the material consisting of isolated and scattered bones. Dublin's Natural History Museum and the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, among others, have a specimen assembled from these disassociated remains. A Dodo egg is on display at the East London museum in South Africa. Until recently, the most intact remains, currently on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, were one individual's partly skeletal foot and head which contain the only known soft tissue remains of the species. The remains of the last known stuffed dodo had been kept in Oxford's Ashmolean Museum, but in the mid-18th century, the specimen – save the pieces remaining now – had entirely decayed and was ordered to be discarded by the museum's curator or director in or around 1755. In June 2007, adventurers exploring a cave in Mauritius discovered the most complete and well-preserved dodo skeleton ever. 1626 dodo image by Roelant Savery, drawn after a stuffed specimen – note that it has two left feet and that the bird is obese from captivity. According to artists' renditions, the Dodo had greyish plumage, a 23-centimeter (9-inch) bill with a hooked point, very small wings, stout yellow legs, and a tuft of curly feathers high on its rear end. Dodos were very large birds, weighing about 23 kg (50 pounds). The sternum was insufficient to support flight; these ground-bound birds evolved to take advantage of an island ecosystem with no predators. The traditional image of the dodo is of a fat, clumsy bird, hence the synonym Didus ineptus, but this view has been challenged in recent times. The general opinion of scientists today is that the old drawings showed overfed captive specimens. Kitchener, A. On the external appearance of the dodo, Raphus cucullatus. Archives of natural History, 20, 1993. As Mauritius has marked dry and wet seasons, the dodo probably fattened itself on ripe fruits at the end of the wet season to live through the dry season when food was scarce; contemporary reports speak of the birds' "greedy" appetite. In captivity, with food readily available, the birds became overfed very easily. Diet The tambalacoque, also known as the "dodo tree", was hypothesized by Stanley Temple to have been eaten from by Dodos, and only by passing through the digestive tract of the dodo could the seeds germinate; he claimed that the tambalacocque was now nearly extinct due to the dodo's disappearance. He force-fed seventeen tambalacoque fruits to Wild Turkeys and three germinated. Temple did not try to germinate any seeds from control fruits not fed to turkeys so the effect of feeding fruits to turkeys was unclear. Temple also overlooked reports on tambalacoque seed germination by A. W. Hill in 1941 and H. C. King in 1946, who found the seeds germinated, albeit very rarely, without abrading. Temple, Stanley A. (1977): Plant-animal mutualism: coevolution with Dodo leads to near extinction of plant. Science 197(4306): 885-886. HTML abstract Hill, A. W. (1941): The genus Calvaria, with an account of the stony endocarp and germination of the seed, and description of the new species. Annals of Botany 5(4): 587-606. PDF fulltext (requires user account) King, H. C. (1946). Interim Report on Indigenous Species in Mauritius. Government Printer, Port Louis, Mauritius. Witmer, M. C. & Cheke, A. S. (1991): The dodo and the tambalacoque tree: an obligate mutualism reconsidered. Oikos 61(1): 133-137. HTML abstract Extinction Landscape with birds - dodo painted by Roelant Savery (1628) As with many animals that have evolved in isolation from significant predators, the dodo was entirely fearless of people, and this, in combination with its flightlessness, made it easy prey for humans. However, journals are full of reports regarding the bad taste and tough meat of the dodo, while other local species such as the Red Rail were praised for their taste. It is commonly believed that the Malay sailors held the bird in high regard and killed them only to make head dressings used in religious ceremonies. James, Bradly. 1998. The History of Mauritius. Lowell House: Boston. 34-35. However, when humans first arrived on Mauritius, they also brought with them other animals that had not existed on the island before, including dogs, pigs, cats, rats, and Crab-eating Macaques, which plundered the dodo nests, while humans destroyed the forests where the birds made their homes; currently, the impact these animals – especially the pigs and macaques – had on the dodo population is considered to have been more severe than that of hunting. The 2005 expedition's finds are apparently of animals killed by a flash flood; such mass mortalities would have further jeopardized an already extinction-prone species. Dodo skeleton, Natural History Museum Although there are scattered reports of mass killings of dodos for provisioning of ships, archaeological investigations have hitherto found scant evidence of human predation on these birds. Some bones of at least two dodos were found in caves at Baie du Cap which were used as shelters by fugitive slaves and convicts in the 17th century, but due to their isolation in high, broken terrain, were not easily accessible to dodos naturally. There is some controversy surrounding the extinction date of the dodo. Roberts & Solow state that "the extinction of the Dodo is commonly dated to the last confirmed sighting in 1662, reported by shipwrecked mariner Volkert Evertsz" (Evertszoon), but many other sources suggest the more conjectural date of 1681. Roberts & Solow point out that because the sighting prior to 1662 was in 1638, the dodo was likely already very rare by the 1660s, and thus a disputed report from 1674 cannot be dismissed out-of-hand. Roberts, David L. & Solow, Andrew R. (2003): Flightless birds: When did the dodo become extinct? Nature 425(6964): 245. (HTML abstract) Statistical analysis of the hunting records of Isaac Johannes Lamotius give a new estimated extinction date of 1693, with a 95% confidence interval of 1688 to 1715. Considering more circumstantial evidence such as travelers' reports and the lack of good reports after 1689, Janoo, Anwar (2005): Discovery of isolated dodo bones [Raphus cucullatus (L.), Aves, Columbiformes] from Mauritius cave shelters highlights human predation, with a comment on the status of the family Raphidae Wetmore, 1930. Annales de Paléontologie 91: 167–180. [English with French abstract] DOI:10.1016/j.annpal.2004.12.002 (HTML abstract) Hume et al. ref probably too. it is likely that the dodo became extinct before 1700; the last Dodo died a little more than a century after the species' discovery in 1581. Dodo Bird FAQs - WikiFAQ - Answers to Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) Few took particular notice of the extinct bird. By the early 19th century it seemed altogether too strange a creature, and was believed by many to be a myth. With the discovery of the first batch of dodo bones in the Mare aux Songes and the reports written about them by George Clarke, government schoolmaster at Mahébourg, from 1865 on, Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was published in 1865. interest in the bird was rekindled. In the same year in which Clarke started to publish his reports, the newly vindicated bird was featured as a character in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. With the popularity of the book, the dodo became a well-known and easily recognizable icon of extinction. Coat of arms of Mauritius Cultural significance The dodo is used by many environmental organizations that promote the protection of endangered species, such as the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Jersey Zoological Park, founded by Gerald Durrell. (requires subscription) The dodo's significance as one of the best-known extinct animals and its singular appearance has led to its use in literature and popular culture to symbolize a concept or object that will or has become out of date, as in the expression "dead as a dodo" or "gone the way of the dodo". The dodo rampant appears on the coat of arms of Mauritius. See also Extinct birds Island gigantism Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland) References External links The Oxford Dodo Retrieved 2009-02-08 The Extinction Website: Species Info - Raphus cucullatus. Retrieved 2006-12-07. Rajith Dissanayake: What did the dodo look like?. Retrieved 2008-05-04. H.E. 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4,087 | O_Canada | "O Canada" is the national anthem of Canada. The song was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony. Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French. An English translation of the lyric did not appear until 1906, and it was two more years before Robert Stanley Weir penned an English version, which is not a translation of the French. Weir's words have been revised twice, taking their present form in 1980, but the French lyrics remain unaltered. "O Canada" was not officially Canada's national anthem until 1980, when it was signed into law on July 1 as part of that year's Canada Day celebrations. Official lyrics The official lyrics in English and French, as well as a translation of the French version and a transcription of Weir's original English-language poem, can be found on the Canadian government website devoted to "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion". Official (English) Official (French)O Canada! Our home and native land! True patriot love in all thy sons command. With glowing hearts we see thee rise, The True North strong and free! From far and wide, O Canada, We stand on guard for thee. God keep our land glorious and free! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada, we stand on guard for thee.Ô Canada! Terre de nos aïeux, Ton front est ceint de fleurons glorieux! Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits. Et ta valeur, de foi trempée, Protégera nos foyers et nos droits Protégera nos foyers et nos droits. Inuktitut lyrics Translation of French lyricsUu Kanata! Nangmini nunavut! Piqujatii nalattiaqpavut. Angiglivalliajuti, Sanngijulutillu. Nangiqpugu, Uu Kanata Mianiripluti. Uu Kanata! nunatsia! Nangiqpugu mianiripluti, Uu Kanata, salagijauquna!O Canada! Land of our forefathers Thy brow is wreathed with a glorious garland of flowers. As is thy arm ready to wield the sword, So also is it ready to carry the cross. Thy history is an epic of the most brilliant exploits. Thy valour steeped in faith Will protect our homes and our rights Will protect our homes and our rights. History The house in Quebec City in which Routhier reportedly wrote the original French lyrics The original French lyrics were written by Sir Adolphe Basile Routhier, as a French Canadian patriotic song for the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society. The French "Ô Canada" was first performed on June 24, 1880, at a Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day banquet in Quebec City, but did not become Canada's official national anthem until July 1, 1980. The Canadian government bought the rights to the lyrics and music for only one dollar. Since 1867, "God Save the King" and "The Maple Leaf Forever" had been competing as unofficial national anthems in Canada. "O Canada" joined that fray when school children sang it for the 1901 tour of Canada by the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall (later King George V and Queen Mary). Five years later Whaley and Royce in Toronto published the music with the French text and a first translation into English by Dr. Thomas Bedford Richardson. Then, in 1908, Collier's Weekly magazine held a competition to write English lyrics for "O Canada". The competition was won by Mercy E. Powell McCulloch, but her version did not gain wide acceptance. In 1917, Albert Watson wrote the hymn Lord of the Lands to the tune of O Canada. The English version that gained the widest currency was written in 1908 by Robert Stanley Weir, a lawyer and at the time Recorder of the City of Montreal. A slightly modified version of his poem was published in an official form for the Diamond Jubilee of Confederation in 1927, and gradually became the most generally accepted and performed version, winning out over the alternatives by the 1960s. "God Save the Queen" is now Canada's royal anthem, while "The Maple Leaf Forever" is virtually forgotten. Many have noted that the opening theme of "O Canada", composed in c. 1880, bears a great resemblance to the "Marsch der Priester" (March of the Priests), from Die Zauberflöte, composed in 1791 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Some say that Mozart's tune inspired Lavallée to compose his melody. The line "The True North strong and free" is based on Alfred Tennyson's description of Canada as "That True North whereof we lately heard". In the context of Tennyson's poem, "true" means "loyal" or "faithful". Official changes to the English version were recommended in 1968 by a Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons. The National Anthem Act of 1980 added a religious reference to the English lyrics and the phrase "From far and wide, O Canada" to replace one of the somewhat tedious repetitions of the phrase "We stand on guard." This change was controversial with traditionalists, and for several years afterwards it was not uncommon to hear people (some by choice, some by memory reflex) still singing the old lyrics at public events. By contrast, the French version has never been changed from its original. Two provinces have adopted Latin translations of phrases from the English lyrics as their mottos: Manitoba—Gloriosus et liber (glorious and free)—and Alberta —Fortis et liber (strong and free). Similarly, the motto of Canadian Forces Land Force Command is Vigilamus pro te (we stand on guard for thee). In addition, the official website of the Government of Canada uses phrases from both the English and French lyrics as mottos on its page headers—"The true north strong and free" in English and "Une épopée des plus brillants exploits" in French. See the bilingual portal at canada.ca, as well as the English and French homepages. Weir's poem has three additional stanzas, but these are rarely sung. O Canada! Where pines and maples grow. Great prairies spread and lordly rivers flow. How dear to us thy broad domain, From East to Western sea. Thou land of hope for all who toil! Thou True North, strong and free! O Canada! O Canada! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada! Beneath thy shining skies May stalwart sons, and gentle maidens rise, To keep thee steadfast through the years From East to Western sea. Our own beloved native land! Our True North, strong and free! O Canada! O Canada! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. Ruler supreme, who hearest humble prayer, Hold our Dominion in thy loving care; Help us to find, O God, in thee A lasting, rich reward, As waiting for the better Day, We ever stand on guard. O Canada! O Canada! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. A page from Hymns of the Christian Life, 1962, depicting the original refrain lyrics to O Canada. There is also a hymnal version of the lyrics, written by Albert D. Watson: Lord of the lands, beneath Thy bending skies, On field and flood, where’er our banner flies, Thy people lift their hearts to Thee, Their grateful voices raise: May our dominion ever be A temple to Thy praise. Thy will alone let all enthrone; Refrain Lord of the lands, make Canada Thine own: Lord of the lands, make Canada Thine own! Almighty Love, by Thy mysterious power, In wisdom guide, with faith and freedom dower; Be ours a nation evermore That no oppression blights, Where justice rules from shore to shore, From lakes to northern lights. May love alone for wrong atone; Refrain Lord of the worlds, with strong eternal hand, Hold us in honor, truth and self-command; The loyal heart, the constant mind, The courage to be true, Our wide extending empire bind, And all the earth renew. Thy Name be known through every zone; Lord of the worlds, make all the lands Thine own: Lord of the worlds, make all the lands Thine own! The following text was used as the refrain prior to the designation as the national anthem: Number 565, Hymns of the Christian Life. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Christain Publications Inc., 1962. O Canada, glorious and free, We stand on guard, we stand on guard for thee! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee! Performances Singers at public events often mix the English and French lyrics to represent Canada's linguistic duality. For example, one form is singing the first two and last three lines in English; the last two lines could also alternate between English and French. Roger Doucet, the former singer of national anthems at the Montreal Forum for the NHL's Montreal Canadiens, almost always sang the first seven lines in French, and completed the song in English, and this practice has continued with the team's subsequent anthem singers. Performers at Ottawa Senators games also commonly sing partly in French and partly in English. This was also the case at the Turin Winter Olympics Closing Ceremony where most of the song was sung in French by British Columbia Opera star Ben Heppner, whose province is hosting the 2010 Winter Olympics, in Vancouver. "O Canada" is routinely played before sporting events involving Canadian teams. "O Canada" is normally performed in English or a combination of English and French lyrics. The NHL and the NBA require arenas to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries. . At a Calgary Flames game in February 2007, young Cree singer Akina Shirt became the first person ever to perform "O Canada" in a Canadian Aboriginal language at a National Hockey League contest. It was performed in a native language at the 1988 Winter Olympics opening ceremony in Calgary. Proposed changes to lyrics Weir's original 1908 lyrics, consisting of three verses, did not contain the word "sons", instead using the somewhat archaic "thou dost in us command", and contained no religious reference. Weir changed the lyrics to "in all thy sons command" in 1914, and in 1926 added a fourth verse of a religious nature. In June 1990, the city council of Toronto voted 12-7 to recommend to the Government of Canada that the phrase "our home and native land" be changed to "our home and cherished land", and "true patriot love in all thy sons command" be changed to "true patriot love in all of us command." Councillor Howard Moscoe said that the words "native land" were not appropriate for the many Canadians who were not native-born, and that the word "sons" implied "that women can't feel true patriotism or love for Canada." Feminists such as Senator Vivienne Poy have criticized the English lyrics of the anthem as being sexist. In 2002, Poy introduced a bill to change the phrase "in all thy sons command" to "in all of us command". In 2006, the anthem's religious references (to God in English, and to the Christian cross in French) were criticized by secularists. Vancouver 2010 Olympics On September 25, 2008, John Furlong, the chairman of VANOC, the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics organizing committee, announced that "With glowing hearts" from the English lyrics and "Des plus brillants exploits" from the French lyrics would be used as trademarked slogans for the 2010 Olympics. Media References External links Canadian Heritage (National Anthem: O Canada) Department of Justice - National Anthem Act The Story Behind the Song CBC Digital Archives: O Canada Hymn Lord of the Lands set to the tune of O Canada Original French Poem Roger Doucet Sings "O Canada"-"How to Sing a National Anthem" Oh Canada sung in Cree before a hockey game O Canada vs Patriotic Song by Glinka amazing comparison of "O Canada" and Russian "Patriotic Song". 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4,088 | Capitalism | Capitalism is an economic system in which wealth, and the means of producing wealth, are privately owned. Arleen J. Hoag, John H. Hoag. Introductory Economics. World Scientific, 2006. pp 43-44. Through capitalism, the land, labor, and capital are owned, operated, and traded for the purpose of generating profits, without force or fraud, by private individuals either singly or jointly, Wood 2002, p. 2 Obrinsky (1983) p.1 and investments, distribution, income, production, pricing and supply of goods, commodities and services are determined by voluntary private decision in a market economy. Bacher (2007) p. 2; De George (1986) pp.104, 111; Lash (2000) p.36 A distinguishing feature of capitalism is that each person owns his or her own labor and therefore is allowed to sell the use of it to employers. Wood 2002, p. 2 In a "capitalist state", private rights and property relations are protected by the rule of law of a limited regulatory framework. In the modern capitalist state, legislative action is confined to defining and enforcing the basic rules of the market, though the state may provide some public goods and infrastructure. Eric Aaron, What's Right? (Dural, Australia: Rosenberg Publishing, 2003), 75. Some consider laissez-faire to be "pure capitalism". McConnell, Campbell R. and Brue, Stanley L., Microeconomics: Principles, Problems, and Policies. McGraw-Hill, 1992. p 38 Laissez-faire (French, "leave to do [by itself]") signifies minimizing François, Crouzet. The Victorian Economy. Routledge, 1982. p. 105 or eliminating state interference in economic affairs and the competitive process, allowing the free play of "supply and demand". Laissez-faire capitalism has never existed in practice. Because all large economies today have a mixture of private and public ownership and control, some feel that the term "mixed economies" more precisely describes most contemporary economies. In the "capitalist mixed economy", the state intervenes in market activity and provides many services. "all of the capitalistic societies of the West have mixed economies that temper capitalism" with interventionist government regulation and social programs. Shafritz, Jay M. (1992). The HarperCollins Dictionary of American Government and Politics. HarperPerennial. P. 93 During the last century, capitalism has often been contrasted with centrally planned economies. The central axiom of capitalism is that the best allocation of resources is achieved through consumers having free choice, and producers responding accordingly to meet aggregate and individual consumer demand. This contrasts with planned economies in which the state directs what shall be produced. A consequence is the belief that privatization of previously state-provided services will tend to achieve a more efficient delivery thereof. Further implications are usually in favor of free trade, and abolition of subsidies. Although individuals and groups must act rationally in any society for their own good, the consequences of both rational and irrational actions are said to be more readily apparent in a capitalist society. Capitalistic economic practices incrementally became institutionalized in England between the 16th and 19th centuries, although some features of capitalist organization existed in the ancient world, and early aspects of merchant capitalism flourished during the Late Middle Ages. Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism. From Britain, it gradually spread throughout Europe, across political and cultural frontiers. In the 19th and 20th centuries, capitalism provided the main, but not exclusive, means of industrialization throughout much of the world. Etymology Other terms sometimes used for capitalism, include: commercialism "capitalism." Roget's 21st Century Thesaurus, Third Edition. Philip Lief Group 2008. economic individualism Murray N. Rothbard. Isaiah Berlin on Negative Freedom Ludwig von Mises. The Objectives of Economic Education economic liberalism free competition free cooperation SOCIALISM AS A MORAL IMPERATIVE, Ch.29 Christianity and Socialism free economy free enterprise free-enterprise economy "free enterprise." Roget's 21st Century Thesaurus, Third Edition. Philip Lief Group 2008. free-enterprise system free exchange The Fairness of "Unequal" Exchange free market free-market capitalism free-market economy free-market liberalism free-market system Murray N. Rothbard. (1993) "What Is the Free Market?" The Fortune Encyclopedia of Economics. Time Warner pp. 636-639 free trade individualism industrialism laissez-faire laissez-faire capitalism Friedman, Milton. 1962. Capitalism and Freedom. University of Chicago Press. p 38. laissez-faire liberalism Ian Adams, Political Ideology Today (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), 20. liberalism market capitalism market economy "market economy", Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary market liberalism Although the term "liberalism" retains its original meaning in most of the world, it has unfortunately come to have a very different meaning in late twentieth-century America. Hence terms such as "market liberalism," "classical liberalism," or "libertarianism" are often used in its place in America. market system mercantilism mutual aid Mutualist.org. "...based on voluntary cooperation, free exchange, or mutual aid." mutual exchange open competition Llewellyn H. Rockwell, Jr.. (2005) "Free Trade and the American Political Tradition." open cooperation Hans-Hermann Hoppe. "The Rise and Fall of the City." Democracy: The God That Failed. open economy open exchange A Modest Craft open market private enterprise self-regulating market unhampered market Ludwig von Mises. XXVII: The Government and the Market Gene Callahan. Safety and the Market Economy Murray N. Rothbard. "Man, Economy, and State with Power and Market." voluntary competition Mutualist Blog: Free Market Anti-Capitalism voluntary cooperation Markets are both competitive and cooperative, but never coercive voluntary exchange voluntary market The Democracy of the Market The etymology of the word capital has roots in the trade and ownership of animals. The Latin root of capital is capitalis, from the proto-Indo-European kaput, which means "head", this being how wealth was measured—the number of heads in a person's livestock. The terms chattel and cattle itself also derive from this same origin. The lexical connections between animal trade and economics can also be seen in the names of many currencies and words about money: fee (faihu), rupee (rupya), buck (a deerskin), pecuniary (pecu), stock (livestock), and peso (pecu or pashu) all derive from animal-trade origins. Although Adam Smith is often described as the "father of capitalist thinking," he never used the term "capitalism". He described his own preferred economic system as "the system of natural liberty." However, Smith defined "capital" as stock, and "profit" as the just expectation to keep the revenue from improvements to that stock. Smith also made capital improvement the central goal of the economic and political system.<ref>Smith, Adam (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature And Causes of the Wealth of Nations - Book Two, Chapter One.</ref> Arthur Young first used the term capitalist in his work Travels in France (1792). Arthur Young. Travels in France Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used capitalist in his work Table Talk (1823). Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Tabel The Complete Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. page 267. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used capitalist in his first work What is Property? (1840) to refer to the owners of capital. Benjamin Disraeli used capitalist in the 1845 work Sybil. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels also used capitalist (Kapitalist) as a private owner of capital in The Communist Manifesto (1848). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, James Augustus Henry Murray. "Capitalism". A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. Oxford English Press. Vol 2. page 94. capitalism was first used by novelist William Makepeace Thackeray in 1854, by which he meant by having ownership of capital. According to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German-American socialist and abolitionist, used the term private capitalism in 1863. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred the capitalistic system (kapitalistisches System) Karl Marx. Chapter Sixteen: Absolute and Relative Surplus-Value. Das Kapital. The prolongation of the working-day beyond the point at which the labourer would have produced just an equivalent for the value of his labour-power, and the appropriation of that surplus-labour by capital, this is production of absolute surplus-value. It forms the general groundwork of the capitalist system, and the starting-point for the production of relative surplus-value. Karl Marx. Chapter Twenty-Five: The General Law of Capitalist Accumulation. Das Kapital. to the capitalist mode of production (kapitalistische Produktionsform) in Das Kapital (1867). Saunders, Peter (1995). Capitalism. University of Minnesota Press. p. 1 The word "capitalism" only appears twice in Volume I of Das Kapital, p.124 (German edition), and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p.493 (German edition). However, the late Engels made more frequent use of the term "capitalism". Volumes II and III of Das Kapital, both edited by Engels after Marx's death, contain the word "capitalism" four and three times, respectively. The three combined volumes of Das Kapital (1867, 1885, 1894) contain the word "capitalist" more than 2,600 times. Marx's notion of the capitalist mode of production is characterised as a system of primarily private ownership of the means of production in a mainly market economy, with a legal framework on commerce and a physical infrastructure provided by the state. Karl Marx. Das Kapital. An 1877 work entitled Better Times, and an unknown author in 1884 of the Pall Mall Gazette, also used the term capitalism. However, the first use of capitalism to describe the production system was by the German economist Werner Sombart, in his 1902 book The Jews and Modern Capitalism (Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben). Sombart's close friend and colleague, Max Weber, also used capitalism in his 1904 book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus). Perspectives The concept of capitalism has evolved over time and has also resulted in a diversity of different perspectives. The major schools of thought that have had a critical effect on our concept of capitalism are represented here. Classical political economy The classical school economic thought emerged in Britain in the late 18th century. The classical political economists Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Jean-Baptiste Say, and John Stuart Mill published analyses of the production, distribution and exchange of goods in a market that have since formed the basis of study for most contemporary economists. In France, 'Physiocrats' like François Quesnay promoted free trade based on a conception that wealth originated from land. Quesnay's Tableau Économique (1759), described the economy analytically and laid the foundation of the Physiocrats' economic theory, followed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot who opposed tariffs and customs duties and advocated free trade. Richard Cantillon defined long-run equilibrium as the balance of flows of income, and argued that the supply and demand mechanism around land influenced short-term prices. Adam Smith's attack on mercantilism and his reasoning for "the system of natural liberty" in The Wealth of Nations (1776) are usually taken as the beginning of classical political economy. Smith devised a set of concepts that remain strongly associated with capitalism today, particularly his theory of the "invisible hand" of the market, through which the pursuit of individual self-interest unintentionally produces a collective good for society. It was necessary for Smith to be so forceful in his argument in favor of free markets because he had to overcome the popular mercantilist sentiment of the time period. Degen, Robert. The Triumph of Capitalism. 1st ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2008. He criticized monopolies, tariffs, duties, and other state enforced restrictions of his time and believed that the market is the most fair and efficient arbitrator of resources. This view was shared by David Ricardo, second most important of the classical political economists and one of the most influential economists of modern times. In The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), he developed the law of comparative advantage, which explains why it is profitable for two parties to trade, even if one of the trading partners is more efficient in every type of economic production. This principle supports the economic case for free trade. Ricardo was a supporter of Say's Law and held the view that full employment is the normal equilibrium for a competitive economy. He also argued that inflation is closely related to changes in quantity of money and credit and was a proponent of the law of diminishing returns, which states that each additional unit of input yields less and less additional output. The values of classical political economy are strongly associated with the classical liberal doctrine of minimal government intervention in the economy, though it does not necessarily oppose the state's provision of a few basic public goods. Eric Aaron, What's Right? (Dural, Australia: Rosenberg Publishing, 2003), 75. Classical liberal thought has generally assumed a clear division between the economy and other realms of social activity, such as the state. While economic liberalism favors markets unfettered by the government, it maintains that the state has a legitimate role in providing public goods. For instance, Adam Smith argued that the state has a role in providing roads, canals, schools and bridges that cannot be efficiently implemented by private entities. However, he preferred that these goods should be paid proportionally to their consumption (e.g. putting a toll). In addition, he advocated retaliatory tariffs to bring about free trade, and copyrights and patents to encourage innovation. Neoclassical economics and the Chicago School Today, the majority academic research on capitalism in the English-speaking world draws on neoclassical economic thought. It favors extensive market coordination and relatively neutral patterns of governmental market regulation aimed at maintaining property rights, rather than privileging particular social actors; deregulated labor markets; corporate governance dominated by financial owners of firms; and financial systems depending chiefly on capital market-based financing rather than state financing. Milton Friedman took many of the basic principles set forth by Adam Smith and the classical economists and gave them a new twist. One example of this is his article in the September 1970 issue of The New York Times Magazine, where he claims that the social responsibility of business is “to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits…(through) open and free competition without deception or fraud.” This is tantamount to Smith’s argument that self interest in turn benefits the whole of society. Friedman, Milton. "The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits." The New York Times Magazine 13 Sep. 1970. Work like this helped lay the foundations for the coming marketization (or privatization) of state enterprises and the supply-side economics of Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher. The Chicago School of economics is best known for its free market advocacy and monetarist ideas. According to Friedman and other monetarists, market economies are inherently stable if left to themselves and depressions result only from government intervention. Friedman, for example, argued that the Great Depression was result of a contraction of the money supply, controlled by the Federal Reserve, and not by the lack of investment as John Maynard Keynes had argued. Ben Bernanke, current Chairman of the Federal Reserve, is among the economists today generally accepting Friedman's analysis of the causes of the Great Depression. Neoclassical economists, today the majority of economists, consider value to be subjective, varying from person to person and for the same person at different times, and thus reject the labor theory of value. Marginalism is the theory that economic value results from marginal utility and marginal cost (the marginal concepts). These economists see capitalists as earning profits by forgoing current consumption, by taking risks, and by organizing production. Das Kapital and Marxian economics The central driving force of capitalism, according to Karl Marx, was in the exploitation and alienation of labour. The ultimate source of capitalist profits and surplus was the unpaid labor of wage laborers. Employers could appropriate the new output value because of their ownership of the productive capital assets—protected by the state. By producing output as capital for the employers, the workers constantly reproduced the condition of capitalism by their labour. Das Kapital is a key book explaining Karl Marx' theory of capitalism and is a basis for Marxian economics. However, though Marx is very concerned with the social aspects of commerce, Das Kapital is not an ethical treatise, but an attempt to explain the objective "laws of motion" of the capitalist system as a whole, its origins and future. He aims to reveal the causes and dynamics of the accumulation of capital, the growth of wage labour, the transformation of the workplace, the concentration of capital, competition, the banking and credit system, the tendency of the rate of profit to decline, land-rents and many other things. Marx viewed the commodity as the "cell-form" or building unit of capitalist society—it is an object useful to somebody else, but with a trading value for the owner. Because commercial transactions implied no particular morality beyond that required to settle transactions, the growth of markets caused the economic sphere and the moral-legal sphere to become separated in society: subjective moral value becomes separated from objective economic value. Political economy, which was originally thought of as a "moral science" concerned with the just distribution of wealth, or as a "political arithmetick" for tax collection, gave way to the separate disciplines of economic science, law and ethics. Marx believed the political economists could study the scientific laws of capitalism in an "objective" way, because the expansion of markets had in reality objectified most economic relations: the cash nexus stripped away all previous religious and political illusions (only to replace them, however, with another kind of illusion—commodity fetishism). Marx also says that he viewed "the economic formation of society as a process of natural history". The growth of commerce happened as a process which no individual could control or direct, creating an enormously complex web of social interconnections globally. Thus a "society" was formed "economically" before people actually began to consciously master the enormous productive capacity and interconnections they had created, in order to put it collectively to the best use. Marx’s analysis in Das Kapital focuses primarily on the structural contradictions, rather than the class antagonisms, that characterize capitalist society—the “contradictory movement [gegensätzliche Bewegung] [that] has its origin in the twofold character of labour,” rather than in the struggle between labor and capital, i.e. between the owning and the working classes. These contradictions, moreover, operate (as Marx describes using a phrase borrowed from Hegel) “behind the backs” of both the capitalists and workers, that is, as a result of their activities, and yet irreducible to their conscious awareness either as individuals or as classes. As such, Das Kapital, does not propose a theory of revolution (led by the working class and its representatives) but rather a theory of crises as the condition for a potential revolution, or what Marx refers to in the Communist Manifesto as a potential “weapon,” “forged” by the owners of capital, “turned against the bourgeoisie itself” by the working class. Such crises, according to Marx, are rooted in the contradictory character of the commodity, the most fundamental social form of capitalist society. In capitalism, improvements in technology and rising levels of productivity increase the amount of material wealth (or use values) in society while simultaneously diminishing the economic value of this wealth, thereby lowering the rate of profit—a tendency that leads to the paradox, characteristic of crises in capitalism, of “poverty in the midst of plenty,” or more precisely, crises of overproduction in the midst of underconsumption. Weberian political sociology In some social sciences, the understanding of the defining characteristics of capitalism has been strongly influenced by 19th century German social theorist Max Weber. Weber considered market exchange, rather than production, as the defining feature of capitalism; capitalist enterprises, in contrast to their counterparts in prior modes of economic activity, was their rationalization of production, directed toward maximizing efficiency and productivity. According to Weber, workers in pre-capitalist economic institutions understood work in terms of a personal relationship between master and journeyman in a guild, or between lord and peasant in a manor. In his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-1905), Weber sought to trace how capitalism transformed these traditional modes of economic activity. For Weber, the 'spirit of capitalism' began with the Puritan understanding of one’s ‘calling’ in life and their laboring for God rather than for men. This is pictured in Proverbs 22:29, “Seest thou a man diligent in his calling? He shall stand before kings” and in Colossians 3:23, "Whatever you do, do your work heartily, as for the Lord rather than for men." In the Protestant Ethic, Weber further stated that “moneymaking – provided it is done legally – is, within the modern economic order, the result and the expression of diligence in one’s calling…” Thus in Weber's opinion, it was with a devotion to God in the workplace and seeking assurance of salvation described as the Protestant work ethic that the Puritans helped form the basis to the modern economic order. This 'spirit' was gradually codified by law; rendering wage-laborers legally 'free' to sell work; encouraging the development of technology aimed at the organization of production on the basis of rational principles; and clarifying the apparent separation of the public and private lives of workers, especially between the home and the workplace. Therefore, unlike Marx, Weber did not see capitalism as primarily the consequence of changes in the means of production. Capitalism, for Weber, was the most advanced economic system ever developed over the course of human history. Weber associated capitalism with the advance of the business corporation, public credit, and the further advance of bureaucracy of the modern world. Although Weber defended capitalism against its socialist critics of the period, he saw its rationalizing tendencies as a possible threat to traditional cultural values and institutions, and a possible 'iron cage' constraining human freedom. This is further seen in his criticism of "specialists without spirit, hedonists without a heart" that were developing, in his opinion, with the fading of the original Puritan 'spirit' associated with capitalism. Weber's dating and linkage of the spirit of capitalism to Protestantism has been criticised. One recent example is by Rodney Stark Stark, Rodney. Victory of Reason, (Random House New York, 2005) ; who locates the emergence of commerce and capitalism to monastic estates in Italy and France and later the independent Italian city states during the late middle ages and into the early modern period. By this analysis, citing Fernand Braudel, Carlo Maria Cipolla; Robert Lopez Lopez, Robert. Commercial Revolution in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 1976. and others, innovations in banking, insurance, accountancy, and various production and commercial practices linked closely to a 'spirit' of frugality, reinvestment, and city life and promoted attitudes which Weber had associated only with northern Europe, Protestantism and a much later age. The Italian city-states maintained their political independence from Empire and Church, traded with north Africa, the middle East and Asia, producing many links between of culture and commerce. They differed from the absolutist states of Spain and France, also Catholic but centralised monarchies, whose power overwhelmed the small city republics ultimately. Another historian who underscores the crucial commercial life of pre Reformation Italian states is Niall Ferguson Ferguson,Niall. The Ascent of Money, (Penguin,2008) ; who locates financing and banking innovations clearly in this period. During their period of wealth and power the city republics of Italy also generated incipient liberal political thought, according to Quentin Skinner, in traditions attaching civic liberty and anti-monarchical republicanism. Skinner, Quentin, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, vol I: The Renaissance; vol II: The Age of Reformation. Cambridge University Press, 1978) . German Historical School and Austrian School From the perspective of the German Historical School, capitalism is primarily identified in terms of the organization of production for markets. Although this perspective shares similar theoretical roots with that of Weber, its emphasis on markets and money lends it different focus. For followers of the German Historical School, the key shift from traditional modes of economic activity to capitalism involved the shift from medieval restrictions on credit and money to the modern monetary economy combined with an emphasis on the profit motive. In the late 19th century, the German Historical School of economics diverged, with the emerging Austrian School of economics, led at the time by Carl Menger. Later generations of followers of the Austrian School continued to be influential in Western economic thought through much of the 20th century. The Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter, a forerunner of the Austrian School of economics, emphasized the "creative destruction" of capitalism — the fact that market economies undergo constant change. At any moment of time, posits Schumpeter, there are rising industries and declining industries. Schumpeter, and many contemporary economists influenced by his work, argue that resources should flow from the declining to the expanding industries for an economy to grow, but they recognized that sometimes resources are slow to withdraw from the declining industries because of various forms of institutional resistance to change. The Austrian economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek were among the leading defenders of market capitalism against 20th century proponents of socialist planned economies. Mises and Hayek argued that only market capitalism could manage a complex, modern economy. Since a modern economy produces such a large array of distinct goods and services, and consists of such a large array of consumers and enterprises, asserted Mises and Hayek, the information problems facing any other form of economic organization other than market capitalism would exceed its capacity to handle information. Thinkers within Supply-side economics built on the work of the Austrian School, and particularly emphasize Say's Law: "supply creates its own demand." Capitalism, to this school, is defined by lack of state restraint on the decisions of producers. Austrian economists claim that Marx failed to make the distinction between capitalism and mercantilism. They argue that Marx conflated the imperialistic, colonialistic, protectionist and interventionist doctrines of mercantilism with capitalism. Austrian economics has been a major influence on the ideology of libertarianism, which considers laissez-faire capitalism to be the ideal economic system. Murray Rothbard, who founded the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Journal of Libertarian Studies, is referred to as the father of Libertarianism in the United States. He was associated with the 1982 creation of the Ludwig von Mises Institute and later was its academic vice president. In 1987 he started the scholarly "Review of Austrian Economics," now called the Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics. Rothbard coined the term "Anarcho-capitalism". Keynesian economics In his 1937 The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, the British economist John Maynard Keynes argued that capitalism suffered a basic problem in its ability to recover from periods of slowdowns in investment. Keynes argued that a capitalist economy could remain in an indefinite equilibrium despite high unemployment. Essentially rejecting Say's law, he argued that some people may have a liquidity preference which would see them rather hold money than buy new goods or services, which therefore raised the prospect that the Great Depression would not end without what he termed in the General Theory "a somewhat comprehensive socialization of investment." Keynesian economics challenged the notion that laissez-faire capitalist economics could operate well on their own, without state intervention used to promote aggregate demand, fighting high unemployment and deflation of the sort seen during the 1930s. He and his followers recommended "pump-priming" the economy to avoid recession: cutting taxes, increasing government borrowing, and spending during an economic down-turn. This was to be accompanied by trying to control wages nationally partly through the use of inflation to cut real wages and to deter people from holding money. John Maynard Keynes tried to provide solutions to many of Marx’s problems without completely abandoning the classical understanding of capitalism. His work attempted to show that regulation can be effective, and that economic stabilizers can reign in the aggressive expansions and recessions that Marx disliked. These changes sought to create more stability in the business cycle, and reduce the abuses of laborers. Keynesian economists argue that Keynesian policies were one of the primary reasons capitalism was able to recover following the Great Depression. Erhardt III, Erwin. "History of Economic Development." University of Cincinnati. Lindner Center Auditorium, Cincinnati. 07 Nov. 2008. The premises of Keynes’s work have, however, since been challenged by neoclassical and supply-side economics and the Austrian School. Another challenge to Keynesian thinking came from his colleague Piero Sraffa, and subsequently from the Neo-Ricardian school that followed Sraffa. In Sraffa's highly technical analysis, capitalism is defined by an entire system of social relations among both producers and consumers, but with a primary emphasis on the demands of production. According to Sraffa, the tendency of capital to seek its highest rate of profit causes a dynamic instability in social and economic relations. History Mercantilism The period between the 16th and 18th centuries is commonly described as mercantilism. This period was associated with geographic discoveries by merchant overseas traders, especially from England and the Low Countries; the European colonization of the Americas; and the rapid growth in overseas trade. Mercantilism was a system of trade for profit, although commodities were still largely produced by non-capitalist production methods. While some scholars see mercantilism as the earliest stage of modern capitalism, others argue that modern capitalism did not emerge until later. For example, noting the pre-capitalist features of mercantilism, Karl Polanyi argued that capitalism did not emerge until the establishment of free trade in Britain in the 1830s. Polanyi, Karl. The Great Transformation. 1944. The earliest forms of mercantilism date back to the Roman Empire. When the Roman Empire expanded, the mercantilist economy expanded throughout Europe. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, most of the European economy became controlled by local feudal powers, and mercantilism collapsed there. However, mercantilism persisted in Arabia. Due to its proximity to neighboring countries, the Arabs established trade routes to Egypt, Persia, and Byzantium. As Islam spread in the 7th century, mercantilism spread rapidly to Spain, Portugal, Northern Africa, and Asia. Mercantilism finally revived in Europe in the 14th century, as mercantilism spread from Spain and Portugal. The Rise of Capitalism Feudalism began to lay some of the foundations necessary for the development of mercantilism, a precursor to capitalism. Feudalism took place mostly in Europe and lasted from the medieval period up through the 16th century. Feudal manors were almost entirely self sufficient, and therefore limited the role of the market. This stifled the growth of capitalism. However, the relatively sudden emergence of new technologies and discoveries, particularly in the industries of agriculture James Fulcher, Capitalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004) 19 and exploration, revitalized the growth of capitalism. The most important development at the end of Feudalism was the emergence of “the dichotomy between wage earners and capitalist merchants”. Degen, Robert. The Triumph of Capitalism. 1st ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2008. p. 12 Among the major tenets of mercantilist theory was bullionism, a doctrine stressing the importance of accumulating precious metals. Mercantilists argued that a state should export more goods than it imported so that foreigners would have to pay the difference in precious metals. Mercantilists asserted that only raw materials that could not be extracted at home should be imported; and promoted government subsides, such as the granting of monopolies and protective tariffs, were necessary to encourage home production of manufactured goods. European merchants, backed by state controls, subsidies, and monopolies, made most of their profits from the buying and selling of goods. In the words of Francis Bacon, the purpose of mercantilism was "the opening and well-balancing of trade; the cherishing of manufacturers; the banishing of idleness; the repressing of waste and excess by sumptuary laws; the improvement and husbanding of the soil; the regulation of prices…" Quoted in Sir George Clark, The Seventeenth Century (New York: Oxford University Pres, 1961), p. 24. Similar practices of economic regimentation had begun earlier in the medieval towns. However, under mercantilism, given the contemporaneous rise of the absolutism, the state superseded the local guilds as the regulator of the economy. During that time the guilds essentially functioned like cartels that monopolized the quantity of craftsmen to earn above-market wages. Mancur Olson, The rise and decline of nations: economic growth, staglaction, and social rigidities (New Haven & London 1982). Commercialism At the period from the 18th century, the commercial stage of capitalism transcended from the previous domination of capitalism by merchants. Commercialism, or commercial capitalism, originated from the start of the British and Dutch East India Company. These companies were characterized by its monopoly on trade, granted by the letters patents. Recognized as chartered joint-stock companies by the state, these companies enjoyed a large sum of power, ranging from lawmaking, military, and treaty-making privileges. Characterized by its colonial and expansionary powers by states, powerful nation-states sought to accumulate precious metals, and military conflicts arose. During this era, merchants, who had traded under the previous stage of mercantilism, invested capital in the East India Companies and other colonies, seeking a return on investment. Industrialism By the late 18th century, mercantilism was in crisis: mercantile activity could not produce sufficient wealth to pay for the military expenditures of the states that protected, and depended on, commerce. This crisis intensified with the Industrial Revolution. Although mercantilist policies endured in European countries with weak industrial bases, such as Prussia and Russia, into the 19th century, rapidly industrializing countries began questioning the value of mercantilist policies by the late 18th century. This is most evident in Great Britain, the home of the Industrial Revolution, where a new group of economic theorists, led by David Hume and Adam Smith, in the mid 18th century, challenged fundamental mercantilist doctrines as the belief that the amount of the world’s wealth remained constant and that a state could only increase its wealth at the expense of another state. At the same time that philosophers and politicians were debating the merits of mercantilism, the mid-18th century gave rise to an alternative set of economic relations and practices: industrial (bourgeois) capitalism. Most scholars agree that the emergence of capitalism was made possible by earlier economic developments in England. According to Marxists, it was made possible by the exploitation of wage-labor on a large scale, which English landowners first experimented with after the crisis of the 14th century. According to World Systems Theorists like Immanuel Wallerstein, it was made possible by the accumulation of vast amounts of capital under the merchant phase of capitalism. During the resulting Industrial Revolution, the industrialist replaced the merchant as a dominant actor in the capitalist system and effected the decline of the traditional handicraft skills of artisans, guilds, and journeymen. Also during this period, capitalism marked the transformation of relations between the British landowning gentry and peasants, giving rise to the production of cash crops for the market rather than for subsistence on a feudal manor. The surplus generated by the rise of commercial agriculture encouraged increased mechanization of agriculture and the rise of the bourgeoisie. Marx dated industrial capitalism from the last third of the 18th century, marked the development of the factory system of manufacturing, characterized by a complex division of labor between and within work process and the routinization of work tasks; and finally established the global domination of the capitalist mode of production. In the midst of this newly developing concept of division of labor came exploitation of labor on a much larger scale than was ever seen before. Fulcher, James. Capitalism. 1st ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Britain also abandoned its protectionist policy, as embraced by mercantilism. In the 19th century, Richard Cobden and John Bright, who based their beliefs on the Manchester School, initiated a movement to lower tariffs. In the 1840s, Britain adopted a less protectionist policy, with the repeal of the Corn Laws and the Navigation Acts. Britain reduced tariffs and quotas, in line with Adam Smith and David Ricardo's advocacy for free trade. As noting the various pre-capitalist features of mercantilism, Karl Polanyi argued that capitalism did not emerge until the establishment of free trade in Britain in the 1830s. Other sources indicate that mercantilism fell after the repeal of the Navigation Acts in 1849, and libertarians argue that the current system is still mercantilist. However, due to companies legislation, British capitalism was not exclusively laissez-faire. The British state created charters, creating immunites for the corporations under the Limited Liability Act 1855 and the Joint Stock Companies Act 1856. The British East India Company and controls in major industries during that time were also important examples of economic regulations. See List of Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom Parliament, 1840-1859 and History of labour law in the United Kingdom. Most of the early proponents of the liberal theory of economics in the United States subscribed to the American School. This school of thought was inspired by the ideas of Alexander Hamilton, who proposed the creation of the First National Bank and the Second National Bank and increased tariffs (e.g. tariff of 1828) to favor northern industrial interests. Following Hamilton's death, the more abiding protectionist influence in the antebellum period came from Henry Clay and his American System. In the mid-19th century, the United States followed the Whig tradition of economic liberalism, which included increased state control, regulation and macroeconomic development of infrastructure. Public works such as the provision and regulation transportation such as railroads took effect. The Pacific Railway Acts provided the development of the First Transcontinental Railroad. In order to help pay for its war effort in the American Civil War, the United States government imposed its first personal income tax, on August 5, 1861, as part of the Revenue Act of 1861 (3% of all incomes over US $800; rescinded in 1872). Following the American Civil War, the movement towards a mixed economy accelerated with even more protectionism and government regulation. In the 1880s and 1890s, significant tariff increases were enacted (see the McKinley Tariff and Dingley Tariff). Moreover, with the enactment of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, the Sherman Anti-trust Act, the federal government began to assume an increasing role in regulating and directing the country's economy. Monopolism In the late 19th century, the control and direction of large areas of industry came into the hands of financiers. This period has been defined as state capitalism, state monopoly capitalism, or corporate capitalism, characterized by the subordination of processes of production to the accumulation of profits in a financial system. Major characteristics of capitalism in this period included the establishment of large industrial cartels or monopolies; the ownership and management of industry by financiers divorced from the production process; and the development of a complex system of banking, an equity market, and corporate holdings of capital through stock ownership. Increasingly, large industries and land became the subject of profit and loss by financial speculators. From about the American Civil War to the early 20th century, capitalism has also been increasingly influenced by large, monopolistic corporations. The oil, telecommunication, railroad, shipping, banking and financial industries are characterized by its monopolistic domination. Inside these corporations, a division of labor separates shareholders, owners, managers, and actual laborers. Although the concept of monopoly capitalism originated among Marxist theorists, non-Marxist economic historians have also commented on the rise of monopolies and trusts in the period. "> By the last quarter of the 19th century, the emergence of large industrial trusts had provoked legislation in the U.S. to reduce the monopolistic tendencies of the period. Gradually, during this Progressive Era, the U.S. federal government played a larger and larger role in passing antitrust laws and regulation of industrial standards for key industries of special public concern. However, contemporary, non-bourgeois economic historians believe these new laws were in fact designed to aid large corporations at the expense of smaller competitors. By the end of the 19th century, economic depressions and boom and bust business cycles had become a recurring problem, although such problems were most likely caused by government intervention, not failures in free markets (Rand 1967, Friedman 1962, Bernstein 2005). In particular, the Long Depression of the 1870s and 1880s and the Great Depression of the 1930s affected almost the entire capitalist world, and generated discussion about capitalism’s long-term survival prospects. In the early 20th century, a succession of U.S. Presidents, beginning with Warren Harding's "Return to Normalcy," the state decreased taxation rates, with the Revenue Act of 1924 and 1926. This allowed for the prosperity of "The Roaring Twenties," but later was said to be largely responsible for the Great Depression. Degen, Robert. The Triumph of Capitalism. 1st ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2008. During the 1930s, Marxist commentators often posited the possibility of capitalism's decline or demise, often in alleged contrast to the ability of the Soviet Union to avoid suffering the effects of the global depression. Keynesianism and neoliberalism In the period following the global depression of the 1930s, the state played an increasingly prominent role in the capitalistic system throughout much of the world. In 1929, for example, total U.S. government expenditures (federal, state, and local) amounted to less than one-tenth of GNP; from the 1970s they amounted to around one-third (EB). Similar increases were seen in all bourgeois economies, some of which, such as France, have reached even higher ratios of government expenditures to GNP than the United States. These economies have since been widely described as "mixed economies." During the postwar boom, a broad array of new analytical tools in the social sciences were developed to explain the social and economic trends of the period, including the concepts of post-industrial society and the welfare state. The phase of capitalism from the beginning of the postwar period through the 1970s has sometimes been described as “state capitalism”, especially by Marxian thinkers. Early proponents of the term "state capitalism" include, for example, Tony Cliff, Raya Dunayevskaya, CLR James and Paul Mattick. Ernest Mandel has been a particularly prominent advocate of the analysis of post-WWII conditions as state capitalism. (See, for example, Mandel's The Theory of “State Capitalism”. This era was greatly influenced by Keynesian economic stabilization policies. The long postwar boom ended in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and the situation was worsened by the rise of stagflation. Exceptionally high inflation combined with slow output growth, rising unemployment, and eventually recession caused loss of credibility of Keynesian welfare-statist mode of regulation. Under the influence of Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman, Western states embraced policy prescriptions inspired by the laissez-faire capitalism and classical liberalism. In particular, monetarism, a theoretical alternative to Keynesianism that is more compatible with laissez-faire, gained increasing prominence in the capitalist world, especially under the leadership of Ronald Reagan in the U.S. and Margaret Thatcher in the UK in the 1980s. Finally, the general public's interest shifted from the collectivist concerns of Keynes's managed capitalism to a focus on individual freedom and choice, called "remarketized capitalism." In the eyes of many economic and political commentators, collapse of the Soviet Union supposedly brought further evidence of superiority of market capitalism over communism. Globalization Although overseas trade has been associated with the development of capitalism for over five hundred years, some thinkers argue that a number of trends associated with globalization have acted to increase the mobility of people and capital since the last quarter of the 20th century, combining to circumscribe the room to maneuver of states in choosing non-capitalist models of development. Today, these trends have bolstered the argument that capitalism should now be viewed as a truly world system. However, other thinkers argue that globalization, even in its quantitative degree, is no greater now than during earlier periods of capitalist trade. The roots of globalized capitalism can be traced back to the imperialism of the early 20th century. Imperialistic policies promoted the spread of capitalistic principles, and the doors of trade stayed open in foreign countries even after imperialism had come to an end. After the abandonment of the Bretton Woods system and the strict state control of foreign exchange rates, the total value of transactions in foreign exchange was estimated to be at least twenty times greater than that of all foreign movements of goods and services (EB). The internationalization of finance, which some see as beyond the reach of state control, combined with the growing ease with which large corporations have been able to relocate their operations to low-wage states, has posed the question of the 'eclipse' of state sovereignty, arising from the growing 'globalization' of capital. While scientists generally agree about the size of global income inequality, there is a general disagreement about the recent direction of change of it. However, it is growing within particular nations such as China. The book The Improving State of the World argues that economic growth since the Industrial Revolution has been very strong and that factors such as adequate nutrition, life expectancy, infant mortality, literacy, prevalence of child labor, education, and available free time have improved greatly. The biggest reason for the increasingly global capitalist economy is the telecommunications revolution that has taken place over the last twenty years. Fax machines, cell phones, and the internet have made it possible for work to be done and transactions to take place from almost anywhere in the world. In 2008, state intervention in global capital markets by the American and other governments was seen by many as signaling a crisis for free-market capitalism. Serious turmoil in the banking system and financial markets due in part to the subprime mortgage crisis reached a critical stage during September 2008, characterized by severely contracted liquidity in the global credit markets and going-concern threats to investment banks and other institutions. "President Bush Meets with Bicameral and Bipartisan Members of Congress to Discuss Economy", Whitehouse.gov, September 25, 2008. House Votes Down Bail-Out Package Political advocacy Support Many theorists and policymakers in predominantly capitalist nations have emphasized capitalism's ability to promote economic growth, as measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), capacity utilization or standard of living. This argument was central, for example, to Adam Smith's advocacy of letting a free market control production and price, and allocate resources. Many theorists have noted that this increase in global GDP over time coincides with the emergence of the modern world capitalist system. While the measurements are not identical, proponents argue that increasing GDP (per capita) is empirically shown to bring about improved standards of living, such as better availability of food, housing, clothing, and health care. The decrease in the number of hours worked per week and the decreased participation of children and the elderly in the workforce have been attributed to capitalism. Proponents also believe that a capitalist economy offers far more opportunities for individuals to raise their income through new professions or business ventures than do other economic forms. To their thinking, this potential is much greater than in either traditional feudal or tribal societies or in socialist societies. Milton Friedman has argued that the economic freedom of competitive capitalism is a requisite of political freedom. Friedman argued that centralized control of economic activity is always accompanied by political repression. In his view, transactions in a market economy are voluntary, and the wide diversity that voluntary activity permits is a fundamental threat to repressive political leaders and greatly diminish power to coerce. Friedman's view was also shared by Friedrich Hayek and John Maynard Keynes, both of whom believed that capitalism is vital for freedom to survive and thrive. Austrian School economists have argued that capitalism can organize itself into a complex system without an external guidance or planning mechanism. Friedrich Hayek coined the term "catallaxy" to describe what he considered the phenomenon of self-organization underpinning capitalism. From this perspective, in process of self-organization, the profit motive has an important role. From transactions between buyers and sellers price systems emerge, and prices serve as a signal as to the urgent and unfilled wants of people. The promise of profits gives entrepreneurs incentive to use their knowledge and resources to satisfy those wants. Thus the activities of millions of people, each seeking his own interest, are coordinated. This decentralized system of coordination is viewed by some supporters of capitalism as one of its greatest strengths. They argue that it permits many solutions to be tried, and that real-world competition generally finds a good solution to emerging challenges. In contrast, they argue, central planning often selects inappropriate solutions as a result of faulty forecasting. However, in all existing modern economies, the state conducts some degree of centralized economic planning (using such tools as allowing the country's central bank to set base interest rates), ostensibly as an attempt to improve efficiency, attenuate cyclical volatility, and further particular social goals. Proponents who follow the Austrian School argue that even this limited control creates inefficiencies because we cannot predict the long-term activity of the economy. Milton Friedman, for example, has argued that the Great Depression was caused by the erroneous policy of the Federal Reserve. Ayn Rand was a prominent philosophical supporter of laissez-faire capitalism; her novel Atlas Shrugged was one of the most influential publications ever written on the subject of business and continues to be a best-seller. Ayn Rand's Literature of Capitalism, The New York Times The first person to endow capitalism with a new code of morality (Rational Selfishness), The Virtue of Selfishness she did not justify capitalism on the grounds of pure "practicality" (that it is the best wealth-creating system), or the supernatural (that God or religion supports capitalism), or because it benefits the most people, but maintained that it is the only morally valid socio-political system because it allows people to be free to act in their rational self-interest. Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal These thinkers have had a substantial influence on the Libertarian Party. The Libertarian Party strongly advocates the elimination of most, if not all, state involvement in the marketplace. The Republican Liberty Caucus is the libertarian branch of the Republican Party. Criticism Prominent leftist critics have included marxists (like Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Leon Trotsky, Antonio Gramsci, Rosa Luxemburg, Slavoj Zizek, Che Guevara, Fidel Castro) and anarchists (including Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Mikhail Bakunin, Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Murray Bookchin, Rudolf Rocker, Noam Chomsky, and many others). Movements like the Luddites, Narodniks, Shakers, Utopian Socialists and others have opposed capitalism for various reasons. Marxism advocated a revolutionary overthrow of capitalism that would lead eventually to communism. Marxism also influenced social democratic and labour parties, which seek change through existing democratic channels instead of revolution, and believe that capitalism should be heavily regulated rather than abolished. Many aspects of capitalism have come under attack from the relatively recent anti-globalization movement. Religions have criticized or outright opposed specific elements of capitalism. The traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam forbid lending money at interest, although methods of Islamic banking have been developed. Christianity has been a source of both praise and criticism for capitalism, particularly its materialist aspects. The first socialists drew many of their principles from Christian values (see Christian socialism), against "bourgeois" values of profiteering, greed, selfishness, and hoarding. Christian critics of capitalism may not oppose capitalism entirely, but support a mixed economy in order to ensure adequate labor standards and relations, as well as economic justice. In addition, there are many prominent Protestant denominations (particularly in the United States) who have reconciled with — or are ardently in favor of — capitalism, particularly in opposition to secular socialism. However, in the U.S. and around the world there are many Protestant Christian traditions which are critical of, or even oppose, capitalism. Another critic is the Indian philosopher P.R. Sarkar, founder of the Ananda Marga movement, who developed the Law of Social Cycle to identify the problems of capitalism and then proposed the Progressive Utilization Theory (PROUT) as a solution to its ills. Some problems identified with capitalism include: unfair and inefficient distribution of wealth and power; a tendency toward market monopoly or oligopoly (and government by oligarchy); imperialism and various forms of economic and cultural exploitation; and phenomena such as social alienation, inequality, unemployment, and economic instability. Critics have maintained that there is an inherent tendency towards oligolopolistic structures when laissez-faire is combined with capitalist private property. Because of this tendency either laissez-faire, or private property, or both, have drawn fire from critics who believe an essential aspect of economic freedom is the extension of the freedom to have meaningful decision-making control over productive resources to everyone. Economist Branko Horvat asserts, "it is now well known that capitalist development leads to the concentration of capital, employment and power. It is somewhat less known that it leads to the almost complete destruction of economic freedom." SMU Economics Professor and New York Times #1 best-selling author, Ravi Batra, has long maintained that excessive income and wealth inequalities are a fundamental cause of financial crisis and economic depression which will lead to the collapse of capitalism and the emergence of a new social order. Near the start of the 20th century, Vladimir Lenin argued that that state use of military power to defend capitalist interests abroad was an inevitable corollary of monopoly capitalism. This concept of political economy concerning the relationship between economic and political power among and within states includes critics of capitalism who assign to it responsibility for not only economic exploitation, but imperialist, colonialist and counter-revolutionary wars, repressions of workers and trade unionists, genocides, massacres, and so on. Environmentalists have argued that capitalism requires continual economic growth, and will inevitably deplete the finite natural resources of the earth, and other broadly utilized resources. Such thinkers, including Murray Bookchin, have argued that capitalist production externalizes environmental costs to all of society, and is unable to adequately mitigate its impact upon ecosystems and the biosphere at large. Supporters maintain, however, that it would be imprudent for capitalist societies to deplete resources to such an extent. Labor historians and scholars, such as Immanuel Wallerstein, Tom Brass and, latterly Marcel van der Linden, have also argued that unfree labor — the use of a labor force of slaves, indentured servants, criminal convicts, political prisoners, and/or other coerced persons — is compatible with capitalist relations. That unfree labor is acceptable to capital was argued during the 1980s by Tom Brass. See Towards a Comparative Political Economy of Unfree Labor (Cass, 1999). Democracy, the state, and legal frameworks The relationship between the state, its formal mechanisms, and capitalist societies has been debated in many fields of social and political theory, with active discussion since the 19th century. Hernando de Soto is a contemporary economist who has argued that an important characteristic of capitalism is the functioning state protection of property rights in a formal property system where ownership and transactions are clearly recorded. According to de Soto, this is the process by which physical assets are transformed into capital, which in turn may be used in many more ways and much more efficiently in the market economy. A number of Marxian economists have argued that the Enclosure Acts in England, and similar legislation elsewhere, were an integral part of capitalist primitive accumulation and that specific legal frameworks of private land ownership have been integral to the development of capitalism. . New institutional economics, a field pioneered by Douglass North, stresses the need of capitalism for a legal framework to function optimally, and focuses on the relationship between the historical development of capitalism and the creation and maintenance of political and economic institutions. In new institutional economics and other fields focusing on public policy, economists seek to judge when and whether governmental intervention (such as taxes, welfare, and government regulation) can result in potential gains in efficiency. According to Gregory Mankiw, a New Keynesian economist, governmental intervention can improve on market outcomes under conditions of "market failure," or situations in which the market on its own does not allocate resources efficiently. The idea of market failure is that markets fail to realize all potential gains from trade. This means that markets fail to deliver perfect economic results. Critics of market failure theory, like Ronald Coase, Harold Demsetz, and James M. Buchanan argue that government programs and policies also fall short of absolute perfection. Market failures are often small, and government failures are sometimes large. It is therefore the case that imperfect markets are often better than imperfect governmental alternatives. While all nations currently have some kind of market regulations, the desirable degree of regulation is disputed. The relationship between democracy and capitalism is a contentious area in theory and popular political movements. The extension of universal adult male suffrage in 19th century Britain occurred along with the development of industrial capitalism, and democracy became widespread at the same time as capitalism, leading many theorists to posit a causal relationship between them, or that each affects the other. However, in the 20th century, according to some authors, capitalism also accompanied a variety of political formations quite distinct from liberal democracies, including fascist regimes, monarchies, and single-party states, while it has been observed that many democratic societies such as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and Anarchist Catalonia have been expressly anti-capitalist. On the democratic nature of the Venezuelan state, see . On the current government's rejection of capitalism in favor of socialism, see and While some thinkers argue that capitalist development more-or-less inevitably eventually leads to the emergence of democracy, others dispute this claim. Research on the democratic peace theory further indicates that capitalist democracies rarely make war with one another and have little internal violence. However critics of the democratic peace theory note that democratic capitalist states may fight infrequently or never with other democratic capitalist states because of Political similarity or political stability rather than because they are democratic (or capitalist). Some commentators argue that though economic growth under capitalism has led to democratization in the past, it may not do so in the future. Under this line of thinking, authoritarian regimes have been able to manage economic growth without making concessions to greater political freedom. In response to criticism of the system, some proponents of capitalism have argued that its advantages are supported by empirical research. For example, advocates of different Index of Economic Freedom point to a statistical correlation between nations with more economic freedom (as defined by the Indices) and higher scores on variables such as income and life expectancy, including the poor in these nations. See also Anti-capitalism Anarcho-capitalism Capitalist mode of production Communism Corporate capitalism Crony capitalism Debt bondage Economic liberalism Finance capitalism Guaranteed minimum income Late capitalism Laissez-faire capitalism Liberal capitalism Libertarian Party (United States) Neo-Capitalism Objectivism (Ayn Rand) Pollution Post-capitalism Rogue State by William Blum Socialism State capitalism State monopoly capitalism Taxation as slavery The End of Work by Jeremy Rifkin The Theory of Business Enterprise by Thorstein Veblen Technocapitalism The Tragedy of the Commons Wage slavery When Corporations Rule the World by David Korten Notes References Bacher, Christian (2007) Capitalism, Ethics and the Paradoxon of Self-exploitation Grin Verlag. p.2 De George, Richard T. (1986) Business ethics p. 104 Lash, Scott and Urry, John (2000). Capitalism. In Nicholas Abercrombie, S. Hill & BS Turner (Eds.), The Penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.) (pp. 36–40). Wolf, Eric (1982) Europe and the People Without History Wood, Ellen Meiksins (2002) The Origins of Capitalism: A Longer View London: Verso Further reading Josephson, Matthew, The Money Lords; the great finance capitalists, 1925-1950'', New York, Weybright and Talley, 1972. nan:Chu-pún-chú-gī be-x-old:Капіталізм | Capitalism |@lemmatized capitalism:166 economic:70 system:39 wealth:16 mean:7 produce:9 privately:1 arleen:1 j:1 hoag:2 john:8 h:2 introductory:1 economics:23 world:19 scientific:2 pp:4 land:6 labor:18 capital:26 operate:3 trade:27 purpose:2 generate:4 profit:16 without:10 force:3 fraud:2 private:13 individual:8 either:4 singly:1 jointly:1 wood:4 p:17 obrinsky:1 investment:6 distribution:4 income:9 production:26 pricing:1 supply:8 good:18 commodity:5 service:6 determine:1 voluntary:8 decision:3 market:70 economy:54 bacher:2 de:5 george:3 lash:2 distinguishing:1 feature:5 person:7 therefore:5 allow:5 sell:2 use:26 employer:3 capitalist:57 state:75 right:5 property:7 relation:8 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4,089 | Alexander_of_Hales | Alexander Hales (also Halensis, Alensis, Halesius, Alesius; called Doctor Irrefragabilis and Theologorum Monarcha) was a scholastic theologian. He was born at Hales, Gloucestershire, England ca. 1183, and died in Paris on August 21, 1245. He was educated in the monastery at Hales, studied and lectured at Paris, and by 1210 was a master of the sacred page in the faculty of theology. He entered the Franciscan order sometime around 1236 thus creating the first formal connection between the Order and the University of Paris. His work A medieval scholastic While it is common for scholars to state that Alexander was the first to write a commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, it is not quite accurate. There were a number of "commentaries" on the Sentences, but Alexander appears to have been the first magisterial commentary. In doing so, he elevated Lombard's work from a major theological resource to an authoritative text from which masters could teach. The commentary (or more correctly titled a Gloss) survived in student reports from Alexander's teaching in the classroom and so it provides a major insight into the way theologians taught their discipline in the 1220s. For his contemporaries, however, Alexander's fame was his inexhaustible interest in disputation. His disputations prior to his becoming a Franciscan cover over 1,600 pages in their modern edition. His disputed questions after 1236 remain unpublished. Alexander was also one of the first scholastics to participate in the Quodlibetal, a university event in which a master had to respond to any question posed by any student or master over a period of three days. Alexander's Quodlibet also remains unedited. It is because of this questioning that he became known as the 'Doctor irrefragabilis'. Theologian When he became a Franciscan and thus created a formal Franciscan school of theology at Paris, it was soon clear that his students lacked some of the basic tools for the discipline. Alexander responded by beginning a Summa theologiae that is now known as the Summa fratris Alexandri. Alexander drew mainly from his own disputations, but also selected ideas, arguments and sources from his contemporaries. It treats in its first part the doctrines of God and his attributes; in its second, those of creation and sin; in its third, those of redemption and atonement; and, in its fourth and last, those of the sacraments. This massive text (Roger Bacon sarcastically referred to it weighing as much as a horse!) was unfinished at his death and his students, William of Middleton and John of Rupella, were charged with its completion. It was certainly read by the Franciscans at Paris, including Bonaventure. Bonaventure once referred to Alexander as "our father and master" (noster pater et magister), but it is unlikely that the Seraphic Doctor ever studied under Alexander. Alexander was an innovative theologian. He was part of the generation that first grappled with the writings of Aristotle. While there was a ban on using Aristotle's works as teaching texts, theologians like Alexander continued to exploit his ideas in their theology. Two other uncommon sources were promoted by Alexander: Anselm of Canterbury, whose writings had been ignored for almost a century gained an important advocate in Alexander and he used Anselm's works extensively in his teaching on Christology and soteriology; and, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, whom Alexander used in his examination of the theology of Orders and ecclesiastical structures. His doctrines Among the doctrines which were specially developed and, so to speak, fixed by Alexander of Hales, are those of the thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum, and of the character indelibilis of baptism, confirmation, and ordination. That doctrine had been written about much earlier by Augustine of Hippo and was eventually defined a dogma by the Council of Trent. He also posed an important question about the cause of the Incarnation: would Christ have been incarnated if humanity had never sinned? The question eventually became the focal point for a philosophical issue (the theory of possible worlds) and a theological topic (the distinction between God's absolute power (potentia absoluta) and His ordained power (potentia ordinata). John Gerson tells us “The doctrine of Alexander is of a wealth surpassing all expression. It is said that someone asked St. Thomas what was the best manner of studying theology; he replied that it was by attaching oneself to a Master. And to which Doctor? he was asked again. To Alexander of Hales, the Angelic Doctor replied." (Gerson, Opera omnia. Epistola Lugdunum missa cuidam fratri Minori, vol. 1, p. 554.) 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4,090 | Control_unit | A control unit in general is a central (or sometimes distributed but clearly distinguishable) part of whatsoever machinery that controls its operation, provided that a piece of machinery is complex and organized enough to contain any such unit. One domain in which the term is specifically used is the area of computer design. The rest of this article describes control unit in terms of computer design. There is no further article on other uses under this lemma as yet. (Disambiguation and/or integration of this article in Computer with respective linkage -- and retention/creation of a more broad-sense article -- may be appropriate.) Definition Control Unit Co-ordinates the input and output devices of a computer system. Application in Computer Design In computers, the control unit was historically defined as one distinct part of the 1946 reference model of Von_Neumann_architecture. In modern computer designs, the control unit is typically an internal part of the CPU with its overall role and operation unchanged. General operation The outputs of the control unit controls the activity of the rest of the device. A control unit can be thought of as a finite state machine. --> The control unit is the circuitry that controls the flow of data through the processor, and coordinates the activities of the other units within it. In a way, it is the "brain within the brain", as it controls what happens inside the processor, which in turn controls the rest of the PC. A few examples of devices that require a control unit are CPUs and GPUs. The modern information age would not be possible without complex control unit designs. Hardwired Control At one time, control units for CPUs were ad-hoc logic, and they were difficult to designs . These can be identified as the main part of the computer and the main device that helps the computer to function in an appropriate manner. Microprogram Control Functions of the Control Unit The functions performed by the control unit vary greatly by the internal architecture of the CPU, since the control unit really implements this architecture. On a regular processor that executes x86 instructions natively the control unit performs the tasks of fetching, decoding, managing execution and then storing results. On a x86 processor with a RISC core, the control unit has significantly more work to do. It manages the translation of x86 instructions to RISC micro-instructions, manages scheduling the micro-instructions between the various execution units, and juggles the output from these units to make sure they end up where they are supposed to go. On one of these processors the control unit may be broken into other units (such as a scheduling unit to handle scheduling and a retirement unit to deal with results coming from the pipeline) due to the complexity of the job it must perform. See also CPU design Computer architecture Richard's Controller | Control_unit |@lemmatized control:24 unit:24 general:2 central:1 sometimes:1 distribute:1 clearly:1 distinguishable:1 part:4 whatsoever:1 machinery:2 operation:3 provide:1 piece:1 complex:2 organize:1 enough:1 contain:1 one:4 domain:1 term:2 specifically:1 use:1 area:1 computer:10 design:7 rest:3 article:4 describe:1 us:1 lemma:1 yet:1 disambiguation:1 integration:1 respective:1 linkage:1 retention:1 creation:1 broad:1 sense:1 may:2 appropriate:2 definition:1 co:1 ordinate:1 input:1 output:3 device:4 system:1 application:1 historically:1 define:1 distinct:1 reference:1 model:1 modern:2 typically:1 internal:2 cpu:4 overall:1 role:1 unchanged:1 activity:2 think:1 finite:1 state:1 machine:1 circuitry:1 flow:1 data:1 processor:5 coordinate:1 within:2 way:1 brain:2 happen:1 inside:1 turn:1 pc:1 example:1 require:1 cpus:1 gpus:1 information:1 age:1 would:1 possible:1 without:1 hardwired:1 time:1 ad:1 hoc:1 logic:1 difficult:1 identify:1 main:2 help:1 function:3 manner:1 microprogram:1 perform:3 vary:1 greatly:1 architecture:3 since:1 really:1 implement:1 regular:1 execute:1 instruction:4 natively:1 task:1 fetching:1 decode:1 manage:3 execution:2 store:1 result:2 risc:2 core:1 significantly:1 work:1 translation:1 micro:2 schedule:2 various:1 juggle:1 make:1 sure:1 end:1 suppose:1 go:1 break:1 handle:1 scheduling:1 retirement:1 deal:1 come:1 pipeline:1 due:1 complexity:1 job:1 must:1 see:1 also:1 richard:1 controller:1 |@bigram co_ordinate:1 input_output:1 ad_hoc:1 |
4,091 | Hungary | Hungary (; ), officially the Republic of Hungary (Magyar Köztársaság "Hungarian Republic"), is a landlocked country in the Carpathian Basin of Central Europe, bordered by Austria, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. Its capital is Budapest. Hungary is a member of OECD, NATO, , V4 and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, which is part of the Finno-Ugric family, thus one of the four official languages of the EU not of Indo-European origin. Following a Celtic (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (9 BC – c. 5th century) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late Ninth Century by the Magyar chieftain Árpád, whose great grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne with a crown sent from Rome in 1000. The Kingdom of Hungary existed with interruptions for 946 years, and was at times regarded as one of the cultural centers of the Western world (particularly during Stephen I, Béla IV, Louis I, Matthias I, and Lajos Kossuth's regency). A significant power until its defeat in World War I, Hungary lost over two-thirds of its territory (along with 3.3 million ethnic Hungarians) in the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, the terms of which have been considered humiliating by Hungarians. Following a short alliance with Nazi Germany during World War II, the kingdom was occupied by the Soviet Union which imposed a Communist government from 1947 to 1989. During this era, Hungary gained widespread international recognition by mounting the Revolution of 1956 and the seminal move of opening its border with Austria in 1989, thus accelerating the collapse of the Eastern Bloc. The present form of government is parliamentary republic (since 1989). Today, Hungary is a high-income economy, World Bank Country Classification, 2007 and a regional leader regarding certain markers. In the past decade, Hungary was listed as the 10th most economically dynamic area http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FqbHk4Zhh6U and one of the 15 most popular tourist destinations in the world, http://www.mth.gov.hu/download.php?ctag=download&docID=185 with a capital regarded as "one of the most beautiful urban landscapes in the world". http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/400bis.pdf The country is home to the second largest thermal lake in the world (Lake Hévíz), the largest lake in Central Europe (Lake Balaton), and the largest natural grassland in Europe (Hortobágy). History The land before AD 895 Right|The arrival of the Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin, 895 After the Western Roman Empire collapsed under the stress of the migration of Germanic tribes and Carpian pressure, the Migration Period continued bringing many invaders to Europe. Among the first to arrive were the Huns, who built up a powerful empire under Attila. Attila the Hun was erroneously regarded as an ancestral ruler of the Hungarians, an opinion rejected today by the majority of scholars. It is believed that the origin of the name "Hungary" does not come from the Central Asian nomadic invaders called the Huns, but rather originated from 7th century, when Magyar tribes were part of a Bulgar alliance called On-Ogour, which in Bulgar Turkic meant "(the) Ten Arrows". Hungary, Encyclopædia Britannica. After Hunnish rule faded, the Germanic Ostrogoths then the Lombards came to Pannonia, and the Gepids had a presence in the eastern part of the Carpathian Basin for about 100 years. In the 560s the Avars founded the Avar Khaganate, a state which maintained supremacy in the region for more than two centuries and had the military power to launch attacks against all its neighbours. The Avar Khaganate was weakened by constant wars and outside pressure. The Avars' 250 year rule ended when the Khaganate was conquered by the Franks under Charlemagne in the West and the Bulgarians under Krum in the East. Neither of these two nor others were able to create a lasting state in the region until the freshly unified Hungarians led by Árpád settled in the Carpathian Basin starting in 895. Magyar (Hungarian) migration, 9th century Medieval Hungary Hungarian raids in the 10th century. Most European nations were praying for mercy: "Sagittis hungarorum libera nos Domine" - "Lord save us from the arrows of Hungarians" Hungary is one of the oldest countries in Europe, settled in 896, before France and Germany became separate entities, and before the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Medieval Hungary, the third largest of any country in Europe, controlled more territory than medieval France. Árpád was the Magyar leader who, unifying the Magyar tribes via the Covenant of Blood (), forged one nation, thereafter known as the Hungarian nation Stephen Sisa: The Spirit of Hungary - 1 Who Are the Magyars? and led the new nation to the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century. After the Carpathian Basin was secured from the Bulgarians and Moravians, the threat from the western Christian nations still persisted. In order to prevent a united force from being mounted against them, the Hungarians quickly engaged in preemptive warfare, that lead them as far as the Iberian Peninsula. The Hungarian tactics of warfare, which relied heavily on light horsemen with mastery of the reflex bow, was something not seen since the days of Attila, and had just as devastating an effect. Finally, in 955, at the Battle of Lechfeld, the Hungarians suffered a significant defeat at the hands of a united German and Bohemian force, a part of which was equipped as then revolutionary heavy knight. Taking the events into carefull consideration, the ruling prince (fejedelem) Géza of the Árpád dynasty, the ruler of only some of the united territory, but the nominal overlord of all seven Magyar tribes, determined to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe, rebuilding the state according to the Western political and social model. He named his son Vajk, later King Stephen I of Hungary, as his successor. This was contrary to the Magyar tradition of the succession of the eldest surviving member of the ruling family. (See:agnatic seniority) By ancestral right prince Koppány, -as the oldest member of the dynasty- should have claimed the throne, but Géza chose his eldest son as his successor. A fight in the chief prince's family started after Géza's death in 997. Duke Koppány took up arms, and many people in Transdanubia joined him. The rebels represented the old faith and order, ancient human rights, tribal independence and pagan belief, but Stephen won a decisive victory over his uncle Koppány, and had him executed. The Patrimonial Kingdom Hungary in the 11th century Romanesque church of Pécs In the year 1000, by the authority of the Pope, Hungary was established as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom under Saint Stephen I of Hungary. Applying to Pope Sylvester II, Stephen received insignia of royalty (including the still existent Holy Crown of Hungary). He was crowned in December, 1000 AD in the capital, Esztergom. The papacy conferred on him the right to have the cross carried before him, with full administrative authority over bishoprics and churches. The son of Géza, he was a descendant of Árpád, founder of Hungary. By 1006, Stephen had solidified his power, eliminating all rivals who either wanted to follow pagan traditions or wanted an alliance with the Eastern Christian Byzantine Empire. He instituted sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a western feudal state, complete with forced Christianisation. Stephen established a network of 10 episcopal and 2 archiepiscopal sees,and ordered the buildup of monasteries, churches, and cathedrals. Formerly, the Hungarian language was written in a runic-like script. The country switched to the Latin alphabet under Stephen. From 1000 to 1844, Latin was the official language of the country. He followed the Frankish administrative model: The whole of the land was divided into counties (megyék), each under a royal official called an ispán count ()—later főispán (). This official represented the king’s authority, administered its population, and collected the taxes that formed the national revenue. Each ispán maintained at his fortified headquarters (castrum or vár) an armed force of freemen. Gothic Church of Our Lady in Buda What emerged was a strong state that withstood attacks from German kings and Emperors, as well as nomadic tribes following the Hungarians from the East, integrating some of the latter into the population (along with Germans invited to Transylvania and the northern part of the kingdom, especially after the Battle of Mohi), and conquering Croatia in 1091. After the Great Schism (The East-West Schism /formally in 1054/, between Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity.) Hungary determined itself as the Easternmost bastion of Western civilization. Important members of the Árpád dynasty Saint Ladislaus I (c. 1040 – 29 July 1095), King of Hungary (1077-1095). Before his ascension to the throne, he was the main advisor of his brother, Géza I of Hungary, who was fighting against their cousin, King Solomon of Hungary. When his brother died, his followers proclaimed Ladislaus king according to the Hungarian tradition that gave precedence to the eldest member of the royal family over the deceased king's sons. He also expanded his rule over Croatia. After his canonisation, Ladislaus became the model of the chivalrous king in Hungary. King Coloman the "Book-lover" (King: 1095-1116): One of his most famous laws was half a millennium ahead of its time: De strigis vero quae non sunt, nulla amplius quaestio fiat (As for the matter of witches, no such things exist, therefore no further investigations or trials are to be held). Béla III (King: 1172-1192): was the most powerful and wealthiest member of the dynasty, Béla disposed of annual equivalent of 23,000 kg of pure silver. It exceeded those of the French king (estimated at some 17,000 kilograms) and was double the receipts of the English Crown. http://books.google.co.uk/books?ct=result&id=y0g4YEp7ZrsC&dq=%22B%C3%A9la+III%22+annual+revenue&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&sig=ACfU3U2STdXJyC_RFJp9Ipb3Rw4SmsrWww&q=ladis#PPA28,M1 He rolled back the Byzantine potency in Balkan region. In 1195, Bela III had expanded the Hungarian Kingdom southward and westward to Bosnia and Dalmatia, helping to break up the Byzantine Empire, and extending suzerainty over Serbia. http://www.archive.org/stream/destinyofuniteds00smit/destinyofuniteds00smit_djvu.txt Andrew II of Hungary (King: 1205-1235) : Golden Bull of 1222. In 1211 Andrew II of Hungary (ruled from 1205 to 1235) granted the Burzenland (in Transylvania) to the Teutonic Knights. In 1225, Andrew II expelled the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania, hence Teutonic Order had to transfer to the Baltic sea. In 1224, Andrew issued the Diploma Andreanum which unified and ensured the special privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons. It is considered the first Autonomy law in the world. http://www.hungarianhistory.com/lib/autonomy/komlossy.pdf He led the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217. He set up the largest royal army in the history of Crusades (20,000 knights and 12,000 castle-garrisons). The Golden Bull of 1222 was the first constitution in Continental Europe. It limited the king's power. The Golden Bull — the Hungarian equivalent of England’s Magna Carta — to which every Hungarian king thereafter had to swear, had a twofold purpose: to reaffirm the rights of the smaller nobles of the old and new classes of royal servants (servientes regis) against both the crown and the magnates and to defend those of the whole nation against the crown by restricting the powers of the latter in certain fields and legalizing refusal to obey its unlawful/unconstitutional commands (the ius resistendi). The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the parliament, or Diet. Hungary became the first country where the parliament had supremacy over the kingship. The most important legal ideology was the Doctrine of the Holy Crown. Mongol attacks In 1241–1242, the kingdom suffered a Mongol Invasion: After the defeat of the Hungarian army in the Battle of Mohi, Béla IV of Hungary fled. Historians estimate that up to half of Hungary's population of two million was killed. The Mongol invasion: the last Arpad kings, Encyclopaedia Britannica http://www.kulugyminiszterium.hu/NR/rdonlyres/C9FDF041-86A7-4B20-8B73-94C568E448E5/0/Culture_en.pdf . The dramatic loss of population led to inviting settlers, largely from Germany, to locate in devastationed regions, the "'Tatárjárás." During the Russian campaign, the Mongols drove some 200,000 Cumans, a nomadic tribe of pagan Kipchaks, west of the Carpathian Mountains. There, the Cumans appealed to King Béla IV of Hungary for protection. Mongol Invasions: Battle of Liegnitz, HistoryNet The Iranian Jassic people came to the Hungary together with the Cumans after they were defeated by the Mongols. During the centuries they were assimilated by the Hungarian population, their language disappeared, but they preserved their identity and their regional autonomy until 1876. National and historical symbols of Hungary Only strongly fortified cities and abbeys could withstand the assault. As a consequence, after the Mongols retreated, King Béla IV. ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortifications to defend against a possible second Mongol invasion. Mongols returned to Hungary in 1286, but the newly built systems of castles and new tactics using a higher ratio of heavy knights stopped them. The invading Mongol force was defeated near Pest by the royal army of Ladislaus IV of Hungary. Castles proved to be very important later in the long struggle with the Ottoman Empire from the late 14th century onwards, but their cost indebted the King to the major feudal landlords, weakening the royal power reclaimed by Béla IV after his father Andrew II had diminished it by acceding to the Golden Bull of 1222. Age of elected Kings King Charles' last battle against the oligarchy at Rozgony (1312) King Louis the Great (1342-1382) Árpád's direct descendants in the male line ruled the country until 1301. During the reign of the Árpád dynasty, the Kingdom of Hungary reached its greatest extent, yet royal power was weakened as the nobility greatly increased its influence. The most powerful nobility usurped royal prerogatives: coinage, customs, own diplomacy and declaration of war against foreign monarchs. After the destructive period of interregnum (1301–1308), the first Angevin king, Charles I of Hungary (King: 1308–1342) -a descendant of the Árpád dynasty on the female line- successfully restored the royal power, defeating oligarch rivals, the so called "little kings". His new fiscal, customs and monetary policies proved successful. One of the primary sources of his power was the wealth derived from the gold mines of east and northern Hungary. Eventually production reached the remarkable figure of 3,000 lb. of gold annually - one third of the total production of the world as then known, and five times as much as that of any other European state. Charles also sealed an alliance with the Polish king Casimir III. Hungary was the first non-Italian country, where the renaissance appeared in Europe. http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/inglese/relaz00_01/mester.htm The second Hungarian king in the Angevin line, Louis I the Great (King: 1342–1382) extended his rule over territories adjacent to the Adriatic Sea, and occupied the Kingdom of Naples several times. Under his reign lived the most famous epic hero of Hungarian literature and warfare, the king's Champion: Nicolas Toldi. Louis had become popular in Poland due to his campaign against the Tatars and pagan Lithuanians. Two successful wars (1357–1358, 1378–1381) against Venice resulted in the annexation of Dalmatia, Ragusa and other territories on the coast of the Adriatic. Venice was required to raise the Angevin flag on St. Mark's Square on holy days. Louis I established a university in Pécs in 1367 (by papal accordance). The Ottoman Turks confronted the country ever more often. In 1366 and 1377, Louis led successful campaigns against the Ottomans, engaging the Turks for the first time at Nicapoli in 1366. Serbia, Walachia, Moldavia, and Bulgaria were made vassal states. From 1370, the death of Casimir III of Poland, he was also king of Poland. Until his death, the political life of the Italian Peninsula remained within his sphere of influence. King Louis died without a male successor, and the country was stabilized only after years of anarchy when Sigismund I (king: 1387–1437), a prince of the House of Luxembourg, succeeded to the throne by marrying Louis's daughter, King(!) Mary. It was not for entirely selfless reasons that one of the leagues of barons helped him to power: Sigismund had to pay for the support of the lords by transferring a sizeable part of the royal properties. (For some years, the baron's council governed the country in the name of the Holy Crown, the king was impirsoned for a short time ) The restoration of the authority of the central administration took decades of work. In 1404 Sigismund introduced the Placetum Regium. According to this decree, Papal bulls and messages could not be pronounced in Hungary without the consent of the king. Sigismund congregated Council of Constance (1414–1418) to abolish the Papal Schism of Catholic church, which was solved by the election of a new pope. In 1433 he was elected Holy Roman Emperor. During his long reign the Royal castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. The first Hungarian Bible translation was completed in 1439, but the Hungarian Bible was illegal in its age. John Hunyadi - One of the greatest generals and a later regent of Hungary In 1446, the parliament elected the great general János Hunyadi governor (1446–1453), then regent (1453–1456). He was a successful crusader against the Ottoman Turks, one of his greatest victories being the Siege of Belgrade in 1456. Hunyadi defended the city against the onslaught of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. During the siege, Pope Callixtus III ordered the bells of every church to be rung every day at noon, as a call for believers to pray for the defenders of the city. However, in many countries (like England and Spanish kingdoms), news of the victory arrived before the order, and the ringing of the church bells at noon were transformed into a commemoration of the victory. The Popes didn't withdraw the order, and Catholic (and the older Protestant) churches still ring the noon bell in the Christian world to this day. Age of early absolutism Matthias Corvinus, the Renaissance king Western conquests of Matthias Corvinus The last strong king was the Renaissance king Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490). Matthias was the son of John Hunyadi. During his reign András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. This was the first time in the medieval Hungarian kingdom that a member of the nobility, without dynastic ancestry and relationship, was elected. Matthias Corvinus was a true Renaissance prince, a successful military leader and administrator, an outstanding linguist, a learned astrologer, and an enlightened patron of the arts and learning. Although Matthias regularly convened the Diet and expanded the lesser nobles' powers in the counties, he exercised absolute rule over Hungary by means of huge secular bureaucracy. Matthias set out to build a great empire, expanding southward and northwest, while he also implemented internal reforms. The serfs, and other common people considered Matthias a just ruler because he protected them from excessive demands and other abuses by the magnates. http://countrystudies.us/hungary/9.htm Like his father, Matthias desired to strengthen the Kingdom of Hungary to the point where it became the foremost regional power, strong enough to push back the Ottomans; toward that end he deemed necessary the conquering of large parts of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1479, under the leadership of Pál Kinizsi, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield. The army of Hungary was extremely effective during the reign of Matthias. His mercenary standing army called the Black Army of Hungary () was an unusually big army for its age, accomplishing a series of victories including capturing parts of Austria, Vienna (1485) and parts of Bohemia. The king died without a legal successor. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe's greatest collection of historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century, and second only in size to the Vatican Library which mainly contained religious material. His renaissance library is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Decline (1490-1526) By the early 16th century, the Ottoman Empire became the second most populous state in the world, which opened the door to creation of the largest armies of the era. Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia, the young king, who died at the Battle of Mohács. The magnates, who did not want another heavy-handed king, procured the accession of Vladislaus II (King: 1490-1516), king of Bohemia (Ulászló II in Hungarian), precisely because of his notorious weakness: he was known as King Dobže, or Dobzse (meaning “Good” or, loosely, “OK”), from his habit of accepting with that word every paper laid before him. Under his reign the central power began to experience severe financial difficulties, largely due to the enlargement of feudal lands at his expense. The magnates also dismantled administration and institute systems of the country. The country's defenses sagged as border guards and castle garrisons went unpaid, fortresses fell into disrepair, and initiatives to increase taxes to reinforce defenses were stifled. http://geography.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/hutoc.html In 1514, the weakened old King Vladislaus II faced a major peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa, which was ruthlessly crushed by the nobles, led by János Szapolyai. The resulting degradation of order paved the way for Ottoman preeminence. In 1521, the strongest Hungarian fortress in the South, Nándorfehérvár (modern Belgrade) fell to the Turks, and in 1526, the Hungarian army was crushed at the Battle of Mohács. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori died in the battle. The early appearance of protestantism further worsened internal relations in the anarchical country. Through the centuries Hungary kept its old "constitution", which granted special "freedoms" or rights to the nobility and groups like the Saxons or the Jassic people, and to free royal towns such as Buda, Kassa (Košice), Pozsony (Bratislava), and Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca). Ottoman Wars Hungary around 1550 After some 150 years of wars with the Hungarians and other states, the Ottomans conquered parts of Hungary, and continued their expansion until 1556. The Ottomans gained a decisive victory over the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács in 1526. The next decades were characterised by political chaos; the divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously, János Szapolyai (1526–1540) and Ferdinand Habsburg (1527–1540), whose feud for the throne further weakened the kingdom. With the conquest of Buda in 1541 by the Turks, Hungary was divided into three parts. The north-western part (see map) termed as Royal Hungary was annexed by the Habsburgs who ruled as Kings of Hungary. Turks were unable to counquer Northern and Western parts of Hungary. The eastern part of the country (Partium and Transylvania), in turn, became independent as the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (became the Principality of Transylvaniain 1571), under Ottoman suzerainty. The remaining central area, including the capital of Buda was known as the Ottoman Hungary. A large part of the area became devastated by permanent warfare. Many smaller Hungarian settlements and villages disappeared. The Turks were indifferent to the Christian religion of their subjects and the Habsburg counter-reformation measures could not reach this area. Even with a decisive 1552 victory over the Ottomans at the Siege of Eger, which raised the hopes of the Hungarians, the country remained divided until the end of the 17th century. The heroes live more in a famous poet, what was wrote by Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos called: Summáját írom Eger várának, I am writing history of Eger's castle". Pozsony (Bratislava) became the new capital (1536–1784), coronation town (1563–1830) and seat of the Diet (1536–1848) of Habsburg Hungary. Nagyszombat (Trnava) in turn became the religious center in 1541. In 1558 the Diet of Torda declared free practice of both the Catholic and Lutheran religions, but prohibited Calvinism. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom, declaring four denominations as accepted (recepta) churches. During the Thirty Years' War, Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joined the Catholic side, until Transylvania joined the Protestant side. In 1686, two years after the unsuccessful siege of Buda, a renewed European campaign was started to enter the Hungarian capital. This time, the Holy League's army was twice as large, containing over 74,000 men, and Christian forces reconquered Buda, and in the next few years, all of the Hungarian lands, except areas near Timişoara (Temesvár), were taken from the Turks. In the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz these territorial changes were officially recognized, and in 1718 all of Hungary was removed from Ottoman rule. History of Hungary 1700–1919 Ferenc Rákóczi BME, The oldest University of Technology in the World, founded in 1782 There were a series of anti-Habsburg and anti-Catholic (demanding equal rights and freedom for all Christian denominations) uprisings between 1604 and 1711, which – with the exception of the last one – took place in Royal Hungary. The uprisings were usually organized from Transylvania. The last one was an uprising led by Francis II Rákóczi, who after the dethronement of the Habsburgs in 1707 at the Diet of Ónód took power as the "Ruling Prince" of Hungary. The Hungarian Kuruc army lost the main clash at the Battle of Trencsén; however, there were also successful actions, for example when Ádám Balogh almost captured the Austrian Emperor with Kuruc troops. When the Austrians defeated the uprising in 1711, Rákóczi was in Poland. He later fled to France and finally Turkey, and lived to the end of his life (1735) in nearby Rodosto. Ladislas Ignace de Bercheny, the son of Miklós Bercsényi, immigrated to France and created the first French hussar regiment. Afterwards, to make further armed resistance impossible, the Austrians blew up some castles (most of the castles on the border between the now-reclaimed territories occupied earlier by the Ottomans and Royal Hungary), and allowed peasants to use the stones from most of the others as building material (the végvárs among them). Statue of Lajos Kossuth in the United States Capitol Artist Mihály Zichy's rendition of poet Sándor Petőfi reciting the Nemzeti dal to a crowd on March 15, 1848 In the 1820s, a Reform Period began by various new laws enacted by the Parliament of Hungary. Nevertheless, progress was slow, because the nobles who had the most seats insisted on retaining their privileges such as exemption from taxation. The main achievements were mostly of national character (e.g. introduction of Hungarian as the official language of the country). Count István Széchenyi,the most prominent statesmen of the country recognized the urgent need of modernization and their message got through. The Hungarian Parliament was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged in the Diet. The party focused on providing for the peasantry in mostly symbolic ways because of their inability to understand the needs of the laborers. Lajos Kossuth emerged as leader of the lower gentry in the Parliament. Habsburg monarchs tried to preclude the industrialisation of the country. A remarkable upswing started as the nation concentrated its forces on modernization, even though the Habsburgs obstructed all important liberal reforms. Map of the counties in the Kingdom of Hungary 19th century Revolution and war of independence (1848-1849) On March 15, 1848 mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda enabled Hungarian reformists to push through a list of 12 demands. Faced with revolution both at home and in Vienna, Austria first had to accept Hungarian demands. Later, under governor and president Lajos Kossuth and the first Prime minister, Lajos Batthyány, the House of Habsburg was dethroned and the form of government was changed to create the first Republic of Hungary. After the Austrian revolution was suppressed,emperor Franz Joseph replaced his epileptic uncle Ferdinand I as Emperor. The Hungarians were supported by the vast majority of the Slovak, German and Rusyn nationalities and by all the Jews of the kingdom, as well as by a large number of Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers. Géza Jeszenszky: From "Eastern Switzerland" to Ethnic Cleansing ,Address at Duquesne History Forum, November 17, 2000, The author is former Ambassador of Hungary to the United States and was Foreign Minister in 1990–1994. Some members of the nationalities gained coveted positions within the Hungarian Army, like General János Damjanich, an ethnic Serb who became a Hungarian national hero through his command of the 3rd Hungarian Army Corps. Initially, the Hungarian forces (Honvédség) defeated Austrian armies. In July 1849, Hungarian Parliament proclaimed foremost the ethnic and minority rights in the world. To counter the successes of the Hungarian revolutionary army, Franz Joseph asked for help from the "Gendarme of Europe," Czar Nicholas I, whose Russian armies invaded Hungary. The huge army of the Russian Empire and the remaining Austrian forces proved too powerful for the Hungarian army, and General Artúr Görgey surrendered in August 1849. Julius Freiherr von Haynau, the leader of the Austrian army, then became governor of Hungary for a few months and on October 6, ordered the execution of 13 leaders of the Hungarian army as well as Prime Minister Batthyány. Lajos Kossuth escaped into exile. Left|Cutaway Drawing of Millennium Underground in Budapest (1894-1896) which was the first underground in Continental Europe Following the war of 1848–1849, the whole country was in "passive resistance". Archduke Albrecht von Habsburg was appointed military governor of Hungary, and this time was remembered for Germanization and oppression pursued with the help of Czech officers. Austria-Hungary (1867-1918) Due to external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable to secure the integrity of the Habsburg Empire. Major Austrian military defeats, like the Battle of Königgrätz (1866), forced the Emperor to concede internal reforms. To appease Hungarian separatism, the Emperor made a deal with Hungary, negotiated by Ferenc Deák, called the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, by which the dual Monarchy of Austria–Hungary came into existence. The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments, with a common monarch and common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The first prime minister of Hungary after the Compromise was Count Gyula Andrássy. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire (239,977 sq. m in 1905 http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Austria-Hungary ), and the third most populous (after Russia and the German Empire). The era witnessed an impressive economic development. The formerly backward Hungarian economy became relatively modern and industrialized by the turn of the century, although agriculture remained dominant. In 1873, the old capital Buda and Óbuda(Ancient Buda) were officially merged with the third city, Pest, thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. The dynamic Pest grew into the country's administrative, political, economic, trade and cultural hub. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). The key symbols of industrialization were (at the time) the famous Ganz concern, and Tungsram works. Many of the state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. World War I Hungarian built dreadnought class battleship SMS Szent Istvan Austria–Hungary drafted 9 million (fighting forces: 7,8 million) soldiers in World War I (4 million from Kingdom of Hungary). The prime minister, István Tisza tried to avoid the breaking out and escalating of a war in Europe, but his diplomatic attempts remained unsuccessful. In the conflict Austria–Hungary was fighting on the side of Germany, Bulgaria and Turkey. The Central Powers conquered Serbia; then, with great difficulty, they were able to stop and repel the attacks of the Russian Empire. Romania proclaimed war. The Central Powers conquered Southern Romania and the Romanian capital Bucharest. On the Italian front, the Austro-Hungarian army could not make significant progress against Italy after January 1918. In places of Austria and Hungary where, Austrians and Hungarians were the majority (like Vienna and Budapest), the leftist liberal movements and politicians strengthened and supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. By that period, the economic situation had deteriorated (strikes in factories were organized by leftist and pacifist movements), and uprisings in the army had become commonplace. French Entente troops landed in Greece. In October 1918, the personal union with Austria was dissolved. Between the two world wars (1918-1941) On October 31, 1918, smoldering unrest burst into revolution in Budapest, and roving soldiers assassinated István Tisza. Library of Congress country study on Hungary Due to pressure King Charles IV of Hungary appointed the leftist liberal Mihály Károlyi, a pro-Entente liberal to the post of prime minister. After suing for a separate peace, the new government dissolved the parliament, pronounced Hungary an independent republic with Károlyi as provisional president, and proclaimed universal suffrage and freedom of the press and assembly. The government launched preparations for land reform and promised elections, but neither goal was carried out. On November 13, 1918, Charles IV surrendered his powers as King of Hungary; however, he did not abdicate, a technicality that made a return to the throne possible. In 1918, by a notion of Wilson's pacifism, Károlyi ordered the full disarmament of Hungarian Army. Hungary remained without national defense in the darkest hour of its history. Surrounding countries started to arm. The First Republic was proclaimed in November 16, 1918, with Károlyi being named as president. The Károlyi government pronounced illegal all armed associations and proposals which wanted to defend the integrity of the country. The Károlyi government's measures failed to stem popular discontent, especially when the Entente powers began distributing slices of Hungary's traditional territory to Romania, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia. The new government hoped for maintaining Hungary's territorial integrity on abandoning Austria and Germany and securing a separate peace. The Entente, however, chose to consider Hungary a partner in the defeated Dual Monarchy and demanded surrender of more land. On March 19, 1919, the French head of the Entente mission in Budapest handed Károlyi a note delineating final postwar boundaries, which were unacceptable to all Hungarians. Károlyi resigned and turned power over to a coalition of Social Democrats and communists, who promised that Soviet Russia would help Hungary restore its original borders. Despite the majority held by Social Democrats the communists under Béla Kun seized control. On March 1919 the Communist Party from Hungary, led by Béla Kun, came to power and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. The Hungarian Red Army ousted Czech troops from the north and planned to march against the Romanian army in the east. Communists promised that Hungary would defend its territory without conscription(possibly with the help of the Soviet Red Army). Hence: the Red Army of Hungary was a very little voluntary army (53,000 men). In terms of domestic policy, the Communist government nationalized industrial and commercial enterprises, socialized housing, transport, banking, medicine, cultural institutions, and all landholdings of more than 400,000 square metres. In the aftermath of a coup attempt, the government took a series of actions called the Red Terror, murdering several hundred people (mostly intellectuals, scholars) , which alienated much of the population. In the face of domestic backlash and an advancing Romanian force, Béla Kun and most of his comrades fled to Austria, while Budapest was occupied on August 6. Kun and his followers took along numerous art treasures and the gold stocks of the National Bank. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A05E4D91338EE32A25750C1A96E9C946896D6CF All these events, and in particular the final military defeat, led to a deep feeling of dislike among the general population against the Soviet Union (which did not offer military assistance) and the Jews (since the majority of Kun's government were Jewish, making it easy to blame the Jews for the government's mistakes). The Conservative Royalists counter-revolutionaries – the "Whites", assumed power, led by István Bethlen, a Transylvanian aristocrat, and Miklós Horthy, the former commander in chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. Starting in Western Hungary and spreading throughout the country: many Communists and other leftists were tortured and executed without trial. Radical Whites launched pogroms against the Jews, displayed as the cause of all the difficulties of Hungary. The leaving Romanian army pillaged the country: livestock, machinery and agricultural products were carried to Romania in hundreds of freight cars. Ignác Romsics: Magyarország története a XX. században, 2004, p. 134 Treaty of Trianon The Treaty of Trianon: Hungary lost 72% of its land and lost its sea ports in Croatia, 3,425,000 Magyars found themselves separated from their motherland. The country lost 8 of its 10 biggest Hungarian cities Molnár p. 262 Richard C. Frucht, Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture p. 359-360 online Hungary's signing of the Treaty of Trianon on June 4, 1920, ratified the country's dismemberment. The territorial provisions of the treaty required Hungary to surrender more than two-thirds of its pre-war lands. Nearly one-third of the 10 million ethnic Hungarians found themselves outside the diminished homeland. The country's ethnic composition was left almost homogeneous. New international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Furthermore, post-Trianon Hungary possessed 90% of the engineering and printing industry of the Kingdom, while only 11% of timber and 16% iron was retained. In addition, 61% of arable land, 74% of public road, 65% of canals, 62% of railroads, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of pig iron output, 55% of industrial plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and most of all, 67% of credit and banking institutions of the former Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of Hungary's neighbors. Flood-light on Europe: a guide to the next war By Felix Wittmer Published by C. Scribner's sons, 1937 Item notes: pt. 443 Original from Indiana University Digitized Nov 13, 2008 p. 114 History of the Hungarian Nation By Domokos G. Kosáry, Steven Béla Várdy, Danubian Research Center Published by Danubian Press, 1969 Original from the University of California Digitized Jun 19, 2008 p. 222 The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia By Spencer Tucker, Laura Matysek Wood, Justin D. Murphy Edition: illustrated Published by Taylor & Francis, 1996 ISBN 0815303998, 9780815303992 p.697 István Bethlen, appointed prime minister by Horthy, restored order to the country by giving the radical counterrevolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted by strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of his economic, social, and political policies. The Great Depression induced a drop in the standard of living and the political mood of the country shifted further toward the right. The government passed the First Jewish Law in 1938, establishing a quote system to limit Jewish involvement in the Hungarian economy. As Hungary drifted further to the right, Prime Minister Béla Imrédy proposed that the government be reorganized along totalitarian lines and drafted a harsher Second Jewish Law, which greatly restricted Jewish involvement in the economy, culture, and society and, significantly, defined Jews by race instead of religion. This definition altered the status of those who had formerly converted from Judaism to Christianity. Hungary in World War II (1941-1945) A Turan I tank of the Hungarian 2nd Armoured Division in action near Debrecen, 1944. Map of Hungary in 1941 After being awarded by the Germans and Italians part of southern Czechoslovakia and Subcarpathia in the First Vienna Award of 1938, and then northern Transylvania in the Second Vienna Award of 1940, in 1941 Hungary participated in their first military maneuvers on the side of the Axis. Thus, Hungarian army was part of the invasion of Yugoslavia gaining some more territory and joining the Axis powers in the process (showing his disagreement, prime minister Pál Teleki committed suicide). On June 22, 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union under Operation Barbarossa. Hungary joined the German effort and declared war on the Soviet Union on June 26, and entered World War II on the side of the Axis. In late 1941, the Hungarian troops on the Eastern Front experienced success at the Battle of Uman. By 1943, after the Hungarian Second Army suffered extremely heavy losses at the river Don, the Hungarian government sought to negotiate a surrender with the Allies. On March 19, 1944, as a result of this duplicity, German troops occupied Hungary in what was known as Operation Margarethe. On October 15, 1944, Horthy made a token effort to disengage Hungary from the war. This time the Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust and Horthy was replaced by a puppet government under the pro-German Prime Minister Ferenc Szálasi. Szálasi and the Arrow Cross Party remained loyal to the Germans until the end of the war. In late 1944, Hungarian troops on the Eastern Front again experienced success at the Battle of Debrecen. But this was followed immediately by the Soviet invasion of Hungary and the Battle of Budapest. During the German occupation in May-June 1944, nearly 440,000 Jews were deported mostly to Auschwitz. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; Holocaust Encyclopedia The war left Hungary devastated destroying over 60% of the economy and causing huge loss of life. On February 13, 1945, the Hungarian capital city surrendered unconditionally. On May 8, 1945, World War II in Europe officially ended. Communist era (1947–1989) Communist Statue Park Following the fall of Nazi Germany, Soviet troops occupied all of the country and through their influence Hungary gradually became a communist satellite state of the Soviet Union. After 1948, Communist leader Mátyás Rákosi established Stalinist rule in the country complete with forced collectivization and planned economy. Mátyás Rákosi now attempted to impose authoritarian rule on Hungary. An estimated 2,000 people were executed and over 100,000 were imprisoned. Hungary experienced one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe. Approximately 350,000 officials and intellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956 Granville/ frm Rákosi had difficulty managing the economy and the people of Hungary saw living standards fall. His government became increasingly unpopular, and when Joseph Stalin died in 1953, Mátyás Rákosi was replaced as prime minister by Imre Nagy. However, he retained his position as general secretary of the Hungarian Workers Party and over the next three years the two men became involved in a bitter struggle for power. Time's "Man of the Year" for 1956 was the Hungarian Freedom Fighter. As Hungary's new leader, Imre Nagy removed state control of the mass media and encouraged public discussion on political and economic reform. This included a promise to increase the production and distribution of consumer goods. Nagy also released anti-communists from prison and talked about holding free elections and withdrawing Hungary from the Warsaw Pact. Nagy was removed by Soviets. Rákosi did manage to secure the appointment of his close friend, Ernő Gerő, as his successor. The rule of the Rákosi government was nearly unbearable for Hungary's war-torn citizens. This led to the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and Hungary's temporary withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. The Soviets retaliated massively with military force, sending in over 150,000 troops and 2,500 tanks. Findley, Carter V., and John Rothney. Twentieth Century World. sixth ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006. 278. Nearly a quarter of a million people left the country during the brief time that the borders were open in 1956. Kádár era (1956–1988) Once he was in power, János Kádár led an attack against revolutionaries. 21,600 mavericks (democrats, liberals, reformist communists alike) were imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 400 killed. From the 1960s through the late 1980s, Hungary was often satirically referred to as "the happiest barrack" within the Eastern bloc. As a result of the relatively high standard of living, and more relaxed travel restrictions than that of other Eastern Bloc countries, Hungary was generally considered one of the better countries in which to live in Eastern Europe during the Cold War. (See also Goulash Communism for a discussion of the Hungarian variety of socialism.) This was under the autocratic rule of its controversial communist leader, János Kádár. It was the so called Kádár era (1956–1988). The last Soviet soldier left the country in 1991 thus ending Soviet military presence in Hungary. With the Soviet Union gone the transition to a market economy began. The Third Hungarian Republic (1989–present) Choose, please! - A 1990 political poster by Fidesz, depicting Leonid Brezhnev and Erich Honecker performing a traditional and widely known communist-style kiss-greeting (archive photo, above) and a kissing contemporary young couple (below). In June 1987 Károly Grósz took over as premier. In January 1988 all restrictions were lifted on foreign travel. In March demonstrations for democracy and civil rights brought 15,000 onto the streets. In May, after Kádár's forced retirement, Grósz was named party secretary general. Under Grósz, Hungary began moving towards full democracy, change accelerated under the impetus of other party reformers such as Imre Pozsgay and Rezső Nyers. Also in June 1988, 30,000 demonstrated against Romania's communist Regime plans to demolish Transylvanian villages. In February, 1989 the Communist Party's Central Committee, responding to 'public dissatisfaction', announced it would permit a multi-party system in Hungary and hold free elections. In March, for the first time in decades, the government declared the anniversary of the 1848 Revolution a national holiday. Opposition demonstrations filled the streets of Budapest with more than 75,000 marchers. Grósz met Mikhail Gorbachev in Moscow, who condoned Hungary's moves toward a multi-party system and promised that the USSR would not interfere in Hungary's internal affairs. In May, Hungary began taking down its barbed wire fence along the Austrian border – the first tear in the Iron Curtain. June brought the reburial of Prime Minister Nagy, executed after the 1956 Revolution, drawing a crowd of 250,000 at the Heroes' Square. The last speaker, 26-year-old Viktor Orbán publicly called for Soviet troops to leave Hungary. In July U.S. President George H. W. Bush visited Hungary. In September Foreign Minister Gyula Horn announced that East German refugees in Hungary would not be repatriated but would instead be allowed to go to the West. The resulting exodus shook East Germany and hastened the fall of the Berlin Wall. On October 23, Mátyás Szűrös declared Hungary a republic. At a party congress in October 1989 the Communists agreed to give up their monopoly on power, paving the way for free elections in March 1990. The party's name was changed from the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party to simply the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP) and a new programme advocating social democracy and a free-market economy was adopted. This was not enough to shake off the stigma of four decades of autocratic rule, however, and the 1990 election was won by the centre-right Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF), which advocated a gradual transition towards capitalism. The liberal Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), which had called for much faster change, came second and the Socialist Party trailed far behind. As Gorbachev looked on, Hungary changed political systems with scarcely a murmur and the last Soviet troops left Hungary in June 1991. In coalition with two smaller parties, the MDF provided Hungary with sound government during its hard transition to a full market economy. József Antall, the first democratically-elected prime minister of Hungary, died in December 1993 and was replaced by the Interior Minister Péter Boross. The economic changes of the early 1990s resulted in declining living standards for most people in Hungary. In 1991 most state subsidies were removed, leading to a severe recession exacerbated by the fiscal austerity necessary to reduce inflation and stimulate investment. This made life difficult for many Hungarians, and in the May 1994 elections the Hungarian Socialist Party led by former Communists won an absolute majority in parliament. This in no way implied a return to the past, and party leader Gyula Horn was quick to point out that it was his party that had initiated the whole reform process in the first place (as foreign minister in 1989 Horn played a key role in opening Hungary's border with Austria). All three main political parties advocate economic liberalisation and closer ties with the West. In March 1996, Horn was re-elected as Socialist Party leader and confirmed that he would push ahead with the party's economic stabilisation programme. In 1997 in a national referendum 85% voted in favour of Hungary joining the NATO. A year later the European Union began negotiations with Hungary on full membership. In 1999 Hungary joined NATO. Hungary voted in favour of joining the EU, and joined in 2004. Science Rubik's cube As of 2007, 13 native Hungarians had received a Nobel prize, more than Japan, China, India, Australia or Spain. http://www.eupedia.com/hungary/trivia.shtml . A further eight scientists of Hungarian origin on both sides but born abroad had received the prize. Hungary is famous for its excellent mathematics education which has trained numerous outstanding scientists. Famous Hungarian mathematicians include János (John) Bolyai (Bolyai János), designer of modern geometry ( non-Euclidean (or "absolute") geometry ) in 1831. Paul Erdős (Erdős Pál), famed for publishing in over forty languages and whose Erdős numbers are still tracked; ; The Contribution of Hungarians to Universal Culture (includes inventors), Embassy of the Republic of Hungary, Damascus, Syria, 2006. and John von Neumann (Neumann János),Quantum Theory, a pioneer of digital computing. Many Hungarian Jewish scientists, including Erdős, von Neumann, Leo Szilard (Szilárd Leó), Edward Teller (Teller Ede), and Eugene Wigner (Wigner Jenő), fled rising anti-Semitism in Europe and made their most famous contributions in the United States. Charles Simonyi (Hungarian: Simonyi Károly) is a Hungarian-American computer software executive who, as head of Microsoft's application software group, oversaw the creation of Microsoft's flagship office applications. Simonyi has been a space tourist two times. Albert Szent-Györgyi, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937 |Charles Simonyi. Hungarian inventions include the noiseless match (János Irinyi), Rubik's cube (Ernő Rubik), the first electric motor(1827) and first electrical generator (Ányos Jedlik), Ottó Bláthy, Miksa Déri and Károly Zipernowsky invented the transformer in 1885 International Electrical Congress . International Electrical Congress Ottó Bláthy invented the Turbogenerator and Wattmeter, Telephone exchange (Tivadar Puskás), Ford Model T and production line (therefore he is the inventor of industrial mass production) (József Galamb), Tungsten filament lamp (Sándor Just), krypton electric bulb (Imre Bródy), Electronic Television and camrera-tube and the transmitting and receiving system (1926) and Plasma TV (1936) (Kálmán Tihanyi), radar astronomy and Electroluminescent light (LED) technology Zoltán Bay , mathematical tools to study fluid flow and mathematical background of subsonic and supersonic flight and inventor of swept-back wings "father of Supersonic Flight" (Theodore Kármán), early ramjet propulsion (Albert Fonó), Turboprop jet-engine by (György Jendrassik). Several other inventions were made by Hungarians who fled the country prior to World War II, including the nuclear chain reaction and nuclear reactor as well as the first Particle accelerator (all by Leo Szilard), holography (Dennis Gabor), the ballpoint pen (László Bíró), the hydrogen bomb (Edward Teller (Teller Ede), and the BASIC programming language (John Kemeny, with Thomas E. Kurtz). Politics The President of the Republic, elected by the Parliament every five years, has a largely ceremonial role, for example choosing the dates of elections, and ratifying laws. The Prime Minister is elected by Parliament and can only be removed by a constructive vote of no confidence. The prime minister selects Cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each Cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in open hearings and must be formally approved by the President. A unicameral, 386-member National Assembly (the Országgyűlés) is the highest organ of state authority and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the Prime Minister. National Parliamentary elections are held every four years; the next are due to be held in 2010. An 11-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality. Regions, counties, and subregions Counties of Hungary See also List of historic counties of Hungary Administratively, Hungary is divided into 19 counties. In addition, the capital city (főváros), Budapest, is independent of any county government. The counties and the capital are the 20 NUTS third-level units of Hungary. The counties are further subdivided into 173 subregions (kistérségek), and Budapest is its own subregion. Since 1996, the counties and City of Budapest have been grouped into 7 regions for statistical and development purposes. These seven regions constitute NUTS' second-level units of Hungary. There are also 23 towns with county rights (singular megyei jogú város), sometimes known as "urban counties" in English (although there is no such term in Hungarian). The local authorities of these towns have extended powers, but these towns belong to the territory of the respective county instead of being independent territorial units. Economy Hungarian National Bank Hungary held its first multi-party elections in 1990, following four decades of Communist rule, and has succeeded in transforming its centrally planned economy into a market economy. Both foreign ownership of and foreign investment in Hungarian firms are widespread. The governing coalition, comprising the Hungarian Socialist Party and the liberal Alliance of Free Democrats, prevailed in the April 2006 general election. Hungary needs to reduce government spending and further reform its economy in order to meet the 2012–2013 target date for accession to the euro zone. Hungary has continued to demonstrate economic growth as one of the newest member countries of the European Union (since 2004). The private sector accounts for over 80% of GDP. Hungary gets nearly one third of all foreign direct investment flowing into Central Europe, with cumulative foreign direct investment totaling more than US$185 billion since 1989. It enjoys strong trade, fiscal, monetary, investment, business, and labor freedoms. The top income tax rate is fairly high, but corporate taxes are low. Inflation is low, it was on the rise in the past few years, but it is now starting to regulate. Investment in Hungary is easy, although it is subject to government licensing in security-sensitive areas. Foreign capital enjoys virtually the same protections and privileges as domestic capital. The rule of law is strong, a professional judiciary protects property rights, and the level of corruption is low. Audi TT sports car manufactured by Audi in Győr. Total government spending is high. Many state-owned enterprises have not been privatized. Business licensing is a problem, as regulations are not applied consistently. Index of Economic Freedom According to the conservative think tank Heritage Foundation, Hungary's economy was 67.2 percent "free" in 2008, which makes it the world's 43rd-freest economy. Its overall score is 1 percent lower than last year, partially reflecting new methodological detail. Hungary is ranked 25th out of 41 countries in the European region, and its overall score is slightly lower than the regional average. Economic reform measures such as health care reform, tax reform, and local government financing are being addressed by the present government. Geography Topographic map of Hungary Landscape Lake Balaton Slightly more than one half of Hungary's landscape consists of flat to rolling plains of the Pannonian Basin: the most important plain regions include the Little Hungarian Plain in the west, and the Great Hungarian Plain in the southeast. The highest elevation above sea level on the latter is only 183 metres. Transdanubia is a primarily hilly region with a terrain varied by low mountains. These include the very eastern stretch of the Alps, Alpokalja, in the west of the country, the Transdanubian Medium Mountains, in the central region of Transdanubia, and the Mecsek Mountains and Villány Mountains in the south. The highest point of the area is the Írott-kő in the Alps, at 882 metres. The highest mountains of the country are located in the Carpathians: these lie in the northern parts, in a wide band along the Slovakian border (highest point: the Kékes at 1,014 m (3327 ft)). Hungary is divided in two by its main waterway, the Danube (Duna); other large rivers include the Tisza and Dráva, while Transdanubia contains Lake Balaton, a major body of water. The largest thermal lake in the world, Lake Hévíz (Hévíz Spa), is located in Hungary. The second largest lake in the Pannonian Basin is the artificial Lake Tisza (Tisza-tó). Phytogeographically, Hungary belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Hungary belongs to the ecoregion of Pannonian mixed forests. Climate Hungary has a Continental climate, with hot summers with low overall humidity levels but frequent rainshowers and frigid to cold snowy winters. Average annual temperature is 9.7 °C (49.5 °F). Temperature extremes are about 42 °C (110 °F) in the summer and −29 °C (−20 °F) in the winter. Average temperature in the summer is 27 to 35 °C (81 to 95 °F), and in the winter it is 0 to −15 °C (32 to 5 °F). The average yearly rainfall is approximately 600 millimeters (24 in). A small, southern region of the country near Pécs enjoys a reputation for a Mediterranean climate, but in reality it is only slightly warmer than the rest of the country and still receives snow during the winter. Military Hungarian Ground Forces welcome the President of the United States. Mounted hussars can be seen along the top. The Military of Hungary, or "Hungarian Armed Forces" currently has two branches, the "Hungarian Ground Force" and the "Hungarian Air Force." The Hungarian Ground Force (or Army) is known as the "Corps of Homeland Defenders" (Honvédség). This term was originally used to refer to the revolutionary army established by Lajos Kossuth and the National Defence Committee of the Revolutionary Hungarian Diet in September 1848 during the Hungarian Revolution.The term Honvédség is the name of the military of Hungary since 1848 referring to its purpose (véd in Honvéd) of defending the country. The Hungarian Army is called Magyar Honvédség. The rank equal to a Private is a Honvéd. The Hungarian Air Force is the air force branch of the Hungarian Army. Hungary is a contributor of military troops to Eufor Black Army of Hungary: The Black Army (Black Legion or Host) - named after their black armor panoply - is in historigraphy the common name given to the excellent quality of diverse and polyglot military forces serving under the reign of King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. It is recognized as the first standing continental European fighting force not under conscription and with regular pay since the Roman Empire. Hungary's Black Army traditionally encompasses the years from 1458 to 1490. Hussar: A type of irregular light horsemen was already well established by the 15th century in medieval Hungary.Hussar refers to a number of types of light cavalry created in Hungary in the 15th century and used throughout Europe and even in America since the 18th century. Some modern military units retain the title 'hussar' for reasons of tradition. Demographics For 95% of the population, the mother language is Hungarian, a Finno-Ugric language distantly related to Finnish and Estonian. The largest minority groups are are the Roma (2.1% to 10%) and the Germans (1.2%). Other groups include: Slovaks (0.4%), Croats and Bunjevcis(0.2%), Romanians (0.1%), Ukrainians (0.1%), and Serbs (0.1%). Roma make up as much as 10% of the population in Hungary (unofficial estimation). In Hungary, Roma get art show, not a hug, International Herald Tribune, February 7, 2008 For historical reasons (see Treaty of Trianon), significant Hungarian minority populations can be found in the surrounding countries, most of them in Romania (in Transylvania), Slovakia, Serbia (in Vojvodina). Sizable minorities live also in Ukraine (in Transcarpathia), Croatia (mainly Slavonia) and Austria (in Burgenland). Slovenia is also host to a number of ethnic Hungarians, and Hungarian language has an official status in parts of the Prekmurje region. The largest wave of German-speaking immigrants into Hungary occurred after the Treaty of Karlowitz. Between 1700 and 1750, German-speaking settlers immigrated to the regions of Pannonia, Banat, and Bačka, which had been depopulated by the Ottoman wars. Prior to World War II, approximately 1.5 million Danube Swabians lived in Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia. "History of German Settlements in Southern Hungary" by Sue Clarkson In 2001, 62,105 people declared to be German in Hungary. 18. Demographic data – Hungarian Central Statistical Office Religion in Hungary + Religious affiliation in Hungary (2001) Denominations Population % of total Christianity 7,584,115 74.4 Catholicism 5,558,901 54.5 Roman Catholics 5,289,521 51.9 Greek Catholics 268,935 2.6 Protestantism 1,985,576 19.5 Calvinists 1,622,796 15.9 Lutherans 304,705 3.0 Baptists 17,705 0.2 Unitarians 6,541 0.1 Other Protestants 33,829 0.3 Orthodox Christianity 15,298 0.1 Other Christians 24,340 0.2 Judaism 12,871 0.1 Other religions 13,567 0.1 Total religions 7,610,553 74.6 No religion 1,483,369 14.5 Did not wish to answer 1,034,767 10.1 Unknown 69,566 0.7 total 10,198,315 100.00 Religious history Basilica and the Dark gate in Esztergom Matthias Church in Budapest The majority of Hungarian people became Christian in the 10th century. Hungary's first king, Saint Stephen I, took up Western Christianity, although his mother, Sarolt, was baptized in the eastern rite. Hungary remained predominantly Catholic until the 16th century, when the Reformation took place and, as a result, first Lutheranism, then soon afterwards Calvinism became the religion of almost the entire population. In the second half of the 16th century, however, Jesuits led a successful campaign of counterreformation among the Hungarians. The Jesuits founded educational institutions, including Péter Pázmány, the oldest university that still exists in Hungary, but organized so-called missions too in order to promote popular piety. By the 17th century, Hungary had once again become predominantly Catholic. Some of the eastern parts of the country, however, especially around Debrecen ("the Calvinist Rome"), still have significant Protestant communities. Orthodox Christianity in Hungary has been the religion mainly of some national minorities in the country, notably, Romanians, Rusyns and Ukrainians, Serbs. Hungary has been the home of a sizable Armenian community as well. They still worship according to the Armenian Rite, but they have reunited with the Catholic Church (Armenian Catholics) under the primacy of the Pope. According to the same pattern, a significant number of Orthodox Christians became re-united with the rest of the Catholic world (Greek Catholics). Faith Church, one of Europe's largest pentecostal churches is also located in Hungary. Faith Church accepts the results and spiritual, moral values of both early Christianity and the Reformation, as well as other revival movements serving the progress of the Christian faith. Based on the 1% tax designation to churches, Faith Church is the fourth most supported church in Hungary. The weekly Sunday service of the Church is regularly broadcasted in live television. Jews in Hungary Hungary has historically been home to a significant Jewish community, especially since the 19th century when many Jews, persecuted in Russia, found refuge in the Kingdom of Hungary. The largest synagogue in Europe is located in Budapest. In the Revolution of 1848 the Jews supported the Hungarians against the Austrians, and more than 20 000 Jewish fought for Hungary, in World War I Jews were among the greatest soldiers of the country. The census of January 1941 found that 6.2% of the population, i.e. 846,000 people, were considered Jewish according to the racial laws of that time. From this number, 725,000 were Jewish by religion. Volume 3, p.979, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1982 Some Hungarian Jews were able to escape the Holocaust during World War II with the help of Romanians via Transylvania, although many were either deported to concentration camps or simply executed by the Hungarian Arrow Cross fascists. Culture Architecture Hungary is home to the largest synagogue in Europe (Great Synagogue), the largest medicinal bath in Europe (Széchenyi Medicinal Bath), the third largest church in Europe (Esztergom Basilica), the second largest territorial abbey in the world (Pannonhalma Archabbey), the second largest Baroque castle in the world (Gödöllő), and the largest Early Christian Necropolis outside Italy (Pécs). The biggest old cathedrals and most important old Hungarian architecture located in the surrounding countries. Music The music of Hungary consists mainly of traditional Hungarian folk music and music by prominent composers such as Liszt, Dohnányi, Bartók, Kodály, and Rózsa. Hungarian traditional music tends to have a strong dactylic rhythm, as the language is invariably stressed on the first syllable of each word. Hungary also has a number of internationally renowned composers of contemporary classical music, György Ligeti, György Kurtág, Péter Eötvös and Zoltán Jeney among them. Béla Bartók, the second prominent Hungarian composer and contemporary of Ferenc Liszt. Hungary has made many contributions to the fields of folk, popular and classical music. Hungarian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity and continues to play a major part in Hungarian music. Hungarian folk music has been influential in neighboring areas such as Romania, Slovakia, southern Poland and especially in southern Slovakia and the Romanian region of Transylvania, both home to significant numbers of Hungarians. Broughton claims that Hungary's "infectious sound has been surprisingly influential on neighbouring countries (thanks perhaps to the common Austro-Hungarian history) and it's not uncommon to hear Hungarian-sounding tunes in Romania, Slovakia and southern Poland".</small></ref> Szalipszki, pg.12Refers to the country as "widely considered" to be a "home of music". It is also strong in the Szabolcs-Szatmár area and in the southwest part of Transdanubia, near the border with Croatia. The Busójárás carnival in Mohács is a major Hungarian folk music event, formerly featuring the long-established and well-regarded Bogyiszló orchestra. Broughton, pg. 159-167 Hungarian classical music has long been an "experiment, made from Hungarian antedecents and on Hungarian soil, to create a conscious musical culture [using the] musical world of the folk song". Szabolcsi, The Specific Conditions of Hungarian Musical Development"Every experiment, made from Hungarian antedecents and on Hungarian soil, to create a conscious musical culture (music written by composers, as different from folk music), had instinctively or consciously striven to develop widely and universally the musical world of the folk song. Folk poetry and folk music were deeply embedded in the collective Hungarian people’s culture, and this unity did not cease to be effective even when it was given from and expression by individual creative artists, performers and poets." Although the Hungarian upper class has long had cultural and political connections with the rest of Europe, leading to an influx of European musical ideas, the rural peasants maintained their own traditions such that by the end of the 19th century Hungarian composers could draw on rural peasant music to (re)create a Hungarian classical style. Szabolcsi For example, Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály, two of Hungary's most famous composers, are known for using folk themes in their music. Bartók collected folk songs from across Eastern Europe, including Romania and Slovakia, whilst Kodály was more interested in creating a distinctively Hungarian musical style. During the era of Communist rule in Hungary (1944–1989) a Song Committee scoured and censored popular music for traces of subversion and ideological impurity. Since then, however, the Hungarian music industry has begun to recover, producing successful performers in the fields of jazz such as trumpeter Rudolf Tomsits, pianist-composer Károly Binder and, in a modernized form of Hungarian folk, Ferenc Sebő and Márta Sebestyén. The three giants of Hungarian rock, Illés, Metró and Omega, remain very popular, especially Omega, which has followings in Germany and beyond as well as in Hungary. Older veteran underground bands such as Beatrice from the 1980s also remain popular. Literature Ferenc Kölcsey, author of the lyrics of the Hungarian national anthem The oldest survivng Hungarian (and Finno-Ugric) poem, Old Hungarian Laments of Mary In the earliest times Hungarian language was written in a runic-like script (although it was not used for literature purposes in the modern interpretation). The country switched to the Latin alphabet after being Christianized under the reign of Stephen I of Hungary (1000–1038). There are no existing documents from the pre-11th century era. The oldest written record in Hungarian is a fragment in the founding document of the Abbey of Tihany (1055) which contains several Hungarian terms, among them the words feheruuaru rea meneh hodu utu rea, "up the military road to Fehérvár" The rest of the document was written in Latin. The oldest complete text is the Funeral Sermon and Prayer (Halotti beszéd és könyörgés) (1192–1195), a translation of a Latin sermon. The oldest poem is the Old Hungarian Laments of Mary (Ómagyar Mária-siralom), also a (not very strict) translation from Latin, from the 13th century. It is also the oldest surviving Finno-Ugric poem. Among the first chronicles about Hungarian history were Gesta Hungarorum ("Deeds of the Hungarians") by the unknown author usually called Anonymus, and Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum ("Deeds of the Huns and the Hungarians") by Simon Kézai. Both are in Latin. These chronicles mix history with legends, so historically they are not always authentic. Another chronicle is the Képes krónika (Illustrated Chronicle), which was written for Louis the Great. Renaissance literature flourished under the reign of King Matthias (1458–1490). Janus Pannonius, although wrote in Latin, counts as one of the most important persons in Hungarian literature, being the only significant Hungarian Humanist poet of the period. The first printing house was also founded during Matthias' reign, by András Hess, in Buda. The first book printed in Hungary was the Chronica Hungarorum. Matthias Corvinus's library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was among Europe's greatest collections of secular historical chronicles and philosophic and scientific works in the fifteenth century. In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de Medici founded his own Greek-Latin library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian king. Corvinus's library is part of UNESCO World Heritage. Other important figures of Hungarian Renaissance: Bálint Balassi (poet) , Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos (poet). The most important poets of the period was Bálint Balassi (1554–1594) and Miklós Zrínyi (1620–1664). Balassi's poetry shows Mediaeval influences, his poems can be divided into three sections: love poems, war poems and religious poems. Zrínyi's most significant work, the epic Szigeti veszedelem ("Peril of Sziget", written in 1648/49) is written in a fashion similar to the Iliad, and recounts the heroic Battle of Szigetvár, where his great-grandfather died while defending the castle of Szigetvár. Among the religious literary works the most important is the Bible translation by Gáspár Károli (The second Hungarian translation in the history), the Protestant pastor of Gönc, in 1590. The translation is called the Bible of Vizsoly, after the town where it was first published. (See Hungarian Bible translations for more details.) The Hungarian enlightenment was delayed about fifty years compared to the Western European enlightenment. The new thoughts arrived to Hungary across Vienna. The first enlightened writers were Maria Theresia's bodyguards (György Bessenyei, János Batsányi and so on). The greatest poets of the time were Mihály Csokonai Vitéz and Dániel Berzsenyi. The greatest figure of the language reform was Ferenc Kazinczy. The Hungarian language became feasible for scientific explanations from this time, and furthermore many new words were coined for describing new inventions. Hungarian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Hungary (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Hungarian authors have become increasingly popular in Germany and Italy especially Sándor Márai, Péter Esterházy, Péter Nádas and Imre Kertész. The latter is a contemporary Jewish writer who survived the Holocaust and won the Nobel Prize for literature in 2002. The older classics of Hungarian literature and Hungarian poetry have remained almost totally unknown outside Hungary. János Arany, a famous nineteenth century Hungarian poet is still much loved in Hungary (especially his collection of Ballads), among several other "true classics" like Sándor Petőfi, the poet of the Revolution of 1848, Endre Ady, Mihály Babits, Dezső Kosztolányi, Attila József and János Pilinszky. Other well-known Hungarian authors are Ferenc Móra, Géza Gárdonyi, Zsigmond Móricz, Gyula Illyés, Albert Wass, Magda Szabó and Ladislas Farago. Cuisine A nicely prepared Hortobágyi palacsinta served in Sopron A slice from a Dobos Cake The Hungarian cuisine is a prominent feature of the Hungarian culture, just as much like the art of hospitality. Traditional dishes such as the world famous Goulash (gulyás stew or gulyásleves soup). Dishes are often flavoured with paprika (ground red peppers), a Hungarian innovation. Thick, heavy Hungarian sour cream called tejföl is often used to soften the dishes flavour. The famous Hungarian hot river fish soup called Fisherman's soup or halászlé is usually a rich mixture of several kinds of poached fish. Other dishes are Chicken Paprikash, Foie gras made of goose liver, pörkölt stew, vadas, (game stew with vegetable gravy and dumplings), trout with almonds and salty and sweet dumplings, like túrós csusza, (dumplings with fresh quark cheese and thick sour cream). Desserts include the iconic Dobos Cake, Strudels (rétes), filled with apple, cherry, poppy seed or cheese, Gundel pancake, plum dumplings (szilvás gombóc), somlói dumplings, dessert soups like chilled Sour cherry soup and sweet chestnut puree, gesztenyepüré (cooked chestnuts mashed with sugar and rum and split into crumbs, topped with whipped cream). Perec and kifli are widly popular pastries. The csárda is the most distinctive type of Hungarian inn, an old-style tavern offering traditional cuisine and beverages. Borozó usually denotes a cozy old-fashioned wine tavern, pince is a beer or wine cellar and a söröző is a pub offering draught beer and sometimes meals. The bisztró is an inexpensive restaurant often with self-service. The büfé is the cheapest place, although one may have to eat standing at a counter. Pastries, cakes and coffee are served at the confectionery called cukrászda, while an eszpresszó is a cafeteria. Drinks A cold bottle of Unicum Tokaji, "Wine of Kings, King of Wines" ("Vinum Regum, Rex Vinorum")—Louis XIV of France Pálinka: is a fruit brandy, distilled from fruit grown in the orchards situated on the Great Hungarian Plain. It is a spirit native to Hungary and comes in a variety of flavours including apricot (barack) and cherry (cseresznye). Beer: Beer goes well with many traditional Hungarian dishes. The five main Hungarian breweries are: Borsodi, Soproni, Arany Ászok, Kõbányai, and Dreher. Wine: As Hugh Johnson says in The History of Wine, the territory of Hungary is ideal for wine-making. Since the fall of communism there has been a renaissance of Hungarian wine-making. The choice of good wine is widening from year to year. The country can be divided to six wine regions: North-Transdanubia, Lake Balaton, South-Pannónia, Duna-region or Alföld, Upper-Hungary and Tokaj-Hegyalja. Hungarian wine regions offer a great variety of style: the main products of the country are elegant and full-bodied dry whites with good acidity, although complex sweet whites (Tokaj), elegant (Eger) and full-bodied robust reds (Villány and Szekszárd). The main varieties are: Olaszrizling, Hárslevelű, Furmint, Pinot gris or Szürkebarát, Chardonnay (whites), Kékfrankos (or Blaufrankisch in German), Kadarka, Portugieser, Zweigelt, Cabernet sauvignon, Cabernet franc and Merlot. The most famous wines from Hungary are Tokaji Aszú and Egri Bikavér. Tokaji: Tokaji, meaning "of Tokaj", or "from Tokaj" in Hungarian, is used to label wines from the wine region of Tokaj-Hegyalja in Hungary. Tokaji wine has received accolades from numerous great writers and composers including Beethoven, Liszt, Schubert and Goethe; Joseph Haydn's favorite wine was a Tokaji. Louis XV and Frederick the Great tried to outdo one another in the excellence of the vintages they stocked when they treated guests like Voltaire to some Tokaji. Napoleon III, the last Emperor of the French, ordered 30–40 barrels of Tokaji for the Court every year. Gustav III, King of Sweden, never had any other wine to drink. In Russia, customers included Peter the Great and Empress Elizabeth of Russia. Zwack Unicum: For over 150 years, a blend of 40 Hungarian herbs has been used to create the liqueur Unicum. Unicum is a bitter, dark-coloured liqueur that can be drunk as an apéritif or after a meal, thus helping the digestion. The recipe is held secret by the Zwack family. Spa Culture Rudas Bath is a thermal and medicinal bath that was first built in 1550 Hungary is a land of thermal water. A passion for spa culture and Hungarian history have been connected from the very beginning. It has been shown that Hungarian spa culture is multicultural. The basis of this claim is architecture: Hungarian spas feature Roman, Greek, Turkish, and northern country architectural elements. Due to an advantageous geographical location thermal water can be found with good quality and in great quantities on over 80% of Hungary's territory. The Romans heralded the first age of spa in Hungary, the remains of their bath complexes are still to be seen in Óbuda, to this day. The spa culture was revived during the Turkish Invasion who used the thermal springs of Buda for the construction of a number of bathhouses, some of which are still functioning (Király Baths, Rudas Baths). In the 19th century the advancement in deep drilling and medical science provided the springboard for a further leap in bathing culture. Grand spas such as Gellért Baths, Lukács Baths, Margaret Island, and Széchenyi Medicinal Bath are a reflection of this resurgence in popularity. Approximately 1,500 thermal springs can be found in Hungary. About half of these are used for bathing. The spa culture has a nearly 2,000 year history in Budapest. Budapest has the richest supply of thermal water among the capitals of the world. The amount of thermal water used in Budapest is roughly equal to two million bath tubs per day. There are approximately 450 public baths in Hungary. Nowadays the trend shows that bath operators are modernizing their facilities and expanding the services offered. A total of 50 of the 160 public baths are qualified as spas throughout the country. Services are offered for healing purposes. These spas provide every type of balneal and physical therapy. Throughout history bathing and spa tourism has always played an important role in Hungary. The thermal lake of Hévíz The thermal lake of Hévíz is the largest biologically active, natural thermal lake of the world. The oldest and most well-known bath of Hungary, in accordance with records from the Roman era, has a history of 2000 years. The Hévíz treatment, in its present sense, also dates back more than 200 years. The 4.4 ha lake is fed by its spring rushing up at a depth of 38 m, containing sulphur, radium and minerals. Due to the high water output of the spring, the water of the lake is completely changed within 48 hours. The water of the Hévíz Lake is equally rich in dissolved substances and gases, combining the favourable effects of naturally carbonated medicinal waters and those containing sulphur, calcium, magnesium, hydrogen-carbonate, as well as those with a slightly radioactive content. The medicinal mud, which covers the bed of the lake in a thick layer, deserves special attention. The Hévíz mud, which is unique of its kind, contains both organic and inorganic substances and the radium-salts and reduced sulphuric solutions in it represent special medicinal factors. The medicinal water and mud originating from the then several thousand year-old Pannonian Sea, together with the complex physiotherapeutic treatments, are suitable for treating all kinds of rheumatic and locomotory diseases. The temperature of the water is 23-25 C in winter and 33-36 C in summer. Folk Art Folk Dance Romanesque Church in village Ócsa Ugrós (Jumping dances): Old style dances dating back to the Middle Ages. Solo or couple dances accompanied by old style music, shepherd and other solo man's dances from Transylvania, and marching dances along with remnants of medieval weapon dances belong in this group. Karikázó: a circle dance performed by women only accompanied by singing of folksongs. Csárdás: New style dances developed in the 18-19th centuries is the Hungarian name for the national dances, with Hungarian embroidered costumes and energetic music. From the men's intricate bootslapping dances to the ancient women's circle dances, Csárdás demonstrates the infectious exuberance of the Hungarian folk dancing still celebrated in the villages. Verbunkos: a solo man's dance evolved from the recruiting performances of the Austro-Hungarian army. The Legényes: is a men's solo dance done by the ethnic Hungarian people living in the Kalotaszeg region of Transylvania. Although usually danced by young men, it can be also danced by older men. The dance is performed freestyle usually by one dancer at a time in front of the band. Women participate in the dance by standing in lines to the side and sing/shout verses while the men dance. Each lad does a number of points (dance phrases) typically 4 to 8 without repetition. Each point consists of 4 parts, each lasting 4 counts. The first part is usually the same for everyone (there are only a few variations). Embroidery Woman's folk Costume It was in the beginning of the eighteenth century that the present style of Hungarian folk art took shape, incorporating both Renaissance and Baroque elements, depending on the area, as well as Persian Sassanide influences. Flowers and leaves, sometimes a bird or a spiral ornament, are the principal decorative themes. The most frequent ornament is a flower with a centerpiece resembling the eye of a peacock's feather. Nearly all the manifestations of folk art practiced elsewhere in Europe also flourished among the Magyar peasantry at one time or another, their ceramics and textile being the most highly developed of all. The finest achievements in their textile arts are the embroideries which vary from region to region. Those of Kalotaszeg in Transylvania are charming products of Oriental design, sewn chiefly in a single color - red, blue, or black. Soft in line, the embroideries are applied on altar cloths, pillow cases and sheets. In Hungary proper Sárköz in Transdanubia and the Matyóföld in the Great Hungarian Plain produce the finest embroideries. In the Sárköz region the women's caps show black and white designs as delicate as lace and give evidence of the people's wonderfully subtle artistic feeling. The embroidery motifs applied to women's wear have also been transposed to tablecloths and runners suitable for modern use as wall decorations. Black pottery These vessels, made of black clay, reflect more than three hundred years of traditional Transdanubian folk patterns and shapes. No two are precisely alike, since all work is done by hand, including both the shaping and the decorating. The imprints are made by the thumb or a finger of the ceramist who makes the piece. Herend Porcelain Founded in 1826, Herend Porcelain is one of the world's largest ceramic factories, specializing in luxury hand painted and gilded porcelain. In the mid-19th century it was purveyor to the Habsburg Dynasty and aristocratic customers throughout Europe. Many of its classic patterns are still in production. After the fall of communism in Hungary the factory was privatised and is now 75% owned by its management and workers, exporting to over 60 countries of the world. Herend Porcelain Manufactory Ltd Hungarian domestic animals There are special Hungarian species of domestic animals which are seen as national symbols in Hungary. The long-horn Hungarian Grey Cattle is traditionally kept in the open full year. The Hungarian Vizsla, the Puli, the Komondor, the Kuvasz, the Pumi, the Hungarian Greyhound, the Transylvanian Bloodhound and the Mudi are all considered breeds originating in Hungary. Hungarian thoroughbred horses are a mid-19th century mixture of the best Arab and English race horse characteristics. The Mangalica, a breed of pigs, are characterised by their long curly hair and relatively fatty meat which makes them ideal for making sausages and salami. Sport Only seven countries (USA, USSR, UK, France, Italy, China and Germany) have won more Summer Olympic gold medals than Hungary. Hungary has the most Olympic gold medals per capita. In the all-time Olympic Games medal table, Hungary ranks 9th out of 211 participating nations, with a total of 465 medals. The 2008 Chinese Olympics, however, were disappointing for Hungarian sport. Ferenc Puskás, legendary football player One of the most famous Hungarians is the footballer Ferenc Puskás (1927–2006). He scored 84 goals in 85 internationals for Hungary, and 511 goals in 533 matches in the Hungarian and Spanish leagues. Puskás played the 1954 World Cup final against West Germany. In 1958, after the Hungarian Revolution, he emigrated to Spain where he played in the legendary Real Madrid team that also included Alfredo Di Stéfano, and Francisco Gento. Hungarians are also known for their prowess at water sports, mainly swimming, water polo and canoeing where they have won multiple medals; this may be surprising, due to Hungary being landlocked. On the other hand, the presence of two major rivers (the Duna and the Tisza) and a major lake (Balaton) give excellent opportunities to practice these sports. Hungary has dominated men's water polo at the Summer Olympics. Some of the world's best sabre fencing athletes have historically hailed from Hungary. The Hungarian national ice hockey team has also qualified for its first IIHF World Championship in more than seventy years. See also Footnotes References External links Official site of the National Assembly Chief of State and Cabinet Members Hungary at UCB Libraries GovPubs magyarorszag.hu History of Hungary: Primary Documents History of Hungary from The Corvinus Library In The Land of Hagar: The Jews of Hungary a virtual exhibition Translation of Hungarian literary works database Agricultural land use profile be-x-old:Вугоршчына | Hungary |@lemmatized hungary:238 officially:4 republic:11 magyar:12 köztársaság:1 hungarian:207 landlocked:2 country:63 carpathian:7 basin:8 central:13 europe:32 border:12 austria:16 slovakia:6 ukraine:2 romania:11 serbia:5 croatia:6 slovenia:2 capital:14 budapest:18 member:12 oecd:1 nato:3 schengen:1 state:22 official:9 language:15 part:27 finno:4 ugric:4 family:5 thus:6 one:29 four:5 eu:2 indo:1 european:13 origin:3 follow:9 celtic:1 c:13 bc:2 roman:10 century:35 period:8 foundation:2 lay:3 late:7 ninth:1 chieftain:1 árpád:9 whose:4 great:27 grandson:1 stephen:12 ascend:1 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4,092 | Ethiopian_National_Defense_Force | The Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) is one of the largest military forces in Africa along with Egypt and Morocco, 29th largest in the world. Civil direction of the military is carried out through the Ministry of Defense. The MOD is the Ethiopian government ministry which oversees the ground, and air as well as military industry (the Defense Industry Sector). The current Minister is Siraj Fergessa. ENDF force sizes have recently varied considerably in light of the end of the war with Eritrea in 2000. In January 2007, during the war in Somalia, Ethiopian forces were said to be about 200,000 troops. This is down from the 252,000 estimated troops in 2002 , which was roughly the same number maintained during the Derg regime that fell to the rebel forces in 1991. Since the early 1990s, the ENDF has been in transition from a rebel force to a professional military organization with the aid of the U.S. and other countries. Training in de-mining, humanitarian and peace-keeping operations, professional military education, and military justice are among the major programs sponsored by the U.S. Military branches The ENDF consists of the four branches: Ground Forces, Air Force, Police, and Militia. This article focuses on the Ground Forces. For the Air Force, see Ethiopian Air Force. Being a landlocked country, Ethiopia today has no navy. However, Ethiopia acquired a coastline on the Red Sea in 1950 and created a navy in 1955. It operated until Eritreas independence in 1991 left Ethiopia landlocked again. See Ethiopian Navy. History of the Army Soldier of Ethiopian National Defense Force, 2006. The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions span back through the nation's long history. Due to Ethiopia's location at the crossroads between the Middle East and Africa; which have placed it in the middle of East and Western politics, its army has been tested for many centuries from foreign aggression. From the Egyptian aggression to Ottoman invasion, to the European invasion and concerns from the 21st century global war on terror, the country has tackled several foreign aggression through out its history. Ethiopia was able to drive back Egyptian and Ottoman invasions decisively and its modern military history generally dates from its response to the European colonial expansion of the 19th century during the Scramble for Africa; during which it maintained its independence by defeating the army of the Kingdom of Italy in the First Italo–Ethiopian War. Battle of Adwa The Battle of Adowa (also known as Adwa or sometimes by the Italian name Adua) is the best known victory of Ethiopian forces over invaders, confirming Ethiopia's existence as an independent state. Fought on 1 March, 1896 against the Kingdom of Italy near the town of Adwa, it was the decisive battle of the First Italo–Ethiopian War. Assisted by all of the major nobles of Ethiopia -- including Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Ras Makonnen, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, and Ras Mikael of Wollo -- Emperor Menelek II of Ethiopia not only struck a powerful blow against the Italians, but also to contemporary racial prejudices. In the words of historian Bahru Zewde, "It was a victory of blacks over whites. Adwa thus anticipated by almost a decade the equally shattering experience to the whites of the Japanese victory over Russia in 1905." Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia (London: James Currey, 1991), p. 81. Under Haile Selassie I Modernization of the army took place under the regency of Tafari Mekonnen, who later reigned as Emperor Haile Selassie I. He created an Imperial Bodyguard in 1917 from the earlier mahal safari that had traditionally attended the Ethiopian Emperor; its elite were trained at the French military academy at Saint-Cyr or by Belgian military advisers. He also created his own military school at Holeta in January 1935. Ethiopia Military Tradition in National Life Library of Congress However, these efforts were not sufficient nor instituted in enough time to stop the rising tide of Italian fascism. Ethiopia lost its independence in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia of 1935-36. The country regained its independence after the 1941 East African Campaign of World War II with the intervention of forces from the British Commonwealth. Korean War Ethiopian soldiers in the Korean War, 1951 In keeping with the principle of collective security, for which Haile Selassie was an outspoken proponent, Ethiopia sent a contingent under General Mulugueta Bulli, known as the Kagnew Battalion, to take part in the UN Conflict in Korea. It was attached to the American 7th Infantry Division, and fought in a number of engagements including the Battle of Pork Chop Hill. As described at the Ethiopian Korean War Veterans website. 3,518 Ethiopian troops served in the war; they lost 121 killed and 536 wounded during the conflict in Korea. After the Ethiopian Revolution At the beginning of the Ethiopian Revolution, which led to rule by a junta of military officers known as the Derg ("Committee"), Emperor Haile Selassie carefully divided the Ethiopian military into separate commands. The US Army Handbook for Ethiopia notes that each service was provided with training and equipped from different foreign countries "to assure reliability and retention of power." Cited in Marina and David Ottaway, Ethiopia: Empire in Revolution (New York: Africana, 1978), p. 45. The military consisted of the following: Imperial Bodyguard (also known as the "First Division", 8,000 men); three army divisions; services which included the Airborne, Engineers, and Signal Corps; the Territorial Army (5,000 men); and the police (28,000 men). When the Derg gained control of Ethiopia, they shifted their source for the equipment, organization and training away from Western European and American governments towards those of the Soviet Union and other Comecon countries, especially Cuba. During this period, Ethiopian forces were often locked in counter-insurgency campaigns against various guerrilla groups. They honed both conventional and guerrilla tactics during campaigns in Eritrea, and the Ethiopian Civil War that toppled Ethiopian former military dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam in 1991 and also by repelling an invasion launched by Somalia in the 1977–1978 Ogaden War. The Ethiopian army grew considerably during this time under the Derg (1974–1987), and the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia under Mengistu (1987–1991), especially during the latter regime. Estimated forces under arms increased dramatically: 1974: 41,000 (Ethiopian Revolution) 1977: 50,000 (Ogaden War) 1979: 65,000 1991: 230,000 (overthrow of Mengistu) Cuba provided a significant influx of military advisors and troops over this period, with the largest escalation during the Ogaden War with Somalia, supported by a Soviet airlift Ethiopia: Cuba Library of Congress Country Studies : 1977–1978: 17,000 (Ogaden War) 1978: 12,000 1984: 3,000 1989: All forces withdrawn 1991 Order of Battle By 1991, the Ethiopian army under Mengistu government had grown in size, but the regime was overcome by the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ, former EPLF), Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and other opposition factions during a decades long civil war. Mengistu's People's Militia had also grown to about 200,000 members. The mechanized forces of the army comprised 1,200 T-54/55, 100 T-62 tanks, and 1,100 armored personnel carriers (APCs), but readiness was estimated to only be about 30% operational because of the withdrawal of financial support, lack of maintenance expertise and parts from the Soviet Union, Cuba and other nations. Ethiopia: Army Library of Congress Country Studies Army commands consisted of the following: First Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Harar) Second Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Asmera) Third Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Kombolcha) Fourth Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Nekemte) Fifth Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Gondar) To these armies were assigned the operational forces of the army, comprising: 31 infantry divisions 32 tank battalions 40 artillery battalions 12 air defense battalions 8 commando brigades Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front Since the fall of Mengistu, the Ethiopian army under the EPRDF party has been called into service fighting counter-insurgency campaigns, and also fought against the newly independent Eritrea and joined America's "war on terror" by driving the Islamic Courts Union out of Mogadishu in the War in Somalia. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, and with the rise of radical Islamism, Ethiopia again turned to the Western powers for alliance and assistance. After the terrorist attacks of 9/11, the Ethiopian army began to train with US forces based out of the Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) established in Djibouti, in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency. Ethiopia allowed the US to station military advisors at Camp Hurso. Part of the training at Camp Hurso has included U.S. Army elements, including 4th Battalion, 31st Infantry, training the 12th, 13th and 14th Division Reconnaissance Companies, which from July 2003 were being formed into a new Ethiopian anti-terrorism battalion. Memo: Meritorious Unit Commendation for 4th Battalion, 31st Infantry, 2d Brigade, 10th Mountain Division (LI), Fort Drum, NY 13602, from 2nd Brigade, 10th MD(LI), 21 January 2004, downloaded from Internet and accessed mid September 2007. Ethio-Eritrea war The former allies EPRDF and PFDJ (former EPLF) led their countries Ethiopia and Eritrea, respectively, into the Eritrean-Ethiopian War of 1998. The war was fought over the disputed region of Badme. Following the war's end, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission, a body founded by the UN, established that the Badme region had in fact belonged to Eritrea http://www.un.org/NewLinks/eebcarbitration/ . Although the two countries are now at peace, Ethiopia rejected the results of the international court's decision, and continued to occupy Badme. Most observers agree that Ethiopia's rejection of international law, coupled with the high numbers of soldiers maintained on the border by each side - a debilitatingly high number, particularly for the Eritrean side - means that the two countries are effectively still in conflict. Somalia Ethiopia send troops to southern Somalia to help the UN backed weak transitional government. The TFG, Ethiopia and Puntland fought together against al Shabab and other radical islamists to take over the capital Mogadishu. After the islamists split into two groups, moderate islamists led by Sheikh Ahmed signed a UN backed peace deal with the TFG and established a larger government in Mogadishu. Ethiopian troops withdrew as part of the terms of the peace deal. Ground Forces Ethiopian T-62 tanks at the end of the Ethiopian Civil War The modern ENDF has a wide mix of equipment. Many of its major weapons systems stem from the Communist era and are of Soviet and Eastern bloc design. The United States was Ethiopia's major arms supplier from the end of World War II until 1977, when Ethiopia began receiving massive arms shipments from the Soviet Union. These shipments, including armored patrol boats, transport and jet fighter aircraft, helicopters, tanks, trucks, missiles, artillery, and small arms have incurred an unserviced Ethiopian debt to the former Soviet Union estimated at more than $3.5 billion. Defense Industry Ethiopia has a several defense organizations that produce and overhaul different weapons systems. Most of these were built under the Derg regime which had plans for a large military industrial complex. Ground Equipment Main battle tanks T-54/55 - 250 T-62 - 100 T-72 - 50 IFVs/APCs BMP-1 - 25 M113 - 110 BTR-152 - 10 BTR-60 - 14 BRDM-2 - 250 Assault Rifles/Machine guns AK-47 AK-103 Heckler & Koch G3 PK machine gun DShK Air-Defence ZSU-23-4 ZU-23-2 S-125 Self-propelled artillery 2S1(M1974) M109 2S19 Msta SPH 122 mm Towed artillery D-30 M-46 Ethiopian Air Force Helicopters: 8 Mil Mi-6 Hook, 14 Mil Mi-14 Haze, 14 Mil Mi-17 Hip-H, 15 Mil Mi-24 Hind, 3 Aérospatiale SA-316 Alouette III, and 4 Aérospatiale SA-330 Puma. Fighter aircraft: 21 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 Fishbed, 18 Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker. Ground attack Aircraft: 32 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23BN Flogger-F, and 4 Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot. Cargo aircraft:Antonov An-2 Colt, Antonov An-12 Cub, Antonov An-26 Curl, Antonov An-32 Cline, and 3 Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Trainer aircraft: 5 Aermacchi SF.260TP and 14 Aero L-39 Albatros. Peacekeeping Ethiopia has served in various United Nations and African Union peacekeeping missions. Ivory Coast Ethiopian troops have played a critical role in the success of recent peacekeeping operations in Burundi. Ethiopian peacekeeping in Africa Ethiopian peacekeeping missions Liberia The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) was established by Security Council resolution 1509 (2003) of 19 September 2003 to support the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and the peace process; protect United Nations staff, facilities and civilians; support humanitarian and human rights activities; as well as assist in national security reform, including national police training and formation of a new, restructured military. UNMIL in Liberia In November 2007, nearly 1,800 Ethiopian troops serving with the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) were presented with UN Peacekeeping medals for their "invaluable contribution to the peace process." Ethiopian troops awarded UN peacekeeping medals Burundi Ethiopian troops were also deployed in a peacekeeping mission in Burundi border. Ethiopian peacekeeping in Africa Ethiopian peacekeeping missions in Burundi Rwanda Ethiopia played a critical role in a peacekeeping mission in the wartorn Rwanda. Ethiopian peacekeeping missions Darfur Many thousands of Ethiopian peacekeepers are involved in the joint African Union/United Nations Hybrid operation in Darfur, western Sudan. The Security Council authorized a UNAMID force of about 26,000 uniformed personnel. More Ethiopian troops arrive in Darfur bolstering peacekeeping operation UNAMID References Published references Christopher F. Foss, Jane's Tank and Combat Vehicles Recognition Guide, 2002. David Rendall, Jane's Aircraft Recognition Guide, 1999. Mike Spick, Illustrated Directory of Fighters, 2002. Günter Endres & Michael J. Gething, Jane's Aircraft Recognition Guide, 2005. External links Ethiopian Military website History of the Military of Ethiopia at Library of Congress, Introduction (internal links broken) History of the Military of Ethiopia at Library of Congress, Military Tradition (internal links broken) History of the Military of Ethiopia at Library of Congress, Armed Forces (until 1991) (internal links broken) A history of the Ethiopian Air Force (dehai-news) Ethiopian Military: The Ethiopian Navy under Haile Selassie Ethiopian Military: Ethiopian Navy in the Communist era CIA World Factbook: Ethiopia See also Ethiopia Battle of Adowa African military systems after 1900 DAVEC Ethiopian Air Force Ethiopian Navy Ethiopian Navy Incident | Ethiopian_National_Defense_Force |@lemmatized ethiopian:54 national:5 defense:7 force:27 endf:5 one:1 large:5 military:29 africa:6 along:1 egypt:1 morocco:1 world:4 civil:4 direction:1 carry:1 ministry:2 mod:1 government:5 oversee:1 ground:6 air:9 well:2 industry:3 sector:1 current:1 minister:1 siraj:1 fergessa:1 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4,093 | Obadiah | Russian Orthodox icon of the Prophet Obadiah, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). Obadiah is a Biblical theophorical name, meaning "servant of Jehovah" It is cognate to the Arabic name ‘Abdullah. The form of his name used in the Septuagint is Obdios; in Latin it is Abdias. The Prophet Obadiah In the Old Testament The prophet named Obadiah is credited with authorship of the shortest book in the Old Testament, consisting of a mere 21 verses in a single chapter. The date of his ministry is unclear due to certain historical ambiguities in the book bearing his name. The events recorded in his writings may refer to the invasion of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, a date near to 586 B.C. The main thrust of the prophet's ministry, reflected in the themes of his book, is the ultimate victory of the people of God if they maintain their faith. Edom is used as an example of failure to manifest love toward one's neighbor in times of need, (Obadiah ) and the eventual victory of Israel is declared in a vision of the future. () In some Christian traditions he is said to have been born in "Sychem" (Shechem), and to have been the third centurion sent out by Ahaz against Elijah. See main entry on the Book of Obadiah. In Rabbinic tradition According to the Talmud, Obadiah is said to have been a convert to Judaism from Edom, Translated by Michael L. Rodkinson a descendant of Eliphaz, the friend of Job. He is identified with the Obadiah who was the servant of Ahab, and it is said that he was chosen to prophesy against Edom because he was himself an Edomite. Moreover, having lived with two such godless persons as Ahab and Jezebel without learning to act as they did, he seemed the most suitable person to prophesy against Esau (Edom), who, having been brought up by two pious persons, Isaac and Rebekah, had not learned to imitate their good deeds. Obadiah is supposed to have received the gift of prophecy for having hidden the hundred and twenty eight prophets from the persecution of Jezebel. He hid the prophets in two caves, so that if those in one cave should be discovered those in the other might yet escape (1 Kings ). Obadiah was very rich, but all his wealth was expended in feeding the poor prophets, until, in order to be able to continue to support them, finally he had to borrow money at interest from Ahab's son Jehoram. Midrash Exodus Rabbah xxxi. 3 Obadiah's fear of God was one degree higher than that of Abraham; and if the house of Ahab had been capable of being blessed, it would have been blessed for Obadiah's sake. Sanh. loc. cit. In Christianity Russian icon of Prophets Amos and Obadiah, 18th century. He is regarded as a saint by several Christian churches. His feast day is celebrated on January 10 in the Coptic Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite celebrate his memory on November 19 (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, November 19 currently falls on December 2 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). He is celebrated on February 28 in the Syriac and Malankara Churches, and with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. According to an old tradition, Obadiah is buried in Samaria. Other Obadiahs in the Old Testament Other individuals named Obadiah in the Old Testament are listed as: the servant of king Ahab of Israel (). According to both rabbinic tradition and the tradition of the Orthodox Church, this is the same individual as the prophet. the son of Hananiah, a descendant of king David of Israel through Solomon (1 Chronicles ) the son of Uzzi, a descendant of the Hebrew patriarch Issachar () the son of Azel, a descendant of king Saul of Israel through Jonathan () the son of Shemaiah, a descendant of the Hebrew patriarch Levi () a warrior descended from the Hebrew patriarch Gad that served king David () the father of Ishmaiah, governor of the tribe of Zebulun during the reign of king David () a prince of the southern kingdom of Judah during the reign of king Jehoshaphat (2 Chronicles ) a Levite, overseer of the reconstruction efforts during the reforms of king Josiah of Judah () the son of Joab, one of the individuals who returned from the Babylonian captivity with the priestly scribe Ezra, and possibly the Levite mentioned in (Nehemiah ) as a porter of Jerusalem's gates after the city's reconstruction under Nehemiah (Ezra ) References Holweck, F. G., A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co., 1924. 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4,094 | Continuity_(fiction) | In fiction, continuity (also called time-scheme) is consistency of the characteristics of persons, plot, objects, places and events seen by the reader or viewer. It is of relevance to several media. Continuity is particularly a concern in the production of film and television due to the difficulty of rectifying an error in continuity after shooting has completed. It also applies to other art forms, including novels, comics, anime, videogames and animation, though usually on a smaller scale. Most productions have a script supervisor on hand whose job is to pay attention to and attempt to maintain continuity across the chaotic and typically non-linear production shoot. This takes the form of a large amount of paperwork, photographs, and attention to and memory of large quantities of detail, some of which is sometimes assembled into the story bible for the production. It usually regards factors both within the scene and often even technical details including meticulous records of camera positioning and equipment settings. The use of a Polaroid camera was standard but has since been replaced by the advent of digital cameras. All of this is done so that ideally all related shots can match, despite perhaps parts being shot thousands of miles and several months apart. It is a less conspicuous job, though, because if done perfectly, no one will ever notice. In comic books, continuity has also come to mean a set of contiguous events, sometimes said to be "set in the same universe" (see fictional crossover and fictional universe) or "separate universes" (see intercompany crossover). Today, maintaining strong plot and character continuity is also a high priority for many writers of long-running television series. Continuity errors While most continuity errors are subtle, such as changes in the level of drink in a character's glass or the length of a cigarette, others can be more noticeable, such as sudden drastic changes in appearance of a character, or the unexplained appearance of a character believed to be dead. Such errors in continuity can ruin the illusion of realism, and affect suspension of disbelief. In cinema special attention must be paid to continuity because films are rarely shot in the order in which they are presented: that is, a crew may film a scene from the end of a movie first, followed by one from the middle, and so on. The shooting schedule is often dictated by location permit issues. A character may return to Times Square in New York City several times throughout a movie, but as it is extraordinarily expensive to close off Times Square, those scenes will likely be filmed all at once in order to reduce permit costs. Weather, the ambience of natural light, cast and crew availability, or any number of other circumstances can also influence a shooting schedule. There are three main types of continuity errors. Editing errors Editing errors can occur when a character in a scene references a scene or incident that has not occurred yet, or that they should not yet be aware of. An example of an editing error can be seen in the film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963), where a scene of people climbing a slope at the start is seen from below and then replayed from above. Visual errors Visual errors are instant discontinuities occurring in visual media such as film and television. Items of clothing change colors, shadows get longer or shorter, items within a scene change place or disappear. One example of a visual error occurs in the 1998 film Waking Ned Devine, when two of the film's characters, Jackie and Michael, are walking through a storm towards Ned's house. The umbrella they are under is black during their conversation as they walk towards the house (filmed from slightly above and to the front); yet after cutting to a lower shot (filmed from behind Jackie), Michael walks onscreen from the right holding an umbrella that is not black but beige, with a brown band at the rim. Though visual continuity errors are logically confined to visual media, parallel mistakes can occur in text. In "The Miller's Tale" in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales a door is ripped off its hinges only to be slowly closed again in the next scene. Plot errors Plot errors reflect a failure in the consistency of the created fictional world. For example, a character might state he was an only child, yet later mention having a sister (or vice versa, in the case of sitcom Dan and Becs). In the TV show Cheers, the character Frasier Crane's wife Lilith mentions Frasier's parents are both dead, but when the character was spun off and given his own show (Frasier), his father became a central character (albeit with the explanation that Frasier was embarrassed about his father's lowbrow attitudes, and claimed his death as a result — see Retroactive continuity). Aging discrepancies On television, the failure of a character (most often a child or teenager) to age corresponding to the timeline of the show has led to a type of continuity error popularly known as Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome or "SORAS" and its opposite effect "De-SORAS". In these cases, a character's age development is in direct conflict with the natural progression of time on the show. Dealing with errors When continuity mistakes have been made, explanations are often proposed by either writers or fans to smooth over discrepancies. Fans sometimes make up explanations for such errors that may or may not be integrated into canon; this has come to be colloquially known as fanwanking. Often when a fan does not agree with one of the events in a story (such as the death of a favorite character) they will choose to ignore the event in question so that their enjoyment of the franchise is not diminished. When the holder of the intellectual property discards all existing continuity and starts from scratch it is known as rebooting. Fans call a less extreme literary technique that erases one episode the reset button. Discrepancies in past continuity are sometimes made deliberately; this is known as retconning. Retcons are also sometimes used to either correct or cover up a perceived error. These changes may be made either by the same writer who made it, or more commonly by an author that has taken over the creative lead of a corporate owned show or publication.. Real time programs vs traditional films Television programs like 24, in which actors have to appear as if it is the same day for 24 consecutive episodes, have raised public recognition of continuity. However, traditional films have frequently had much of the same sort of the issues to deal with; film shoots may last several months and as scenes are frequently shot out of story sequence, footage shot weeks apart may be edited together as part of the same day's action in the completed film. In some ways, 24 presents a simpler situation, as costumes and hairstyles generally should not change very frequently; in many feature films a range of different hairstyles and costumes must be created, changed, and then recreated exactly, as various scenes are shot. References Further reading External links Moviemistakes.com | Continuity_(fiction) |@lemmatized fiction:1 continuity:18 also:6 call:2 time:6 scheme:1 consistency:2 characteristic:1 person:1 plot:4 object:1 place:2 event:4 see:6 reader:1 viewer:1 relevance:1 several:4 medium:3 particularly:1 concern:1 production:4 film:15 television:5 due:1 difficulty:1 rectify:1 error:18 shoot:5 complete:2 apply:1 art:1 form:2 include:2 novel:1 comic:2 anime:1 videogames:1 animation:1 though:3 usually:2 small:1 scale:1 script:1 supervisor:1 hand:1 whose:1 job:2 pay:2 attention:3 attempt:1 maintain:2 across:1 chaotic:1 typically:1 non:1 linear:1 take:2 large:2 amount:1 paperwork:1 photograph:1 memory:1 quantity:1 detail:2 sometimes:5 assemble:1 story:3 bible:1 regard:1 factor:1 within:2 scene:10 often:5 even:1 technical:1 meticulous:1 record:1 camera:3 positioning:1 equipment:1 setting:1 use:2 polaroid:1 standard:1 since:1 replace:1 advent:1 digital:1 ideally:1 related:1 shot:5 match:1 despite:1 perhaps:1 part:2 thousand:1 mile:1 month:2 apart:2 less:2 conspicuous:1 perfectly:1 one:5 ever:1 notice:1 book:1 come:2 mean:1 set:2 contiguous:1 say:1 universe:3 fictional:3 crossover:2 separate:1 intercompany:1 today:1 strong:1 character:14 high:1 priority:1 many:2 writer:3 long:1 run:1 series:1 subtle:1 change:7 level:1 drink:1 glass:1 length:1 cigarette:1 others:1 noticeable:1 sudden:1 drastic:1 appearance:2 unexplained:1 believe:1 dead:2 ruin:1 illusion:1 realism:1 affect:1 suspension:1 disbelief:1 cinema:1 special:1 must:2 rarely:1 order:2 present:2 crew:2 may:7 end:1 movie:2 first:1 follow:1 middle:1 shooting:2 schedule:2 dictate:1 location:1 permit:2 issue:2 return:1 square:2 new:1 york:1 city:1 throughout:1 extraordinarily:1 expensive:1 close:2 likely:1 reduce:1 cost:1 weather:1 ambience:1 natural:2 light:1 cast:1 availability:1 number:1 circumstance:1 influence:1 three:1 main:1 type:2 edit:4 occur:5 reference:2 incident:1 yet:4 aware:1 example:3 mad:4 world:2 people:1 climb:1 slope:1 start:2 replay:1 visual:6 instant:1 discontinuity:1 item:2 clothing:1 color:1 shadow:1 get:1 longer:1 short:1 disappear:1 wake:1 ned:2 devine:1 two:1 jackie:2 michael:2 walk:3 storm:1 towards:2 house:2 umbrella:2 black:2 conversation:1 slightly:1 front:1 cut:1 low:1 behind:1 onscreen:1 right:1 hold:1 beige:1 brown:1 band:1 rim:1 logically:1 confine:1 parallel:1 mistake:2 text:1 miller:1 tale:1 chaucer:1 canterbury:1 tales:1 door:1 rip:1 hinge:1 slowly:1 next:1 reflect:1 failure:2 create:2 might:1 state:1 child:2 late:1 mention:2 sister:1 vice:1 versa:1 case:2 sitcom:1 dan:1 becs:1 tv:1 show:5 cheer:1 frasier:4 crane:1 wife:1 lilith:1 parent:1 spin:1 give:1 father:2 become:1 central:1 albeit:1 explanation:3 embarrass:1 lowbrow:1 attitude:1 claim:1 death:2 result:1 retroactive:1 age:4 discrepancy:3 teenager:1 correspond:1 timeline:1 lead:2 popularly:1 know:4 soap:1 opera:1 rapid:1 syndrome:1 soras:2 opposite:1 effect:1 de:1 development:1 direct:1 conflict:1 progression:1 deal:2 make:5 propose:1 either:3 fan:4 smooth:1 integrate:1 canon:1 colloquially:1 fanwanking:1 agree:1 favorite:1 choose:1 ignore:1 question:1 enjoyment:1 franchise:1 diminish:1 holder:1 intellectual:1 property:1 discard:1 exist:1 scratch:1 rebooting:1 extreme:1 literary:1 technique:1 erase:1 episode:2 reset:1 button:1 past:1 deliberately:1 retconning:1 retcons:1 correct:1 cover:1 perceived:1 commonly:1 author:1 creative:1 corporate:1 publication:1 real:1 program:2 vs:1 traditional:2 like:1 actor:1 appear:1 day:2 consecutive:1 raise:1 public:1 recognition:1 however:1 frequently:3 much:1 sort:1 last:1 sequence:1 footage:1 week:1 together:1 action:1 way:1 simpler:1 situation:1 costume:2 hairstyle:2 generally:1 feature:1 range:1 different:1 recreate:1 exactly:1 various:1 far:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 moviemistakes:1 com:1 |@bigram script_supervisor:1 mad_mad:3 chaucer_canterbury:1 canterbury_tales:1 vice_versa:1 frasier_crane:1 soap_opera:1 external_link:1 |
4,095 | Hank_Aaron | Henry Louis "Hank" Aaron (born February 5, 1934, in Mobile, Alabama), nicknamed "Hammer," "Hammerin' Hank,” and "Bad Henry,” is a retired American baseball player whose Major League Baseball (MLB) career spanned from 1954 through 1976. After playing with the Indianapolis Clowns of the Negro American League and in the minor leagues, Aaron started his Major League Baseball career in 1954. He played 21 seasons with the Milwaukee and Atlanta Braves in the National League, and his last two years (1975–76) with the Milwaukee Brewers in the American League. In his career, Aaron had many accomplishments and set many records. His most notable achievement was setting the MLB record for most career home runs with 755, which he held for 33 years until being surpassed by San Francisco Giants outfielder Barry Bonds on August 7, 2007. During his professional career, Aaron performed at a consistently high level for an extended period of time. He hit 24 or more home runs every year from 1955 through 1973, and is the only player to hit 30 or more home runs in a season at least 15 times. He is one of only four players to have at least 17 seasons with 150 or more hits. Aaron made the All-Star team every year from 1955 until 1975 23 of Aaron's 24 All-Star appearances were for the National League team. During his final appearance in 1975, the Brewers were a member of the American League. Currently, Milwaukee plays in the National League. and won three Rawlings Gold Glove Awards. In 1957 he won the National League Most Valuable Player Award, while that same year, the Braves won the World Series. It was Aaron's one World Series victory during his career as a player. Aaron's consistency helped him to establish a number of important hitting records during his 23-year career. Aaron holds the MLB records for the most career runs batted in (2,297), the most career extra base hits (1,477), and the most career total bases (6,856). He is also in the top five for career hits with 3,771 (3rd) and runs with 2,174 (tied for 4th with Babe Ruth). He also is in second place in at-bats (12,364), and in third place in games (3,298). To honor Aaron's contributions to Major League Baseball, MLB created the Hank Aaron Award, an annual award given to the hitters voted the most effective in each respective league. He is the last Negro league baseball player to play in the major leagues. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1982, his first year of eligibility. In 1999, editors at The Sporting News ranked Hank Aaron 5th on their list of "Greatest Baseball Players." That same year, baseball fans named Aaron to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Hank Aaron on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. Early life Hank Aaron was born in Mobile, Alabama to Herbert and Estella (Pritchett) Aaron. http://books.google.com/books?id=AUFUw01sIWYC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Estelle+(Pritchett)+Aaron&source=bl&ots=fxTUwoJ1oB&sig=4TkkpFc-y9UL-kJTGegIXdYuEac&hl=en&ei=1DIbSuaiHMmMtge-hcj6DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3 By the time his parents were finished having children, Aaron had seven siblings. Tommie Aaron, one of his brothers, also went on to play Major League Baseball. By the time Aaron retired, he and his brother held the record for most career home runs by a pair of siblings (768). They were also the first siblings to appear in a League Championship Series as teammates. While he was born in a section of Mobile referred to as "Down the Bay," he spent most of his youth in Toulminville. Aaron grew up poor. He picked cotton on a farm, and to this day people say that strengthened his hands so he could hit more home runs. His family couldn't afford baseball equipment, so he practiced by hitting bottle caps with sticks. He would make his own bats and balls out of materials he found on the streets. David Nemec, Players of Cooperstown:Baseball's hall of fame, Publications International, Cooperstown, NY, 1995. Aaron attended Central High School as a freshman and a sophomore. There he played outfield and third base on the baseball team and helped lead his team to the Mobile Negro High School Championship both years. Kappes, Serena. (2005) Hank Aaron, Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0-8225-3069-5. Allen, Bob & Bill Gilbert. (1999) The 500 Home Run Club, Sports Publishing LLC. ISBN 978-1-58261-031-3. During this time, he also excelled in football. His success on the football field led to several football scholarship offers. Aaron turned these down to pursue a career in major league baseball. Although he batted cross-handed (that is, as a right-handed hitter, with his left hand above his right), a somewhat unconventional batting method, Aaron had already established himself as a top power hitter. As a result, in 1949, at the age of 15, Aaron had his first tryout with a MLB franchise. Aaron tried to make the Brooklyn Dodgers; his tryout did not go well, however, and he did not make the team. After the tryout, Aaron returned to school to finish his secondary education. His last two years were spent at the Josephine Allen Institute, a private high school in Alabama. During his junior year, Aaron joined the Mobile Black Bears, an independent Negro league team. While on the Bears, Aaron earned $10 per game (equivalent to $82 in 2009). Aaron's minor league career began on November 20, 1951, baseball scout Ed Scott signed Aaron to a contract on behalf of the Indianapolis Clowns. Negro league career After relocating to Indianapolis, 18-year-old Aaron helped the Clowns win the 1952 Negro League World Series. As a result of his standout play, Aaron received two telegram offers from MLB teams. One offer was from the New York Giants and the other from the Boston Braves (who would move to Milwaukee the following year). Aaron elected to play for the Braves, who purchased him from the Clowns for $10,000. On June 14, 1952, Aaron signed with Braves' scout Dewey Griggs. During this time, he picked up the nickname "pork chops" for eating strictly pork chops and French fries while traveling with his team. Minor league career The Braves assigned Aaron to the Eau Claire Bears, the Braves' Northern League Class-C farm team. The 1952 season proved to be very beneficial for Aaron. Playing in the infield, Aaron continued to develop as a ballplayer and in fact made the Northern League's All-Star team. He broke his habit of hitting cross-handed and adopted the standard hitting technique. By the end of the season, he had performed so well that the league made him the unanimous choice for Rookie of the Year. Although he appeared in just 87 games, he scored 89 runs, had 116 hits, 9 home runs, and 61 RBI. In addition, Aaron hit for a .336 batting average. During Hank's minor league experience, he was very homesick and faced constant racism, but his brother, Herbert Jr., told him not to give up the great opportunity. Lauren, Spencer, Baseball's Hall of Famers, The Rosen Publisher Group, Inc., New York, NY, 2003 In 1953, the Braves promoted him to the Jacksonville Tars, their Class-A affiliate in the South Atlantic League. Helped in large part by Aaron's performance on the field, the Tars won the league championship that year. Aaron led the league in runs (115), hits (208), doubles (36), RBI (125), total bases (338), and batting average (.362). He won the league's Most Valuable Player Award and had such a dominant year that one sportswriter was prompted to say, "Henry Aaron led the league in everything except hotel accommodations." Aaron's time with the Tars did not come without problems. He was one of the first five African Americans to play in the league. The 1950s were a period of racial segregation in the United States, especially in the southeastern portion of the country. When Aaron traveled around Jacksonville, Florida and the surrounding areas, he was often separated from his team because of Jim Crow laws. In most circumstances, the team was responsible for arranging housing and meals for its players; Aaron often had to make his own arrangements. The Tars' manager, Ben Geraghty, tried his best to help Aaron on and off the field. Former Braves minor league player and sportswriter Pat Jordan said, "Aaron gave [Geraghty] much of the credit for his own swift rise to stardom." Jordan, Pat. A False Spring. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1975. ISBN 978-0-8032-7626-0. 1953 also proved notable to Aaron off the field. Aaron met a woman by the name of Barbara Lewis. The night he met her, Lewis decided to attend the Tars' game. Aaron singled, doubled, and hit a home run in the game. On October 6, 1953, Aaron and Lewis married. Before being promoted to the Major League team, Aaron spent the winter of 1953 playing in Puerto Rico. Mickey Owen, the team's manager, helped Aaron with his batting stance. After working with Owen, Aaron was better able to hit the ball effectively all over the field. Previously, Aaron was only able to hit for power when he hit the ball to left field or center field. During his stay in Puerto Rico the Braves requested that Aaron start playing in the outfield. This was the first time Aaron had played any position other than shortstop or second base with the Braves. Major League Baseball career On March 13, 1954, Milwaukee Braves left fielder Bobby Thomson broke his ankle while sliding into second base during a spring training game. The next day, Aaron made his first spring training start for the Braves' major league team, playing in left field and hitting a home run. This led Hank Aaron to a major league contract and a Braves uniform with the number five. http://www.espn.go.com On April 13, 1954, Aaron made his major league debut and went 0-for-5 against the Cincinnati Reds' Joe Nuxhall. In the same game, Eddie Mathews hit two home runs, the first of a record 863 home runs the pair would hit as teammates. On April 15, 1954, Aaron collected his first major league hit, a single off Cardinals pitcher Vic Raschi. Aaron hit his first Major League home run eight days later on April 23, also off Raschi. Over the next 122 games, Aaron batted .280 with 13 homers before he suffered a broken ankle on September 5. He then changed his number to forty-four, a number he'd hit home runs in four different seasons of his career. http://www.espn.go.com Prime of career In 1955, Aaron made his first All-Star team; it was the first of a record-tying 21 All-Star Game appearances. http://www.baseball-reference.com/a/aaronha01.shtml He finished the season with a .314 average, 27 home runs and 106 RBI. Aaron hit .328 in 1956 and captured first of two NL batting titles. He was also named The Sporting News NL Player of the Year. In 1957, Aaron won his only NL MVP Award. He batted .322 and led the league in home runs and runs batted in. On September 23, 1957, Aaron hit a two-run walk-off home run in the 11th inning of a game against the Cardinals. The win clinched the Braves' first pennant in Milwaukee, and Aaron was carried off the field by his teammates. Milwaukee went on to win the World Series against the New York Yankees. Aaron did his part by hitting .393 with three homers and seven RBI. In 1958, Aaron hit .326, with 30 home runs and 95 RBIs. He led the Braves to another pennant, but this time they lost a seven-game World Series to the Yankees. Aaron finished third in the MVP race, but he picked up his first Gold Glove. During the next several years, Aaron had some of his best games and best seasons as a major league player. On June 21, 1959 against the San Francisco Giants, he hit three two-run home runs. It was the only time in his career that he hit three home runs in a game. Hank Aaron and the Home Run that changed America, Tom Stanton, p.142, ISBN 978-0-06-072290-6 Aaron nearly won the triple crown in 1963. He led the league with 44 home runs and 130 RBI and finished third in batting average. His average was .319, .007 behind the leader, Tommy Davis. In that season, Aaron became the third player to steal 30 bases and hit 30 home runs in a single season. Despite that, he again finished third in the MVP voting. Aaron was the first player to hit 500 home runs and reach 3,000 hits. http://baseball-almanac.com The Braves moved from Milwaukee to Atlanta after the 1965 season. Home run milestones During his days in Atlanta, Aaron reached a number of milestones. He was only the eighth player ever to hit 500 career home runs. At the time, he was the second youngest player to reach that plateau. Aaron was 34 years, five months and nine days old. Jimmy Foxx was the youngest to reach the mark at the time. Since then, Alex Rodriguez has become the youngest to reach this mark. On July 31, 1969, Aaron hit his 537th home run, passing Mickey Mantle. This moved him into third place on the career home run list behind Willie Mays and Babe Ruth. At the end of the season, Aaron again finished 3rd in the MVP voting. The next year Aaron reached two career milestones. On May 17, 1970, Aaron collected his 3,000th hit. This was done in a game against the Cincinnati Reds, the team against which he played his first game. Hank Aaron and the Home Run that changed America, Tom Stanton, p.202, ISBN 978-0-06-072290-6 He was the first player to get 3,000 career hits and 500 career home runs. Also during that year, Aaron established the record for most seasons with 30 or more home runs in the National League. On April 27, 1971, Aaron hit his 600th career home run, the third player ever to do so. On July 31, Aaron hit a home run in the All-Star Game (played at Detroit's Tiger Stadium) for the first time. He hit his 40th home run of the season against the Giants' Jerry Johnson on August 10. This established a National League record for most seasons with 40 or more home runs (seven). At age 37, he hit a career-high 47 home runs during the season (to go along with a career-high .669 slugging percentage) and finished third in MVP voting for the 6th time. During the strike shortened season of 1972, Aaron tied and then surpassed Willie Mays for second place on the career home run list. Aaron also knocked in the 2,000th run of his career and hit a home run in the first All-Star game in Atlanta. As the year came to a close, Aaron broke Stan Musial's major league record for total bases (6,134). While many expected Aaron to break Ruth's home run record in 1973, a key moment of the season came on August 6. This was Hank Aaron Day in Wisconsin and the Atlanta Braves played the Milwaukee Brewers in an exhibition game. The guests in attendance included Aaron's first manager with the Braves, "Jolly Cholly" Grimm, his teammate from Jacksonville, Felix Mantilla, Eau Claire president Ron Berganson, and Del Crandall, the catcher for the 1957 World Champion Braves and the current manager of the Brewers. Hank Aaron and the Home Run that changed America, Tom Stanton, p.129, ISBN 978-0-06-072290-6 The only position that the Braves wanted Aaron to play was as the Designated Hitter because the game was held in an American League park. However, at that time the National League prohibited use of the DH even in scrimmages. Due to the fact that National League president Chub Feeney could not be reached, it was left up to the umpire, Bruce Froemming to make a decision. Froemming ignored the rule and allowed Aaron to be the DH for the Braves. Later on, National League officials ignored the infraction. Hank Aaron and the Home Run that changed America, Tom Stanton, p.130, ISBN 978-0-06-072290-6 Breaking Ruth's record The jersey Hank Aaron wore when he broke Babe Ruth's record Although Aaron himself downplayed the "chase" to surpass Babe Ruth, baseball enthusiasts and the national media grew increasingly excited as he closed in on the home run record. During the summer of 1973 Aaron received thousands of letters every week; the Braves ended up hiring a secretary to help him sort through it. Hank Aaron and the Home Run that changed America, Tom Stanton, p.62, ISBN 978-0-06-072290-6 At the age of 39, Aaron managed to slug 40 home runs in 392 at-bats, ending the season one home run short of the record. He hit home run number 713 on September 29, 1973, and with one day remaining in the season, many expected him to tie the record. But in his final game that year, playing against the Houston Astros (led by manager Leo Durocher, who had once roomed with Babe Ruth), he was unable to hit one out of the park. After the game, Aaron stated that his only fear was that he might not live to see the 1974 season. Hank Aaron and the Home Run that changed America, Tom Stanton, p.179, ISBN 978-0-06-072290-6 Over the winter, Aaron was the recipient of death threats and a large assortment of hate mail from people who did not want to see a black man break Ruth's nearly sacrosanct home run record. Hank Aaron and the Home Run that changed America, Tom Stanton, p.64, ISBN 978-0-06-072290-6 The threats extended to those providing positive press coverage of Aaron. Lewis Grizzard, then editor of the Atlanta Journal, reported receiving numerous phone calls calling them "nigger lovers" for covering Aaron's chase. While preparing the massive coverage of the home run record, he quietly had an obituary written, scared that Aaron might be murdered. Grizzard, Lewis, "If I Ever Get Back to Georgia, I'm Gonna Nail My Feet to the Ground", p. 239-40 Sports Illustrated pointedly summarized the racist vitriol that Aaron was forced to endure: "Is this to be the year in which Aaron, at the age of thirty-nine, takes a moon walk above one of the most hallowed individual records in American sport...? Or will it be remembered as the season in which Aaron, the most dignified of athletes, was besieged with hate mail and trapped by the cobwebs and goblins that lurk in baseball's attic?" Leggett, William. "A Tortured Road to 715." Sports Illustrated, p.28, May 28, 1973. Aaron received an outpouring of public support in response to the bigotry. Babe Ruth's widow, Claire Hodgson, even denounced the racism and declared that her husband would have enthusiastically cheered Aaron's attempt at the record. Hank Aaron and the Home Run that changed America, Tom Stanton, p.25 As the 1974 season began, Aaron's pursuit of the home run record caused a small controversy. The Braves opened the season on the road in Cincinnati with a three game series against the Reds. Braves management wanted him to break the record in Atlanta, and were therefore going to have Aaron sit out the first three games of the season. But Baseball Commissioner Bowie Kuhn ruled that he had to play two games in the first series. He played two out of three, tying Babe Ruth's record in his very first at bat off Reds pitcher Jack Billingham, but did not hit another home run in the series. New Georgia Encyclopedia, "Hank Aaron" The fence over which Hank Aaron hit his 715th career home run still exists outside of Turner Field. The team returned to Atlanta, and on April 8, 1974, a crowd of 53,775 people showed up for the game — a Braves attendance record. In the 4th inning, Aaron hit career home run number 715 off L.A. Dodgers pitcher Al Downing. Although Dodgers outfielder Bill Buckner nearly went over the outfield wall trying to catch it, the ball landed in the Braves bullpen, where relief pitcher Tom House caught it. While cannons were fired in celebration, two white college students sprinted onto the field and jogged alongside Aaron as he circled the base paths. As the fans cheered wildly, Aaron's mother ran onto the field as well. A few months later, on October 5, 1974, Aaron hit his 733rd and final home run as a Brave, which stood as the National League's home run record until it was broken by Barry Bonds in 2006. Thirty days later, the Braves traded Aaron to the Milwaukee Brewers for Roger Alexander and Dave May. Because the Brewers were an American League team, he was able to extend his career by taking advantage of the designated hitter rule. On May 1, 1975, Aaron broke baseball's all-time RBI record, previously held by Ruth with 2,217. That year, he also made the last of his 21 record-tying (with Musial and Mays) All-Star appearances; he lined out to Dave Concepción as a pinch-hitter in the second inning. This All-Star game, like his first in 1955, was before a home crowd at Milwaukee County Stadium. On July 20, 1976, Hank Aaron hit his 755th and final home run at Milwaukee County Stadium off Dick Drago of the California Angels. Post-playing career Hank Aaron's Plaque at the Baseball Hall of Fame On August 1, 1982 Hank Aaron was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame, having received votes on 97.8 percent of the ballots, second to only Ty Cobb, who had received votes on 98.2% of the ballot in the inaugural 1936 Hall of Fame election. Aaron was then named the Braves' vice president and director of player development. This made him one of the first minorities in Major League Baseball upper-level management. Since December 1989, he has served as senior vice president and assistant to the Braves' president. He is the corporate vice president of community relations for TBS, a member of the company's board of directors and the vice president of business development for The Airport Network. On May 16, 2007, Major League baseball announced the sale of the Atlanta Braves. In that announcement, Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig also announced that Aaron would be playing a major role in the management of Atlanta Braves. He will be forming programs through Major League Baseball that will encourage the influx of minorities into baseball. Blum, Ronald. "Braves' Sale Approved by Baseball Owners", Associated Press, May 16, 2007. "Hank Aaron will have new role with new Atlanta Braves", Associated Press, May 18, 2007. On February 5, 1999, at his 65th birthday celebration, Major League Baseball announced the introduction of the Hank Aaron Award. The award was set to honor the best overall offensive performer in the American and National League. It was the first major award to be introduced in more than thirty years and it was also the first award named after a player who was still alive. Later that year, he ranked number 5 on The Sporting News''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. In July 2000 and again in July 2002, Aaron threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the Major League Baseball All-Star Game, played at Turner Field and Miller Park, respectively. In June 2002, Aaron received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor. His autobiography I Had a Hammer was published in 1990. The book's title is a play on his nickname, "The Hammer" or "Hammerin' Hank," and the title of the folk song If I Had a Hammer''. Aaron now owns Hank Aaron BMW of south Atlanta in Union City, Georgia, where he gives an autographed baseball with every car sold. Aaron also owns Mini, Jaguar, Land Rover, Toyota, Hyundai and Honda dealerships throughout Georgia, as part of the Hank Aaron Automotive Group. Aaron sold all but the Toyota dealership in McDonough in 2007. Statues of Aaron stand outside the front entrance of both Turner Field and Miller Park. There is also a statue of him as an 18-year-old shortstop outside of Carson Park in Eau Claire, Wisconsin, where he played his first season in the Braves' minor league system. In April 1997, a new baseball facility for the AA Mobile Bay Bears constructed in Aaron's hometown of Mobile, Alabama was named Hank Aaron Stadium. In 2006, a recreational trail in Milwaukee connecting Miller Park with Lake Michigan along the Menomonee River was dedicated as the "Hank Aaron State Trail." Hank Aaron was on hand for the dedication along with Wisconsin Governor Jim Doyle, who at the ceremony described himself as a boyhood fan of Aaron's. Home run record eclipsed by Barry Bonds During the 2006 season, San Francisco Giants slugger Barry Bonds passed Babe Ruth and moved into 2nd place on the all-time home run list, attracting growing media coverage as he drew ever closer to Aaron's record. Playing off the intense interest in their perceived rivalry, Aaron and Bonds made a television commercial that aired during Super Bowl XLI, shortly before the start of the 2007 baseball season, in which Aaron jokingly tried to persuade Bonds to retire before breaking the record. As Bonds began to close in on the record during the 2007 season, Aaron let it be known that, although he recognized Bonds' achievements, he would not be present when Bonds broke the record. There was considerable speculation that this was a snubbing of Bonds based on the widespread belief that Bonds had used performance-enhancing steroids to power his achievement. However, some observers looked back to Aaron's personal history, pointing out that he had downplayed his own breaking of Babe Ruth's all-time record and suggesting that Aaron was simply treating Bonds in a similar fashion. In a later interview with Atlanta sportscasting personality Chris Dimino, Aaron made it clear that his reluctance to attend any celebration of a new home run record was based upon his personal conviction that baseball is not about breaking records, but simply playing to the best of your potential. After Bonds hit his record-breaking 756th home run on August 7, 2007, Aaron made a surprise appearance on the JumboTron video screen at AT&T Park in San Francisco to congratulate Bonds on his accomplishment: Aaron dedicated the new exhibit "Hank Aaron-Chasing the Dream" at the baseball hall of fame on April 25,2009. Career statistics Season G AB R H HR RBI BB SO Avg. SLG 1954 122 468 58 131 13 69 28 39 .280 .447 1955 153 602 105 189 27 106 49 61 .314 .540 1956 153 609 106 200 26 92 37 54 .328 .558 1957 151 615 118 198 44 132 57 58 .322 .600 1958 153 601 108 196 30 95 59 49 .326 .546 1959 154 629 116 223 39 123 51 54 .355 .636 1960 153 590 102 172 40 126 60 63 .292 .566 1961 155 603 115 197 34 120 56 64 .327 .594 1962 156 592 127 191 45 128 66 73 .323 .618 1963 161 631 121 201 44 130 78 94 .319 .586 1964 145 570 103 187 24 95 62 46 .328 .514 1965 150 570 109 181 32 89 60 81 .318 .560 1966 158 603 117 168 44 127 76 96 .279 .539 1967 155 600 113 184 39 109 63 97 .307 .573 1968 160 606 84 174 29 86 64 62 .287 .498 1969 147 547 100 164 44 97 87 47 .300 .607 1970 150 516 130 154 38 118 74 63 .298 .574 1971 139 495 95 162 47 118 71 58 .327 .669 1972 129 449 75 119 34 77 92 55 .265 .514 1973 120 392 84 118 40 96 68 51 .301 .643 1974 112 340 47 91 20 69 39 29 .268 .491 1975 137 465 45 109 12 60 70 51 .234 .355 1976 85 271 22 62 10 35 35 38 .229 .368 Career Statistics 3,298 12,364 2,174 3,771 755 2,297 1,402 1,383 .305 .555 See also List of MLB individual streaks List of Major League Baseball Home Run Records List of Major League Baseball RBI Records List of Major League Baseball doubles records 500 home run club 3000 hit club 3000-500 Club List of top 500 Major League Baseball home run hitters List of major league players with 2,000 hits List of Major League Baseball players with 400 doubles List of Major League Baseball players with 100 triples List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 runs List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 RBI List of Major League Baseball RBI champions List of Major League Baseball batting champions List of Major League Baseball home run champions List of Major League Baseball runs scored champions List of Major League Baseball doubles champions Major League Baseball hitters with three home runs in one game Major League Baseball titles leaders References External links georgiaencyclopedia.org Aaron story gshf.org Georgia Sports Hall of Fame summerupnorth.com Documentary on Hank Aaron's early years in Eau Claire Play-by-Play Audio of Aaron's 715th Home Run from Archive.org Hank Aaron Quotes | Hank_Aaron |@lemmatized henry:3 louis:1 hank:35 aaron:159 born:1 february:2 mobile:7 alabama:4 nickname:3 hammer:4 hammerin:2 bad:1 retired:1 american:10 baseball:55 player:27 whose:1 major:40 league:77 mlb:7 career:36 span:1 play:26 indianapolis:3 clown:4 negro:6 minor:6 start:4 season:30 milwaukee:13 atlanta:13 brave:36 national:12 last:4 two:11 year:29 brewer:6 many:4 accomplishment:2 set:3 record:39 notable:2 achievement:3 home:68 run:78 hold:5 surpass:3 san:4 francisco:4 giant:5 outfielder:2 barry:4 bond:14 august:5 professional:1 perform:2 consistently:1 high:7 level:2 extended:1 period:2 time:18 hit:49 every:4 least:2 one:12 four:3 make:16 star:10 team:21 appearance:5 final:4 member:2 currently:1 win:10 three:8 rawlings:1 gold:2 glove:2 award:10 valuable:2 world:6 series:9 victory:1 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4,096 | Lysosome | Various organelles labeled. The lysosome is labeled in the upper left. Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles: (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosomes (little dots) (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytoplasm (12) lysosome (13) centrioles within centrosome Lysosomes are organelles containing digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They are found in animal cells, while in plant cells the same roles are performed by the vacuole. They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. The membrane surrounding a lysosome allows the digestive enzymes to work at the 4.5 pH they require. Lysosomes fuse with vacuoles and dispense their enzymes into the vacuoles, digesting their contents. They are created by the addition of hydrolytic enzymes to early endosomes from the Golgi apparatus. The name lysosome derives from the Greek words lysis, which means dissolution or destruction, and soma, which means body. They are frequently nicknamed "suicide-bags" or "suicide-sacs" by cell biologists due to their role in autolysis. Lysosomes were discovered by the Belgian cytologist Christian de Duve in 1955. The size of lysosomes varies from 0.1–1.2 μm. At pH 4.8, the interior of the lysosomes is acidic compared to the slightly alkaline cytosol (pH 7.2). The lysosome maintains this pH differential by pumping protons (H+ ions) from the cytosol across the membrane via proton pumps and chloride ion channels. The lysosomal membrane protects the cytosol, and therefore the rest of the cell, from the degradative enzymes within the lysosome. The cell is additionally protected from any lysosomal acid hydrolases that leak into the cytosol as these enzymes are pH-sensitive and function less well in the alkaline environment of the cytosol. Enzymes Some important enzymes found within lysosomes include: Lipase, which digests lipids Carbohydrases, which digest carbohydrates (e.g., sugars) Proteases, which digest proteins Nucleases, which digest nucleic acids phosphoric acid monoesters. Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized in the cytosol and the endoplasmic reticulum, where they receive a mannose-6-phosphate tag that targets them for the lysosome . Aberrant lysosomal targeting causes inclusion-cell disease, whereby enzymes do not properly reach the lysosome, resulting in accumulation of waste within these organelles . Functions Lysosomes are used for the digestion of macromolecules from phagocytosis (ingestion of other dying cells or larger extracellular material, like foreign invading microbes), endocytosis (where receptor proteins are recycled from the cell surface), and autophagy (wherein old or unneeded organelles or proteins, or microbes that have invaded the cytoplasm are delivered to the lysosome). Autophagy may also lead to autophagic cell death, a form of programmed self-destruction, or autolysis, of the cell, which means that the cell is digesting itself. Other functions include digesting foreign bacteria (or other forms of waste) that invade a cell and helping repair damage to the plasma membrane by serving as a membrane patch, sealing the wound. In the past, lysosomes were thought to kill cells that were no longer wanted, such as those in the tails of tadpoles or in the web from the fingers of a 3- to 6-month-old fetus. While lysosomes digest some materials in this process, it is actually accomplished through programmed cell death, called apoptosis. Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Mader, Sylvia. (2007). Biology 9th ed. McGraw Hill. New York. ISBN 978-0072464634 Clinical relevance There are a number of lysosomal storage diseases that are caused by the malfunction of the lysosomes or one of their digestive proteins, e.g., Tay-Sachs disease, or Pompe's disease. These are caused by a defective or missing digestive protein, which leads to the accumulation of substrates within the cell, impairing metabolism. In the broad sense, these can be classified as mucopolysaccharidoses, GM2 gangliosidoses, lipid storage disorders, glycoproteinoses, mucolipidoses, or leukodystrophiescells also develop every few seconds. Cancer forms if this happens too fast. Additional images External links 3D structures of proteins associated with lysosome membrane Hide and Seek Foundation For Lysosomal ResearchTeam, References | Lysosome |@lemmatized various:1 organelle:6 label:2 lysosome:21 upper:1 left:1 schematic:1 typical:1 animal:2 cell:16 show:1 subcellular:1 component:1 nucleolus:1 nucleus:1 ribosome:1 little:1 dot:1 vesicle:1 rough:1 endoplasmic:3 reticulum:3 er:1 golgi:2 apparatus:2 cytoskeleton:1 smooth:1 mitochondrion:1 vacuole:4 cytoplasm:2 centriole:1 within:5 centrosome:1 contain:1 digestive:4 enzyme:10 acid:4 hydrolases:2 find:2 plant:1 role:2 perform:1 digest:9 excess:1 worn:1 food:1 particle:1 engulfed:1 virus:1 bacteria:2 membrane:6 surround:1 allow:1 work:1 ph:5 require:1 fuse:1 dispense:1 content:1 create:1 addition:1 hydrolytic:1 early:1 endosomes:1 name:1 derives:1 greek:1 word:1 lysis:1 mean:3 dissolution:1 destruction:2 soma:1 body:1 frequently:1 nickname:1 suicide:2 bag:1 sac:1 biologist:1 due:1 autolysis:2 discover:1 belgian:1 cytologist:1 christian:1 de:1 duve:1 size:1 varies:1 μm:1 interior:1 acidic:1 compare:1 slightly:1 alkaline:2 cytosol:6 maintain:1 differential:1 pump:2 proton:2 h:1 ion:2 across:1 via:1 chloride:1 channel:1 lysosomal:6 protect:2 therefore:1 rest:1 degradative:1 additionally:1 leak:1 sensitive:1 function:3 less:1 well:1 environment:1 important:1 include:2 lipase:1 lipid:2 carbohydrases:1 carbohydrate:1 e:2 g:2 sugar:1 protease:1 protein:6 nuclease:1 nucleic:1 phosphoric:1 monoesters:1 synthesize:1 receive:1 mannose:1 phosphate:1 tag:1 target:2 aberrant:1 cause:3 inclusion:1 disease:4 whereby:1 properly:1 reach:1 result:1 accumulation:2 waste:2 use:1 digestion:1 macromolecule:1 phagocytosis:1 ingestion:1 die:1 large:1 extracellular:1 material:2 like:1 foreign:2 invade:3 microbe:2 endocytosis:1 receptor:1 recycle:1 surface:1 autophagy:2 wherein:1 old:2 unneeded:1 deliver:1 may:1 also:2 lead:2 autophagic:1 death:2 form:3 programmed:1 self:1 help:1 repair:1 damage:1 plasma:1 serve:1 patch:1 seal:1 wound:1 past:1 think:1 kill:1 longer:1 want:1 tail:1 tadpole:1 web:1 finger:1 month:1 fetus:1 process:1 actually:1 accomplish:1 program:1 call:1 apoptosis:1 peroxisomes:1 mader:1 sylvia:1 biology:1 ed:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 new:1 york:1 isbn:1 clinical:1 relevance:1 number:1 storage:2 malfunction:1 one:1 tay:1 sachs:1 pompe:1 defective:1 miss:1 substrate:1 impair:1 metabolism:1 broad:1 sense:1 classify:1 mucopolysaccharidoses:1 gangliosidoses:1 disorder:1 glycoproteinoses:1 mucolipidoses:1 leukodystrophiescells:1 develop:1 every:1 second:1 cancer:1 happen:1 fast:1 additional:1 image:1 external:1 link:1 structure:1 associate:1 hide:1 seek:1 foundation:1 researchteam:1 reference:1 |@bigram subcellular_component:1 organelle_nucleolus:1 nucleolus_nucleus:1 nucleus_ribosome:1 vesicle_rough:1 rough_endoplasmic:1 endoplasmic_reticulum:3 reticulum_er:1 er_golgi:1 golgi_apparatus:2 apparatus_cytoskeleton:1 cytoskeleton_smooth:1 smooth_endoplasmic:1 reticulum_mitochondrion:1 mitochondrion_vacuole:1 vacuole_cytoplasm:1 cytoplasm_lysosome:1 lysosome_centriole:1 digestive_enzyme:2 chloride_ion:1 nucleic_acid:1 phosphoric_acid:1 plasma_membrane:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 |
4,097 | Charles_Dickens | Charles John Huffam Dickens, FRSA (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870), pen-name "Boz", was the most popular English novelist of the Victorian era. He was a vigorous social campaigner, both in his own personal endeavours as well as through the recurrent themes of his literary enterprise. Critics George Gissing and G. K. Chesterton championed Dickens's mastery of prose, his endless invention of unique, clever personalities, and his powerful social sensibilities, but fellow writers such as George Henry Lewes, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf faulted his work for sentimentality, implausible occurrences, and grotesque characterizations. Henry James, "Our Mutual Friend", The Nation, 21 December 1865- a scathing review The popularity of Dickens's novels and short stories has meant that they have never gone out of print. "What the Dickens?", by Simon Swift. The Guardian, Wednesday 18 April 2007. "Dickens's books have never gone out of print." "Victorian squalor and hi-tech gadgetry: Dickens World to open in England". Bloomberg News. 23 May 2007. "He created some of English literature's most memorable characters and his work, which has never gone out of print, continues to bring the poverty of 19th-century London to life for future generations." Many of Dickens's novels first appeared in periodicals and magazines in serialised form—a popular format for fiction at the time—and, unlike many other authors who completed entire novels before serial production commenced, Dickens often composed his works in parts, in the order in which they were meant to appear. Such a practice lent his stories a particular rhythm, punctuated by one minor "cliffhanger" after another, to keep the public looking forward to the next installment. Stone, Harry. Dickens' Working Notes for His Novels, Chicago, 1987 Life Early years Charles Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, in Landport, Portsmouth, in Hampshire, the second of eight children to John Dickens (1786–1851), a clerk in the Navy Pay Office at Portsmouth, and his wife, Elizabeth (née Barrow, 1789–1863). Dickens Family Tree website When he was five, the family moved to Chatham, Kent. In 1822, when he was ten, the family relocated to 16 Bayham Street, Camden Town, in London. Ordnance Terrace, Chatham - Dickens's home from 1817 to 1822 Although his early years seem to have been an idyllic time, he thought himself then as a "very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy". John Forster, The Life of Charles Dickens, Book 1, Chapter 1 He spent time outdoors, but also read voraciously, with a particular fondness for the picaresque novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding. He talked, later in life, of his extremely poignant memories of childhood, and of his continuing photographic memory of the people and events that helped to bring his fiction to life. His family's early, moderate wealth provided the boy Dickens with some private education at William Giles' school, in Chatham. This time of prosperity came to an abrupt end, however, when his father, after having spent beyond his means in entertaining, and in retaining his social position, was imprisoned at Marshalsea debtor's prison. Shortly afterwards, the rest of his family (except for Charles, who boarded in Camden Town at the house of family friend Elizabeth Roylance), realizing no other option, joined him in residence at Marshalsea. This provided the setting of one of his works, 'Little Dorrit' in which the title character's father was imprisoned. Just before his father's arrest, the 12-year-old Dickens had begun working ten-hour days at Warren's Blacking Warehouse, on Hungerford Stairs, near the present Charing Cross railway station. He earned six shillings a week pasting labels on jars of thick shoe polish. This money paid for his lodgings with Mrs Roylance and helped support his family. Mrs. Roylance, Dickens later wrote, was "a reduced old lady, long known to our family," and whom he eventually immortalized, "with a few alterations and embellishments," as "Mrs. Pipchin," in Dombey & Son. Later, lodgings were found for him in a "back-attic...at the house of an insolvent-court agent, who lived in Lant Street in the borough...he was a fat, good-natured, kind old gentleman...lame, with a quiet old wife; and he had a very innocent grown-up son, who was lame too"; these three were the inspiration for the Garland family in The Old Curiosity Shop. Project Gutenberg's Life of Charles Dickens (James R. Osgood & Company, 1875), by John Forster, Volume I, Chapter II, accessed 2 August 2008 The mostly unregulated, strenuous—and often cruel—work conditions of the factory employees (especially children), made a deep impression on Dickens. His experiences served to influence later fiction and essays, and were the foundation of his interest in the reform of socioeconomic and labour conditions, the rigors of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor, in pre-Industrial-Revolution England. As told to John Forster (from The Life of Charles Dickens): The blacking-warehouse was the last house on the left-hand side of the way, at old Hungerford Stairs. It was a crazy, tumble-down old house, abutting of course on the river, and literally overrun with rats. Its wainscoted rooms, and its rotten floors and staircase, and the old gray rats swarming down in the cellars, and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling coming up the stairs at all times, and the dirt and decay of the place, rise up visibly before me, as if I were there again. The counting-house was on the first floor, looking over the coal-barges and the river. There was a recess in it, in which I was to sit and work. My work was to cover the pots of paste-blacking; first with a piece of oil-paper, and then with a piece of blue paper; to tie them round with a string; and then to clip the paper close and neat, all round, until it looked as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary's shop. When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained this pitch of perfection, I was to paste on each a printed label, and then go on again with more pots. Two or three other boys were kept at similar duty down-stairs on similar wages. One of them came up, in a ragged apron and a paper cap, on the first Monday morning, to show me the trick of using the string and tying the knot. His name was Bob Fagin; and I took the liberty of using his name, long afterwards, in Oliver Twist. After only a few months in Marshalsea, John Dickens was informed of the death of his paternal grandmother, Elizabeth Dickens, who had left him, in her will, the sum of £450. On the expectation of this legacy, Dickens petitioned for, and was granted, release from prison. Under the Insolvent Debtors Act, Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors, and he and his family left Marshalsea for the home of Mrs. Roylance. Although Dickens eventually attended the Wellington House Academy in North London, his mother did not immediately remove him from the boot-blacking factory. Resentment stemming from his situation and the conditions under which working-class people lived became major themes of his works, and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite, and most autobiographical, novel, David Copperfield: eNotes.com "Charles Dickens", accessed 15 November 2007 "I had no advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no assistance, no support, of any kind, from anyone, that I can call to mind, as I hope to go to heaven!" In May 1827, Dickens began work, in the law office of Ellis and Blackmore, as a clerk. It was a junior position, but, as an articled clerk, Dickens would eventually qualify for admission to the Bar, and it was there that he gleaned his detailed knowledge of legal processes of the period. This education informed works such as Nicholas Nickleby, Dombey and Son, and especially Bleak House—whose vivid portrayal of the endless machinations, lethal manoeuvrings, and strangling bureaucracy of the legal system of mid-19th-century Britain did much to enlighten the general public, and was a vehicle for dissemination of Dickens's own views regarding, particularly, the injustice of chronic exploitation of the poor forced by circumstances to "go to Law." At the age of seventeen, he became a court stenographer and, in 1830, met his first love, Maria Beadnell. It is believed that she was the model for the character Dora in David Copperfield. Maria's parents disapproved of the courtship and effectively ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris. Journalism and early novels An 1839 portrait of a young Charles Dickens by Daniel Maclise In 1834, Dickens became a political journalist, reporting on parliamentary debate and travelling across Britain by stagecoach to cover election campaigns for the Morning Chronicle. His journalism, in the form of sketches which appeared in periodicals from 1833, formed his first collection of pieces Sketches by Boz which was published in 1836 and led to the serialization of his first novel, The Pickwick Papers, in March 1836. He continued to contribute to and edit journals throughout much of his subsequent literary career. Dickens's keen perceptiveness, intimate knowledge and understanding of the people, and tale-spinning genius were quickly to gain him world renown and wealth. On 2 April 1836, he married Catherine Thomson Hogarth (1816 – 1879), the daughter of George Hogarth, editor of the Evening Chronicle. After a brief honeymoon in Chalk, Kent, they set up home in Bloomsbury. They had ten children: Dickens Family Tree website Charles Culliford Boz Dickens C. C. B. Dickens, later known as Charles Dickens, Jr, editor for All the Year Round, author of the Dickens's Dictionary of London (1879). Mary Dickens Kate Macready Dickens Walter Landor Dickens Francis Jeffrey Dickens Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens Sydney Smith Haldimand Dickens Sir Henry Fielding Dickens Dora Annie Dickens Edward Dickens Emigrated to Australia. Catherine's sister Mary entered Dickens's Doughty Street household to offer support to her newly married sister and brother-in-law. It was not unusual for a woman's unwed sister to live with and help a newly married couple. Dickens became very attached to Mary, and she died after a brief illness in his arms in 1837. She became a character in many of his books, and her death is fictionalized as the death of Little Nell. victorianweb.org - Mary Scott Hogarth, 1820–1837: Dickens's Beloved Sister-in-Law and Inspiration Also in 1836, Dickens accepted the job of editor of Bentley's Miscellany, a position that he would hold for three years, when he fell out with the owner. At the same time, his success as a novelist continued, producing Oliver Twist (1837–39), Nicholas Nickleby (1838–39), The Old Curiosity Shop and, finally, Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty as part of the Master Humphrey's Clock series (1840–41)—all published in monthly instalments before being made into books. Dickens had a pet raven named Grip which, when it died in 1841, Dickens had stuffed (it is now at the Free Library of Philadelphia). RE: Cremains / Ravens Dickens made two trips to North America. In 1842, he travelled with his wife to the United States and Canada, a journey which was successful in spite of his support for the abolition of slavery. He called upon President John Tyler at the White House. At this time Georgina Hogarth, another sister of Catherine, joined the Dickens household to care for the young family they had left behind. She remained with them as housekeeper, organiser, adviser and friend until her brother-in-law's death in 1870. During this visit, Dickens spent time in New York City, where he gave lectures, raised support for copyright laws, and recorded many of his impressions of America. He toured the City for a month, and met such luminaries as Washington Irving and William Cullen Bryant. On 14 February 1842, a Boz Ball (named after his pseudonym) was held in his honour at the Park Theater, with 3,000 of New York’s elite present. Among the neighbourhoods he visited were Five Points, Wall Street, The Bowery, and the prison known as The Tombs. Kenneth T. Jackson: The Encyclopedia of New York City: The New York Historical Society; Yale University Press; 1995. P. 333. The trip is described in the short travelogue American Notes for General Circulation and is also the basis of some of the episodes in Martin Chuzzlewit. Shortly thereafter, he began to show interest in Unitarian Christianity, although he remained an Anglican, at least nominally, for the rest of his life. Charles Dickens Dickens's work continued to be popular, especially A Christmas Carol written in 1843, the first of his Christmas books, which was reputedly a potboiler written in a matter of weeks to meet the expenses of his wife's fifth pregnancy. After living briefly abroad in Italy (1844) and Switzerland (1846), Dickens continued his success with Dombey and Son (1848); David Copperfield (1849–50); Bleak House (1852–53); Hard Times (1854); Little Dorrit (1857); A Tale of Two Cities (1859); and Great Expectations (1861). Dickens was also the publisher and editor of, and a major contributor to, the journals Household Words (1850–1859) and All the Year Round (1858–1870). A recurring theme in Dickens's writing, both as reportage for these publications and as an inspiration for his fiction, reflected the public's interest in Arctic exploration: the heroic friendship between explorers John Franklin and John Richardson gave the idea for A Tale of Two Cities, The Wreck of the Golden Mary and the play The Frozen Deep. After Franklin died in unexplained circumstances on an expedition to find the North West Passage it was natural for Dickens to write a piece in Household Words defending his hero against the discovery in 1854, some four years after the search began, of evidence that Franklin's men had, in their desperation, resorted to cannibalism. Without adducing any supporting evidence he speculates that, far from resorting to cannibalism amongst themselves, the members of the expedition may have been "set upon and slain by the Esquimaux...We believe every savage to be in his heart covetous, treacherous, and cruel." Although publishing in a subsequent issue of Household Words a defence of the Esquimaux, from another author who had actually visited the scene of the supposed cannibalism, Dickens refused to alter his view. Middle years In 1856, his popularity had allowed him to buy Gad's Hill Place. This large house in Higham, Kent, had a particular meaning to Dickens as he had walked past it as a child and had dreamed of living in it. The area was also the scene of some of the events of Shakespeare's Henry IV, part 1 and this literary connection pleased him. In 1857, in preparation for public performances of The Frozen Deep, a play on which he and his protégé Wilkie Collins had collaborated, Dickens hired professional actresses to play the female parts. With one of these, Ellen Ternan, Dickens formed a bond which was to last the rest of his life. The exact nature of their relationship is unclear, as both Dickens and Ternan burned each other's letters, but it was clearly central to Dickens's personal and professional life. On his death, he settled an annuity on her which made her a financially independent woman. Claire Tomalin's book, The Invisible Woman, set out to prove that Ellen Ternan lived with Dickens secretly for the last 13 years of his life, and was subsequently turned into a play, Little Nell, by Simon Gray. When Dickens separated from his wife in 1858, divorce was almost unthinkable, particularly for someone as famous as he was, and he financially supported her long afterwards. Although they appeared to be initially happy together, Catherine did not seem to share quite the same boundless energy for life which Dickens had. Nevertheless, her job of looking after their ten children, the pressure of living with a world-famous novelist, and keeping house for him, certainly did not help. An indication of his marital dissatisfaction may be seen when, in 1855, he went to meet his first love, Maria Beadnell. Maria was by this time married as well, but seemed to have fallen short of Dickens's romantic memory of her. Rail accident and last years Crash scene after the accident On 9 June 1865, while returning from France with Ternan, Dickens was involved in the Staplehurst rail crash in which the first seven carriages of the train plunged off a cast iron bridge that was being repaired. The only first-class carriage to remain on the track was the one in which Dickens was travelling. Dickens spent some time trying to help the wounded and the dying before rescuers arrived. Before leaving, he remembered the unfinished manuscript for Our Mutual Friend, and he returned to his carriage to retrieve it. Typically, Dickens later used this experience as material for his short ghost story The Signal-Man in which the central character has a premonition of his own death in a rail crash. He based the story around several previous rail accidents, such as the Clayton Tunnel rail crash of 1861. Dickens managed to avoid an appearance at the inquest into the crash, as it would have become known that he was travelling that day with Ellen Ternan and her mother, which could have caused a scandal. Ellen had been Dickens's companion since the breakdown of his marriage, and, as he had met her in 1857, she was most likely the ultimate reason for that breakdown. She continued to be his companion, and likely mistress, until his death. The dimensions of the affair were unknown until the publication of Dickens and Daughter, a book about Dickens's relationship with his daughter Kate, in 1939. Kate Dickens worked with author Gladys Storey on the book prior to her death in 1929, and alleged that Dickens and Ternan had a son who died in infancy, though no contemporary evidence exists. Dickens, though unharmed, never really recovered from the Staplehurst crash, and his normally prolific writing shrank to completing Our Mutual Friend and starting the unfinished The Mystery of Edwin Drood after a long interval. Much of his time was taken up with public readings from his best-loved novels. Dickens was fascinated by the theatre as an escape from the world, and theatres and theatrical people appear in Nicholas Nickleby. The travelling shows were extremely popular. In 1866 a series of public readings were undertaken in England and Scotland. The following year saw Dickens give a series of readings in England and Ireland. Dickens was now really unwell but carried on, compulsively, against his doctor's advice. Photograph of Dickens taken by Jeremiah Gurney in New York, 1867 or 1868 Later in the year he embarked on his second American reading tour, which continued into 1868. During this trip, most of which he spent in New York, he gave 22 readings at Steinway Hall between 9 December 1867 and 20 April 1868, and four at Plymouth Church of the Pilgrims between 16 January and 21 January 1868. In his travels, he saw a significant change in the people and the circumstances of America. His final appearance was at a banquet at Delmonico’s on 18 April 1868, when he promised to never denounce America again. Dickens boarded his ship to return to Britain on 23 April 1868, barely escaping a Federal Tax Lien against the proceeds of his lecture tour. Statue of Dickens in Philadelphia During 1869, his readings continued, in England, Scotland, and Ireland, until at last he collapsed, showing symptoms of mild stroke. Further provincial readings were cancelled, but he began upon The Mystery of Edwin Drood. Dickens's final public readings took place in London in 1870. He suffered another stroke on 8 June at Gad's Hill, after a full day's work on Edwin Drood, and five years to the day after the Staplehurst crash, on 9 June 1870, he died at his home in Gad's Hill Place. He was mourned by all his readers. Contrary to his wish to be buried in Rochester Cathedral, he was laid to rest in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. The inscription on his tomb reads: CHARLES DICKENS Born 7th February 1812 Died 9th June 1870. Dickens's will stipulated that no memorial be erected to honour him. The only life-size bronze statue of Dickens, cast in 1891 by Francis Edwin Elwell, is located in Clark Park in the Spruce Hill neighbourhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in the United States. Literary style Dickens's writing style is florid and poetic, with a strong comic touch. His satires of British aristocratic snobbery—he calls one character the "Noble Refrigerator"—are often popular. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats, or dinner-party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens's acclaimed flights of fancy. Many of his character's names provide the reader with a hint as to the roles played in advancing the storyline, such as Mr. Murdstone in the novel David Copperfield, which is clearly a combination of "murder" and stony coldness. His literary style is also a mixture of fantasy and realism. Characters Charles Dickens used his rich imagination, sense of humour and detailed memories, particularly of his childhood, to enliven his fiction. Dickensian characters—especially their typically whimsical names—are among the most memorable in English literature. The likes of Ebenezer Scrooge, Fagin, Mrs. Gamp, Charles Darnay, Oliver Twist, Micawber, Abel Magwitch, Newman Noggs, Samuel Pickwick, Miss Havisham, Wackford Squeers, Uriah Heep and many others are so well known and can be believed to be living a life outside the novels that their stories have been continued by other authors. Dickens loved the style of 18th century gothic romance, although it had already become a target for parody. One "character" vividly drawn throughout his novels is London itself. From the coaching inns on the outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of the Thames, all aspects of the capital are described over the course of his body of work. Episodic writing As noted above, most of Dickens's major novels were first written in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such as Master Humphrey's Clock and Household Words, later reprinted in book form. These instalments made the stories cheap, accessible and the series of regular cliff-hangers made each new episode widely anticipated. American fans even waited at the docks in New York, shouting out to the crew of an incoming ship, "Is Little Nell dead?" Boz Will Be Boz - TIME A Dickens of a fuss - theage.com.au And They All Died Happily Ever After - New York Times Part of Dickens's great talent was to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end. The monthly numbers were illustrated by, amongst others, "Phiz" (a pseudonym for Hablot Browne). Among his best-known works are Great Expectations, David Copperfield, Oliver Twist, A Tale of Two Cities, Bleak House, Nicholas Nickleby, The Pickwick Papers, and A Christmas Carol. "Charles Dickens as he appears when reading." Wood engraving from Harper's Weekly, 7 December 1867 Dickens's technique of writing in monthly or weekly instalments (depending on the work) can be understood by analysing his relationship with his illustrators. The several artists who filled this role were privy to the contents and intentions of Dickens's instalments before the general public. Thus, by reading these correspondences between author and illustrator, the intentions behind Dickens's work can be better understood. What was hidden in his art is made plain in these letters. These also reveal how the interests of the reader and author do not coincide. A great example of that appears in the monthly novel Oliver Twist. At one point in this work, Dickens had Oliver become embroiled in a robbery. That particular monthly instalment concludes with young Oliver being shot. Readers expected that they would be forced to wait only a month to find out the outcome of that gunshot. In fact, Dickens did not reveal what became of young Oliver in the succeeding number. Rather, the reading public was forced to wait two months to discover if the boy lived. Another important impact of Dickens's episodic writing style resulted from his exposure to the opinions of his readers. Since Dickens did not write the chapters very far ahead of their publication, he was allowed to witness the public reaction and alter the story depending on those public reactions. A fine example of this process can be seen in his weekly serial The Old Curiosity Shop, which is a chase story. In this novel, Little Nell and her Grandfather are fleeing the villain Quilp. The progress of the novel follows the gradual success of that pursuit. As Dickens wrote and published the weekly instalments, his friend John Forster pointed out: "You know you're going to have to kill her, don't you." Why this end was necessary can be explained by a brief analysis of the difference between the structure of a comedy versus a tragedy. In a comedy, the action covers a sequence "You think they're going to lose, you think they're going to lose, they win". In tragedy, it is: "You think they're going to win, you think they're going to win, they lose". The dramatic conclusion of the story is implicit throughout the novel. So, as Dickens wrote the novel in the form of a tragedy, the sad outcome of the novel was a foregone conclusion. If he had not caused his heroine to lose, he would not have completed his dramatic structure. Dickens admitted that his friend Forster was right and, in the end, Little Nell died. Social commentary Dickens's novels were, among other things, works of social commentary. He was a fierce critic of the poverty and social stratification of Victorian society. Dickens's second novel, Oliver Twist (1839), shocked readers with its images of poverty and crime and was responsible for the clearing of the actual London slum that was the basis of the story's Jacob's Island. In addition, with the character of the tragic prostitute, Nancy, Dickens "humanised" such women for the reading public; women who were regarded as "unfortunates," inherently immoral casualties of the Victorian class/economic system. Bleak House and Little Dorrit elaborated expansive critiques of the Victorian institutional apparatus: the interminable lawsuits of the Court of Chancery that destroyed people's lives in Bleak House and a dual attack in Little Dorrit on inefficient, corrupt patent offices and unregulated market speculation. Literary techniques Dickens is often described as using 'idealised' characters and highly sentimental scenes to contrast with his caricatures and the ugly social truths he reveals. The story of Nell Trent in The Old Curiosity Shop (1841) was received as incredibly moving by contemporary readers but viewed as ludicrously sentimental by Oscar Wilde:"You would need to have a heart of stone," he declared in one of his famous witticisms, "not to laugh at the death of Little Nell." In conversation with Ada Leverson. Quoted in Richard Ellmann, Oscar Wilde (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), p. 469. (although her death actually takes place off-stage). In 1903 G. K. Chesterton said, "It is not the death of Little Nell, but the life of Little Nell, that I object to." G. K. Chesterton, Appreciations and Criticisms of the Works of Charles Dickens, Chapter 6: Curiosity Shop In Oliver Twist Dickens provides readers with an idealised portrait of a young boy so inherently and unrealistically 'good' that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of young pickpockets. While later novels also centre on idealised characters (Esther Summerson in Bleak House and Amy Dorrit in Little Dorrit), this idealism serves only to highlight Dickens's goal of poignant social commentary. Many of his novels are concerned with social realism, focusing on mechanisms of social control that direct people's lives (for instance, factory networks in Hard Times and hypocritical exclusionary class codes in Our Mutual Friend). Dickens also employs incredible coincidences (e.g., Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper class family that randomly rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group). Such coincidences are a staple of eighteenth century picaresque novels such as Henry Fielding's Tom Jones that Dickens enjoyed so much. But, to Dickens, these were not just plot devices but an index of the humanism that led him to believe that good wins out in the end and often in unexpected ways. Autobiographical elements All authors might be said to incorporate autobiographical elements in their fiction, but with Dickens this is very noticeable, even though he took pains to mask what he considered his shameful, lowly past. David Copperfield is one of the most clearly autobiographical but the scenes from Bleak House of interminable court cases and legal arguments are drawn from the author's brief career as a court reporter. Dickens's own father was sent to prison (where he was joined by his wife and younger children) for debt, and this became a common theme in many of his books, with the detailed depiction of life in the Marshalsea prison in Little Dorrit resulting from Dickens's own experiences of the institution. Little Nell in The Old Curiosity Shop is thought to represent Dickens's sister-in-law, Nicholas Nickleby's father and Wilkins Micawber are certainly Dickens's own father, just as Mrs. Nickleby and Mrs. Micawber are similar to his mother. The snobbish nature of Pip from Great Expectations also has some affinity to the author himself. The character of Fagin is believed to be based upon Ikey Solomon, a 19th century Jewish criminal of London and later Australia. It is reported that Dickens, during his time as a journalist, interviewed Solomon after a court appearance and that he was the inspiration for the gang leader in Oliver Twist. When the work was published in 1838 the unpleasant, to modern eyes, stereotype of the Jewish character "Fagin" as fence and corrupter of children reflected only the endemic view of the time. The characterisation aroused no indignation, or even comment, and it seems to have been written without conscious anti-semitic intent. By 1854, however, Dickens was moved to defend himself against mild reproof in The Jewish Chronicle by reference to his "strong abhorrence of...persecution of Jews in old time" expressed in his book A Child's History of England. His sensitivity on the subject increased: in 1863 he was explaining that the character Fagin was "called a 'Jew', not because of his religion, but because of his race." He took pains to include in Our Mutual Friend of 1864 the sympathetic Jewish character "Riah". Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he gathered his realistic accounts of squalor. Very few knew the details of his early life until six years after his death when John Forster published a biography on which Dickens had collaborated. A shameful past in Victorian times could taint reputations, just as it did for some of his characters, and this may have been Dickens's own fear. Legacy Stamp in "The Centenary Edition of The Works of Charles Dickens in 36 Volumes." A scene from Oliver Twist, from an early 20th-century edition 'Dickens's Dream' by R.W. Buss A well-known personality, his novels proved immensely popular during his lifetime. His first full novel, The Pickwick Papers (1837), brought him immediate fame, and this success continued throughout his career. Although rarely departing greatly from his typical "Dickensian" method of always attempting to write a great "story" in a somewhat conventional manner (the dual narrators of Bleak House constitute a notable exception), he experimented with varied themes, characterisations, and genres. Some of these experiments achieved more popularity than others, and the public's taste and appreciation of his many works have varied over time. Usually keen to give his readers what they wanted, the monthly or weekly publication of his works in episodes meant that the books could change as the story proceeded at the whim of the public. Good examples of this are the American episodes in Martin Chuzzlewit which Dickens included in response to lower-than-normal sales of the earlier chapters. In Our Mutual Friend, the inclusion of the character of Riah was a positive portrayal of a Jewish character after he was criticised for the depiction of Fagin in Oliver Twist. Although his popularity has waned a little since his death, he continues to be one of the best known and most read of English authors. At least 180 motion pictures and TV adaptations based on Dickens's works help confirm his success. Many of his works were adapted for the stage during his own lifetime and as early as 1913 a silent film of The Pickwick Papers was made. His characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books. Gamp became a slang expression for an umbrella from the character Mrs Gamp and Pickwickian, Pecksniffian, and Gradgrind all entered dictionaries due to Dickens's original portraits of such characters who were quixotic, hypocritical, or emotionlessly logical. Sam Weller, the carefree and irreverent valet of The Pickwick Papers, was an early superstar, perhaps better known than his author at first. It is likely that A Christmas Carol stands as his best-known story, with new adaptations almost every year. It is also the most-filmed of Dickens's stories, with many versions dating from the early years of cinema. This simple morality tale with both pathos and its theme of redemption, sums up (for many) the true meaning of Christmas. Indeed, it eclipses all other Yuletide stories in not only popularity, but in adding archetypal figures (Scrooge, Tiny Tim, the Christmas ghosts) to the Western cultural consciousness. A Christmas Carol was written by Dickens in an attempt to forestall financial disaster as a result of flagging sales of his novel Martin Chuzzlewit. Years later, Dickens shared that he was "deeply affected" in writing A Christmas Carol and the novel rejuvenated his career as a renowned author. At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged at the heart of empire. Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues—such as sanitation and the workhouse—but his fiction probably demonstrated its greatest prowess in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities. He often depicted the exploitation and repression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that not only allowed such abuses to exist, but flourished as a result. His most strident indictment of this condition is in Hard Times (1854), Dickens's only novel-length treatment of the industrial working class. In this work, he uses both vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalised social stratum was termed "Hands" by the factory owners; that is, not really "people" but rather only appendages of the machines that they operated. His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression. For example, the prison scenes in Little Dorrit and The Pickwick Papers were prime movers in having the Marshalsea and Fleet Prisons shut down. As Karl Marx said, Dickens, and the other novelists of Victorian England, "...issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together...". The exceptional popularity of his novels, even those with socially oppositional themes (Bleak House, 1853; Little Dorrit, 1857; Our Mutual Friend, 1865) underscored not only his almost preternatural ability to create compelling storylines and unforgettable characters, but also ensured that the Victorian public confronted issues of social justice that had commonly been ignored. His fiction, with often vivid descriptions of life in nineteenth century England, has inaccurately and anachronistically come to symbolise on a global level Victorian society (1837 – 1901) as uniformly "Dickensian," when in fact, his novels' time span spanned from the 1770s to the 1860s. In the decade following his death in 1870, a more intense degree of socially and philosophically pessimistic perspectives invested British fiction; such themes stood in marked contrast to the religious faith that ultimately held together even the bleakest of Dickens's novels. Dickens clearly influenced later Victorian novelists such as Thomas Hardy and George Gissing, however their works display a greater willingness to confront and challenge the Victorian institution of religion. They also portray characters caught up by social forces (primarily via lower-class conditions), but they usually steered them to tragic ends beyond their control. Novelists continue to be influenced by his books; for instance, such disparate current writers as Anne Rice, Tom Wolfe, and John Irving evidence direct Dickensian connections. Humorist James Finn Garner even wrote a tongue-in-cheek "politically correct" version of A Christmas Carol, and other affectionate parodies include the Radio 4 comedy Bleak Expectations. Although Dickens's life has been the subject of at least two TV miniseries and two famous one-man shows, he has never been the subject of a Hollywood "big screen" biography. Name 'Dickens' Charles Dickens had, as a contemporary critic put it, a "queer name". The name Dickens was used in interjective exclamations like "What the Dickens!" as a substitute for "devil". It was recorded in the OED as originating from Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor. It was also used as a substitute for "deuce" as in the phrase "to play the Dickens" in the meaning "to play havoc/mischief". John Bowen (2000) Other Dickens: Pickwick to Chuzzlewit, ISBN 0199261407, p. 36 Adaptations of readings There have been several performances of Dickens readings by Emlyn Williams, Bransby Williams, Clive Francis performing the John Mortimer adaptation of A Christmas Carol and also Simon Callow in the Mystery of Charles Dickens by Peter Ackroyd. Museums and festivals Bleak House, Broadstairs in Broadstairs, Kent, where Dickens wrote some of his novels. The house was for many years a Dickens museum, and visitors would leave notes addressed to him in the desk-drawer in his former study, overlooking harbour and sea. There are museums and festivals celebrating Dickens's life and works in many of the towns with which he was associated. The Charles Dickens Museum, in Doughty Street, Holborn is the only one of Dickens's London homes to survive. He lived there only two years but in that time wrote The Pickwick Papers, Oliver Twist, and Nicholas Nickleby. It contains a major collection of manuscripts, original furniture and memorabilia. Charles Dickens' Birthplace Museum in Portsmouth is the house in which Dickens was born. It has been re-furnished in the likely style of 1812 and contains Dickens memorabilia. The Dickens House Museum in Broadstairs, Kent is the house of Miss Mary Pearson Strong, the basis for Miss Betsey Trotwood in David Copperfield. It is visible across the bay from the original Bleak House (also a museum until 2005) where David Copperfield was written. The museum contains memorabilia, general Victoriana and some of Dickens's letters. Broadstairs has held a Dickens Festival annually since 1937. The Charles Dickens Centre in Eastgate House, Rochester, closed in 2004, but the garden containing the author's Swiss chalet is still open. The 16th century house, which appeared as Westgate House in The Pickwick Papers and the Nun's House in Edwin Drood, is now used as a wedding venue. Medway Council - Eastgate House The city's annual Dickens Festival (summer) and Dickensian Christmas celebrations continue unaffected. The Cashier's Office, Chatham Dockyard. The Dickens World themed attraction, covering , and including a cinema and restaurants, opened in Chatham on 25 May 2007. It stands on a small part of the site of the former naval dockyard where Dickens's father had once worked in the Navy Pay Office. Dickens Festival in Rochester, Kent. Summer Dickens is held at the end of May or in the first few days of June, it commences with an invitation only ball on the Thursday and then continues with street entertainment, and many costumed characters, on the Friday, Saturday and Sunday.Christmas Dickens is the first weekend in December- Saturday and Sunday only. Dickens festivals are also held across the world. Four notable ones in the United States are: A child, dressed in appropriate attire, at the Dickensian Festival in Ulverston, Cumbria. The Riverside Dickens Festival in Riverside, California, includes literary studies as well as entertainments. The Great Dickens Christmas Fair (http://www.dickensfair.com/) has been held in San Francisco, California, since the 1970s. During the four or five weekends before Christmas, over 500 costumed performers mingle with and entertain thousands of visitors amidst the recreated full-scale blocks of Dickensian London in over of public area. This is the oldest, largest, and most successful of the modern Dickens festivals outside England. Many (including the Martin Harris who acts in the Rochester festival and flies out from London to play Scrooge every year in SF) say it is the most impressive in the world. Dickens on The Strand in Galveston, Texas, is a holiday festival held on the first weekend in December since 1974, where bobbies, Beefeaters and the "Queen" herself are on hand to recreate the Victorian London of Charles Dickens. Many festival volunteers and attendees dress in Victorian attire and bring the world of Dickens to life. The Greater Port Jefferson-Northern Brookhaven Arts Council (http://www.gpjac.org) holds a Dickens Festival in the Village of Port Jefferson, NY each year. In 2007, the Dickens Festival is 30 November, 1 December, and 2 December. It includes many events, along with a troupe of street performers who bring an authentic Dickensian atmosphere to the town. Other memorials Charles Dickens was commemorated on the Series E £10 note issued by the Bank of England which was in circulation in the UK between 1992 and 2003. Dickens appeared on the reverse of the note accompanied by a scene from The Pickwick Papers. Notable works by Charles Dickens Charles Dickens published over a dozen major novels, a large number of short stories (including a number of Christmas-themed stories), a handful of plays, and several non-fiction books. Dickens's novels were initially serialised in weekly and monthly magazines, then reprinted in standard book formats. Novels The Pickwick Papers (Monthly serial, April 1836 to November 1837) Serial publication dates from Chronology of Novels by E. D. H. Johnson, Holmes Professor of Belles Lettres, Princeton University. Accessed 11 June 2007. The Adventures of Oliver Twist (Monthly serial in Bentley's Miscellany, February 1837 to April 1839) The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby (Monthly serial, April 1838 to October 1839) The Old Curiosity Shop (Weekly serial in Master Humphrey's Clock, 25 April 1840, to 6 February 1841) Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty (Weekly serial in Master Humphrey's Clock, 13 February 1841, to 27 November 1841) The Christmas books: A Christmas Carol (1843) The Chimes (1844) The Cricket on the Hearth (1845) The Battle of Life (1846) The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain (1848) The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit (Monthly serial, January 1843 to July 1844) Dombey and Son (Monthly serial, October 1846 to April 1848) David Copperfield (Monthly serial, May 1849 to November 1850) Bleak House (Monthly serial, March 1852 to September 1853) Hard Times: For These Times (Weekly serial in Household Words, 1 April 1854, to 12 August 1854) Little Dorrit (Monthly serial, December 1855 to June 1857) A Tale of Two Cities (Weekly serial in All the Year Round, 30 April 1859, to 26 November 1859) Great Expectations (Weekly serial in All the Year Round, 1 December 1860 to 3 August 1861) Our Mutual Friend (Monthly serial, May 1864 to November 1865) The Mystery of Edwin Drood (Monthly serial, April 1870 to September 1870. Only six of twelve planned numbers completed) Short story collections Sketches by Boz (1836) The Mudfog Papers (1837) in Bentley's Miscellany magazine Reprinted Pieces (1861) The Uncommercial Traveller (1860–1869) Christmas numbers of Household Words magazine: What Christmas Is, as We Grow Older (1851) A Round of Stories by the Christmas Fire (1852) Another Round of Stories by the Christmas Fire (1853) The Seven Poor Travellers (1854) The Holly-Tree Inn (1855) The Wreck of the "Golden Mary" (1856) The Perils of Certain English Prisoners (1857) A House to Let (1858)Christmas numbers of All the Year Round magazine: The Haunted House (1859) A Message From the Sea (1860) Tom Tiddler's Ground (1861) Somebody's Luggage (1862) Mrs. Lirriper's Lodgings (1863) Mrs. Lirriper's Legacy (1864) Doctor Marigold's Prescriptions (1865) Mugby Junction (1866) No Thoroughfare (1867) Selected non-fiction, poetry, and plays The Village Coquettes (Plays, 1836) The Fine Old English Gentleman (poetry, 1841) Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi (1838) American Notes: For General Circulation (1842) Pictures from Italy (1846) The Life of Our Lord: As written for his children (1849) A Child's History of England (1853) The Frozen Deep (play, 1857) Speeches, Letters and Sayings (1870) Notes References Ackroyd, Peter, Dickens, (2002), Vintage, ISBN 0-09-943709-0 Drabble, Margaret (ed.), The Oxford Companion to English Literature, (1997), London: Oxford University Press. Michael Slater, "Dickens, Charles John Huffam (1812 – 1870)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, May 2006 accessed 6 June 2006 Peter R Lewis, Disaster on the Dee: Robert Stephenson's Nemesis of 1847, Tempus (2007) for a discussion of the Staplehurst accident, and its influence on Dickens. John Glavin (ed.) Dickens on Screen,(2003),New York: Cambridge University Press. Robert L. Patten (ed.) The Pickwick Papers (Introduction), (1978), Penguin Books. Sidney P. Moss: Charles Dickens' Quarrel with America (New York: Whitson, 1984). Fred Kaplan: Dickens: A Biography (New York: William Morros, 1988). Jerome Meckier: Innocent Abroad: Charles Dickens' American Engagements (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990). External links Online Works , HTML and plain text versions. Works by Charles Dickens at Google Books. Works by Charles Dickens at EveryAuthor, HTML versions. Works by Charles Dickens at Dickens Literature, HTML versions. Works by Charles Dickens at Penn State University Electronic Classics Series, PDF versions. Works by Charles Dickens at Books In My Phone, cell phone versions. Sites about Dickens Charles Dickens Biography, Context, Interactive Timeline - Crossref-it.info A Charles Dickens Journal Timeline of Dickens's Life David Perdue's Charles Dickens Page The Dickens Fellowship, an international society dedicated to the study of Dickens and his Writings A Dickens web page with both original content and links to many other Dickens pages. The Dickens Page, a comprehensive Dickens portal. Charles Dickens — Gad’s Hill Place Daily Dickens information. Charles Dickens: A Comprehensive Resource, Biography, Life and Literature. 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4,098 | History_of_the_Mediterranean_region | Bacino del Mediterraneo, dall’Atlante manoscritto del 1582-1584 ca. Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II, Roma (cart. naut. 2 – cart. naut 6/1-2). The history of the Mediterranean region is the history of the interaction of the cultures and people of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea —the central superhighway of transport, trade and cultural exchange between diverse peoples. Its history is important to understanding the origin and development of the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Maltese, Persian, Phoenician, Jewish, Greek, Roman, Arab and Turkish cultures — and hence is important to understanding the development of Western civilization as we understand it today. Dawn of civilization The Fertile Crescent in the 2nd millennium BC. Two of the first human civilizations began in the eastern Mediterranean area. Civilization first developed in Mesopotamia beginning with Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. Soon after, the Nile River valley of ancient Egypt was unified under the Pharaohs in the 4th millennium BC, and civilization quickly spread through the Fertile Crescent to the east coast of the sea and throughout the Levant, which happens to make the Mediterranean countries of Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and Israel part of the cradle of civilization. These areas shared similar climates and geographies, but it was more difficult to spread technologies and crops, such as flax, lentil, peas, barley, and cotton to other portions of the Mediterranean basin. In time, large empires developed in Asia Minor, such as the Hittites. The main expansion was delayed until ships sturdy enough to cross the sea were developed. Cyprus and the other islands developed, and the Minoan civilization flourished on the island of Crete. While the river valley civilizations always had larger populations, the trading societies on the coast of the sea soon became the most prosperous, and rose to power. Classical antiquity The two most notable of these were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians. The Greeks expanded throughout the Black Sea and south through the Red Sea. The Phoenicians spread through the western Mediterranean including North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. The Phoenician heartland in the Levant was still dominated by powers rooted east in Mesopotamia or Persia, and the Phoenicians often provided the naval forces of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Hellenistic period The Mediterranean region in 220 BC. In the northern-most part of ancient Hellenistic Greece, in the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, technological and organizational skill was forged with a long history of cavalry warfare. Under Alexander the Great, this force turned east, and in a series of three decisive battles, routed the Persian forces and took their empire, which included Egypt and the Phoenician lands. The major centres of the Mediterranean at the time became part of Alexander's empire as a result. His empire quickly disintegrated, and the Middle East, Egypt, and Greece were soon again independent. Alexander's conquests spread Greek knowledge and ideas throughout the region. Roman-Carthaginian rivalry These eastern powers soon began to be overshadowed by those further west. In North Africa the former Phoenician colony of Carthage rose to dominate its surroundings with an empire that contained many of the former Phoenician holdings. However, it was a city on the Italian Peninsula, Rome, that would eventually dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. Spreading first through Italy, Rome defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars, despite Hannibal's famous efforts against Rome in the Second Punic War. After the Third Punic War, Rome then became the leading force in the Mediterranean region. The Romans soon spread east taking Greece, and the Greek heritage played an important role in the Roman Empire. By this point the coastal trading cultures were thoroughly dominant over the inland river valleys that had once been the heart of the great powers. Egyptian power moved from the Nile cities to the coastal ones, especially Alexandria. Mesopotamia became a fringe border region between the Roman Empire and the Persians. Roman Lake When Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Mediterranean sea began to be called Mar Nostrum (literally:"Our Sea") by the Romans. Their empire was centered on this sea and all the area was full of commerce and naval development. For the first time in history an entire sea (the Mediterranean) was free of piracy. For several centuries the Mediterranean was a "Roman Lake," surrounded on all sides by the empire. One portion of the empire was Judea, and in time, a religion founded in that region, Christianity, spread throughout the empire and eventually became its official faith. The empire began to crumble, however, in the fifth century and Rome collapsed after 476 AD. Temporarily the east was again dominant as the Byzantine Empire formed from the eastern half of the Roman one. The western part of the empire, Gaul, Iberia, and the Maghreb were invaded by nomadic horse peoples from the Eurasian steppe. These conquerors soon became settled, and adopted many of the local customs, forming many small and warring kingdoms. Middle Ages Islamic Golden Age The expansion of the Caliphate in the Mediterranean region from 622 to 750 AD. Another power was rising in the east, that of Islam, whilst the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires were both weakened by centuries of stalemate warfare during the Roman-Persian Wars. In a series of rapid Muslim conquests, the Arab armies, motivated by Islam and led by the Caliphs and skilled military commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, swept through most of the Middle East; reducing Byzantine lands by more than half and completely engulfing the Persian lands. In Anatolia, their expansion was blocked by the still capable Byzantines with the help of the Bulgarians. The Byzantine provinces of Roman Syria, North Africa, and Sicily, however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions. At the far west, they crossed the sea taking Visigothic Hispania before being halted in southern France by the Franks. At its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 3/4 of the Mediterranean region, the only other empire besides the Roman Empire to control most of the Mediterranean Sea. Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79-96 [80]. Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centres in the Middle East, but Iberia (Al Andalus) and Morocco soon broke from this distant control and founded one of the world's most advanced societies at the time, along with Baghdad in the eastern Mediterranean. Between 831 and 1071, the Emirate of Sicily was one of the major centres of Islamic culture in the Mediterranean. After its conquest by the Normans the island developed its own distinct culture with the fusion of Arab, Western and Byzantine influences. Palermo remained a leading artistic and commercial centre of the Mediterranean well into the Middle Ages. Europe was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century. Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the holy land. The Crusades were unsuccessful in this goal, but they were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire that began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the Ottoman Turks. They also rearranged the balance of power in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power in the eastern Mediterranean. Late Middle Ages Map of the Mediterranean and its surrounding states in AD 1400. Europe continued to increase in power as the Renaissance began in Italy. The Italian "Repubbliche Marinare" (Maritime Republics) of Venice, Genoa, Amalfi and Pisa developed their own "empires" in the Mediterranean shores. The Islamic states had never been major naval powers, and trade from the east to Europe was soon in the hands of Italian traders, especially the Venetians, who profited immensely from it. Republic of Ragusa used diplomacy to further trade and maintained a libertarian approach in civil matters to further sentiment in its inhabitants. Ottoman power continued to grow, and in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the fall of Constantinople. The Ottomans already controlled Greece and much of the Balkans, and soon also began to spread through North Africa. North Africa had grown wealthy from the trade across the Sahara Desert, but the Portuguese, who, along with other Christian powers, had been engaged in a long campaign to evict the Muslims from Iberia, had found a method to circumvent this trade by trading directly with West Africa. This was enabled by a new type of ships, the caravel, that made trade in the rough Atlantic waters profitable for the first time. The reduction in the Saharan trade weakened North Africa, and made them an easy target for the Ottomans. Modern era The growing naval prowess of the European powers confronted further rapid Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto checked the power of the Ottoman navy. However, as Braudel argued forcefully, this only slowed the Ottoman expansion instead of ending it. The prized island of Cyprus became Ottoman in 1571. The last resistance in Tunisia ended in 1574 and almost a generation long siege in Crete pushed Venetians out of this strategic island in 1669. A balance of power was then established between Spain and Ottoman Empire until 18th century, each dominating their respective half of Mediterranean, reducing Italian navies as naval powers increasingly more irrelevant. Furthermore, the Ottoman Empire had succeeded in their objective of extending Muslim rule across the North African coast. The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean, however. While once all trade from the east had passed through the region, the circumnavigation of Africa allowed gold, spices, and dyes to be imported directly to the Atlantic ports of western Europe. The Americas were also a source of extreme wealth to the western powers, from which some of the Mediterranean states were largely cut off. The base of European power thus shifted northward and the once wealthy Italy became a peripheral area dominated by foreigners. The Ottoman Empire also began a slow decline that saw its North African possessions gain de facto independence and its European holdings gradually reduced by the increasing power of Austria and Russia. Greatest extent of Italian control of the Mediterranean littoral and seas (within green line & dots) in summer/fall 1942. Allied controlled areas in red. By the nineteenth century the European States were vastly more powerful, and began to colonize North Africa. France spread its power south by taking Algeria in 1830 and later Tunisia. Britain gained control of Egypt in 1882 . Italy conquered Libya from the Ottomans in 1911. The Ottoman Empire finally collapsed in the First World War, and its holdings were carved up among France and Britain, but the Turkish regions quickly regained their independence, becoming the independent state of Turkey in 1922. During the first half of the twentieth century the Mediterranean was at the center of the expansion of the Kingdom of Italy, and was one of the main areas of battle during WWII between the Axis and the Allies. Today, the Mediterranean Sea is the southern border of the European Union. See also Mediterranean U-boat Campaign Babelmed.net, a website about Mediterranean cultures. External links Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations Timeline (10000 BC to 700 AD) History of the Mediterranean at historyworld.net Further reading Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean in the Age of Philip II. Horden, Peregrine and Nicholas Purcell. The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000. Thiollet, Jean-Pierre. Je m'appelle Byblos. 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4,099 | Mexico_City | Mexico City (Spanish: Ciudad de México, D.F. (for Distrito Federal), México or Méjico In some Spanish-speaking countries, not Mexico itself, the spelling Méjico is used, albeit rarely. Recently, the Real Academia Española stated that the recommended spelling is "México", however. Both spelling forms are correct. ) is the capital city of Mexico. In Mexican Spanish, for simplicity, the city is typically called el DF. It is the most important economic, industrial, and cultural center in the country; the most populous city with over 8,836,045 inhabitants in 2008. Consejo Nacional de Población, México; Proyecciones de la Población de México 2005-2050. Retrieved 2008-09-27. Greater Mexico City (Zona Metropolitana del Valle de México) incorporates 59 adjacent municipalities of Mexico State and 29 municipalities of the state of Hidalgo, according to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments. Secretaria de Desarrollo Metropolitano, México; Delimitación de la Zona Metropolitana del Valle de México. Retrieved 2009-02-20. Greater Mexico City has a population exceeding 22 million people, Mexcio City Government. Retrieved 2009-02-20. making it the second largest metropolitan area in the western hemisphere and the third largest in the world by population according to the United Nations. World Urbanization Prospects: 2007 revision Retrieved 2009-03-01. In 2005, it ranked the eighth in terms of GDP (PPP) among urban agglomerations in the world. Aside from São Paulo it is the only Beta global city with 8 points in Latin America and ranked 25th among global cities by Foreign Policy's 2008 Global Cities Index. The 2008 Global Cities Index Mexico City is also the Federal District (Distrito Federal in Spanish). The Federal District is coterminous with Mexico City; both are governed by a single institution and are constitutionally considered to be the same entity. This has not always been the case. The Federal District, created in 1824, was integrated by several municipalities, one of which was the municipality of Mexico City. As the city began to grow, it engulfed all other municipalities into one large urban area. In 1928, all municipalities within the Federal District were abolished, an action that left a vacuum in the legal status of Mexico City vis-à-vis the Federal District, even though for most practical purposes they were traditionally considered to be the same entity. In 1993, to end the sterile discussions about whether one concept had engulfed the other, or if any of the two entities had any existence in lieu of the other, the 44th Article of the Constitution of Mexico was reformed to clearly state that Mexico City is the Federal District, seat of the Powers of the Union and capital of the United Mexican States. Article 44, Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, Second Title, Second Chapter, 44rd article According to a study 150 Richest Cities in the World, 2005 conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers, Greater Mexico City (with a population of 19.2 million) had a GDP of $315 billion in 2005 (at purchasing power parity), ranking as the eighth-richest urban agglomeration in the world after the greater areas of Tokyo, New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Paris, London and Osaka/Kobe, and the richest in Latin America; in 2020 it is expected to rank seventh with a $608 billion GDP, displacing Osaka/Kobe. As of 2008, the city had a GDP of about 221 billion US Dollars, for an income per capita of 25,258 US Dollars -well above the national GDP per capita and on par with industrialized high-income economies such as South Korea or the Czech Republic. Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, also called the Valley of Anáhuac, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 meters (7,349 ft). It was originally built as Tenochtitlan by the Aztecs in 1325 on an island of Lake Texcoco. The city was almost completely destroyed in the siege of 1521, and was redesigned and rebuilt in the following years following the Spanish urban standards. In 1524 the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenustitlán, and as of 1585 it is officially known as ciudad de México. Historia de la Ciudad de México Gobierno del Distrito Federal History Spanish conquest of Tenochtitlán After landing in Veracruz, Hernán Cortés heard about the great city and the long-standing rivalries and grievances against it. Although Cortés came to Mexico with a very small army, he was able to persuade many of the other native peoples to help him destroy Tenochtitlán. Templo Mayor de Tenochtitlan Cortés first saw Tenochtitlán on 8 November 1519. Upon viewing it for the first time, Cortés and his men were stunned by its beauty and size. The Spaniards marched along the causeway leading into the city from Iztapalapa. Although Montezuma came out from the center of Tenochtitlán to greet them and exchange gifts, the camaraderie did not last long. Cortés put Montezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him. Tensions increased until, on the night of June 30, 1520 - during a struggle commonly known as "La Noche Triste" - the Aztec revolted against the Spanish intrusion and managed to capture or drive out the Europeans and their Tlaxcalan allies. Cortés regrouped at Tlaxcala. The Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone. They elected a new king, Cuauhtémoc. Cortés decided to lay siege to Tenochtitlán in May of 1521. For three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island and fought their way through the city, street by street, and house by house. Finally, Cuauhtémoc had to surrender in August of 1521. City's rebuilding as Mexico City Mexico City in 1628. The Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlán. Cortés first settled in Coyoacan, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site in order to erase all traces of the old order. Cortés did not establish an independent, conquered territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown. The first viceroy of the new domain arrived in Mexico City fourteen years later. By that time, the city had again become a city-state, having power that extended far beyond the city’s established borders. Although the Spanish preserved Tenochtitlán's basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves. Tenochtitlán was renamed “Mixico,” its alternative form name, as the Spanish found this easier to say. Growth of the colonial city Torre Latinoamericana, Latin America's first skyscraper The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake’s waters. The 15th century saw a proliferation of churches, many of which can still be seen today in the historic center. However, flooding was a constant problem, and in the 17th century projects to drain and fill in parts of the lake were begun in earnest. This process would continue for most of the city’s history until the lakes disappeared. Economically, Mexico City prospered as a result of trade. Unlike Brazil or Peru, Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds. Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city, it had only partial success. One way the Spanish tried to completely rule was religion, but even here success was not complete. Native practices survived incorporated in the indigenous’ practice of Roman Catholicism. Perhaps the most famous example of this is the cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which originated with the vision at Tepeyac Hill to the north of the city’s borders in 1531; some scholars suggest that this vision was particularly effective owing to the existence of a pre-Conquest Aztec cult of Tonantzin, a mother goddess. The concept of nobility transferred to New Spain in a way not seen in other parts of the Americas. A noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power as one’s power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not. The concept of nobility in Mexico was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family. Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes. The craze to build the most opulent home possible reached its height in the last half of the 18th century. Many of these homes can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City’s nickname of “The city of palaces” given by Charles Joseph Latrobe in his book "A rambler in Mexico". Independence for Mexico was declared by Agustin de Iturbide in 1821 after he and his army marched into the city. While Iturbide’s regime tried to keep as much of the old order as possible, he soon had to abdicate and Mexico was declared a republic in 1824, with Mexico City as its capital. Unrest followed for the next several decades, as different factions fought for control of Mexico. The Mexican Federal District was established by the new government and by the signing of their new constitution, where the concept of a federal district was adapted from the American constitution. Before this designation, Mexico City had served as the seat of government for both the State of Mexico and the nation as a whole. Texcoco and then Toluca became the capital of the state of Mexico. During the Mexican-American War, American forces marched toward Mexico City itself after capturing Veracruz. The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in what is now the far north of the city. Events such as the Reform War left the city relatively untouched and it continued to grow, especially during the rule of President Porfirio Díaz. During this time, the city developed modern infrastructure, such as roads, schools, transportation, and communication systems. However, the regime concentrated resources and wealth into the city while the rest languished in poverty. This eventually led to the Mexican Revolution. The most significant episode of this period for the city was the La decena trágica ("The Ten Tragic Days"), a coup against President Francisco I. Madero and his vice president, José María Pino Suárez. Victoriano Huerta, chief general of the Federal Army saw a chance to take power, forcing Madero and Pino Suarez to sign resignations. The two were murdered later while on their way to prison. 20th century to present Paseo de la Reforma. The history of the rest of the 20th century to the present focuses on the phenomenal growth of the city and its environmental and political consequences. In 1900, the population of Mexico City was about 500,000. The city began to grow rapidly westward in the early part of the 20th century. and then began to grow upwards in the 1950’s, with the Torre Latinoamericana as the first skyscraper. The 1968 Olympic Games brought about the construction of large sporting facilities. In 1969, the Metro system was inaugurated. Explosive growth in the population of the city started from the 1960’s, with the population overflowing the boundaries of the Federal District into the neighboring state of Mexico, especially to the north, northwest and northeast. Between 1960 and 1980 the city’s population more than doubled to 8,831,079. 1980 - half of all the industrial jobs in Mexico were located in Mexico City. Under relentless growth, the Mexico City government could barely keep up with services. Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city's problems. With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shantytowns that extended for many miles. This caused serious air and water pollution problems, as well as a sinking city due to overextraction of groundwater. Air and water pollution has been contained and improved in some several areas due to government programs, the renovation of vehicles and the modernization of the public transport. The autocratic government that ruled Mexico City since the Revolution was tolerated, mostly because of the continued economic expansion since World War II. This was the case even though this government could not handle the population and pollution problems adequately. Nevertheless, discontent and protests began in the 1960’s leading to the massacre of an unknown number of protesting students in Tlatelolco. However, the last straw may have been the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. On Thursday, 19 September 1985, at 7:19 AM local time, Mexico City was struck by an earthquake of magnitude 8.1 on the Richter scale. While this earthquake was not as deadly or destructive as many similar events in Asia and other parts of Latin America it proved to be a disaster politically for the one-party government. The government was paralyzed by its own bureaucracy and corruption, forcing ordinary citizens to not only create and direct their own rescue efforts but efforts to reconstruct much of the housing that was lost as well. This discontent eventually led to Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, a member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution, becoming the first elected mayor of Mexico City in 1997. Cárdenas promised a more democratic government, and his party claimed some victories against crime, pollution, and other major problems. He resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency. Geography Popocatépetl volcano seen from the city. Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, sometimes called the Basin of Mexico. This valley is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt located in the high plateaus of central Mexico. It has a minimum altitude of 2,200 meters above sea level and surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 meters. This valley has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the mountainsides, making the city vulnerable to flooding. It was artificially opened through the use of canals and tunnels starting in the 17th century. The city primarily rests on what was Lake Texcoco. Seismic activity is frequent here. This lake was drained starting from the 17th century and while none of its waters remain, the city rests on its heavily saturated clay. This soft base is collapsing due to the over-extraction of groundwater and since the beginning of the 20th century, the city has sunk as much as nine meters in some areas. This sinking is causing problems with runoff and wastewater management, leading to flooding problems, especially during the rainy season. The entire lakebed is now paved over and most of the city’s remaining forested areas lie in the southern boroughs of Milpa Alta, Tlalpan and Xochimilco. Geophysical maps of the Federal District Topography Hydrology Climate patterns Climate Mexico City has a temperate highland climate (Koppen Cwb), due to its tropical location and high elevation. The lower region of the valley receives less rainfall than the upper regions of the south; the lower boroughs of Iztapalapa, Iztacalco, Venustiano Carranza and the west portion of Gustavo A. Madero are usually drier and warmer than the upper southern boroughs of Tlalpan and Milpa Alta, a mountainous region of pine and oak trees known as the range of Ajusco. The average annual temperature varies from 12 to 16°C (53 to 60°F), depending on the altitude of the borough. Lowest temperatures, usually registered during January and February, may reach -2 to -5°C (28 to 23°F), usually accompanied by snow showers on the southern regions of Ajusco, and the maximum temperatures of late spring and summer may reach up to 32°C (90°F). Overall precipitation is heavily concentrated in the summer months, including dense hail. The central valley of Mexico rarely gets precipitation in the form of snow during winter; the two last recorded instances of such an event were on March 5, 1940 and January 12, 1967. The region of the Valley of Mexico receives anti-cyclonic systems, whose weak winds do not allow for the dispersion, outside the basin, of the air pollutants which are produced by the 50,000 industries and 4 million vehicles operating in or around the metropolitan area. Secretaría del Medio Ambiente del Distrito Federal, SMA (2002) Programa para Mejorar la Calidad del Aire de la Zona Metropolitana del Valle de México, Gobierno del Distrito Federal The area receives about 700 millimeters of annual rainfall, which is concentrated from June through September/October with little or no precipitation the remainder of the year. The area has two main seasons. The rainy season runs from June to October when winds bring in tropical moisture from the sea. The dry season runs from November to May, when the air is relatively drier. This dry season subdivides into a cold period from November to February when polar air masses pushing down from the north keep the air fairly dry and a warm period from March to May when tropical winds again dominate but they do not yet carry enough moisture for rain. Environment Situated in a valley, and relying heavily on automobiles for transportation, the city suffers from regularly poor air quality. Originally much of the valley lay beneath the waters of Lake of Texcoco, a system of interconnected saline and freshwater lakes. The Aztecs built dikes to separate the fresh water used to raise crops in chinampas and to prevent recurrent floods. These dikes were destroyed during the siege of Tenochtitlan, and during colonial times the Spanish regularly drained the lake to prevent floods. Only a small section of the original lake remains, located outside the Federal District, in the municipality of Atenco, State of Mexico. In recent years, architects Teodoro González De León and Alberto Kalach, along with a group of Mexican urbanists, engineers and biologists, have developed the project plan for Recovering the City of Lakes. The project, if approved by the government, will contribute to the supply of water from natural sources to the Valley of Mexico, the creation of new natural spaces, a great improvement in air quality, and greater population establishment planning. The federal and local governments have implemented numerous plans to alleviate the problem of air pollution, including the constant monitoring and reporting of environmental conditions, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides. If the levels of these two pollutants reach critical levels, contingency actions are implemented which may include closing factories, changing school hours, and extending the A day without a car program to two days of the week. To control air pollution, the government has instituted industrial technology improvements, a strict biannual vehicle emission inspection and the reformulation of gasoline and diesel fuels. Data from the city's 36 air-quality monitoring stations show lead levels down 95 percent since 1990, while sulfur dioxide has fallen 86 percent, carbon monoxide 74 percent, and peak ozone levels 57 percent since 1991. In 1986, the non-urban forest areas of the southern boroughs were declared National Ecological Reserves by president Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado. Other areas of the Federal District became protected over the following years. Politics Federal District The Acta Constitutiva de la Federación of 31 January 1824 and the Federal Constitution of 4 October 1824 fixed the political and administrative organization of the United Mexican States after the Mexican War of Independence. In addition, Section XXVIII of Article 50 gave the new Congress the right to choose where the federal government would be located. This location would then be appropriated as federal land, with the federal government acting as the local authority. The two main candidates to become the capital were Mexico City and Querétaro. However, due much to the persuasion of representative Servando Teresa de Mier, Mexico City was chosen because it was the center of the country’s population and history, even though Querétaro was closer to the center geographically. The choice was official on 18 November 1824, and Congress delineated a surface area with a radius of two leagues (8,800 km) from the Zocalo. This circular area was then separated from the State of Mexico, forcing that state’s government to move from the Palace of the Inquisition (now Museum of Mexican Medicine) in the city to Texcoco. This radius did not include the population centers of the towns of Coyoacan, Xochimilco, Mexicaltzingo and Tlalpan, all of which remained as part of the State of Mexico. The district was incorporated into the federal government as the Department of Mexico officially on 29 November 1836. The District was redefined by President Santa Anna shortly after the Mexican American War, outward to areas bordering Ecatepec, Tlalnepantla and other hilly areas to make the District more defensible. He also divided the District into eight prefectures. In 1898, some other, minor modifications were made to its borders with the State of Mexico and the State of Morelos, bringing them to the current borders. In 1899, the District was divided into the municipality of Mexico and six prefectures. In 1903, this was changed thirteen municipalities. In 1916, then head of the District, Venustiano Carranza tried to annex a number of the communities in what is now the eastern “arm” of the state of Mexico, but did not succeed. In 1941, the organization changed to the City of Mexia and twelve boroughs. In 1978, the 1898 borders were reaffirmed and the current system of sixteen boroughs was instituted. The government of the District is housed in two buildings on the south side of the Zocalo. One has served as the seat of government for the city almost since the arrival of Hernan Cortes. The other was constructed in the 1940’s for the expanding government, and created to fit in with the architecture of the area. Political structure The "Palacio de Ayuntamiento". This site on the southwest corner of the Zocalo has been the seat of power for the city since the Spanish conquest. Mexico City, being the seat of the powers of the Union, did not belong to any particular state but to all. Therefore, it was the president, representing the federation, who used to designate the head of government of the Federal District, a position which is sometimes presented outside Mexico as the "Mayor" of Mexico City. In the 1980s, given the dramatic increase in population of the previous decades, the inherent political inconsistencies of the system, as well as the dissatisfaction with the inadequate response of the federal government to assist the city after the 1985 earthquake, the residents began to request political and administrative autonomy in order to manage their own local affairs. Some political groups even proposed that the Federal District be converted into the 32nd state of the federation. Contraloria General of the government of the Distrito Federal of Mexico City located in the Centro on Juarez street near Avenida Reforma In response to the demands, in 1987 the Federal District received a greater degree of autonomy, with the elaboration the first Statute of Government (Estatuto de Gobierno), and the creation of an Assembly of Representatives. In the 1990s, this autonomy was further expanded and, starting from 1997, residents can directly elect the head of government of the Federal District and the representatives of a unicameral Legislative Assembly (which succeeded the previous Assembly) by popular vote. The first elected head of government was Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. Cárdenas resigned in 1999 in order to run in the 2000 presidential elections and designated Rosario Robles to succeed him, who became the first woman (elected or otherwise) to govern Mexico City. In 2000 Andrés Manuel López Obrador was elected, and resigned in 2005 to run in the 2006 presidential elections, Alejandro Encinas Rodríguez being designated by the Legislative Assembly to finish the term. In 2006, Marcelo Ebrard Casaubon was elected for the 2006–2012 period. The Federal District does not have a constitution, like the states of the Union, but rather a Statute of Government, and as part of its recent changes in autonomy, the budget is administered locally: it is proposed by the head of government and approved by the Legislative Assembly. Nonetheless, it is the Congress of the Union that sets the ceiling to internal and external public debt issued by the Federal District. Código Financiero del Distrito Federal According to the 44th article of the Mexican Constitution, in case the powers of the Union move to another city, the Federal District will be transformed into a new state, which will be called "State of the Valley of Mexico", with the new limits set by the Congress of the Union. Elections and government In 2006, elections were held for the post of head of government and the representatives of the Legislative Assembly. The elected and incumbent head of government is now Marcelo Ebrard Casaubon, candidate of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). Heads of government are elected for a 6-year period without the possibility of reelection. Traditionally, this position has been considered as the second most important executive office in the country. Hamnett, Brian (1999) A Concise History of Mexico Cambridge University Press; Cambridge, UK, p. 293 The Legislative Assembly of the Federal District is formed, as it is the case in all legislatures in Mexico, by both single-seat and proportional seats, making it a system of parallel voting. The Federal District is divided into 40 electoral constituencies of similar population which elect one representative by first-past-the-post plurality (FPP), locally called "uninominal deputies". The Federal District as a whole constitutes a single constituency for the parallel election of 26 representatives by proportionality (PR) with open-party lists, locally called "plurinominal deputies." Even though proportionality is only confined to the proportional seats, to prevent a part from being overrepresented, several restrictions apply in the assignation of the seats; namely, that no party can have more than 63% of all seats, both uninominal and plurinominal. In the 2006 elections leftist PRD got the absolute majority in the direct uninominal elections, securing 34 of the 40 FPP seats. As such, PRD was not assigned any plurinominal seat to comply with the law that prevents overrepresentation. The overall composition of the Legislative Assembly is: Mexico City's governor Marcelo Ebrard (left): 34 FPP representatives (right): 17 representatives (4 FFP, 13 PR) (left): 4 PR representatives (center): 4 PR representatives (right): 3 PR representatives (left): 2 PR representatives (left): 1 FFP representative (left): 1 FFP representative The politics pursued by the administrations of heads of government in Mexico City since the second half of the 20th century have usually been more liberal than those of the rest of the country, whether with the support of the federal government —as was the case with the approval of several comprehensive environmental laws in the 1980s— or through laws recently approved by the Legislative Assembly. In 2007, the Federal District became the second federal entity in the country, after the state of Coahuila, to approve same-sex unions, and the first to allow conjugal visits for homosexual prisoners In April of the same year, the Legislative Assembly expanded provisions on abortions, becoming the first federal entity to expand abortion in Mexico beyond cases of rape and economic reasons, to permit it regardless of the reason should the mother request it before the twelfth week of pregnancy. Boroughs See also: Boroughs of the Mexican Federal District and Colonias of Mexico City The 16 boroughs of Mexico City. The Colonia Roma For administrative purposes, the Federal District is divided into 16 "delegaciones" or boroughs. While not fully equivalent to a municipality, the 16 boroughs have gained significant autonomy, and since 2000 their heads of government are elected directly by plurality (they were previously appointed by the head of government of the Federal District). Given that Mexico City is organized entirely as a Federal District, most of the city services are provided or organized by the Government of the Federal District and not by the boroughs themselves, while in the constituent states these services would be provided by the municipalities. The 16 boroughs of the Federal District are: 1. Álvaro Obregón 2. Azcapotzalco 3. Benito Juárez 4. Coyoacán 5. Cuajimalpa 6. Cuauhtémoc 7. Gustavo A. Madero 8. Iztacalco9. Iztapalapa 10. Magdalena Contreras 11. Miguel Hidalgo 12. Milpa Alta 13. Tláhuac 14. Tlalpan 15. Venustiano Carranza 16. Xochimilco The boroughs are composed by hundreds of colonias or neighborhoods, which have no jurisdictional autonomy or representation. It is plausible that the name, which literally means colony, arose in the late 19th, early 20th centuries, when one of the first urban developments outside the city's core was inhabited by a French colony in the city. Some colonias have identifiable attributes: Historic Center is the oldest quarter in the city, some of the buildings dating back to the 16th century ; la Condesa is known for its Art Deco architecture, and for being the newest artistic center of the city; Santa Fe is a growing business and financial district (built over old landfills); Roma is a beaux arts neighborhood and probably one of the oldest in the city; Polanco is an important commercial and economic center known for its large Jewish community, and Tepito and La Lagunilla are known for its large flea market. Health Mexico City is home to some of the best private hospitals in the country. Hospital Angeles, Hospital ABC and Médica Sur to name a few. The largest public healthcare center in Mexico, IMSS, is also located in Mexico City and has an annual budget of over 6 billion pesos. However due to Mexico City's geographical location, the air quaility in Mexico City is very poor. The high mountains surrounding the city disrupt wind currents, meaining that there is a low amount of wind flow through the area and the frequent creation of thermal inversion layers trap the city's smog, making it considered one of the worst polluted places in the world. Also due to the high alititude of the city, there is 23% less oxygen in the air and emissions from motor vehicles create almost twice the amount of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon pollution. The main source of air pollution are cars and factories, with over 7.9 million cars on the roads of Mexico City and around 400 000 cars added to that total every year. Over 50 000 factories contribute to emission of 24 000 tonnes of pollutants released into Mexico City's atmosphere each year. Due to Mexico City's poor air quality, only around 31 days a year have air which is considered to be safe to breathe. The atmospheric conditions often cause chronic lung problems, such as asthma. High proportions of young children have also been found to have levels of lead in their bloodstream, high enough to cause damage to their nervous systems. In Mexico City 25.2% of dwellings have no access to sewage facilities and Mexico City's water supply is often polluted, with the amount of untreated sewage and industrial waste entering the city's drinking supply high enough to cause officials alarm. Also untreated sewage flows downstream in the Tula River to farmlands, where farmers use the polluted water to irrigate vegetables grown for urban food supplies. Cysticercosis is contracted from the vegetables irrigated with the polluted water from the Tula River. Cysticercosis is a disease caused by tapeworms, which attacks the human brain; though it was normally contracted through cooked pork. Untreated waste water is also the major contributor of high incidence of hepatitis within the city. The World Bank has sponsored a project to curb air pollution through public transport improvements and the Mexican government has started shutting down polluting factories. They have phased out diesel buses and mandated new emission controls on new cars; since 1993 all new cars must be fitted with a catalytic converter, which reduce the emissions released. Trucks must use only liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Also construction of an underground rail system was begun in order to help curb air pollution problems and alleviate traffic congestion. It has over 201 km of track and carries over 5 million people every day. Fees are kept low to encourage use of the system and during rush hours the crush is so great, that authorities have reserved a special carriage specially for women. Due to these initiatives and others, the air quality in Mexico City has begun to improve, with the air becoming cleaner since 1991, when the air quality was declared to be a public health risk for 355 days of the year. Economy Santa Fe financial district Mexico City is one of the most important economic hubs in Latin America. The city proper (Federal District) produces 21.8% of the country's gross domestic product. According to a study conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers, Greater Mexico City (with a population of 18.3 million) had a GDP of $315 billion in 2005 (at purchasing power parity), ranking as the eighth-richest urban agglomeration in the world after the greater areas of Tokyo, New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Paris, London and Osaka/Kobe, and the richest in Latin America. In 2020 it is predicted to displace Osaka/Kobe to rank seventh. Mexico City alone would be the 30th largest economy in the world. In terms of GDP per sector, the Federal District is the greatest contributor to the country's industrial GDP (15.8%) and also the greatest contributor to the country's GDP in the service sector (25.3%). Due to the limited non-urbanized space at the south—most of which is protected through environmental laws—the contribution of the Federal District in agriculture is the smallest of all federal entities in the country. Mexico City has one of the world's fastest-growing economies outside China and its GDP is set to double by 2020. The Federal District is the country’s richest region. Although only 9.2% of total Mexican households are located there, it accounts for 21.1% of total household expenditure. Average household spending in the city was US$52,389 in 2006, up to five times of some of the provinces and twenty percent higher then the next-highest spending region (Nuevo Leon). This level of expenditure is close to that of an average household in Italy or France. Households in the capital have fewer members – (3.7 compared to the national average of 4.0) and have better access to employment than those in the rest of the country. They spend comparatively more on education, hotels and catering and transport than outside the capital accounting for almost one third of total national consumption in these categories. The city’s GDP per capita is $22,696, the highest of any city in Latin America. Índices de Desarrollo Humano 2000, Consejo Nacional de Población, Ciudad de México. However, this number is skewed by the small number of extremely rich households that shift the mean income upwards. The top decile of households in the entire country had a mean disposable income of US $98,517 in 2007, most of these are located in Mexico City. Their extremely high spending power makes the city attractive for luxury goods companies. The growth of luxury stores established in Mexico D.F. has been impressive since 2003, especially those dealing in luxury cars, designer clothes and expensive jewellery. The economic reforms of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari had a tremendous effect on the city, privatizing banks and with the government selling off many of the businesses it owned. He also signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This led to the decentralization and a shift in Mexico City’s economic base, from manufacturing to services, as many factories moved to the State of Mexico and to the northern border. The government also encouraged this with tax incentives and new environmental regulations for manufacturing within the Federal District. Demographics Greater Mexico City, extending to the states of Mexico and Hidalgo. Historically, and since pre-Hispanic times, the valley of Anáhuac has been one of the most densely populated areas in Mexico. When the Federal District was created in 1824, the urban area of Mexico City extended approximately to the area of today's Cuauhtémoc borough. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the elites began migrating to the south and west and soon the small towns of Mixcoac and San Ángel were incorporated by the growing conurbation. Today the city could be clearly divided into a middle and high-class area (south and west, including Polanco, Chapultepec and Santa Fe), and a lower class area to the east (Ciudad Nezahualcóyotl, Pantitlán, Chalco and Moctezuma). Low income apartment blocks in the Azcapotzalco neighborhood of Mexico City. Lomas de Chapultepec residential area. Up to the 1980s, the Federal District was the most populated federal entity in Mexico, but since then its population has remained stable at around 8.7 million. The growth of the city has extended beyond the limits of the Federal District to 59 municipalities of the state of Mexico and 1 in the state of Hidalgo. Consejo Nacional de Población, México; Delimitación de las zonas metropolitanas de México 2005. Retrieved 2008-09-27. With a population of approximately 19.8 million inhabitants (2008), Consejo Nacional de Población, México; Proyecciones de la Población de México 2005-2050 Total projected population of Distrito Federal and the 60 other municipalities of Zona metropolitana del Valle de México, as defined in 2005. Retrieved 2008-09-27. it is one of the most populated conurbations in the world. Nonetheless, the annual rate of growth of the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City is much lower than that of other large urban agglomerations in Mexico, Síntesis de Resultados del Conteo 2005 INEGI a phenomenon most likely attributable to the environmental policy of decentralization. The net migration rate of the Federal District from 1995 to 2000 was negative. Tasa de emigración, inmigración y migración neta de las entidades federativas While they represent around 1.3% of the city's population, indigenous peoples from different regions of Mexico have immigrated to the capital in search of better economic opportunities. Náhuatl, Otomí, Mixteco, Zapoteco, and Mazahua are the indigenous languages with the greatest number of speakers in Mexico City. Población de 5 y más años hablante de lengua indígena por principales lenguas, 2005 INEGI On the other hand, Mexico City is home to large communities of expatriates, most notably from South America (mainly from Argentina, but also from Chile, Uruguay, Colombia, Brazil and Venezuela), from Europe (mainly from Spain and Germany, but also from France, Italy, Turkey, Poland and Romania), Asociaciones de Inmigrantes Extranjeros en la Ciudad de México. Una Mirada a Fines del Siglo XX Los extranjeros en México, la inmigración y el gobierno ¿Tolerancia o intolerancia religiosa? the Middle East (mainly from Lebanon and Syria), Los árabes de México. Asimilación y herencia cultural and recently from Asia (mainly from China and South Korea). Conmemoran 100 años de inmigración coreana While no official figures have been reported, population estimates of each of these communities are quite significant. Mexico City is home to the largest population of U.S. Americans living outside the United States. Some estimates are as high as 600,000 U.S. Americans living in Mexico City, while in 1999 the U.S. Bureau of Consular Affairs estimates over 440,000 Americans lived in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area. How Many Americans Live in Mexico? Private American Citizens Residing Abroad The majority (90.5%) of the residents in Mexico City are Roman Catholic, higher than the national percentage, even though it has been decreasing over the last decades. Volumen y porcentaje de la población de 5 y más años católica por entidad federativa, 2000 INEGI However, many other religions and philosophies are also practiced in the city: many different types of Protestant groups, different types of Jewish communities, Buddhist and other philosophical groups, as well as atheism. 1950 - 3 million people lived in Mexico City. 1975 - 12 million people lived in Mexico City. 2000 - 22 million people lived in Mexico City. Landmarks Xochimilco Floating Gardens The Historic Centre (Centro Histórico) and the "floating gardens" of Xochimilco in the southern borough have been declared World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO. Famous landmarks in the Historic Center include the Plaza de la Constitución (Zócalo), the main central square with its time clashing Spanish-era Metropolitan Cathedral and National Palace, and Delran, and ancient Aztec temple ruins Templo Mayor ("Major Temple") are all within a few steps of one another. (The Templo Mayor was discovered in 1978 while workers were digging to place underground electric cables.) Paris building, neoclassic style The most recognizable icon of Mexico City is the golden Angel of Independence, found on the wide, elegant avenue Paseo de la Reforma, modeled by the order of the Emperor Maximilian of Mexico after the Champs-Élysées in Paris. This avenue was designed over Americas' oldest passage in the XIX Century to connect the National Palace (seat of government) with the Castle of Chapultepec, the imperial residence. Today, this avenue is an important financial district in which the Mexican Stock Exchange as several corporate headquarters are located. Another important avenue is the Avenida de los Insurgentes, which extends 28.8 km (18 miles) and is one of the longest single avenues in the world. Museum of Estanquillo (cartoons & magazines) The Chapultepec park houses the Castle of Chapultepec, now a museum on a hill that overlooks the park and its numerous museums, monuments and the national zoo and the National Museum of Anthropology (which houses the Aztec Calendar Stone). Another magnificent piece of architecture is the Fine Arts Palace, a stunning white marble theatre/museum whose weight is such that it has gradually been sinking into the soft ground below. Its construction began during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and ended, after being interrupted by the Mexican Revolution in the 1920s. The Plaza of the Three Cultures in the Tlatelolco neighbourhood, and the shrine and Basilicas of Our Lady of Guadalupe are also important sites. There is a double decker bus, known as the "Turibus", that circles most of these sites, and has timed audio describing the sites in multiple languages as they are passed. Palace of Fine ArtsIn addition, the city has around 160 museums, over 100 art galleries, and some 30 concert halls, all of which maintain a constant cultural activity during the whole year. It has the fourth highest number of theatres in the world after New York, London and Toronto, and it is the city with the highest number of museums in the world. In many locales (Palacio Nacional and the Instituto Nacional de Cardiología, to name a few), there are murals painted by Diego Rivera. He and his wife Frida Kahlo lived in the southern suburb of Coyoacán, where several of their homes, studios, and art collections are open to the public. The house where Leon Trotsky was initially granted asylum and finally murdered in 1940 is also in Coyoacán. In addition, there are several restored haciendas that are now restaurants, such as the San Ángel Inn, the Hacienda de Tlalpan and the Hacienda de los Morales, all of which are stunning remnants of Mexican history and house some of the best food in the world. 2000|Mexico City 360˚ Panorama Transportation Metrobús at Insurgentes Avenue. Mexico City's Metro Mexico City is served by the Sistema de Transporte Colectivo Metro, an extensive metro system (207 km), which is the largest in Latin America. The first portions were opened in 1969 and now the system has 11 lines with 175 stations. A suburban rail system similar to the French RER started operations in 2008 connecting the city downtown to the Northern suburbs. A twelfth (gold color) metro line is currently in construction. The metro is one of the busiest in the world transporting approximately 4.5 million people every day, surpassed only by subway lines in Moscow (7.5 million), Tokyo (5.9 million), and New York City (5.1 million). It is heavily subsidized, and has the lowest fares in the world, each trip costing 2.00Mex$ and taking each passenger to almost any place in this enormous city from 05:00 am to midnight. Several stations display pre-Columbian artifacts and architecture that were discovered during the metro's construction. However, the Metro does not extend outside the limits of the Federal District and, therefore, an extensive network of bus routes has been implemented. These are mostly managed by private companies which are allowed to operate buses as long as they adhere to certain minimal service quality standards. The city government also operates a network of large buses, in contrast with the privately operated microbuses, with fares barely exceeding that of the metro. Electric transport other than the metro also exists, in the form of trolleybuses and the Xochimilco Light Rail line. The city's first bus rapid transit line, the Metrobús, began operations on June 2005 in Avenida Insurgentes (a second line is under construction on Eje 4 Sur). As the microbuses were removed from its route, it was hoped that the Metrobús could reduce pollution and decrease transit time for passengers. Also, since late 2002, the white and green taxis have been joined by red and white ones as part of a program to replace older vehicles with new ones. Terminal 2 of Mexico City International Airport. Mexico City is served by Mexico City International Airport (IATA Airport Code: MEX). This airport is Latin America's busiest and largest in traffic, with daily flights to North America, mainland Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, South America, Europe and Asia. Aeroméxico (Skyteam) and Mexicana (Oneworld) are based at this airport, and provide codeshare agreements with non-Mexican airlines that span the entire globe. It is used by over 26 million passengers per year. Aeropuertos Mexico This traffic exceeds the current capacity of the airport, which has historically centralized the majority of air traffic in the country. An alternate option is Lic. Adolfo López Mateos International Airport (IATA Airport Code: TLC) located in the nearby Toluca, State of Mexico with about 4.5 million passengers transported last year. In 2008, about 31 million people went through the city's airports. The government engaged in an extensive restructuring program that includes the new second adjacent terminal, which began operations in 2007, and the enlargement of four other airports (at the nearby cities of Toluca, Querétaro, Puebla and Cuernavaca) that, along with Mexico City's airport, comprise the Grupo Aeroportuario del Valle de México, distributing traffic to different regions in Mexico. The city of Pachuca will also provide additional expansion to central Mexico's airport network. Mexico City's airport is the main hub for 11 of the 21 national airline companies. Areal view of the elevated freeway running from the center of the city to the southern area. The city has four major bus stations (North, South, Observatorio, TAPO), which comprise one of the world's largest transportation agglomerations, with bus service to many cities across the country and international connections. The city has one train station, used for commercial and industrial purposes (interstate passenger trains are now virtually non-existent in Mexico). A suburban rail system, the Tren Suburbano serves the metropolitan area, beyond the city limits of the metro, to municipalities such as Tlalnepantla and Cuautitlán Izcalli, with future extensions to Chalco and La Paz. There are also several toll expressways which directly connect Mexico City with several other major cities throughout the country. Lower level of the freeway. In the late 70's many arterial roads were redesigned as ejes viales; high-volume one-way roads that cross, in theory, Mexico City proper from side to side. The eje vial network is based on a quasi-Cartesian grid, with the ejes themselves being called Eje 1 Poniente, Eje Central, and Eje 1 Oriente, for example, for the north-south roads, and Eje 2 Sur and Eje 3 Norte, for example, for east-west roads. Two freeway ring-roads serve to connect points within the city and the metropolitan area: Circuito Interior (the inner ring) and Periférico, which connect to one straight freeway: the Viaducto (Viaduct) (connecting west with east, from Observatorio to the Airport). Traffic in this system is so dense that an elevated highway that runs on top and parallel to a part of the Periférico, had to be constructed and finished in 2007. This elevated highway is colloquially called segundo piso ("second level") of the Periférico. There is an environmental program, called Hoy No Circula ("Not To Run Today," or "One Day without a Car"), whereby only vehicles with certain ending numbers on their license plates are allowed to circulate on certain days, in an attempt to cut down on pollution and traffic congestion. Sports Estadio Azteca, the fifth largest stadium in the world. Fútbol is Mexico's most popular and most televised sport. The important venues in Mexico City for this sport include the Aztec Stadium, home to the Mexican National Team and América, which has a capacity to seat 105,000 fans, the Olympic Stadium in Ciudad Universitaria, home to the U.N.A.M., with a seating capacity of over 63,000, and a few blocks from the WTC the Estadio Azul, located in the Colonia (Mexico) Nochebuena, home to the C.D.S.C. Cruz Azul, which seats 35,000 fans. The three teams are based in Mexico City and play in the Primera Division (First Division) and are part of the "Big Four" of Mexico. The country hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1970 and 1986 and the Aztec Stadium is the only stadium in World Cup history to host the final match twice. Mexico City also hosted the Summer Olympics in 1968, winning bids against Buenos Aires, Lyon and Detroit, and remains the only Latin American city to host such an event. Mexico City hosted the 1955 Pan American Games and then the 1975 Pan American Games after Santiago and São Paulo withdrew. The ICF Flatwater Racing World Championships have been hosted here twice, in 1974 and in 1994. Lucha libre Foro Sol Ballpark. Lucha Libre is also one of the more popular sports in Mexico, where the main venue is Arena Mexico and also Arena Coliseo. Baseball is also another popular sport with a growing fan base. Mexico City is home to the México Red Devils of the MBL, with the team playing their home games at the Foro Sol Park. Also in Mexico City are located around 10 little leagues for young baseball players. Adjacent to Foro Sol is Mexico City's Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez. From 1962 to 1970 and again from 1986 to 1992, the track hosted the Formula 1 Mexican Grand Prix. From 1980-1981 and again from 2002 to 2007, it hosted the Champ Car World Series Gran Premio de México. Beginning in 2005, the NASCAR Nationwide Series ran the Telcel-Motorola México 200. 2005 also marked the first running of the Mexico City 250 by the Grand-Am Rolex Sports Car Series. Both races were removed from their series' schedules for 2009. In 2005, Mexico City became the first city to host a NFL regular season game outside of the United States, at the Aztec Stadium. To date, the 103,467 people attending this game is the largest ever for a regular season game in NFL history. The city has also hosted several NBA pre-season exhibition games along with exhibition matches among MLB teams at the Foro Sol. The FIBA Americas Championship has also been hosted here. Other sports facilities in Mexico City are the Palacio de los Deportes indoor arena, Francisco Márquez Olympic Swimming Pool, the Hipódromo de Las Américas, the Velodromo Agustín Melgar, and venues for Equestrianism and Horse racing, Ice Hockey, Rugby, American football, Baseball, and Basketball for which what is widely regarded as the best International Basketball Tournament has been held in the city. Bullfighting takes place every Sunday during bullfighting season at the 50,000-seat Plaza de Toros, the largest bullfight ring in the world. Mexico City's golf courses have held both the Women's LPGA tour, as well as two Men's Golf World Cups. These, and other golf courses throughout the city are available as private, as well as public venues. Education University City campus of the UNAM. ITESM campus in Mexico City The second oldest university in the Americas, established in 1551, the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), is located in Mexico City. It is the largest university on the continent, with 269,000 students from all backgrounds enrolled. Three Nobel laureates, several Mexican entrepreneurs and most of Mexico's modern-day presidents are among its former students. UNAM conducts 50% of Mexico's scientific research and has presence all across the country with satellite campuses, observatories and research centers. The National Autonomous University of Mexico ranks 74th in the Top 200 World University Ranking published by The Times Higher Education Supplement in 2006, Times Higher Education Supplement, 2006 making it the highest ranked Spanish-speaking university in the world. The sprawling main campus of the university, known as Ciudad Universitaria, was named a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2007, during the period of Juan Ramón de la Fuente as the President of UNAM. The second largest higher-education institution is the National Polytechnic Institute (IPN) (which includes, among many other relevant centers, the Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados (Cinvestav), where high-level research is performed about very different scientific and technological disciplines. Other major higher-education institutions in the city include the Metropolitan Autonomous University (UAM), the ITAM, the ITESM (3 campuses), the Universidad Panamericana (UP), the Universidad La Salle, the Universidad del Valle de Mexico (UVM), the Universidad Anáhuac, the Alliant International University, the Universidad Iberoamericana, El Colegio de México (Colmex), and the Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económica, (CIDE). The most prestigious private universities in the country including Universidad Anáhuac, Universidad Iberoamericana, Universidad Panamericana and Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México have their flagship campus located in Mexico City. In addition, the prestigious University of California maintains a campus known as "Casa de California" in the city. 1 Contrary to what occurs in the constituent states of the Mexican federation, the curriculum of Mexico City's public schools is managed by the federal level Secretary of Public Education. The whole funding is allocated by the government of Mexico City (in some specific cases, such as El Colegio de México, funding comes from both the city's government and other public and private national and international entities). A very special case is that of El Colegio Nacional, created during the governmental period of Miguel Alemán Valdés to have, in Mexico, an institution very similar to the College of France. The very selected and privileged group of Mexican scientists and artists belonging to this institution (the membership is lifelong; some of the current members are Mario Lavista, Ruy Pérez Tamayo, José Emilio Pacheco, Marcos Moshinsky, Guillermo Soberón Acevedo, and many others) have the obligation of disclosing their works among the general population, through conferences and public events such as concerts and recitals. Amongst its many public and private schools (K-13), the city offers multi-cultural, multi-lingual and international schools which are attended by Mexican and foreign students. Best known are the Colegio Alemán (German school with 3 main campuses), the Liceo Mexicano Japonés (Japanese), the Escuela Coreana (Korean), the Lycée Français de Mexique (French), the American School, The Edron Academy and the Greengates School (British). Media Mexico City is the country's most important center for the television, advertising, music, newspaper and book publishing industries. Two national newspapers are published here, El Universal and Excélsior, as well as important regional newspapers such as Reforma and La Jornada. Other major papers include Milenio, Crónica, El Economista and El Financiero. The two largest media companies in the Spanish-speaking world, Televisa and TV Azteca, are headquartered in Mexico City. Other local television networks include Canal 11, Canal 22, Cadena Tres, Teveunam and 11 free-access channels. There are 60 radio stations operating in the city and a huge number of local community radio stations. Culture Art Aztec sculpture of Coatlicue. Mexico City is one of the most important cultural centers in the world, boasting more museums than any other city. It also comes first in the number of theaters in the world. Having been the capital of a vast pre-Hispanic empire, the richest viceroyalty within the Spanish Empire, and capital of the Mexican federation, Mexico City has a rich history of artistic expressions. Since the Mesoamerican pre-Classical period the inhabitants of the settlements around Lake Texcoco produced many works of arts, some of which are today displayed at the world-renown National Museum of Anthropology and the Templo Mayor Museum. While many pieces of pottery and stone-engraving have survived, the great majority of the Amerindian iconography was destroyed during the Conquest of Mexico. El Caballito, equestrian sculpture of King Charles IV of Spain by Manuel Tolsá. During colonial times the first art produced was that of the codices generated to preserve or recuperate Amerindian iconography and history. From then, artistic expressions in Mexico were mostly religious in theme. The Metropolitan Cathedral still displays works by Juan de Rojas, Juan Correa and an oil painting whose authorship has been attributed to Murillo. Secular works of art of this period include the equestrian sculpture of Charles IV of Spain, locally known as El Caballito ("The little horse"). This piece, in bronze, was the work of Manuel Tolsá and it has been placed at the Plaza Tolsá, in front of the Palacio de Minería (Mining Palace). Directly in front of this building is the beautiful Museo Nacional de Arte (Munal) (the National Museum of Art). During the 19th century, an important producer of art was the Academia de San Carlos (San Carlos Art Academy), founded during colonial times, and which later became the Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas (the National School of Visual Arts), which is currently one of the art schools of UNAM. Many of the works produced by the students and faculty of that time are now displayed in the Museo Nacional de San Carlos (National Museum of San Carlos). One of the students, José María Velasco, is considered one of the greatest Mexican landscape painters of the 19th century. It was during Porfirio Diaz's regime that the government sponsored arts, especially those that followed the French school. In spite of that, popular arts in the form of cartoons and illustrations flourished like those of José Guadalupe Posada and Manuel Manilla. The permanent collection of the San Carlos Museum also includes paintings by European masters such as Rembrandt, Velázquez, Murillo, and Rubens. Diego Rivera's mural depicting Mexico's history at the National Palace in Mexico City. After the Mexican Revolution, an avant-garde artistic movement originated in Mexico City: muralism. Many of the works of muralists José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera are displayed in numerous buildings in the city, most notably at the National Palace and the Palacio de Bellas Artes. Frida Kahlo, wife of Rivera, with a strong nationalist expression, was also one of the most renowned of Mexican painters. Her house has become a museum that displays many of her works. The former home of Rivera muse Dolores Olmedo house the namesake museum. The facility lies in the Xochimilco precinct in the southern part of the city and includes several buildings surrounded by sprawling manicured lawns. It houses a large collection of Rivera and Kahlo paintings and drawings, as well as living Xoloizcuintles (Mexican Hairless Dog). It also regularly hosts small but important temporary exhibits of classical and modern art (e.g. Venetian Masters and Contemporary New York artists). During the 20th century, many artists immigrated to Mexico City from different regions of Mexico, like Leopoldo Méndez, an engraver from Veracruz, who supported the creation of the socialist Taller de la Gráfica Popular (Popular Graphics Workshop), designed to help blue-collar workers find a venue to express their art. Other painters came from abroad, like Catalan painter Remedios Varo and other Spanish and Jewish exiles. It was in the second half of the 20th century that the artistic movement began to drift apart from the Revolutionary theme. José Luis Cuevas opted for a modernist style in contrast to the muralist movement associated with social politics. Mexico City has numerous museums dedicated to modern and contemporary art. The Museo Tamayo was opened in the mid-1980s to house the collection of international contemporary art donated by famed Mexican (born in the state of Oaxaca) painter Rufino Tamayo. The Museo de Arte Moderno (Museum of Modern Art) is a repository of Mexican artists from the 20th century, and also regularly hosts temporary exhibits of international modern art. In southern Mexico City, the Museo Carrillo Gil (Carrillo Gil Museum) showcases avant-garde artists, as does the University Museum/Contemporary Art (Museo Universitario Arte Contemporáneo - or MUAC), designed by famed Mexican architect Teodoro González de León, inaugurated in late 2008. The Museo Soumaya (Soumaya Museum), named after the wife of Mexican tycoon Carlos Slim, has the largest private collection of original Rodin sculptures outside Paris. La Colección Jumex (The Jumex Collection) is a museum housed on the grounds of the Jumex juice company in the northern industrial suburb of Ecatepec (within the State of Mexico). It shows pieces from its permanent collection and hosts traveling exhibits by leading contemporary artists. Jack Kerouac, the noted American author, spent extended periods of time in the city, and wrote his masterpiece volume of poetry Mexico City Blues here. Another American author,William S. Burroughs also lived in the Colonia Roma neighborhood of the city for some time. It was here that he accidentally shot his wife. Music, movies and entertainment Santa Fe Financial District Palacio de los Deportes José Vasconcelos Library in Mexico City. Mexico City is a mecca of classical music, with a number of orchestras offering season programs. These include the Mexico City Philharmonic, Mexico City Philharmonic which performs at the Sala Ollin Yoliztli; the National Symphony Orchestra, whose home base is the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of the Fine Arts) , a masterpiece of art nouveau and art decó styles; the Philharmonic Orchestra of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (OFUNAM), Philharmonic Orchestra of the National Autonomous University of Mexico and the Minería Symphony Orchestra, Minería Symphony Orchestra both of which perform at the acoustically renown Sala Nezahualcóyotl, which was the first wrap-around concert hall in the Western Hemisphere when inaugurated in 1976. There are also many smaller ensembles that enrich the city's musical scene, including the Carlos Chávez Youth Symphony, the New World Orchestra (Orquesta del Nuevo Mundo), the National Polytechnical Symphony and the Bellas Artes Chamber Orchestra (Orquesta de Cámara de Bellas Artes). The city is also a leading center of popular culture and music. There are a multitude of venues hosting the top Spanish and English-language performers. These include the 10,000-seat National Auditorium that regularly schedules the top Spanish and English-language pop and rock artists, as well as many of the world's leading performing arts ensembles. Other popular sites for pop-artist performances include the Teatro Metropolitan, the 15,000-seat Palacio de los Deportes, and the larger Foro Sol Stadium, where top-name international artists perform on a regular basis. The Cirque du Soleil has held several seasons at the Carpa Santa Fe, in the Santa Fe district in the western part of the city. It is said that Mexico City has more theatres than any other city in the Spanish-speaking world. At any given time, plays being staged run the gamut from Spanish versions of Broadway shows to mainstream Spanish-language originals. The Centro Nacional de las Artes (National Center for the Arts), in southern Mexico City, has several venues for music, theatre, dance. UNAM's main campus, also in the southern part of the city, is home to the Centro Cultural Universitario (the University Culture Center) (CCU). The CCU also houses the National Library, the interactive Universum, Museo de las Ciencias Universum, Museo de las Ciencias and slated to open in 2008, the new University Museum of Contemporary Art (MUAC). University Museum of Contemporary Art A branch of the National University's CCU cultural center was inaugurated in 2007 in the facilities of the former Ministry of Foreign Affairs, known as Tlatelolco, in north-central Mexico City. The (José Vasconcelos Library), a national library, is located on the grounds of the former Buenavista railroad station in the northern part of the city. The Papalote children's museum, which houses the world's largest dome screen, is located in the wooded park of Chapultepec, near the Museo Tecnológico, and La Feria amusement park. The theme park Six Flags México (the largest amusement park in Latin America) is located in the Ajusco borough, in southern Mexico City. During the winter, the main square of the Zócalo is transformed into a gigantic ice skating rink, which is said to be the largest in the world behind that of Moscow's Red Square. The Cineteca Nacional (the Mexican Film Library), near the Coyoacán suburb, shows a wide variety of films, and stages many film festivals, including the annual International Showcase, and many smaller ones ranging from Scandinavian and Uruguayan cinema, to Jewish and GLBT-themed films. Cinépolis and Cinemex, the two biggest film business chains, also have several film festivals throughout the year, with both national and international movies. No other city in the world has the amount of IMAX theaters as are in Mexico City, this gives access to cinematographic documentaries as well as blockbusters on the world's largest screens. Cuisine Mexico City offers a vast array of culinary experiences. Restaurants specializing in the regional cuisines of Mexico's 31 states are available in the city. Also available are restaurants representing a very broad spectrum of international cuisines, including French, Italian, Croatian, German, Greek, Hungarian, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish (including Spanish regional variations such as Castilian, Asturian, Galician, and Basque), Turkish, Chinese (including regional variations such as Cantonese, Hunan, and Sichuan), Indian, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Tibetan, Vietnamese, Lebanese, Moroccan, as well as Argentine, Brazilian, Cuban, Peruvian, and Uruguayan. Haute, Fusion, Vegetarian and Vegan cuisines are also commonly available. The city also has several branches of renowned international restaurants and chefs. These include New York's Le Cirque, Paris' Au Pied de Cochon and Brasserie Lipp, Philippe (by Philippe Chow, who has restaurants in NY and Las Vegas); Nemi, owned by Michael Mina; and Pámpano, owned by Opera legend Plácido Domingo. There are branches of Rome's famed Alfredo, as well as New York steakhouses Morton's and The Palm, and Madrid's L'Albúfera. Three of the most famous Lima-based haute Peruvian restaurants, La Mar, Segundo Muelle and Astrid y Gastón have Mexico City branches. Mexico's award winning wines are offered at many restaurants. And the city offers unique experiences for tasting the regional spirits, with wealthy selections of Tequila, and Mezcal, as well as Pulque bars known as pulquerías. Nicknames Mexico City was traditionally known as La Ciudad de los Palacios ("the City of the Palaces"), a nickname attributed to Baron Alexander von Humboldt when visiting the city in the 19th century who sending a letter back to Europe said Mexico city could rival any major city in Europe. During López Obrador's administration a political slogan was introduced: la Ciudad de la Esperanza ("The City of Hope"). This slogan was quickly adopted as a nickname to the city under López Obrador's term, although it has lost popularity since the new slogan Capital en Movimiento ("Capital in Movement") was adopted by the recently elected administration headed by Marcelo Ebrard Casaubon; the latter is not treated as a nickname in media. The city is colloquially known as Chilangolandia after the locals' nickname chilangos, which is used either as a pejorative term by people living outside Mexico City or as a proud adjective by Mexico City's dwellers. 1994 Oxford Spanish-English Dictionary Residents of Mexico City are more formally called capitalinos (in reference to the city being the capital of the country) or, more recently defeños (a word which derives from the postal abbreviation of the Federal District in Spanish: D.F., which is read "De-Efe".) Law and Order The Secretariat of Public Security of the Federal District (Secretaría de Seguridad Pública del Distrito Federal – SSP), unlike the previous two, does not have national reach, but it does manage a combined force of over 90,000 officers in the Federal District (DF). The SSP is charged with maintaining public order and safety in the center of Mexico City. The investigative Judicial Police of the Federal District (Policía Judicial del Distrito Federal – PJDF), are organized under the Office of the Attorney General of the DF (the Procuraduría General de Justicia del Distrito Federal). The PGJDF maintains 16 precincts (delegaciones) with an estimated 3,500 judicial police, 1,100 investigating agents for prosecuting attorneys (agentes del ministerio público), and 941 experts or specialists (peritos). The principal police force of Mexico City is the Protection and Transit Directorate, also known as the Traffic Police, which consists of some 32,000 officers organized into thirty-three precincts. It is the largest single law enforcement organization in Mexico. More than 100 serious crimes are reported each day in Mexico City, and on average in the Federal District in the first quarter of 1997 one police officer was killed and one injured weekly. A sense of insecurity prevails among many citizens because of the lack of confidence in the police and the fear of police misbehavior and crime. Sister cities Mexico City has these sister cities: Arequipa, Peru Beijing, China Manila, Philippines Beirut, Lebanon Berlin, Germany Bogotá, Colombia Buenos Aires, Argentina Chicago, United States Cusco, Peru Istanbul, Turkey Nicosia, Cyprus Guatemala City, Guatemala Kaliningrad, Russia Lima, Peru Los Angeles, United States Madrid, Spain Panama City, Panama Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, Mexico. Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico. Athens, Greece Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Houston, United States Paris, France Santiago, Chile Sao Paulo, Brazil Toronto, Canada Nagoya, Japan Seoul, South Korea: Stuttgart, Germany See also Tenochtitlan Lake Texcoco 1985 Mexico City earthquake Boroughs of the Mexican Federal District Metropolitan areas of Mexico Mexico related topics Large Cities Climate Leadership Group World's largest cities Cinema of Mexico Torre Mayor References External links Federal District Government Mexico City Seen from a Helicopter Mexico City Historic Center Regeneration Project by the Centro Histórico Foundation, the World Monuments Fund, and American Express Images of Mexico City Mexico City virtual guide Some pictures of Mexico City be-x-old:Мэхіка | Mexico_City |@lemmatized mexico:210 city:265 spanish:29 ciudad:11 de:92 méxico:29 f:6 distrito:11 federal:73 méjico:2 speaking:4 country:22 spell:2 use:10 albeit:1 rarely:2 recently:5 real:1 academia:2 española:1 state:40 recommended:1 spelling:1 however:9 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